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2018-03462	How does breastfeeding reduce the risk of developing breast cancer later in life?	Breast tissue remains immature in women until lactation. There's a reason your breasts feel swollen when you first become pregnant: immature lobule glands are changing. The longer you breastfeed, the more of these cells mature. The source of many cancers are immature versions of these cells. There's a lot of interesting research going on right now though about the wider causes of breast cancer. Even light at night may play a role. Most breast cancer does not have a detectable cause or family history component.	[ "BULLET::::- For women with a \"BRCA1\" mutation, the woman's age when she first gives birth has no association with her risk of breast cancer. Childbearing provides no protection against breast cancer, unless the woman has five or more full-term pregnancies, at which point she receives only modest protection. Similar to genetically typical women, pregnancy protects against ovarian cancer in \"BRCA1\" women. Breastfeeding for more than one year significantly protects against breast cancer. This effect may be as high as 19% per year of breastfeeding, which is much higher than that seen among genetically typical women. The effect, if any, of long-term breastfeeding on ovarian cancer is unclear.\n", "Each pregnancy in genetically typical women is associated with a significant reduction in the mother's risk of developing breast cancer after age 40. The younger the woman is at the time of her first birth, the more protection against breast cancer she receives. Breastfeeding for more than one year protects against breast cancer. Pregnancy also protects against ovarian cancer in genetically typical women.\n", "Breast cancer incidence during pregnancy and lactation is assumed to be the same as in controls. Course and prognosis are also very similar to age matched controls. However diagnosis during lactation is particularly problematic, often leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment.\n", "Lower age of first childbirth, compared to the average age of 24, having more children (about 7% lowered risk per child), and breastfeeding (4.3% per breastfeeding year, with an average relative risk around 0.7) have all been correlated to lowered breast cancer risk in premenopausal women, but not postmenopausal women, in large studies. Women who give birth and breast-feed by the age of 20 may have even greater protection. In contrast, for instance, having the first live birth after age 30 doubles the risk compared to having first live birth at age less than 25. Never having children triples the risk. The studies have found that these risk factors become less material as a woman reaches menopause, i.e. that they affect risk of breast cancer prior to menopause but not after it. In balancing premenopausal reductions in risk from childbirth and lactation, it is important also to consider the risks involved in having a child.\n", "A study sought to determine whether early exposure to BPA could accelerate mammary carcinogenesis in a dimethylbenzanthracene (DMBA) model of rodent mammary cancer. In the study, scientists exposed neonatal/prebubertal rats to BPA via lactation from nursing dams treated orally with 0, 25, and 250 µg BPA/kg body weight/day. For tumorigenesis studies, female offspring were exposed to 30 mg DMBA/kg body weight at 50 days of age. DMBA induces mammary tumors and allows chemicals that predispose for mammary cancer to increase the number of mammary adenocarcinomas. The results of the study showed that female rats in the control, BPA 25, and BPA 250 groups administered DMBA exhibited a BPA dose-dependent increase in mammary tumors. The groups had 2.84, 3.82, and 5.00 mammary tumors per rat respectively. Treatment with BPA also reduced tumor latency, with the median tumor latency of 65, 53, and 56.5 days for 0, BPA 25, and BPA 250 groups respectively. Maternal exposure to BPA during lactation decreased time to first tumor latency and increased the number of DMBA-induced mammary tumors in female offspring. If these effects found in rodents carry over to humans, even minimal exposure to BPA could cause an increased risk for breast cancer.\n", "The 2-Day Diet has been proven to reduce fat, which reduces insulin levels and controls other hormones, such as oestrogen. High levels of oestrogen in the body are known to cause cancer. Prevent Breast Cancer funded a study by Dr Harvie which involved 1,000 women, split into two groups. The first group of women followed the 2-Day Diet and the second group followed a standard daily diet. Dr Harvie found that the dieters had a 15 per cent greater reduction in their insulin function, with 65 per cent losing weight during the study.\n", "Having her first child at a younger age, having more children than average, and breastfeeding for more than one year decreases the risk of breast cancer for an average-risk woman. Studies about this effect among \"BRCA\" mutation carriers have produced conflicting results, but generally speaking, having children is believed to provide little or no protection against breast cancer for women with \"BRCA1\" mutations, and to paradoxically increase the risk of breast cancer for women with \"BRCA2\" mutations.\n", "Section::::Hormones.:Oophorectomy and mastectomy.\n\nProphylactic oophorectomy (removal of ovaries) and mastectomy in individuals with high-risk mutations of BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes reduces the risk of developing breast cancer as well as reducing the risk of developing ovarian cancer. Because of a complex balance of benefits and risks of a prophylactic surgery it is recommended only in very specific cases.\n\nSection::::Hormones.:Hormonal therapy.\n", "Women can reduce their risk of breast cancer by maintaining a healthy weight, reducing alcohol use, increasing physical activity, and breast-feeding. These modifications might prevent 38% of breast cancers in the US, 42% in the UK, 28% in Brazil and 20% in China. The benefits with moderate exercise such as brisk walking are seen at all age groups including postmenopausal women. High levels of physical activity reduce the risk of breast cancer by about 14%. Strategies that encourage regular physical activity and reduce obesity could also have other benefits, such as reduced risks of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.\n", "Risk factors for breast cancer\n\nRisk factors for breast cancer may be divided into preventable and non-preventable. Their study belongs in the field of epidemiology. Breast cancer, like other forms of cancer, can result from multiple environmental and hereditary risk factors. The term \"environmental\", as used by cancer researchers, means any risk factor that is not genetically inherited.\n", "A human homologue of the mammary virus has been described in 1971 and linked to human breast cancer in several small epidemiologic studies.\n\nSection::::Factors with minimal or no impact.\n", "The 2-Day Diet was developed by Professor Tony Howell and Dr Michelle Harvie, both of whom have spent years researching and developing the optimum diet for weight loss and the links to breast cancer risk.\n", "Intensified breast cancer screening for high risk women may detect cancer at an early, treatable stage. Certain medications that block the effect of estrogen (i.e. tamoxifen, raloxifen, exemestane) can reduce the risk by about 50% but also have side effects. Prophylactic salpingo-oophorectomy reduces estrogen levels and the risk of both ovarian and breast cancer, however, the reduction in breast cancer risk is about 50% in high risk women as compared to 90% when preventive mastectomy is done. Lifestyle changes in weight, diet, exercise, avoidance of smoking, limiting alcohol) may reduce the risk to some degree.\n\nSection::::Acceptance.\n", "Section::::By region.:Sub-Saharan Africa.:Challenges.\n", "Undergoing a preventive mastectomy does not guarantee that breast cancer will not develop later, however, it reduces the risk by 90% in high risk women. Also, a preventive mastectomy may not be able to remove all breast tissue as some of it may be in the arm pit, near the collar bone, or in the abdominal wall.\n", "Suppression of ovulation, which would otherwise cause damage to the ovarian epithelium and, consequently, inflammation, is generally protective. This effect can be achieved by having children, taking combined oral contraceptives, and breast feeding, all of which are protective factors. A longer period of breastfeeding correlates with a larger decrease in the risk of ovarian cancer. Each birth decreases risk of ovarian cancer more, and this effect is seen with up to five births. Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer by up to 50%, and the protective effect of combined oral contraceptives can last 25–30 years after they are discontinued. Regular use of aspirin or acetaminophen (paracetamol) may be associated with a lower risk of ovarian cancer; other NSAIDs do not seem to have a similar protective effect.\n", "Section::::Research.:Predicting Risk of Cancer at Screening (PROCAS) SNP study.:The Angelina Jolie Effect.\n\nReferrals for the gene test more than doubled in 2013 after Angelina Jolie shared her own experiences with the media. She decided to undergo a double mastectomy after learning she had an up to 87 per cent chance of developing breast cancer. The increase in referrals was dubbed the \"Angelina Jolie effect\" by the media.\n\nSection::::Research.:The 2-Day Diet.\n", "Section::::Dietary factors.:Fat intake.\n\nDietary influences have been examined for decades with conflicting results and have so far failed to confirm any significant link. One recent study suggests that low-fat diets may significantly decrease the risk of breast cancer as well as the recurrence of breast cancer.\n", "The study was published in the peer-reviewed Breast Cancer Research journal. To date, the centre's 2-Day Diet book and cookbook have sold more than 340,000 copies in the UK and has been published in over 16 countries. The book was ranked number 64 in the bestselling printed books of 2013 and the cookbook was ranked number 4 on the Sunday Times Bestselling Manual List for 2013. Author proceeds from the book sales enabled Prevent Breast Cancer to fund the BRRIDE-2 study which analyses the effect of an intermittent diet (The 2-Day Diet) versus a daily energy restriction diet on the body and the link to fat stores in and around the liver as fats here are found to contribute to insulin resistance and therefore breast cancer risk.\n", "Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C-reactive protein levels in breastfed adult women. Breastfed infants have somewhat lower blood pressure later in life, but it is unclear how much practical benefit this provides.\n", "Section::::Development.:Breast cancer.\n", "People who have previously been diagnosed with breast, ovarian, uterine, or bowel cancer have a higher risk of developing breast cancer in the future. Mothers of children with soft-tissue sarcoma may have an increased risk of breast cancer. Men with prostate cancer may have an elevated risk of breast cancer, although the absolute risk remains low.\n\nSection::::Dietary factors.\n\nSection::::Dietary factors.:Alcohol.\n", "Lifetime risk for breast cancer is significantly reduced for women who were pregnant and breastfeeding. Mastitis episodes do not appear to influence lifetime risk of breast cancer.\n\nMastitis does however cause great difficulties in diagnosis of breast cancer and delayed diagnosis and treatment can result in worse outcome.\n\nBreast cancer may coincide with mastitis or develop shortly afterwards. All suspicious symptoms that do not completely disappear within 5 weeks must be investigated.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Mother.:Other.\n\nIt is unclear whether breastfeeding causes mothers to lose weight after giving birth. The National Institutes of Health states that it may help with weight loss.\n\nFor breastfeeding women, long-term health benefits include reduced risk of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and endometrial cancer.\n\nA 2011 review found it unclear whether breastfeeding affects the risk of postpartum depression. Later reviews have found tentative evidence of a lower risk among mothers who successfully breastfeed.\n\nSection::::Health effects.:Diabetes.\n", "More than 99% of breast masses in children and adolescents are benign, and include fibrocystic breast changes, cysts, fibroadenomas, lymph nodes, and abscesses. Fibroadenomas make up 68–94% of all pediatric breast masses, and can be simply observed to ensure their stability, or excised if they are symptomatic, large, and/or enlarging.\n\nSection::::Diseases and conditions.:Breast abnormalities.:Mastitis.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01796	Why isn't every person's DNA collected after birth to create a giant database?	Because people have whats called a right to privacy. It might sound a bit crazy but there’s a whole lot more to be done with people’s DNA. Also its not often DNA is left at the scene.	[ "Across the world, each country has unique healthcare and research frameworks that produce different policy needs – genetic privacy policy is further complicated when considering international collaborations on genetic research or international biobanks, databases that store biological samples and DNA information. Furthermore, research and healthcare are not the only fields that require formal jurisdiction; other areas of concern include the genetic privacy of those in the criminal justice system and those who engage with private consumer-based genomic sequencing.\n\nSection::::Policy.:Forensic Science.\n\nSection::::Policy.:Forensic Science.:England and Wales.\n", "In 2005 the incoming Portuguese government proposed to introduce a DNA database of the entire population of Portugal. However, after informed debate including opinion from the Portuguese Ethics Council the database introduced was of just the criminal population.\n\nSection::::Types.:Corporate.\n", " In 2003, the National Human Genome Research Institute and its affiliated partners successfully sequenced the first whole human genome, a project that took just under $3 billion to complete. Four years later, James Watson – one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA – was able to sequence his genome for less than $1.5 million. As genetic sequencing technologies have proliferated, streamlined and become adapted to clinical means, they can now provide incredible insight into individual genetic identities at a much lower cost, with biotech competitors vying for the title of the $1,000 genome. Genetic material can now be extracted from a person's saliva, hair, skin, blood, or other sources, sequenced, digitized, stored, and used for numerous purposes. Whenever data is digitized and stored, there is the possibility of privacy breaches. While modern whole genome sequencing technology has allowed for unprecedented access and understanding of the human genome, and excitement for the potentialities of personalized medicine, it has also generated serious conversation about the ethics and privacy risks that accompany this process of uncovering an individual's essential instructions of being: their DNA sequence.\n", "Genetic sequencing is a pivotal component of producing scientific knowledge about disease origins, disease prevention, and developing meaningful therapeutic interventions. Much of research utilizes large-group DNA samples or aggregate genome-wide datasets to compare and identify genes associated with particular diseases or phenotypes; therefore, there is much opposition to restricting genome database accessibility and much support for fortifying such wide-scale research. For example, if an informed consent clause were to be enforced for all genetics research, existing genetic databases could not be reused for new studies - all datasets would either need to be destroyed at the end of every study or all participants would need to re-authorize permissions with each new study. As genetic datasets can be extrapolated to closely related family members, this adds another dimension of required consent in the research process. This fundamentally raises the question of whether or not these restrictions are necessary privacy protections or a hindrance to scientific progress.\n", "However In May 2019, GEDmatch required people who had uploaded their DNA to its site to specifically opt in to allow law enforcement agencies to access their information. This change in privacy policy was forecast to make it much more difficult in future for law enforcement agencies to solve cold cases using genetic genealogy. \n", "In 2009 Interpol reported there were 54 police national DNA databases in the world at the time and 26 more countries planned to start one. In Europe Interpol reported there were 31 national DNA databases and six more planned. The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) DNA working group made 33 recommendations in 2014 for DNA database management and guidelines for auditing DNA databases. Other countries have adopted privately developed DNA databases, such as Qatar, which has adopted Bode dbSEARCH.\n\nTypically, a tiny subset of the individual's genome is sampled from 13 or 16 regions that have high individuation.\n", "Privacy concerns can also arise when whole genome sequencing is used in scientific research studies. Researchers often need to put information on patient's genotypes and phenotypes into public scientific databases, such as locus specific databases. Although only anonymous patient data are submitted to locus specific databases, patients might still be identifiable by their relatives in the case of finding a rare disease or a rare missense mutation. Public discussion around the introduction of advanced forensic techniques (such as advanced familial searching using public DNA ancestry websites and DNA phenotyping approaches) has been limited, disjointed, and unfocused. As forensic genetics and medical genetics converge toward genome sequencing, issues surrounding genetic data become increasingly connected, and additional legal protections may need to be established.\n", "Even in the consumer market, people have flocked to Ancestry.com and 23andMe to discover their heritage and elucidate their genotypes. As the nature of consumer transactions allows for these electronic click wrap models to bypass traditional forms of consent in research and healthcare, consumers may not completely comprehend the implications of having their genetic sequence digitized and stored. Furthermore, corporate privacy policies often operate outside the realm of federal jurisdiction, exposing consumers to informational risks, both in terms of their genetic privacy and their self-disclosed consumer profile, including self-disclosed family history, health status, race, ethnicity, social networks, and much more. Simply having databases invites potential privacy risks, as data storage inherently entails the possibility of data breaches and governmental solicitation of datasets. 23andMe have already received four requests from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to access consumer datasets and although those requests were denied, this reveals a similar conundrum as the FBI–Apple encryption dispute.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- National DNA database\n\nBULLET::::- Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom\n\nBULLET::::- National Identity Register\n\nBULLET::::- Police National Computer\n\nBULLET::::- National Ballistics Intelligence Service\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- The National DNA database, National Policing Improvement Agency\n\nBULLET::::- Staley, K. 2005, \"The Police National DNA Database: Balancing Crime Detection, Human Rights and Privacy\", Genewatch UK\n\nBULLET::::- NDNAD Annual Report 2002/3\n\nBULLET::::- \"Has our DNA database gone too far?\", BBC News\n\nBULLET::::- Give Us Your DNA, BBC Panorama\n\nBULLET::::- NPIA National DNA Database NPIA National DNA Database\n\nBULLET::::- Guardian Podcast on the pros and cons of the DNA database\n", "Dr. David Altshuler of the Broad Institute of Harvard and M.I.T. notes that the amount of genetic data that has been gathered so far () is minuscule compared with what will be coming in the next few years, making it important to address the problems before the data deluge makes them worse, saying that they \"see substantial issues\" and \"want to have serious discussions now\".\n", "In medicine, genetic sequencing is not only important for traditional uses, such as paternity tests, but also for facilitating ease in diagnosis and treatment. Personalized medicine has been heralded as the future of healthcare, as whole genome sequencing have provided the possibility personalizing treatment to individual expression and experience of disease. As pharmacology and drug development are based on population studies, current treatments are normalized to whole populations statistics, which might reduce treatment efficacy for individuals, as everyone's response to a disease and to drug therapy is uniquely bound to their genetic predispositions. Already, genetic sequencing has expedited prognostic counseling in monogenic diseases that requires rapid, differential diagnosis in neonatal care. However, the often blurred distinction between medical usage and research usage can complicate how privacy between these two realms are handled, as they often require different levels of consent and leverage different policy.\n", "More and more people are getting their DNA sequenced. But the use of genetic data to inform medical decisions is lagging. More than a decade since the Human Genome Project was declared complete, fewer than 60 genetic variants are deemed worthy for use in clinical care, most for severe conditions in very young children.These genetic variants can guide medical decisions.Genomic data alone is not very useful, but needs to be examined in the right context in research and healthcare\n", "Section::::Areas of Concern.\n\nMany computational experts have developed, and are developing, more secure systems of genomics sequencing to protect the future of this field from misguided jurisdiction, wrongful application of genetics data, and above all, the genetic privacy of individuals. There are currently four major areas of genetics research in which privacy-preserving technologies are being developed for:\n\nSection::::Areas of Concern.:String searching and comparison.\n", "In European countries which have established a DNA database, there are some measures which are being used to protect the privacy of individuals, more specifically, some criteria to help removing the DNA profiles from the databases. Among the 22 European countries which have been analyzed, most of the countries will record the DNA profiles of suspects or those who have committed serious crimes. For some countries (like Belgium and France) may remove the criminal’s profile after 30–40 years, because these “criminal investigation” database are no longer needed. Most of the countries will delete the suspect’s profile after they are acquitted…etc. All the countries have a completed legislation to largely avoid the privacy issues which may occur during the use of DNA database.. Public discussion around the introduction of advanced forensic techniques (such as genetic genealogy using public genealogy databases and DNA phenotyping approaches) has been limited, disjointed, and unfocused, and raises issues of privacy and consent that may warrant additional legal protections to be established.\n", "In the United States, biomedical research containing human subjects is governed by a baseline standard of ethics known as The Common Rule, which aims to protect a subject's privacy by requiring \"identifiers\" such as name or address to be removed from collected data. A 2012 report by the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues stated, however, that \"what constitutes 'identifiable' and 'de-identified' data is fluid and that evolving technologies and the increasing accessibility of data could allow de-identified data to become re-identified\". In fact, research has already shown that it is \"possible to discover a study participant's identity by cross-referencing research data about him and his DNA sequence … [with] genetic genealogy and public-records databases\". This has led to calls for policy-makers to establish consistent guidelines and best practices for the accessibility and usage of individual genomic data collected by researchers.\n", "In the United States, it has been accepted, courts often ruling that there is no expectation of privacy, citing \"California v. Greenwood\" (1988), in which the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment does not prohibit the warrantless search and seizure of garbage left for collection outside the curtilage of a home. Critics of this practice underline that this analogy ignores that \"most people have no idea that they risk surrendering their genetic identity to the police by, for instance, failing to destroy a used coffee cup. Moreover, even if they do realize it, there is no way to avoid abandoning one's DNA in public.\"\n", "Furthermore, the vast databases of corporations or states are susceptible to get breached by criminals or governments. There is a controversy regarding the responsibility that a DNA testing company has to ensure that leaks and breaches do not happen. Regulation rules are not clearly laid out. What is still not determined is who legally owns the genome information: the company or the individual whose genome has been read. There have been published examples of personal genome information being exploited. Additional privacy concerns, related to, e.g., genetic discrimination, loss of anonymity, and psychological impacts, have been increasingly pointed out by the academic community as well as government agencies.\n", "Some ethicists insist that the privacy of individuals undergoing genetic testing must be protected. Indeed, privacy issues can be of particular concern when minors undergo genetic testing. Illumina's CEO, Jay Flatley, claimed in February 2009 that \"by 2019 it will have become routine to map infants' genes when they are born\". This potential use of genome sequencing is highly controversial, as it runs counter to established ethical norms for predictive genetic testing of asymptomatic minors that have been well established in the fields of medical genetics and genetic counseling. The traditional guidelines for genetic testing have been developed over the course of several decades since it first became possible to test for genetic markers associated with disease, prior to the advent of cost-effective, comprehensive genetic screening.\n", "One of the most important developments in the field of genomics is the capacity for read mapping, in which millions of short sequences can be aligned to a reference DNA sequence in order to process large datasets efficiently. As this high-capacity process is often divided up between public and private computing environments, there is a lot of associated risk and stages where genetic privacy is particularly vulnerable; therefore, current studies focus on how to provide secure operations within two different data domains without sacrificing efficiency and accuracy.\n\nSection::::Areas of Concern.:Clinical use.\n", "Furthermore, DNA databases could fall into the wrong hands due to data breaches or data sharing.\n\nSection::::DNA collection and human rights.\n\nIn a judgement in December 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that two British men should not have had their DNA and fingerprints retained by police saying that retention \"could not be regarded as necessary in a democratic society\".\n", "91% of the largest forensic DNA database in the world, the National Criminal Intelligence DNA Database (NDNAD), contains DNA information from residents of England and Wales. The NDNAD stores genetic information of criminally convicted individuals, those who were charged but acquitted of a recordable offence, those who were arrested but never charged with a recordable offense, and those who are under counterterrorism control. Of the 5.5 million people in the database, which represents 10% of the total population, 1.2 million have never been convicted of a crime. The European Court of Human Rights decided, in the case of S and Marper v United Kingdom (2008), that the government must present sufficient justification for differential treatment of DNA profiles of those in the criminal justice system compared to that of non-convicted individuals; essentially, there must be no abuse of retained biological materials and DNA-information. The decision highlighted several existing issues with the current system that poses privacy risks for the individuals involved: the storage of personal information with genetic information, the storage of DNA profiles with the inherent capacity to determine genetic relationships, and fundamentally, the act of storing of cellular samples and DNA profiles produces opportunities for privacy risks. As a result, the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 was created to ensure proper use of collected DNA materials and regulate their storage and destruction. However, many problems still persist, as samples can still be retained indefinitely in databases, regardless of whether or not the affected individual was convicted – and even the samples of juvenile delinquents. Critics have argued that this long-term retention could lead to stigmatization of affected individuals and inhibit their re-integration into society and also, are subject to misuse by discriminatory behavior innate to the criminal justice system.\n", "The DNA fingerprinting pioneer Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys condemned UK government plans to keep the genetic details of hundreds of thousands of innocent people in England and Wales for up to 12 years. Jeffreys said he was \"disappointed\" with the proposals, which came after a European court ruled that the current policy breaches people's right to privacy. Jefferys said \"It seems to be as about as minimal a response to the European court of human rights judgment as one could conceive. There is a presumption not of innocence but of future guilt here … which I find very disturbing indeed\".\n", "The modern age of big data and large scale genomic testing necessitates processing systems that minimize privacy risks when releasing aggregate genomic data, which essentially means ensuring that individual data cannot be discerned within a genomic database. This differential privacy approach is a simple evaluation of the security of a genomic database and many researchers provide \"checks\" on the stringency of existing infrastructures.\n\nSection::::Areas of Concern.:Alignment of raw genomic data.\n", "Privacy issues surrounding DNA databases not only means privacy is threatened in collecting and analyzing DNA samples, it also exists in protecting and storing this important personal information. As the DNA profiles can be stored indefinitely in DNA database, it has raised concerns that these DNA samples can be used for new and unidentified purposes. With the increase of the users who access the DNA database, people are worried about their information being let out or shared inappropriately, for example, their DNA profile may be shared with others such as law enforcement agencies or countries without individual consent.\n", "The American Society of Human Genetics has brought up issues about administering genetic tests on children. Moreover, they infer that this could lead to negative consequences for the children. Some of the negative consequences that this could lead to include the child’s likelihood of getting adopted which as a result could lead the child to suffer from self esteem issues; the child’s well-being could also suffer because of things like paternity testing or a custody battle requiring this type of information.\n\nSection::::Regulations.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "DNA should be collected at birth." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "This would be a violation of privacy. " ]
2018-01706	How does our body learn and improve in Cycling, skating, skiing, etc. ?	As I understand it, you split it up into 2 parts: the body's nervous system and neural connections in the brain. There's a sheath that covers the nerves called [myelin]( URL_1 ). Simply put, the sheath improves the speed of signals along the nerves and the more those nerves are used, the more efficient the sheath becomes. So, when you practice muscular actions like playing music, athletics, etc., you improve the efficiency of the nerves as well as strengthen the muscle. Some call this your muscles or body "learning", but it might better be described as programming certain movement combinations so that less conscious effort is needed for fine control. This same principle applies for neural connections in the brain, although I don't know if it's myelin that's in play here. I think synaptic connections contribute more, but perhaps someone more knowledgeable here can confirm/deny this. Regardless of the mechanism, the more you use your brain in a given area, the better it becomes at it. There's a book called [Outliers]( URL_0 ) on this. I never read the book, but I heard several interviews with the author on the major themes and points. There's also another idea that might be involved called learning windows. IIR, this theory has significant support but I'm not sure if it's generally accepted. The basic idea is that as children progress from birth through childhood their brains are very "plastic", meaning that the neural connections in the brain are very easily changed. But, as they pass certain ages, those connections become permanent and cannot be easily changed if at all. An example is language; Children learn languages very easily in about the first five years, the difficulty increases proportionally as they get older. It could be that since you developed the balance necessary for riding a bike at a young age makes this a skill you've permanently programmed.	[ "About using the method, Christopher stated, \"When we arrived in Spain [to consult] we met a [US track cycling team] that was basically underfunded and only had one coach, while comparatively their competition were well funded and had experts staffed full-time: sports physiologists, psychologists, video analysis, you name it. Without any of this, we had to figure out how to ‘boot-strap’ a performance plan. We started with a genetic test for each athlete to provide context for the tracking and intervention strategies. What unfolded was amazing.\" The women's team broke a national record within weeks before competing in London and went on to beat the favored Australians in the semi-finals, culminating their run with a silver medal at the London Olympics.\n", "The specificity of learning hypothesis suggests that learning is most effective when practice sessions include environment and movement conditions which closely resemble those required during performance of the task — replicating the target skill level and context for performance. It suggests that the benefit of specificity in practice occurs because motor learning is combined with physical practice during the learned sport or skill. Contrary to previous beliefs, skill learning is accomplished by alternating motor learning and physical performance, making the sources of feedback work together. The learning process, especially for a difficult task, results in the creation of a representation of the task where all relevant information pertaining to task performance is integrated. This representation becomes tightly coupled with increasing experience performing the task. As a result, removing or adding a significant source of information after a practice period where it was present or not, does not cause performance to deteriorate. Alternating motor learning and physical practice can ultimately lead to a great, if not better performance as opposed to just physical practice.\n", "Section::::Rhythmic behaviors.\n\nSection::::Rhythmic behaviors.:Short-term adaptations.\n\nShort term neural adaptations occur in the body during rhythmic activities. One of the most common activities when these neural adaptations are constantly happening is walking. As a person walks, the body constantly gathers information about the environment and the surroundings of the feet, and slightly adjusts the muscles in use according to the terrain. For example, walking uphill requires different muscles than walking on flat pavement. When the brain recognizes that the body is walking uphill, it makes neural adaptations that send more activity to muscles required for uphill walking.\n", "Despite the improvements in performance seen across a range of studies, one limitation of the contextual interference effect is the uncertainty with regard to the cause of performance improvements as so many variables are constantly manipulated. In a review of literature, the authors identify that there were few patterns to explain the improvements in experiments that use the contextual interference paradigm. Although there were no patterns in the literature, common areas and limitations that justified interference effects were identified:\n\nSection::::Behavioural approach.:Feedback given during practice.\n", "Adaptation in the neuromechanical sense is the body's ability to change an action to better suit the situation or environment in which it is acting. Adaptation can be a result of injury, fatigue, or practice. Adaptation can be measured in a variety of ways: electromyography, three-dimensional reconstruction of joints, and changes in other variables pertaining to the specific adaptation being studied.\n\nSection::::Adaptation.:Injury.\n", "Recent empirical evidence indicates the significant impact of physical activity on brain function; for example, greater amounts of physical activity are associated with enhanced cognitive function in older adults. The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher gray matter density and white matter integrity after exercise training, and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after long-term training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex and white matter integrity in the internal capsule compared to non-musicians.\n", "Section::::Model Categories.:Command & Control.:Manual Control Theory.\n\nComplex motor tasks, such as those carried out by musicians and athletes, are not well modeled due to their complexity. Human target-tracking behavior, however, is one complex motor task that is an example of successful HPM.\n\nThe history of manual control theory is extensive, dating back to the 1800s in regard to the control of water clocks. However, during the 1940s with the innovation of servomechanisms in WWII, extensive research was put into the continuous control and stabilization of contemporary systems such as radar antennas, gun turrets, and ships/aircraft via feedback control signals.\n", "About using the method, Christopherson stated, \"When we arrived in Spain [to consult for OAthlete] we met a [US track cycling team] that was basically underfunded and only had one coach, while comparatively their competition were well funded and had experts staffed full-time: sports physiologists, psychologists, video analysis, you name it. Without any of this, we had to figure out how to ‘boot-strap’ additional support. We started with a genetic test for each athlete to provide context for the tracking and intervention strategies. What unfolded was amazing.\" The women's team broke a national record two weeks before competing in London and went on to beat the favored Australians in the semi-finals, culminating their run with a silver medal at the London Olympics.\n", "Additionally, there are specific psychological skills that are ingrained in personality that are possessed at higher levels in elite athletes than the typical person. These include arousal regulation, goal setting, imagery, pre-performance routines, and self-talk, which are discussed further under Commonly used techniques.\n", "This theory proposes that athletes recognize patterns in activities and performance. The patterns are then used to create a mental map or model of how to do completes a series of actions.\n\nSection::::Commonly used techniques.:Imagery.:Vividness theory.\n\nThis theory suggests that athletes use the five senses to take in information while completing an action, and then using the memories of these stimuli to make their mental recreation of the event as realistic as possible.\n\nSection::::Commonly used techniques.:Imagery.:Controllability theory.\n", "Understanding the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and other categories of conditioning requires a review of changes that occur with increased aerobic, or anaerobic capacity. As aerobic/anaerobic capacity increases, general metabolism rises, muscle metabolism is enhanced, haemoglobin rises, buffers in the bloodstream increase, venous return is improved, stroke volume is improved, and the blood bed becomes more able to adapt readily to varying demands. Each of these results of cardiovascular fitness/cardiorespiratory conditioning will have a direct positive effect on muscular endurance, and an indirect effect on strength and flexibility.\n", "Section::::Mechanisms.:Homeostatic plasticity.\n\nIn order to maintain balance, homeostatic controls exist to regulate the overall activity of neural circuits specifically by regulating the destabilizing effects of developmental and learning processes that result in changes of synaptic strength. Homeostatic plasticity also helps regulate prolonged excitatory responses, which lead to a reduction in all of a neuron’s synaptic responses. While the exact mechanisms by which homeostatic plasticity acts remains unclear, recent studies raise the idea that homeostatic plasticity is modulated according to the period of development or challenges in existing neural circuits.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Learning.\n", "Injury can cause adaptation in a number of ways. Compensation is a large factor in injury adaptation. Compensation is a result of one or more weakened muscles. The brain is given the task to perform a certain motor task, and once a muscle has been weakened, the brain computes energy ratios to send to other muscles to perform the original task in the desired fashion. Change in muscle contribution is not the only byproduct of a muscle-related injury. Change in loading of the joint is another result which, if prolonged, can be harmful for the individual.\n\nSection::::Adaptation.:Fatigue.\n", "Section::::Common areas of study.:Personality.:Psychodynamic approach.\n\nThis theory explores how the subconscious interacts with the conscience of an individual. It proposes that the underlying thoughts, feelings, and emotions influence how we think and act. The subconscious is closely related to experiences of resolution of conflict as a child. This theory emphasizes understanding the individual as a whole, rather than by each trait. This theory does not consider environmental factors that influence behavior.\n\nSection::::Common areas of study.:Personality.:Trait approach.\n", "Neuroplasticity is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement and changes in the brain are related. The human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle, which includes both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes.\n\nAdaptive plasticity\n", "The basis of Performance Medicine in improving athletic performance lies in the understanding that the functions of the immune system, nervous system, hormonal system, and digestive system govern adaptation to training. All environmental stimuli (including training and nutrition) are processed by these systems, which will respond with adaptation, if their capacity permits. It is therefore the functions of these systems, which determine the result of all training stimuli. \n", "The various functions of the brain structures that show exercise-induced increases in gray matter volume include:\n\nBULLET::::- Prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices – required for the cognitive control of behavior, particularly: working memory, attentional control, decision-making, cognitive flexibility, social cognition, and inhibitory control of behavior; implicated in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and addiction\n\nBULLET::::- Nucleus accumbens – responsible for incentive salience (\"wanting\" or desire, the form of motivation associated with reward) and positive reinforcement; implicated in addiction\n\nBULLET::::- Hippocampus – responsible for storage and consolidation of declarative memory and spatial memory; implicated in depression\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Strength training and adaptations.\n\nWhen participating in any sport, new motor skills and movement combinations are frequently being used and repeated. All sports require some degree of strength, endurance training, and skilled reaching in order to be successful in the required tasks. Muscle memory related to strength training involves elements of both motor learning, described below, and long-lasting changes in the muscle tissue.\n", "In North America, support for sport psychology grew out of physical education. The North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) grew from being an interest group to a full-fledged organization, whose mission included promoting the research and teaching of motor behavior and the psychology of sport and exercise. In Canada, the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology (SCAPPS) was founded in 1977 to promote the study and exchange of ideas in the fields of motor behavior and sport psychology.\n", "Several studies have manipulated the presentation features of feedback information (e.g., frequency, delay, interpolated activities, and precision) in order to determine the optimal conditions for learning. See Figure 4, Figure 6, and summary Table 1 for a detailed explanation of feedback manipulation and knowledge of results (see below).\n\nSection::::Behavioural approach.:Feedback given during practice.:Knowledge of performance.\n", "As humans walk or run across different surfaces, they adjust the stiffness of their limbs to maintain similar locomotor mechanics independent of the surface. As the stiffness of a surface changes, humans adapt by changing their limb stiffness. This stiffness modulation allows for running and walking with similar mechanics regardless of the surface, therefore allowing humans to better interact and adapt with their environment. The modulation of stiffness therefore, has applications in the areas of motor control and other areas pertaining to the neural control of movement.\n", "There are two perspectives one can take when using imagery: first person, where one pictures doing the skill his/her self, and third person imagery, where one pictures watching the skill be done by his/her self or another athlete. Athletes can use whichever perspective is most comfortable for them. There are multiple theories of how athletes use imagery.\n\nSection::::Commonly used techniques.:Imagery.:Psychoneuromuscular theory.\n\nThis theory proposes that athletes activate the muscles associated with an action by picturing themselves doing the action. Activating the neurons that provide input to the muscles is similar to actually practicing the motion.\n\nSection::::Commonly used techniques.:Imagery.:Symbolic learning theory.\n", "Modeling is a form of observational learning where an athlete observes another individual around the same level of skill learning perform sport related movements and receive feedback. This has been shown help modify athletes' thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in beneficial ways. In order for this form of learning to work the athlete must be motivated, attentive, able to recall, and willing to try to mimic their observation of the model.\n\nSection::::Sport-specific differences.\n\nSection::::Sport-specific differences.:Personality characteristics.\n", "The transition phase is important for psychological reasons, a year of training means a vacation is in order. A typical weekend warrior might take three months while a professional athlete might take as little as two weeks.\n\nSection::::Theory of planning.:The mesocycle.\n", "In the book \"Moonwalking with Einstein\" by Joshua Foer, a theory called \"deliberate practice\" is brought up. The theorist that came up with this theory was K. Anders Ericsson who said: “Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individuals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is vastly superior to that of the rest of the population.” This quote coincides with the three stages because these would be the main topics or ideas that would come in mind to reach the plateau effect in many of people. When these conditions are met, practice improves accuracy and speed of performance on cognitive, perceptual, and motor tasks. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-20703	how were wisdom teeth removed before the advances in modern dentistry	Pliers. To be fair, a lot of people just kept their teeth in if it wasn’t causing them pain. Wisdom teeth usually crowd the mouth in those who need them removed, but it would only be pulled if it was painful. Whiskey, pliers, and a few minutes will get that pain right out of your mouth.	[ "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the collision of sterile technique, anaesthesia and radiology made routine surgery on the wisdom teeth possible. John Tomes's 1873 text \"A System of Dental Surgery\" describes techniques for removal of \"third molars, or dentes sapientiæ\" including descriptions of inferior alveolar nerve injury, jaw fracture and pupil dilation after opium is placed in the socket. Other texts from about this time speculate on their deevolution, that they are prone to decay and discussion on whether or not they lead to crowding of the other teeth.\n", "BULLET::::- It was once a common practice to remove the front teeth of institutionalized psychiatric patients who had a history of biting.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nExtractions are often categorized as \"simple\" or \"surgical\".\n", "Wisdom teeth removal (extraction) is the most common treatment for impacted wisdom teeth. In the US, 10 million wisdom teeth are removed annually. The procedure can be either simple or surgical, depending on the depth of the impaction and angle of the tooth. Surgical removal is to create an incision in the mucosa of the mouth, remove bone of the mandible or maxilla adjacent the tooth, extract it or possibly section the tooth and extract it in pieces. This can be completed under local anaesthetic, sedation or general anaesthetic.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Wisdom teeth removal.:Recovery, risks and complications.\n", "In the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first, modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article \"The Deformity Termed “Pug Nose” and its Correction, by a Simple Operation\" (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities.\n\nSection::::Surgical rhinoplasty.:20th century.\n", "In Italy, Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546–1599), professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Bologna, published \"Curtorum Chirurgia Per Insitionem\" (The Surgery of Defects by Implantations, 1597), a technico–procedural manual for the surgical repair and reconstruction of facial wounds in soldiers. The illustrations featured a re-attachment rhinoplasty using a biceps muscle pedicle flap; the graft attached at 3-weeks post-procedure; which, at 2-weeks post-attachment, the surgeon then shaped into a nose.\n\nSection::::Surgical rhinoplasty.:18th century.\n", "Section::::Surgical rhinoplasty.:Classical, Roman and Byzantine antiquity.\n\nDuring the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476) the encyclopaedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus (c. 25 BC – AD 50) published the 8-tome \"De Medicina\" (On Medicine, c. AD 14), which described plastic surgery techniques and procedures for the correction and the reconstruction of the lips, the ears, the nose, et cetera, and for the amputation of diseased and damaged parts of the human body.\n", "Section::::Surgical rhinoplasty.:The Middle Ages.\n", "Section::::Surgical rhinoplasty.:19th century.\n", "Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth which alleviated pain and associated chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac most probably invented the dental pelican (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used to perform dental extractions up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 19th century.\n", "There were enlightened people like surgeon James Henderson Nicholl of the Glasgow Hospital for Sick Children, who pioneered day surgery procedures such as Hernia and cleft palate and who stated in 1909 that:\n", "Section::::History.\n\nMandible and maxilla osteotomies date to the 1940s. They were used to correct dentofacial deformities like a malocclusion, and a prognathism. Advances have been made in the procedures, and in the anesthesia used. In 1985, mandible and maxilla osteotomies were effectively used to correct more extreme deformities like receding chins, and to relieve pain from temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJ).\n", "BULLET::::- c. 5000 BCE. First known practice of Trepanation in Ensisheim in France.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 3300 B.C.E. Trepanation, broken bones, wounds in Indus Valley Civilization.\n\nBULLET::::- c. 2613–2494 BCE. A jaw found in an Egyptian Fourth Dynasty tomb shows the marks of an operation to drain a pus-filled abscess under the first molar.\n\nBULLET::::- 1754 BCE The Code of Hammurabi.\n", "In the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article \"The Deformity Termed 'Pug Nose' and its Correction, by a Simple Operation\" (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities.\n", "In Italy, Gasparo Tagliacozzi (1546–1599), professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Bologna, published \"Curtorum Chirurgia Per Insitionem\" (The Surgery of Defects by Implantations, 1597), a technico–procedural manual for the surgical repair and reconstruction of facial wounds in soldiers. The illustrations featured a re-attachment rhinoplasty using a biceps muscle pedicle flap; the graft attached at 3-weeks post-procedure; which, at 2-weeks post-attachment, the surgeon then shaped into a nose.\n", "Another Cochrane Investigation has found post-operative pain is effectively managed with either ibuprofen, or ibuprofen in combination with acetaminophen.\n\nMany variations to the surgical technique exist however; as of 2014 the evidence was insufficient to recommend one type of surgical practice over another.\n", "At the Byzantine Roman court of the Emperor Julian the Apostate (331–363 AD), the royal physician Oribasius ( 320–400 AD) published the 70-volume \"Synagogue Medicae\" (Medical Compilations, 4th century AD), which described facial-defect reconstructions that featured loose sutures that permitted a surgical wound to heal without distorting the facial flesh; how to clean the bone exposed in a wound; debridement, how to remove damaged tissue to forestall infection and so accelerate healing of the wound; and how to use autologous skin flaps to repair damaged cheeks, eyebrows, lips, and nose, to restore the patient's normal visage.\n", "Pre-dating the Indian \"Sushruta samhita\" medical compendium is the \"Ebers Papyrus\" (c. 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in that time and culture. In the event, the Indian rhinoplasty technique continued in 19th-century Western European medicine; in Great Britain, Joseph Constantine Carpue (1764–1846) published the \"Account of Two Successful Operations for Restoring a Lost Nose\" (1815), which described two rhinoplasties: the reconstruction of a battle-wounded nose, and the repair of an arsenic-damaged nose. (cf. Carpue's operation)\n", "In 1840, Sir John Tomes and his friend Evrard made the first pair of dental forceps. In 1841, Tomes posted an article to tell the whole world about his discovery of new forceps that have never been seen before, successfully becoming the creator of the forceps and the concept of forceps. In earlier times, or during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, elevators and pelicans were used as extraction devices because the idea of dental forceps did not exist, but the thought of extracting in the first place with some form of a tool was there. With pelicans, their sharp talons were used to be placed down on the inside of the mouth near the gums while the elevator helped pull the tooth out of its socket. Then, a pair of pincers would do the rest of the job, wiggling the tooth out of the gum until the extraction was complete. The functionality of today's Dental Forceps come from the need to remove items from the mouth such as the cotton balls Dentists place next to a patient's teeth or the rubber bands a patient needs for their braces. However, most dental forceps are not designed for comfort, nor do they take the account of the dental practitioners hand positions throughout the procedure to mind. Dental forceps have been designed to the point where Dentists experience medical complications of their own on the carpal scale considering their hands are always placed in a certain awkward angle while they remove items from the patient's mouth. \n", "There is archeological evidence that humans have attempted to replace missing teeth with root form implants for thousands of years. Remains from ancient China (dating 4000 years ago) have carved bamboo pegs, tapped into the bone, to replace lost teeth, and 2000-year-old remains from ancient Egypt have similarly shaped pegs made of precious metals. Some Egyptian mummies were found to have transplanted human teeth, and in other instances, teeth made of ivory. Wilson Popenoe and his wife in 1931, at a site in Honduras dating back to 600 AD, found the lower mandible of a young Mayan woman, with three missing incisors replaced by pieces of sea shells, shaped to resemble teeth. Bone growth around two of the implants, and the formation of calculus, indicates that they were functional as well as esthetic. The fragment is currently part of the Osteological Collection of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University.\n", "Prehistoric surgical techniques are seen in Ancient Egypt, where a mandible dated to approximately 2650 BC shows two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth. Surgical texts from ancient Egypt date back about 3500 years ago. Surgical operations were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today, and used sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey.\n\nSection::::History.:India.\n", "Early modern dental implant technology consisted of blade and transosteal implants. Blade implants, introduced in 1967, consisted of a metal blade that was placed within a bony incision that subsequently healed over the horizontally situated piece of metal but allowed a vertical segment to perforate the healed surface. Transosteal implants, the application of which was strictly limited to the mandible, consisted of a number of screws which were inserted into the inferior aspect of the mandible, some of which extended through and through into the oral cavity.\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n\nTreatments included topical antimicrobials, conservative debridement of sequestra and surgery. Surgical removal of the afflicted jaw bones could save the patient; otherwise, death from organ failure would follow. The disease was extremely painful and disfiguring to the patient, with dying bone tissue rotting away accompanied by a foul-smelling discharge. However, removal of the jaw bone had serious effects on patients' ability to eat, leading to further health concerns including malnutrition.\n\nSection::::Diagnostic imaging.\n", "Pre-dating the Indian \"Sushruta samhita\" medical compendium is the \"Ebers Papyrus\" ( 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in that time and culture. In the event, the Indian rhinoplasty technique continued in 19th-century Western European medicine; in Great Britain, Joseph Constantine Carpue (1764–1846) published the \"Account of Two Successful Operations for Restoring a Lost Nose\" (1815), which described two rhinoplasties: the reconstruction of a battle-wounded nose, and the repair of an arsenic-damaged nose. (cf. Carpue's operation)\n", "Coronectomy is a procedure where the crown of the impacted wisdom tooth is removed, but the roots are intentionally left in place. It is indicated when there is no disease of the dental pulp or infection around the crown of the tooth, and there is a high risk of inferior alveolar nerve injury.\n", "Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BC. Rhinoplasty techniques were carried out in ancient India by the ayurvedic physician Sushruta (fl. ca. 300 BCE - 500 CE), who described reconstruction of the nose in the \"Sushruta samhita\" (before c. 500 CE), his medico–surgical compendium. The physician Sushruta and his medical students developed and applied plastic surgical techniques for reconstructing noses, genitalia, earlobes, et cetera, that were amputated as religious, criminal, or military punishment. Sushruta also developed the otoplastic technique for reconstructing an earlobe with skin from the cheek, and the forehead flap rhinoplasty procedure that remains contemporary plastic surgical practice. In the \"Sushruta samhita\" compendium, the physician Sushruta describes the (modern) free-graft Indian rhinoplasty as the Nasikasandhana, wherein:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23508	Why do people prefer some music over others? For instance, I enjoy rock n roll. I try listening to mariachi music bc Mexicans love it. And there's no way my brain even considers it as a viable option to listen to any time of the day.	It has a lot to do with the culture you were raised in. Different cultures (and genres) value different aspects of music over others. For example, european classical music traditionally values harmony over melody over rhythm whereas indian classical music values melody over rhythm over harmony; african traditional music tends to value rhythm over melody over harmony. Also, there is something to be said for instrumentation: the brain values what it finds familiar more highly, so I'd say you likely grew up listening to more guitars, bass, and drums than say accordions, trumpets, etc. There's a lot I haven't covered, but I hope this provides some insight...	[ "Of all the traits, openness to experience has been shown to have the greatest effect upon genre preference. In general, those rated high in openness to experience prefer more music categorized as complex and novel like classical, jazz, and eclecticism, and intense and rebellious music. In the study, reflective and complex genres included classical, blues, jazz, and folk music, while intense and rebellious genres included rock, alternative, and heavy metal music. One of the facets of openness to experience is aesthetic appreciation, which is why researchers generally explain the high positive correlation between openness and liking complex music.\n", "Section::::Preferences.:Dual cultures.\n", "At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 73% based on 15 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\n", "Another study examined how openness to experience and frequency of listening are related and how they affect music preference. While listening to classical music excerpts, those rated high in openness tended to decrease in liking music faster during repeated listenings, as opposed to those scoring low in openness, who tended to like music more with repeated plays. This suggests novelty in music is an important quality for people high in openness to experience.\n", "Section::::Neural mechanisms.\n", "Section::::Psychology of music preference.\n\nSection::::Psychology of music preference.:Social influences on music selection.\n", "Lacher and Mizerski conducted experiments with college students to determine if the directly linked relationships they had proposed between these eight factors stayed consistent in ultimately predicting rock music purchases. They picked this music genre as previous research suggested most recorded music was bought by people between the ages of 10 and 25, and that this was the preferred genre of the students in test groups.\n", "Familiarity and complexity both have interesting effects on musical preferences. As seen in other types of artistic media, an inverted U relationship is apparent when relating subjective complexity on liking music excerpts. Individuals like complexity to a certain degree, then begin to dislike the music when complexity gets too high. Furthermore, there is a clear positive monotonic relationship between familiarity and liking of music.\n\nSection::::Individual and situational influences on musical preferences.:Self views.\n", "Hedonic consumption also owes a big debt to the academic field of product symbolism research. One of the important contributors to this academic field includes Sidney J. Levy, who is now the Coca-Cola Distinguished Professor of Marketing at Eller College of Management at the University of Arizona. He wrote the groundbreaking article \"Symbols for Sale\" which first appeared in the July–August 1959 edition of the \"Harvard Business Review\". \n", "Section::::Music consumption.\n\nMusic is consumed in a variety of ways, through the radio, television, and internet, as well as through concerts and performances.\n\nNorth and Hargreaves have suggested \"record buying is perhaps the ultimate behavioural measure of musical preference, involving the purchaser's time, effort, and money\" (p. 282). The study of music purchase and consumption was quite limited as of the early 1990s, as only a few academic studies had investigated this topic at that point in time. \n", "Culturally bound preferences and familiarity for music begin in infancy and continue through adolescence and adulthood. People tend to prefer and remember music from their own cultural tradition. Ethnomusicologists, people who study the relationship between music and culture, never truly understand the music of the culture that they are studying, even if they spend years of their lives with that culture, they never really understand.\n", "Section::::Neural mechanisms.:Learning and motor pathways.\n", "Music shows similar trends in complexity vs. preference ratings as does visual art. When comparing popular music, for the time period, and perceived complexity ratings the known inverted-U shape relationship appears, showing that generally we like moderately complex music the most. As the music selection gets more or less complex, our preference for that music dips. People who have more experience and training in popular music, however, prefer slightly more complex music. The inverted-U graph shifts to the right for people a stronger musical background. A similar pattern can be seen for jazz and bluegrass music. Those with limited musical training in jazz and bluegrass demonstrate the typical inverted-U when looking at complexity and preference, however, experts in those fields do not demonstrate the same pattern. Unlike the popular music experts, jazz and bluegrass experts did not show a distinct relationship between complexity and pleasantness. Experts in those two genres of music seem to just like what they like, without having a formula to describe their behavior. Since different styles of music have different effects on preference for experts, further studies would need to be done to draw conclusions for complexity and preference ratings for other styles.\n", "Section::::Individual and situational influences on musical preferences.:Season of the year.\n\nSeason of the year can also affect preferences. After reflecting upon fall or winter seasons, participants preferred reflective and complex music, whereas after reflecting upon summer or spring, participants preferred energetic and rhythmic music. However, \"pop\" music seems to have a universal appeal, despite the season.\n\nSection::::Individual and situational influences on musical preferences.:Familiarity.\n", "BULLET::::- Lisa Lindley-Jones – choir (track 4)\n\nBULLET::::- Vicky Oag – choir (track 4)\n\nBULLET::::- BSP – string arrangements\n\nBULLET::::- Technical personnel\n\nBULLET::::- Graham Sutton – mixing (except track 12), production\n\nBULLET::::- BSP – recording (tracks 4, 9, 10), production, packaging and photos\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Bilerman – recording (except tracks 4, 9 and 10)\n\nBULLET::::- Efrim Menuck – recording (except tracks 4, 9 and 10)\n\nBULLET::::- Jan Scott Wilkinson (\"Yan\") – mixing (track 12)\n\nBULLET::::- Milos Hajicek – assistant engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Laurence Aldridge – assistant engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Luke Joyse – assistant engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Tim Young – mastering\n", "An individual's musical experience may affect how they formulate preferences for music from their own culture and other cultures. American and Japanese individuals (non-music majors) both indicated preference for Western music, but Japanese individuals were more receptive to Eastern music. Among the participants, there was one group with little musical experience and one group that had received supplemental musical experience in their lifetimes. Although both American and Japanese participants disliked formal Eastern styles of music and preferred Western styles of music, participants with greater musical experience showed a wider range of preference responses not specific to their own culture.\n", "Lipsitz noted the bifocal nature of the rock group Los Lobos is particularly exemplary of this paradox. They straddled the line by mixing traditional Mexican folk elements with white rockabilly and African American rhythm and blues, while simultaneously conforming to none of the aforementioned genres. That they were commercially successful was unsurprising to Lipsitz- their goal in incorporating many cultural elements equally was to play to everyone. In this manner, in Lipsitz's view, the music served to break down barriers in its up front presentation of “multiple realities”.\n", "Situations have been shown to influence individual’s preferences for certain types of music. Participants in a study from 1996 provided information about what music they would prefer to listen to in given situations, and indicated that the situation greatly determined their musical preferences. For example, melancholic situations called for sad and moody music, while an arousal situation would call for loud, strong rhythm, invigorating music.\n\nSection::::Individual and situational influences on musical preferences.:Gender.\n", "I never like to see music as a competition, it's not a healthy way to be creatively, it's an unhealthy mindset. You should be making music for yourself; other influences shouldn't come into it. There are some subtle rivalries but nothing like the States, there’s no violence, no real beef. The kids here wouldn't know about real beef. And, I'm glad for that.\n", "Culture-specific cues rely on knowledge of the conventions in a particular musical tradition. Ethnomusicologist have said that there are certain situations that a certain song would be sung in different cultures. These times are marked by cultural cues and by the people of that culture. A particular timbre may be interpreted to reflect one emotion by Western listeners and another emotion by Eastern listeners. There could be other culturally bound cues as well, for example, rock n' roll music is usually identified to be a rebellious type of music associated with teenagers and the music reflects their ideals and beliefs that their culture believes.\n", "Section::::Cultural resonance and influence.\n", "In addition to influencing preference for meter, culture affects people's ability to correctly identify music styles. Adolescents from Singapore and the UK rated familiarity and preference for excerpts of Chinese, Malay, and Indian music styles. Neither group demonstrated a preference for the Indian music samples, although the Singaporean teenagers recognized them. Participants from Singapore showed higher preference for and ability to recognize the Chinese and Malay samples; UK participants showed little preference or recognition for any of the music samples, as those types of music are not present in their native culture.\n\nSection::::Preferences.:Effect of musical experience.\n", "Section::::Emotion recognition.:Complexity.\n\nBecause musical complexity is a psychophysical dimension, the cue-redundancy model predicts that complexity is perceived independently of experience. However, South African and Finnish listeners assign different complexity ratings to identical African folk songs. Thus, the cue-redundancy model may be overly simplistic in its distinctions between structural feature detection and cultural learning, at least in the case of complexity.\n\nSection::::Emotion recognition.:Repetition.\n", "BULLET::::- Infinite variety. You can differentiate between regular consumer products, e.g. cars, on basis of its characteristics. For example, a hatchback can be purchased from a number of manufacturers with a set list of options (e.g., automatic transmission, standard transmission, convertible, etc.), with the different options requiring different charges. Many general products allow classification on a relatively small number of such characteristics. Cultural goods, however, have a very high number of characteristics, which, on top of that, often are subjective. For example, an early 1990s band with loud, distorted electric guitar could be considered to be grunge, punk, heavy metal music or alternative rock by different music critics. This makes cultural products hard to compare.\n", "The influence of the media on consumerism in Western society is a bi-directional effect, according to Thomas Turino. A large part of self-discovery and feeling accepted in social groups is related to common musical tastes. Record companies and producers of music recognize this reality and respond by catering to specific groups. In the same way that “sounds and imagery piped in over the radio and Internet and in videos shape adolescent sense of gendered selves as well as generational and more specific cohort identities,“ so do individuals shape the media's marketing responses to musical tastes in Western popular music culture. The culmination of identity groups (teenagers in particular) across the country represents a significant force that can shape the music industry based on what is being consumed.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-15917	Why can't we think properly when we get angry?	Your adrenal glands are producing adrenaline, which in turn stimulates fight-or-flight response. It is so, because in the cavemen days when somebody was in danger, people who were quick to act rather than think things through survived long enough to produce offspring and pass their genes and by extend their behaviour.	[ "Anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people. This tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.\n", "The Skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person incapable of expressing anger in an appropriate manner.\n", "According to R. Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal with this emotion. In order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations leading to anger should be explored by the person. The person is then tried to be imagery-based relieved of his or her recent angry experiences.\n", "Understanding one's own emotions can be a crucial piece of learning how to deal with anger. Children who wrote down their negative emotions in an \"anger diary\" actually ended up improving their emotional understanding, which in turn led to less aggression. When it comes to dealing with their emotions, children show the ability to learn best by seeing direct examples of instances that led to certain levels of anger. By seeing the reasons why they got angry, they can in the future try to avoid those actions or be prepared for the feeling they experience if they do find themselves doing something that typically results in them being angry.\n", "Anger can have many physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression. Facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full frown. While most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of \"what has happened to them,\" psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.\n", "Behavioral control is an important application of cognitive inhibition in behavioral psychology, as is emotional control. Depression is an example of cognitive inhibition failure in emotion control. Correctly functioning cognitive inhibition would result in reduced selective attention to negative stimuli and retention of negative thoughts. \"There is emerging evidence that depression is characterized by deficits in the inhibition of mood-congruent material. These deficits could result in prolonged processing of negative, goal-irrelevant aspects of presented information thereby hindering recovery from negative mood and leading to the sustained negative affect that characterizes depressive episodes\". Anger is another important emotion affected by cognitive inhibition. \"Trait anger is a robust predictor of the angry and aggressive response to hostile situational input, but it is important to better understand the mechanisms underlying this personality...individuals low in trait anger systematically recruit cognitive control resources within hostile contexts\". When situations that may elicit anger leading to violence arise, cognitive inhibition is used extensively. Hostile stimuli magnitude are considered and ignored to avoid confrontation. Social context situations that may be interpreted as hostile are processed, and through cognitive inhibition, logic and reasoning are used to handle the situation. When a degree of cognitive inhibition ability is absent in an individual, it can result in \"trait anger\", or frequent angry and violent outbursts at relatively inoffensive stimuli. Without cognitive inhibition and its resulting omission of irrelevant or unimportant information, emotional stability can be compromised.\n", "Section::::Philosophical perspectives.:Ancient history.:Control methods.\n", "It is believed to be adaptive to attend to angry emotion as this may be a precursor to danger and harm and quick identification of even mild anger cues can facilitate the ability for a child to escape the situation, however, such biases are considered maladaptive when anger is over-identified in inappropriate contexts and this may result in the development of psychopathology.\n\nSection::::Research methods.\n", "When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember, things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger. For instance, if you are trying to persuade someone that a tax increase is necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry you would do better to use an argument that elicits anger (\"more criminals will escape justice\") than, say, an argument that elicits sadness (\"there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled children\"). Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events, anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events.\n", "The results reported in \"Contributions from Research on Anger and Cognitive Dissonance to Understanding the Motivational Functions of Asymmetrical Frontal Brain Activity\" (2004) indicate that the occurrence of cognitive dissonance is associated with neural activity in the left frontal cortex, a brain structure also associated with the emotion of anger; moreover, functionally, anger motivates neural activity in the left frontal cortex. Applying a directional model of Approach motivation, the study \"Anger and the Behavioural Approach System\" (2003) indicated that the relation between cognitive dissonance and anger is supported by neural activity in the left frontal cortex that occurs when a person takes control of the social situation causing the cognitive dissonance. Conversely, if the person cannot control or cannot change the psychologically stressful situation, he or she is without a motivation to change the circumstance, then there arise other, negative emotions to manage the cognitive dissonance, such as socially inappropriate behavior.\n", "Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate correspondence bias – the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on his nature than on his circumstances. They tend to rely more on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more attention to the superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other \"negative\" emotions such as sadness and fear, which promote analytical thinking.\n", "Section::::Coping strategies.\n\nAccording to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice. A person can respond with hostile action, including overt violence, or they can respond with hostile inaction, such as withdrawing or stonewalling. Other options include initiating a dominance contest; harboring resentment; or working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue.\n", "Section::::Cognitive effects.\n", "Section::::Conflict escalation.:Irritation and anger.\n\nIt is generally difficult for most people to remain calm and collected in a conflict situation. However, an increase in negative emotions (i.e. anger) only exacerbates the initial conflict. Even when group members to discuss their positions calmly and dispassionately, once they become committed to their positions, an emotional expression often replaces logical discussion. Anger is also contagious: when group member negotiates with someone who is angry, they become angry themselves.\n\nSection::::Conflict resolution.\n", "If we fancy some strong emotion, and then try to abstract from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its characteristic bodily symptoms, we find we have nothing left behind, no \"mind-stuff\" out of which the emotion can be constituted, and that a cold and neutral state of intellectual perception is all that remains. … What kind of an emotion of fear would be left, if the feelings neither of quickened heart-beats nor of shallow breathing, neither of trembling lips nor of weakened limbs, neither of goose-flesh nor of visceral stirrings, were present, it is quite impossible to think. Can one fancy the state of rage and picture no ebullition of it in the chest, no flushing of the face, no dilatation of the nostrils, no clenching of the teeth, no impulse to vigorous action, but in their stead limp muscles, calm breathing, and a placid face? The present writer, for one, certainly cannot. The rage is as completely evaporated as the sensation of its so-called manifestations.\n", "Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person in controlling their passions. Galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher. Both Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time, they should not be pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are angry.\n", "Section::::Philosophical perspectives.\n\nSection::::Philosophical perspectives.:Ancient history.\n", "The influence of Chrysippus on Seneca is clearest in his long essay \"On Anger\" (). Seneca distinguishes three stages of anger as part of a chronological sequence. The first stage is shock, an initial agitation or movement which is involuntary. In the second stage the mind assents to appearance of injustice, and that it is thus appropriate to respond with vindictiveness. In the third stage the emotion is released. Reason, which was still present in the second stage is now let go and the mind turns away from it. Since the first stage is involuntary and the third stage lacks reason, therapy has to be directed at the second stage—only here can one recognise the nature of the shock and side with reason.\n", "Section::::Psychology and sociology.:Neuropsychological perspective.\n", "A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others' limits and match their demands in negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.\n", "Social skills training has been found to be an effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by offering alternative coping skills to the angry individual. Research has found that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced. In a 1981 study, that used modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study. Research conducted with youthful offenders using a social skills training program (aggression replacement training), found significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger control.\n", "Georges Bernanos illustrates Nouwen's position in his novel \"The Diary of a Country Priest\". The countess gave birth to the son she had long wanted, but the child died. She was fiercely angry. When the priest called, the countess vented her anger toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who responded gently, \"open your heart to [God].\" The countess rejoined, \"I've ceased to bother about God. When you've forced me to admit that I hate Him, will you be any better off?\" The priest continued, \"you no longer hate Him. Hate is indifference and contempt. Now at last you're face to face with Him ... Shake your fist at Him, spit in His face, scourge Him.\" The countess did what the priest counseled. By confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, \"all's well.\"\n", "Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\n", "This is a group that a majority of the population might not associate with having AM problems, but research shows over half of the population of Americans with intellectual disabilities displays violent and aggressive actions somewhat regularly. People with a learning disability tend to express anger and aggression to even those who help them on a daily basis. Adults with intellectual disabilities are at high risk of acting aggressive and being sent to clinics due to their actions.\n", "In addition, an increase in white matter tissues assisted in an individual's ability to adapt to new cultures and environments. The metaphor of a kaleidoscope is often utilized when expressing the extraordinary ability humans have at adapting to different cultures by engaging in different patterns of thought. Our ability to perceive patterns of behavior assists in our ability to utilize inductive reasoning, a type of reasoning that can assist in an individual's ability to think of how their behaviors may impact their future. Such lines of reasoning are strengthened through the use of deductive reasoning. Together, inductive and deductive reasoning have assisted in developing adaptive conflict management strategies that assist in the cessation of rage caused by cognitive dissonance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24276	When an online video dips in resolution why doesn't the audio lose quality as well?	The way quality shifting happens is that when the receiving computer realizes that data isn't showing up fast enough to show the next video frame in time, it sends a message back to the transmitting computer to drop down the quality of the video. & #x200B; But audio doesn't use nearly as much data per second, so dropping the quality of the audio isn't going to help that much. So the transmitting computer sends the audio as-is despite dropping the video quality.	[ "An industry that is impacted by data streaming is the Video Streaming industry. Consumers are now demanding videos to be available at immediate request, meaning that it is no longer only the quality resolution of image that acts as important performance metrics in the media industry, but also how quickly video starts to play.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Post-production houses, content delivery networks and studios use adaptive bit rate technology in order to provide consumers with higher quality video using less manpower and fewer resources. The creation of multiple video outputs, particularly for adaptive bit rate streaming, adds great value to consumers. If the technology is working properly, the end user or consumer's content should play back without interruption and potentially go unnoticed. Media companies have been actively using adaptive bit rate technology for many years now and it has essentially become standard practice for high-end streaming providers; permitting little buffering when streaming high-resolution feeds (begins with low-resolution and climbs).\n", "Section::::Current uses.\n", "Section::::Comparison.:Compression ratio.\n\nThe compression ratio (that is, the size of the compressed file compared to that of the uncompressed file) of lossy video codecs is nearly always far superior to that of the audio and still-image equivalents.\n\nBULLET::::- Video can be compressed immensely (e.g. 100:1) with little visible quality loss\n\nBULLET::::- Audio can often be compressed at 10:1 with almost imperceptible loss of quality\n\nBULLET::::- Still images are often lossily compressed at 10:1, as with audio, but the quality loss is more noticeable, especially on closer inspection.\n\nSection::::Transcoding and editing.\n", "Section::::Criticisms.\n\nHTTP-based adaptive bit rate technologies are significantly more operationally complex than traditional streaming technologies. Some of the documented considerations are things such as additional storage and encoding costs, and challenges with maintaining quality globally. There have also been some interesting dynamics found around the interactions between complex adaptive bit rate logic competing with complex TCP flow control logic.\n", "HTTP Live Streaming is a standard feature in the iPhone 3.0 and newer versions.\n\nApple has submitted its solution to the IETF for consideration as an Informational Request For Comments. A number of proprietary and open source solutions exist for both the server implementation (segmenter) and the client player.\n", "Transcoding video from most consumer digital cameras can reduce the file size significantly while keeping the quality about the same. This is possible because most consumer cameras are real-time, power-constrained devices having neither the processing power nor the robust power supplies of desktop CPUs.\n", "Section::::Implementations.:Self-learning clients.\n", "Video quality\n\nVideo quality is a characteristic of a video passed through a video transmission/processing system, a formal or informal measure of perceived video degradation (typically, compared to the original video). Video processing systems may introduce some amount of distortion or artifacts in the video signal, which negatively impacts the user's perception of a system. For many stakeholders such as content providers, service providers, and network operators, the assurance of video quality is an important task.\n", "There are thousands of audio and video codecs, ranging in cost from free to hundreds of dollars or more. This variety of codecs can create compatibility and obsolescence issues. The impact is lessened for older formats, for which free or nearly-free codecs have existed for a long time. The older formats are often ill-suited to modern applications, however, such as playback in small portable devices. For example, raw uncompressed PCM audio (44.1 kHz, 16 bit stereo, as represented on an audio CD or in a .wav or .aiff file) has long been a standard across multiple platforms, but its transmission over networks is slow and expensive compared with more modern compressed formats, such as Opus and MP3.\n", "If the chosen bitrate is low, on the other hand, the video quality will be lower – thereby reducing the customer’s quality of experience.\n\nThere are a number of ways of dealing with these challenges. One way is to take the YouTube approach. YouTube uses HTTP progressive download, and makes multiple versions of the video available at different resolutions and bitrates. Users themselves can then select the quality / bitrate that works best for them. If stalling or rebuffering occur, then can select the next lower resolution and continue viewing the video.\n", "BULLET::::- Video streaming: , Netflix had 3.14 petabytes of video \"master copies\", which it compresses and converts into 100 different formats for streaming.\n\nBULLET::::- Photos: , Facebook users had uploaded over 240 billion photos, with 350 million new photos every day. For each uploaded photo, Facebook generates and stores four images of different sizes, which translated to a total of 960 billion images and an estimated 357 petabytes of storage.\n\nBULLET::::- Music: One petabyte of average MP3-encoded songs (for mobile, roughly one megabyte per minute), would require 2000 years to play.\n", "Digital resampling such as image scaling, and other DSP techniques can also introduce artifacts or degrade signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) each time they are used, even if the underlying storage is lossless.\n", "Lossless codecs are often used for archiving data in a compressed form while retaining all information present in the original stream. If preserving the original quality of the stream is more important than eliminating the correspondingly larger data sizes, lossless codecs are preferred. This is especially true if the data is to undergo further processing (for example editing) in which case the repeated application of processing (encoding and decoding) on lossy codecs will degrade the quality of the resulting data such that it is no longer identifiable (visually, audibly or both). Using more than one codec or encoding scheme successively can also degrade quality significantly. The decreasing cost of storage capacity and network bandwidth has a tendency to reduce the need for lossy codecs for some media.\n", "Digital video systems have almost fully replaced analog ones, and quality evaluation methods have changed. The performance of a digital video processing and transmission system can vary significantly and depends, amongst others, on the characteristics of the input video signal (e.g. amount of motion or spatial details), the settings used for encoding and transmission, and the channel fidelity or network performance.\n\nSection::::Objective video quality.\n", "Lower bitrate codecs allow more users, but they also have more distortion. Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about the media and the packet loss rate. Other codecs may not make those same assumptions. When a user with a low bitrate codec talks to a user with another codec, additional distortion is introduced by each transcoding.\n", "The data rate for both the audio and video is constant and is roughly the same as DV data rate. The relatively low video data rate can cause \"bit rate starvation\" in scenes that have lots of fine detail, rapid movement or other complex activity like flashing lights, and may result in visible artifacts, such as blockiness and blurring. In contrast to the video, HDV audio bitrate is relatively generous. At the coded bitrate of 384 kbit/s, MPEG-1 Layer 2 audio is regarded as \"perceptually lossless\".\n\nSection::::Recording formats.\n", "Adaptive bitrate effectively automates these resolution / quality adjustments on behalf of the user. Each ABR video is encoded at multiple bitrates, each broken into \"chunks\" of varying lengths (e.g., Apple’s HTTP Live Streaming generally uses 10s chunks). If network bandwidth is insufficient to deliver the video at this bitrate, the client will request the next \"chunk\" to be at a lower bitrate; quality of video will be reduced, but re-buffering will be avoided. Conversely, if the network can deliver at higher than the current bitrate, the client will request the next chunk to be at a higher bitrate, and quality will increase.\n", "Another approach that seems to incorporate both the advantages of using a standard web protocol and the ability to be used for streaming even live content is adaptive bitrate streaming. HTTP adaptive bitrate streaming is based on HTTP progressive download, but contrary to the previous approach, here the files are very small, so that they can be compared to the streaming of packets, much like the case of using RTSP and RTP. Reliable protocols, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), guarantee correct delivery of each bit in the media stream. However, they accomplish this with a system of timeouts and retries, which makes them more complex to implement. It also means that when there is data loss on the network, the media stream stalls while the protocol handlers detect the loss and retransmit the missing data. Clients can minimize this effect by buffering data for display. While delay due to buffering is acceptable in video on demand scenarios, users of interactive applications such as video conferencing will experience a loss of fidelity if the delay caused by buffering exceeds 200 ms. \n", "However, these criticisms have been outweighed in practice by the economics and scalability of HTTP delivery: whereas non-HTTP streaming solutions require massive deployment of specialized streaming server infrastructure, HTTP-based adaptive bit-rate streaming can leverage the same HTTP web servers used to deliver all other content over the Internet.\n\nWith no single clearly defined or open standard for the digital rights management used in the above methods, there is no 100% compatible way of delivering restricted or time-sensitive content to any device or player. This also proves to be a problem with digital rights management being employed by any streaming protocol.\n", "BULLET::::- The AVS2 adds an adaptive filter after the deblocking filter and sample offset compensation, a Wiener filter with 7×7 cross plus 3×3 square centrosymmetry, which applies the original undistorted image and encoding reconstructed image to figure out the least square filter coefficient, and conduct filtering on the decoding reconstructed image, thus to reduce the compression distortion in the decoding image, and enhance the quality of the reference image.\n\nSection::::AVS Implementation.\n\nSection::::AVS Implementation.:uAVS2.\n", "Full or reduced-reference metrics still require access to the original video bitstream before transmission, or at least part of it. In practice, an original stream may not always be available for comparison, for example when measuring the quality from the user side. In other situations, a network operator may want to measure the quality of video streams passing through their network, without fully decoding them. For a more efficient estimation of video quality in such cases, parametric/bitstream-based metrics have also been standardized:\n\nBULLET::::- ITU-T Rec. P.1201, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- ITU-T Rec. P.1202, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- ITU-T Rec. P.1203.1, 2016\n", "4) Nanosecond delays and propagation velocity within digital cables will have no effect on audio perception. Frequency response of digital cables will have no effect on audio quality, unless the cable is so bad that it causes data errors. Frequency response of HDMI cables, for example, may affect the maximum data rate and thus the maximum resolution of video signals, but it will have no impact on any encoded audio if the cable is at all functional. The same is true for Ethernet cables.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04231	Why are cameras mounted on planes used for the various militaries around the world such poor quality?	They're generally very high quality; they just have poor optics and low resolution because they're designed to always work under any circumstances. Poor optics is caused by glass tolerances required, and low resolution is due to the energy and emissions constraints they need to comply with (you don't want someone stealing your milspec video feed).	[ "Section::::Disadvantages.:Interference.\n\nIn certain types of TOF devices, if several time-of-flight cameras are running at the same time, the TOF cameras may disturb each other's measurements. To be clear, this is not true of all TOF sensors. There exist several possibilities for dealing with this problem:\n\nBULLET::::- Time multiplexing: A control system starts the measurement of the individual cameras consecutively, so that only one illumination unit is active at a time.\n", "During 2003 (as camera phones were gaining popularity), in Europe some phones without cameras had support for MMS and external cameras that could be connected with a small cable or directly to the data port at the base of the phone. The external cameras were comparable in quality to those fitted on regular camera phones at the time, typically offering VGA resolution.\n", "BULLET::::- Different modulation frequencies: If the cameras modulate their light with different modulation frequencies, their light is collected in the other systems only as background illumination but does not disturb the distance measurement.\n", "Introduced in 2009, the MX-10 is Wescam's newest imaging system. Its fully integrated weight is 37 pounds (16.8 kg), has a 10-inch (26 cm) diameter and stands 14 inches (36 cm) tall. This small size and low weight reduce the weight and clearance requirements for installation on manned and unmanned airborne platforms. The MX-10 can incorporate several different types of sensors (up to six), including high-definition daylight and infrared sensors.\n", "Although small spy cameras had existed for decades, advances in miniaturisation and electronics since the 1950s have greatly aided the ability to conceal miniature cameras, and the quality and affordability of tiny cameras (often called \"spy cameras\" or subminiature cameras) has greatly increased. Some consumer digital cameras are now so small that in previous decades they would have qualified as \"spy cameras\", and digital cameras of twenty megapixels or more are now being embedded in some mobile camera phones. The vast majority of mobile phones in use are camera phones.\n", "BULLET::::- Driver electronics: Both the illumination unit and the image sensor have to be controlled by high speed signals and synchronized. These signals have to be very accurate to obtain a high resolution. For example, if the signals between the illumination unit and the sensor shift by only 10 picoseconds, the distance changes by 1.5 mm. For comparison: current CPUs reach frequencies of up to 3 GHz, corresponding to clock cycles of about 300 ps - the corresponding 'resolution' is only 45 mm.\n", "Based on discussions with a source that wished to remain anonymous, but is tasked with maintaining \"wet film\" Gatso cameras, it was revealed that due to the cost when first put into use, and later due to the ageing of the hardware and lack of replacements, in many areas these cameras operate on a \"rolling live basis\". The internal camera and speed detection systems are removed and placed in a different chassis elsewhere at random intervals and depending on the availability of parts, some may have the radar and flash systems left active despite no camera being fitted; others are completely empty. Based on further discussions with the same source, it was mentioned that Oxfordshire have elected to replace the old cameras with the new, zero maintenance Gatso cameras, rather than replacing the internals of the existing chassis.\n", "Factory-made kits for certain Mitchell and Mitchell-derived cameras are occasionally available on auction sites. In the specific case of a Mitchell, the kit includes a replacement aperture plate and cam for the film movement, a replacement gear for the camera body, and, for a reflex camera, a replacement focusing screen. As all Mitchell cameras incorporate the provision for a \"hard mask\" within the movement itself, it is often possible to keep the 4-perf aperture plate, and insert a 2-perf mask in the mask slot, as an economy measure.\n", "BULLET::::6. Special cameras output image data streams and single images, which are captured using an external trigger signal. In this way, these cameras can be integrated into industrial processes.\n\nBULLET::::7. Mass storage devices are not available since the images have to be analyzed more or less immediately by the computer connected to the camera.\n\nBULLET::::8. The vast majority of special cameras is controlled by application software, installed on a computer. Therefore, the cameras do not have external switches.\n", "A mini camera can be included in the CanSat to photograph anything during the time the CanSat is descending in the air. Bearing in mind that the CanSat can not receive orders to operate the camera when the robot is in air so the microprocessor must be the one that orders the camera to take a picture.\n\nThis is an example of a camera for CanSat:\n\nBULLET::::- CameraC328\n\nSection::::Operation of the CanSat.:Secondary elements.:Accelerometer.\n", "Time-of-flight camera products for civil applications began to emerge around 2000, as the semiconductor processes became fast enough for such devices. The systems cover ranges of a few centimeters up to several kilometers. The distance resolution is about 1 cm. The spatial resolution of time-of-flight cameras is generally low compared to standard 2D video cameras, with most commercially available devices at 320 × 240 pixels or less as of 2011. Compared to other 3D laser scanning methods for capturing 3D images, TOF cameras operate more quickly by providing up to 160 operations per second.\n\nSection::::Types of devices.\n", "BULLET::::- Two-perforation cameras and telecine installations are rare. (Note: As of early 2008 Aaton is coming out with their newly designed 2-perf-native (3-perf user-switchable) Aaton Penelope camera. Konvas cameras have been available in 2-perf for a while, and Arri is making 2-perf gates for their Arricams soon, available only through the rental dealers though. And more and more telecine suites have 2-perf gates for their film scanners.)\n\nBULLET::::- The narrower frame line (between frames) emphasises imperfections (e.g. hairs in the gate, lens flares).\n", "Section::::Types.:Prosumer and consumer cameras.\n\nIndependent movie-makers have also pressed low-cost consumer and hybrid prosumer cameras into service for digital cinematography. Though image quality is typically much lower than what can be produced with professional digital cinematography cameras, the technology has steadily improved, most significantly in the last several years with the arrival of high-definition cameras in this market. These inexpensive cameras are limited by their relatively high compression ratios, their small sensors, and the quality of their optics. Many also have integrated lenses which cannot be changed.\n\nSection::::Resolution.\n\nSection::::Resolution.:Standard definition.\n", "A huge number of these cameras were built using a Sony sourced defective CCD that was subject to a recall by Fuji. The recall ended when the stock of these replacement CCD's was depleted. There is word that no other stockpiles exist of this Super HAD CCD, making these cameras that are found with the purple or black tinted image problems extinct, only usable for parts. The Fuji F700 used a similar defective HAD CCD, but in 3.1/6.2Mp size. That camera has met a similar fate.\n", "The trade-off for their versatility is their large weight and bulk, and use limited to slow photographs of static subjects. Some models, such as the Arca Swiss F-Line, are more compact and designed for field use, still retaining generous movements; however the F-Line cameras still weigh about 3 kg.\n", "Electronic field production cameras are similar to studio cameras in that they are used primarily in multiple camera switched configurations, but outside the studio environment, for concerts, sports and live news coverage of special events. These versatile cameras can be carried on the shoulder, or mounted on camera pedestals and cranes, with the large, very long focal length zoom lenses made for studio camera mounting. These cameras have no recording ability on their own, and transmit their signals back to the broadcast truck through a fiber optic, triax, radio frequency or the virtually obsolete multicore cable.\n\nSection::::Usage types.:Others.\n", "Although the design is over 75 years old, many C3s are still in use. The cameras are inexpensive on the used market and their simple construction makes them relatively easy to repair.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n", "Civil aviation authorities, and model aircraft association insurance rules, restrict operations of radio-controlled aircraft, including multicopter-carrying cameras, to line of sight (LOS) operation. For all practical purposes, the range of operation of a multicopter, carrying a camera, is limited to a few hundred meters from the operator who is holding the radio control unit. The operational range of the most common, electric-powered multicopters are well-below the operational altitude and range of commercial aircraft, which are capable of conventional aerial photography using a larger, professional cameras that are hand-held by a camera operator, or, mounted inside a gyro-stabilized platform, which are mounted on the outside of the aircraft.\n", "The camera body, weighing 910 g., is complex, comprising some 1100 parts, with seven principal alloy pressure castings and additional stamped cover plates to complete the structure. However, it is rugged and roller bearings are used in the aperture mechanism. Inevitably it requires a specialist for its repair; 43 parts have to be dismantled to remove the top plate for internal access.\n", "After the distance data has been extracted, object detection, for example, is also a straightforward process to carry out because the algorithms are not disturbed by patterns on the object.\n\nSection::::Advantages.:Speed.\n\nTime-of-flight cameras are able to measure the distances within a complete scene with a single shot. As the cameras reach up to 160 frames per second, they are ideally suited to be used in real-time applications.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.:Background light.\n", "However, in any situation where standard-definition video cameras are used, the quality is going to be poor because the maximum pixel resolution of the image chips in most of these devices is 320,000 pixels (analogue quality is measured in TV lines but the results are the same); they generally capture horizontal and vertical fields of lines and blend them together to make a single frame; the maximum frame rate is normally 30 frames per second.\n", "Unlike most digital cameras, there is no IR or UV filtering in front of the image sensor. This results in a wide spectral response of approximately 1000 nm to 380 nm (infrared to ultraviolet). Suitable external bandpass filters are required to photograph in IR or UV wavelengths. Infrared filters are readily available at low cost from many sources, but ultraviolet filters – and suitable lenses – can be expensive.\n", "There are various cameras cheaper and more expensive.\n\nQuality cameras often have a high price range (often US$3,000 or more) due to the expense of the larger pixel array (state of the art 1280 x 1024), while less expensive models (with pixel arrays of 40x40 up to 160x120 pixels) are also available. Fewer pixels reduce the image quality making it more difficult to distinguish proximate targets within the same field of view.\n", "There are a wide variety of lenses available for the RZ67:\n\nBULLET::::- Three Wide-angle lenses:\n\nBULLET::::- 3 Normal lenses:\n\nBULLET::::- Eight Telephoto lenses:\n\nBULLET::::- Seven Specialty lenses:\n\nBULLET::::- Most RB67 lenses which are mechanical only\n", "In 2012, Phase One released two specialty cameras: iXR which is made specifically for reproduction and iXA which is made specifically for aerial photography. Both uses the 645 lenses as the normal 645 cameras. Main difference on this camera is they have no viewfinder and very few mechanical moving parts.\n" ]	[ "Cameras mounted on planes used for the various militaries around the world are of poor quality.", "Cameras that are mounted on planes used for militaries around the world are very low quality." ]	[ "Cameras mounted on planes used for the various militaries around the world are of high quality but have poor optics and low resolution.", "The cameras mounted on said planes are actually very high quality, they're only designed to work under any circumstances which results in them appearing to be of low quality." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cameras mounted on planes used for the various militaries around the world are of poor quality.", "Cameras that are mounted on planes used for militaries around the world are very low quality." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Cameras mounted on planes used for the various militaries around the world are of high quality but have poor optics and low resolution.", "The cameras mounted on said planes are actually very high quality, they're only designed to work under any circumstances which results in them appearing to be of low quality." ]
2018-04967	Why do the plates for my bullet resistant vest have an expiration, and need to be replaced every 5 years?	The material will get worn out in the vest. Just like how a wallet will get worn out in your pocket.	[ "Durability standards are high for E-SAPI plates, with Army requirements on environmental condition testing involving the plates being kept 6 hours at both a high temperature and a low temperature in addition to being dropped twice among a variety of other requirements. USSOCOM requirements are even more stringent, involving 24 hours at high and low temperatures.\n", "In specialized/military-grade vests, a considerable portion of the vest is made up of rigid, trauma-plate like inserts. Since they are an essential part of the vest, they are NOT typically considered the same as trauma plates or pads and are typically referred to as inserts, much like the aramid ballistic inserts found in concealed, duty, and tactical vests. SAPI vests are an example of this type of vest. In most SAPI based vests/carriers, the outer vest is made out of and lined with aramid material is made to carry multiple ballistic inserts, typically made out of ceramics. These inserts are shaped to fit the carrier and have sizes that vary depending on the size and shape of the vest.\n", "Additionally, as the hardness of the bullet core increases, so must the amount of ceramic plating used to stop penetration. Like in soft ballistics, a minimum ceramic material hardness of the bullet core is required to damage their respective hard core materials, however in armor-piercing rounds the bullet core is eroded rather than deformed.\n", "BULLET::::- UHMWPE plates are often referred to as being ten times stronger than steel. UHMWPE can be strewn into a thread when made, and woven into a fabric that competes in strength, flexibility, and weight to modern aramid fabrics, and is now a commonly used material in vests.\n\nPolymer\n", "From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.\n\nSection::::Performance standards.:Ballistic testing V50 and V0.\n", "Ceramic plates work by locally shattering where the projectile strikes, and are capable of dispersing the energy of the projectile to the point where the bullet has been stopped. Unfortunately, this means that ceramic plates become progressively less capable of stopping additional bullets, and may be rendered unusable after a certain number of hits have been taken.\n\nSection::::Research.:Developments in ceramic armor.\n", "Special threat plates (STP), also known as multi-threat, special purpose, rifle, and special application plates, are plates that have a notably higher ballistic rating(NIJ standard) than the vest. There is no standard for materials or ballistics for these plates, though most meet the NIJ Standard for armor type III. Many of these plates are made of a combination of materials, like ceramic on plastic, plastic on metal, etc.\n\nSome manufacturers use these labels more for marketing than really offering enhanced protection.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Ballistic Resistance of Body Armor NIJ Standard-0101.06\n\nBULLET::::- International Testing Standards for Personal Body Armor\n", "Because the ILBE was fielded before the creation of the Modular Tactical Vest (MTV), the pack did not integrate well with the fighting system at the time (such as the Interceptor Body Armor), and excessive stress in conjunction with the wearing of body armor could cause discomfort and injury.\n\nSection::::Future.\n\nThe Marine Corps Systems Command (MARCORSYSCOM) announced that a replacement was forthcoming in 2009, with possible replacements, including two entries from Mystery Ranch, Granite Gear, and the United States Army improved variant of MOLLE.\n", "From 2003 to 2005, a large study of the environmental degradation of Zylon armor was undertaken by the US-NIJ. This concluded that water, long-term use, and temperature exposure significantly affect tensile strength and the ballistic performance of PBO or Zylon fiber. This NIJ study on vests returned from the field demonstrated that environmental effects on Zylon resulted in ballistic failures under standard test conditions.\n\nSection::::Performance standards.:Ballistic testing V50 and V0.\n", "BULLET::::- The results of tests on protective boots for automotive rack and pinion gears showed that older TPV has slightly lower physical and mechanical properties than new material. Yet some of the key indicators of the material's ability to hold up in this dynamic application did not change significantly. For example, the new and old TPVs had nearly the same properties after air and oil aging. Compression set also remained virtually identical.\n", "Section::::History.:Postwar.\n\nDuring the Korean War several new vests were produced for the United States military, including the M-1951, which made use of fibre-reinforced plastic or aluminium segments woven into a nylon vest. These vests represented \"a vast improvement on weight, but the armor failed to stop bullets and fragments very successfully,\" although officially they were claimed to be able to stop 7.62×25mm Tokarev pistol rounds at the muzzle. Developed by Natick Laboratories and introduced in 1967, T65-2 plate carriers were the first vests designed to hold hard ceramic plates, making them capable of stopping 7 mm rifle rounds.\n", "The SPC was fielded to combat units operating in the War in Afghanistan in 2008 as a lightweight alternative to the MTV, where it has proved popular due to the region's mountainous terrain. Marines now typically deploy with both the MTV and SPC, with commanders setting the requirements for which vest should be worn based on threat levels.\n\nThe Scalable Plate Carrier was analyzed for the U.S. Army's Soldier Plate Carrier System demonstration.\n\nSection::::History.:Improved Scalable Plate Carrier.\n\nThe Improved Scalable Plate Carrier (ISPC) did not get many modifications. \n", "The design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials (nanomaterials) and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, and aluminium foam armour plates.\n\nSection::::Materials.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Metals.\n\nSection::::Materials.:Metals.:Steel.\n", "After World War II, steel plates were soon replaced by vests made from synthetic fibre, in the 1950s, made of either boron carbide, silicon carbide, or aluminium oxide. They were issued to the crew of low-flying aircraft, such as the UH-1 and UC-123, during the Vietnam War. The synthetic fibre Kevlar was introduced in 1971, and most ballistic vests since the 1970s are based on kevlar, optionally with the addition of trauma plates to reduce the risk of blunt trauma injury. Such plates may be made of ceramic, metal (steel or titanium) or synthetic materials.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "Newer armor issued by the United States armed forces to large numbers of troops includes the United States Army's Improved Outer Tactical Vest and the United States Marine Corps Modular Tactical Vest. All of these systems are designed with the vest intended to provide protection from fragments and pistol rounds. Hard ceramic plates, such as the Small Arms Protective Insert, as used with Interceptor Body Armor, are worn to protect the vital organs from higher level threats. These threats mostly take the form of high velocity and armor-piercing rifle rounds. Similar types of protective equipment have been adopted by modern armed forces over the world.\n", "BULLET::::- Belt, Individual Equipment – The individual equipment belt was changed by eliminating the center row of eyelets and replacing the single-end hook adjustments at each end with double-end hook adjustments which engaged in the two outside rows of eyelets for size adjustment.\n\nBULLET::::- Vest, Combat – The closure devices utilized [originally plastic snap fasteners and hook and loop pile] on the Vest, Combat failed during preliminary testing and were replaced by plastic quick-release fasteners.\n\nBULLET::::- Carrier, Entrenching Tool – The M-1967 nylon Entrenching tool carrier was replaced by a molded one manufactured from ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA).\n", "The Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI) and the enhanced SAPI plate for the US DOD generally has this form. Because of the use of ceramic plates for rifle protection, these vests are 5–8 times as heavy on an area basis as handgun protection. The weight and stiffness of rifle armor is a major technical challenge. The density, hardness and impact toughness are among the materials properties that are balanced to design these systems. While ceramic materials have some outstanding properties for ballistics they have poor fracture toughness. Failure of ceramic plates by cracking must also be controlled. For this reason many ceramic rifle plates are a composite. The strike face is ceramic with the backface formed of laminated fiber and resin materials. The hardness of the ceramic prevents the penetration of the bullet while the tensile strength of the fiber backing helps prevent tensile failure. Examples of rifle resistant outer vests include the Interceptor body armor and the Improved Outer Tactical Vest.\n", "In recent years, advances in material science have opened the door to the idea of a literal \"bulletproof vest\" able to stop handgun and rifle bullets with a soft textile vest, without the assistance of additional metal or ceramic plating. However, progress is moving at a slower rate compared to other technical disciplines. The most recent offering from Kevlar, Protera, was released in 1996. Current soft body armor can stop most handgun rounds (which has been the case for roughly 15 years ), but armor plates are needed to stop rifle rounds and steel-core handgun rounds such as 7.62×25mm. The para-aramids have not progressed beyond the limit of 23 grams per denier in fiber tenacity.\n", "A call for a next generation plate, to stop even greater velocity threats than the ESAPI plate was issued by the U.S. Army in 2008. They specifically allowed scalar or flexible systems, and asked for better coverage, with less than a pound of additional weight. XSAPI did in fact offer slightly better protection, at the cost of more weight and thicker armor profile.\n\nSection::::Materials and capabilities.\n", "The Improved Outer Tactical Vest as a whole is a huge improvement over previous armor systems, with the fragmentation vest from the Vietnam war being limited to fragmentation protection, the PASGT vest being limited to pistol rounds, and the previous Outer Tactical Vest being unable to stop armor piercing rounds.\n", "When a bullet strikes the E-SAPI plate, the kinetic energy is dispersed throughout the ceramic layer, and the majority of military rounds in common use are stopped or broken up. If the bullet continues through the boron carbide layer, the Spectra backing either stops the bullet, or, if the bullet was powerful enough, allows the bullet to pass through into the IOTV itself, and likely the wearer. Even in the event of the E-SAPI plate failing to prevent penetration, the velocity and energy of the penetrating round is oftentimes reduced to the point where the resulting wound is non lethal. E-SAPI plates are manufactured by Armorworks Enterprises, Ceradyne, Simula, and BAE Systems.\n", "The US Department of Defense uses two classes of protection from armor-piercing rifle bullets. The first, the Small Arms Protective Insert (SAPI), called for ceramic composite plates with a mass of 20–30 kg/m (4–5 lb/ft). Later, the Enhanced SAPI (ESAPI) specification was developed to protect from more penetrative ammunition. ESAPI ceramic plates have a density of 35–45 kg/m (7–9 lb/ft), and are designed to stop bullets like the .30-06 AP (M2) with an engineered hard core.\n", "While E-SAPI plates do hold significant defensive advantages over the preceding SAPI plates, the increased protection comes at the cost of increased weight and significantly increased cost. Comparing medium-sized plates, a SAPI plate weighs 1.82 kilograms while an E-SAPI plate weighs 2.5 kilograms, over a 35 percent increase in weight. In regards to cost, E-SAPI plates cost 50 percent more, coming in at approximately $600 per plate. SAPI plates were largely phased out in favor of E-SAPI plates beginning in 2005.\n\nSection::::Effectiveness.\n", "Section::::Materials.:Nanomaterials.\n\nProposed to be the future for both trauma plates and anti-ballistic fabrics, carbon nanotube and nanocomposite materials offer a new strength to weight ratio that exceeds current materials. For further information on these materials as applied to ballistics, please visit the section on ballistic vest nanomaterials in ballistics. Though nanotechnology processes are used to enhance modern ballistic materials, very few \"nanomaterials\" are currently available in commercial products.\n\nSection::::Special threat plates.\n", "It is a lightweight plate carrier intended to supplement the Modular Tactical Vest. Key issues with the previous MTV, specifically ergonomics, have been remedied with the addition of new features such as adjustment buckles and improved padding on the shoulders. These new improvements are intended to make the vest much more comfortable to wear in comparison to the MTV. It resembles the Eagle Industries MBAV, and has staggered MOLLE webbing on the chest.\n\nSection::::History.:First-generation.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01113	How do people get accurate measures of the highest peak of a mountain?	These days? GPS Before that, trigonometry	[ "When the key col for a peak is close to the peak itself, prominence is easily computed by hand using a topographic map. However, when the key col is far away, or when one wants to calculate the prominence of many peaks at once, a computer is quite useful. Edward Earl has written a program called WinProm\n\nwhich can be used to make such calculations, based on\n", "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 3000-meter summits of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of California fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain ranges of California\n", "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 4000-meter summits of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of California fourteeners\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain ranges of California\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of the United States\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 104 mountain peaks of the United States with at least of topographic elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "Which methodology is used depends on the person doing the calculation and on the use to which the prominence is put. For example, if one is making a list of all peaks with at least 2,000 ft (610 m) of prominence, one would use the optimistic prominence, to include all possible candidates (knowing that some of these could be dropped off the list by further, more accurate, measurements). If one wishes to present the most accurate data for the peaks, mean or interpolated prominence would be appropriate as the other measures give biased estimates.\n\nSection::::Wet prominence and dry prominence.\n", "Modern height surveys also vary, but not by the huge margins seen in the past. A 1993 survey by a scientific party that arrived at the peak's summit with of electronic equipment reported a height of , claimed to be accurate to within .\n\nMany modern sources likewise list as the height.\n\nHowever, numerous others place the peak's height one foot lower, at . Finally, a height of has also been reported.\n\nSection::::Glaciers.\n\nMount Hood is host to 12\n", "List of the major 3000-meter summits of the United States\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 302 mountain peaks of the United States with at least of topographic elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values, the arithmetic mean is shown.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of North America\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Greenland\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Canada\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of the United States\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of California\n\nBULLET::::- List of mountain peaks of Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- List of the major 4000-meter summits of Colorado\n\nBULLET::::- List of Colorado fourteeners\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of North America\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 124 mountain peaks of greater North America with at least of elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn the United States, only Denali exceeds elevation. Four major summits exceed , nine exceed , the following 104 major summits exceed , 220 exceed , and 302 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 4000-meter summits.\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of the Rocky Mountains\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 62 peaks of the Rocky Mountains of North America with at least of elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "*.By convention, cols created by human activity are not counted. Therefore, the Suez, Panama and other canals are ignored in these calculations. Cuts that lower the natural elevations of mountain passes are also ignored. Towers, monuments and similar on the peaks are also ignored.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- World peaks with 4000 meters of prominence from peakbagger.com\n\nBULLET::::- World top 50 most prominent peaks, originally compiled by David Metzler and Eberhard Jurgalski, and updated with the help of others as new elevation information, especially SRTM, has become available.\n", "List of the major 5000-meter summits of North America\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 11 mountain peaks of greater North America with at least of elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "List of the major 3000-meter summits of the Rocky Mountains\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 184 peaks of the Rocky Mountains of North America with at least of elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "List of mountain peaks of Alaska\n\nThis article comprises three sortable tables of major mountain peaks of the U.S. State of Alaska.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level. The first table below ranks the 100 highest major summits of Alaska by elevation.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings. The second table below ranks the 100 most prominent summits of Alaska.\n", "The current height () of Mount Vinson was measured by a GPS survey that was conducted by the 2004 Omega Foundation team comprising Damien Gildea of Australia (leader) and Rodrigo Fica and Camilo Rada of Chile. Since 1998 and continuing through 2007, the Omega Foundation has placed a GPS receiver on the summit for a suitable period of time to obtain accurate satellite readings.\n\nSection::::Climate and glaciers.\n", "List of the major 3000-meter summits of North America\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 401 mountain peaks of greater North America with at least of elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level.\n\nBULLET::::2. The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn greater North America, only Denali exceeds elevation. Three major summits exceed , 11 exceed, 21 exceed , the following 124 major summits exceed , 277 exceed , and 401 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 4000-meter summits.\n", "List of the major 4000-meter summits of Alaska\n\nThe following sortable table comprises the 23 mountain peaks of the U.S. State of Alaska with at least of topographic elevation and at least of topographic prominence.\n\nTopographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface. The topographic prominence of a summit is the elevation difference between that summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit. The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation.\n", "List of mountain peaks of Hawaii\n\nThis article comprises three sortable tables of the 13 major mountain peaks of the Hawaiian Islands and the U.S. State of Hawaii. Each of these 13 major summits has at least of topographic prominence.\n\nThe summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways:\n\nBULLET::::1. The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level. The first table below ranks the 13 major summits of Hawaii by topographic elevation.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn the United States, only Denali exceeds elevation. Four major summits exceed , nine exceed , 104 major summits exceed, 220 exceed , and the following 302 major summits exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 3000-meter summits.\n", "BULLET::::3. The topographic isolation (or radius of dominance) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation.\n\nIn greater North America, only Denali exceeds elevation. Three major summits exceed , the following 11 major summits exceed , 21 exceed , 124 exceed, 277 exceed , and 401 exceed elevation.\n\nSection::::Major 5000-meter summits.\n", "BULLET::::- Nanda Devi, . Presumed highest in the world in an era when Nepal was still closed to the outside world. Now known to be the 23rd highest mountain in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Dhaulagiri, . Presumed highest from 1808 until 1847. Now known to be the 7th highest mountain in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Kangchenjunga, . Presumed highest from 1847 until 1852. Now known to be the 3rd highest mountain in the world.\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Everest, . Established as highest in 1852 and officially confirmed in 1856.\n", "The summit was measured again in 2005, and the results were published on 16 December 2005. The height was found to be , more than the previous recorded height. The rock summit was found to be at , some west of the ice-covered summit.\n\nIn 2007, the summit was measured at and in 2009 at .\n\nIn 2013, the summit was measured at and in 2015 at .\n", "BULLET::::- Peakbagger.com with cross-referencing to USGS and USFS\n\nBULLET::::- Selected other sources (such as scientific papers).\n\nThe GNIS database consistently reports the peak elevation lower than the referenced USGS and/or USFS topographic maps. The topographic maps also report lower elevations than selected GPS measurements conducted by personnel of the Juneau Icefield Research Program, but not to the degree of the GNIS database.\n\nIn this article, the topographic map values were used to report elevation above mean sea level (MSL), unless a more accurate GPS measurement was available.\n\nSection::::Summits below 2000 m.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-18485	Why do old PDFs have really weird font, as if they've been scanned in, yet we are able to still select and copy text from them?	If it’s that old, it probably was scanned and then the Optical Character Recognition software of the day made it editable text (instead of an image of text).	[ "The original imaging model of PDF was, like PostScript's, \"opaque\": each object drawn on the page completely replaced anything previously marked in the same location. In PDF 1.4 the imaging model was extended to allow transparency. When transparency is used, new objects interact with previously marked objects to produce blending effects. The addition of transparency to PDF was done by means of new extensions that were designed to be ignored in products written to the PDF 1.3 and earlier specifications. As a result, files that use a small amount of transparency might view acceptably in older viewers, but files making extensive use of transparency could be viewed incorrectly in an older viewer without warning.\n", "Often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized. Any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file. Therefore, the entire PostScript world (fonts, layout, measurements) remains intact.\n\nAs a document format, PDF has several advantages over PostScript:\n\nBULLET::::- PDF contains tokenized and interpreted results of the PostScript source code, for direct correspondence between changes to items in the PDF page description and changes to the resulting page appearance.\n", "A font object in PDF is a description of a digital typeface. It may either describe the characteristics of a typeface, or it may include an embedded \"font file\". The latter case is called an \"embedded font\" while the former is called an \"unembedded font\". The font files that may be embedded are based on widely used standard digital font formats: Type 1 (and its compressed variant CFF), TrueType, and (beginning with PDF 1.6) OpenType. Additionally PDF supports the Type 3 variant in which the components of the font are described by PDF graphic operators. \n", "If viewers or printers do not offer complete support for encoding systems, this can result in problems with regard to PDF/A.\" Meaning that for a document to be completely compliant with the standard, it will be correct internally, while the system used for viewing or printing the document may produce undesired results.\n\nA document produced with optical character recognition (OCR) conversion into PDF/A-2 or PDF/A-3 doesn't support the codice_1 flag. Therefore, this type of conversion can result in unrendered content.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Digital dark age\n\nBULLET::::- PDF/E\n\nBULLET::::- PDF/VT\n", "The policy decision described the digitization of typefaces as bitmap images, which was the leading format for fonts at the time. A limitation of this format is that different sizes of the font must have different bitmap representations.\n\nSection::::Background.:1992: Registrability Of Computer Programs That Generate Typefaces.\n", "One of the initial doubts bloggers raised about the memos was the use of proportional fonts (as opposed to a monospaced typeface, where all glyphs have a single, standard width). Most typewriters in 1972 used fixed-width fonts, and, according to \"The Washington Post\", all of the authenticated documents from the TexANG were typed using fixed-width fonts commonly associated with typewriters.\n", "Corel Ventura 10 (2002) running in Windows 64 bit of Windows won't produce PDF files correctly if Adobe Postscript or OpenType fonts are used. (The graphic is created, but the text is blank.) The easiest workaround (June 2019) is to use Windows 10 64-bit \"Microsoft Print to PDF\" to produce very usable PDF files. If you have Corel PDF Writer or PDF Fusion, they work, as well as Nuance PDF Advanced (as early as version 1.) Or you can use Oracle VirtualBox and run your copy of Ventura 10 with Windows 2000. \n", "Having received applications to register copyrights for computer programs that generated typefaces using \"typeface in digitized form\", the Copyright Office revisited the 1988 Policy Decision in 1992. The Office was concerned that the claims indicated a significant technological advance since the previous policy decision. One advance was scalable font representations (Bézier curves). This format can output a font at any resolution, and stores its data as control points rather than pixels. The Office acknowledged that these fonts might involve original computer instructions to generate typefaces, and thus be protectable as computer programs, but ended saying that \"The scope of the copyright will be, as in the past, a matter for the courts to determine.\"\n", "The Type1 to METATYPE1 to Type 1 roundtrip conversion process involved in the production of the Latin Modern fonts did try to preserve the hinting information of the BlueSky fonts; however it added rounding errors that do affect the quality of the\n\nhinting at low pixel sizes. As a result, on-screen display of the Latin Modern fonts can result in a less even display of kerning and character heights than is the case with the BlueSky fonts.\n\nThe same process was later extended to some free PostScript font clones under the umbrella project called TeX Gyre.\n", "These fonts are sometimes called the \"base fourteen fonts\". These fonts, or suitable substitute fonts with the same metrics, should be available in most PDF readers, but they are not \"guaranteed\" to be available in the reader, and may only display correctly if the system has them installed. Fonts may be substituted if they are not embedded in a PDF.\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:Imaging model.:Text.:Encodings.\n", "Adobe's fonts under dispute were created from previously digitized font files in bitmap form. Such bitmap images are not protectable under copyright, as addressed by the 1988 Policy Decision. These were imported into a program where an Adobe editor dragged control points to best match the outline of the bitmap image. When finished, these control points were translated into computer instructions to create the final font file. \n", "Within text strings, characters are shown using \"character codes\" (integers) that map to glyphs in the current font using an \"encoding\". There are a number of predefined encodings, including \"WinAnsi\", \"MacRoman\", and a large number of encodings for East Asian languages, and a font can have its own built-in encoding. (Although the WinAnsi and MacRoman encodings are derived from the historical properties of the Windows and Macintosh operating systems, fonts using these encodings work equally well on any platform.) PDF can specify a predefined encoding to use, the font's built-in encoding or provide a lookup table of differences to a predefined or built-in encoding (not recommended with TrueType fonts). The encoding mechanisms in PDF were designed for Type 1 fonts, and the rules for applying them to TrueType fonts are complex.\n", "Adobe ClearScan technology (as from Acrobat 9 Pro) creates custom Type1-CID fonts to match the visual appearance of a scanned document after optical character recognition (OCR). ClearScan does not replace the fonts with system fonts or substitute them by Type1-MM (as in Acrobat 8 and earlier versions), but uses these newly created custom fonts. The custom fonts are embedded in the PDF file (this is mandatory). In Acrobat DC, it is no more called \"ClearScan\" but \"Recognize Text - Editable Text & Images\", and it is now possible to edit the text.\n\nSection::::File formats.:Compact Font Format.\n", "Normally all image content in a PDF is embedded in the file. But PDF allows image data to be stored in external files by the use of \"external streams\" or \"Alternate Images\". Standardized subsets of PDF, including PDF/A and PDF/X, prohibit these features.\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:Imaging model.:Text.\n\nText in PDF is represented by \"text elements\" in page content streams. A text element specifies that \"characters\" should be drawn at certain positions. The characters are specified using the \"encoding\" of a selected \"font resource\".\n\nSection::::Technical overview.:Imaging model.:Text.:Fonts.\n", "Phinney's analysis was based on the fact that the typography of the Killian documents could be closely matched with a modern personal computer and printer using Microsoft Word with the default font (Times New Roman) and other settings. Therefore, the equipment with which the Killian documents were actually produced must have been capable of matching the typographical characteristics produced by this modern technology.\n", "Converting a PDF (up to version 1.4) into a PDF/A-2 usually works as expected, except for problems with glyphs. According to the PDF Association, \"Problems can occur before and/or during the generation of PDFs. A PDF/A file can be formally correct yet still have incorrect glyphs. Only a careful visual check can uncover this problem. Because generation problems also affect Unicode mapping, the problem attracts the attention when a visual check is carried out on the extracted text.\n\nIn PDF/A, text/font usage is specified uniquely enough to ensure that it cannot be incorrect.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n\nThe font exception was authored in April 2005 by David \"Novalis\" Turner, a Free Software Foundation GPL compliance engineer. As he explains, \"The situation we were considering was one where a font was embedded in a document (rather than merely referenced). Embedding allows a document to be viewed as the author intended it even on machines that don't have that font installed. So, the document (a copyrighted work) would be derived from the font program (another work). The text of the document, of course, would be unrestricted when distributed without the font.\"\n", "PDF is a standard for encoding documents in an \"as printed\" form that is portable between systems. However, the suitability of a PDF file for archival preservation depends on options chosen when the PDF is created: most notably, whether to embed the necessary fonts for rendering the document; whether to use encryption; and whether to preserve additional information from the original document beyond what is needed to print it.\n", "There are also web annotation systems that support annotation in pdf and other documents formats. In cases where PDFs are expected to have all of the functionality of paper documents, ink annotation is required.\n\nSection::::Software.:Other.\n\nExamples of PDF software as online services including Scribd for viewing and storing, Pdfvue for online editing, and Thinkfree, Zamzar for conversion.\n\nIn 1993 the Jaws raster image processor from Global Graphics became the first shipping prepress RIP that interpreted PDF natively without conversion to another format. The company released an upgrade to their Harlequin RIP with the same capability in 1997.\n", "As a consequence, there is still no complete support for this Buginese script in most major Operating Systems and applications. \n\nAnd the script can only be rendered correctly, temporarily, using either:\n\nBULLET::::- tweaked fonts, specific for each platform and without a warranty of stability across OS versions and applications;\n", "BULLET::::- encoding Buginese texts in a way not conforming to the Unicode standard, for example encoding texts with the vowel [e] before the consonant (also without warranty of stability for the future, when conforming fonts and text renderers will be available, because they will then reorder the vowel [e] with any consonant encoded before that vowel; this solution also does not work as it already creates the incorrect grapheme cluster boundaries, the vowel being already grouped with the previous character instead of the following, notably in text editors);\n", "Some older versions of dvips with embedded bitmapped fonts, which represented letters and symbols as pictures at a fixed resolution (for instance, at 300 dpi). When such files are printed on newer devices (some with resolution of 1200 dpi), the letters of the files that have bitmapped fonts display a remarkably low quality, with jagged lines on curves and diagonals. One solution to this problem is to substitute the bitmapped fonts with scalable fonts (known among PostScript users as Type 1 fonts).\n", "The GPL font exception clause (or GPL+FE, for short) is an optional clause that can be added to the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) permitting digital fonts shared with that license to be embedded within a digital document file without requiring the document itself to also be shared with GPL. Without the clause, conflicts may arise with open-source projects distributing digital fonts which may be used in desktop publishing. As explained by Dave Crossland in Libre Graphics Magazine, \"A copyleft font may overreach into the documents that use it, unless an exception is made to the normal terms; an additional permission to allow people to combine parts of a font with a document without affecting the license of texts, photographs, illustrations and designs. Most libre fonts today have such a copyleft license – the SIL OFL or GNU GPL with the Font Exception described in the GPL FAQ.\"\n", "The Cybook technically supports PDF files, however it doesn't actually reflow text. Current firmware revisions support ten levels of zoom and allow scrolling around the page, making the device suitable for reading many PDF files.\n\nSection::::Description.:Fonts and text display.\n\n12 font sizes, from very small to very large (works with ePub, HTML, FB2, TXT).You can add your own fonts. Create a folder called \"Fonts\" (the name is case sensitive) under the \"CyBook\" USB drive and add your TrueType or OpenType fonts to it (works with ePub, HTML, FB2, TXT).\n", "The standard security provided by Acrobat PDF consists of two different methods and two different passwords: a \"user password\", which encrypts the file and prevents opening, and an \"owner password\", which specifies operations that should be restricted even when the document is decrypted, which can include modifying, printing, or copying text and graphics out of the document, or adding or modifying text notes and AcroForm fields. The user password encrypts the file, while the owner password does not, instead relying on client software to respect these restrictions. An owner password can easily be removed by software, including some free online services. Thus, the use restrictions that a document author places on a PDF document are not secure, and cannot be assured once the file is distributed; this warning is displayed when applying such restrictions using Adobe Acrobat software to create or edit PDF files.\n" ]	[ "If a document is scanned, you shouldn't be able to select and copy text from it." ]	[ "When old documents were scanned, optical character recognition software turned the document into editable text." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "If a document is scanned, you shouldn't be able to select and copy text from it.", "If a document is scanned, you shouldn't be able to select and copy text from it." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "When old documents were scanned, optical character recognition software turned the document into editable text.", "When old documents were scanned, optical character recognition software turned the document into editable text." ]
2018-13826	Why do lightning bolts sometimes break into segments before disappearing?	Lightning is just the transfer of built up electricity from one place to another. Sometimes, it's strong enough to reach the ground. Other times, it can dissapate into nearby clouds before reaching the ground. So if you see it flash, but not hit the ground, that basically means there were two clouds near each other with fairly uneven charges in them, and the lightning is the flow of that charge from one to the other, to balance things out.	[ "Intra-cloud lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called \"sheet lightning\". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Discharge.:Return stroke.\n\nOnce a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at a fraction of the speed of light. This is the 'return stroke' and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.\n", "As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge exceed a threshold and form upward streamers.\n\nSection::::Flashes and strikes.:Attachment.\n\nOnce a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.\n\nSection::::Flashes and strikes.:Discharge.\n", "The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as \"negative CG\" lightning. In some cases, a ground to cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Discharge.:Re-strike.\n\nHigh-speed videos (examined frame-by-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30.\n\nEach re-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re-strikes often cause a noticeable \"strobe light\" effect.\n", "BULLET::::- Bead lightning is the decaying stage of a lightning channel in which the luminosity of the channel breaks up into segments. Nearly every lightning discharge will exhibit \"beading\" as the channel cools immediately after a return stroke, sometimes referred to as the lightning's 'bead-out' stage. 'Bead lightning' is more properly a stage of a normal lightning discharge rather than a type of lightning in itself. Beading of a lightning channel is usually a small-scale feature, and therefore is often only apparent when the observer/camera is close to the lightning.\n", "A single lightning event is a \"flash\", which is a complex, multi-stage process, some parts of which are not fully understood. Most cloud to ground flashes only \"strike\" one physical location, referred to as a \"termination\". The primary conducting channel, the bright coursing light that may be seen and is called a \"strike\", is only about one inch in diameter, but because of its extreme brilliance, it often looks much larger to the human eye and in photographs. Lightning discharges are typically miles long, but certain types of horizontal discharges can be upwards of tens of miles in length. The entire flash lasts only a fraction of a second.\n", "BULLET::::- Anvil crawler lightning, sometimes called Spider lightning is created when leaders propagate through horizontally-extensive charge regions in mature thunderstorms, usually the stratiform regions of mesoscale convective systems. These discharges usually begin as intracloud discharges originating within the convective region; the negative leader end then propagates well into the aforementioned charge regions in the stratiform area. If the leader becomes too long, it may separate into multiple bidirectional leaders. When this happens, the positive end of the separated leader may strike the ground as a positive CG flash or crawl on the underside of the cloud, creating a spectacular display of lightning crawling across the sky. Ground flashes produced in this manner tend to transfer high amounts of charge, and this can trigger upward lightning flashes and upper-atmospheric lightning.\n", "Section::::Structure protectors.:Protection of electric distribution systems.\n\nIn overhead electric transmission (high-tension) systems, one or two lighter gauge conductors may be mounted to the top of the pylons, poles, or towers not specifically used to send electricity through the grid. These conductors, often referred to \"static\", \"pilot\" or \"shield\" wires are designed to be the point of lightning termination instead of the high-voltage lines themselves. These conductors are intended to protect the primary power conductors from lightning strikes.\n", "The most common fault type on an overhead distribution network is lightning strike. Lightning surges cause an increase in voltage which can cause localised breakdown of insulation, allow arcing over insulators. Reclosers can detect this as an overcurrent or earth fault (depending on the asymmetry of the fault). Lightning surges pass very quickly (reduce in 50ms), so the first reclose operation of a recloser can be configured to both trip and reclose quickly. This first reclose allows for interruption of the arcing caused by lightning, but restores the power quickly.\n", "Section::::Electrical and structural damage.\n\nTelephones, modems, computers and other electronic devices can be damaged by lightning, as harmful overcurrent can reach them through the phone jack, Ethernet cable, or electricity outlet. Close strikes can also generate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) – especially during \"positive\" lightning discharges.\n\nLightning currents have a very fast rise time, on the order of 40 kA per microsecond. Hence, conductors of such currents exhibit marked skin effect, causing most of the currents to flow through the outer surface of the conductor.\n", "It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-charged ground.\n", "BULLET::::- Fulgurites – a cloud-to-ground lightning discharge event can produce \"petrified lightning\", demonstrating the enormous, albeit brief, amount of energy transferred by lightning column. They can visually demonstrate how energy may internally or externally diffuse from one or several central nodes of the termination, and differences between the diameters of these channels, which range from only a few mm to several cm. The possible range of forms and compositions of fulgurites vary dramatically, reflecting the complex electrical, chemical, and physical properties of a target sediment, rock, or biological mass.\n", "Section::::Types.\n\nThere are three primary types of lightning, defined by what is at the \"ends\" of a flash channel.\n\nBULLET::::- Intracloud (IC), which occurs within a single thundercloud unit\n\nBULLET::::- Cloud to cloud (CC) or intercloud, which starts and ends between two different \"functional\" thundercloud units\n\nBULLET::::- Cloud to ground (CG), that primarily originates in the thundercloud and terminates on an Earth surface, but may also occur in the reverse direction, that is ground to cloud\n", "BULLET::::- Ribbon lightning occurs in thunderstorms with high cross winds and multiple return strokes. The wind will blow each successive return stroke slightly to one side of the previous return stroke, causing a ribbon effect.\n\nBULLET::::- Rocket lightning is a form of cloud discharge, generally horizontal and at cloud base, with a luminous channel appearing to advance through the air with visually resolvable speed, often intermittently.\n", "Some of standard theoretical frameworks have been borrowed from other lightning-associated discharges like sprites, blue jets, and elves, which were discovered in the years immediately preceding the first TGF observations. For instance, that field may be due to the separation of charges in a thundercloud (\"DC\" field) often associated with sprites, or due to the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) produced by a lightning discharge, often associated with elves. There is also some evidence that certain TGFs occur in the absence of lightning strikes, though in the vicinity of general lightning activity, which has evoked comparisons to blue jets.\n", "BULLET::::- Rocket-triggered lightning can be \"triggered\" by launching specially designed rockets trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar in nature and originating from their respective charge region.\n", "Section::::Flashes and strikes.:Upward streamers.\n\nWhen a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.\n", "In some instances, these conductors are insulated from direct bonding with earth and may be used as low voltage communication lines. If the voltage exceeds a certain threshold, such as during a lightning termination to the conductor, it \"jumps\" the insulators and passes to earth.\n\nProtection of electrical substations is as varied as lightning rods themselves, and is often proprietary to the electric company.\n\nSection::::Structure protectors.:Lightning protection of mast radiators.\n", "BULLET::::- Sheet lightning is cloud-to-cloud lightning that exhibits a diffuse brightening of the surface of a cloud, caused by the actual discharge path being hidden or too far away. The lightning itself cannot be seen by the spectator, so it appears as only a flash, or a sheet of light. The lightning may be too far away to discern individual flashes.\n", "Professor Umran Inan of Stanford University linked a TGF to an individual lightning stroke occurring within 1.5 ms of the TGF event, proving for the first time that the TGF was of atmospheric origin and associated with lightning strikes.\n", "As a result of their greater power, as well as lack of warning, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous. Due to the aforementioned tendency for positive ground flashes to produce both high peak currents and long continuing current, they are capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited.\n", "Section::::Prevention and mitigations.:Lightning protection systems.\n\nHundreds of devices, including lightning rods and charge transfer systems, are used to mitigate lightning damage and influence the path of a lightning flash.\n", "BULLET::::- Upward lightning or ground-to-cloud lightning is a lightning flash which originates from the top of a grounded object and propagates upward from this point. This type of lightning can be triggered by a preceding lightning flash, or it may initiate entirely on its own. The former is generally found in regions where spider lightning occurs, and may involve multiple grounded objects simultaneously. The latter usually occurs during the cold season and may be the dominant lightning type in thundersnow events.\n" ]	[ "Lightning bolts all come from one cloud and break apart." ]	[ "Lightning bolts that do not hit the ground are from two different clouds." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Lightning bolts all come from one cloud and break apart.", "Lightning bolts all come from one cloud and break apart. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lightning bolts that do not hit the ground are from two different clouds.", "Lightning bolts that do not hit the ground are from two different clouds. " ]
2018-03767	Why is it that sometimes original potato chips have a green shade to the chip?	That's because the potato that the chip was made from was green. Potatoes are grown underground, but when they are exposed to light, chlorophyll is produced and they turn green. Usually, the green potatoes are removed from food production. However, they sometimes slip through. [Source]( URL_0 )	[ "BULLET::::- The sprouts are red-violet with a spherical shape; the tip has a semi-open habit and is weakly pubescent with no pigment while the base is moderately pubescent with moderate pigmentation.\n\nBULLET::::- The leaves have an open silhouette and have a green color except on midribs and petioles, which are not pigmented.\n", "Potato leaf\n\nPotato leaf (PL) is one of two major types of leaves which tomato plants exhibit. The other type is referred to as \"regular leaf\" (RL). Simply stated, potato leaf tomato plants have a smooth leaf edge when compared with the serrated edge of the regular leaf. The shape is oval and may feature notches separating large lobes. Its color is dark green.\n\nExamples of potato leaf tomatoes include the Brandywine, Prudens Purple, Brandy Boy, Lillian's Yellow Heirloom, Stupice, Japanese Black Trifele, and others. The potato leaf trait is recessive.\n", "Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The Lenape variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids. Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg (200 ppmw). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of 1000 mg/kg (1000 ppmw). In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with 7–187 mg/kg being found. While a normal potato tuber has 12–20 mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains 250–280 mg/kg and its skin has 1500–2200 mg/kg.\n", "BULLET::::1. All players \"color up\" their lesser-valued chips into greater denominations. For example, if the blinds have increased to a level where $5 chips are no longer needed to post blinds, each five $5 chips will be exchanged for a $25 chip. Players will temporarily keep any leftover chips that cannot be fully colored up to larger chips (less than 5 $5 chips in the above example).\n", "There are currently three haplotypes of the bacterium ‘\"Candidatus\" Liberibacter solanacearum’ that infect potato: haplotypes A, B, and F. Haplotype F was the latest to be discovered in Oregon's Klamath Basin. \n\nSection::::Signs.\n\nScientists suggest that zebra chip's namesake sign is caused by the conversion of potato starch to water-soluble sugar, causing the stripes to appear upon cooking. Another study suggests that discoloration is due to enzymatic browning involving a polyphenol oxidase.\n", "Much of the economic impact of zebra chip stems not from edibility issues, but cosmetic ones; while not deemed hazardous to one's health, infected potatoes are visually unappealing and will not be purchased by processing companies. From this refusal stems most of the other costs, including lost wages from processing fewer potatoes.\n\nSection::::Economic impact.:New Zealand.\n", "BULLET::::- Tubers have low specific gravity and are good for boiling and salads, but not for processing into chips or fries or for baking\n\nSection::::Agricultural Feature.\n\nBULLET::::- Variety with Early Maturity and Moderate Resistance to Common Scab\n\nBULLET::::- Tolerant to common scab\n\nBULLET::::- Susceptible to Potato virus Y (PVY) – shows severe rugose symptoms\n\nBULLET::::- Due to field resistance, PVY levels tend to stay low in Red Norland crops\n\nBULLET::::- Susceptible to other common potato viruses – Potato virus X, Potato virus S, Potato leaf roll virus\n", "Some small producers continued to use a batch process, notably in Maui. In 1980, inspired by the Maui Chip, an entrepreneur started Cape Cod Potato Chips to produce thicker, batch-cooked \"Hawaiian style\" potato chips, which came to be known as kettle-style (US) or hand-cooked (UK) chips and became a premium, \"gourmet\" item. Kettle chips are thicker and the surface starch is not rinsed off, resulting in a style of chip called \"hard bite\".\n\nSection::::Nomenclature.\n", "Adirondack Blue\n\nThe 'Adirondack Blue' is a potato variety with blue flesh and skin with a slight purple tint, released by Cornell University potato breeders Robert Plaisted, Ken Paddock, and Walter De Jong in 2003.\n", "Zebra chip is a recently diagnosed disease of potatoes associated with psyllid infestation and caused by species of the gram-negative bacterium, \"Candidatus Liberibacter\". The tubers frequently have discolouration which becomes more clear during frying of chips. This disease causes very significant losses to farmers when it occurs as the potatoes are not suitable for making into chips or fries.\n", "Another possible health concern related to potato chips is acrylamide, which is produced when potatoes are fried or baked at high temperatures. Studies suggest that rodents exposed to high levels of acrylamide develop cancer; however, it is currently unclear whether a similar risk exists in humans. Many potato chip manufacturers attempt to remove burned and thus potentially acrylamide-rich chips before the packaging process. Large scanners are used to eliminate chips worst affected by heat.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.:Canada.\n", "A larger variant (about 1 cm thick) made with dehydrated potatoes is marketed as Andy Capp's Pub Fries, using the theme of a long-running British comic strip, which are baked and sold in a variety of flavors.\n\nWalkers make a similar product (using the Smiths brand) called \"Chipsticks\" which are sold in ready-salted and salt and vinegar flavors.\n", "When potato tubers are exposed to light, they turn green and increase glycoalkaloid production. This is a natural defense to help prevent the uncovered tuber from being eaten. The green colour is from chlorophyll, and is itself harmless. However, it is an indication that increased level of solanine and chaconine may be present. In potato tubers, 30–80% of the solanine develops in and close to the skin, and some potato varieties have high levels of solanine.\n", "Within the film, he also adds a pseudo television broadcast named “Inca Television” to discuss the colonial history of the potato. This film highlights the widespread acceptance of the white potato in European and American culture. When the potato traveled from the Americas around the 1622, the brown colored potato was excluded. This idealism is still demonstrated within the potato chip industry. Tri-Sum potato chips say that the consumerism of this snack food is strongly competitive. Therefore, they try to offer the best potato chips possible, done by excluding the brown-colored chips.\n", "Potato chip flavorings include variations of barbecue, as well as sour cream and onion, sour cream and cheddar, salt and vinegar, ranch, jalapeno and cheese. \"Hot\" is a common flavor such as Jay's Hot Stuff and Better Made Red Hot. Better Made also make Rainbow chips, heavily cooked dark-colored chips which would be rejected by most processors. In the Gulf South, Zapp's of Gramercy, Louisiana, makes kettle-cooked chips using regional flavors such as Crawtator, Cajun dill, Voodoo, and Creole onion.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.:United States.:Pennsylvania.\n", "The first flavored chips in the United States, barbecue flavor, were being manufactured and sold by 1954. In 1958, Herr's was the first company to introduce barbecue-flavored potato chips in Pennsylvania.\n\nSection::::Production.:Potato chip bag.\n\nChips sold in markets were usually sold in tins or scooped out of storefront glass bins and delivered by horse and wagon. Early potato chip bags were wax paper with the ends ironed or stapled together. At first, potato chips were packaged in barrels or tins, which left chips at the bottom stale and crumbled.\n", "Little consistency exists in the English-speaking world for names of fried potato slices, thick or thin. American and Canadian English use \"chips\" for the above-mentioned dish — this term is also used (but not universally) in other parts of world, and sometimes \"crisps\" for the same made from batter.\n", "In German-speaking countries (Austria, Germany: \"\"Kartoffelchips\"\"; Switzerland: \"\"Pommes Chips\"\") and in countries of the former SFR Yugoslavia, fried thin potato slices are known as \"chips\" (locally pronounced very similar to the actual English pronunciation), with a clear distinction from french fries. In Brazil, \"home-style\" potato chips are known as (\"Portuguese potatoes\") if their sides are relatively smooth and (\"Prussian potatoes\") if their sides show a wafer biscuit-like pattern, whilst American-like industrial uniform potato chips made from a fried potato purée-based dough are known as \"batata chips\" (\"potato chips\"), or just .\n\nSection::::Health concerns.\n", "It is currently postulated that the potato psyllid acts as a vector for the disease's unknown pathogen, as it is the only organism consistently associated with zebra chip. In 2008, New Zealand researchers investigating a \"B. cockerelli\" infestation in tomato and pepper greenhouses discovered a new bacterial species \"Candidatus\" Liberibacter solanacearum whose genetic markers were found to be identical to those found at two potato farms in Texas. This bacterium is related to \"Candidatus\" Liberibacter spp., which cause citrus greening disease in citrus plants.\n", "Potato fruits are produced when the plants experience cool temperatures and sufficient water. In 2014, many farmers in Michigan, United States, were alarmed when they found the green fruit which are not normally produced on the potato plant in that region. This was due to the cool weather in July that year being cooler and wetter than normal, allowing for the plants' flowers sufficient time to be pollinated and produce fruit\n", "Section::::Regional varieties.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, potato chips are made by national chains like Frito-Lay's, Pringles and Kettle Brand; major regional brands like Jay's of Chicago, Better Made of Detroit and Old Dutch of Minneapolis; and specialty brands with local or uneven distribution. \n", "Chips were long made in a batch process, where the potato slices are rinsed with cold water to release starch, fried at a low temperature (), and continuously raked to prevent them from sticking together.\n\nIndustrial advances resulted in a shift to production by a continuous process, running chips through a vat of hot oil and drying them in a conveyor process.\n", "They were originally known as \"Pringles Newfangled Potato Chips\", but other snack manufacturers objected, saying Pringles failed to meet the definition of a potato \"chip\". The US Food and Drug Administration weighed in on the matter, and in 1975, they ruled Pringles could only use the word \"chip\" in their product name within the following phrase: \"potato chips made from dried potatoes\". Faced with such an unpalatable appellation, Pringles eventually opted to rename their product potato \"crisps\" instead of chips. \n", "In November 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.\n", "A chip race cannot eliminate a player from the game. In the event a player's last smaller-denomination chips are removed from play as part of the chip race, he automatically gets one chip of the lowest value still in play.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22416	If a Canadian gets an acting role from a company in LA and the film shooting takes place in Europe, how would they pay their taxes/with what government?	You'd still pay taxes in/to Canada. It depends how long you're working outside of Canada and determination of your factual residency. But for a few weeks or months, no, pay taxes as normal to Canada. If in doubt the lovely people at Canada Revenue's help line can sort you out. URL_0	[ "At the same time, US citizens working outside the country for 510 days during a period of 18 months would not be taxed on their earnings by the Internal Revenue Service. Though this scheme was developed for the aid of American humanitarian workers redeveloping nations destroyed in World War II, agents discovered that Hollywood actors, directors, and screenwriters would qualify for the tax break by working outside the US for the same period.\n", "Some U.S. states and Canadian provinces have between 15% and 70% tax or cash incentives for labor, production costs or services on bona fide film/television/PCgame expenditures. Each state and province differs. These so-called \"soft-money\" incentives are generally not realized until a theatrical or interactive production is completed, all payments are made to workers, financial institutions, and rental or prop companies within the state or province offering the incentives. Many other limitations may apply (i.e., actors, cast and crew may have to take up residence in the state or province). Often, a certain amount of physical shooting (principal photography) must be completed within the state borders, and/or the use of the state's institutions. This would include rental facilities, banks, insurance companies, sound stages or studios, agents, agencies, brokers, catering companies, hotel/motels, etc. Each may also have to be physically domiciled within the state or province's borders. Finally, additional incentives (another 5% to 25% on top of the already generous soft money), may be offered for off-season, low-income area, or family entertainment projects shot in places of economic impoverishment or during poor weather condition months in a hurricane-prone state or Arctic province.\n", "BULLET::::- At the same time Americans working outside the USA for 510 days during a period of 18 months would not be taxed on their earnings by the Internal Revenue Service. Though this scheme was developed for the aid of American humanitarian workers redeveloping nations destroyed in World War II, agents discovered that Hollywood actors, directors and screenwriters would qualify for the tax break by working outside the USA for the same period.\n", "In addition, a federal [[foreign tax credit]] is allowed for foreign income taxes paid. This credit is limited to the portion of federal income tax arising due to foreign source income. The credit is available to all taxpayers.\n\nBusiness credits and the foreign tax credit may be offset taxes in other years.\n\nStates and some localities offer a variety of credits that vary by jurisdiction. States typically grant a credit to resident individuals for income taxes paid to other states, generally limited in proportion to income taxed in the other state(s).\n\nSection::::Alternative minimum tax.\n", "Federal systems, such as those in Canada, Switzerland, and the US, may have different rules for allowing a credit for extra-jurisdictional credits at the federal and state levels. Such rules may differ among sub-federal (provincial, cantonal, state) jurisdictions. Thus, for example, Canadian and US federal governments allow credits from all foreign levels, while Canadian provinces and US states tend to allow a credit for income taxes paid to other provinces and states but not for taxes paid to sovereign jurisdictions (countries). Sub-federal taxes may or may not be covered by income tax treaties.\n\nSection::::Limitation on credit.\n", "BULLET::::- Guy Hamilton, the director of four James Bond films, became a tax exile in the mid-1970s when he was originally hired to direct \"Superman\" (1978). Because of the U.K. tax laws, he could remain in the United Kingdom for 30 days a year. As a result, fellow Bond director John Glen has directed five films in the franchise.\n\nBULLET::::- Stelios Haji-Ioannou was quoted as saying: \"I have no UK income to be taxed in the UK.\"\n", "Foreign governments are exempt from FICA tax on payments to their employees. International organizations are also exempt if the organization is listed in the International Organizations Immunities Act.\n\nIf an employee is a U.S. citizen, then the employee must typically pay self-employment tax on earnings from work performed in the United States.\n\nSection::::Exemptions.:Exemption for services performed by certain individuals hired to be relieved from unemployment.\n", "In order to keep high costs down, all the star-name actors agreed to participate on a \"favoured-nation\" basis (i.e. they would all receive the same weekly fee), which in this case was $250,000 per week (the 2012 equivalent of $1,008,250 or £642,000).\n", "According to the Massachusetts Film Office, parties eligible for the tax credit include Feature-length film, video, or digital media projects (narrative or documentary);TV series (not to exceed 27 episodes); and Commercials (multiple commercials for one client may be aggregated). All projects must spend at least $50,000 and be made in part or whole in Massachusetts to be eligible for the credit.\n\nSection::::Government incentives.:MA Film Office.\n", "Entertainers must be part of an entertainment group to obtain a P-1 visa. Individual artists cannot usually obtain a P-1 visa, except when joining the rest of their foreign entertainment group already in the United States. Like athletes, entertainers must be \"internationally recognized\" as outstanding in their area to be granted P visas, and have a sustained period of achievement no less than one year. Additionally, a minimum for 75 percent of the group's individual members must have a substantial relationship to the group, generally satisfied by at least one year of membership.\n", "Official co-productions are made possible by formal agreements between countries. For filmmakers, the key attraction of a treaty co-production is that it qualifies as a national production in each of the partner nations. Thus, it can access benefits that are available to the local film and television industry in more than one country. Benefits may include government subsidies, tax concessions and inclusion in domestic television broadcast quotas.\n", "Canadian TN status workers are responsible for US Medicare, State, Federal and Social Security taxes in the US. US TN status workers in Canada are also subject to corresponding income tax liabilities and end-of-year filing of tax returns in Canada. In general, there will be income tax liabilities in accordance to where the employee works regardless of where legal or physical residence is maintained during employment. This is much like US citizens who live in one state but work in another who are then subject to state income and other taxes in the state in which they work. If their legal residence is still in their home country, workers may also be required to file a return in their home country. Based on income tax treaties, credit is normally available in the home country for income and other payroll taxes paid in the foreign country. Bilateral treaties exist to allow workers to regain benefits. For example, after a minimum of 1.5 years of work in the US, workers become eligible for a pro-rata Social Security benefit under what is known in the US as a Totalization agreement. After more than 10 years of work in the US, the regular Social Security benefit calculation minus the Windfall Elimination Provision will be applied. Therefore, the worker may receive 3 cheques, one each from the Canada Pension Plan, Old Age Security and US Social Security.\n", "The tax credit for qualifying productions equals a 25% reduction in Personal Income Tax, Corporate Net Income, Capital Stock/Foreign Franchise Tax. However, because most productions filming in Pennsylvania do not incur a tax liability in the state, the credits are fully transferable, which means they can be sold to a company or individual in the state who does have a tax liability. In order to qualify for the tax credit, the production must incur 60% of its total production expenses within Pennsylvania. The credit also applies to individual television shows that are 15 minutes or longer and intended for a national audience.\n", "Income tax systems that impose tax on residents on their worldwide income tend to grant a foreign tax credit for foreign income taxes paid on the same income. The credit often is limited based on the amount of foreign income. The credit may be granted under domestic law and/or tax treaty. The credit is generally granted to individuals and entities, and is generally nonrefundable. See Foreign tax credit for more comprehensive information on this complex subject.\n\nSection::::Credits for alternative tax bases.\n", "People having their tax residence in France are subject to French tax. Thus, they are natural or legal persons either living in France, i.e. have their homes or principal residence in France; or working in France; or having the center of their economic interests in France. Any one of these criteria is sufficient for a person to be treated as taxable.\n", "Canadian residents and corporations pay income taxes based on their world-wide income. Canadians are in principle protected against double taxation receiving income from certain countries which gave agreements with Canada through the foreign tax credit, which allows taxpayers to deduct from their Canadian income tax otherwise payable from the income tax paid in other countries. A citizen who is currently not a resident of Canada may petition the CRA to change her or his status so that income from outside Canada is not taxed.\n", "In the UK such individuals have a special tax status which limits them to paying tax on income and gains from UK sources, and on foreign income and gains which are remitted to the UK. A similar status can be accorded to individuals in some other European countries (e.g. Belgium and the Netherlands), because they are only temporarily resident for the purpose of employment. Certain countries such as Jersey and Switzerland accept that these individuals may be exempt from tax on income earned and retained overseas, and are thus not subject to any retention. The exemption needs to be proven.\n", "In France, taxpayers are either \"domiciled\" in France or are \"non-resident\". Domiciled individuals are subject to French tax on worldwide income, but non-residents are not taxed on foreign-source income. Many treaty exemptions may apply, however (e.g. foreign-source trading or rental income). Under Article 4B of the French Tax Code (\"Code Général des Impôts\"), an individual is resident in France for tax purposes if:\n\nBULLET::::- they have a home (\"foyer\") or their principal place of physical presence in France,\n\nBULLET::::- they have their professional activity in France, unless such activity is only ancillary, or\n", "Alexopolous had a small role in the film \"Sacrifice\", which was filmed in Ottawa.\n\nSection::::Personal life.\n", "the main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax,\n\nthe main taxing jurisdiction may exempt foreign-source income from tax if tax had been paid on it in another jurisdiction, or above some benchmark to not include tax haven jurisdictions,\n\nthe main taxing jurisdiction may tax the foreign-source income but give a credit for foreign jurisdiction taxes paid.\n\nSection::::India.:Rajasthan no-tax policy.\n", "Citizens are also required (under the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code) to pay taxes on their total income from all sources worldwide, including income earned abroad while living abroad. Under certain circumstances, however, U.S. citizens living and working abroad may be able to reduce or eliminate their U.S. federal income tax via the Foreign Earned Income Exclusion or the Foreign Tax Credit.\n", "Federal income tax is imposed on citizens, residents, and U.S. corporations based on their worldwide income. To mitigate double taxation, a credit is allowed for foreign income taxes. This [[foreign tax credit]] is limited to that part of current year tax caused by foreign source income. Determining such part involves determining the source of income and allocating and apportioning deductions to that income. States tax resident individuals and corporations on their worldwide income, but few allow a credit for foreign taxes.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Effect of expense allocation.\n\nDifferences in expense allocation rules and transfer pricing can impact this result. If, in the example above, Carpet Ltd had £10,000 of expenses of the Germany operation which Germany disallowed as not allocable to German income under German concepts, the German tax would increase to £40,700 while the UK FTC limitation would remain £33,000. This would increase worldwide taxes by the German tax on the disallowed expenses, to a total of £337,300.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Deemed paid credit.\n", "The Toronto Film and Television Office reported that in 2005 some 200 productions were completed in Toronto: 39 features, and 44 movies made for television, 84 television series, 11 television specials, and 22 MOW's (movies of the week). The Toronto Film and Television Office issued 4,154 location filming permits for 1,258 projects totalling 7,319 days of shooting. Toronto's domestic production industry benefits greatly financially from large treaty coproductions with international partners.\n", "BULLET::::- Bad Company moved to Malibu, California, in 1975 to avoid what Mick Ralphs described as \"ridiculously high tax in England\".\n\nBULLET::::- David and Frederick Barclay live on Brecqhou, one of the Channel Islands, located just west of Sark, and give their address as Avenue de Grande-Bretagne, Monte-Carlo.\n\nBULLET::::- John Barry, the composer of 11 James Bond films, moved to the United States in 1975 where he resided until his death in 2011.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-16551	If resources are limited/non-renewable how can we maintain a continuous/infinite economic growth ?	We can't. We can only do so as long as these resources are available. Practically speaking, the Earth is huge, and we won't be running out of anything anytime soon, but the more of something we use, the harder it is to get the rest. Let's take oil for example. We're not running out of oil in the near future, but we're using up the oil that's easy to access. This means in the future if we continue to rely on fossil fuels, it will be more difficult and thus more expensive to access new oil deposits, These means higher costs for oil and everything that's made of oil or uses oil, and more environmental damage, including global warming. None of this is sustainable.	[ "Rapa Nui, best known as \"Easter Island\", is a typical example of malthusianism, specifically how the exponential growth of a populace leads to the end of a renewable resource. At a certain point, the compelling societal need forces exploitation of the resource above and beyond the resource's natural rate of renewal.\n", "BULLET::::- Renewable resources, such as forests and fisheries, can be replenished or reproduced relatively quickly. The highest rate at which a resource can be used sustainably is the sustainable yield. Some resources, like sunlight, air, and wind, are called perpetual resources because they are available continuously, though at a limited rate. Their quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.\n", "As economies grow, the need for resources grows accordingly (unless there are changes in efficiency or demand for different products due to price changes). There is a fixed supply of non-renewable resources, such as petroleum (oil), and these resources will inevitably be depleted. Renewable resources can also be depleted if extracted at unsustainable rates over extended periods. For example, this has occurred with caviar production in the Caspian Sea. There is much concern as to how growing demand for these resources will be met as supplies decrease. Many organizations and governments look to energy technologies such as biofuels, solar cells, and wind turbines to meet the demand gap after peak oil. Others have argued that none of the alternatives could effectively replace versatility and portability of oil. Authors of the book \"Techno-Fix\" criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural and social challenges arising from growth.\n", "The fair and even allocation of non-renewable resources over time is a market failure issue of concern to ecological economics. This issue is also known as 'intergenerational fairness'. It is argued that the market mechanism fails when it comes to allocating the Earth's finite mineral stock fairly and evenly among present and future generations, as future generations are not, and cannot be, present on today's market. In effect, today's market prices do not, and cannot, reflect the preferences of the yet unborn. This is an instance of a market failure passed unrecognized by most mainstream economists, as the concept of Pareto efficiency is entirely static (timeless). Imposing government restrictions on the general level of activity in the economy may be the only way of bringing about a more fair and even intergenerational allocation of the mineral stock. Hence, Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Herman Daly, the two leading theorists in the field, have both called for the imposition of such restrictions: Georgescu-Roegen has proposed a minimal bioeconomic program, and Daly has proposed a comprehensive steady-state economy. However, Georgescu-Roegen, Daly, and other economists in the field agree that on a finite Earth, geologic limits will inevitably strain most fairness in the longer run, regardless of any present government restrictions: \"Any\" rate of extraction and use of the finite stock of non-renewable mineral resources will diminish the remaining stock left over for future generations to use. \n", "Renewable resources are available each year, unlike non-renewable resources, which are eventually depleted. A simple comparison is a coal mine and a forest. While the forest could be depleted, if it is managed it represents a continuous supply of energy, vs. the coal mine, which once has been exhausted is gone. Most of earth's available energy resources are renewable resources. Renewable resources account for more than 93 percent of total U.S. energy reserves. Annual renewable resources were multiplied times thirty years for comparison with non-renewable resources. In other words, if all non-renewable resources were uniformly exhausted in 30 years, they would only account for 7 percent of available resources each year, if all available renewable resources were developed.\n", "BULLET::::- Natural resources: conventional accounting, including national accounts, treats extraction of finite natural resources as income, priced at the cost of extraction, and not as depletion of non-renewable natural capital. The resources of nature come to us for free. They are of infinite value from the point of view of preserving and sustaining life, but may not be subject to trading in a market, as in the case of air for breathing, for agriculture, or for burning fuels.\n", "A problem arises when the limits of a resource are hard to see, so increasing investment in response to diminishing returns may seem profitable as in the Tragedy of the Commons, but may lead to a collapse. This problem of increasing investment in diminishing resources has also been studied in relation to the causes of civilization collapse by Joseph Tainter among others. This natural error in investment policy contributed to the collapse of both the Roman and Mayan, among others. Relieving over-stressed resources requires reducing pressure on them, not continually increasing it whether more efficiently or not.\n\nSection::::Theory.:Conceptual problems.:Waste prevention.\n", "A key idea in \"The Limits to Growth\" is the notion that if the rate of resource use is increasing, the amount of reserves cannot be calculated by simply taking the current known reserves and dividing by the current yearly usage, as is typically done to obtain a static index. For example, in 1972, the amount of chromium reserves was 775 million metric tons, of which 1.85 million metric tons were mined annually. The static index is 775/1.85=418 years, but the rate of chromium consumption was growing at 2.6 percent annually, or exponentially. If instead of assuming a constant rate of usage, the assumption of a constant rate of growth of 2.6 percent annually is made, the resource will instead last\n", "The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a strategic and critical material (an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors.\n", "Simon has stated that the supply of natural resources is infinite (i.e. perpetual) \n\nThese conflicting views will be substantially reconciled by considering resource-related topics in depth in the next section, or at least minimized.\n\nFurthermore, Hartwick's rule provides insight to the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources.\n\nSection::::Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility.\n\nSection::::Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility.:Background and introduction.\n", "If a resource lasting 700 or more years is perpetual, one that lasts 350 to 700 years can be called an abundant resource, and is so defined here. How long the material can be recovered from its resource depends on human need and changes in technology from extraction through the life cycle of the product to final disposal, plus recyclability of the material and availability of satisfactory substitutes. Specifically, this shows that exhaustibility does not occur until these factors weaken and play out: the availability of substitutes, the extent of recycling and its feasibility, more efficient manufacturing of the final consumer product, more durable and longer-lasting consumer products, and even a number of other factors.\n", "Section::::Methodology.:Exponential reserve index.\n", "In general, the formula for calculating the amount of time left for a resource with constant consumption growth is:\n\nwhere:\n\nThe authors list a number of similar exponential indices comparing current reserves to current reserves multiplied by a factor of five:\n\nThe static reserve numbers assume that the usage is constant, and the exponential reserve assumes that the growth rate is constant.\n", "Among the generation of his teachers, Daly ranks Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Kenneth E. Boulding as the two economists he has learned the most from. However, both Georgescu-Roegen and Boulding have assessed that a steady-state economy may serve only as a temporary societal arrangement for mankind when facing the long-term issue of global mineral resource exhaustion: Even with a constant stock of people and capital, and a minimised (yet constant) flow of resources put through the world economy, earth's mineral stock will still be exhausted, although at a slower rate than is presently the situation (see below). \n", "Perpetual resources can transition to being a paleoresource. A paleoresource is one that has little or no demand for the material extracted from it; an obsolescent material, humans no longer need it. The classic paleoresource is an arrowhead-grade flint resource; no one makes flint arrowheads or spearheads anymore—making a sharpened piece of scrap steel and using it is much simpler. Obsolescent products include tin cans, tin foil, the schoolhouse slate blackboard, and radium in medical technology. Radium has been replaced by much cheaper cobalt-60 and other radioisotopes in radiation treatment. Noncorroding lead as a cable covering has been replaced by plastics.\n", "The big story is this: The world has physical limits that we are already encountering, but our economy operates as if no physical limits exist. Our economy requires growth. I don’t mean growth is required as if its written in a legal document somewhere, but is required in the sense that our economy only functions well when its growing. With growth, jobs are created and debts are serviced. Without growth, jobs, opportunities, and the ability to repay past debts simply and mysteriously disappear, causing economic pain and confusion.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Limits to Growth\"\n\nSection::::Publications.\n", "Critics also argue that the authors of the report claimed to accept that the then-known resources of minerals and energy could, and would, grow in the future, and consumption growth rates could also decline. The theoretical expiry time for each resource would therefore need to be updated as new discoveries, technologies and trends came to light. Writing in \"Forbes\", one critic pointed out that \"while we do indeed face hard limits to the availability of metals and or minerals these hard limits are so far away that they're not ... something we should worry about\" and that \"everything is substitutable. Absolutely everything is, no exceptions.\" Thus substituting metals and minerals for fossil fuels is the very basis of renewable energy.\n", "More recently Liebig's law is starting to find an application in natural resource management where it surmises that growth in markets dependent upon natural resource inputs is restricted by the most limited input. As the natural capital upon which growth depends is limited in supply due to the finite nature of the planet, Liebig's law encourages scientists and natural resource managers to calculate the scarcity of essential resources in order to allow for a multi-generational approach to resource consumption.\n", "Dependent upon the speed and quantity of consumption, overconsumption can lead to depletion or total and everlasting destruction of a resource. Important examples are agricultural areas, fish and other animals, forests, healthy water and soil, cultivated and natural landscapes. Such conditionally renewable resources are sometimes classified as a third kind of resource, or as a subtype of renewable resources. Conditionally renewable resources are presently subject to excess human consumption and the only sustainable long term use of such resources is within the so-called zero ecological footprint, wherein human use less than the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate.\n", "Finally, what is a perpetual resource? The ASTM definition for a perpetual resource is \"one that is virtually inexhaustible on a human time-scale\". Examples given include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy, to which should be added salt, stone, magnesium, diamonds, and other materials mentioned above. A study on the biogeophysical aspects of sustainability came up with a rule of prudent practice that a resource stock should last 700 years to achieve sustainability or become a perpetual resource, or for a worse case, 350 years.\n", "Daly argues that nature has provided basically two sources of wealth at man's disposal, namely a stock of terrestrial mineral resources and a flow of solar energy. An 'asymmetry' between these two sources of wealth exist in that we may — within some practical limits — extract the mineral stock at a rate of our own choosing (that is, rapidly), whereas the flow of solar energy is reaching earth at a rate beyond human control. Since the Sun will continue to shine on earth at a fixed rate for billions of years to come, it is the terrestrial mineral stock — and not the Sun — that constitutes the crucial scarcity factor regarding man's economic future.\n", "In his book The Ultimate Resource, Julian Simon offers the view that scarcity of physical resources can be overcome by the human mind. For example, the argument of scarcity of oil could be overcome by some of energy development strategies, such as use of synthetic fuels.\n\nModern estimations indicate that mineral shortages will not become a threat for many centuries \n", "In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as goods, where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow. David Ricardo in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by Hotelling's rule, which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or \"Hotelling rent\" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.\n", "The \"theory of natural limits\" states: \"Every product or service has a natural consumption level. We just don't know what it is until we launch it, distribute it, and promote it for a generation's time (20 years or more) after which further investment to expand the universe beyond normal limits can be a futile exercise.\" —Thomas G. Osenton, economist\n", "The ever-decreasing prices, in wage-adjusted terms, indicate decreasing scarcity, in that it takes less time for the average worker to earn the money required to purchase a set amount of some commodity. This suggests, Simon claims, an enduring trend of increased availability that will not cease in the foreseeable future, despite continued population growth.\n\nSection::::Evidence.\n\nA plurality of the book consists of chapters showcasing the economics of one resource or another and proposing why this resource is, for human purposes, infinite.\n\nSection::::Evidence.:Historical precedent.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08313	Why is red meat red and white meat white?	I might be wrong, but I believe it has to do with the fibers of the muscles. Red meats are called slow twitch muscle fibers, and they’re used to do work that is not as laborious. Fast twitch fibers are usually lighter in color and are used for running and overall stamina. Animals like cats, chickens, fish and frogs are known for having white meat. Cows have red meat since they don’t do all that much running. Predators usually have fast twitch muscle fibers.	[ "Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or \"gamey\" mammals (for example, beef, horse meat, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Most poultry is white, but duck and goose are red. Most cuts of pork are red, others are white. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: \"viandes noires\" — \"dark meats\".) Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.\n", "White meat\n\nIn culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. The most common kind of white meat is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (light meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white (\"light\") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red (\"dark\") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and pork.\n", "Some meat, such as pork, is classified as \"white meat\" under the common or gastronomic definition, but as \"red meat\" under the nutritional definition.\n\nSection::::Definition.\n\nAccording to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat) from chicken.\n", "Red meat\n\nIn gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.\n\nIn nutritional science, on the other hand, \"red meat\" is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh).\n", "Meat can be broadly classified as \"red\" or \"white\" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.\n\nGenerally, the meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.\n", "Improved red-and-white meat breed\n\nThe Improved red-and-white , Improved MRI or Improved red pied (Dutch: Verbeterd roodbont vleesras) meat breed is a young and, as the name suggests, a typical beef cattle breed. It is the only beef typical beef cattle breed that originates in the Netherlands. The origin of this variety lies in the double-purpose variety Meuse-Rhine-Issel. The MRI breed breeds animals with luxury muscularity, and this is how the new breed came into existence: Improved red-and-white meat breed.\n\n=Characteristics=\n", "In nutritional studies however, \"white meat\" includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat. The United States Department of Agriculture classifies meats as red if the myoglobin level is higher than 65%. This categorization is controversial as some types of fish, such as tuna, are red when raw and turn white when cooked; similarly, certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as \"white meat\" are actually red when raw, such as duck and goose.\n\nSection::::Poultry.\n", "The Yamparika and Nokoni joined the Quahadi and Kotsoteka, camping at Chinaberry Trees, Palo Duro Canyon.\n\nSection::::His final battle.\n", "Visual appearance is one of the primary cues consumers use to assess meat quality at the point of sale, and to select meats. Color is one of the most important characteristics in this context. Different cultural traditions lead consumers to prefer different colors: some countries prefer relatively dark pork overall, some light, and some have no clear preference.\n", "Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is red in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as \"the other white meat\", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.\n\nSection::::Definition.:Cultural and social aspects.\n", "In meat-based stews, white stews, also known as \"blanquettes\" or \"fricassées\", are made with lamb or veal that is blanched, or lightly seared without browning, and cooked in stock. Brown stews are made with pieces of red meat that are first seared or browned, before a browned mirepoix and sometimes browned flour, stock and wine are added.\n\nSection::::List of stews.\n\nBULLET::::- Baeckeoffe, a potato stew from Alsace\n\nBULLET::::- Beef bourguignon, a French dish of beef stewed in red burgundy wine\n\nBULLET::::- Beef Stroganoff, a stew with beef from Russia\n\nBULLET::::- Bigos, a traditional stew in Polish cuisine\n", "Oxygenated blood is red due to the presence of oxygenated hemoglobin that contains iron molecules, with the iron components reflecting red light. Red meat gets its color from the iron found in the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the muscles and residual blood.\n\nPlants like apples, strawberries, cherries, tomatoes, peppers, and pomegranates are often colored by forms of carotenoids, red pigments that also assist photosynthesis.\n", "Red meats such as beef, lamb, and venison, and certain game birds are often roasted to be \"pink\" or \"rare\", meaning that the center of the roast is still red. Roasting is a preferred method of cooking for most poultry, and certain cuts of beef, pork, or lamb. Although there is a growing fashion in some restaurants to serve \"rose pork\", temperature monitoring of the center of the roast is the only sure way to avoid foodborne disease.\n", "Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of \"true fats\" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids), or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of phospholipids and of unsaponifiable constituents such as cholesterol.\n\nSection::::Biochemical composition.:Red and white meat.\n", "Another historical anecdote, still repeated today, is \"\"White wine with fish; Red wine with meat\"\". The root of this adage rests on the principle of matching the body (weight) of the wine with the weight of the food. Meat was generally heavier and \"red\" in color so it was assumed that a red wine (which was usually heavier than white wine) paired better. Similarly fish was generally light and \"white\" in color so it was often paired with white wine. This adage has become outdated somewhat due to the variety of wine styles prevalent in modern winemaking where there are now many \"heavy\" white wines such as \"New World\" oaky Chardonnay that can have more body than lighter reds such as Pinot noir or Italian Merlots.\n", "Co-fermentation is an old practice going back to the now uncommon practice of having field blends (mixed plantations of varieties) in vineyards, and the previous practice in some regions (such as Rioja and Tuscany) of using a small proportion of white grapes to \"soften\" some red wines which tended to have harsh tannins when produced with the winemaking methods of the time. It is believed that the practice may also have been adopted because it was found empirically to give deeper and better colour to wines, which is due to improved co-pigmentation resulting from some components in white grapes.\n", "Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein. \n", "Section::::Pork.\n\nBecause of nutritional concerns, it can be preferable for meat producers to have their products considered white meat. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as \"Pork. The Other White Meat\". \n\nIn Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, \"white meat\" is the accepted euphemism for pork.\n\nSection::::Health effects.\n", "Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D. The liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.\n", "As the name suggests, the animals of this breed are red and white like the animals of the MRI breed. There are two different types within this breed, the A-direction (luxury muscle) and the B-direction (not double buttock). With both types the aim is to have the lowest possible number of births with problems.\n", "Pork. The Other White Meat\n\n\"Pork. The Other White Meat.\" was an advertising slogan developed by advertising agency Bozell, Jacobs, Kenyon & Eckhardt in 1987 for the National Pork Board. The campaign was paid for using a checkoff fee (tax) collected from the initial sale of all pigs and pork products, including imports. In traditional culinary terminology, pork is considered a white meat, but the nutritional studies comparing white and red meat treat pork as red, as does the United States Department of Agriculture.\n\nSection::::Advertisements.\n", "Section::::Science and nature.:Why cooked beef, cured ham, steamed shrimp and salmon are pink.\n\nRaw beef is red, because the muscles of vertebrate animals, such as cows and pigs, contain a protein called myoglobin, which binds oxygen and iron atoms. When beef is cooked, the myoglobin proteins undergo oxidation, and gradually turn from red to pink to brown; that is, from rare to medium to well-done. Pork contains less myoglobin than beef and therefore is less red; when heated, it changes from pinkish-red to less pink to tan or white.\n", "Section::::Human health.:Cardiovascular disease.\n", "The flesh is the major element of the wine, as it is the part that contains the highest proportion of liquid. The flavours are much less present than in the skin.\n\nSection::::Components of the grape and the must.:The wort.\n\nIn the case of white winemaking the wort is simply the grape juice from the pressing of grape berries.\n\nSection::::Components of the grape and the must.:The wort.:The sugars.\n", "Section::::Dishes.:Europe.:Spain.\n\nIn Spain, the \"morcilla\" sausage is a kind of black pudding mainly made with pig blood, with spices, fat, and sometimes vegetables. In Andalusia \"sangre encebollada\" and Valencian \"sang amb ceba \"are popular dishes made with chicken or pork solidified blood and onion.\n\nSection::::Dishes.:Europe.:Sweden.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-12979	Why does it cost money to get a domain? And why does the price change for every company and domain ending I use?	The registry fee the ISPs pay is small yet many are greedy and figure most people are stupid or desperate to get the name they want so charge lots more for it.	[ "Since 2011 due to changes in currency exchange rate the price has decreased. The costs to use a .by domain is a 12 USD fee for the first year and second payment of 12 USD to maintain the domain. The renewal of the domain occurs yearly. The maximum upfront payment is 1 years. The payment of the fees occur by bank transfer, WebMoney, credit card or cash depending on the registrar.\n\nSection::::Internationalized country code top-level domain.\n", "When a registrar registers a com domain name for an end-user, it must pay a maximum annual fee of US$7.34 to VeriSign, the registry operator for com, and a US$0.18 annual administration fee to ICANN. Most domain registrars price their services and products to address both the annual fees and the administration fees that must be paid to ICANN. Barriers to entry into the bulk registrar industry are high for new companies without an existing customer base.\n", "A few companies have offered low-cost, below-cost or even free domain registration with a variety of models adopted to recoup the costs to the provider. These usually require that domains be hosted on their website within a framework or portal that includes advertising wrapped around the domain holder's content, revenue from which allows the provider to recoup the costs. Domain registrations were free of charge when the DNS was new. A domain holder may provide infinite number of subdomains in their domain. For example, the owner of \"example.org\" could provide subdomains such as \"foo.example.org\" and \"foo.bar.example.org\" to interested parties.\n", "When a registrar registers a com domain name for an end-user, it must pay a maximum annual fee of US$7.85 to VeriSign, the registry operator for com, and a US$0.18 annual administration fee to ICANN. Most domain registrars price their services and products to address both the annual fees and the administration fees that must be paid to ICANN. Barriers to entry into the bulk registrar industry are high for new companies without an existing customer base.\n", "Each ICANN-accredited registrar must pay a fixed fee of US$4,000 plus a variable fee. The sum of variable registrar fees is intended to total US$3.8 million. The competition created by the shared registration system enables end users to choose from many registrars offering a range of related services at varying prices.\n\nSection::::Designated registrar.\n\nDomain registration information is maintained by the domain name registries, which contract with domain registrars to provide registration services to the public. An end user selects a registrar to provide the registration service, and that registrar becomes the \"designated registrar\" for the domain chosen by the user.\n", "Domain registration prices to the end-user are now set by registrars in competition with each other. Wholesale prices (the cost to the registrars) depend on the level at which a registration is made (i.e. whether at second-level or a third-level registration) and also whether the registrant is domestic or foreign. The second-level is considered 'premium', so the cheapest domains would be a registration by a local organisation at third-level (such as the NamNumbers telephone directory at TELECOM.COM.NA whilst the highest prices are paid by non-Namibian entities registering at the second-level (such as BRITISHCOUNCIL.NA).\n", "Initially, registration of new domain names and their maintenance involved no direct costs for the registrant. In 1995, the National Science Foundation authorized Network Solutions (NSI), the private company that they had mandated to maintain and operate the registries, to begin charging registrants an annual fee. Some perceived this move as unfair, given that the market was closed to competitors.\n\nEugene Kashpureff and company were among them and they decided to create an alternative registry to challenge the monopoly of NSI.\n\nSection::::Alternative TLDs.\n", "Google said in 2008 that their AdSense program would now look for domain names that are repeatedly registered and dropped. These domains will automatically be dropped from the AdSense program.\n\nStarting in April 2009, many top level domains (TLDs) began transitioning from the $0.20 fee for excess domains deleted to implementing a policy resulting in a fee equal to registering the domain.\n", "BULLET::::2. the administration of the domain is intrinsically related to telecommunications, and hence falls under the purview of the Ministry of Communications, with the exception of those functions assigned to the ICFES by the Ministry of National Education\n\nBULLET::::3. unless the Congress of Colombia adopts an act allowing tax to be collected in relation to the registration of domain names, no amount can be charged for such a service\n", "Section::::Primary market speculation.\n", "February 4, 2014, marked the beginning of the second major domain landrush. This landrush commenced the production of new web addresses, which has not occurred since 2000, when ICANN last accepted applications for top-level domains.The process of applying for new domain names runs through ICANN, the non-profit that manages several Internet-related tasks. ICANN’s process can be an expensive one, demanding an initial fee of $185,000. Additionally, the application process is a lengthy one, in which ICANN believes could take up to a year. Furthermore, the domain names are not simply given to anyone. ICANN reviews critical details regarding applicants’ financial stability, technical abilities and their intentions with the domain.\n", "The period covered by IDNX reaches back to January 2006. Internet domain name prices exhibit a strong correlation to the IT stocks as measured by the NASDAQ index. When the IT industry is doing well, prices of domain names tend to rise. In periods of falling stock prices, domains prices usually fall as well. This co-movement shows that domain names are not an asset class on their own, but that the \"real\" and the \"virtual\" economy are closely linked.\n", "Many registrars also offer registration through reseller affiliates. An end-user registers either directly with a registrar, or indirectly through one or more layers of resellers. As of 2010, the retail cost generally ranges from a low of about $7.50 per year to about $35 per year for a simple domain registration, although registrars often drop the price far lower – sometimes even free – when ordered with other products.\n", "The ease with which PPC revenue could be derived from parked domains effectively created a situation where domains were being registered purely for their type-in traffic. Many of exact phrases that people were searching for in search engines were being registered for the sole purpose of serving PPC advertising. The COM TLD grew from 23,662,001 registered domains 1 January 2003 to 80,759,835 registered domains as of 1 January 2009. While part of that increase in the number of registered domain names is due to the increase in ecommerce and business conducted online, some of the increase is due to the ease of generating revenue from PPC and type-in traffic. Domain tasting, a practice by which millions of domains would be registered for a limited period (the five-day Add Grace Period during which a domain could be deleted without the registrar effectively having to pay a registration fee to ICANN) and only those generating sufficient revenue from PPC advertising would be retained, also served to increase the number of domains registered. This practice involved domain name registrars being created purely for the purpose of domain tasting. The situation became so bad in 2007 that ICANN was forced to take action. In June 2008 ICANN added a provision to its Fiscal Year 2009 budget to limit the number of domains that a registrar could delete using the Add Grace Period before having to pay the ICANN fee. The effect of this was to massively curtail the number of domains deleted in .com and .net during the Add Grace Period. From June 2008 to April 2009, AGP deletions fell by 99.7%.\n", "The transition away from US government control over Internet domain names officially began in 1997 when oversight of the system’s technical operations were assigned to a nonprofit group, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), however, until now, the US government has remained a prominent force in regulating and monitoring these auctions.\n", "The only domains not offered to everyone during the landrush period are Premium Domains. Each registry reserves the right to reserve high value or \"Premium\" domains and to sell or auction those domains at elevated prices.\n\nOn average, a Landrush Period will last about 30 days and, in this period, applications for domain names may be received from any interested and eligible parties before registration is open for general availability.\n", "Only three of the 26 possible single-letter domains have ever been registered in the .com domain, all before 1992. The other 23 single-letter .com domains were registered January 1, 1992 by Jon Postel, with the intention to avoid a single company commercially controlling a letter of the Alphabet. \n\nMany but not all .com two-letter domains are among the most valuable domains.\n\nWhile it is widely believed that the domains business.com and sex.com have been the most valuable domain transactions, prominent two-letter domains have only been sold after nondisclosed transactions handled by specialized broker and law firms.\n", "In the past, if a domain name was already registered by another party, it was generally advisable to choose a different name. Whether current owners list domains for auction for a specified period of time or provide an instant purchase option, the domain auction has become an important tool in uniting buyers and sellers in the quest for the most beneficial domain name.\n\nSection::::Cybersquatting.\n", "In the first quarter of 2015, 294 million domain names had been registered. A large fraction of them are in the \"com\" TLD, which as of December 21, 2014, had 115.6 million domain names, including 11.9 million online business and e-commerce sites, 4.3 million entertainment sites, 3.1 million finance related sites, and 1.8 million sports sites. As of July 2012 the \"com\" TLD had more registrations than all of the ccTLDs combined.\n\nSection::::Domain name registration.:Administration.\n", "Many registrars also offer registration through reseller affiliates. An end-user registers either directly with a registrar, or indirectly through one or more layers of resellers. As of 2010, the retail cost generally ranges from a low of about $7.50 per year to about $35 per year for a simple domain registration, although registrars often drop the price far lower – sometimes even free – when ordered with other products such as web hosting services.\n", "Sometimes, domain name speculation involves finding domain names early in a market, particularly when a new top-level domain is launched, registering them and waiting until the market grows to sell them. Domains such as sex.com, marijuana.com and business.com have sold for millions of US dollars.\n", "The typical registration fee via accredited .ie registrars is approximately €25 (plus VAT of €5.75). The IEDR charges a retail price of €62.00 (plus VAT of €14.26) per year for direct registration and is considered a registrar of last resort for registrants who do not wish to go through the registrar network. This higher than normal registration fee means that it is not competing with its accredited registrars. Registration is free for charities registered with the Revenue Commissioners. Evidence of entitlement to the domain name (such as evidence of entitlement to use a particular business name via a Registered Business Name certificate \n", "In 2007 while Open Contact Ltd. was the Technical Administrator of the .by domain it announced the reduction of price on national domains from 190 thousand Belarusian rubles (88 USD) to 130 thousand (60 USD). This measure triggered the process of transmission of Belarusian web-sites from generic top-level domains to the national one.\n", "Until mid-2006, the price was US$50 for one-time registration plus $50 per year (total of $120 including VAT for the first year). For local standards this was a very high price, and many Bulgarian sites are now registered under .com (esp -bg.com), .org, or .net domains, as the registration costs are significantly lower (US$8–12 per year) and less of a bureaucratic hassle.\n", "Registration takes place through a third party, a domain name registrar. The relationship between Norid, the registrar and the holder is regulated through civil legal agreements. The registrar registers the domain on behalf of the holder, and the holder then holds the right to the domain name until it is terminated, unless a dispute resolution dictates otherwise. Norid charges registrars 60 Norwegian krone (NOK) per registration and change of holder, as well as NOK 60 in an annual fee per domain. Registrars must meet criteria regarding technical and administrative resources, must pay an annual fee of NOK 5,000 and a deposit of minimum NOK 10,000, depending on activity level. Registrars must also undertake a minimum activity of either administrating or registering forty domains per year.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09524	Why can't lightning be captured with metal poles and the energy stored?	I'm not sure, but is done in some places. The problem is that lightning has an incredibly high voltage, so you need a good system to capture it without damaging the receiving end (voltage is like the force, so every strike hits hard). Like if you wanna power a little fan through very strong punches, you wanna make sure you don't break the fan with each punch ( sorry for pretty dumb analogy) Also we don't have an efficient way to store energy (specially DC), so in order to be usable as a replacement for other method, it would have to be very constant (which isn't). Same problem with solar power.	[ "Section::::Overview.\n\nA technology capable of harvesting lightning energy would need to be able to rapidly capture the high power involved in a lightning bolt. Several schemes have been proposed, but the ever-changing energy involved in each lightning bolt renders lightning power harvesting from ground-based rods impractical – too high, it will damage the storage, too low and it may not work. Additionally, lightning is sporadic, and therefore energy would have to be collected and stored; it is difficult to convert high-voltage electrical power to the lower-voltage power that can be stored.\n", "According to Martin A. Uman, co-director of the Lightning Research Laboratory at the University of Florida and a leading authority on lightning, a single lightning strike, while fast and bright, contains very little energy, and dozens of lightning towers like those used in the system tested by AEHI would be needed to operate five 100-watt light bulbs for the course of a year. When interviewed by \"The New York Times\", he stated that the energy in a thunderstorm is comparable to that of an atomic bomb, but trying to harvest the energy of lightning from the ground is \"hopeless\".\n", "Originally, scientists believed that such a lightning protection system of air terminals and \"downleads\" directed the current of the lightning down into the earth to be \"dissipated\". However, high speed photography has clearly demonstrated that lightning is actually composed of both a cloud component and an oppositely charged ground component. During \"cloud-to-ground\" lightning, these oppositely charged components usually \"meet\" somewhere in the atmosphere well above the earth to equalize previously unbalanced charges. The heat generated as this electric current flows through flammable materials is the hazard which lightning protection systems attempt to mitigate by providing a low-resistance path for the lightning circuit. No lightning protection system can be relied upon to \"contain\" or \"control\" lightning completely (nor thus far, to prevent lightning strikes entirely), but they do seem to help immensely on most occasions of lightning strikes.\n", "Some aircraft lightning protection systems use a shielded cable system. These systems consist of one or more conductors enclosed by a conductive shield. The cable has both conductors of one end connected to a grounding element. This is intended to provide protection from electromagnetic interference. Such systems reduce the electromagnetically induced voltage in a shielded conductor. This is intended to provide protection against induced electromagnetic interference from lightning. This network provides a normally-high impedance which breaks down to a very low impedance in response to a momentary voltage surge electromagnetically induced in the shield. This establishes a conductive path between the shield and ground. Any surge voltage from lightning creates a current through the cable. This results in an electromagnetic field of the opposite direction, which cancels or reduces the magnitude of the electromagnetic field within the shielded cable.\n", "In the United States, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) does not currently endorse a device that can prevent or reduce lightning strikes. The NFPA Standards Council, following a request for a project to address Dissipation Array[tm] Systems and Charge Transfer Systems, denied the request to begin forming standards on such technology (though the Council did not foreclose on future standards development after reliable sources demonstrating the validity of the basic technology and science were submitted).\n\nSection::::Structure protectors.:Early streamer emission (ESE) theory.\n", "These conductors are bonded to earth either through the metal structure of a pole or tower, or by additional ground electrodes installed at regular intervals along the line. As a general rule, overhead power lines with voltages below 50 kV do not have a \"static\" conductor, but most lines carrying more than 50 kV do. The ground conductor cable may also support fibre optic cables for data transmission.\n", "To facilitate the harvesting of lightning, a laser-induced plasma channel (LIPC) could theoretically be used to allow lightning to strike in a predictable location. A high power laser could be used to form an ionized column of gas, which would act as an atmospheric conduit for electrical discharges of lightning, which would direct the lightning to a ground station for harvesting.\n", "Most lightning protection devices and systems protect physical structures on the earth, aircraft in flight being the notable exception. While some attention has been paid to attempting to control lightning in the atmosphere, all attempts proved extremely limited in success. Chaff and silver iodide crystal concepts were devised to deal directly with the cloud cells and were dispensed directly into the clouds from an overflying aircraft. The chaff was devised to deal with the electrical manifestations of the storm from within, while the silver iodide salting technique was devised to deal with the mechanical forces of the storm.\n", "A \"lightning protection system\" is designed to protect a structure from damage due to lightning strikes by intercepting such strikes and safely passing their extremely high currents to ground. A lightning protection system includes a network of air terminals, bonding conductors, and ground electrodes designed to provide a low impedance path to ground for potential strikes.\n", "An example of a structure vulnerable to lightning is a wooden barn. When lightning strikes the barn, the wooden structure and its contents may be ignited by the heat generated by lightning current conducted through parts of the structure. A basic lightning protection system would provide a conductive path between an air terminal and earth, so that most of the lightning's current will follow the path of the lightning protection system, with substantially less current traveling through flammable materials.\n", "Members of the Scientific Committee of the International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) have issued a joint statement stating their opposition to Early Streamer Emission technology. ICLP maintains a web page with information related to ESE and related technologies. Still, the number of buildings and structures equipped with ESE lightning protection systems is growing as well as the number of manufacturers of ESE air terminals from Europe, Americas, Middle East, Russia, China, South Korea, ASEAN countries, and Australia. Burj Khalifa is protected by an ESE terminal for several years and working effectively.\n\nSection::::Analysis of strikes.\n", "AFNOR, the French national standardization body, issued a standard, NF C 17-102, covering this technology. The NFPA also investigated the subject and there was a proposal to issue a similar standard in the USA. Initially, an NFPA independent third party panel stated that \"the [Early Streamer Emission] lightning protection technology appears to be technically sound\" and that there was an \"adequate theoretical basis for the [Early Streamer Emission] air terminal concept and design from a physical viewpoint\".) The same panel also concluded that \"the recommended [NFPA 781 standard] lightning protection system has never been scientifically or technically validated and the Franklin rod air terminals have not been validated in field tests under thunderstorm conditions.\"\n", "In the summer of 2007, an alternative energy company called Alternate Energy Holdings, Inc. (AEHI) tested a method for capturing the energy in lightning bolts. The design for the system had been purchased from an Illinois inventor named Steve LeRoy, who had reportedly been able to power a 60-watt light bulb for 20 minutes using the energy captured from a small flash of artificial lightning. The method involved a tower, a means of shunting off a large portion of the incoming energy, and a capacitor to store the rest. According to Donald Gillispie, CEO of AEHI, they \"couldn't make it work,\" although \"given enough time and money, you could probably scale this thing up... it's not black magic; it's truly math and science, and it could happen.\"\n", "In 1864, Loomis mused in his notebook: \"The lightning with its thunder crash seems to be the most powerful and terrible thing in nature. There always seems to be an abundance of this electrical element; and why not use it for various purposes?\" In an 1872 lecture he prophesied: \"The atmosphere, like the inside of a Leyden jar, or the zinc plate of a galvanic battery, is always highly charged with positive electricity, and the intervening air, like the glass of the Leyden jar, or the separated poles of the galvanic battery, is a perfect non-conductor, thus forming and constituting the most complete and colossal electric battery that ever gave an electric spark, but standing all unused. ...there is one way already demonstrated by experiments by which we can reach, and avail sources of its benefit and value, and that is to seek the highest mountain tops, and thus penetrate this immense and unexplored field, whose virgin soil awaits the plowshare for a fruitful seedtime and harvest\". Loomis noted that: \"Franklin demonstrated the practicability of drawing electricity from the clouds to the earth, but not one step has since been taken to pursue that fact to a profitable practice.\" But, once the infrastructure for drawing electrical currents from the upper atmosphere was in place, it would mean that: \"mill and factory will then run with a more subtle power, although the waterwheel stands dry and idle. Our dwellings will glow with wholesome heat on wintry days and be illuminated with clear, unwavering light in the night time from the steady and exhaustless flow of this vital element, and the miner of coal shall leave his toil in the shaft for a nobler handicraft among his fellows up in the sunlight and the world. The crude gold of Ophir may lie in the ground, but the pure smelted metal of Omnipotence lies in the stratum over it.\" In this same lecture Loomis maintained that harnessing atmospheric electricity would someday be used to melt icebergs, result in \"malaria cleared from the atmosphere\" and eventually be used to make \"the entire climates of this our planet toned and tempered\".\n", "Section::::Structure protectors.:Protection of electric distribution systems.\n\nIn overhead electric transmission (high-tension) systems, one or two lighter gauge conductors may be mounted to the top of the pylons, poles, or towers not specifically used to send electricity through the grid. These conductors, often referred to \"static\", \"pilot\" or \"shield\" wires are designed to be the point of lightning termination instead of the high-voltage lines themselves. These conductors are intended to protect the primary power conductors from lightning strikes.\n", "The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning rods or strike termination devices), bonding conductors, ground terminals (ground or \"earthing\" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the connectors and supports to complete the system. The air terminals are typically arranged at or along the upper points of a roof structure, and are electrically bonded together by bonding conductors (called \"down conductors\" or \"downleads\"), which are connected by the most direct route to one or more grounding or earthing terminals. Connections to the earth electrodes must not only have low resistance, but must have low self-inductance.\n", "BULLET::::- Kithil, Richard, \"\"Should Lightning Rods be Installed?\"\". National Lightning Safety Institute, September 26, 2005.\n\nBULLET::::- Kithil, Richard, \"\"Fundamentals of Lightning Protection\"\". National Lightning Safety Institute, September 26, 2005.\n\nBULLET::::- Nailen, Richard L., \"\"Lightning controversy goes on\"\", The Electrical Apparatus, February 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning Safety Alliance education page\n\nBULLET::::- John Scoffern, \"Orr's Circle of the Sciences\", Atmospheric Electricity—Theory of Lightning-rods W.S. Orr 1855.\n", "It is difficult to resolve the controversy because proper controlled experiments are nearly impossible, but work performed by Charles B. Moore, et al., in 2000 has shed some light on the issue, finding that moderately rounded or blunt-tipped lightning rods act as marginally better strike receptors. As a result, round-tipped rods are installed on most new systems in the United States, though most existing systems still have pointed rods. According to the study,\n\nIn addition, the height of the lightning protector relative to the structure to be protected and the Earth itself will have an effect.\n\nSection::::Structure protectors.:Charge transfer theory.\n", "An average bolt of lightning carries a negative electric current of 40 kiloamperes (kA) (although some bolts can be up to 120 kA), and transfers a charge of five coulombs and energy of 500 MJ, or enough energy to power a 100-watt lightbulb for just under two months. The voltage depends on the length of the bolt, with the dielectric breakdown of air being three million volts per meter, and lightning bolts often being several hundred meters long. However, lightning leader development is not a simple matter of dielectric breakdown, and the ambient electric fields required for lightning leader propagation can be a few orders of magnitude less than dielectric breakdown strength. Further, the potential gradient inside a well-developed return-stroke channel is on the order of hundreds of volts per meter or less due to intense channel ionization, resulting in a true power output on the order of megawatts per meter for a vigorous return-stroke current of 100 kA .\n", "In some instances, these conductors are insulated from direct bonding with earth and may be used as low voltage communication lines. If the voltage exceeds a certain threshold, such as during a lightning termination to the conductor, it \"jumps\" the insulators and passes to earth.\n\nProtection of electrical substations is as varied as lightning rods themselves, and is often proprietary to the electric company.\n\nSection::::Structure protectors.:Lightning protection of mast radiators.\n", "The charge transfer theory states that a lightning strike to a protected structure can be prevented by reducing the electrical potential between the protected structure and the thundercloud. This is done by transferring electric charge (such as from the nearby Earth to the sky or vice versa). Transferring electric charge from the Earth to the sky is done by installing engineered products composed of many points above the structure. It is noted that pointed objects will indeed transfer charge to the surrounding atmosphere and that a considerable electric current can be measured through the conductors as ionization occurs at the point when an electric field is present, such as happens when thunderclouds are overhead.\n", "A potential target for a lightning strike, such as an outdoor television antenna, is attached to the terminal labeled A in the photograph. Terminal E is attached to a long rod buried in the ground. Ordinarily no current will flow between the antenna and the ground because there is extremely high resistance between B and C, and also between C and D. The voltage of a lightning strike, however, is many times higher than that needed to move electrons through the two air gaps. The result is that electrons go through the lightning arresters rather than traveling on to the television set and destroying it.\n", "In the 1990s, the 'lightning points' were replaced as originally constructed when the Statue of Freedom atop the United States Capitol building in Washington, D.C. was restored. The statue was designed with multiple devices that are tipped with platinum. The Washington Monument also was equipped with multiple lightning points, and the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor gets hit by lightning, which is shunted to ground.\n\nSection::::Lightning protection system.\n", "Because of the difficulty in obtaining distance to lightning with a single sensor, the only current reliable method for positioning lightning is through interconnected networks of spaced sensors covering an area of the Earth's surface using time-of-arrival differences between the sensors and/or crossed-bearings from different sensors. Several such national networks currently operating in the U.S. can provide the position of CG flashes but currently cannot reliably detect and position IC flashes.\n", "Section::::Lightning protection systems.\n\nLightning protection systems are designed to mitigate the effects of lightning through connection to extensive grounding systems that provide a large surface area connection to earth. The large area is required to dissipate the high current of a lightning strike without damaging the system conductors by excess heat. Since lightning strikes are pulses of energy with very high frequency components, grounding systems for lightning protection tend to use short straight runs of conductors to reduce the self-inductance and skin effect.\n\nSection::::Bonding.\n" ]	[ "Lightning can't be captured and the energy stored. " ]	[ "It is done in some places. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Lightning can't be captured and the energy stored. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "It is done in some places. " ]
2018-05714	How do governments make trade deals with other governments?	Most trades happen between companies in the two countries. Diplomats, bureaucrats and politicians may attend these negotiations to help out but they do not have the authority to sign the trade deal on behalf of the company. But all trades are subject to the laws of the country. Especially when there are multiple countries with their own legislation and export/import specific legislation it can become difficult to find a trade deal. There may be different standards for measuring the quality of the product for instance or standards for how the products should be packaged and shipped, as well as of course tax rates and tariffs. Government officials can help by providing clarifications of their interpretation of the legislation and politicians can change the laws if needed. However when you see big "trade deals" between two or more countries it is often the case that there are no actual trades in the deals at all. Diplomats and officials can get together and sort out all the issues with the different sets of laws even before any companies have started negotiations. This will help companies that later on wants to do the trade as most of the legal issues have already been solved. It is quite common that such trade deals does require changes in the laws and therefore have to go though all countries parliament to be accepted.	[ "The Department is run by a Director-General, who oversees two deputies, one for Multilateral Trade, Regional Cooperation & Bilateral Trade and one for Bilateral Trade, Controls & Industries Support. The Department is then split into divisions, each run by an Assistant Director-General:\n\nBULLET::::- Multilateral Trade\n\nBULLET::::- Regional Cooperation\n\nBULLET::::- Europe\n\nBULLET::::- Americas\n\nBULLET::::- Mainland\n\nBULLET::::- Systems\n\nBULLET::::- Industries Support\n\nThere is also an Administration Branch and an Information and Public Relations Section.\n\nThe Department additionally comprises:\n\nBULLET::::- Trade and Industry Advisory Board\n\nBULLET::::- Textiles Advisory Board\n\nBULLET::::- Small and Medium Enterprises Committee\n\nBULLET::::- Customer Liaison Groups\n", "BULLET::::- Serbia is negotiating bilateral free trade agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore is negotiating bilateral free trade agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- EU (negotiations concluded, to be signed)\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore – Canada\n\nBULLET::::- Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- Pakistan\n\nBULLET::::- Panama\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea (Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Minister for Trade - Free Trade Agreement Department) is negotiating or is planning bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- Mexico (SECA 3rd round of talks in 14~16 June 2006)\n", "Trade facilitation\n\nTrade facilitation looks at how procedures and controls governing the movement of goods across national borders can be improved to reduce associated cost burdens and maximise efficiency while safeguarding legitimate regulatory objectives. Business costs may be a direct function of collecting information and submitting declarations or an indirect consequence of border checks in the form of delays and associated time penalties, forgone business opportunities and reduced competitiveness\n", "BULLET::::1. Traders and potential traders must know about an agreement and its details, however, the interests and skills of good producers lie in production and not in legal rules, only the largest firms can afford policy advisers.\n\nBULLET::::2. Markets and suppliers must share information - producer associations, industrial organisations, and chambers of commerce exchange information among their members and this information exchange must then take place across borders (as seen between Brazil and Argentina after Mercosur).\n\nBULLET::::3. A successful agreement must be flexible and governments need to accept that it will need to evolve.\n", "Collection of customs duties, excise duties and other indirect taxes; payment mechanisms\n\nSafety and security:\n\nSecurity and anti smuggling controls; dangerous goods; vehicle checks; immigration and visa formalities\n\nEnvironment and health:\n\nPhytosanitary, veterinary and hygiene controls; health and safety measures; CITES controls; ships’ waste\n\nConsumer protection:\n\nProduct testing; labelling; conformity checks with marketing standards (e.g. fruit and vegetables)\n\nTrade policy:\n\nAdministration of quota restrictions; export refunds\n\nSection::::Topics and issues in trade facilitation.\n", "The process was proposed to a group of countries meeting in Geneva called the Really Good Friends. All negotiating meetings take place in Geneva. The EU and the US are the main proponents of the agreement, and the authors of most joint changes. The participating countries started crafting the proposed agreement in February 2012 and presented initial offers at the end of 2013.\n\nSection::::Proposed agreement.\n", "When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists (\"schedules\") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member. Some countries may have faced tougher and a much longer accession process due to challenges during negotiations with other WTO members, such as Vietnam, whose negotiations took more than 11 years before it became official member in January 2007.\n", "Some trade includes overlap with environmental policies. Wildlife trafficking, illegal logging, and marine conservation and protection are a few examples of this overlap.\n\nSection::::Issue areas.:Government Procurement.\n\nThe purchasing done under the government makes up 10 to 15 percent of the country's GDP. In 1979, the first major Government Procurement Agreement appeared. Relations with Canada and Europe are especially noticeable in government procurement.\n\nSection::::Issue areas.:Industry and Manufacturing.\n", "BULLET::::- 1984 – Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Patent Office of the Government of Australia and the International Bureau of the World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO] to amend the Agreement of 29 February 1980 in relation to the Establishment and Functioning of the Patent Office of the Government of Australia as an International Searching and International Preliminary Examining Authority under the Patent Co-operation Treaty [of 19 June 1970]\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 – Agreement establishing the Association of Tin Producing Countries\n", "Occasionally, the term trade facilitation is extended to address a wider agenda in economic development and trade to include: the improvement of transport infrastructure, the removal of government corruption, the modernization of customs administration, the removal of other non-tariff trade barriers, as well as export marketing and promotion.\n", "BULLET::::3. provide advance rulings on tariff classifications and rules of origin within a given period of time,\n\nBULLET::::4. provide some sort of administrative body to review customs determinations,\n\nBULLET::::5. cooperate with each other on all reasonable matters, especially those involving suspicion of illegal activity,\n\nBULLET::::6. protect the confidentiality of information provided in cooperation with other customs authorities,\n\nBULLET::::7. impose their respective penalties for violations of customs laws and regulations,\n\nBULLET::::8. promptly release goods consistent with ensuring compliance with customs laws,\n\nBULLET::::9. apply risk management systems to concentrate on high-risk areas and facilitate low-risk areas, and,\n", "BULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Australia\n\nBULLET::::- ASEAN (negotiating alongside New Zealand for a proposed AFTA-AFTA-CER)\n\nBULLET::::- United Arab Emirates\n\nBULLET::::- People's Republic of China (Australia-China Free Trade Agreement)\n\nBULLET::::- Canada is negotiating or planning bilateral trade agreements with:\n\nBULLET::::- Andean Community \n\nBULLET::::- CARICOM \n\nBULLET::::- Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua (Canada Central American Free Trade Agreement)\n\nBULLET::::- Dominican Republic \n\nBULLET::::- EU\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore (negotiations concluded, to be signed)\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Joining the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership\n\nBULLET::::- Caribbean Community (CARICOM) - Canada to be negotiated, after Canada finishes their Central American Free Trade Agreement.\n", "BULLET::::- Sri Lanka - China-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement\n\nBULLET::::- Nepal - memorandum on a feasibility study currently in place\n\nBULLET::::- Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- EFTA\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- South Korea\n\nBULLET::::- Colombia is negotiating or is planning bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- El Salvador\n\nBULLET::::- Guatemala\n\nBULLET::::- Honduras\n\nBULLET::::- Costa Rica\n\nBULLET::::- Eurasian Union is negotiating or is planning bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- ASEAN\n\nBULLET::::- Cambodia\n\nBULLET::::- Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::- Egypt\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- Israel\n\nBULLET::::- MERCOSUR\n\nBULLET::::- Mongolia\n\nBULLET::::- Serbia\n\nBULLET::::- Singapore\n\nBULLET::::- Tunisia\n", "When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party finalizes the terms of accession, sends an accession package, which includes a summary of all the WP meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists (\"schedules\") of the member-to-be's commitments to the General Council or Ministerial Conference. Once the General Council or Ministerial Conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member. The documents used in the accession process which are embargoed during the accession process are released once the nation becomes a member.\n", "BULLET::::- EFTA is negotiating or is planning bilateral agreements with the following countries and blocs:\n\nBULLET::::- Algeria\n\nBULLET::::- Albania\n\nBULLET::::- MERCOSUR\n\nBULLET::::- Ukraine\n\nBULLET::::- Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)\n\nBULLET::::- EU\n\nBULLET::::- Mercosur\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand\n\nBULLET::::- Turkey\n\nBULLET::::- India\n\nBULLET::::- Australia (on negotiation)\n\nBULLET::::- Sri Lanka (separate from the South Asia Free Trade Agreement)\n\nBULLET::::- Chile (on negotiation)\n\nBULLET::::- New Zealand (on negotiation)\n\nBULLET::::- Hong Kong (on negotiation)\n\nBULLET::::- European Union (to be concluded before 2010 year end)\n\nBULLET::::- EFTA\n\nBULLET::::- Japan\n\nBULLET::::- Gulf Cooperation Council\n\nBULLET::::- Australia (Conducting feasibility study as of 19 September 2006).\n", "Section::::Historical context.\n\nSection::::Historical context.:1990s.\n", "The U.S. Commercial Service, through its Strategic Corporate Partnership program, has Public Private Partnership agreements with 17 private organizations, including several banks, legal and regulatory organizations, transportation and shipping organizations, event organizers, trade risk service companies and the publisher of Commercial News USA, the official export promotion magazine of the U.S. Department of Commerce, The ecommerce partner is the Federation of International Trade Associations under which the USCS contributes market research and other reports on GlobalTrade.net.\n\nSection::::Leadership.\n", "In the 1970-80s, the contracts were signed and the first supplies were made to Italy, Germany, Sweden, Spain, Finland, UK, Belgium, Republic of Korea. In 1990s, TENEX concluded agreements with RSA, China, Switzerland and Japan; in 2000s – with Mexico and Czech Republic.\n", "BULLET::::- 1982 – Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – Amendments to the Title and Substantive Provisions of the Convention on the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization of 6 March 1948\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of the Philippines concerning Co-operation in Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and the Transfer of Nuclear Material\n\nBULLET::::- 1982 – Agreement between the Government of Australia and the European Atomic Energy Community concerning Transfers of Nuclear Material from Australia to the European Atomic Energy Community\n", "Some international organizations provide assistance to so-called developing countries to help them promote their exports, most prominently the International Trade Centre in Geneva, which is a subsidiary of the World Trade Organization and the United Nations with a mandate to providing trade-related technical assistance to those countries.\n\nSection::::Economic theory of trade promotion.\n", "BULLET::::- Provide a dispute settlement mechanism pursuant to the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU)./\n\nBULLET::::- Administer the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) which examines the trade policies of members.\n\nBULLET::::- Cooperate with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).\n\nGATT 1994 is incorporated into the WTO Agreement, and contains three important basic principles in the context of international commercial law:\n", "Trade facilitation involves a wide range of activities centered on lowering trade transaction costs for firms in global commerce. These costs include the price of moving freight from the factory to final destinations. Firms must manage border clearance procedures and pay trade services fees, among many other steps after goods and services are produced. As such, trade facilitation involves much more than trucking goods across national borders or shipping a package by sea transport.\n\nSection::::Cross-country comparisons and performance.\n", "BULLET::::- Page, S (2010) What happens after Trade Agreements? ODI Project Briefing 12, Overseas Development Institute\n\nBULLET::::- Grainger, A 2011. Trade Facilitation: A Conceptual Review, Journal of World Trade, 45 (1). pp. 39–62. ISSN\n\nBULLET::::- Grainger, A 2007. Customs and Trade Facilitation: from concepts to implementation World Customs Journal, Volume 2, Number 1\n\nBULLET::::- OECD. 2002. Business Benefits of Trade Facilitation\n\nBULLET::::- UN ESCAP / ADB (2013) Designing and Implementing Trade Facilitation in Asia and the Pacific\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Google Scholar: listed Trade Facilitation researchers\n\nBULLET::::- AUSTRIAPRO: AUSTRIAPRO is an association affiliated with the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber.\n", "BULLET::::- 1990 – Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics relating to Co-operation in Fisheries\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Supply of Agricultural and Mineral Commodities from Australia to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics\n\nBULLET::::- 1990 – Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Cooperation in the Field of Protection and Enhancement of the Environment\n", "Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy\n\nA Prime Ministerial Trade Envoy is a position in British foreign policy, within the Department for International Trade since 2016, and formerly with the UK Trade & Investment government department from 2003 to 2016. \n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13920	Why are user names not case sensitive?	In situations where the username is used as a displayed name, case sensitive usernames would enable someone to attempt to impersonate someone else just by registering a new account with a different permutation of capital/lowercase letters. The same applies for web domains. For emails, case sensitive addresses would result in a lot of undelivered emails from someone forgetting which letters were capitalized or not. Etc. Also worth noting that some companies, like Wells Fargo, do not use case sensitive passwords as an added convenience to the user. For passwords, passwords are supposed to be arbitrary, are not stored in plain text or ever displayed, and allowing case sensitive passwords enables a massively wider range of possible passwords to discourage guessing.	[ "From its original inception, Unix and its derivative systems were case-preserving. However, not all Unix-like file systems are case-sensitive; by default, HFS+ in macOS is case-insensitive, and SMB servers usually provide case-insensitive behavior (even when the underlying file system is case-sensitive, e.g. Samba on most Unix-like systems), and SMB client file systems provide case-insensitive behavior. File system case sensitivity is a considerable challenge for software such as Samba and Wine, which must interoperate efficiently with both systems that treat uppercase and lowercase files as different and with systems that treat them the same.\n\nSection::::Reserved characters and words.\n", "In 2013, Google released a list of the most common password types, all of which are considered insecure because they are too easy to guess (especially after researching an individual on social media):\n\nBULLET::::- The name of a pet, child, family member, or significant other\n\nBULLET::::- Anniversary dates and birthdays\n\nBULLET::::- Birthplace\n\nBULLET::::- Name of a favorite holiday\n\nBULLET::::- Something related to a favorite sports team\n\nBULLET::::- The word \"password\"\n\nSection::::Factors in the security of a password system.\n", "Section::::Law Enforcement.:Public Security Bureau.:Rei Furuya.\n", "The level of abstraction of a use case model makes it an appropriate starting point for design activities, thanks to the use of UML use case diagrams and the end user's or domain expert's language. But for software security analyses, the developers should pay attention to negative scenarios and understand them. That is why, in the 1990s, the concept of \"inverse of an use case\" was born in Norway.\n", "Another recent approach which bears similarities with feature mapping is building a hybrid content-based filtering recommender in which features, either of the items or of the users, are weighted according to the user's perception of importance. In order to identify a movie that the user could like, different attributes (e.g. which are the actors, director, country, title) will have different importance. As an example consider the James bond movie series, the main actor changed many times during the years, while some did not, like Lois Maxwell. Therefore, her presence will probably be a better identifier of that kind of movie than the presence of one of the various main actors. \n", "Some names are known to cause troubles, possibly because they conflict with names used internally by (some parts of) the mail software, including mail filters, or because the underlying storage system chokes on them. A number of lists exist, for example on GitHub. See the Scunthorpe problem for a striking filter case.\n", "All desktop systems must share information about the user. This is a corollary of the re-apportionment principle. To the extent that desktop systems require user information (such as email address, phone# etc.) it is advantageous for users to have the system obtain it from a common profile.\n\nSection::::Laws.:Information Responsibility Principle.\n", "In another case, while the standard requires that the maximum size of a Nokia Mail address is 32 characters, some Nokia phones did not verify this standard, so if a user enters an email address over 32 characters, that leads to complete dysfunction of the e-mail handler and puts it out of commission. This attack is called \"curse of silence\".\n", "In summary, specifying system requirements in use cases has these apparent benefits comparing with traditional or other approaches:\n\nUser focused\n", "Section::::In text search.\n", "Safety cases are typically documented in both textual and graphical notations, e.g. using the Goal Structuring Notation (GSN).\n\nSafety Cases are becoming more popular on civil/commercial aircraft and Department of Defense (DoD) weapon systems as complexity and criticality increase. A paradigm shift is often necessary to accept Safety Cases as traditional system safety and software safety analysis and verification approaches and processes are not adequately structured to present an effective safety argument on some more modern architectures using modern development tools and formal methods.\n", "Whether or not the case variants are treated as equivalent to each other varies depending on the computer system and context. For example, user passwords are generally case sensitive in order to allow more diversity and make them more difficult to break. On the other hand, when performing a keyword search, differentiating between the upper and lower case might narrow down the search result too much.\n\nSection::::Case folding and case conversion.:Unicode case folding and script identification.\n", "According to the OMB, it is not always the case that PII is \"sensitive\", and context may be taken into account in deciding whether certain PII is or is not sensitive.\n\nSection::::Conceptions.:Australia.\n", "Section::::Major supporting characters.:Serena Sebastian.\n", "Problem statements can vary in length, depending on the complexity of the problem. The following is an example of a simple problem statement for the creation of a Single Sign On capability:\n\nIDEAL :\n\nIdeally our users would be able sign into their laptops and then automatically have access to all of the applications they need to use.\n\nREALITY :\n\nIn reality we use at least three applications every day to accomplish our work. Each application is protected by a password with different requirements for username & password length. Passwords also expire at different times.\n\nCONSEQUENCES :\n", "Soon after being introduced, doubts emerged on the conformance of the shopping lens with the European Data Protection Directive. By late 2013, these doubts made the grounds for a formal complaint on the shopping lens filed with the Information Commissioner's Office (IOC), the UK data privacy office. Almost one year later the IOC ruled in favour of Canonical, considering the various improvements introduced to the feature in the meantime to render it conformal with the Data Protection Directive. However, the ruling also made clear that at the time of introduction the feature was not legal, among other things, since it lacked a privacy policy statement.\n", "The permission needs to be given in a format which is explicit, not implied. Just because you chose an application to chat with your partner does not mean that this app needs access to your entire list of contacts. The button which you click to give permission should not be designed in such a way that the automatic behaviour is opting in. For example, in binary choices if one button is smaller than the other, or if one button is hidden in the design and the other jumps out at you, or if one button requires multiple clicks whereas the other is a single click.\n", "Interpretation of the \"local part\" of an email address is dependent on the conventions and policies implemented in the mail server. For example, case sensitivity may distinguish mailboxes differing only in capitalization of characters of the local-part, although this is not very common. Gmail ignores all dots in the local-part for the purposes of determining account identity. This prevents the creation of user accounts \"your.user.name\" or \"yourusername\" when the account \"your.username\" already exists.\n\nSection::::Common local-part semantics.:Subaddressing.\n", "Minimizing and optimizing the action steps of a use case to achieve the user goal also contribute to a better interaction design and user experience of the system.\n\nFacilitate testing and user documentation\n", "An email address such as \"[email protected]\" is made up of a local-part, an @ symbol, then a case-insensitive domain. Although the standard requires\n\nthe local part to be case-sensitive, it also urges that receiving hosts deliver messages in a case-independent fashion,\n\ne.g., that the mail system at \"example.com\" treat \"John.Smith\" as equivalent to \"john.smith\"; some mail systems even treat them as equivalent to \"johnsmith\". Mail systems often limit their users' choice of name to a subset of the technically valid characters, and in some cases also limit which addresses it is possible to send mail to.\n", "A username is required to set up email accounts and to open accounts for various official, commercial, recreational and social networking sites. In many cases, an email address may also be utilised as a username. Usernames that correlate with personal information such as names or nicknames are more at risk than ones that are cryptic or anonymous, particularly on social and recreational sites.\n\nSection::::Password Strength.\n", "BULLET::::- Delegation problem: CAs cannot technically restrict subordinate CAs from issuing certificates outside a limited namespaces or attribute set; this feature of X.509 is not in use. Therefore, a large number of CAs exist on the Internet, and classifying them and their policies is an insurmountable task. Delegation of authority within an organization cannot be handled at all, as in common business practice.\n", "The idea of user advocates originated from large-scale software development projects. In such teams, a consensus is reached regarding the roles of a product designer (or systems designer) and the user experience (UX) analyst, that the two roles (designer and UX analyst) can no longer be effectively performed by the same individual(s) due to inherent conflicting interests. An example of such a conflict of interest would be a designer having to defend his own design decision about a product improvement, versus an alternative decision that could lead to a better user experience, but would negate the designer's original decision about how to improve the product.\n", "BULLET::::4. The use case extension scenario fragments provide answers to the many detailed, often tricky and ignored business questions: “What are we supposed to do in this case?” It is a thinking/documentation framework that matches the if…then…else statement that helps the programmers think through issues. Except it is done at investigation time, not programming time.\n\nBULLET::::5. The full use case set shows that the investigators have thought through every user’s needs, every goal they have with respect to the system, and every business variant involved.\n", "Hence, for example a misuse case might be used to define what a hacker would want to do with the system and define his or her requirements. A developer or designer can then define the requirements of the user and the hacker in the same UML diagram which in turn helps identify the security risks of the system.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.\n\nA misuse case diagram is created together with a corresponding use case diagram. The model introduces 2 new important entities (in addition to those from the traditional use case model, \"use case\" and \"actor\":\n" ]	[ "Case sensitive user names would be safe." ]	[ "Case sensitive user names would not be safe because case sensitive user names would enable impersonation attempts. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Case sensitive user names would be safe.", "Case sensitive user names would be safe." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Case sensitive user names would not be safe because case sensitive user names would enable impersonation attempts. ", "Case sensitive user names would not be safe because case sensitive user names would enable impersonation attempts. " ]
2018-03482	How do construction companies get cranes on top of sky scrapers that are hundreds of stories high?	Idk if I'll get deleted for linking this but I shot a lil time lapse for when these questions get asked. Note the weight hanging in the front for balance as well as the hydraulic ram on the backside of the tower, where the workers are moving. What u see them roll out is 20 foot tower section. So the crane grows and shrinks 20 feet at a time. URL_0	[ "Section::::Construction.:Equipment.\n\nThe construction of Phase 2 was aided by two tower cranes on either side of the structure. The cranes used at Phase 2 were the Liebherr 200 EC-H10 and the flat top Liebherr 200 EC-B 10.\n", "For the work at basement level at Phase 4, Bachy Soletanche used two support cranes and two Bauer BG 22 piling rigs. Construction of Phase 3 is being assisted by three tower cranes. The first crane to be assembled, TC3, is to be the shortest of the three tower cranes. It has a maximum height of and has a luffing jib. It was built in one stage. It is a free standing crane and will allow podium level construction. Once construction at podium level is completed, it will be dismantled and replaced by two number gantry joists.\n", "Skycranes were used in 1972 when the Chesapeake Bay Bridge connecting Maryland and the Eastern Shore was being built to bring concrete and other supplies to the construction site. In 1993, an Erickson aerial Skycrane, normally used for hauling lumber in Oregon, was used to remove the “Statue of Freedom” from the top of the Capitol dome in Washington, D.C. The statue was placed on the ground while it was being cleaned and restored before being gently returned to the top of the dome, once again with a Skycrane.\n\nSection::::Purpose-designed aircraft.\n\nBULLET::::- Kaman K-MAX\n\nBULLET::::- Kamov Ka-26\n\nBULLET::::- Kamov Ka-32K\n", "Assembly on site is itself a complex process, involving a number of smaller cranes and several weeks of effort, and a cost of perhaps $500,000.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Twin ring cranes.\n", "Cell site workers are called tower climbers or transmission tower workers. Transmission tower workers often work at heights of up to 1,500 feet (450 m), performing maintenance and repair work for cellular phone and other wireless communications companies.\n\nSection::::Employment.:Spy agency setup.\n\nAccording to documents leaked to Der Spiegel, the NSA sells a $40,000 \"active GSM base station\" to be used as a tool to mimic a mobile phone tower and thus monitor cell phones.\n", "A lattice tower is usually assembled at the location where it is to be erected. This makes very tall towers possible, up to (and in special cases even higher, as in the Elbe crossing 1 and Elbe crossing 2). Assembly of lattice steel towers can be done using a crane. Lattice steel towers are generally made of angle-profiled steel beams (L- or T-beams). For very tall towers, trusses are often used.\n\nSection::::Tower designs.:Materials.:Wood.\n", "As of 2003, typical modern wind turbine installations use towers about 210 ft (65 m) high.\n\nHeight is typically limited by the availability of cranes.\n\nThis has led to a variety of proposals for \"partially self-erecting wind turbines\" that, for a given available crane, allow taller towers that put a turbine in stronger and steadier winds, and \"self-erecting wind turbines\" that can be installed without cranes.\n\nSection::::Tower.:Tower materials.\n", "34. Bringing In The Harvest\n\nA group of tractors retrieve tomatoes from the farm and put them into the Factory. Also features Clipper, who clips grapes and a truck who brings them to a factory to make wine.\n\n35. Reach For The Sky\n\nStretch,a mobile crane, is going to replace an ac on the top of a tall building, with a little help from another crane, Little Brother. Stretch is ready to make the big lift while Gipsy Lady a Sikorsky s64 sky crane helps change ac units on the roof of a factory\n\n36. Machines Go To School\n", "The video was filmed inside a real fabrication plant run by Skyworks Solutions When the video premiered on iTunes, the Skyworks Solutions name and logo were blurred out during some scenes.\n", "Section::::Reception and influence.\n", "BULLET::::- They can be assembled vertically (in their final upright position). Very tall towers, such as the Yangtze River Crossing, were assembled in this way.\n\nBULLET::::- A jin-pole crane can be used to assemble lattice towers. This is also used for utility poles.\n\nBULLET::::- Helicopters can serve as aerial cranes for their assembly in areas with limited accessibility. Towers can also be assembled elsewhere and flown to their place on the transmission right-of-way. Helicopters may also be used for transporting disassembled towers for scrapping.\n\nSection::::Markers.\n", "The cable-mounted Skycam system can also be installed outdoors, using construction cranes that are supported by light stainless steel guy-lines, as was done in the 1984 Hollywood film \"Birdy\", starring Matthew Modine and Nicolas Cage.\n\nSection::::Telescoping mast or pole photography.\n\n\"Mast or pole photography\" refers to low-level, ground-based elevated or aerial photography, using a telescopic mast or pole, with a remote-controlled camera attached to the mast head, which allows a photographer to capture still and motion picture imagery, from a \"birds eye view\".\n\nThere are numerous applications for \"elevated photography\", including:\n\nBULLET::::- the real estate business\n", "On 14 March 2011, with construction already underway on the main pylon, \"The One Show\" broadcast footage of the on-site status of project, and profiled the four-man team putting it together, comprising two steel erectors, a crane operator and a site foreman.\n\nSection::::Use.\n", "On 29 October 2012 the long boom of a Lend Lease construction crane atop the 1,004 foot high One57 snapped during Hurricane Sandy forcing the evacuation of several buildings in Midtown Manhattan.\n", "A structural engineer named Matthew Fuchs of the Milwaukee School of Engineering and fellow student Michael Pagelsdorf advised Pflieger to use 4 ½\" steel pipe with ½\" wall thickness when building the tower structure. Fence material and even labor were donated by Heritage Fence of Cedarburg. The angel inside the cage is fiberglass and resin which was made from a clay model and has a metal interior. \n\nThis structure is a great example of cooperative effort of both public education and private business which has the power to create outdoor artwork installations.\n\nSection::::Artist.\n", "For a video of a crane getting taller, see here:\n\nFor another animation of such a crane in use see this video: (Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold which in turn contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire.)\n\nSection::::Types.:Fixed.:Telescopic.\n", "The Sky Tower was manufactured by HUSS Park Attractions of Bremen, Germany. The Sky Tower was fabricated within 6 months at HUSS's factory in Europe.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Management.\n\nSky Tower Pte Ltd is a project conceived by Melchers Project Management Pte Ltd.\n\nMelchers Project Management, being the managing shareholder of Sky Tower Pte Ltd, runs the daily operations of the Carlsberg Sky Tower in close co-operation with Sentosa Leisure Group (SLG). SLG is Sky Tower's Operations, Marketing, Sales and Ticketing agent.\n", "Some articulated lifts are limited to only the distance accessible by the length of each boom arm, however, by the use of telescoping sections, the range can be vastly increased. Some large hydraulic platforms mounted on a lorry can reach heights of over 100 metres.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Cranes are used to tilt the concrete elements from the casting slab to a vertical position. The slabs are then most often set onto a foundation and secured with braces until the structural steel and the roof diaphragm is in place.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Some full gantry cranes of note are Samson and Goliath and Taisun. Samson and Goliath are two full gantry cranes located in the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast have spans of 140 metres and can lift loads of up to 840 tonnes to a height of 70 metres. In 2008, the world's strongest gantry crane, Taisun, which can lift 20,000 metric tons, was installed in Yantai, China at the Yantai Raffles Shipyard. In 2012, a 22,000-ton capacity crane, the \"Honghai Crane\" was planned for construction in Qidong City, China.\n\nSection::::Variants.:Rubber-tyred gantry crane.\n", "Such person lifts are distinguished from telescopic handlers in that the latter are true cranes designed to deliver cargo loads such as pallets full of construction materials (rather than just a person with some tools).\n\nSection::::Motive mechanisms.:Vehicle-mounted.\n", "The invention of the aerial work platform is accredited to John L. Grove, co-founder of JLG Industries. Before AWP's, scaffolding was the main form of mobility on a work site. In 1969, Grove realized there was a pressing need for a scaffolding-alternative that could safely and quickly lift workers in the air to perform construction and maintenance functions. In 1970, Grove and JLG Industries sold the first aerial work platform in McConnellsburg, Pennsylvania.\n\nSection::::Lifting mechanisms.\n", "They are generally used for temporary, flexible access purposes such as maintenance and construction work or by firefighters for emergency access, which distinguishes them from permanent access equipment such as elevators. They are designed to lift limited weights — usually less than a ton, although some have a higher safe working load (SWL) — distinguishing them from most types of cranes. They are usually capable of being set up and operated by a single person.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Other measurement towers.\n\nBULLET::::- Aerial test facility Brück, Brück, Germany\n\nBULLET::::- BREN Tower, Nevada Test Side, USA\n\nSection::::Examples.:Wind farm development.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00068	why do our teeth chatter when its cold	Your jaw shivers. Shivering is a response to cold - the rapid movement of the muscles generates warmth expending energy.	[ "Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct. Most often, when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion, the heat is wasted energy. In shivering, the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth.\n", "Almost all Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Hungarian and Estonian have a distinctive moraic chroneme as a phoneme (also arguably called archiphoneme or epenthetic vowel/consonant). The etymology of the vocalic chroneme has been traced to a voiced velar fricative in the hypothetical Proto-Uralic language, such that becomes . For example, \"taka-\" \"back-\", \"takka\" \"fireplace\" and \"taakka\" \"burden\" are unrelated words. It is also grammatically important; the third person marker is a chroneme (\"menee\" \"s/he goes\"), and often in the spoken Finnish of the Helsinki area there are grammatical minimal pairs, e.g. nominative \"Stadi\" \"Helsinki\" vs. partitive \"Stadii\" \"at Helsinki\".\n", "BULLET::::- Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), energy expended for everything that is not sleeping, eating or sports-like exercise.\n\nBULLET::::- Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT)\n\nSection::::Types.:Shivering.\n\nOne method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all of the energy to show up as heat. Shivering is the process by which the body temperature of hibernating mammals (such as some bats and ground squirrels) is raised as these animals emerge from hibernation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-shivering.\n", "Shivering (also called shaking) is a bodily function in response to cold in warm-blooded animals. When the core body temperature drops, the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements, creating warmth by expending energy. Shivering can also be a response to a fever, as a person may feel cold. During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised. The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise (pyrexia), but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached. Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors. Rigors occur because the patient's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point.\n", "Cold-sensitive thermoreceptors give rise to the sensations of cooling, cold and freshness.\n\nIn the cornea cold receptors are thought to respond with an increase in firing rate to cooling produced by evaporation of lacrimal fluid 'tears' and thereby to elicit a blink reflex.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n", "Section::::Uses in neuroscience.:Somatosensory cortex studies.\n\nPart of the somatosensory cortex of rats is arranged in distinct sections called barrels that account for stimuli sensed by each whisker. Cooling the somatosensory cortex surface helps to dissociate the activity generated in different barrels, thus bringing to light some of the dynamics involved in cortical processing of sensory inputs.\n\nSection::::Uses in neuroscience.:Other.\n", "Shivering can also appear after surgery. This is known as postanesthetic shivering. \n\nIn humans, shivering can also be caused by mere cognition . This is known as psychogenic shivering .\n\nSection::::Shivering and the elderly.\n", "Patients report that myotonia congenita may present itself in the following ways (this is from first hand experience). If the person is sedentary and then decides to walk up a set of stairs, by the third or fourth step their leg muscles begin to stiffen significantly, requiring them to slow down almost to a complete stop. But as the muscles loosen up, a few steps later, they can once again begin to climb the steps at a normal pace. If this person plays any kind of a sport, a good warm-up is mandatory. Otherwise if they need to quickly and intensively use their muscles, such as in a sprint race or a basketball game, their muscles will freeze up, causing them to slow down or almost come to a complete stop. But once the muscles are warmed up, they can once again function normally. This can happen in various muscles, even in muscles such as the tongue. For example, if a person has not spoken for awhile and then wants to speak, their tongue may be stiff at first causing the words to come out a little garbled, but after a few seconds of trying to speak, the tongue muscle will loosen up and then they can speak normally for the remainder of the time that they are conversing.\n", "BULLET::::- Ions exist inside and outside of the neuron and are subject to many bodily conditions. One major source of noise arises from ions or molecules in response to the third law of thermodynamics. This law states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. Since the body maintains temperatures above 0K, the molecules are subjected to increased kinetic energy, or motion. The stochastic, or random, movements give rise to receptor noise produced by the constant bombardment of ions, as described by Brownian motion. Ions are constantly being leaked across the membrane in efforts to equalize the ionic gradient produced by ATPase channels embedded in the membrane. These leaky channels permit the movement of ions across the membrane leading to small fluctuations, or noise, in the membrane potential.\n", "BULLET::::- Ionic conductance noise: Ion channels in the membrane undergo spontaneous changes in conformation between different states and can open (or close) due to thermal fluctuations. The transmembrane embedded protein channels are made up of small subunits that undergo conformational changes and are affected by thermal fluctuations. When temperature drops below 33 °C, the rate at which the channel becomes active or inactive decreases. In contrast when the temperature is increased above 33 °C, the rate at which the channel becomes active or inactive increases.\n", "Three Uralic phonemes have been posited to reflect PIE laryngeals. In post-vocalic positions both the post-alveolar fricatives that ever existed in Uralic are represented: firstly a possibly velar one, theoretically reconstructed much as the PIE laryngeals (conventionally marked x), in the very oldest borrowings and secondly a grooved one (š as in \"shoe\" becoming modern Finnic \"h\") in some younger ones. The velar plosive \"k\" is the third reflex and the only one found word-initially. In intervocalic position the reflex \"k\" is probably younger than either of the two former ones. The fact that Finno-Ugric may have plosive reflexes for PIE laryngeals is to be expected under well documented Finnic phonological behaviour and does not mean much for tracing the phonetic value of PIE laryngeals (cf. Finnish \"kansa\" 'people' PGmc xansā 'company, troupe, party, crowd' (cf. German \"Hanse\"), Finnish \"kärsiä\" 'suffer, endure' PGmc xarđia- 'endure' (cf. E. \"hard\"), Finnish \"pyrkiä\" PGmc. wurk(i)ja- 'work, work for' etc.).\n", "Teething has not been shown to cause fever or diarrhea; however, the belief that teething causes fever is extremely common among parents. Whilst there is some evidence that teething can cause an elevated temperature, it does not cause fever (medically defined as rectal temperature greater than . One small 1992 study found a significant rise in temperature on the day of eruption of the first tooth. Another study in 2000 found \"mild temperature elevation\" but not fever over .\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Thermoregulatory behavior.\n", "Teething may cause a slightly elevated temperature, but not rising into the fever range of greater than . Higher temperatures during teething are due to some form of infection, such as a herpes virus, initial infection of which is extremely widespread among children of teething age.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "The metabolic rate is increased, initially by non-shivering thermogenesis, followed by shivering thermogenesis if the earlier reactions are insufficient to correct the hypothermia.\n\nWhen core temperature rises are detected by thermoreceptors, the sweat glands in the skin are stimulated via cholinergic sympathetic nerves to secrete sweat onto the skin, which, when it evaporates, cools the skin and the blood flowing through it. Panting is an alternative effector in many vertebrates, which cools the body also by the evaporation of water, but this time from the mucous membranes of the throat and mouth.\n\nSection::::Controls of variables.:Blood glucose.\n", "Second sound is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which heat transfer occurs by wave-like motion, rather than by the more usual mechanism of diffusion. Heat takes the place of pressure in normal sound waves. This leads to a very high thermal conductivity. It is known as \"second sound\" because the wave motion of heat is similar to the propagation of sound in air.\n\nSection::::Fourier's law.\n", "BULLET::::- Muscles can also receive messages from the thermoregulatory center of the brain (the hypothalamus) to cause shivering. This increases heat production as respiration is an exothermic reaction in muscle cells. Shivering is more effective than exercise at producing heat because the animal (includes humans) remains still. This means that less heat is lost to the environment through convection. There are two types of shivering: low-intensity and high-intensity. During low-intensity shivering, animals shiver constantly at a low level for months during cold conditions. During high-intensity shivering, animals shiver violently for a relatively short time. Both processes consume energy, however high-intensity shivering uses glucose as a fuel source and low-intensity tends to use fats. This is a primary reason why animals store up food in the winter.\n", "Section::::Behavioral mechanism of mammalian sperm thermotaxis.\n", "BULLET::::- Palatalization of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in \"hattyú\" \"swan\". Some Sami languages, for example Skolt Sami, distinguish three degrees: plain [l], palatalized , and palatal , where has a primary alveolar articulation, while has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old Proto-Uralic. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The Finnic languages have lost palatalization, but the eastern varieties have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.\n", "BULLET::::- Finnish \"kesä\" 'summer' < PFS kesä PIE * () Balto-Slavic eseni- 'autumn', Gothic \"asans\" 'summer'\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"kaski\" 'burnt-over clearing' < Proto-Finnic kaski PIE/PreG [] = // Gmc. askōn 'ashes'\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"koke-\" 'to perceive, sense' PreFi koki- PIE [] = // Greek \"opsomai\" 'look, observe' (cognate to Lat. \"oculus\" 'eye')\n\nBULLET::::- Finnish \"kulke-\" 'to go, walk, wander' ~ Hungarian \"halad-\" 'to go, walk, proceed' PFU kulki- PIE kʷelH-e/o- Greek \"pelomai\" '(originally) to be moving', Sanskrit \"cárati\" 'goes, walks, wanders (about)', cognate Lat. \"colere\" 'to till, cultivate, inhabit'\n", "Galen wrote in \"On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body\" (170): \"The heart is, as it were, the hearthstone and source of the innate heat by which the animal is governed.\" In the 11th century, Avicenna agreed with this notion, stating that the heart produced breath, the \"vital power or innate heat\" within the body, in his \"Canon of Medicine\".\n\nLater, the term \"innate heat\" was attributed to friction caused by the motion of blood through arteries, as evidenced by the \"Cyclopaedia\" (1728):\n\nSection::::Aristotle's views.\n", "This effect is more important to humans than what was initially thought. Linguists have pointed out that at least the English language has many false starts and extraneous sounds. The phonemic restoration effect is the brain's way of resolving those imperfections in our speech. Without this effect interfering with our language processing, there would be a greater need for much more accurate speech signals and human speech could require much more precision. For experiments, white noise is necessary because it takes the place of these imperfections in speech. One of the most important factors in language is continuity and in turn intelligibility.\n", "One research group has reported that TRPM8 is activated by chemical cooling agents (such as menthol) or when ambient temperatures drop below approximately 26 °C, suggesting that it mediates the detection of cold thermal stimuli by primary afferent sensory neurons of afferent nerve fibers.\n", "BULLET::::- leaf – leaves\n\nBULLET::::- wife – wives\n\nBULLET::::- wolf – wolves\n\nThe following mutations are optional:\n\nBULLET::::- bath () - baths ()\n\nBULLET::::- mouth () - mouths ()\n\nBULLET::::- oath () - oaths ()\n\nBULLET::::- path () - paths ()\n\nBULLET::::- youth () - youths ()\n\nBULLET::::- house () – houses ()\n\nSonorants () following aspirated fortis plosives (that is, in the onsets of stressed syllables unless preceded by ) are devoiced such as in \"please\", \"crack\", \"twin\", and \"pewter\".\n\nSection::::In other languages.\n\nSection::::In other languages.:Voicing assimilation.\n", "BULLET::::- United States Secretary of Commerce Robert P. Lamont issued a statement predicting that 1930 would mark \"a continuance of prosperity and progress.\" Secretary of the Treasuary Andrew W. Mellon likewise issued an optimistic statement: \"During the winter months there may be some slackness or unemployment, but hardly more than is usual at this season each year. I have every confidence that there will be a revival of activity in the spring and that during the coming year the country will make steady progress.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Born: Mies Bouwman, television presenter, in Amsterdam, Netherlands\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03110	Why do similar potato products such as potato waffles, smiley faces, chips etc taste different?	Ratio of surface area to interior place a factor. A thicker cut with more interior potato will be softer while a lot of surface area to little interior will be more crisp. It also matters how long they are fried, as a longer cook time will result in more crisp results.	[ "Potato chip flavorings include variations of barbecue, as well as sour cream and onion, sour cream and cheddar, salt and vinegar, ranch, jalapeno and cheese. \"Hot\" is a common flavor such as Jay's Hot Stuff and Better Made Red Hot. Better Made also make Rainbow chips, heavily cooked dark-colored chips which would be rejected by most processors. In the Gulf South, Zapp's of Gramercy, Louisiana, makes kettle-cooked chips using regional flavors such as Crawtator, Cajun dill, Voodoo, and Creole onion.\n\nSection::::Regional varieties.:United States.:Pennsylvania.\n", "A larger variant (about 1 cm thick) made with dehydrated potatoes is marketed as Andy Capp's Pub Fries, using the theme of a long-running British comic strip, which are baked and sold in a variety of flavors.\n\nWalkers make a similar product (using the Smiths brand) called \"Chipsticks\" which are sold in ready-salted and salt and vinegar flavors.\n", "Section::::Regional varieties.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, potato chips are made by national chains like Frito-Lay's, Pringles and Kettle Brand; major regional brands like Jay's of Chicago, Better Made of Detroit and Old Dutch of Minneapolis; and specialty brands with local or uneven distribution. \n", "Better Made Potato Chips\n\nBetter Made Potato Chips Inc. is a brand name for a variety of potato chips in the United States that was founded in 1930. Better Made is also the name of the company that produces the potato chips. The company provides consumers with a wide variety of potato chips, cheese curls, and cheese puffs.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy \"baking\" potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy \"boiling\" potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called \"chipping potatoes\", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.\n", "The market in the United Kingdom is led by Walkers, which held 56% of the British crisp market in 2013. Walkers is known for its wide variety of crisps with the most popular flavours being Cheese & Onion, Salt & Vinegar, Prawn Cocktail, Beef and Onion, Roast Chicken, Smoky Bacon, Worcester Sauce, Pickled Onion, Tomato Ketchup, and Salt & Shake - Original.\n", "The \"Innate\" potato is not a single cultivar, rather, it is a group of potato varieties that have had the same genetic alterations applied using the same process. Five different potato varieties have been transformed, thus creating \"innate\" versions with all of the original traits plus the engineered ones. Ranger Russet, Russet Burbank, and Atlantic potatoes have all been transformed by Simplot, as well as two proprietary varieties. Modifications of each variety involved two transformations, one for each of the two new traits.\n\nFood and Water Watch successfully petitioned McDonald's to reject Innate potatoes.\n\nSection::::Brands.\n\nBULLET::::- Edgell (frozen vegetables)\n", "The Old Dutch brand is mainly known for the many flavors of potato chips they produce. They come in bags and \"twin packs\"; cardboard boxes with two packages of chips inside.\n", "More exotic flavors are Thai sweet chili, roast pork and creamy mustard sauce, lime and Thai spices, chicken with Italian herbs, Spicy Sriracha, BBQ Pulled Pork, sea salt and cracked black pepper, sea salt and cider vinegar, spicy and aromatic curry, turkey and bacon, caramelized onion and sweet balsamic vinegar, Stilton and cranberry. Since 2008, Walkers has launched its \"Do Us a Flavour\" campaign, challenging the British public to think up unique flavours for their crisps. Six flavours were chosen from among the entries and released as special editions. In 2014 the public had to pick one of Walkers' base ingredients, which was made up of six flavours from around the UK – Somerset Cheddar, Devonshire Chicken, Norfolk Pork, Dorset Sour Cream, Vale of Evesham Tomatoes and Aberdeen Angus Beef – then add their own unique flavour. In 2018 Walkers launched six new flavours to celebrate the brand’s 70th birthday, with each flavour representing a different decade.\n", "BULLET::::- Jackets – Manufactured during the mid-1980s, these were crisps where the potatoes had not been peeled, leaving potato skin around the edges. There was an advert which featured dancing potatoes singing \"We want to be jackets\" in falsetto voices, and the slogan \"So good, every potato wants to be one\".\n\nBULLET::::- Lay's - thinly sliced potato chips\n\nBULLET::::- Monster Munch – still manufactured, under the Walkers name\n\nBULLET::::- Quavers – introduced 1968, now sold under the Walkers name\n\nBULLET::::- Ribs – vinegar flavoured snack in shape of ribs, manufactured in the 1970s\n\nBULLET::::- Ruffles – crinkle cut potato chips\n", "Invented in 1949, and marketed and sold commercially by Hasbro in 1952, Mr. Potato Head is an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plastic parts, such as ears and eyes, to make a face. It was the first toy ever advertised on television.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Irish potato candy\n\nBULLET::::- List of potato cultivars\n\nBULLET::::- List of potato dishes\n\nBULLET::::- List of potato museums\n\nBULLET::::- Loy (spade), a form of early spade used in Ireland for the cultivation of potatoes\n\nBULLET::::- New World crops\n\nBULLET::::- Potato battery\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n", "The \"Innate\" potato is not a single cultivar, rather, it is a group of potato varieties that have had the same genetic alterations applied using the same process. Five different potato varieties have been transformed, creating \"innate\" versions of the varieties, with all of the original traits, plus the engineered ones. Ranger Russet, Russet Burbank, and Atlantic potatoes have all been transformed by Simplot, as well as two proprietary varieties. Modifications of each variety involved two transformations, one for each of the two new traits, thus there was a total of ten transformation events in developing the different Innate varieties.\n", "Section::::Products.\n\nRegular flavours include Sea Salted, Sea Salt & Vinegar, Strong Cheese & Onion, Roast Ox and Jalapeño Pepper. The packets use a frosted greaseproof material, and feature jokes in the design such as the phrase \"We don't cut corners. If you find a corner in your packet, let us know.\" Each flavour has a different character on the bag; for example the Strong Cheese and Spring Onion flavour has a rugby player on the bag.\n", "BULLET::::- Salt and Shake – still manufactured, under the Walkers name\n\nBULLET::::- Smith's Selections – thinly sliced potato chips range in various flavours, now Smith's Thinly Cut\n\nBULLET::::- Squares - ready salted, cheese & onion & salt & vinegar flavour square shaped potato crisps, still manufactured under the Walkers name.\n\nBULLET::::- Sunbites - wholegrain chips\n\nBULLET::::- Thins – thinly sliced potato chips - now owned and manufactured by Snack Brands Australia\n", "Crisp (chocolate bar)\n\nNestlé Crisp are a line of wafer candy bars that are based on existing Nestlé brands and sold in the United States. There are currently three Crisp bars in production: the Butterfinger Crisp, the Baby Ruth Crisp and the Nestlé Crunch Crisp. Each package is made up of two small, individual bars.\n", "BULLET::::- Tubers have low specific gravity and are good for boiling and salads, but not for processing into chips or fries or for baking\n\nSection::::Agricultural Feature.\n\nBULLET::::- Variety with Early Maturity and Moderate Resistance to Common Scab\n\nBULLET::::- Tolerant to common scab\n\nBULLET::::- Susceptible to Potato virus Y (PVY) – shows severe rugose symptoms\n\nBULLET::::- Due to field resistance, PVY levels tend to stay low in Red Norland crops\n\nBULLET::::- Susceptible to other common potato viruses – Potato virus X, Potato virus S, Potato leaf roll virus\n", "Some varieties of potato such as Russet and King Edward potatoes are more suitable for baking than others, owing to their size and consistency.\n", "Utz regular potato chips are cooked in cottonseed oil; its Kettle Classic line in peanut oil; and its Grandma Utz varieties in lard. Additionally, Utz produces an organic product line, which includes products certified organic by Quality Assurance International, as well as a \"natural\" product line that includes, potato chips cooked in sunflower oil. The company incorporates the \"Snacking Smart\" icon on a number of its products, indicating a healthier snacking choice to the consumer.\n\nSection::::Mail order and online store.\n", "As of 2016, the ingredients for the company's most basic chip (\"Sea Salt\") were: potatoes, safflower and/or sunflower and/or canola oil, sea salt. Many other flavors use ingredients like natural flavors, spices, citric acid, and yeast extract.\n\nSection::::Potato chips.:Potato chip flavors.\n\nThe following is a list of potato chip flavors sold by the company (as of 2018):\n\nBULLET::::- United States\n\nBULLET::::- Avocado Oil Chili Lime\n\nBULLET::::- Avocado Oil Himalayan Salt\n\nBULLET::::- Avocado Oil Tropical Salsa\n\nBULLET::::- Backyard Barbeque\n\nBULLET::::- Bourbon BBQ\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo Bleu (Krinkle Cut)\n\nBULLET::::- Cheddar & Sour Cream (Krinkle Cut)\n\nBULLET::::- Chili Verde\n", "BNs are produced in two different shapes: circles and rounded squares. One side of the biscuit is decorated with one of four different faces. There are seven different flavours of the BN biscuit: chocolate, strawberry, vanilla, custard, raspberry, apricot and milk chocolate. They also come in a \"Mini BN\" variety.\n", "Sterzing's potato chips\n\nSterzing's potato chips are produced and distributed in Burlington, Iowa. They were first produced in 1935.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nAs a supplement to his candy business, Mr. Sterzing developed a process by which he sliced potatoes and slow cooked them one batch at a time. The ingredients, which remain unchanged today, include only potatoes, salt and oil. The cooking method remains the same, as well, and produces the unique flavor and texture which has become the trademark of the chips. \n", "The genetically modified Innate potato was approved by the United States Department of Agriculture in 2014 and the US FDA in 2015. The cultivar was developed by J. R. Simplot Company. It is designed to resist blackspot bruising, browning and to contain less of the amino acid asparagine that turns into acrylamide during the frying of potatoes. Acrylamide is a probable human carcinogen, so reduced levels of it in fried potato foods is desirable. The 'Innate' name comes from the fact that this variety does not contain any genetic material from other species (the genes used are \"\" to potatoes) and uses RNA interference to switch off genes. Simplot hopes that not including genes from other species will assuage consumer fears about biotechnology.\n", "The Walkers site in Leicester is the largest crisp production plant in the world, producing over 11 million bags of crisps per day and using about 800 tons of potatoes. The company produces a wide variety of flavours for their potato crisps. The three main flavours are cheese and onion, salt and vinegar, and ready salted. Other examples include prawn cocktail, Worcester sauce, roast chicken, beef and onion, smoky bacon, tomato ketchup, and pickled onion.\n", "BULLET::::- Sour Patch Kids Tricksters – A mix of Sour Patch Kids where the colors don't match the flavors. For example, a blue one might taste like a red one, or an orange one might taste like a blue one.\n\nBULLET::::- Sour Patch Kids Fire – Released in 2018, these are the same shape as the original Sour Patch Kids, but with some heat in the aftertaste. Berry Blaze (Purple), Tropical Flame (Orange), Apple Fever (Green), Angry Watermelon (Red).\n", "BULLET::::- Cheese Flavoured Moments Cheese Moments – cheese flavoured triangles, with cheese powder center\n\nBULLET::::- Chipsticks – Ready salted\n\nBULLET::::- Claws – bacon flavoured snack in shape of claws, manufactured in the 1970s\n\nBULLET::::- Fangs – cheese and onion flavoured snack in shape of fangs, manufactured in the 1970s\n\nBULLET::::- Fighter Planes - salt and vinegar flavoured snack in shape of planes, manufactured in the 1970s\n\nBULLET::::- French Fries – Small crisp potatoes straws similar in appearance and taste to french fries - now owned and manufactured by Snack Brands Australia\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03066	Why is it that whenever we take a picture of the sun or moon it looks so much smaller in the picture than it does with our naked eye?	Because the human brain is horrible at estimating the size of things like the moon in the sky and our brain actually lies to us about their size. When you take and look at a picture, you're removing it from the context that the brain can't cope with and putting into a context that's more familiar. Here's an article that goes into detail about it and shows examples of the effect: URL_0	[ "The magnification reached in those conditions is the focal distance of the objective lens (\"f\") divided by the focal distance of the close-up lens; i.e., the focal distance of the objective lens (in meters) multiplied by the diopter value (\"D\") of the close-up lens:\n\nIn the example above, if the lens has a 300 mm focal distance, magnification is equal to .\n\nGiven the small size of most sensors (about 25mm for APS C sensors) a 20mm insect will almost fill the frame at this magnification. Using a zoom lens makes it easy to frame the subject as desired.\n", "In considering the effect of sensor size, and its effect on the final image, the different magnification required to obtain the same size image for viewing must be accounted for, resulting in an additional scale factor of formula_31 where formula_32 is the relative crop factor, making the overall scale factor formula_33. Considering the three cases above:\n", "But such simple lenses are not telephoto lenses, no matter how extreme the focal length – they are known as \"long-focus lenses\". While the optical centre of a simple (\"non-telephoto\") lens is within the construction, the telephoto lens moves the optical centre in front of the construction. While the length of a long-focus lens approximates its focal length, a telephoto lens manages to be shorter than its focal length. E.g., a telephoto lens might have a focal length of 400 mm, while it is shorter than that.\n", "If the lens mounts are compatible, many lenses, including manual-focus models, designed for 35 mm cameras can be mounted on DSLR cameras. When a lens designed for a full-frame camera, whether film or digital, is mounted on a DSLR with a smaller sensor size, only the center of the lens's image circle is captured. The edges are cropped off, which is equivalent to zooming in on the center section of the imaging area. The ratio of the size of the full-frame 35 mm format to the size of the smaller format is known as the \"crop factor\" or \"focal-length multiplier\", and is typically in the range 1.3–2.0 for non-full-frame digital SLRs.\n", "One can see that if magnification remains constant, a longer focal length results in a smaller axial magnification, and a smaller focal length in a larger axial magnification. That is, when using a longer focal length while moving the camera/lens away from the object to maintain the same magnification \"M\", objects seem shallower, and the axial distances between objects seem shorter. The opposite—increased axial magnification—happens with shorter focal lengths while moving the camera/lens towards the object.\n\nSection::::Optics.:Calculating distances.\n", "Sigma currently makes a 4.5mm fisheye lens that captures a 180-degree field of view on a crop body. Sunex also makes a 5.6mm fisheye lens that captures a circular 185-degree field of view on a 1.5x Nikon and 1.6x Canon DSLR cameras.\n", "An example would be taking an image of a rock using two cameras with the same lens. The first camera a 18mp full frame and the second a 18mp APS-C, both shooting the same composition in a stationary position. The first image will be more \"wide\" while the second image will be more \"magnified\". After bringing the results into an image editing program and enlarging the first image so that the rock is the same size in both images, one will see that the enlarged image is approximately 160% (1.6x) of the original.\n", "Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.\n", "If a picture is taken with a stereo camera (or pair of cameras) and a 4X telephoto lens or 4X zoom built into the camera(s) is used, objects will be the size they would be at 1/4 the distance, but will have no where near the depth, which is why zoom is generally frowned upon in stereo photography. If, however, the base is also multiplied by four the normal depth is restored and the image looks normal.\n", "The above photos were taken using a 35 mm camera, using lenses of the given focal lengths.\n\nSection::::Effects.:Constant object size.\n\nThe photographer often moves to keep the same image size on the film for a particular object. Observe in the comparison images below that although the foreground object remains the same size, the background changes size; thus, perspective is dependent on the distance between the photographer and the subject. The longer focus lenses compress the perception of depth, and the shorter focus exaggerate it. \n", "Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used. Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter.\n", "Models are often quite large because they must be placed far enough from the camera so that both they and the set far beyond them are in sharp focus.\n", "Since the final-image size is not usually known at the time of taking a photograph, it is common to assume a standard size such as 25 cm width, along with a conventional final-image CoC of 0.2 mm, which is 1/1250 of the image width. Conventions in terms of the diagonal measure are also commonly used. The DoF computed using these conventions will need to be adjusted if the original image is cropped before enlarging to the final image size, or if the size and viewing assumptions are altered.\n", "In an attempt to address these and other problems, Panavision followed this up in 2004 with the Genesis, a full bandwidth (4:4:4) camera with improved colorimetry and sensitometry-related specs and, probably most importantly, a Super 35 mm film-sized recording area, thus making it focally compatible with regular Cine Primo lenses and giving a true 35 mm depth of field.\n\nSection::::Technical specification.\n", "Linear magnification \"M\" is not always the most useful measure of magnifying power. For instance, when characterizing a visual telescope or binoculars that produce only a virtual image, one would be more concerned with the angular magnification—which expresses how much larger a distant object appears through the telescope compared to the naked eye. In the case of a camera one would quote the plate scale, which compares the apparent (angular) size of a distant object to the size of the real image produced at the focus. The plate scale is the reciprocal of the focal length of the camera lens; lenses are categorized as long-focus lenses or wide-angle lenses according to their focal lengths.\n", "Similar minor effects may be present when using star diagonals, as light travels through a multitude of lenses that increase or decrease effective focal length. The quality of the image generally depends on the quality of the optics (lenses) and viewing conditions—not on magnification.\n\nMagnification itself is limited by optical characteristics. With any telescope or microscope, beyond a practical maximum magnification, the image looks bigger but shows no more detail. It occurs when the finest detail the instrument can resolve is magnified to match the finest detail the eye can see. Magnification beyond this maximum is sometimes called \"empty magnification\".\n", "As \"s\" is decreased, \"s\" must be increased. For example, consider a normal lens for a 35 mm camera with a focal length of \"f\" = 50 mm. To focus a distant object (\"s\" ≈ ∞), the rear nodal point of the lens must be located a distance \"s\" = 50 mm from the image plane. To focus an object 1 m away (\"s\" = 1,000 mm), the lens must be moved 2.6 mm farther away from the image plane, to \"s\" = 52.6 mm.\n", "Apart from technical photography and film-based processes, where the size of the image on the negative or image sensor is the subject of discussion, the finished print or on-screen image more commonly lends a photograph its macro status. For example, when producing a 6×4 inch (15×10 cm) print using 35 format (36×24 mm) film or sensor, a life-size result is possible with a lens having only a 1:4 reproduction ratio.\n", "This effect is also used for dolly zooms. The perspective of the so-called \"normal\" lens, 50 mm focal length for 35 mm film format, is conventionally regarded as a \"correct\" perspective, though a longer lens is usually preferred for a more pleasing perspective for portraits.\n\nSection::::Telescopes as long-focus lenses.\n\nFrom the invention of photography in the 19th century, images have been captured using standard optical telescopes including telescope objectives adapted as early portrait lenses. Besides being used in an astronomical role in astrophotography, telescopes are adapted as long-focus lenses in nature photography, surveillance, machine vision and long-focus microscopy.\n", "Mass-produced fisheye lenses for photography first appeared in the early 1960s and are generally used for their unique, distorted appearance. For the popular 35 mm film format, typical focal lengths of fisheye lenses are between 8 mm and 10 mm for circular images, and 15–16 mm for full-frame images. For digital cameras using smaller electronic imagers such as \" and \" format CCD or CMOS sensors, the focal length of \"miniature\" fisheye lenses can be as short as 1 to 2 mm.\n", "Many lenses are mountable, \"diaphragm-and-meter-compatible\", on modern DSLRs and on older film SLRs that use the same lens mount. However, when lenses designed for 35 mm film or equivalently sized digital image sensors are used on DSLRs with smaller sized sensors, the image is effectively cropped and the lens appears to have a longer focal length than its stated focal length. Most DSLR manufacturers have introduced lines of lenses with image circles optimised for the smaller sensors and focal lengths equivalent to those generally offered for existing 35 mm mount DSLRs, mostly in the wide angle range. These lenses tend not to be completely compatible with full frame sensors or 35 mm film because of the smaller imaging circle and, with some Canon EF-S lenses, interfere with the reflex mirrors on full-frame bodies.\n", "When calculating the effective focal length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use an image sensor that is , , or the size of a 35 mm film frame. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5, 1.6, or 2 times the size of the digital sensor. The latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2× crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the same field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera, and can typically be handheld at second.\n", "When a lens designed for 35 mm format is used on a smaller-format DSLR, besides the obvious reduction in field of view, there may be secondary effects on depth of field, perspective, camera-motion blur, and other photographic parameters.\n", "in a close-up photograph of a miniature scene, the DoF is limited, and it often is impossible to have everything appear sharp even at the lens's smallest aperture. Consequently, the foreground and background are often blurred, with the blur increasing with distance above or below the center of the image. In a photograph of a full-size scene, the DoF is considerably greater; in some cases, it is difficult to have much of the scene \"outside\" the DoF, even at the lens's maximum aperture. Thus a difference in DoF is one characteristic by which a photograph of a full-size scene is readily distinguished from one of a miniature model.\n", "The depth of field may change, depending on what conditions are compared. Shooting from the same position, with the same lens and same f-number as a non-cropped (full-frame) 35 mm camera, but enlarging the image to a given reference size, will yield a reduced depth of field. On the other hand, using a different lens with the same field of view as the non-cropped camera (matching the 35 mm-equivalent focal length), at same f-number, the smaller camera's depth of field is greater.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-09827	What happens to the seddiments when they reach the bottom of the ocean?	It collects and collects and collects. As it collects the weight and pressure increases and it becomes sedimentary rock.	[ "Section::::Effects of pollution.\n", "Another key process occurring in this zone is the diel vertical migration of certain species, which move between the euphotic zone and mesopelagic zone and actively transport particulate organic matter to the deep. In one study in the Equatorial Pacific, myctophids in the mesopelagic zone were estimated to actively transport 15-28% of the passive POC sinking to the deep, while a study near the Canary Islands estimated 53% of vertical carbon flux was due to active transport from a combination of zooplankton and micronekton. When primary productivity is high, the contribution of active transport by vertical migration has been estimated to be comparable to sinking particle export.\n", "Anything beyond a work area buffer zone for sediment spill is considered the potential impact area. In the open sea the impact of concern is almost exclusively with the sessile bottom communities, since empirical data show that fish effectively avoid the impacted area. The siltation chiefly affects the bottom community in two ways: The suspended sediment may interfere with the food gathering of filtering organisms, and the sediment accumulation on the bottom may bury organisms to the point that they starve or even die. Only if the concentration is extreme will it decrease the light level sufficiently for impacting primary productivity. An accumulation of as little as 1 mm may kill coral polyps.\n", "Once this carbon is fixed into soft or hard tissue, the organisms either stay in the euphotic zone to be recycled as part of the regenerative nutrient cycle or once they die, continue to the second phase of the biological pump and begin to sink to the ocean floor. The sinking particles will often form aggregates as they sink, greatly increasing the sinking rate. It is this aggregation that gives particles a better chance of escaping predation and decomposition in the water column and eventually make it to the sea floor.\n", "In the mesopelagic zone, the biological pump is key to carbon cycling, as this zone is largely dominated by remineralization of particulate organic carbon (POC). When a fraction of POC is exported from the euphotic zone, an estimated 90% of that POC is respired in the mesopelagic zone. This is due to the microbial organisms that respire organic matter and remineralize the nutrients, while mesopelagic fish also package organic matter into quick-sinking parcels for deeper export.\n", "Mean particle sinking rates are 10 to 100 m/day. Sinking rates have been measured in the project VERTIGO (Vertical Transport in the Global Ocean) using neutrally buoyant sediment traps. The variability in sinking rates is due to differences in ballast, water temperature, food web structure and the types of phyto and zooplankton in different areas of the ocean. If the material sinks faster, then it gets respired less by bacteria, transporting more carbon from the surface layer to the deep ocean. Larger fecal pellets sink faster due to gravity. More viscous waters could slow the sinking rate of particles.\n\nSection::::Biogeochemistry.:Oxygen.\n", "In the 1970s, marine dead zones were first noted in settled areas where intensive economic use stimulated scientific scrutiny: in the U.S. East Coast's Chesapeake Bay, in Scandinavia's strait called the Kattegat, which is the mouth of the Baltic Sea and in other important Baltic Sea fishing grounds, in the Black Sea, and in the northern Adriatic.\n\nOther marine dead zones have appeared in coastal waters of South America, China, Japan, and New Zealand. A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Baltic Sea.\n", "Section::::Dispersal.\n", "Section::::Food availability.\n", "Section::::Spatial distribution.\n", "Unlike certain dinoflagellate blooms, domoic acid-producing \"Pseudo-nitzschia\" species must be present in high concentrations (greater than 100,000 cells L) to contaminate shellfish at a level that would cease harvesting.\n\nThe largest \"Pseudo-nitzschia\" bloom ever recorded occurred in September 2004 off the northwest coast of the United States. The maximum cell densities reached 13 x 10 cells per liter, with domoic acid levels of 1.3 pg DA/cell.\n\nSediment cores indicate a link between increasing coastal nutrient levels (eutrophication) and an increase in \"Pseudo-nitzschia\" blooms.\n\nSection::::Domoic acid.\n", "Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near-bottom plumes and surface plumes. Near-bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms. Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas. The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.\n", "Section::::They That Go Down to the Sea in Ships.:Synopsis.\n", "BULLET::::- Dauvin, J.-C., J.C. Sorbe, & J.C. Lorgeré., (1995). Benthic Boundary Layer macrofauna from the upper continental slope and the Cap Ferret canyon (Bay of Biscay). \"Oceanologica Acta\" 18: 113–122.\n\nBULLET::::- Dauvin, J.-C., N. Desroy, L. Denis, & T. Ruellet., (2008). Does the \"Phaeocystis\" bloom affect the diel migration of the suprabenthos community. \"Marine Pollution Bulletin\" 56 (1): 77–87.\n\nBULLET::::- Davoult, D., (1988). Note sur la reproduction et l´écologie du Cumacé \"Cumopsis goodsiri\" (van Beneden, 1861). \"Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France\" 113 (3): 285–292.\n", "Filter basket of a mysid. These 3 cm long animals live close to shore and hover above the sea floor, constantly collecting particles. Mysids are an important food source for herring, cod, flounder, striped bass. In polluted areas they have high toxin levels in their tissue but they are very robust and take a lot of poison before they die. Such filter-feeding organisms are the reason that much of the materials we throw in the oceans comes back to us in our food.\n", "A sediment trap mooring, consisting of five sediment traps (located at depths of 150, 275, 400, 800, and 1200 m), is also deployed near the study site. This mooring collects the downward flux of particulate material (Thunell et al. 2000; Thunell et al., 2007), derived both from the primary production at the surface and the terrestrial material from the mainland.\n\n\"Satellite observations\"\n", "Section::::Examples.:Delaware.:Redbird Reef.\n\nIn late 2000, the MTA New York City Transit decided to retire an outdated fleet of subway cars to make room for new R142 and R142A trains. The obsolete subway cars, (nicknamed \"Redbirds\"), had run on the IRT lines in the New York City Subway system for 40 years. Each car was stripped, decontaminated, loaded on a barge, and sunk in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Delaware. Some cars had number plates removed because of rust, which were then auctioned off on eBay. A total of 1200 subway cars were sunk for this project.\n", "A total of 105 trawl sets were made on nine cruises between 1968 and 1970 in order to study the fish species living in this area. These samples were collected from seven stations at depths ranging from 74 to 195 m. The most abundant species are presented in Table 1.\n", "Requires that vessels issued an \"Illex\" squid moratorium permit have a vessel monitoring system (VMS) installed, and operators of these vessels have to declare \"Illex\" squid trips on which 10,000 lb or more of \"Illex\" squid would be harvested.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes. Near bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms. Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas. The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.\n", "BULLET::::- SERIES (Subarctic Ecosystem Response to Iron Enrichment Study), 2002\n\nBULLET::::- SEEDS-II, 2004\n\nBULLET::::- EIFEX (European Iron Fertilization Experiment), A successful experiment conducted in 2004 in a mesoscale ocean eddy in the South Atlantic resulted in a bloom of diatoms, a large portion of which died and sank to the ocean floor when fertilization ended. In contrast to the LOHAFEX experiment, also conducted in a mesoscale eddy, the ocean in the selected area contained enough dissolved silicon for the diatoms to flourish.\n\nBULLET::::- CROZEX (CROZet natural iron bloom and Export experiment), 2005\n", "Section::::Pisces IV and V.\n\n\"Pisces IV\" and \"Pisces V\" are currently operated for research by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, based in Hawaii. Its mother ship, the \"R/V Kaimikai-o-Kanaloa\", launches \"Pisces V\" and its sister vessel \"Pisces IV\" from an A-frame hoist on its aft deck.\n", "In 2009, two project vessels from Project Kaisei, the \"New Horizon\" and the \"Kaisei\", embarked on a voyage to research the patch and determine the feasibility of commercial scale collection and recycling. The 2009 SEAPLEX expedition also researched the patch. Researchers were also looking at the impact of plastic on mesopelagic fish, such as lanternfish.\n", "\"Gordon Gunter\" supported the Sustainable Seas Expeditions – a five-year project of NOAA, the National Marine Sanctuaries Program and the National Geographic Society carried out between 1998 and 2002 – at several United States national marine sanctuaries. The project featured underwater exploration of the sanctuaries with manned submersible units.\n", "These conditions are only rarely present and once one of the needed conditions fails, the Pacific returns to its normal state. Often, the line collapses because of the currents returning to normal and the cool waters return to the depths, causing the diatoms to die out (they need the difference in ocean temperature to flourish), the turbulence to cease and the fish to move elsewhere.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-00872	Why do beech trees and hedges retain dead leaves on their branches, while most other species of tree shed them?	They give off the appearance that they are keeping them but really the leaves are fully abscised, that is, the plant has cut off all nutrients from the leaf by walling it off. The only reason why it stays attached to the tree is because of the connective tissue in between the dead leaf and the tree is thicker in those species than others. When the tree flushes out in the spring the new leaves will knock off the old ones or the dead portions of the connective tissue between the leaf and the tree will weaken enough by weathering for the leaves to fall off.	[ "Some ecologists suggest that marcescence has adaptive significance for trees growing on dry, infertile sites. Beech and oak often grow relatively well and can outcompete other species on such sites. The hypothesis is that retaining leaves until spring could be a means of slowing the decomposition of the leaves (which would rot faster on the ground) and that dropping them in spring delivers organic material, much like compost or mulch, at a time when it is most needed by the growing tree.\n", "The leaves of beech are often not abscissed (dropped) in the autumn and instead remain on the tree until the spring. This process is called marcescence. This particularly occurs when trees are saplings or when plants are clipped as a hedge (making beech hedges attractive screens, even in winter), but it also often continues to occur on the lower branches when the tree is mature.\n", "Marcescence is the retention of dead plant organs that normally are shed. Trees transfer water and sap from the roots to the leaves through their vascular cells, but in some trees as autumn begins, the veins carrying the sap slowly close until a layer of cells called the abscission layer completely closes off the vein allowing the tree to rid itself of the leaf. Leaf marcescence is most often seen on juvenile plants and may disappear as the tree matures. It also may not affect the entire tree; sometimes leaves persist only on scattered branches. Marcescence is most obvious in deciduous trees that retain leaves through the winter. Several trees normally have marcescent leaves such as oak (\"Quercus\"), beech (\"Fagus\") and hornbeam (\"Carpinus\"), or marcescent stipules as in some but not all species of willows (\"Salix\"). All oak trees may display foliage marcescence, even species that are known to fully drop leaves when the tree is mature. Marcescent leaves of pin oak (\"Quercus palustris\") complete development of their abscission layer in the spring. The base of the petiole remains alive over the winter. Many other trees may have marcescent leaves in seasons where an early freeze kills the leaves before the abscission layer develops or completes development. Diseases or pests can also kill leaves before they can develop an abscission layer.\n", "BULLET::::- Drought response is similar to the leaf-fall response of drought-deciduous trees; however, leafy shoots are shed in place of leaves. Western red cedar (\"Thuja plicata\") provides an example, as do other members of the family Cupressaceae.\n\nBULLET::::- In tropical forests, infestation of tree canopies by woody climbers or lianas can be a serious problem. Cladoptosis – by giving a clean bole with no support for climbing plants – may be an adaptation against lianas, as in the case of \"Castilla\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Abscission\n\nBULLET::::- Marcescence: the opposite phenomenon – withered branches (or leaves) stay on\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "The thinning process removed predominantly sweet chestnut, sycamore, European larch and Scots pine and opened back around the mature oak. In areas worked no more than 20-25% of standing volume was removed. This opened areas of the canopy as appropriate to allow light penetration and thus encourage natural regeneration of tree seedlings and ground flora. Through encouraging structural diversity, a wider variety of wildlife is supported, and areas of non-SSSI woodland with high biodiversity potential improved, to fulfil this potential in the long-term.\n", "Some experimentation on plant litter from marcescent trees indicates that keeping the leaves aboveground may increase the amount of photodegradation the leaves are exposed to. Because some marcescent species' leaves do not decompose well, the increased photodegradation may allow them to decompose better once they finally fall off the tree.\n\nOthers theorize that leaves which remain on a tree due to marcescence allow the tree to trap snow during the winter months. By using their dead leaves to collect additional snow, trees are able to provide themselves more water in spring when the snow begins to melt.\n", "One possible advantage of marcescent leaves is that they may deter feeding of large herbivores, such as deer and moose, which normally eat the twigs and their nutritious buds. Dead, dry leaves make the twigs less nutritious and less palatable. They are also more noisy when browsed, thereby potentially deterring browsers.\n", "Some trees, particularly oaks and beeches, exhibit a behavior known as \"marcescence\" whereby dead leaves are not shed in the fall and remain on the tree until being blown off by the weather. This is caused by incomplete development of the abscission layer. It is mainly seen in the seedling and sapling stage, although mature trees may have marcescence of leaves on the lower branches.\n", "Deciduous plants in frigid or cold temperate regions typically shed their leaves in autumn, whereas in areas with a severe dry season, some plants may shed their leaves until the dry season ends. In either case, the shed leaves may be expected to contribute their retained nutrients to the soil where they fall.\n\nIn contrast, many other non-seasonal plants, such as palms and conifers, retain their leaves for long periods; \"Welwitschia\" retains its two main leaves throughout a lifetime that may exceed a thousand years.\n", "Marcescent leaves may protect some species from water stress or temperature stress. For example, in tropical alpine environments a wide variety of plants in different plant families and different parts of the world have evolved a growth form known as the \"caulescent rosette\", characterized by evergreen rosettes growing above marcescent leaves. Examples of plants for which the marcescent leaves have been confirmed to improve survival, help water balance, or protect the plant from cold injury are \"Espeletia schultzii\" and \"Espeletia timotensis\", both from the Andes.\n", "The leaves are used to wrap burrata, an Italian cheese. The leaves and the cheese last about the same time, three or four days, and thus fresh leaves are a sign of a fresh cheese, while dried out leaves indicate that the cheese is past its prime.\n\nSection::::Mythology.\n", "Dead hedges or wind-rows, as they are known in the coppice trade, are useful keeping the compartments of the coppice tidy, keeping the public from certain areas, being an excellent habitat and corridor for wildlife habitat conservation and restoration ecology, as they offer shelter for small animals, especially birds. This can be part of a beneficial \"biological pest agents\" habitat in biological pest control programs for natural landscapes and organic gardening.\n\nSection::::Agriculture.\n\nDead hedges usually provide an enclosure for the storage of livestock. The above biological pest control dead hedges use is also part of organic farming and sustainable agriculture.\n", "Oaks with oak wilt stand out with their dead crowns compared to a green canopy in the summer, so much so that oak wilt infections can be spotted from the air.\n", "Natural beech wood\n\nNatural beech wood is a beech wood, that is able to replenish and sustain itself on its own.\n", "Section::::Other nations.\n", "Trees are either evergreen, having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year, or deciduous, shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period without foliage. Most conifers are evergreens, but larches (\"Larix\" and \"Pseudolarix\") are deciduous, dropping their needles each autumn, and some species of cypress (\"Glyptostrobus\", \"Metasequoia\" and \"Taxodium\") shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis. A sapling is a young tree.\n", "Devon's hedges are a particularly important wildlife habitat. Around 20% of the UK's species-rich hedges occur within Devon. Over 600 flowering plants, 1500 insects, 65 birds and 20 mammals have been recorded living or feeding in Devon hedges. At the end of the 20th century it was reported that many of the hedgerow trees in Devon hedges were close to the end of their lives; many of them were planted towards the end of the 19th century and their life-expectancy is not likely to exceed 150 years.\n\nSection::::Maintenance.\n", "Correspondingly, leaves represent heavy investment on the part of the plants bearing them, and their retention or disposition are the subject of elaborate strategies for dealing with pest pressures, seasonal conditions, and protective measures such as the growth of thorns and the production of phytoliths, lignins, tannins and poisons.\n", "The young larvae eat the buds and either destroy developing leaves, or cause leaves to develop with many holes in them. This can severely stress the tree's food reserves, and the older larvae can eat nearly all the remaining leaves, defoliating them. When trees are defoliated two or more years in a row, \"extensive tree mortality\" can result. Dead wood in affected trees is attacked by fungi such as the shoestring root fungus and wood borers like the twolined chestnut borer.\n", "A good quality fibre, suitable for ropes, twine, baskets, and general weaving, is obtained from the leaves. Dried leaf-sheaths are used as packing material, serving the same function as Western foam plastic and polystyrene. The entire plant but the roots is used to feed livestock. Fresh leaves are a common fodder for cattle during the dry season, and many farmers feed their animals with residues of enset harvest or processing.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Beech is a valued timber, but most beech woods require human intervention to replace old trees, since the young trees are not able to survive at all, or at a rate that sustains the beech population over time. There can be various reasons for this condition. Heavy forest floor coverage of other plants in the spring, shadowing the young beech-shoots, is a common cause. Abundance of nutrient-rich soils will also be difficult to handle for beech woods in the long run.\n", "The term \"semi-natural\" is sometimes used to describe any natural woodland, that is not strictly primeval in origin.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Silva Carbonaria, the 'Charcoal Forest'.\n\nBULLET::::- Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and the Ancient Beech Forests of Germany\n\nBULLET::::- Ancient woodland\n\nSection::::Sources.\n\nBULLET::::- Edward P. Mountford and Peter S. Savill; Natural regeneration of Beech forests in Europe - UK: Approaches, Problems, Recent advances and Recommendations Oxford Forestry Institute, March 2003, Nat-Man project (D22)\n", "Many deciduous plants flower during the period when they are leafless, as this increases the effectiveness of pollination. The absence of leaves improves wind transmission of pollen for wind-pollinated plants and increases the visibility of the flowers to insects in insect-pollinated plants. This strategy is not without risks, as the flowers can be damaged by frost or, in dry season regions, result in water stress on the plant. Nevertheless, there is much less branch and trunk breakage from glaze ice storms when leafless, and plants can reduce water loss due to the reduction in availability of liquid water during cold winter days.\n", "A characteristic shared by a few other oak species, and also some beeches and hornbeams, is the retention of leaves through the winter on juvenile trees, a natural phenomenon referred to as marcescence. Young trees under are often covered with leaves year-round, though the leaves die in the fall, remaining attached to the shoots until the new leaves appear in the spring. As with many other oak species, dead pin oak branches stay on the tree for many years. \n\nSection::::Flowering and fruiting.\n", "Branches die off for a number of reasons including light deficiency, pest and disease damage, and root structure damage. A dead branch will at some point decay back to the parent stem and fall off. This is normally a slow process but can be quickened by high winds or extreme temperature. The main reason deadwooding is performed is safety. Situations that usually demand removal of deadwood is trees that overhang public roads, houses, public areas and gardens. Trees located in wooded areas are usually assessed as lower risk but assessments consider the number of visitors. Usually, trees adjacent to footpaths and access roads are considered for deadwood removal.\n" ]	[ "Beech trees retain dead leaves on their branches" ]	[ "Beech trees cut off all nutrients to the leaves and new leaves will knock the old leaves off in the spring." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Beech trees retain dead leaves on their branches" ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Beech trees cut off all nutrients to the leaves and new leaves will knock the old leaves off in the spring." ]
2018-00762	How is USB data organized when traveling through a wire?	USB is fairly similar to a network protocol in the ways you describe. The host controller (your PC) detects attachment of various devices and by exchanging packets, interrogates their capabilities. Amongst the items negotiated are the speed of transfers, and how often the device would like to "speak." There are a few different transfer modes used by the devices which optimize for bulk bandwidth (for a harddrive) and realtime requirements (for a mouse or audio interface.) A single peripheral can expose multiple "endpoints" for these different types of data. For example, an audio interface may expose an endpoint for realtime audio in, a second endpoint for audio out, and a third endpoint for command/control/configuration. Once negotiated, the PC continually sends out frames down the chain, directed at the different peripheral devices and their endpoints. Downstream data is contained in these frames, and upstream data can only be transmitted directly after a peripheral receives an "invitation to speak" from the host. Essentially, the peripherals can only speak when spoken to, so there is no problem with multiple peripherals trying to contend on the bus at the same time. The host controller detects all the devices on the chain (you might have a hub, etc) and attempts to makes sure that their combined requests for bandwidth, realtime latency, and power drain are achievable. If you attach too many devices, you may get an error that the device requirements cannot all be satisfied and that something must be disconnected. There is a nice guide here: URL_0 And the official specs are here: URL_1	[ "The type of each device is also entered in a different file, linked to the device name. E.g. A01 is identified as a 74C00.\n\nA computer program then \"explodes\" the device list, coordinates, and device descriptions into a complete pin list for the board by using templates for each type of device. A template is map of a device's pins. It can be encoded once, and then shared by all devices of that type.\n", "BULLET::::- Synchronization Pattern: A USB packet begins with an 8-bit synchronization sequence, 00000001₂. That is, after the initial idle state J, the data lines toggle KJKJKJKK. The final 1 bit (repeated K state) marks the end of the sync pattern and the beginning of the USB frame. For high-bandwidth USB, the packet begins with a 32-bit synchronization sequence.\n", "When a device is plugged into the USB bus, the master device, or host, sets up communications with the device and handles service provisioning (the host's software enables or does the needed data-handling such as file managing or other desired kind of data communication or function). That allows the devices to be greatly simplified compared to the host; for example, a mouse contains very little logic and relies on the host to do almost all of the work. The host controls all data transfers over the bus, with the devices capable only of signalling (when polled) that they require attention. To transfer data between two devices, for example from a phone to a printer, the host first reads the data from one device, then writes it to the other.\n", "Many devices can share the same bus. Each device on the bus has a unique 64-bit serial number. The least significant byte of the serial number is an 8-bit number that tells the type of the device. The most significant byte is a standard (for the 1-wire bus) 8-bit CRC.\n\nThere are several standard broadcast commands, as well as commands used to address a particular device. The master can send a selection command, then the address of a particular device. The next command is executed only by the addressed device.\n", "The \"USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices\" allows Music Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music data to be sent over USB. The MIDI capability is extended to allow up to sixteen simultaneous \"virtual MIDI cables\", each of which can carry the usual MIDI sixteen channels and clocks.\n", "Systems of sensors and actuators can be built by wiring together many 1-Wire components. Each 1-Wire component contains all of the logic needed to operate on the 1-Wire bus. Examples include temperature loggers, timers, voltage and current sensors, battery monitors, and memory. These can be connected to a PC using a bus converter. USB, RS-232 serial, and parallel port interfaces are popular solutions for connecting a MicroLan to the host PC. 1-Wire devices can also be interfaced directly to microcontrollers from various vendors.\n", "BULLET::::- SOF (Start of Frame) Every millisecond (12000 full-bandwidth bit times), the USB host transmits a special \"SOF\" (start of frame) token, containing an 11-bit incrementing frame number in place of a device address. This is used to synchronize isochronous and interrupt data transfers. High-bandwidth USB 2.0 devices receive seven additional SOF tokens per frame, each introducing a 125 µs \"microframe\" (60000 high-bandwidth bit times each).\n", "A short 1-wire bus can be driven from a single digital I/O pin on a microcontroller. A UART can also be used. Specific 1-Wire driver and bridge chips are available. USB \"bridge\" chips are also available. Bridge chips are particularly useful to drive long (greater than 100 m) cables. Up to 300 meter twisted pairs (i.e. telephone cables) have been tested by the manufacturer. These extreme lengths require adjustments to the pull-up resistances from .\n", "The wired AND function can be achieved by simply tying gate outputs together to a common-collector pull-up resistor. The wired AND function below is achieved by using open collector TTL gates. This is commonly called Dot OR.\n\nThe output \"C\" is determined by the inputs at \"A\" and \"B\" according to the truth table (right).\n\nSection::::The wired OR connection.\n\nThe wired OR connection electrically performs the Boolean logic operation of an OR gate, using a pull down resistor and one diode per input.\n", "The location of devices on the bus is sometimes significant. For these situations, a microcontroller can use several pins, or the manufacturer has a 1-Wire device that can switch the bus off or pass it on. Software can therefore explore sequential \"bus domains\".\n\nSection::::Example communication with a device.\n", "The host periodically polls the device's interrupt IN endpoint during operation. When the device has data to send it forms a report and sends it as a reply to the poll token. Common devices such as keyboards and mice send reports that are compliant with standards set by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). When a vendor makes a custom USB HID class device, the reports formed by the device need to match the report description given during enumeration and the driver installed on the host system. In this way it is possible for the USB HID class to be extremely flexible.\n", "All slots following the start code contain control settings for slave devices. A slot's position within the packet determines the device and function to be controlled while its data value specifies the control set point.\n\nSection::::Protocol.:Timing.\n", "This is used for device enumeration and connection management and informs the device that the host would like to start a control transfer exchange.\n\nBULLET::::- Depending on the setup packet, an optional data packet from device to host or host to device may occur.\n\nSection::::Transaction.:SETUP transaction.:Setup packet.\n\nA setup transaction transfers an 8-byte setup packet to the device. The setup packet encodes the direction and length of any following data packets.\n\nSection::::Transaction.:Control transfer exchange.\n\nThe control transfer exchange consist of three distinct stages:\n\nBULLET::::- Setup stage: This is the setup command sent by the host to the device.\n", "The bus follows a TDMA-based polling approach supervised by the host. A transfer is formed by three parts: token, data and handshake. For efficiency reasons, several tokens containing timing information for the devices can be grouped into one, thus forming \"transaction groups\". Flow control and packet sizes are adjusted for power efficiency, while respecting the high-level pipe model of communication between source and destination.\n\nEven preserving the USB model typical error rates in wireless media require modifications in the mechanisms used to achieve said model: among others, data handshakes and buffering.\n", "Depending on the bandwidth requirement, the standard makes use of a variable number of USB Type-C's four SuperSpeed differential pairs to carry each TMDS lane: a single lane is required for resolutions up to 4K/60 Hz, two lanes for 4K/120 Hz, and all four lanes for 8K/60 Hz. The MHL eCBUS signal is sent over a side-band (SBU) pin on the USB Type-C connector. When one or two lanes are used, USB 3.1 data transfer is supported.\n", "During USB communication, data is transmitted as packets. Initially, all packets are sent from the host via the root hub, and possibly more hubs, to devices. Some of those packets direct a device to send some packets in reply.\n", "BULLET::::- USB 1.0, 1.1, and 2.0 use a \"speak-when-spoken-to\" protocol, meaning that each peripheral communicates with the host when the host specifically requests it to communicate. USB 3.0 allows for device-initiated communications towards the host. A FireWire device can communicate with any other node at any time, subject to network conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- A USB network relies on a single host at the top of the tree to control the network. All communications are between the host and one peripheral. In a FireWire network, any capable node can control the network.\n", "When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The data rate of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host and the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices.\n", "The adjustment is accomplished by dividing each bit into a number of time slices called quanta, and assigning some number of quanta to each of the four segments within the bit: synchronization, propagation, phase segment 1 and phase segment 2. \n\nThe number of quanta the bit is divided into can vary by controller, and the number of quanta assigned to each segment can be varied depending on bit rate and network conditions.\n", "For example, the device communication parameters, standardized in the basic device profile CiA 301 are mapped in the index range 0x1000–0x1FFF (\"communication profile area\"). The first few entries in this area are as follows:\n\nGiven suitable tools, the content of the object dictionary of a device, based on an electronic data sheet (EDS), can be customized to a device configuration file (DCF) to integrate the device into a specific CANopen network. According to CiA 306, the format of the EDS-file is the INI file format. There is an upcoming XML-style format, that is described in CiA 311.\n\nSection::::Communication.\n\nSection::::Communication.:Communication objects.\n", "According to a USB-IF chairman, \"at least 10 to 15 percent of the stated peak 60 MB/s (480 Mbit/s) of Hi-Speed USB goes to overhead—the communication protocol between the card and the peripheral. Overhead is a component of all connectivity standards\". Tables illustrating the transfer limits are shown in Chapter 5 of the USB spec.\n\nFor isochronous devices like audio streams, the bandwidth is constant, and reserved exclusively for a given device. The bus bandwidth therefore only has an effect on the number of channels that can be sent at a time, not the \"speed\" or latency of the transmission.\n", "BULLET::::- A USB device pulls one of the data lines high with a 1.5 kΩ resistor. This overpowers one of the pull-down resistors in the host and leaves the data lines in an idle state called \"J\".\n\nBULLET::::- For USB 1.x, the choice of data line indicates what signal rates the device is capable of:\n\nBULLET::::- full-bandwidth devices pull D+ high,\n\nBULLET::::- low-bandwidth devices pull D− high.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"K\" state has opposite polarity to the \"J\" state.\n\nSection::::Signaling (USB PHY).:Transmission.\n", "The protocol begins with a set-up phase, including the following four steps: construction of the network topology, distribution of time slots, exchanging of local time frame and network-wide synchronization. This initialization causes a high load on the network, which is made up for from the perspective of the developer with long service life and efficient data transfer.\n\nSection::::Protocol structure.:Construction of the network topology.\n", "USB data is transmitted by toggling the data lines between the J state and the opposite K state. USB encodes data using the NRZI line coding:\n\nBULLET::::- 0 bit is transmitted by toggling the data lines from J to K or vice versa.\n\nBULLET::::- 1 bit is transmitted by leaving the data lines as-is.\n", "USB 3.1 cables are considered full-featured USB-C cables. They are electronically marked cables that contain a chip with an ID function based on the configuration channel and vendor-defined messages (VDM) from the USB Power Delivery 2.0 specification. Cable length should be ≤2m for Gen 1 or ≤1m for Gen 2. Electronic ID chip provides information about product/vendor, cable connectors, USB signalling protocol (2.0, Gen 1, Gen 2), passive/active construction, use of V power, available V current, latency, RX/TX directionality, SOP controller mode, and hardware/firmware version.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02247	Why does food poisoning take up to 12 hours rather than immediately?	When you first eat the contaminated food, there may only be a few harmful bacteria. There simply isn't enough of them to secrete enough harmful chemicals for your body to react to. But given time in your gut, they multiply. At which point their collective secretions are enough to trigger your digestive system to react and transition into purge mode.	[ "Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the United Kingdom during 2000, the individual bacteria involved were the following: \"Campylobacter jejuni\" 77.3%, \"Salmonella\" 20.9%, 1.4%, and all others less than 0.56%. In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply. As a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in some cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning, the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food.\n", "Symptoms often include vomiting, fever, and aches, and may include diarrhea. Bouts of vomiting can be repeated with an extended delay in between, because even if infected food was eliminated from the stomach in the first bout, microbes, like bacteria, (if applicable) can pass through the stomach into the intestine and begin to multiply. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade deeper body tissues.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Common symptoms of \"Staphylococcus aureus\" food poisoning include: a rapid onset which is usually 1–6 hours, nausea, explosive vomiting for up to 24 hours, abdominal cramps/pain, headache, weakness, diarrhea and usually a subnormal body temperature. Symptoms usually start one to six hours after eating and last less than 12 hours. The duration of some cases may take two or more days to fully resolve.\n\nSection::::Pathogenesis.\n", "The delay between the consumption of contaminated food and the appearance of the first symptoms of illness is called the incubation period. This ranges from hours to days (and rarely months or even years, such as in the case of listeriosis or bovine spongiform encephalopathy), depending on the agent, and on how much was consumed. If symptoms occur within one to six hours after eating the food, it suggests that it is caused by a bacterial toxin or a chemical rather than live bacteria.\n", "Symptoms typically occur within 10–30 minutes of ingesting the fish and generally are self-limited. People with asthma are more vulnerable to respiratory problems such as wheezing or bronchospasms. However, symptoms may show over two hours after eating a spoiled dish. They usually last for about 10 to 14 hours, and rarely exceed one to two days.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Initial.\n\nThe first signs of poisoning suggest an allergic reaction with the following symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- facial flushing/sweating\n\nBULLET::::- burning-peppery taste sensations in the mouth and throat\n\nBULLET::::- dizziness\n\nBULLET::::- nausea\n\nBULLET::::- headache\n\nBULLET::::- tachycardia\n\nBULLET::::- cold-like symptoms\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Additional symptoms.\n", "In acute disease, explosive diarrhea may occur as often as every twenty minutes. Perforation of the colon may also occur in acute infections which can lead to life-threatening situations.\n\nSection::::Life cycle.\n\nInfection occurs when a host ingests a cyst, which usually happens during the consumption of contaminated water or food. Once the cyst is ingested, it passes through the host’s digestive system.\n", "This may be partially due to the unusually slow rate of digestion apparent in lancetfish, where actual digestion seemingly does not begin in earnest until the beginning of the small intestines.\n", "The incubation period of about 24 hours is followed by explosive, watery or bloody diarrhea accompanied by nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and sometimes fever. Symptoms typically resolve within 72 hours, but can persist for up to 10 days in immunocompromised individuals. As the vast majority of cases of \"V. parahaemolyticus\" food infection are self-limiting, treatment is not typically necessary. In severe cases, fluid and electrolyte replacement is indicated.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Often, a combination of events contributes to an outbreak, for example, food might be left at room temperature for many hours, allowing bacteria to multiply which is compounded by inadequate cooking which results in a failure to kill the dangerously elevated bacterial levels.\n", "The long incubation period of many foodborne illnesses tends to cause sufferers to attribute their symptoms to gastroenteritis.\n\nDuring the incubation period, microbes pass through the stomach into the intestine, attach to the cells lining the intestinal walls, and begin to multiply there. Some types of microbes stay in the intestine, some produce a toxin that is absorbed into the bloodstream, and some can directly invade the deeper body tissues. The symptoms produced depend on the type of microbe.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Infectious dose.\n", "In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by enterotoxins (exotoxins targeting the intestines). Enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom appearance varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset, as in the case of enterotoxins of \"Staphylococcus aureus\" in which symptoms appear in one to six hours. This causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea (resulting in staphylococcal enteritis), and staphylococcal enterotoxins (most commonly staphylococcal enterotoxin A but also including staphylococcal enterotoxin B) are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated. It occurs mainly in cooked and processed foods due to competition with other biota in raw foods, and humans are the main cause of contamination as a substantial percentage of humans are persistent carriers of \"S. aureus\". The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States.\n", "Symptoms vary depending on the cause, and are described below in this article. A few broad generalizations can be made, e.g.: the incubation period ranges from hours to days, depending on the cause and on quantity of consumption. The incubation period tends to cause sufferers to not associate the symptoms with the item consumed, and so to cause sufferers to attribute the symptoms to gastroenteritis for example.\n", "Amatoxin poisoning shows a biphasic clinical pattern. An initial (12–24 hours) period of acute symptoms is followed by a period of relative wellness that lasts for 12–24 hours. After this period, hepatic and renal failure supervene with death typically occurring from day 2 onwards.\n", "There is variability in the duration of the clinical course of the disease. In the case of experimental subcutaneous infection, the clinical course lasted only a few hours, while it persisted for 2–5 days following oral infection and in buffaloes and cattle that had been exposed to naturally-infected animals. It has also been recorded from field observations that the clinical courses of per-acute and acute cases were 4–12 hours and 2–3 days, respectively.\n", "Section::::Role in disease.:Incubation period.\n\nThe time between ingesting the STEC bacteria and feeling sick is called the \"incubation period\". The incubation period is usually 3–4 days after the exposure, but may be as short as 1 day or as long as 10 days. The symptoms often begin slowly with mild belly pain or non-bloody diarrhea that worsens over several days. HUS, if it occurs, develops an average 7 days after the first symptoms, when the diarrhea is improving.\n\nSection::::Role in disease.:Treatment.\n", "In volunteer studies with infected beef, symptoms appeared 3–6 hours after eating. These included anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain, distension, diarrhea, vomiting, dyspnea, and tachycardia. All symptoms were transient and lasted about 36 hours. In a second series, symptoms — abdominal pain, distension, watery diarrhea, and eosinophilia — appeared at 1 week and resolved after 3 weeks.\n\nClinical cases have been associated with acute fever, myalgias, bronchospasm, pruritic rashes, lymphadenopathy, subcutaneous nodules associated with eosinophilia, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and elevated creatinine kinase levels. Symptoms may last as long as five years. Segmental necrotizing enteritis has been reported on one occasion.\n", "Infection occurs when undercooked meat is ingested. The incubation period is 9–39 days. Human outbreaks have occurred in Europe. Rats are a known carrier. Contaminated water may be able to cause infection, but this remains a theoretical possibility.\n\nSection::::Clinical: Human.:Pathology.\n", "Section::::Management.:Intravenous fluids.\n", "The signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity occur in three phases. The first phase begins within hours of overdose, and consists of nausea, vomiting, a pale appearance, and sweating. However, patients often have no specific symptoms or only mild symptoms in the first 24 hours of poisoning. Rarely, after massive overdoses, patients may develop symptoms of metabolic acidosis and coma early in the course of poisoning.\n", "Marked symptoms may appear almost immediately, usually not later than one hour, and \"with large doses death is almost instantaneous\". Death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning (20 to 40 ml of tincture may prove fatal). The initial signs are gastrointestinal, including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This is followed by a sensation of burning, tingling, and numbness in the mouth and face, and of burning in the abdomen. In severe poisonings, pronounced motor weakness occurs and cutaneous sensations of tingling and numbness spread to the limbs. Cardiovascular features include hypotension, sinus bradycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias. Other features may include sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, and confusion. The main causes of death are ventricular arrhythmias and asystole, or paralysis of the heart or respiratory center. The only \"post mortem\" signs are those of asphyxia.\n", "\"S. aureus\" is also responsible for food poisoning. It is capable of generating toxins that produce food poisoning in the human body. Its incubation period lasts one to six hours, with the illness itself lasting from 30 minutes to 3 days.\n", "According to the earlier definitions of sepsis updated in 2001, sepsis is a constellation of symptoms secondary to an infection that manifests as disruptions in heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and white blood cell count. If sepsis worsens to the point of end-organ dysfunction (kidney failure, liver dysfunction, altered mental status, or heart damage), then the condition is called severe sepsis. Once severe sepsis worsens to the point where blood pressure can no longer be maintained with intravenous fluids alone, then the criterion has been met for septic shock.\n\nSection::::Pathophysiology.\n", "Section::::Symptoms.\n\nThe average incubation periods for giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis are each 7 days. Certain other bacterial and viral agents have shorter incubation periods, although hepatitis may take weeks to manifest itself. The onset usually occurs within the first week of return from the field, but may also occur at any time while hiking.\n", "Within twelve hours, it is essential to diagnose or exclude any source of infection that would require emergent source control, such as necrotizing soft tissue infection, infection causing inflammation of the abdominal cavity lining, infection of the bile duct, or intestinal infarction. A pierced internal organ (free air on abdominal x-ray or CT scan), an abnormal chest x-ray consistent with pneumonia (with focal opacification), or petechiae, purpura, or purpura fulminans may be evident of infection.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Definitions.\n", "In the foregoing, there was mention of bacteria contaminating foods that cause infection in or from the digestive tract. Other food-borne bacteria can cause disease by producing toxins. It is no longer about infection, but toxication. Among these bacteria, some synthesize a toxin only when their concentration in the food before ingestion exceeds a threshold. This is the case of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus, for example. The concept of MID does not apply to them, but there is indeed a concentration (not a dose) below which they do not constitute a danger to the health of the consumers.\n\nSection::::References.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-13457	If space is vacuum, how are rockets, ISS, satellites is moving?	Rockets move because for every action there is a positive or negative reaction. Satellites and the ISS move because being in "orbit" actually just means they're basically constantly falling to Earth by Earths gravity, but their horizontal velocity is so great that it keeps them from getting too close to Earths atmosphere	[ "BULLET::::1. With things moving around in orbits and nothing staying still, the question may be quite reasonably asked, stationary relative to what? The answer is for the energy to be zero (and in the absence of gravity which complicates the issue somewhat), the exhaust must stop relative to the \"initial\" motion of the rocket before the engines were switched on. It is possible to do calculations from other reference frames, but consideration for the kinetic energy of the exhaust and propellant needs to be given. In Newtonian mechanics the initial position of the rocket is the centre of mass frame for the rocket/propellant/exhaust, and has the minimum energy of any frame.\n", "In spacetime terms, the path of a satellite orbiting the Earth is not dictated by the distant influences of the Earth, Moon and Sun. Instead, the satellite moves through space only in response to local conditions. Since spacetime is everywhere locally flat when considered on a sufficiently small scale, the satellite is always following a straight line in its local inertial frame. We say that the satellite always follows along the path of a geodesic. No evidence of gravitation can be discovered following alongside the motions of a single particle.\n", "Galileo writes that \"all external impediments removed, a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will maintain itself in that state in which it has been; if placed in movement towards the west (for example), it will maintain itself in that movement.\" This notion which is termed \"circular inertia\" or \"horizontal circular inertia\" by historians of science, is a precursor to, but distinct from, Newton's notion of rectilinear inertia. For Galileo, a motion is \"horizontal\" if it does not carry the moving body towards or away from the centre of the earth, and for him, \"a ship, for instance, having once received some impetus through the tranquil sea, would move continually around our globe without ever stopping.\"\n", "As there is no absolute frame of reference, \"absolute motion\" cannot be determined. Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.\n", "Stationary orbit\n\nIn celestial mechanics, the term stationary orbit refers to an orbit around a planet or moon where the orbiting satellite or spacecraft remains orbiting over the same spot on the surface. From the ground, the satellite would appear to be standing still, hovering above the surface in the same spot, day after day.\n", "Section::::Description.:Portable Geoceiver.\n", "The equivalent of displacement in rotational motion is the angular displacement formula_6 measured in radian.\n\nThe displacement of an object cannot be greater than the distance because it is also a distance but the shortest one. Consider a person travelling to work daily. Overall displacement when he returns home is zero, since the person ends up back where he started, but the distance travelled is clearly not zero.\n\nSection::::Velocity.\n", "Proper motion\n\nProper motion is the astronomical measure of the observed changes in the apparent places of stars or other celestial objects in the sky, as seen from the center of mass of the Solar System, compared to the abstract background of the more distant stars.\n", "Section::::Carrier rockets.\n", "In some cases momentum exchange systems are intended to run as balanced transportation schemes where an arriving spacecraft or payload is exchanged with one leaving with the same speed and mass, and then no net change in momentum or angular momentum occurs.\n\nSection::::Tether systems.\n\nSection::::Tether systems.:Tidal stabilization.\n\nGravity-gradient stabilization, also called \"gravity stabilization\" and \"tidal stabilization\", is a simple and reliable method for controlling the attitude of a satellite that requires no electronic control systems, rocket motors or propellant.\n", "BULLET::::- A line drawn from the planet to the satellite sweeps out \"equal areas in equal times\" no matter which portion of the orbit is measured.\n\nBULLET::::- The square of a satellite's orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the planet.\n\nBULLET::::- Without applying force (such as firing a rocket engine), the period and shape of the satellite's orbit won't change.\n", "The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic center, thus the sun is moving in a circle within the galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge, or outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between . All planets and their moons move with the sun. Thus, the solar system is moving.\n\nSection::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Earth.\n", "Section::::Energetics of locomotion in space.\n\n\"See also\": Space suit, Bioenergetic systems\n", "Section::::Weightless and reduced weight environments.:Weightlessness in a spacecraft.\n\nLong periods of weightlessness occur on spacecraft outside a planet's atmosphere, provided no propulsion is applied and the vehicle is not rotating. Weightlessness does not occur when a spacecraft is firing its engines or when re-entering the atmosphere, even if the resultant acceleration is constant. The thrust provided by the engines acts at the surface of the rocket nozzle rather than acting uniformly on the spacecraft, and is transmitted through the structure of the spacecraft via compressive and tensile forces to the objects or people inside.\n", "Locomotion in space\n\nLocomotion in space includes any variety of actions or methods used to move one's body through an environment with microgravity conditions. Locomotion in these conditions is different from locomotion in Earth's gravity. There are many factors that contribute to these differences, and they are crucial when researching long-term survival of humans in space.\n\nSection::::Challenges of locomotion in reduced gravity.\n", "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n\nSection::::Other geosynchronous orbits.\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Pharmacologic therapy.\n", "Section::::Technology used to compensate for the negative effects.:Exercise methods.:Cycle Ergometer with Vibration Isolation (CEVIS).\n", "On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a space vehicle enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gained sufficient energy or velocity to make a full orbit of the Earth. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only, whereas those used for robotic space missions operate either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body are artificial satellites. To date, only a handful of interstellar probes, such as \"Pioneer 10\" and \"11\", \"Voyager 1\" and \"2\", and \"New Horizons\", are on trajectories that leave the Solar System.\n", "The Milky Way Galaxy is moving through space and many astronomers believe the velocity of this motion to be approximately relative to the observed locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave background. This frame of reference indicates that the Milky Way is moving at around .\n\nSection::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Sun and solar system.\n", "A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit, which has an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, or one sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds). Thus, the distinction is that, while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position. Geosynchronous orbits move around relative to a point on Earth's surface because, while geostationary orbits have an inclination of 0° with respect to the Equator, geosynchronous orbits have varying inclinations and eccentricities.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In typical free-fall, the acceleration of gravity acts along the direction of an object's velocity, linearly increasing its speed as it falls toward the Earth, or slowing it down if it is moving away from the Earth. In the case of an orbiting spacecraft, which has a velocity vector largely \"perpendicular\" to the force of gravity, gravitational acceleration does not produce a net change in the object's speed, but instead acts centripetally, to constantly \"turn\" the spacecraft's velocity as it moves around the Earth. Because the acceleration vector turns along with the velocity vector, they remain perpendicular to each other. Without this change in the direction of its velocity vector, the spacecraft would move in a straight line, leaving the Earth altogether.\n", "When, accordingly, we say that a body preserves unchanged its direction and velocity \"in space\", our assertion is nothing more or less than an abbreviated reference to \"the entire universe\".—Ernst Mach; as quoted by Ciufolini and Wheeler: \"Gravitation and Inertia\", p. 387\n\nThese views opposing absolute space and time may be seen from a modern stance as an attempt to introduce operational definitions for space and time, a perspective made explicit in the special theory of relativity.\n", "where \"a\" is the semi-major axis, \"P\" is the orbital period, and \"μ\" is the geocentric gravitational constant, equal to 398,600.4418 km/s.\n\nIn the special case of a geostationary orbit, the ground track of a satellite is a single point on the equator. In the general case of a geosynchronous orbit with a non-zero inclination or eccentricity, the ground track is a more or less distorted figure-eight, returning to the same places once per sidereal day.\n\nSection::::Geostationary orbit.\n", "The spacecraft's position in orbit is specified by the \"true anomaly,\" formula_25, an angle measured from the periapsis, or for a circular orbit, from the ascending node or reference direction. The \"semi-latus rectum\", or radius at 90 degrees from periapsis, is:\n\nThe radius at any position in flight is:\n\nand the velocity at that position is:\n\nSection::::Orbital flight.:Types of orbit.\n\nSection::::Orbital flight.:Types of orbit.:Circular.\n\nFor a circular orbit, \"r\" = \"r\" = \"a\", and eccentricity is 0. Circular velocity at a given radius is:\n\nSection::::Orbital flight.:Types of orbit.:Elliptical.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00066	How can 2 different metals create a micro current between them?	electrons like to move. Different metals have different electronegativities. When near enough to each other metals can have a very very slight electromagnetic imbalance. this can make electrons move from one area to a more favorable area to them. This movement of electrons on a tiny scale is a micro-current.	[ "If two metals having differing work functions are touched together, one steals electrons from the other, and the opposite net charges grow larger and larger; this is the Volta effect. The process is halted when the difference in electric potential (electrostatic potential) between the two metals reaches a particular value, namely the difference in work function values - usually less than one volt. At this point, the Fermi levels for the two metals are equal, and there is no voltage difference between them. [If there were a voltage difference between them, then a current would flow between them: so \"zero current\" implies \"zero voltage difference\".]\n", "If a metal touches a semiconductor material, or if two different semiconductors are placed into contact, one becomes charged slightly positive and the other slightly negative. It is found that if this junction between semiconductors is connected to a power supply, and if the power supply is set to a voltage slightly higher than the natural voltage appearing because of contact electrification, then for one polarity of voltage there will be a current between the two semiconductor parts, but if the polarity is reversed, the current stops. Thus contact between materials lead to the invention of the semiconductor diode or rectifier and triggered the revolution in semiconductor electronics and physics.\n", "BULLET::::- class II: 0 α formula_1 = 0.707, intermediate interaction between sites. An IVCT band is observed. The oxidation states of the two metal sites are distinct, but they readily interconvert. This is by far the most common class of intervalence complexes.\n", "When two metals are electrically isolated from each other, an arbitrary potential difference may exist between them. However, when two different neutral metal surfaces are brought into electrical contact (even indirectly, say, through a long wire), electrons will flow from the metal with a higher Fermi level to the metal with the lower Fermi level until the Fermi levels in the both phases are equal.\n\nOnce this has occurred, the metals are in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other (the actual number of electrons that passes between the two phases is usually small).\n", "The rectification property of metal–semiconductor contacts was discovered by Ferdinand Braun in 1874 using mercury metal contacted with copper sulfide and iron sulfide semiconductors.\n", "In materials with a direct band gap, if bright light is aimed at one part of the contact area between the two semiconductors, the voltage at that spot will rise, and an electric current will appear. When considering light in the context of contact electrification, the light energy is changed directly into electrical energy, allowing creation of solar cells. Later it was found that the same process can be reversed, and if a current is forced backwards across the contact region between the semiconductors, sometimes light will be emitted, allowing creation of the light-emitting diode (LED).\n", "First, consider the Galvani potential between two metals. When two metals are electrically isolated from each other, an arbitrary voltage difference may exist between them. However, when two different metals are brought into electronic contact, electrons will flow from the metal with a lower voltage to the metal with the higher voltage until the Fermi level of the electrons in the bulk of both phases are equal. The actual numbers of electrons that passes between the two phases is small (it depends on the capacitance between the objects), and the occupancies of the electron bands are practically unaffected. Rather, this small increase or decrease in charge results in a shift in all the energy levels in the metals. An electrical double layer is formed at the interface between the two phases.\n", "It was suggested by early workers that:\n\nBULLET::::- the metal lattice was relatively unaffected by the interstitial atom\n\nBULLET::::- the electrical conductivity was comparable to that of the pure metal\n\nBULLET::::- there was a range of composition\n\nBULLET::::- the type of interstice occupied was determined by the size of the atom\n\nThese were not viewed as compounds, but rather as solutions, of say carbon, in the metal lattice, with a limiting upper “concentration” of the smaller atom that was determined by the number of interstices available.\n\nSection::::Current.\n", "Section::::Inorganic chemistry.\n", "When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called \"atom exchange\" and the \"interstitial mechanism\". The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a \"substitutional alloy\". Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively. In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms of the crystal matrix, called the \"interstices\". This is referred to as an \"interstitial alloy\". Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.\n", "Macroscopic evidence for the Kirkendall effect can be gathered by placing inert markers at the initial interface between the two materials, such as molybdenum markers at an interface between copper and brass. The diffusion coefficient of zinc is higher than the diffusion coefficient of copper in this case. Since zinc atoms leave the brass at a higher rate than copper atoms enter, the size of the brass region decreases as diffusion progresses. Relative to the molybdenum markers, the copper-brass interface moves toward the brass at an experimentally measurable rate.\n\nSection::::Diffusion mechanism.:Darken's equations.\n", "If the semiconductor sample contains an internal electric field, as will be present in the depletion region at a p-n junction or Schottky junction, the electron–hole pairs will be separated by drift due to the electric field. If the p- and n-sides (or semiconductor and Schottky contact, in the case of a Schottky device) are connected through a picoammeter, a current will flow.\n", "Section::::The electrostatic QM-MM interaction.:Electrostatic embedding.\n", "If a piece of metal is touched against an electrolytic material, the metal will spontaneously become charged, while the electrolyte will acquire an equal and opposite charge. Upon first contact, a chemical reaction called a 'half-cell reaction' occurs on the metal surface. As metal ions are transferred to or from the electrolyte, and as the metal and electrolyte become oppositely charged, the increasing voltage at the thin insulating layer between metal and electrolyte will oppose the motion of the flowing ions, causing the chemical reaction to come to a stop. If a second piece of a different type of metal is placed in the same electrolyte bath, it will charge up and rise to a different voltage. If the first metal piece is touched against the second, the voltage on the two metal pieces will be forced closer together, and the chemical reactions will run constantly. In this way the 'contact electrification' becomes continuous. At the same time, an electric current will appear, with the path forming a closed loop which leads from one metal part to the other, through the chemical reactions on the first metal surface, through the electrolyte, then back through the chemical reactions on the second metal surface. In this way, contact electrification leads to the invention of the Galvanic cell or battery. \"See also: Dry pile\"\n", "When a material is magnetized (for example, by placing it in an external magnetic field), the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms, but behave as if they were orbiting the nucleus in a particular direction, creating a microscopic current. When the currents from all these atoms are put together, they create the same effect as a macroscopic current, circulating perpetually around the magnetized object. This magnetization current is one contribution to \"bound current\".\n", "Section::::Metallic contact.\n", "The voltage difference, \"V\", produced across the terminals of an open circuit made from a pair of dissimilar metals, A and B, whose two junctions are held at different temperatures, is directly proportional to the difference between the hot and cold junction temperatures, \"T\" − \"T\".\n\nThe voltage or current produced across the junctions of two different metals is caused by the diffusion of electrons from a high electron density region to a low electron density region, as the density of electrons is different in different metals. The conventional current flows in the opposite direction.\n", "If a metal-semiconductor junction is formed by placing a droplet of mercury, as Braun did, onto a semiconductor, e.g.silicon, to form a Schottky barrier in a Schottky diode electrical setup – electrowetting can be observed, where the droplet spreads out with increasing voltage. Depending on the doping type and density in the semiconductor, the droplet spreading depends on the magnitude and sign of the voltage applied to the mercury droplet. This effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’, effectively linking electrowetting and semiconductor effects.\n", "When two objects were touched together, sometimes the objects became spontaneously charged. One object developed a net negative charge, while the other developed an equal and opposite positive charge. Then it was discovered that 'piles' of dissimilar metal disks separated by acid-soaked cloth, Voltaic piles, could also produce charge differences. Although it was later found that these effects were caused by different physical processes - triboelectricity, the Volta effect, differing work functions of metals, and others - at the time they were all thought to be caused by a common 'contact electrification' process.\n", "In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room-temperature seawater), one metal will be either more \"noble\" or more \"active\" than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the \"tug-of-war\" at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in the same direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of materials in the medium of interest. This hierarchy is called a \"galvanic series\" and is useful in predicting and understanding corrosion.\n", "of total electron charge. Thus, if we place two such jugs a meter apart, the electrons in one of the jugs repel those in the other jug with a force of\n\nformula_2\n", "The Volta effect (described below) corresponds to a weak electric potential difference developed by the contact of different metals. Nowadays, this is often known as a contact potential difference. This effect was first discovered by Alessandro Volta, and can be measured using a capacitance electroscope comprising different metals. However, this effect does not, by itself, account for the action of electric batteries.\n", "Section::::The nature of metallic bonding.:Electron deficiency and mobility.\n", "To see the effect, we consider a n-type semiconductor with the length \"d\". We are interested in determining the mobility of the carriers, diffusion constant and relaxation time. In the following, we reduce the problem to one dimension.\n\nThe equations for electron and hole currents are:\n", "In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons\", but in semiconductors, current can be carried either by electrons or by the positively charged \"holes\" in the electronic band structure of the material. Common semiconductor materials include silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide.\n\nSection::::Classes of solids.:Nanomaterials.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01942	Why are there no (or few?) green mammals?	[From this]( URL_1 ), it would seem that the reason that there are no naturally green mammals -- I'm not counting sloths, whose green pigmentation comes about from algae in their fur -- is because hair colour is determined by melanin. Melanin doesn't have a green form. In birds and lizards, the skin is capable of [scattering blue light]( URL_2 ), which leaves a greenish or bluish colour that you don't often see in mammals. (Other species, especially invertebrates, are capable of producing blue or green pigmentation.) Mammals never really benefited from vibrancy of colour in the same way that a lot of species did: to my knowledge there are no poisonous mammals, so that takes out the benefit of being brightly coloured as a warning in the way that tree frogs might be, and they tend not to have quite as much reliance on vivid colour for mating rituals in the way that, say, birds might. From an evolutionary perspective, mammals spent most of their time trying to go unnoticed and keep warm, which lends itself to brown fur. (There are [brightly-coloured mammal species]( URL_0 ) -- mandrills and such -- but they seem to be recent evolutionary branches, at least on a lizard timeframe.)	[ "As other members of the genus \"Chlorocebus\", the green monkey is highly social and usually seen in groups. They usually live in groups of up to 7 to 80 individuals. Within these groups, there is distinct social hierarchy evidenced by grooming behaviors and gender relationships.\n", "Green iguanas are primarily herbivores, with captives feeding on leaves such as turnip greens, mustard greens, dandelion greens, flowers, fruit, and growing shoots of upwards of 100 different species of plant. In Panama, one of the green iguana's favorite foods is the wild plum (\"Spondias mombin\").\n", "The traditional theory is debunked for the reader's benefit in \"Dragonsdawn\", where it is noted that green dragons are sterile and gold dragons are unable to use firestone by design. Evidently that knowledge was lost and the folk explanation generated, before the Third Pass at latest. (Both the gold and green female fire lizards are fertile, and both use firestone to flame Thread. There has been little study of fire lizards since the early days, however, and wild green clutches produce few young because greens do not defend their nests or carefully choose secure sites.)\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "The only Australian nectarivore to not have a preference between the inner city and outer urban zones is the rainbow lorikeet. Both the rainbow lorikeet and the musk lorikeet are nectarivores, which means that their niches overlap and that they must compete against one another for the limited amount of resources available. The growth and resources of the rainbow lorikeet population may limit the growth of the musk lorikeet population, and coupled with the growing urbanization, the musk lorikeet may have more competitive pressures for resources.\n\nSection::::Breeding.\n", "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Since some populations use mangroves as a source of food, it is natural for the monkey to consume more sodium chloride (NaCl). Because of this, those populations have been observed to drink water directly from tree-holes, or licking water off of leaves. This innovative behavior shows the adaptation of the monkey to novel ecological and environmental circumstances.\n", "Primarily herbivorous, green iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation; plant matter contains more potassium and as it has less nutritional content per gram, more must be eaten to meet metabolic needs. As green iguanas are not capable of creating liquid urine more concentrated than their bodily fluids, like birds they excrete nitrogenous wastes as urate salts through a salt gland. As a result, green iguanas have developed a lateral nasal gland to supplement renal salt secretion by expelling excess potassium and sodium chloride.\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.\n\n\"Dendroaspis viridis\" was first described by the American herpetologist and physician Edward Hallowell in 1844. In addition to being called the western green mamba, this species is also commonly known as the West African green mamba or Hallowell's green mamba.\n", "Section::::Reproduction.:Predators.\n\nThe eastern green mamba has a few natural predators. Humans, mongooses, snake eagles, and genets commonly prey on this species of mamba. Hornbills and other snakes tend to prey on juvenile green mambas.\n\nSection::::Venom.\n", "Section::::Description.\n\nAn adult green acouchi weighs around , and has a short tail. The acouchi is a frugivore and so is prone to the dental disease caries.\n\nSection::::Behavior.\n\nGreen acouchis are diurnal, surface dwelling rodents and have a complex array of behavior patterns relating to social interaction. In addition, they are food hoarders, employing a scatter hoarding strategy.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.\n", "Section::::Reproduction.:Lifespan.\n\nThe longest living eastern green mamba was a captive specimen which lived for 18.8 years. Another captive specimen lived for 14 years. However, while it may be possible for wild specimens to live that long, they are thought to have shorter lifespans in general due to the threats of predation, habitat loss, disease, and other biological and environmental factors.\n\nSection::::Reproduction.:Diet.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n\nThe green hylia is a foliage-gleaning insectivore of the canopy and forest understory, usually foraging at a height of about 10 metres. Its diet includes insects, ants or butterflies which are accessible in its feeding area, on the underside of leaves or amongst forest litter. The species is considered a forest generalist as it is capable of surviving in a wide range of environmental conditions.\n", "Pictures taken from Google Earth effectively shows how dramatically habitat has changed from scrubland and grassland to dense woodland. The idea of no tree plantain proposed by some and other are not proper there has to be some trees which are not tall and there has to be the proper grassland so that the bird can hide and fly. If the camouflage is not there the bird has chance to fall prey to poachers.\n\nSection::::Need for habitat management.:Recommendations.\n", "Section::::Status and conservation.\n\nGould noted that early Tasmanian settlers regarded the abundant green rosella highly as food, and often shot and ate it. He agreed that it was very tasty after trying it himself. Many farmers saw the species as a pest of orchards, and green rosellas were shot.\n", "Green rosellas generally forage in the canopy or understory of forested areas, or in hedges, shrubs and trees in more open areas. They come to the ground to eat fallen fruit or spilt grain in orchards or farmland. They keep quiet while on the ground, and are quite noisy when in trees. Green rosellas forage in pairs or small groups of under 20 individuals, though larger groups of 50 to 70 have been observed at stands of blackberries or thistles in fields. When feeding, they generally hold food items in their left feet and extract edible parts or break and discard nut shells with their beaks.\n", "Another study published in 2007 revealed that the abundance of food within a habitat is not related to the abundance of macaw; however the researchers found that there was a link between the abundance of food and the amount of time great green macaws spend at one place.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Diet.\n", "The VPA species are all present and occurring in suitable habitat except for small adder's-tongue (\"Ophioglossum azoricum\") which has not been recorded on this site since 1986, however the former site appears suitable for the species and is therefore recorded as favourable\".\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Reproduction.\n", "Young birds are responsible for the majority of occurrences in the United States. The first green-breasted mango documented north of Mexico was photographed in coastal Texas in September 1988. The species has since become an increasingly frequent vagrant and extremely rare resident in the lower Rio Grande Valley of southern Texas.\n", "As recently as a decade ago, only five species comprised the tree monitor group: \"Varanus prasinus\", \"V. beccarii\", \"V. bogerti\", \"V. keithhornei\", and \"V. telenesetes\". In the early years of the 21st century, that number has been supplemented with the discoveries and naming of \"V. macraei\", \"V. boehmei\", and \"V. reisingeri\". The considerable similarity among these species made them difficult to differentiate. Some individuals of the decidedly green \"V. prasinus\" have very little yellow pigmentation, and thus appear pale blue. \"Varanus reisingeri\" can very well be described as looking like \"V. prasinus\" without blue pigmentation. While there are very few reports — and no specific field studies — relating to the natural history of any of the tree monitors, there is a considerable body of knowledge available for the green tree monitor (\"V. prasinus\") and the black tree monitor (\"V. beccarii\"), two of the species that have been very successfully maintained and bred in captivity for more than two decades. Consequently, several herpetoculturists and at least two zoos have now kept and bred the blue-spotted monitor (\"V. macraei\").\n", "The turquoise-browed motmot is a well-known bird in its range and has been chosen as the national bird of both El Salvador and Nicaragua. It has acquired a number of local names including \"guardabarranco\" (\"ravine-guard\") in Nicaragua, Torogoz in El Salvador (based on its call) and \"pájaro reloj\" (\"clock bird\") in the Yucatán, based on its habit of wagging its tail like a pendulum. In Costa Rica it is known as \"momoto cejiceleste\" or the far-less flattering \"pájaro bobo\" (\"foolish bird\"), owing to its tendency to allow humans to come very near it without flying away.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Section::::Chimpanzee predation.\n", "Green is common in nature, as many plants are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll, which is involved in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll absorbs the long wavelengths of light (red) and short wavelengths of light (blue) much more efficiently than the wavelengths that appear green to the human eye, so light reflected by plants is enriched in green. Chlorophyll absorbs green light poorly because it first arose in organisms living in oceans where purple halobacteria were already exploiting photosynthesis. Their purple color arose because they extracted energy in the green portion of the spectrum using bacteriorhodopsin. The new organisms that then later came to dominate the extraction of light were selected to exploit those portions of the spectrum not used by the halobacteria.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04278	Why and How do woman die or are close to dying during childbirth?	Most women who die in childbirth die due to blood loss. They have a hemorrhage that isn't promptly treated. Cardiac arrest is probably second but that might be seizure or stroke caused by preeclampsia (high blood pressure).	[ "A mother's water has to break before internal (invasive) monitoring can be used. More invasive monitoring can involve a fetal scalp electrode to give an additional measure of fetal heart activity, and/or intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC). It can also involve fetal scalp pH testing.\n\nSection::::Complications.\n", "BULLET::::4. Infection: each person has a different immune system, when a woman is pregnant, their immune systems behaves different than originally causing increased susceptibility to infection which can be threatening to both mother and baby. Different types of infection include, infection of amniotic fluid and surrounding tissues, influenza, genital tract infections, and sepsis/blood infection. Fever, chills, abnormal heart rate, and breathing rate can indicate some form of infection.\n", "BULLET::::3. Pre-eclampsia: at about 20 weeks until after delivery, pregnant women could have an increase in blood pressure which could indicate pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia involves the liver and kidneys not working properly which is indicated by protein in the urine as well as having hypertension. Pre-eclampsia can also become eclampsia, the mother seizes or is in a coma, which is rare but fatal.\n", "Section::::Complications.:Maternal complications.:Postpartum infections.\n\nPostpartum infections, also known as childbed fever and puerperal fever, are any bacterial infections of the reproductive tract following childbirth or miscarriage. Signs and symptoms usually include a fever greater than 38.0 °C (100.4 °F), chills, lower abdominal pain, and possibly bad-smelling vaginal discharge. The infection usually occurs after the first 24 hours and within the first ten days following delivery. Infection remains a major cause of maternal deaths and morbidity in the developing world. The work of Ignaz Semmelweis was seminal in the pathophysiology and treatment of childbed fever and his work saved many lives.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Maternal complications.:Psychological complications.\n", "For every woman who dies from causes related to pregnancy, an estimated 20 to 30 encounter serious complications. At least 15 per cent of all births are complicated by a potentially fatal condition. Women who survive such complications often require lengthy recovery times and may face lasting physical, psychological, social and economic consequences. Although many of these complications are unpredictable, almost all are treatable.\n", "Complications of emergency childbirth include the complications that occur during normal childbirth. Maternal complications include perineal tearing during delivery, excessive bleeding (postpartum hemorrhage), retained products of conception in the uterus, hypertension, and seizures.\n\nSection::::Maternal complications.:Vaginal bleeding and shock.\n\nIn a pregnant woman, 40% of the circulating blood volume is in the uterus. This creates a large bleeding potential and high risk of hemorrhagic shock (low blood pressure from loss of circulating blood). For this reason, constant vigilance is important if any of the following occur:\n\nBULLET::::- Vaginal bleeding early or late in pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Severe abdominal pain\n", "It was estimated that in 2015, a total of 303,000 women died due to causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. The majority of these causes were either severe bleeding, sepsis, eclampsia, labor that had some type of obstruction, and consequences from unsafe abortions. All of these causes are either preventable or have highly effective interventions. Another factor that contributes to the maternal mortality rate that have opportunities for prevention are access to prenatal care for women who are pregnant. Women who do not receive prenatal care are between three and four times more likely to die from complications resulting from pregnancy or delivery than those who receive prenatal care. For women in the United States, 25% do not receive the recommended number of prenatal visits, and this number increases for women among specific demographic populations: 32% for African American women and 41% for American Indian and Alaska Native women.\n", "Section::::Delirium.:Ethanol withdrawal.\n\nAlcohol withdrawal states (delirium tremens) are recognized in addicts whose intake has been interrupted by trauma or surgery. This can occur after childbirth.\n\nSection::::Delirium.:Wernicke-Korsakoff psychosis.\n", "Eclampsia is the onset of seizures (convulsions) in a woman with pre-eclampsia. Pre-eclampsia is a disorder of pregnancy in which there is high blood pressure and either large amounts of protein in the urine or other organ dysfunction. Pre-eclampsia is routinely screened for during prenatal care. Onset may be before, during, or rarely, after delivery. Around one percent of women with eclampsia die.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Maternal complications.\n", "Each year more than 250,000 women around the world die from complications due to childbirth or pregnancy, with bleeding and hypertension as the leading causes. Many of these deaths are preventable by emergency care, which include antibiotics, drugs that stimulate contraction of the uterus, anti-seizure drugs, blood transfusion, and delivery of baby with assistance (vacuum or forceps delivery) or C-section.\n", "Perinatal asphyxia is the medical condition resulting from deprivation of oxygen to a newborn infant that lasts long enough during the birth process to cause physical harm, usually to the brain. Hypoxic damage can occur to most of the infant's organs (heart, lungs, liver, gut, kidneys), but brain damage is of most concern and perhaps the least likely to quickly or completely heal.\n\nSection::::Complications.:Fetal complications.:Mechanical fetal injury.\n", "For women with injuries above T6, a risk during labor and delivery that threatens both mother and fetus is autonomic dysreflexia, in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke. Drugs such as nifedipine and captopril can be used to manage an episode if it occurs, and epidural anesthesia helps although it is not very reliable in women with SCI. Anesthesia is used for labor and delivery even for women without sensation, who may only experience contractions as abdominal discomfort, increased spasticity, and episodes of autonomic dysreflexia. Reduced sensation in the pelvic area means women with SCI usually have less painful delivery; in fact, they may fail to realize when they go into labor. If there are deformities in the pelvis or spine caesarian section may be necessary. Babies of women with SCI are more likely to be born prematurely, and, premature or not, they are more likely to be small for their gestational time.\n", "Each year, complications from pregnancy and childbirth result in about 500,000 maternal deaths, seven million women have serious long term problems, and 50 million women have negative health outcomes following delivery. Most of these occur in the developing world. Specific complications include obstructed labour, postpartum bleeding, eclampsia, and postpartum infection. Complications in the baby may include lack of oxygen at birth, birth trauma, prematurity, and infections.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Fetal death \"in utero\" does not present an immediate health risk to the woman, and labour will usually begin spontaneously after two weeks, so the woman may choose to wait and bear the fetal remains vaginally. After two weeks, the woman is at risk of developing blood clotting problems, and labor induction is recommended at this point. In many cases, the woman will find the idea of carrying the dead fetus traumatizing and will elect to have labor induced. Caesarean birth is not recommended unless complications develop during vaginal birth. How the diagnosis of stillbirth is communicated by healthcare workers may have a long-lasting and deep impact on parents. Women need to heal physically after a stillbirth just as they do emotionally. In Ireland women are offered a 'cuddle cot', a cooled cot which allows them to spend a number of days with the child before burial or cremation.\n", "However, the WHO definition is only one of many; other definitions may include accidental and incidental causes. Cases with \"incidental causes\" include deaths secondary to violence against women that may be related to the pregnancy and be affected by the socioeconomic and cultural environment. Also, it has been reported that about 10% of maternal deaths may occur late, that is after 42 days after a termination or delivery; thus, some definitions extend the period of observation to one year after the end of gestation.\n\nSection::::Women by country.\n\nSection::::Women by country.:Australia.\n", "BULLET::::- Another Dickens novel \"A Christmas Carol\", Scrooge's younger sister Fan dies in childbirth giving birth to his nephew Fred. Scrooge's father blames him for his mother also dying in childbirth.\n\nBULLET::::- In the 1891 play \"Spring Awakening\" by Frank Wedekind and the same-named contemporary musical Wendla dies from a botched abortion.\n", "BULLET::::1. Embolism: blood vessels blocked likely due to deep vein thrombosis, a blood clot that forms in a deep vein, commonly in the legs but could be from other deep veins.* Pulmonary embolisms and strokes are blockages in the lungs and brain respectively and are severe, could lead to long term effects, or be fatal.\n", "Section::::Maternal complications.:Convulsions.\n\nConvulsions (Seizures) in pregnancy can be caused by pregnancy specific causes of seizures such as eclampsia and by normal causes of seizures such as epilepsy. Warning signs that may lead to convulsions include pre-eclamsia, which is a condition that pregnant women can get after 20 weeks of pregnancy that is characterized by new-onset high blood pressure, headaches, blurry vision, trouble breathing from fluid in lungs, protein in urine from kidney failure, and elevated liver enzymes from liver dysfunction, and possibly coagulation defects from platelet dysfunction.\n", "Risk factors for fetal birth injury include fetal macrosomia (big baby), maternal obesity, the need for instrumental delivery, and an inexperienced attendant. Specific situations that can contribute to birth injury include breech presentation and shoulder dystocia. Most fetal birth injuries resolve without long term harm, but brachial plexus injury may lead to Erb's palsy or Klumpke's paralysis.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe process of childbirth in Western society has evolved significantly over the years.\n\nSection::::History.:Role of males.\n", "Note that this wording includes abortion, miscarriage, stillbirth, and ectopic pregnancy. Generally, there is a distinction between a direct maternal death that is the result of a complication of the pregnancy, delivery, or management of the two, and an indirect maternal death that is a pregnancy-related death in a woman with a pre-existing or newly developed health problem unrelated to pregnancy. Fatalities during but unrelated to a pregnancy are termed accidental, incidental, or non-obstetrical maternal deaths.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Nicholas Sparks novel \"At First Sight\", the female protagonist Lexie Darnell dies giving birth to daughter, Claire.\n\nBULLET::::- In R.A. Salvatore's novel \"The Highwayman\", Sen Wi, realizing that her newborn son will die, uses a healing art to save him at the cost of her own life.\n", "List of women who died in childbirth\n\nThis is a list of notable women, either famous themselves or closely associated with someone well known, who suffered maternal death as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO):\n", "BULLET::::- Maharani Lakshmi Bayi of Travancore (1857), mother of Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma, Maharajah of Travancore\n\nBULLET::::- T. K. Padmini (1969), painter\n\nBULLET::::- Smita Patil (1986), an Indian actress and wife of Raj Babbar\n\nSection::::Women by country.:Indonesia.\n\nBULLET::::- Raden Ajeng Kartini (1904), Promoter of gender equality in Indonesia\n\nSection::::Women by country.:Ireland.\n\nBULLET::::- Ann Lovett (1984), unmarried teenage mother whose death sparked a national debate\n\nBULLET::::- Savita Halappanavar (2012), her death caused widespread outrage after doctors refused to terminate her 17-week-long pregnancy, and ignited protests and debate on Irish abortion laws.\n\nSection::::Women by country.:Israel.\n\nBULLET::::- Rachel, wife of Jacob\n", "Section::::Cartoons and animated films.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Rugrats\", Melinda Finster is implied to have died of an unknown illness soon after giving birth to her son Chuckie, as it was mentioned in \"Mother's Day\" that she was hospitalized and kept a journal, the final entry of which she had written a poem.\n\nBULLET::::- The film \"Khumba\" features Lungisa who died the next day from an illness after giving birth to Khumba.\n", "BULLET::::- In the series one \"ER\" episode \"Loves Labours Lost\", Mark Greene oversees a patient who dies in childbirth due to pre-eclampsia. Mark is subsequently sued for negligence by her partner.\n\nBULLET::::- In the soap opera spin-off \"\", HIV-positive pregnant woman Stacey Sloan dies after complications of placental abruption.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Gossip Girl\", the anti-hero Chuck Bass' mother allegedly died after giving birth to him.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Mad Men\", the protagonist Don Draper's mother died while giving birth to him.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Downton Abbey\", Lady Sybil Branson dies from eclampsia after giving birth to her daughter Sybil.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-11183	How does the wheel on a pirate ship control the ship?	There's a rudder on the rear-bottom of the ship. When the wheel is turned, so is the rudder, which changes the direction of the vessel.	[ "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "Ship's wheel\n\nA ship's wheel or boat's wheel is a device used aboard a water vessel to steer that vessel and control its course. Together with the rest of the steering mechanism, it forms part of the helm. It is connected to a mechanical, electric servo, or hydraulic system which alters the vertical angle of the vessel's rudder relative to its hull. In some modern ships the wheel is replaced with a simple toggle that remotely controls an electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic drive for the rudder, with a rudder position indicator presenting feedback to the helmsman.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Prior to the invention of the ship's wheel the helmsman relied on a tiller—a horizontal bar fitted directly to the top of the rudder post—or a whipstaff—a vertical stick acting on the arm of the ship's tiller. Near the start of the 18th century, a large number of vessels appeared using the ship's wheel design, but historians are unclear when the approach was first used. Some modern ships have replaced the wheel with a simple toggle that remotely controls an electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic drive for the rudder, with a rudder position indicator presenting feedback to the helmsman.\n\nSection::::Design.\n", "BULLET::::- The Looping Starship, manufactured by Intamin is similar to a pirate ship, except that goes upside down. This gives the rider a feel of zero gravity for a moment as it swings back down while making 360° loops.\n\nBULLET::::- Some traveling fairs in Europe have pirate ships in which the riders can choose to stand up in cages located at the ends of the ships. These do not go upside down, but do swing to a horizontal position.\n", "The steering gear of earlier ships's wheels sometimes consisted of a double wheel where each wheel was connected to the other with a wooden \"spindle\" that ran through a \"barrel\" or \"drum\". The spindle was held up by two \"pedestals\" that rested on a wooden \"platform\", often no more than a grate. A \"tiller rope\" or \"tiller chain\" (sometimes called a \"steering rope\" or \"steering chain\") ran around the barrel in five or six loops and then down through two \"tiller rope/ chain slots\" at the top of the platform before connecting to two sheaves just below deck (one on either side of the ship's wheel) and thence out to a pair of pulleys before coming back together at the tiller and connecting to the ship's rudder. Movement of the wheels (which were connected and moved in unison) caused the tiller rope to wind in one of two directions and angled the tiller left or right. In a typical and intuitive arrangement, a forward-facing helmsman turning the wheel \"counter\"clockwise would cause the tiller to angle to starboard and therefore the rudder to swing to port causing the vessel to also turn to port (see animation). On many vessels the helmsman stood facing the rear of the ship with the ship's wheel before him and the rest of the ship behind him— this still meant that the direction of travel of the wheel at its apex corresponded to the direction of turn of the ship. Having two wheels connected by an axle allowed two people to take the helm in severe weather when one person alone might not have had enough strength to control the ship's movements.\n", "It was about this time that a serious accident occurred. Third Officer Arie van der Bent's left foot was crushed by the ship's heavy anchor chain while it was being lowered. Van der Bent had to be rushed to hospital on shore. His foot could not be saved and was amputated.\n", "Land-based ship simulators may feature a full-scale replica of a steering stand with a ship's wheel. Such simulators incorporate magnetic and gyro compasses (or repeaters) for steering. Moreover, a rudder angle indicator that responds appropriately to the helm is part of the configuration.\n", "They are joined by Skouras's second wife, Charlotte, who claims to have escaped from his physical and psychological abuse of her. When a pirate speedboat approaches, Calvert rams it, shoots the occupants and blows up the boat in vengeance for Hunslett's death.\n", "Communication with other devices is either through a 38,400 bit/s serial port dock, or through the 9,600 infrared link, the transmitter of which is mounted to the upper middle of the watch. It is possible to link two onHands via this infrared link to play various two-player games.\n", "Section::::Connection to Islam.\n", "BULLET::::- The Wraith - A swift, beautiful ship, originally owned by the pirate Joat, that Ioz steals for Ren from the Janda-Town docks. It has a unique, dynamic mainsail that rotates to slow the ship or act as a parachute. This mainsail can also be detached to become a large glider. The Series Bible written during the initial production of the show says that the \"Wraith\" was built with lumber from mystical trees on a remote island, and that the lumber still retains the life-force of those trees, making the ship seem as if it is haunted or has a mind of its own.\n", "Carmen and Mars take the wheel to Captain Quade to get some clues on what it does. But Quade steals it, Carmen has to return to Kate for help but she is not happy about it. After Kate saves Mars, he tells her he didn't need the help. And they sword-fight to prove who is a better fighter. Before a winner is announced, Blackheart arrives and Kate leads him inside the ship, she takes the wheel and exists a different way. Blackheart is slowly falling apart and takes the scanner to the forest, turning it on, Pirate Islands begins to rip apart for a second time. Minutes before the game is destroyed, Kate throws the wheel to Blackheart and races to the scanner, switching it off. Blackheart beats her to it once again and retrieves the scanner and the wheel. Blackheart solves the next clue in the logbook, taking the wheel to the waterfall, he finds a hidden panel and switches the waterfall off, opening a hidden door. Kate enters with Mars, both angry at each other. But are forced to work together as Blackheart races to beat them. They find a walkway and an icy block in the wall. Smashing it they retrieve the next clue, a golden egg.\n", "The Pirate Queen plans to intercept and sack English treasure ships, but instead, in a deep fog, the ship is attacked by a huge English warship. In the ensuing battle, Dubhdara is wounded and Grace instinctively takes charge. Though outnumbered, they manage to defeat the English soldiers and sink the warship. Seeing what his daughter has done, Dubhdara decides to train her to be a sea captain like himself against all tradition.\n", "The \"Seatalon\"’s captain, Catseyes, takes Dandin’s sword for himself and consigns Dandin and Durry to the galleys as oarslaves. The two are treated cruelly by slavemaster Blodge and his puny assistant Clatt, who force the slaves to row for Terramort. At night, however, a hooded mouse with silvery fur comes aboard and hands out files to the slaves. He approaches Captain Catseyes, claiming to be a courier from Gabool. The eccentric mouse slays Catseyes with a thrust from a dagger, and leads a revolt to take over the \"Seatalon\". Only then does he reveal his identity: Joseph the Bellmaker!\n", "This version included a hand wheel on the side, which rotated the dial plate, and with it the enemy bar. Relative direction of the enemy ship could be maintained to within a few degrees during a turn of the \"own ship\".\n", "Section::::Plot.:Act II.\n", "In practical terms, erecting a horizontal loop antenna on a ship caused several problems. The loop was supported by guy wires from a central mast. It was too wide for the ship to pass through Dutch ship canals, so the side sections had to be hinged so they could be raised to a vertical position until the ship was at sea. The initial design was not strong enough and one of the side sections buckled in strong winds, so the entire loop had to be reinforced and the guy wires strengthened.\n", "The boat was actually owned and controlled by a wicked witch named Wilhelmina W. Witchiepoo (played by Billie Hayes) who rode on a broomstick-like vehicle called the Vroom Broom. She used the boat to lure Jimmy and Freddy to her castle on Living Island, where she was going to take Jimmy prisoner and steal Freddy for her own purposes.\n", "Many sailors who entered into hydrarchy, led by commercial and military power by sea, contributed to the development of the pirate code, or the development of pirate society. Linebaugh and Rediker noted that by the 18th century, many slave ships were captured and converted to pirate duties.\n", "Jarvis is prevented from doing so when they hear a deafening burst of noise from the vessel. Jamie alerts them to his presence aboard the Carrier and he and the unconscious Doctor are rescued and taken aboard the Wheel. While the resident medic, Dr. Gemma Corwyn, sees to the Doctor, Jamie is given a guided tour by the astrophysicist librarian, Zoe Heriot.\n", "In 2002 a wooden fixed block was recovered that may provide evidence on the introduction of the ship’s steering wheel, possibly during the refit of 1701. Richard Endsor has argued that the ship had both a steering wheel and the older whipstaff, thus \"Stirling Castle\" provides important evidence for the transition between these two mechanisms.\n", "\"Wave the Pirate Flag!\" takes place in Drum Island, where the players attempt to steal a pirate flag from Chopper upon Drum Castle and wave it to fill a gauge. Chopper himself must place the flag upon each of the castle's seven sections and turn the snow pink.\n\nIn \"The Ancient Ruin Mystery\", players attempt to steal treasure from the ruins of Shandora and bring it back to their own camp while Robin is deciphering ponecliffs. The player who acquires 100,000 berries wins, unless Robin completely deciphers the ponecliffs. If so then she wins.\n\nSection::::Versus Game.:Captain Games.\n", "Joseph and Budu have been studying Alec, and have realized that he is likely to visit Port Royal. Joseph sets himself up in the less rowdy inland community of Spanish Town, ready to wait years for their arrival, equipped with a device that can detect and jam the Captain's signals.\n", "Under a time charter-party, the shipowner largely parts with control of his ship. The ship is employed, within certain limits, according to needs of the charterers. However, the shipowner remains in possession of the vessel via his employee, the master. The master remains responsible to the owner for the safety and proper navigation of the ship.\n", "Based on this tale, Steel divided his loot into 14 parts and hid them across the island of Dominica. A special chest, the Chest of Zanzibar, was created with 15 locked compartments, each containing maps and clues to find each of these stashes. The treasure found through the clues in one compartment will contain a key that can be used to open another compartment. The 15th compartment, which can only be opened once each other compartment has been opened in order, contains a map showing the location of every gold stash on the island of Dominica and would lead to the largest prize.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-02533	Why does food taste better when it’s prepared by someone else?	The theory is that since taste is closely associated with smell, you become partially desensitized to the smell of food you have been cooking since you are exposed to it, whereas food someone else prepares won't have that happen, so you will smell it fresh for the first time as you eat it.	[ "Leary and Kowalski define impression management in general as the process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them. Previous research has shown that certain types of eating companions make people more or less eager to convey a good impression, and individuals often attempt to achieve this goal by eating less. For example, people who are eating in the presence of unfamiliar others during a job interview or first date tend to eat less.\n", "This process is most commonly illustrated by a standard buffet. People are more likely to eat a larger amount of food at a buffet because the variety of foods and flavors presented renews a sense of appetite in the individual. A study conducted by Rolls and van Duijvenvoorde in 1984 verified this process by simulating a buffet-style meal. They fed participants four meals that included sausages, bread and butter, chocolate dessert, and bananas. They then fed the participants four courses of one of these foods. The results revealed a 44% increase in overall food consumption when exposed to the meals with a variety of foods.\n", "According to , in his dictionary of proverbs, the saying comes from a great lord who organized a feast. At the table, the place makers required that each lady had a gentleman by her side. For each couple there was only one dish, a single glass and a single knife, even though the couples were strangers. The talent of the host was to place the guests in such a way that the familiarity between them was pleasing to both.\n", "In a series of studies by Mori, Chaiken and Pliner, individuals were given an opportunity to snack while getting acquainted with a stranger. In the first study, both males and females tended to eat less while in the presence of an opposite-sex eating companion, and for females this effect was most pronounced when the companion was most desirable. It also seems that women may consume less in order to exude a feminine identity; in a second study, women who were made to believe that a male companion viewed them as masculine ate less than women who believed they were perceived as feminine.\n", "Foodpairing, or the non-registered trademarked term food pairing, is a method for identifying which foods go well together from a flavor standpoint, while food combining identifies foods that match from a nutritional or digestive standpoint. The method is based on the principle that foods combine well with one another when they share key flavor components. It is a relatively new method that began around the start of the 21st century and is often confused with wine and food matching. By contrast, Foodpairing uses HPLC, gas chromatography and other laboratory methods to analyse food and find chemical components that they have in common.\n", "Section::::Physical properties of wine.:Alcohol.\n\nAlcohol is the primary factor in dictating a wine's weight and body. Typically the higher the alcohol level, the more weight the wine has. An increase in alcohol content will increase the perception of density and texture. In food and wine pairing, salt and spicy heat will accentuate the alcohol and the perception of \"heat\" or hotness in the mouth. Conversely, the alcohol can also magnify the heat of spicy food making a highly alcoholic wine paired with a very spicy dish one that will generate a lot of heat for the taster.\n\nSection::::Other pairing principles.\n", "By practicing table sharing, two (or more) groups of customers who may not know each other sit together at a table in a restaurant, and are able to get a table faster than waiting for the first group to finish. However, in many cultures, the act of sharing food with another person is a highly emotionally charged act; even in cultures which take a more casual attitude towards it, sharing a table with strangers in a restaurant can create some awkwardness.\n\nSection::::Diffusion.\n", "Avery (Avery Bilz) believes that food is fun, so his cooking tends to follow his intuition instead of a recipe. When baking cookies, he will go with the flow and add mini-marshmallows to the dough if he feels like it. He is always willing to try a new taste sensation—especially if his co-host Lily \"eggs\" him\n\nSection::::Hosts.:Matt.\n", "When have we eaten from the same dish\n\nWhen have we eaten from the same dish? () is a Spanish idiom about someone who has \"taken too many liberties\" and caused irrattion or offense. It is usually made as a hierarchical commentary about poor manners or incivility, often referring to address someone perceived to be acting above their social standing, position, class or rank. It may also be said as a statement, \"When we have eaten from the same dish.\" ().\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "In many countries, family and friends often ate from a communal bowl. With that came a whole set of customs and expectations. Shared food is one of the most intimate and generous acts. People sit to eat with their family and friends, and to celebrate special occassions. In many countries hosts are judged on their hospitality and the food they serve. Hospitality is referenced in the Quran, and in other religious texts. Specifically the story of Abraham and the three visitors, and the New Testament Parable of the Wedding Feast. Human social relationships, and rituals are built upon food and its consumption. These traditions are juxtaposed with this statement, turning hospitality into a cutting remark.\n", "While a perfect balance where both food and wine are equally enhanced is theoretically possible, typically a pairing will have a more enhancing influence on one or the other. Master Sommelier Evan Goldstein notes that food and wine pairing is like two people having a conversation: \"\"One must listen while the other speaks or the result is a muddle\".\" This means either the food or the wine will be the dominant focus of the pairing, with the other serving as a complement to enhance the enjoyment of the first. In regards to weight and intensity, if the focus of the pairing is the wine then a more ideal balance will be a food that is slightly lighter in weight to where it will not compete for attention with the wine but not too light to where it is completely overwhelmed. If the focus of the pairing is to highlight a dish then the same thought would apply in pairing a wine.\n", "On the contrary, inclusion after priming did not occur, when subjects were subsequently asked for the trustworthiness of other specific politicians. There the priming led to a more favorable evaluation of the other politician's trustworthiness than without priming. This demonstrates a contrast effect, because the accessible information was excluded from the representation of the target stimulus (e.g. Richard Nixon is not Newt Gingrich) and therefore constructed in the mental representation of the standard of comparison.\n\nSection::::Simultaneous assimilation and successive contrast.\n", "Another study, in 2002 by Barr and Keysar, also criticized the particular listener view and partner-specific reference. In the experiment, addresses and speakers established definite references for a series of objects on a wall. Then, another speaker entered, using the same references. The theory was that, if the partner-specific view of establishing reference was correct, the addressee would be slower to identify objects(as measured by eye movement) out of confusion because the reference used had been established with another speaker. They found this not to be the case, in fact, reaction time was similar.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Collaborative filtering\n", "Taste-based discrimination can be observed from the side of employers, customers or co-workers. In the case of an employer's \"taste for discrimination\", the employer aims to avoid non-monetary costs and does so often based on his own preferences. In the case of co-workers and customers, they often don't want to interact with people belonging to a minority group, which the employer considers during the hiring process.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Each of the eight assistance carry a case holding a type of food sample and the guest must choose one among the eight cases. Within the cases are two dishes of the same type of food, however, one dish tastes gross with added extra ingredient while the other dish taste delicious. The pair of guest who does the choosing must sample a dish individually while the other pair of guest must observe their expressions. Base on observations, the other team must decide whether who is sampling the nasty dish or the normal dish. A correct guess would earn the team $5000 HK, yet a wrong guess would earn the sampling team $5000 HK. After the observing team guessed, they get to sample a choice of dish while the previous team does the observation for the same deal\n", "Additionally, Foodpairing is able to provide a scientific, modern basis for the success of traditionally settled food combinations. It is not a coincidence that the vast majority of the traditional top hit combinations like bacon and cheese, and asparagus and butter have many flavor components in common.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Complement and contrast.\n\nAfter considering weight, pairing the flavors and texture can be dealt with using one of two main strategies — complement or contrast.\n\nThe first strategy tries to bring wine together with dishes that complement each other such as an earthy, Burgundian Pinot noir with an earthy, mushroom dish.\n", "Debate surrounds whether perceptual salience and differential attention are necessary to produce this effect. Modern theory holds that the contextual incongruity of the isolate is what leads to the differential attention to this item. Based on this assumption, an isolation effect would not be expected if the isolated item were presented prior to some consistent context, a theory that goes against von Restorff's findings.\n", "Section::::Research.:Genotypic and phenotypic adaptation in humans.:PTC taste perception.\n", "Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples include adding granola to yogurt, adding croutons to a salad or soup, and toasting bread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Contrast in taste.\n\nAnother universal phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example, such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to go well together, as in kettle corn and nuts.\n\nSection::::Cuisine.:Food preparation.\n", "There are advantages for the counterpart in a negotiation when it comes to MESOs. Generally, others prefer to be given choices. Many options are preferable to one single offer. One MESO is likely to be more appealing, or a greater value, than the other options. To the counterpart, this more appealing MESO can lead to further discussion and, ultimately, settlement. This also offers the counterpart an opportunity for input wherein they can discuss values, weights, interests, etc.\n\nSection::::Scholarly research.\n", "Beyond the basic guidelines listed above, food pairings can dive even further into matching several layers of texture and flavors. The term \"bridge ingredients\" refers to ingredients and flavors that have certain affinities in wine pairing (such as slow-cooked onions with creamy wines, etc.). It can also refer to using particular herbs and spices perceived in the wine (such as rosemary in some Cabernet Sauvignon) and adding them to the dish as an ingredient. Their presence in a dish may increase the likelihood that the certain wines will pair well.\n", "Fluency and familiarity have been shown to lead to the mere exposure effect. Research has found that repetition of a stimulus can lead to fluent processing which leads to a feeling of liking. In this experiment, participants were presented with unfamiliar faces either three or nine times. After presentation, pairs of faces were shown to participants, each consisting of an old and new face. Results showed that participants gave higher rates of liking to the repeated faces. The mere exposure effect is eliminated if fluent processing is disrupted. Topolinski et al., (2014) explained that the fluency created by pronunciation plays a vital role in increasing fondness for a stimulus. In the experiment, participants were shown unfamiliar adverts in a cinema. The control group watched the adverts with a sugar cube in their mouth. Therefore, there was no interference in pronunciation in the control group. The experimental group watched the adverts whilst eating popcorn, which meant there was oral interference. One week later, participants rated their liking of products. In the control group, the mere exposure effect was observed, where old products had higher ratings than new products. In the experimental group, the mere exposure effect was abolished by interfering with fluency of pronunciation during presentation of stimulus.\n", "Stimulus filtering is also seen humans from a day-to-day basis. The phenomenon is called the cocktail party effect. When in a crowded room people tend to ignore other conversations and just focus on the one they are participating in. This effect also works in that when an individual hears their name in another’s conversation they immediately focus on that conversation.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Moths.\n", "He has a secret date planned for her since she tells him she is obsessed with Top Chef, takes her to Mike Isabella from Top Chef season six and all-stars new restaurant Graffiato. She has a blast with him and when the check comes he grabs it instantly and pays for the entire thing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03261	Why do winter hats have pom poms on the top? Is there any purpose to them?	It doesn't really have a purpose aside from being decorative. However, that shouldn't stop you from enjoying the rich history of the pom, which can be traced way, way back to Norse mythology and beyond. It seems many of the northern countries have some sort of legend or myth that has a prominent character (Freyr, in Norse) that wore a pom on their helmet or hat, and the tradition may derive loosely from that. Winter nations defined what our winter clothes came to look like, which means we have poms sometimes. But there really is no definitive, perfect explanation for it. It's just one of those things that has become a tradition for no real reason, other than that it did.	[ "Red pom-poms form a conspicuous part of the uniform of French naval personnel, being sewn onto the crown of their round sailor caps. Belgian sailors wear a light blue version.\n\nTraditional Italian wedding shoes have small pom-poms, as do some Turkish dancing shoes.\n\nSection::::Clothing.:Roman Catholic clergy.\n", "\"Pom-pom\" is derived from the French word \"pompon\", which refers to a small decorative ball made of fabric or feathers. It also means an \"ornamental round tuft\" and originally refers to its use on a hat, or an \"ornamental tuft; tuft-like flower head.\"\n\nSection::::Sports and cheerleading.\n\nCheerleaders use pom-poms at sports events for six reasons:\n\nBULLET::::- to attract the attention of the spectators\n\nBULLET::::- to accentuate movements\n\nBULLET::::- to add \"sparkle\" to a cheer, chant, or dance routine\n\nBULLET::::- to distract the opposing team\n\nBULLET::::- to spell out team's name or \"go\"\n\nBULLET::::- to use semaphore\n", "Mortarboards are often seen in party supply shops in the United States in May and June, when they appear in the form of party decorations, on commemorative gifts such as teddy bears, and on congratulatory greeting cards.\n\nSection::::Traditional wear.:Mourning cap.\n", "In Scandinavia, caps resembling a typical knit cap with a pom-pom has been in use since the Viking period and possibly earlier. The term (Danish \"tophue\", Norwegian \"topplue\", Swedish \"toppluva\") means \"top cap\", and refers to the pom-pom. The Rällinge statuette, depicting Viking fertility god Freyr shows him wearing a pointed cap with pom-pom.\n", "In the 19th century bal maidens began to wear straw hats in summer instead of cotton gooks. By the end of the 19th century, these straw bonnets had largely replaced the gook year-round. By this time the Cornish mining industry was in terminal decline, and very few bal maidens remained in employment.\n", "The term \"pomander\" can refer to the scented material itself or to the container that which contains such material. The container could be made of gold or silver and eventually evolved to be shaped like nuts, skulls, hearts, books and ships. Smaller versions were made to be attached by a chain to a finger ring and held in the hand. Even smaller versions served as cape buttons or rosary beads.\n", "Some religious orders and congregations have unique birettas, such as the Norbertines who wear a white biretta with a white pom. Some St. Francis fathers wear a brown biretta with a black pom. Other orders may wear a black biretta with a white, green, or blue pom, or the black biretta of the secular priesthood.\n\nSection::::Clothing.:Toorie.\n\nIn reference to Scottish Highland dress and Scottish military uniforms, the small pom-pom on the crown of such hats as the Balmoral, the Glengarry, and the Tam o' Shanter is called a \"toorie.\"\n", "The toorie is generally made of yarn and is traditionally red on both Balmorals and Glengarries (although specific units have used other colours). It has evolved into the smaller pom-pom found on older-style golf caps and the button atop baseball caps.\n\nScots refer to any such hat decoration as a toorie, irrespective of the headgear.\n\nSection::::Toys and bicycles.\n\nPom-poms are sometimes used as children's toys. They are a common feature at the ends of the handlebars of children's tricycles and bicycles. They are also used in children's artistic crafts to add texture and color.\n", "Most often, pom-poms are used in pairs (one in each hand), but this may vary with the particular requirements of the choreography of a dance or cheer.\n\nCheerleading pom-poms come in a variety of shapes, styles, colors, color combinations, and sizes. Shiny metallic pom-poms have become very popular in recent years.\n\nPom-poms are also waved by sports fans, primarily at college and high school sports events in the United States, Cheap, light-weight \"faux\" pom-poms in team colors are sometimes given or sold to spectators at such events.\n", "Coonskin caps were originally a traditional Native American article of clothing. When Europeans began colonizing the Tennessee and Kentucky areas, the colonists started wearing them as hunting caps.\n\nThe coonskin cap eventually became a part of the iconic image associated with American frontiersmen such as Daniel Boone and Davy Crockett. Boone did not actually wear coonskin caps, which he disliked, and instead wore felt hats, but explorer Meriwether Lewis wore a coonskin cap during the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Joseph L. Meek wore the coonskin cap in the mountains.\n", "In the first half of the 20th century, the poffer fell out of favour, largely because of its impracticality, especially when riding a bicycle. There was also a lack of fabric in the area during the second world war period. The wearing of the poffer continued until the 1950s but only on special occasions such as weddings, holidays and attending church during which it was replaced by more modern style hats.\n\nSection::::Appearance.\n", "Caps of this type were introduced during the early 19th century, as cheap and practical workwear for sailors and factory workers in Europe. These became popular among the urban Russian Jewish community in response to the Tsarist authorities banning more traditional Jewish headwear.\n", "In more general terms, the velvet and ermine lining of a crown (or of the coronet of a peer) is itself sometimes called a 'cap of maintenance', and is technically a separate item from the crown itself. It may have had a purely practical origin being used to help a crown fit more firmly or to protect the head from bare metal on the crown.\n\nSection::::Confusion with \"Muscovy Hat\".\n", "Pom-pom\n\nA pom-pom – also spelled pom-pon, pompom or pompon – is a decorative ball or tuft of fibrous material.\n\nThe term may refer to large tufts used by cheerleaders, or a small, tighter ball attached to the top of a hat, also known as a bobble or toorie.\n\nPom-poms may come in many colors, sizes, and varieties and are made from a wide array of materials, including wool, cotton, paper, plastic, thread, glitter and occasionally feathers. Pom-poms are shaken by cheerleaders, pom or dance teams, and sports fans during spectator sports.\n\nSection::::Spelling and etymology.\n", "Today, passementerie is used with clothing, such as the gold braid on military dress uniforms, and for decorating couture clothing and wedding gowns. They are also used in furniture trimming, such as the Centripetal Spring Armchair of 1849 and some lampshades, draperies, fringes and tassels.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "When some bal maidens were re-hired to work in a temporarily expanded mining industry during the First World War (1914–18), traditional clothing was abandoned and gooks were largely replaced by more practical wool or fur hats. Gooks did not die out completely, and records exist of at least some bal maidens continuing to wear the gook until the early 1920s.\n", "President Barack Obama was presented with several Stormy Kromer caps when he visited Marquette, Michigan, on February 10, 2011 to speak about wireless communication technologies. It has become a traditional garb in the Upper Peninsula.\n\nA version that is a \"tip of the hat\" to the hat's Wisconsin roots is available in Green Bay Packers green with the team logo and sold through Lambeau Field.\n", "A number of English cities and towns refer to the use of a 'cap of maintenance' as worn by a ceremonial officer, most usually a swordbearer. These are based most often on a design worn by the swordbearer of the Lord Mayor of the City of London. However, this item is called by the City of London authorities a \"Muscovy hat\" and is a historic reference to the mediaeval trade with the Baltic. The Muscovy hat served as the crest of the City of London until replaced in the nineteenth century by the present crest of \"A dragon's wing charged with the Cross of St George\".\n", "While there was some regional variation in style, gooks would generally be tied under the chin and around the neck, and fall loose from the neck over the shoulders to protect the shoulders and upper arms. In bright sunlight, the wearer would sometimes pin the gook across her face, leaving only the eyes exposed. Gooks for use in winter were made of felt or padded cotton with cardboard stiffening to allow the top to project forward over the face, and in summer of cotton. Although gooks were traditionally white in colour, the lightweight summer gooks were sometimes made of bright cotton prints.\n", "A knit cap, originally of wool (though now often of synthetic fibers) is designed to provide warmth in cold weather. Typically, the knit cap is of simple, tapering constructions, though many variants exist. Historically, the wool knit cap was an extremely common form of headgear for seamen, fishers, hunters and others spending their working day outdoors from the 18th century and forward, and is still commonly used for this purpose in Canada, Scandinavia and other cold regions of the world. Being found all over the world where climate demands a warm hat, the knit cap can be found under a multitude of local names.\n", "Section::::Origins.\n\nThe origin of this symbol of dignity is obscure. \n\nSection::::Royal insignia.\n\nAccording to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" a cap of maintenance was granted by the pope to both Kings Henry VII and to his son King Henry VIII as a mark of special privilege. A cap of maintenance is one of the insignia of the British sovereign, and is carried directly before the monarch at the State Opening of Parliament, nowadays usually by the Leader of the House of Lords. \n", "Lampshade hat\n\nA lampshade hat is a millinery design in which the hat has a small circular crown – typically flat, but sometimes rounded – and flares outwards to create a cone-like profile. In shape, it may have some similarities to the pillbox and bucket hat, both of which were popular at around the same time, although the classic lampshade design is longer and more flared than a pillbox (typically ending at or below the ears) and is generally made of stiffer material than a bucket hat. \n", "An important exception to the typical reasons for wearing a toupée is that recovering chemotherapy patients sometimes wear toupées. This type of hairpiece is technically referred to as a hair prosthesis. A positive self-image has often been said to assist in the recovery process, and doctors often help direct recovering patients to find hairpieces to help project their usual healthy appearance. This effort is particularly made when the recovering patient is a child, or a woman.\n", "Santa Claus is often shown with a knitted cap or a sewn cap following the typical Scandinavian style knitted cap with a pom-pom, a trait he has inherited from the Germanic/Scandinavian tradition. The Scandinavian tomte is likewise usually depicted with a red knitted cap, such a cap is also used as a national symbol (sometimes negatively) in Norway.\n\nSection::::Other names.\n", "Gook (headgear)\n\nA gook was a piece of protective headgear worn by bal maidens (female manual labourers in the mining industries of Cornwall and Devon). The gook was a bonnet which covered the head and projected forward over the face, to protect the wearer's head and face from sunlight and flying debris. Bal maidens often worked outdoors or in very crude surface-level shelters, and the gook also gave protection from extreme weather conditions. By covering the ears, gooks protected the ears from the noisy industrial environment.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-08151	If noise-canceling headphones emit sound waves to counter the outside noise, why do the emitted sound waves not themselves harm your hearing?	For the same reason that they cancel the sound. The way noise-cancelling headphones work is that they cancel the sound before it reaches your eardrum. So your eardrum doesn't get vibrated, and you don't hear a sound. Since there's no vibration of your eardrum, there's no harm. Of course, in reality, noise cancelling headphones don't work quite that perfectly, which is one of the reasons that you don't use them to protect your hearing. The other reason is that they really only work well for repetitive sounds in certain frequency ranges. They are best for ambient noise like the sounds of an airplane.	[ "Section::::Applications.\n\nApplications can be \"1-dimensional\" or 3-dimensional, depending on the type of zone to protect. Periodic sounds, even complex ones, are easier to cancel than random sounds due to the repetition in the wave form.\n", "Noise-cancelling headphones\n\nNoise-cancelling headphones, or noise-canceling headphones, are headphones that reduce unwanted ambient sounds using active noise control. This is distinct from passive headphones which, if they reduce ambient sounds at all, use techniques such as soundproofing.\n", "Noise cancellation generators for active noise control are a relatively modern innovation. A microphone is used to pick up the sound that is then analyzed by a computer; then, sound waves with opposite polarity (180° phase at all frequencies) are output through a speaker, causing destructive interference and cancelling much of the noise.\n\nSection::::Residential soundproofing.\n", "To prevent higher-frequency noise from reaching the ear, most noise-cancelling headphones depend on soundproofing. Higher-frequency sound has a shorter wavelength, and cancelling this sound would require locating devices to detect and counteract it closer to the listener's eardrum than is currently technically feasible or would require digital algorithms that would complicate the headphone's electronics.\n\nNoise-cancelling headphones specify the amount of noise they can cancel in terms of decibels. This number may be useful for comparing products but does not tell the whole story, as it does not specify noise reduction at various frequencies.\n\nSection::::In aviation.\n", "To cancel the lower-frequency portions of the noise, noise-cancelling headphones use active noise control. They incorporate a microphone that measures ambient sound, generate a waveform that is the exact negative of the ambient sound, and mix it with any audio signal the listener desires.\n\nMost noise-cancelling headsets in the consumer market generate the noise-cancelling waveform in real-time with analogue technology. In contrast, other active noise and vibration control products use soft real-time digital processing.\n", "Section::::History and theory.:Directivity.\n\nAdditionally, the loudspeakers and microphones should have non-uniform directivity and should stay out of the maximum sensitivity of each other, ideally at a direction of cancellation. Public address speakers often achieve directivity in the mid and treble region (and good efficiency) via horn systems. Sometimes the woofers have a cardioid characteristic.\n", "BULLET::::- Electronic noise control: Electronics, sensors, and computers are also employed to cancel noise by using phase cancellation which matches the sound amplitude with a wave of the opposite polarity. This method employs the use of an active sound generating device, such as a loudspeaker to counteract ambient noise in an area. See noise-canceling headphone. Workers in noisy environments may favor this method over ear plugs.\n", "Some users have noted that ambient noise can be a problem. The built-in microphone on the pen can pick up small amounts of noise from writing on paper, and adjacent ambient noise is often louder than a far away speaker. However, the included headphones have embedded microphones that reduce this ambient noise. (Headphones for the Echo must be purchased separately).\n", "Active noise-cancelling headphones use a microphone, amplifier, and speaker to pick up, amplify, and play ambient noise in phase-reversed form; this to some extent cancels out unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20 dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise.\n", "A group of lawyers requested court injunctions against the Toronto Police Service from using newly purchased Long Range Acoustic Devices (LRAD), also known as sound cannons, during protests. Sound cannons have been used in previous summit protests and have the ability to produce sound at ear-piercing volumes, potentially causing hearing impairment. The Ontario Superior Court of Justice later ruled that officers can use sound cannons, with a few restrictions.\n", "Noise cancellation makes it possible to listen to audio content without raising the volume excessively. It can also help a passenger sleep in a noisy vehicle such as an airliner. In the aviation environment, noise-cancelling headphones increase the signal-to-noise ratio significantly more than passive noise attenuating headphones or no headphones, making hearing important information such as safety announcements easier. Noise-cancelling headphones can improve listening enough to completely offset the effect of a distracting concurrent activity.\n\nSection::::Theory.\n", "The energy density of sound waves decreases as they spread out, so that increasing the distance between the receiver and source results in a progressively lesser intensity of sound at the receiver. In a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to the inverse square of the distance from the source.\n\nSection::::Damping.\n", "One study of the BAHA system showed a benefit depending on the patient's transcranial attenuation. Another study showed that sound localisation was not improved, but the effect of the head shadow was reduced.\n\nSection::::Hearing issues.\n\nSchool-age children with unilateral hearing loss tend to have poorer grades and require educational assistance. This is not the case with everyone, however. They can also be perceived to have behavioral issues.\n", "According to the FTC, \"there is no scientific proof that so-called shields significantly reduce exposure from electromagnetic emissions. Products that block only the earpieceor another small portion of the phoneare totally ineffective because the entire phone emits electromagnetic waves.\" Such shields \"may interfere with the phone's signal, cause it to draw even more power to communicate with the base station, and possibly emit more radiation.\" The FTC has enforced false advertising claims against companies that sell such products.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bioelectromagnetism\n\nBULLET::::- BioInitiative Report\n\nBULLET::::- COSMOS cohort study\n\nBULLET::::- Microwave News\n\nBULLET::::- Possible health effects of body scanners\n", "Section::::Interference reduction.\n\nBalanced audio connections use a number of techniques to reduce noise. \n", "These are audible most of the time and especially when the level of the original tone is low. Hence they have a greater effect on psychoacoustic tuning curves than quadratic difference tones.\n\nQuadratic difference tones are the result of\n\nF2 – F1\n\nThis happens at relatively high levels hence have a lesser effect on psychoacoustic tuning curves.\n\nCombination tones can interact with primary tones resulting in secondary combination tones due to being like their original primary tones in nature, stimulus like. An example of this is\n\n3F1 – 2F2\n", "In most of these cases, direct sound from the loudspeaker (not the person at the far end, otherwise referred to as the Talker) enters the microphone almost unaltered. The difficulties in cancelling echo stem from the alteration of the original sound by the ambient space. These changes can include certain frequencies being absorbed by soft furnishings, and reflection of different frequencies at varying strength.\n", "According to the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks, the risk of hearing damage from digital audio players depends on both sound level and listening time. The listening habits of most users are unlikely to cause hearing loss, but some people are putting their hearing at risk, because they set the volume control very high or listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\n", "Previous noise exposure has not been found to potentiate ototoxic hearing loss. The American Academy of Audiology includes in their position statement that exposure to noise at the same time as aminoglycosides may exacerbate ototoxicity. The American Academy of Audiology recommends people being treated with ototoxic chemotherapeutics avoid excessive noise levels during treatment and for several months following cessation of treatment. Opiates in combination with excessive noise levels may also have an additive effect on ototoxic hearing loss.\n\nSection::::Ototoxic agents.:Ototoxicants in the environment and workplace.\n", "The primary challenge for an echo canceller is determining the nature of the filtering to be applied to the far-end signal such that it resembles the resultant near-end signal. The filter is essentially a model of speaker, microphone and the room's acoustical attributes. Echo cancellers must be adaptive because the characteristics of the near-end's speaker and microphone are generally not known in advance. The acoustical attributes of the near-end's room are also not generally known in advance, and may change (e.g., if the microphone is moved relative to the speaker, or if individuals walk around the room causing changes in the acoustic reflections). By using the far-end signal as the stimulus, modern systems use an adaptive filter and can 'converge' from nothing to 55 dB of cancellation in around 200 ms.\n", "Normally, the benefits of noise reduction far outweigh aesthetic impacts for residents protected from unwanted sound. These benefits include lessened sleep disturbance, improved ability to enjoy outdoor life, reduced speech interference, stress reduction, reduced risk of hearing impairment, and a reduction in the elevated blood pressure created by noise (that improves cardiovascular health).\n", "Active noise canceling is best suited for low frequencies. For higher frequencies, the spacing requirements for free space and zone of silence techniques become prohibitive. In acoustic cavity and duct based systems, the number of nodes grows rapidly with increasing frequency, which quickly makes active noise control techniques unmanageable. Passive treatments become more effective at higher frequencies and often provide an adequate solution without the need for active control.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The wires are also twisted together, to reduce interference from electromagnetic induction. A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential amplifier. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it won't be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.\n", "Section::::Hunting and firearms.\n\nThe shooting of guns for recreational use can lead to hearing loss in the high frequencies. The shooting of firearms can cause damage to a variety of cochlear structures due to the high peak sound pressure levels that they generate. This can range from 140 to 175 dB .\n", "Studies are still being done on fan exposure, but some preliminary findings show that there are often noises that can be at or exceed 120 dB which, unprotected, can cause damage to the ears in seconds.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.\n" ]	[ "Vibration from noise canceling headphones reaches the eardrum." ]	[ "Vibration from the noise canceling headphones is unable to reach the eardrum.." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vibration from noise canceling headphones reaches the eardrum.", "The sound waves used by noise-canceling headphones may harm hearing." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Vibration from the noise canceling headphones is unable to reach the eardrum..", "Noise-canceling headphones cancel the sound before it reaches your eardrums." ]
2018-00612	What happens on a microscopic level that makes washing our hands for 20 seconds the best bet to rid our hands of germs?	Bacterias' membranes are made out of lipids, so soaps (substances solluble in both lipids and water) destroy their membranes by allowing water from exterior to enter the cell and cell's interior to exit the cell. It's metabolism is destroyed almost instantly. SIDE NOTE: Antibacterian soap is just as good as normal soap, maybe worse because this way, bacterias evolve resistence to antibiotics.	[ "The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provides information on work practices and personal protective equipment that may reduce the risk of infection. This document is available in English and Spanish.\n\nA review paper exists which includes information on locations in which histoplasmosis has been found in Africa (in chicken runs, on bats, in the caves bats infest, and in soil), and a thorough reference list including English, French, and Spanish language references.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.\n\nWater supply and sanitation infrastructure in health facilities offer significant co-benefits for combatting AMR, and investment should be increased. There is much room for improvement: WHO and UNICEF estimated in 2015 that globally 38% of health facilities did not have a source of water, nearly 19% had no toilets and 35% had no water and soap or alcohol-based hand rub for handwashing.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Industrial wastewater treatment.\n", "Improving patient hand washing has also been shown to reduce the rate of nosocomial infection. Patients who are bed-bound often do not have as much access to clean their hands at mealtimes or after touching surfaces or handling waste such as tissues. By reinforcing the importance of handwashing and providing santizing gel or wipes within reach of the bed, nurses were directly able to reduce infection rates. A study published in 2017 demonstrated this by improving patient education on both proper hand-washing procedure and important times to use sanitizer and successfully reduced the rate of enterococci and \"S. aureus\".\n", "Skin flora do not readily pass between people: 30 seconds of moderate friction and dry hand contact results in a transfer of only 0.07% of natural hand flora from naked with a greater percentage from gloves.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Removal.\n\nThe most effective (60 to 80% reduction) antimicrobial washing is with ethanol, isopropanol, and n-propanol. Viruses are most affected by high (95%) concentrations of ethanol, while bacteria are more affected by n-propanol.\n\nUnmedicated soaps are not very effective as illustrated by the following data. Health care workers washed their hands once in nonmedicated liquid soap for 30 seconds. The students/technicians for 20 times.\n", "Section::::Removal and treatment.\n\nFecal coliform, like other bacteria, can usually be inhibited in growth by boiling water, treating with chlorine, or UV disinfection. Washing thoroughly with soap after contact with contaminated water can also help prevent infections. Gloves should always be worn when testing for fecal coliform. Municipalities that maintain a public water supply will typically monitor and treat for fecal coliforms. It can also be removed by iodine.\n\nSection::::Testing.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Public health risk monitoring.\n", "If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol (check the product label to be sure). Hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol is effective in killing Cronobacter germs. But use soap and water as soon as possible afterward because hand sanitizer does not kill all types of germs and may not work as well if hands are visibly greasy or dirty.\n", "The main \"highways\" for the spread of pathogens in the home are the hands, hand and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths and utensils. Pathogens can also be spread via clothing and household linens, such as towels. Utilities such as toilets and wash basins, for example, were invented for dealing safely with human waste but still have risks associated with them. Safe disposal of human waste is a fundamental need; poor sanitation is a primary cause of diarrhea disease in low income communities. Respiratory viruses and fungal spores are spread via the air.\n", "Washing hands with soap and water eliminates microorganisms from the skin and hands. This provides some protection against transmission of VHF and other diseases. This requires at least cake soap cut into small pieces, soap dishes with openings that allow water to drain away, running water or a bucket kept full with clean water, a bucket for collecting rinse water and a ladle for dipping, if running water is not available, and one-use towels.\n", "Handwashing frequently is called the single most important measure to reduce the risks of transmitting skin microorganisms from one person to another or from one site to another on the same patient. Washing hands as promptly and thoroughly as possible between patient contacts and after contact with blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, and equipment or articles contaminated by them is an important component of infection control and isolation precautions. \n", "First one should rinse hands with warm water, keeping hands below wrists and forearms, to prevent contaminated water from moving from the hands to the wrists and arms. The warm water helps to open pores, which helps with the removal of microorganisms, without removing skin oils. One should use five milliliters of liquid soap, to completely cover the hands, and rub wet, soapy hands together, outside the running water, for at least 20 seconds. The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish harbor microorganisms.\n", "In the United States, OSHA standards require that employers must provide readily accessible hand washing facilities, and must ensure that employees wash hands and any other skin with soap and water or flush mucous membranes with water as soon as feasible after contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM).\n\nIn the UK healthcare professionals have adopted the 'Ayliffe Technique', based on the 6 step method developed by Graham Ayliffe, JR Babb and AH Quoraishi.\n", "The International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk management approach to reducing home infection risks. This approach uses microbiological and epidemiological evidence to identify the key routes of infection transmission in the home. These data indicate that the critical routes involve the hands, hand and food contact surfaces and cleaning utensils. Clothing and household linens involve somewhat lower risks. Surfaces that contact the body, such as baths and hand basins, can act as infection vehicles, as can surfaces associated with toilets. Airborne transmission can be important for some pathogens. A key aspect of this approach is that it maximises protection against pathogens and infection, but is more relaxed about visible cleanliness in order to sustain normal exposure to other human, animal and environmental microbes.\n", "Two categories of micro-organisms can be present on health care workers' hands: transient flora and resident flora. The first is represented by the micro-organisms taken by workers from the environment, and the bacteria in it are capable of surviving on the human skin and sometimes to grow. The second group is represented by the permanent micro-organisms living on the skin surface (on the stratum corneum or immediately under it). They are capable of surviving on the human skin and to grow freely on it. They have low pathogenicity and infection rate, and they create a kind of protection from the colonization from other more pathogenic bacteria. The skin of workers is colonized by 3.9 x 10 – 4.6 x 10 cfu/cm. The microbes comprising the resident flora are: \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\", \"S. hominis\", and \"Microccocus\", \"Propionibacterium, Corynebacterium, Dermobacterium\", and \"Pitosporum\" spp., while transient organisms are \"S. aureus\", and \"Klebsiella pneumoniae\", and \"Acinetobacter, Enterobacter\" and \"Candida\" spp. The goal of hand hygiene is to eliminate the transient flora with a careful and proper performance of hand washing, using different kinds of soap, (normal and antiseptic), and alcohol-based gels. The main problems found in the practice of hand hygiene is connected with the lack of available sinks and time-consuming performance of hand washing. An easy way to resolve this problem could be the use of alcohol-based hand rubs, because of faster application compared to correct hand-washing.\n", "There are five critical times during the day where washing hands with soap is important to reduce fecal-oral transmission of disease: after defecation, after cleaning a child's bottom, before feeding a child, before eating and before preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry.\n\nSection::::Public health.:Behavior change.\n", "BULLET::::- paper towels showed no significant spread of micro-organisms.\n\nIn 2005, in a study conducted by TUV Produkt und Umwelt, different hand drying methods were evaluated. The following changes in the bacterial count after drying the hands were observed:\n\nSection::::Infection control in healthcare facilities.:Sterilization.\n\nSterilization is a process intended to kill all microorganisms and is the highest level of microbial kill that is possible. Sterilizers may be heat only, steam, or liquid chemical.\n\nEffectiveness of the sterilizer (e.g., a steam autoclave) is determined in three ways.\n", "BULLET::::- Drying with the jet-air dryer resulted in an increase on average of the total number of bacteria on the finger pads by 42% and on the palms by 15%.\n\nBULLET::::- After washing and drying hands with a paper towel, the total number of bacteria was reduced on average on the finger pads by up to 76% and on the palms by up to 77%.\n", "Hygiene measures, including laundry hygiene, are an important part of reducing spread of antibiotic resistant strains. In the community, otherwise healthy people can become persistent skin carriers of MRSA, or faecal carriers of enterobacteria strains which can carry multi-antibiotic resistance factors (e.g. NDM-1 or ESBL-producing strains). The risks are not apparent until, for example, they are admitted to hospital, when they can become \"self infected\" with their own resistant organisms following a surgical procedure. As persistent nasal, skin or bowel carriage in the healthy population spreads \"silently\" across the world, the risks from resistant strains in both hospitals and the community increases. In particular the data indicates that clothing and household linens are a risk factor for spread of S. aureus (including MRSA and PVL-producing MRSA strains), and that effectiveness of laundry processes may be an important factor in defining the rate of community spread of these strains. Experience in the United States suggests that these strains are transmissible within families and in community settings such as prisons, schools and sport teams. Skin-to-skin contact (including unabraded skin) and indirect contact with contaminated objects such as towels, sheets and sports equipment seem to represent the mode of transmission.\n", "Routine cleaning of (hand, food, drinking water) sites and surfaces (such as toilet seats and flush handles, door and tap handles, work surfaces, bath and basin surfaces) in the kitchen, bathroom and toilet reduces the risk of spread of pathogens. The infection risk from flush toilets is not high, provided they are properly maintained, although some splashing and aerosol formation can occur during flushing, particularly when someone has diarrhea. Pathogens can survive in the scum or scale left behind on baths, showers and wash basins after washing and bathing.\n", "BULLET::::- Mechanical removal (i.e., cleaning) using a soap or detergent. To be effective as a hygiene measure, this process must be followed by thorough rinsing under running water to remove pathogens from the surface.\n\nBULLET::::- Using a process or product that inactivates the pathogens in situ. Pathogen kill is achieved using a \"micro-biocidal\" product, i.e., a disinfectant or antibacterial product; waterless hand sanitizer; or by application of heat.\n\nBULLET::::- In some cases combined pathogen removal with kill is used, e.g., laundering of clothing and household linens such as towels and bed linen.\n\nSection::::Home and everyday hygiene.:Hand washing.\n", "The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA recommends hand washing over hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless soap and water are unavailable.\n", "Good home hygiene means engaging in hygiene practices at critical points to break the chain of infection. Because the \"infectious dose\" for some pathogens can be very small (10-100 viable units or even less for some viruses), and infection can result from direct transfer of pathogens from surfaces via hands or food to the mouth, nasal mucous or the eye, 'hygienic cleaning' procedures should be sufficient to eliminate pathogens from critical surfaces.\n\nHygienic cleaning can be done through:\n", "A map has been created to help identify areas with high levels of infection with the WASH-impacted NTDs and low levels of rural improved water and sanitation coverage. In addition, WASH practitioners can use the manual \"WASH and the Neglected Tropical Diseases: A Manual for WASH Implementers\" to target, implement, and monitor WASH program impact on the NTDs.\n", "Microbiological and epidemiological data indicates that clothing and household linens etc. are a risk factor for infection transmission in home and everyday life settings as well as institutional settings. The lack of quantitative data linking contaminated clothing to infection in the domestic setting makes it difficult to assess the extent of this risk. It also indicates that risks from clothing and household linens are somewhat less than those associated with hands, hand contact and food contact surfaces, and cleaning cloths, but even so these risks needs to be managed through effective laundering practices. In the home, this routine should be carried out as part of a multibarrier approach to hygiene which includes hand, food, respiratory and other hygiene practices.\n", "The main sources of infection in the home are people (who are carriers or are infected), foods (particularly raw foods) and water, and domestic animals (in the U.S. more than 50% of homes have one or more pets). Sites that accumulate stagnant water—such as sinks, toilets, waste pipes, cleaning tools, face cloths, etc. readily support microbial growth and can become secondary reservoirs of infection, though species are mostly those that threaten \"at risk\" groups. Pathogens (potentially infectious bacteria, viruses etc.—colloquially called \"germs\") are constantly shed from these sources via mucous membranes, feces, vomit, skin scales, etc. Thus, when circumstances combine, people are exposed, either directly or via food or water, and can develop an infection.\n", "Hand washing with soap and water is an effective method for reducing the transmission of norovirus pathogens. Alcohol rubs (≥62% ethanol) may be used as an adjunct, but are less effective than hand-washing, as norovirus lacks a lipid viral envelope. Surfaces where norovirus particles may be present can be sanitised with a solution of 1.5% to 7.5% of household bleach in water, or other disinfectants effective against norovirus.\n\nSection::::Prevention.:Health care facilities.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13557	How does the OpenBSD hyperthreading exploit work exactly sharing cores?	Hyperthreading is a hardware feature which virtually splits a physical core into 2 logical cores. This enhances processor usage because when one logical core currently waits for data from RAM or so, the physical core can just switch to the other logical core instead of waiting and doing nothing, which happens pretty often. For this to work some parts of the processor have to be duplicated, like registers, while other parts can be shared. One of the shared parts seems to be the TLB. Now the TLB is basically a cache to faster convert virtual addresses to physical addresses. Virtual addresses are used by the running program, while physical addresses are used by the RAM (basically). The OS can configure the virtual adresses so that each running program thinks it has it's own RAM. When the TLB does not have information about a virtual address it asks the OS what to do. That takes time, which is why this information is put into the TLB so that subsequent access to that virtual address can be resolved faster. Like every cache the TLB cannot keep information for all virtual addresses, so it kicks out an entry when a new entry shows up. The way it decides which entry is kicked out depends on implementation. Now if the encryption program and the attacker program run on the same physical core and on different logical cores, they both use the same TLB in turns. And because access to virtual addresses takes longer when the TLB does not have the information, the attacker program can detect which of its entries have been kicked out. Now with the knowledge about the implementation which entries are kicked out of the TLB, the attacker program knows which virtual addresses the encryption program could have accessed, and thereby can determine which part of the code of the encryption program has run recently. With that it might be able to determine parts of the key the encryption program uses or the message it encrypts. OpenBSD's solution simply is to not use hyperthreading. Other than that the OS could avoid to run any other process with the encryption program on the same physical core, but for this the encryption process would need to be marked specifically. Another solution, which is mentioned in the article, is to write the encryption program in such a way that knowing which way the process walked through the code does not share any information about the data it processes. Edit: I hope this is ELI5 enough, if not I can happily answer questions.	[ "BULLET::::- Variants B and C can remotely execute copies of themselves through the ADMIN$ share on computers visible over NetBIOS. If the share is password-protected, a dictionary attack is attempted, potentially generating large amounts of network traffic and tripping user account lockout policies.\n\nBULLET::::- Variants B and C place a copy of their DLL form in the \"recycle.bin\" of any attached removable media (such as USB flash drives), from which they can then infect new hosts through the Windows AutoRun mechanism using a manipulated \"autorun.inf\".\n", "In 2015, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology released an open-source simulator known as OpenSGX.\n\nIt was introduced in 2015 with the sixth generation Intel Core microprocessors based on the Skylake microarchitecture.\n\nOne example of SGX used in security was a demo application from wolfSSL using it for cryptography algorithms.\n\nIntel Goldmont Plus (Gemini Lake) microarchitecture will also add support for Intel SGX.\n\nSection::::Prime+Probe attack.\n", "BULLET::::- \"TrustedGRUB\" extends GRUB by implementing verification of the system integrity and boot process security, using the Trusted Platform Module (TPM).\n\nBULLET::::- The Intel BIOS Implementation Test Suite (BITS) provides a GRUB environment for testing BIOSes and in particular their initialization of Intel processors, hardware, and technologies. BITS supports scripting via Python, and includes Python APIs to access various low-level functionality of the hardware platform, including ACPI, CPU and chipset registers, PCI, and PCI Express.\n", "There is also a security concern with certain simultaneous multithreading implementations. Intel's hyperthreading in NetBurst based processors has a vulnerability through which it is possible for one application to steal a cryptographic key from another application running in the same processor by monitoring its cache use. There are also sophisticated machine learning exploits to HT implementation that were explained at Black Hat 2018.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Hardware scout\n\nBULLET::::- Speculative multithreading\n\nBULLET::::- Symmetric multiprocessing\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- General\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- SMT news articles and academic papers\n\nBULLET::::- SMT research at the University of Washington\n", "On 27 March 2017, researchers at Austria's Graz University of Technology developed a proof-of-concept that could grab RSA keys from Intel SGX enclaves running on the same system within five minutes by using certain CPU instructions in lieu of a fine-grained timer to exploit cache DRAM side-channels.\n", "Salsa20 is a stream cipher with comparable performance, but it is difficult to use stream ciphers securely in some applications where block ciphers like Speck work well. This led Google to add an implementation of Speck in Linux kernel version 4.17, planning to offer it as an option for disk encryption on low-end Android devices that would otherwise be unencrypted due to slow AES performance on processors that lack AES instructions. Speck was later dropped from the Linux kernel due to backlash and concerns, and Google switched to the Adiantum algorithm instead.\n\nSection::::Security.\n\nSection::::Security.:Cryptanalysis.\n", "Friend Core is modular. The modules extend the system with any functionality required by applications on the server side. The modules can be written using many programming languages like Node/Javascript, PHP, Python, Perl or Java. The modules are user and group permission sensitive, allowing for various degrees of access control. Using a highly optimized core, time to first byte (TTFB) round trips are kept to a minimum.\n\nSection::::Components.:File System Drivers.\n", "BULLET::::- Variant C creates a named pipe, over which it can push URLs for downloadable payloads to other infected hosts on a local area network.\n\nBULLET::::- Variants B, C and E perform in-memory patches to NetBIOS-related DLLs to close MS08-067 and watch for re-infection attempts through the same vulnerability. Re-infection from more recent versions of Conficker are allowed through, effectively turning the vulnerability into a propagation backdoor.\n", "BULLET::::- Variants A, B, C and E exploit a vulnerability in the Server Service on Windows computers, in which an already-infected source computer uses a specially-crafted RPC request to force a buffer overflow and execute shellcode on the target computer. On the source computer, the virus runs an HTTP server on a port between 1024 and 10000; the target shellcode connects back to this HTTP server to download a copy of the virus in DLL form, which it then attaches to svchost.exe. Variants B and later may attach instead to a running services.exe or Windows Explorer process. Attaching to those processes might be detected by the application trust feature of an installed firewall.\n", "On 27 March 2017 researchers at Austria's Graz University of Technology developed a proof-of-concept that can grab RSA keys from SGX enclaves running on the same system within five minutes by using certain CPU instructions in lieu of a fine-grained timer to exploit cache DRAM side-channels. One countermeasure for this type of attack was presented and published by Daniel Gruss et al. at the USENIX Security Symposium in 2017. Among other published countermeasures, one countermeasure to this type of attack was published on September 28, 2017, a compiler-based tool, DR.SGX, that claims to have superior performance with the elimination of the implementation complexity of other proposed solutions.\n", "Section::::Spectre-like attack.\n\nThe LSDS group at Imperial College London showed a proof of concept that the Spectre speculative execution security vulnerability can be adapted to attack the secure enclave. The Foreshadow attack, disclosed in August 2018, combines speculative execution and buffer overflow to bypass the SGX.\n\nSection::::Enclave attack.\n", "ARM processors are notable in that most of their application class processor designs support a technology called ARM TrustZone, which provides essentially hardware support for one privileged and one unprivileged VM. Normally a minimal Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) OS is run in the Secure World and a native kernel running in the Non-secure World.\n\nSection::::Use cases.\n\nSome of the most common use cases for an embedded hypervisor are:\n\n1. OS independence\n", "On March 9, 2015, Google's Project Zero revealed two working privilege escalation exploits based on the row hammer effect, establishing its exploitable nature on the x86-64 architecture. One of the revealed exploits targets the Google Native Client (NaCl) mechanism for running a limited subset of x86-64 machine instructions within a sandbox, exploiting the row hammer effect to escape from the sandbox and gain the ability to issue system calls directly. This NaCl vulnerability, tracked as , has been mitigated by modifying the NaCl so it does not allow execution of the codice_1 (cache line flush) machine instruction, which was previously believed to be required for constructing an effective row hammer attack.\n", "Red Hat kernel developer Ingo Molnar released a Linux kernel patch named Exec Shield to approximate and utilize NX functionality on 32-bit x86 CPUs.The Exec Shield patch was released to the Linux kernel mailing list on May 2, 2003, but was rejected for merging with the base kernel because it involved some intrusive changes to core code in order to handle the complex parts of the emulation. Exec Shield's legacy CPU support approximates NX emulation by tracking the upper code segment limit. This imposes only a few cycles of overhead during context switches, which is for all intents and purposes immeasurable. For legacy CPUs without an NX bit, Exec Shield fails to protect pages below the code segment limit; an mprotect() call to mark higher memory, such as the stack, executable will mark all memory below that limit executable as well. Thus, in these situations, Exec Shield's schemes fails. This is the cost of Exec Shield's low overhead. Exec Shield checks for two ELF header markings, which dictate whether the stack or heap needs to be executable. These are called PT_GNU_STACK and PT_GNU_HEAP respectively. Exec Shield allows these controls to be set for both binary executables and for libraries; if an executable loads a library requiring a given restriction relaxed, the executable will inherit that marking and have that restriction relaxed.\n", "Implementations which used Dual_EC_DRBG would usually have gotten it via a library. At least RSA Security (BSAFE library), OpenSSL, Microsoft, and Cisco have libraries which included Dual_EC_DRBG, but only BSAFE used it by default. According to the Reuters article which revealed the secret $10 million deal between RSA Security and NSA, RSA Security's BSAFE was the most important distributor of the algorithm. There was a flaw in OpenSSL's implementation of Dual_EC_DRBG that made it non-working outside test mode, from which OpenSSL's Steve Marquess concludes that nobody used OpenSSL's Dual_EC_DRBG implementation.\n", "The paper's attacks are based on the fact that CryptGenRandom uses the stream cipher RC4, which can be run backwards once its state is known. They also take advantage of the fact that CryptGenRandom runs in user mode, allowing anyone who gains access to the operating system at user level, for example by exploiting a buffer overflow, to get CryptGenRandom's state information for that process. Finally, CryptGenRandom refreshes its seed from entropy infrequently. This problem is aggravated by the fact that each Win32 process has its own instance of CryptGenRandom state; while this means that a compromise of one process does not transitively compromise every other process, it may also increase the longevity of any successful break.\n", "Multiple new kernels for Hackintosh 10.9 are in the works, although there still are minor issues with most of them. Most of these kernels aim to allow users to run Mavericks on AMD and older Intel CPUs, which lack certain instruction sets of the latest Intel CPUs. Significant efforts have been made to emulate instruction sets like SSSE3, which are not present on AMD K10-based CPUs, and older Intel CPUs, like the Intel Core Duo.\n", "The final version setup (reached after the upgrade of 2008) is a cluster of 1204 nodes eServer BladeCenter (1036 JS20 and 168 JS21, both PowerPC 64-bit) under SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 9.\n\nBULLET::::- Each JS20 node has two processors IBM PowerPC single-core 970FX (two cores) with 2.2 GHz, 4 GB of RAM and 40 GB of local hard disk.\n\nBULLET::::- Each JS21 node has two processors IBM PowerPC dual-core 970FX (four cores) with 2.2 GHz, 8 GB of RAM and 80 GB of local hard disk.\n", "TLBleed\n\nTLBleed is a cryptographic side-channel attack that uses machine learning to exploit a timing side-channel via the translation look-aside buffer (TLB) on modern microprocessors that use simultaneous multithreading. , the attack has only been demonstrated experimentally on Intel processors; it is speculated that other processors may also potentially be vulnerable to a variant of the attack, but no proof of concept has been demonstrated. Recent news from AMD indicates that their processors are not vulnerable to this attack. \n", "Because of the race condition, with the right timing, a local attacker can exploit the copy-on-write mechanism to turn a read-only mapping of a file into a writable mapping. Although it is a local privilege escalation, remote attackers can use it in conjunction with other exploits that allow remote execution of non-privileged code to achieve remote root access on a computer. The attack itself does not leave traces in the system log.\n", "NSS software security library in Mozilla's Gecko platform has implemented support for SEED, and Mozilla Firefox as of 3.5.4 supports SEED as a TLS cipher; however, Mozilla decided to drop the support of SEED by default in Firefox 27 and above because support for SEED has not had any practical positive effect in terms of helping South Korea migrate away from ActiveX-based e-commerce, and other browsers are not offering any SEED-based cipher suites. NSS still supports SEED-based cipher suites.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- SEED - KISA (Official Site, in Korean)\n\nBULLET::::- SEED official specification document (English)\n", "The modular architecture consists of multithreaded shared L2 cache and FlexFPU, which uses simultaneous multithreading. Each physical integer core, two per module, is single threaded, in contrast with Intel's Hyperthreading, where two virtual simultaneous threads share the resources of a single physical core.\n\nSection::::Architecture.\n\nSection::::Architecture.:Bulldozer core.\n\nBulldozer introduced a \"Clustered MultiThreading\" (CMT) where some parts of the processor are shared between two threads and some parts are unique for each thread.\n", "Vulnerable client devices broadcast a \"preferred network list\" (PNL), which contains the SSIDs of access points to which they have previously connected and are willing to automatically reconnect without user intervention. These broadcasts are not encrypted and hence may be received by any WiFi access point in range. The KARMA attack consists in an access point receiving this list and then giving itself an SSID from the PNL, thus becoming an evil twin of an access point already trusted by the client.\n", "Section::::Leaving runahead.\n\nThe register file state is restored from the checkpoint and the processor is redirected to the original faulting fetch address when the fetch that initiated runahead mode has been serviced.\n\nSection::::Register file checkpoint options.\n\nThe most obvious method of checkpointing the register file (RF) is to simply perform a flash copy to a shadow register file, or backup register file (BRF) when the processor enters runahead mode, then perform a flash copy from the BRF to the RF when normal operation resumes. There are simpler options available.\n", "Minimalistic foundations for live kernel patching were merged into the Linux kernel mainline in kernel version 4.0, which was released on April 12, 2015. Those foundations, based primarily on the kernel's ftrace functionality, form a common core capable of supporting hot patching by both kGraft and kpatch, by providing an application programming interface (API) for kernel modules that contain hot patches and an application binary interface (ABI) for the userspace management utilities. However, the common core included into Linux kernel 4.0 supports only the x86 architecture and does not provide any mechanisms for ensuring function-level consistency while the hot patches are applied.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-24062	why does covering your eyes with your hands look so much different than closing your eyelids?	Light penetrates your eyelids much more easily than your hand. & #x200B; Your hand blocks more light.	[ "Section::::Themes and interpretation.:Use of Venetian masks.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n", "In April 1985, the single was discussed by Molly Meldrum and Queen singer Freddie Mercury on the Australian music show \"Countdown\". Mercury was impressed and predicted the band would be \"very, very big\".\n\nThe \"Total Overhang Club Mix\" was later included on the 1985 compilation \"Bangs & Crashes\". The standard version appeared again on \"Aces and Kings: The Best of Go West\" in 1993.\n", "Section::::James Taylor's version.\n", "With high importance is given to closing eyelids and covering the eyes as temporary and permanent flash blindness is a risk potential without this covering, especially at night.\n", "Every Time I Close My Eyes\n\n\"Every Time I Close My Eyes\" is a song written, produced and performed by American musician Babyface. It was released as the second single from his album \"The Day\". Mariah Carey serves as a backing vocalist and Kenny G performs a sax solo on the recording.\n\nThis release met with commercial and critical acclaim, peaking at number six in the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart in United States and at number 13 in the United Kingdom. At the 40th Grammy Awards this song received a nomination for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance.\n\nSection::::Song information.\n", "Bonding through intimate, non-sexual contact between platonic friends and family members includes, but is not limited to, holding hands, hugging, cuddling, and kissing on the cheeks.\n\nIn public, however, and depending on the nature of the relationship between the people, a public display of affection is generally constrained by social norms and can range from a gesture, such as a kiss or hug in greeting, to an embrace or holding hands. Maintaining eye contact can be regarded socially and psychologically as analogous to touching.\n\nSection::::Culture.\n", "Speaking about the video, Lambert said, “The one thing that I was really excited about was maybe something sort of science fiction. Something kind of New World Order, in the future. Something not of this reality. When we put that out there, a gentleman called Dori Oskowitz came back with an amazing treatment. This director is a really cool guy, totally on the same page as me.”\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Appearances.\n\nBULLET::::- The film \"Now Is Good\" (2012)\n\nBULLET::::- Britney Spears documentary \"\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Trailer for the film \"A Monster Calls\" (2016)\n\nBULLET::::- British horror film \"Donkey Punch\" (2008)\n\nBULLET::::- Intro to Lakai skateboarding video \"Fully Flared\" (2007)\n\nBULLET::::- Season 1, Episode 8 of \"Nirvanna the Band the Show\"\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- M83 – Lower Your Eyelids to Die with the Sun on YouTube\n\nBULLET::::- A Monster Calls Official Trailer 1 (2016) featuring the song \"Lower Your Eyelids to Die with the Sun\"\n", "Section::::Production and recording.\n", "In 2019 it was revealed that Cate Blanchett had provided the voice of the mysterious masked woman at the orgy party. \n\nSection::::Production.:Filming.\n", "During an interview, Walker stated, \"On my very first CD there was a song called \"Dreaming with My Eyes Open\"--an up-tempo, fast-beat song. I almost considered not recording it. It didn't strike me as a song I could sing great, but my producer talked me into it. It became one of the most played songs of that year, and today, every time I sing it, it gets more and more special to me. It says I'm going to do my dreaming with my eyes wide open. That's what we all have to do with MS. Dreaming with eyes open is a vision. When you close 'em, it's just a dream.\"\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n\nCarey performed \"Close My Eyes\" for the first time live on \"The Rosie O'Donnell Show\" in 1997. The performance saw Carey perform the song sitting on a stool, wearing a white vest top and jeans. It was also included on the set list of her Butterfly World Tour of 1998, Rainbow World Tour of 2000, and Australian Tour of 2013.\n\nSection::::Legacy.\n", "Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation. He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by \"palming\", or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands, without putting pressure on the eyeballs. If the covered eyes did not strain, he said, they would see \"a field so black that it is impossible to remember, imagine, or see anything blacker\", since light was excluded by the palms. However, he reported that some of his patients experienced \"illusions of lights and colors\" sometimes amounting to \"kaleidoscopic appearances\" as they \"palmed\", occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous \"strain\" and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed. This phenomenon, however, was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or \"dark light\". In fact, even in conditions of perfect darkness, as inside a cave, neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Section::::Composition and lyrical interpretation.\n", "Open Your Eyes (1997 film)\n\nOpen Your Eyes (Spanish: Abre los ojos) is a 1997 Spanish film co-written, co-scored and directed by Alejandro Amenábar and co-written by Mateo Gil. It stars Eduardo Noriega, Penélope Cruz, Fele Martínez and Najwa Nimri. In 2002, \"Open Your Eyes\" was ranked no. 84 in the Top 100 Sci-Fi List by the Online Film Critics Society. The movie's intersecting planes of dream and reality have prompted some critics to suggest comparisons to Calderón's play \"Life Is a Dream\" (, 1635).\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "James Taylor's ex-wife Carly Simon covered the song on her 2007 album \"Into White\" accompanied by her children with Taylor, Sally Taylor and Ben Taylor. Author Sheila Weller describes this version as \"slow, spectral\" and \"achingly beautiful.\" According to Allmusic critic Thom Jurek, mother and children \"perform gorgeously\" on this version.\n\nTaylor's sister Kate Taylor recorded the song for her 1971 album \"Sister Kate\". Allmusic critic Joe Viglione called it one of the \"real knockout tunes\" on \"Sister Kate\".\n", "Some other Saudi scholars have argued that the reason women permitted to show one of their eyes was that, if they did not, they could not see the way- and that there is no need to expose the eyes in the modern world as women can cover their eyes with nets or sheer layers so as not to be a cause of attraction without having their vision restricted.\n", "We Close Our Eyes\n\n\"We Close Our Eyes\" is a song by British pop band Go West, composed by both members Peter Cox and Richard Drummie. Recognizable by its synthesizer hook, it was the first single from their début album \"Go West\".\n\nThe single was promoted by a music video directed by Godley & Creme. This video included Cox, Drummie and the guitarist Alan Murphy, performing the song in front of dancing wooden artist mannequins.\n", "The patient is asked to hold both arms fully extended at shoulder level in front of them, with the palms upwards, and hold the position. If they are unable to maintain the position the result is positive. Closing the eyes accentuates the effect, because the brain is deprived of visual information about the position of the body and must rely on proprioception. Tapping on the palm of the outstretched hands can accentuate the effect.\n\nSection::::Description.:Interpretation.\n\nThis is a test of upper motor neuron disease.\n", "BULLET::::- Ibn Abbas has said: “Allah commanded the believing women, when going out of their homes for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with their Jilbābs, leaving one eye to see the path.”\n", "R. Lee Ermey, an actor in Kubrick's film \"Full Metal Jacket\", stated that Kubrick phoned him two weeks before his death to express his despondency over \"Eyes Wide Shut\". \"He told me it was a piece of shit\", Ermey said in \"Radar\" magazine, \"and that he was disgusted with it and that the critics were going to 'have him for lunch'. He said Cruise and Kidman had their way with him – exactly the words he used.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-01492	Why is the "Sexy Son Hypothesis" presented by Prof. Richard Dawkins scientifically substantiated?	> Why is the "Sexy Son Hypothesis" presented by Prof. Richard Dawkins scientifically substantiated? This sort of sounds like a loaded question as it assumes the hypothesis is "scientifically substantiated", whatever that means. The general idea is that the most important aspect by which a female would choose her mates is the chances of the male to produce promiscuous male offspring. Female offspring of the female are only going to be able to pass on their genes once every breeding cycle, while conceptually a successful male could do so many times with different females per cycle. Therefore a female would be selecting a mate based on their ability to produce a "sexy son" as opposed to a "sexy daughter".	[ "Section::::Context.\n\nFemale mating preferences are widely recognized as being responsible for the rapid and divergent evolution of male secondary sex characteristics. In 1976, prior to Weatherhead and Robertson's paper, Richard Dawkins had written in his book \"The Selfish Gene\":\n", "Section::::Sexual conflict.\n", "The sexy son hypothesis has also been put forward as the origin of some aspects of human sexual activity. In particular, research on the ovulatory shift hypothesis has shown that during the most fertile times of their menstrual cycles, human females are more attracted to more masculine and physically attractive men, and to men whose physical features are indicative of a higher exposure to testosterone during key developmental periods. During the remainder of the cycle, when women are less fertile, they tend do be more attracted to men with slightly more feminine faces. However, the methodology of these claims is disputed.\n", "Once a preference becomes established, females choosing males with elaborate secondary sexual traits will produce sons that carry alleles for the trait and daughters that carry alleles for the preference,\n", "In its original context, the \"narrow-sense sexy son hypothesis\" of Weatherhead and Robertson refers to mating systems with care from both parents. In these mating systems, females that mate with a polygynous male normally receive less assistance than females mated with a monogamous male, and thus suffer from direct fitness consequences that have to be (at least) compensated for by the breeding successes of their sexy sons. On the other hand, a \"broad-sense sexy son hypothesis\" encompasses both polygyny and promiscuous mating systems, with and without care from both parents. Alatalo (1998) argues that the costs of any additional choice may be so minor that female choice for honestly signaling males, that is good genes, may evolve even if the indirect benefits on offspring quality are small. A similar argument can be made for the sexy son hypothesis if mates of attractive males do not suffer any direct fitness consequences.\n", "Section::::Sperm models.\n\nGood-sperm models predict positive genetic associations between a male's sperm competitiveness and the general viability of his offspring, whereas sexy-sperm models predict that multiple-mating females produce more grandchildren. As with precopulatory processes, postcopulatory models predict that the trait in males that determines fertilization success will become genetically coupled with the mechanism by which females choose the sperm of preferred males.\n\nSection::::Human sexual activity.\n", "The sexy son hypothesis is closely related to the good genes assumption and the Fisherian runaway selection process. Like good genes, the sexy son hypothesis assumes the existence of indirect genetic benefits that are able to compensate for any inferior direct reproductive success (i.e., fewer offspring). The main difference between good genes and the sexy son hypothesis is that the latter assumes an indirect effect due to the attractiveness of the sons, whereas good genes focus on the viability of both sons and daughters. However, \"attractiveness\" is not narrowly defined, and can refer to every trait that increases a male's probability to become polygynous.\n", "Section::::Good genes theory.\n\n\"Good genes\" theory proposes that females select males seen to have genetic advantages that increase offspring quality. Increased viability of offspring provides compensation for any lower reproductive success that results from their being \"picky\". The good-gene hypothesis for polyandry proposes that when females encounter better males than their previous mates, they re-mate in order to fertilize their eggs with the better male's sperm.\n", "Another study notes that pronghorn females engage in an obvious and energetically expensive mate sampling process to identify vigorous males. Though each female selects independently, the outcome is that a small proportion of the herd's males sire most young. Offspring of attractive males were more likely to survive to weaning and to age classes as late as 5 years, apparently due to faster growth rates. Because pronghorn males do not have costly ornaments, the authors conclude that female choice for good genes can exist in the absence of obvious sexual selection cues such as elaborate antlers.\n", "The sexy son hypothesis, published by Fisher in his book \"The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection\", is one of several possible explanations for the highly diverse and often astonishing ornaments of animals. If females choose physically attractive males, they will tend to get physically attractive sons, and, thus more grandchildren, because other choosy females will prefer their attractive, sexy sons. The theory will function regardless of the physical or behavioral trait a female chooses, as long as it is heritable (that is, the trait varies between individuals of the population), because it is possessing the trait that makes males attractive, and not the qualities of the trait in itself.\n", "generating genetic coupling that will drive self-reinforcing coevolution of both trait and preference, due to the mating advantage of males with the trait, creating a Fisherian runaway sexy sons process. Similar models have been proposed for postcopulatory female preferences, such as the time at which females removed the male's sperm ampulla after mating. Sexual selection by direct and/or indirect benefits as well as sexual conflict determine the evolution of animal mating systems.\n", "The sexy son hypothesis in evolutionary biology and sexual selection—proposed by Ronald Fisher in 1930—states that a female's ideal mate choice among potential mates is one whose genes will produce male offspring with the best chance of reproductive success. This also implies that a potential mate's capacity as a parental caregiver or any other direct benefits the father can offer the mother, such as nuptial gifts or good territory, are irrelevant to his value as the potential father of the female's offspring. Fisher's principle means that the sex ratio (except in certain eusocial insects) is always 1:1 between males and females, yet what matters most are her \"sexy sons'\" future breeding successes, more likely if they have a promiscuous father, in creating large numbers of offspring carrying copies of her genes. This sexual selection hypothesis has been researched in species such as the European pied flycatcher.\n", "Section::::Empirical evidence.:In primates.\n\nThere is evidence of MHC-associated mate choice in other primates. In the grey mouse lemur \"Microcebus murinus\", post-copulatory mate-choice is associated with genetic constitution. Fathers are more MHC-dissimilar from the mother than are randomly tested males. Fathers have more differences in amino acid and microsatellite diversity than did randomly tested males. It is hypothesized that this is caused by female cryptic choice.\n\nSection::::Empirical evidence.:In other animals.\n", "Several studies have found that men in a relationship tend to be more protective and possessive of their partner when she is at peak fertility, as well as more jealous of any advances their partner might make on other men. One study also demonstrated that after interacting with their partner during the fertile phase, men shown a photograph of an attractive man exhibit increased testosterone, which may be a competitive response.\n\nSection::::Effects of hormonal contraception.\n", "Aldo Poiani who is an evolutionary ecologist at Monash University, Australia, said that he agrees that neoteny in humans may have become \"accelerated\" through \"two-way sexual selection\" whereby females have been choosing smart males as mates and males have been choosing smart females as mates.\n", "In an experiment published in 1959, zoologist Hilda Bruce of the National Institute for Medical Research in London housed pregnant mice with male mice that were not the father of the carried embryo. As a result, the rate of miscarriages increased, followed by mating with the new male. No increased rate of miscarriages occurred when pregnant mice were paired with castrated or juvenile male mice. The effect remained when the male mice were kept out of sight or hearing of the females. This suggested that females were distinguishing the males by smell. To test this hypothesis, Bruce and her colleague Alan Parkes recruited perfumers to smell pieces of cloth from the mouse cages. The perfumers could distinguish the smells of different mouse strains.\n", "Dung beetles who have selected mates with better genetics tend to have offspring that survive longer and are more able to reproduce than those that do not pick mates with genetic quality. This suggests that carefully choosing a mate is beneficial.\n", "Section::::Sexual behavior.:Paternity certainty.\n\nSexual strategies are essential to males when pursuing a mate in order to maximize reproductive potential, in order for their genes to be passed on to future generations. However, in order for a male's sexual strategy to succeed with a female, it is the male who must compromise his own sexual strategies, typically because of uncertainty over the paternity of a child, whereas maternity is essentially certain.\n", "BULLET::::- in some rodents such as mice, a new male with a different scent will cause females who are pregnant to spontaneously fail to implant recently fertilised eggs. This does not require contact; it is mediated by scent alone. It is known as the Bruce effect.\n", "Ronald Fisher, the English biologist developed a number of ideas concerning secondary characteristics in his 1930 book \"The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection\", including the concept of Fisherian runaway which postulates that the desire for a characteristic in females combined with that characteristic in males can create a positive feedback loop or runaway where the feature becomes hugely amplified. The 1975 handicap principle extends this idea, pointing out that a peacock's tail, for instance, displays fitness by being a useless impediment that is very hard to fake. Another of Fisher's ideas is the sexy son hypothesis, whereby females will desire to have sons that possess the characteristic that they find sexy in order to maximize the number of grandchildren they produce. An alternative hypothesis is that some of the genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may be correlated with fitness markers such as disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism. This idea is known as the good genes hypothesis.\n", "Heritability is the amount of differences between individuals that is the product of genetics. According to female erotic plasticity theory, sexual behaviours of men should be more heritable because there is a stronger biological component driving these behaviours. A study examining adult twins in Sweden found a lower genetic component for the engagement in same-sex behaviours in women than in men. Shared environment also played a larger role in women's same-sex behaviours than in men's, although unique environmental factors were roughly the same. On the other hand, in their study of Australian twins, Bailey, Dunne and Martin found a concordance in sexual behaviour of 20% for male MZ twins, and of 24% for female MZ twins.\n", "BULLET::::- Genetic benefit hypothesis: Women may choose to engage in short-term mating arrangements in order to aid conception if her long-term partner is infertile, to gain superior genes to those of her long-term partner, or to acquire different genes to those of her partner and increase the genetic diversity of her offspring. This relates to what is known as the sexy son hypothesis; if a woman acquires genes from a high quality male, her offspring will likely have higher mate value, resulting in their increased reproductive success.\n", "Other studies have approached mate choice based on odor preference. In one study done by Wedekind et al., women were asked to smell male axillary odors collected on T-shirts worn by different males. Women that were ovulating rated the odors of MHC-dissimilar men as more pleasant than those of the MHC-similar men. Furthermore, odors of MHC-dissimilar men often reminded women of current or former partners, suggesting that odor—specifically odor for MHC-dissimilarity—plays a role in mate choice.\n", "Several alternative hypotheses use the same genetic runaway (or positive feedback) mechanism but differ in the mechanisms of the initiation. The sexy son hypothesis (also proposed by Fisher) suggests that females that choose desirably ornamented males will have desirably ornamented (or sexy) sons, and that the effect of that behaviour on spreading the female's genes through subsequent generations may outweigh other factors such as the level of parental investment by the father.\n\nIndicator hypotheses suggest that females choose desirably ornamented males because the cost of producing the desirable ornaments is indicative of good genes by way of the individual's vigour.\n", "The reason behind the reproductive skew in \"S. regalis\" is currently unknown, but a theory that explains this phenomenon in other organisms, the “majority rules” model by Reeve and Jeanne, could explain the reproductive skew in \"S. regalis\".\n" ]	[ "Assuming hypothesis is substantiated." ]	[ "Hypothesis is not substantiated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Assuming hypothesis is substantiated." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hypothesis is not substantiated." ]
2018-04435	How is it that the average human can store tens of thousands of words in its vocabulary, but if asked to list them all by hand it would be very difficult to name from memory even a fraction of that?	The way I see it is, we don’t remember just words we remember the ideas behind and relationships of the words. That makes it really hard to remember words if we aren’t thinking of the context of the words.	[ "Mnemonist\n\nThe title mnemonist, derived from the term mnemonic, refers to an individual with the ability to remember and recall unusually long lists of data, such as unfamiliar names, lists of numbers, entries in books, etc. The duration of superior retention can be minutes, hours, days, or decades. Mnemonists may have superior innate ability to recall or remember, or may use techniques such as the method of loci.\n\nSection::::Structure of mnemonic skills.\n", "BULLET::::- Stimuli grouping effects\n\nItems in a serial memory can be presented in ways that promote grouping amongst the items. Individuals can group a set of items spatially and temporally based on their characteristics of presentation.\n", "It is important to deduce beforehand whether the user would be able to repeat the vital information throughout time \"t\", as this has a negative impact on the working memory if they cannot. For example, if a user is reading lines of text and is presented with an important phone number in that text, they may not be able to repeat the number if they have to continue to read. This would cause the user’s working memory’s decay time to be smaller, thus reducing their probability of recall.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Working memory\n\nBULLET::::- GOMS\n\nBULLET::::- KLM (human-computer interaction)\n", "The phenomenon of chunking as a memory mechanism is easily observed in the way individuals group numbers, and information, in the day-to-day life. For example, when recalling a number such as 12101946, if numbers are grouped as 12, 10 and 1946, a mnemonic is created for this number as a day, month and year. It would be stored as December 10th, 1946 instead of a string of numbers. Similarly, another illustration of the limited capacity of working memory as suggested by George Miller can be seen from the following example: While recalling a mobile phone number such as 9849523450, we might break this into 98 495 234 50. Thus, instead of remembering 10 separate digits that is beyond the \"seven plus-or-minus two\" memory span, we are remembering four groups of numbers.\n", "Skilled memory theory was proposed by K. Anders Ericsson and Bill Chase to explain the effectiveness of mnemonic devices in memory expertise. Generally, short-term memory has a capacity of seven items; however, in order to memorize long strings of unrelated information, this constraint must be overcome. Skilled memory theory involves three steps: meaningful encoding, retrieval structure, and speed-up.\n\nSection::::Structure of mnemonic skills.:Encoding.\n", "Whilst this is unwieldy at first, with practice it can become a very effective technique. Longer-term memory may require the formulation of more object-related mnemonics with greater logical connection, perhaps forming grammatical sentences that apply to the matter rather than just strings of images.\n\nThe system can be employed with phone numbers. One would typically make up multiple words, preferably a sentence, or an ordered sequence of images featuring the owner of the number.\n", "A good example would be in recalling what is the 53rd element of the periodic table. It might be possible for some people to construct and then learn a string of 53 or more items which you have substituted for the elements and then to recall them one by one, counting them off as you go, but it would be a \"great deal easier\" and less laborious/tedious to \"directly\" associate element 53 with, for example, a lime (a suitable mnemonic for 53) recalling some prior imagining of yours regarding a mishap where lime juice gets into one's eye - \"eye\" sounding like \"I\", the symbol for \"Iodine\". This allows for random access directly to the item, without the need for recalling any previous items.\n", "Another type of device people use to help their recall memory become efficient is chunking. Chunking is the process of breaking down numbers into smaller units to remember the information or data, this helps recall numbers and math facts. An example of this chunking process is a telephone number; this is chunked with three digits, three digits, then four digits. People read them off as such when reciting a phone number to another person. There has been research done about these techniques and an institution tested two groups of people to see if these types of devices work well for real people, the results came back determining a significant performance difference between the group who did not use cognitive strategies and the group who did. The group using the techniques immediately performed better than the other group and when taking a pre-test and post-test the results indicated that the group using the techniques improved while the other group did not.\n", "In short-term memory tasks, participants are given a set of items (e.g. letters, digits) one at a time and then, after varying periods of delay, are asked for recall of the items. As well, participants could be asked whether a specific target item was present in their original set. The serial order of items and the relationships between them can have varying effects on the item's speed and accuracy of recall.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Human memory, including the process of encoding, is known to be a heritable trait that is controlled by more than one gene. In fact, twin studies suggest that genetic differences are responsible for as much as 50% of the variance seen in memory tasks.\n", "There are three limitations to the link system. The first is that there is no numerical order imposed when memorizing, hence the practitioner cannot immediately determine the numerical position of an item; this can be solved by bundling numerical markers at set points in the chain or using the peg system instead. The second is that if any of the items is forgotten, the entire list may be in jeopardy. The third is the potential for confusing repeated segments of the list, a common problem when memorizing binary digits. This limitation can be resolved either through bundling or by using either the peg system or the method of loci.\n", "Section::::Methods of improving memory and retention.\n\nThere are several methods of improving our memory, and our ability to retain more information when engaging in learning. Chunking is a well-known method of improving memory and retention. In order to effectively chunk information together, connections and relations between the different items must be made. In combination, associating groups of items with things held in memory stores can make this more memorable, and can improve retention.\n", "Miller (1956) noted that according to this theory, it should be possible to increase short-term memory for low-information-content items effectively by mentally recoding them into a smaller number of high-information-content items. \"A man just beginning to learn radio-telegraphic code hears each dit and dah as a separate chunk. Soon he is able to organize these sounds into letters and then he can deal with the letters as chunks. Then the letters organize themselves as words, which are still larger chunks, and he begins to hear whole phrases.\" Thus, a telegrapher can effectively \"remember\" several dozen dits and dahs as a single phrase. Naive subjects can remember about only nine binary items, but Miller reports a 1954 experiment in which people were trained to listen to a string of binary digits and (in one case) mentally group them into groups of five, recode each group into a name (for example, \"twenty-one\" for 10101), and remember the names. With sufficient drill, people found it possible to remember as many as forty binary digits. Miller wrote:\n", "Section::::Expertise.:Choking under pressure.\n", "Studies (notably \"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two\") have suggested that the short-term memory of adult humans can hold only a limited number of items; grouping items into larger chunks such as in a mnemonic might be part of what permits the retention of a larger total amount of information in short-term memory, which in turn can aid in the creation of long-term memories.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of mnemonics\n\nBULLET::::- List of visual mnemonics\n\nBULLET::::- Memorization\n\nBULLET::::- Memory sport\n\nBULLET::::- Method of loci\n\nBULLET::::- Mnemonic dominic system\n\nBULLET::::- Mnemonic goroawase system\n\nBULLET::::- Mnemonic link system\n", "While word lists used were originally based on the 100-item Swadesh list, it was statistically determined that a subset of 40 of the 100 items produced just as good if not slightly better classificatory results than the whole list. So subsequently word lists gathered contain only 40 items (or less, when attestations for some are lacking).\n\nSection::::History.:Levenshtein Distance.\n", "Section::::Search of associative memory (SAM).:Retrieval from long-term store.\n\nIt is best to show how items are recalled from the long-term store using an example. Assume a participant has just studied a list of word pairs and is now being tested on his memory of those pairs. If the prior list contained, \"blanket – ocean\", the test would be to recall \"ocean\" when prompted with \"blanket – ?\".\n", "Another useful way to improve memorization is to use chunking, a method in which a person categorizes the information they are trying to memorize into groups. For example, a person wishing to memorize a long sequence of numbers can break the sequence up into chunks of three, allowing them to remember more of the numbers. Similarly, this is how many in North America memorize telephone numbers, by breaking them up into the three sections: an area code, followed by a three-digit number and then a four-digit number. If a list of words is to be memorized, using chunking, the words could be broken up into groups based on their starting letter or based on their category (ex: Months of the year, types of food, etc.).\n", "Section::::Structure of mnemonic skills.:Acceleration.\n\nThe final step in skilled memory theory is acceleration. With practice, time necessary for encoding and retrieval operations can be dramatically reduced. As a result, storage of information can then be performed within a few seconds. Indeed, one confounding factor in the study of memory is that the subjects often improve from day-to-day as they are tested over and over.\n\nSection::::Learned skill or innate ability.\n\nThe innateness of expert performance in the memory field has been studied thoroughly by many scientists; it is a matter which has still not been definitively resolved.\n", "Small combines the works and findings of quite a few scientists to come up with five reasons why spaced retrieval works: it helps show the relationship of routine memories, it shows the benefits of learning things with an expansion of time, it helps the patient with Alzheimer's dementia keeps their brain active, it has a high success level with little to no errors, and the technique is meaningful for the patient to do and remember more things (Small, 2012). Joltin et al. (2003), had a caregiver train a woman with Alzheimer's by giving her the name of her grandchild over the phone while asking her to associate with the picture of the grandchild posted on the refrigerator. After training, the woman was able to recall the name of her grandchild five days later.\n", "Memory feats centred around numbers can be performed by experts who have learned a 'vocabulary' of at least 1 image for every 1 and 2 digit number which can be combined to form narratives. To learn a vocabulary of 3 digit numbers is harder because for each extra digit 10 times more images need to be learned, but many mnemonists use a set of 1000 images. Combination of images into a narrative is easier to do rapidly than is forming a coherent, grammatical sentence. This pre-memorisation and practice at forming images reduces the time required to think up a good imaginary object and create a strong memorable impression of it. The best words for this purpose are usually nouns, especially those for distinctive objects which make a strong impression on a variety of senses (e.g. a \"Lime\" for 53, its taste, its smell, its colour and even its texture are distinctive) or which move (like an \"arrow\" for 4).\n", "BULLET::::6. Time required to vocalize responses: Memory span is approximately equal to the number of items which an individual can articulate in two seconds. With that in mind, memory span is consistently higher for short words than for long words. This factor helps account for cross-linguistic differences on digit memory span tasks.\n\nBULLET::::7. Method of scoring responses: The method of scoring responses also has an effect upon the perceived memory span of the individual. Variations in scoring are common and should be considered when looking at data.\n", "The lowest perplexity that has been published on the Brown Corpus (1 million words of American English of varying topics and genres) as of 1992 is indeed about 247 per word, corresponding to a cross-entropy of log247 = 7.95 bits per word or 1.75 bits per letter using a trigram model. It is often possible to achieve lower perplexity on more specialized corpora, as they are more predictable.\n", "With 100-bit words 2 locations would be needed, i.e. an enormously large memory. However \"if we construct the memory as we store the words of the dataset\" we need only one location (and one address decoder) for each word of the data set. None of the unoccupied locations need to be present. This represents the aspect of \"sparseness\" in SDM.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Speech recognition.\n", "Section::::Memory disambiguation mechanisms.:RAW dependence violations.:Detecting RAW dependence violations.:Load queue CAM search.\n" ]	[ "Humans recall words from memory alone. " ]	[ "Humans remember ideas and relationships behind words, not words themselves." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans recall words from memory alone. ", "Humans recall words from memory alone. " ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Humans remember ideas and relationships behind words, not words themselves.", "Humans remember ideas and relationships behind words, not words themselves." ]
2018-03688	I was born in the UK in the early 90s, why aren't I allowed to donate blood?	They’re worried that you might be carrying Mad Cow disease. The UK had an outbreak during the period you were born and because the disease can have little to no side effects for years it’s still a slight risk. Edit: Also, generally speaking blood banks are very conservative about the blood they except. If they have even a slight suspicion that you might have a particular disease, then they’ll reject your blood.	[ "In New Zealand, the New Zealand Blood Service (NZBS) in 2000 introduced measures to preclude permanently donors having resided in the United Kingdom (including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands) for a total of six months or more between January 1980 and December 1996. The measure resulted in ten percent of New Zealand's active blood donors at the time becoming ineligible to donate blood. In 2003, the NZBS further extended restrictions to permanently preclude donors having received a blood transfusion in the United Kingdom since January 1980, and in April 2006, restrictions were further extended to include the Republic of Ireland and France.\n", "In Canada, individuals are not eligible to donate blood or plasma if they have spent a cumulative total of three months or more in the UK or France from January 1, 1980 to December 31, 1996. They are also ineligible if they have spent a cumulative total of five years or more in Western Europe outside the UK or France since January 1, 1980 through December 31, 2007 or spent a cumulative total of six months or more in Saudi Arabia from January 1, 1980 through December 31, 1996 or if they have had a blood transfusion in the UK, France or Western Europe since 1980.\n", "It has a unique relationship with Héma-Québec, the provincial blood system operator that provides products to patients and manages Quebec’s stem cell donor registry. The two organizations work closely to share blood products in times of need, and collaborate regularly to share information, insights and data.\n\nThere are several reasons why individuals can be deferred from donating blood, including intravenous drug use, living in the UK for certain periods of time, coming from an HIV-endemic country, as well HIV high risk activity.\n\nSection::::Blood donation from men who have had sex with men.\n", "Additionally, there are groups of people who are barred from donating blood based on their membership of high-risk groups. This includes people who have lived for a year or more in the United Kingdom (UK) between the years 1980–1996 and those who received medical procedures in the UK since 1 January 1980, due to the risk of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) in that country. vCJD has a long incubation period and no laboratory test can detect it. People who have ever been injected with any kind of non-prescription drug, and anyone who have ever been paid for sex with money or drugs are also permanently barred from donating blood.\n", "Similar regulations are in place where anyone having spent more than six months for Germany or one year for France living in the UK between January 1980 and December 1996 is permanently banned from donating blood.\n", "In Poland, anyone having spent cumulatively six months or longer between 1 January 1980 and 31 December 1996 in the UK, Ireland, or France is permanently barred from donating.\n\nIn the Czech Republic, anyone having spent more than six months in the UK or France between the years 1980 and 1996 or received transfusion in the UK after the year 1980 is not allowed to donate blood.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Sperm donation.\n", "BULLET::::- To give blood donors must weigh over . For donors who are female, aged under 20 years old, weigh under and are under height, the blood service will need to confirm their estimated blood volume is over 3500 ml.\n\nBULLET::::- HIV\n\nBULLET::::- Every single blood donation is tested for HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) and Hepatitis B and C. Infected blood is not used in transfusions but tests may not always detect the early stages of viral infection.\n\nBULLET::::- Pregnancy/Travel\n", "To control potential transmission of vCJD within the United States, the American Red Cross has established strict restrictions on individuals' eligibility to donate blood. Individuals who have spent a cumulative time of 3 months or more in the United Kingdom between 1980 and 1996, or a cumulative time of 5 years or more from 1980 to present in any combination of countries in Europe, are prohibited from donating blood.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:North America.\n", "In the earliest years of the AIDS epidemic, there were no reliable tests for the virus, which justified blanket bans on blood donations from groups at high risk of acquiring or having HIV, including MSM. These restrictions are similar to present-day restrictions in most countries on people residing in the United Kingdom during the BSE (\"mad cow disease\") epidemic of the 1980s and early-to-mid 1990s, due to the absence of a test for its human form, variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD).\n", "Section::::Controversy.\n\nThe service had come under criticism for a long implemented policy of banning men who have sex with men (MSM) from ever being blood donors. University students in both England and Scotland protested against the ban,\n\nand University of Birmingham's Guild of Students banned the National Blood Service from setting up a recruitment stall during Freshers' week.\n", "BULLET::::- People should not give blood if they have donated with less than 12 weeks' interval between donations, or 16 weeks if they are female. If they have a chesty cough, sore throat or active cold sore, are currently taking antibiotics or you have just finished a course within the last seven days or have had any infection in that last two weeks.\n\nBULLET::::- If they have had hepatitis or jaundice in the last 12 months, or had a tattoo, semi-permanent make up or any cosmetic treatments that involves skin piercing in the last 4 months.\n", "A vs The National Blood Authority (Queens Bench Division). This trial concerned the claims of 114 Claimants, for recovery of damages arising out of their infection with Hepatitis C, from blood and blood products through blood transfusions from 1 March 1988. All the claimants received blood transfusions or blood products usually in the course of undergoing surgery, whether consequent upon having suffered an accident or otherwise, immediately after childbirth.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Imam Hussain Blood Donation Campaign\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- National Blood Service\n\nBULLET::::- Save Our Blood Service - campaign against centralisation\n", "Youth For Blood was established after a real event that took place with two college students named Saroj Karki and his friend Jogendra Urau. On the night of 27 May 2011, Jogendra Urau was in need of blood for his maternal uncle. His uncle was suffering from tuberculosis. He tried his best to manage blood for his uncle but couldn’t succeed. He then made a call to his colleague Saroj Karki and asked for some help. Saroj made many attempts to manage blood ora blood donor but he too was unsuccessful. After so many efforts, on next day, while Mr. Karki was travelling to his office, he met one of his colleagues named Dashrath Shah. After greeting each other, Saroj asked him about his blood group. In reply, Mr. Shah said he belongs to the same group that Joginder’s Uncle needed.On next day, while Mr. Karki was travelling to his office, he met one of his colleagues named Dashrath Shah. After greeting each other, Saroj asked him about his blood group. In reply, Mr. Shah said he belongs to the same group that Joginder’s Uncle needed. Next day while Dashrath Shah was on his way to office, Saroj met him. Saroj Karki described the entire situation to him. Dashrath Shah, considering the sensitivity of the situation agreed to donate blood. Sooner Dashrath Shah donated blood. This was the first successful coordination of Youth For Blood but yet YFB was not officially registered.\n", "The HIV pandemic in the 1980s led to the government setting up the National AIDS Control Organisation in 1992 to oversee the policies in preventing the spread of AIDS. Subsequently, the National AIDS Control Programme was launched which led to drastic improvements in patient screening and hygienic transfusion procedures. A public interest litigation was filed in the Supreme court in 1996 to abolish the practice of selling blood which became effective on 1 January 1998. Selling or donating blood in exchange of money is illegal under the National Blood Transfusion Services Act 2007 and those found convicted may face a prison sentence of up to three months with fine.\n", "Donors are examined for signs and symptoms of diseases that can be transmitted in a blood transfusion, such as HIV, malaria, and viral hepatitis. Screening may include questions about risk factors for various diseases, such as travel to countries at risk for malaria or variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD). These questions vary from country to country. For example, while blood centers in Québec, Poland, and many other places defer donors who lived in the United Kingdom for risk of vCJD, donors in the United Kingdom are only restricted for vCJD risk if they have had a blood transfusion in the United Kingdom.\n", "Note: This 3 month deferral period only applies to England, Wales and Scotland - not Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland still has a 12 month ban in place for these groups.\n\nSection::::Donations.:Donating blood.\n\nOnce the preliminary checks are complete, the donor lies on a bed and a sterile hypodermic needle connected to a bag is inserted into a vein in their inner elbow. The donation usually lasts between five and 10 minutes, during which of whole blood is given.\n\nSection::::Donations.:Post-donation.\n", "In December 2017 Theresa May called for a public consultation to extend the \"opt out\" law to England in order to reduce organ donation waiting lists \n", "The dangers of factor concentrates had been raised since their inception. In 1974, American scientist Judith Graham Pool (who previously discovered the frozen blood product cryoprecipitate, a safer treatment) described the products as \"dangerous\" and \"unethical\" and warned against their use. The World Health Organization also warned the UK not to import blood from countries with a high prevalence of hepatitis, such as the United States.\n\nIn May 1975, the World Health Organization passed a widely circulated resolution urging all countries to aim at self-sufficiency in blood-products.\n", "BULLET::::- Women should not give blood if they are pregnant or have had a baby in the last six months. People should wait six months after returning from a malarial area before giving blood, and should inform the National Blood Service if they have visited Central or South America at any time.\n\nBULLET::::- People who cannot give blood\n", "The World Health Organization set a goal in 1997 for all blood donations to come from unpaid volunteer donors, but as of 2006, only 49 of 124 countries surveyed had established this as a standard. Some countries, such as Tanzania, have made great strides in moving towards this standard, with 20 percent of donors in 2005 being unpaid volunteers and 80 percent in 2007, but 68 of 124 countries surveyed by WHO had made little or no progress. Most plasmapheresis donors in the United States are still paid for their donations. Donors are now paid between $25 and $50 per donation. In some countries, for example Australia, Brazil and Great Britain, it is illegal to receive any compensation, monetary or otherwise, for the donation of blood or other human tissues.\n", "In the United States it is estimated that 111 million citizens are eligible blood donors, or 37% of the population. However less than 10% of the 37% eligible blood donors donate annually. In the UK the NHS reports blood donation levels at \"only 4%\" while in Canada the rate is 3.5%.\n\nSection::::Donor health benefits.\n\nIn patients prone to iron overload, blood donation prevents the accumulation of toxic quantities. Donating blood may reduce the risk of heart disease for men, but the link has not been firmly established and may be from selection bias because donors are screened for health problems.\n", "The regulations introduced in April 2010 were intended to ensure that no more than ten families are produced from each donor, regardless of where this occurs. Before this time, some men donated for periods in excess of two years (some for even four or five years) and vials of their sperm were exported without limitation provided that not more than ten families had been produced from their samples in the UK at the time of the export. Donors with particular blood groups or with sperm which produced higher than average pregnancy rates were sometimes offered the opportunity to donate for such prolonged periods. Although this gave rise to considerable numbers of offspring from such donors, local rules applied where the treatments were carried out and there was probably only a low risk of consanguinity. Donors who donated over such periods of time were also aware that their sperm would be used to create numerous offspring. An example of an organization which on-sold sperm to clinics abroad was the British Pregnancy Advisory Service BPAS.\n", "Since 10 July 2016, France implemented a 1-year deferral period policy on all gay and bisexual men donating blood.\n\nSection::::Current situation.:New Zealand.\n", "Donors are screened for health risks that could make the donation unsafe for the recipient. Some of these restrictions are controversial, such as restricting donations from men who have sex with men (MSM) because of the risk of transmitting HIV. In 2011, the UK (excluding Northern Ireland) reduced its blanket ban on MSM donors to a narrower restriction which only prevents MSM from donating blood if they have had sex with other men within the past year. A similar change was made in the U.S. in late 2015 by the FDA. Autologous donors are not always screened for recipient safety problems since the donor is the only person who will receive the blood. Since the donated blood may be given to pregnant women or women of child-bearing age, donors taking teratogenic (birth defect causing) medications are deferred. These medications include acitretin, etretinate, isotretinoin, finasteride and dutasteride.\n", "BULLET::::- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that all donated blood be tested for transfusion transmissible infections. These include HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Treponema pallidum (syphilis) and, where relevant, other infections that pose a risk to the safety of the blood supply, such as Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease) and Plasmodium species (malaria). According to the WHO, 25 countries are not able to screen all donated blood for one or more of: HIV; Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; or syphilis. One of the main reasons for this is because testing kits are not always available. However the prevalence of transfusion-transmitted infections is much higher in low income countries compared to middle and high income countries.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-06995	How does equity splits when someone invests in a start up	Either you sell them 20% of your 30%, or your partner sells them 20% of their 70%, or you sell them 6% and your partner sells them 14% (proportional split) or some other numbers you and your partner make up.	[ "BULLET::::- First, for each of the three cases, a scenario specific, \"internally consistent\" forecast of cashflows - see discussion under Financial modeling - is constructed for the years leading up to the assumed divestment by the private equity investor.\n\nBULLET::::- Next, a divestment price - i.e. a Terminal value - is modelled by assuming an exit multiple consistent with the scenario in question. (Of course, the divestment may take various forms - see Investments in private equity under Private equity.)\n", "When the amount of stock purchased is between 20% and 50% of the common stock outstanding, the purchasing company’s influence over the acquired company is often significant. The deciding factor, however, is significant influence. If other factors exist that reduce the influence or if significant influence is gained at an ownership of less than 20%, the equity method may be appropriate (FASB interpretation 35 (FIN 35) underlines the circumstances where the investor is unable to exercise significant influence).\n", "In June 2008, Trilogy International Partners, which was established in 2005 by Strive Masiyiwa, John Stanton, Bradley Horwitz and others, purchased the 26% stake from Econet Wireless in NZ Communications Ltd.\n", "In 2016, the company raised a Series A round of funding of approx. ₹21 crore ($3 million) from Mayfield Capital and 3one4 Capital.\n\nThe first quarter of 2017, Licious received a Series B round of investment with ₹69 crore ($10 million) from existing and new investors, including, Mayfield India, 3one4 Capital, Russia based Sistema Asia Fund and Korea based Neoplux Technology fund.\n", "BULLET::::- Capri EGM Enters Into Build-to-Suit Announces Acquisition of Distribution Facility for North American Subsidiary of Philips July 2016\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeSt.com: Capri EGM Buys Global Headquarters In MI July 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Capri EGM Announces Acquisition of Class A Build-to-Suit Facility for Alliance Data® June 2016\n\nBULLET::::- GlobeSt.com: S&P 500 Co. Plants Roots In Denver June 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Real Estate Forum: Capri EGM’s Co-Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Shelby Pruett featured in Real Estate Forum’s Net Lease Forum June 2016\n\nBULLET::::- Capri EGM Provides Sale Leaseback Financing for Hagerty through Corporate Headquarters Acquisition June 2016\n", "Vasu and Chacko also step into the domains (\"Abkari\" ranges) of other contractors. Until then, every contractor had his business area chalked out with others not contesting for these areas. Vasu and Chacko changed all that and started bidding for each and every possible range. The business understanding of \"Abkaris\" was broken. Soon the other contractors team up and plan the down fall of Vasu and Chacko.\n", "BULLET::::- Representation of Qualcomm in the acquisitions of Wilocity for approximately $400 million, of DesignArt for $144 million and of CSR's imaging unit for approximately $45 million.\n\nBULLET::::- Bondholders of Zim Integrated Shipping Services in its $3 billion debt restructuring.\n\nBULLET::::- Clal Insurance, in the sale of the Guard Insurance Group to the Berkshire Hathaway group for a total transaction consideration of approximately $270 million.\n\nBULLET::::- Representation of Stratasys in its $3 billion merger with Objet.\n", "Less than two weeks after the Blackstone Group IPO, rival firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts filed with the SEC in July 2007 to raise $1.25 billion by selling an ownership interest in its management company. KKR had previously listed its KKR Private Equity Investors (KPE) private equity fund vehicle in 2006. The onset of the credit crunch and the shutdown of the IPO market would dampen the prospects of obtaining a valuation that would be attractive to KKR and the flotation was repeatedly postponed.\n", "In 2006 the company entered private equity and investment banking. In the same year, Motilal Oswal group acquired South Indian brokerage firm – Peninsular Capital Markets. The company tied up with State Bank of India and Punjab National Bank in 2006 and 2007 to offer online trading to its customers. 2008 saw the company create one of India's largest Equity dealing and advisory rooms, spread over 26,000 sq ft (2,400 m2) in Malad, Mumbai.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bank of America\", in 2007, completed the spin-out of BA Venture Partners to form Scale Venture Partners, which was funded by an undisclosed consortium of secondary investors.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mellon Financial Corporation\", following the announcement of its merger with Bank of New York in 2006, sold a $1.4 billion portfolio of private equity fund and direct interests.\n\nBULLET::::- \"American Capital Strategies\", in 2006, sold a $1 billion portfolio of investments to a consortium of secondary buyers.\n", "BULLET::::3. Equity Bank South Sudan Limited – Juba, South Sudan – 100% Shareholding – A commercial bank in South Sudan.\n\nBULLET::::4. Equity Bank Tanzania Limited – Dar es Salaam, Tanzania – 100% Shareholding – A commercial bank in Tanzania.\n\nBULLET::::5. Equity Bank Uganda Limited – Kampala, Uganda – 100% Shareholding – A commercial bank in Uganda.\n\nBULLET::::6. Equity Bank Congo – Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo : 86% Shareholding – A commercial bank in DR Congo.\n\nBULLET::::7. Equity Consulting Group Limited – Nairobi, Kenya\n", "Acme Coal and Energen form an SPC (Special Purpose Corporation) called Power Holdings Inc. and divide the shares between them according to their contributions. Acme Coal, being more established, contributes more capital and takes 70% of the shares. Energen is a smaller company and takes the remaining 30%. The new company has no assets. \n\nPower Holdings then signs a construction contract with Acme Construction to build a power plant. Acme Construction is an affiliate of Acme Coal and the only company with the know-how to construct a power plant in accordance with Acme's delivery specification. \n", "In 1995, Allcargo Logistics became an agent of Belgium-based ECU Line NV, the world's second largest LCL firm. Ten years later, Allcargo took 33.8% stake in ECU Line, now ECU Worldwide, and in the following year acquired the entire company. At the time of the takeover, ECU Line's revenue was five times the acquirer's revenue.\n\nIn 2013, Allcargo Logistics acquired US based Econocaribe Consolidators and a controlling stake in Netherlands-based logistics company FCL Marine Rotterdam through its wholly owned arm Ecuhold NV.\n", "Equity carve-out\n\nEquity carve-out (ECO), also known as a \"split-off IPO\" or a \"partial spin-off\", is a type of corporate reorganization, in which a company creates a new subsidiary and subsequently IPOs it, while retaining management control. Only part of the shares are offered to the public, so the parent company retains an equity stake in the subsidiary. Typically, up to 20% of subsidiary shares is offered to the public.\n\nSection::::Entities.\n", "To account for this type of investment, the purchasing company uses the equity method. Under the equity method, the purchaser records its investment at original cost. This balance increases with income and decreases for dividends from the subsidiary that accrue to the purchaser.\n\nTreatment of \"Purchase Differentials\": At the time of purchase, purchase differentials arise from the difference between the cost of the investment and the book value of the underlying assets.\n\nPurchase differentials have two components:\n\nBULLET::::- The difference between the fair market value of the underlying assets and their book value.\n", "Less than two weeks after the Blackstone Group IPO, rival firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts filed with the SEC in July 2007 to raise $1.25 billion by selling an ownership interest in its management company. KKR had previously listed its KKR Private Equity Investors (KPE) private equity fund vehicle in 2006. The onset of the credit crunch and the shutdown of the IPO market would dampen the prospects of obtaining a valuation that would be attractive to KKR and the flotation was repeatedly postponed.\n", "Kestenbaum began his career at Drexel Burnham Lambert where he was a partner in the firm's New York office. Following the collapse of Drexel, Kestenbaum left to join Financo, Inc. where he served as managing director conducting the majority of that firm’s apparel transaction business during his 10-year tenure there. Kestenbaum has also written three books on finance and computer science and taught International Business at New York University’s Stern School of Business.\n", "An initial investment of 2.5 crore was made by Singularity Strategic, a Hyderabad based company, owned by Brijesh Chandwani and Subram Kapoor, which later rose to a total of 4.2 crores.\n\nSection::::Mergers and acquisitions.\n\nIn 2017 Kalyan Jewellers, an Indian jewellery store chain owned by the Kalyan Group invested in Candere forming a partnership between both. Kalyan Group purchased the stakes and the equity held by Singularity Strategic in Candere and some part held by its founder, for a sum of 40 crores.\n\nSection::::Operations and alliance.\n", "BULLET::::- Jack Welch was appointed as an operating partner at Clayton, Dubilier & Rice following his retirement as CEO of General Electric\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Giancarlo was appointed as Managing Director and an operating partner at Silver Lake Partners following his departure from Cisco Systems Inc where he was CDO and President of Linksys\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Baker (UK businessman) was appointed an Operating Partner at Advent International having previously served as CEO at Boots plc and COO at Asda\n", "Returning to our example, assume that this “income portfolio” were actually purchased, and the balance of the funds were invested in a “growth portfolio” of equity mutual funds or similar types of faster growing investments. The initial asset allocation would become 37% bonds, 63% stocks (see Table 3).\n\nbr\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n", "Section::::Allocation of ownership interest.:Equal percentage reduction.\n\nThe three partners may agree to reduce their equity by equal percentage. In order to sell 20% equity to new partner, each of the partners has to sell (20% : 3) 6.7% of his equity to the new partner.\n\nSection::::Allocation of ownership interest.:Equal proportion reduction.\n\nThe three partners may choose equal proportion reduction instead of equal percentage reduction.\n", "Equity build-up is the increase in the investor's equity ratio as the portion of debt service payments devoted to principal accrue over time. Equity build-up counts as a positive cash flow from the asset where the debt service payment is made out of income from the property, rather than from independent income sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Secondly, there is less in the way of form filling and waiting lists. Because investor shared equity is essentially a financing mechanism, it is as simple as applying for a mortgage.\n\nBULLET::::- Thirdly, it is less likely to run out of funding than public sector schemes. So long as investors achieve their desired return, the resources are theoretically limitless.\n\nBULLET::::- Fourthly, the buyer is put in the position of a cash buyer and is thus empowered to negotiate the best deal with the vendor.\n", "Had there been only one partner, who owned 100% interest, selling 20% interest would reduce ownership interest of the original owner by 20%. The same approach can be used to buy equity from each of the partners.\n\nEach of the existing partners may agree to sell 20% of his equity to the new partner. The result for the new partner will be the same as if a single owner sold him 20% interest.\n\nThis table illustrates realignment of ownership interests before and after admitting the new partner.\n", "In 2006-07, the company increased its stake in National Stock Exchange of India Ltd from 2.2% to 8.2% and acquired an 8.71% stake in the Asset Reconstruction Company (India) Ltd. The company along with Citigroup, India Infrastructure Finance Company Ltd. and the global private equity company Blackstone, launched a USD 5 billion initiative for financing infrastructure projects in India. During the year, the company also set up IDFC Project Equity Company Ltd to manage the proposed USD 2 billion third party equity component of the 'India Infrastructure Initiative', the company acquired 33.33% stake in SSKI Securities Pvt Ltd (SSKI), which is a domestic mid-size investment bank and an institutional brokerage and research platform, with membership of the BSE and the NSE. In May 2008, the company entered into asset management by acquiring the AMC business of Standard Chartered Bank in India, namely Standard Chartered Asset Management Company Pvt Ltd and Standard Chartered Trustee Company Pvt Ltd; the acquired companies was re-branded as IDFC Asset Management Company Pvt Ltd and IDFC AMC Trustee Company Pvt Ltd respectively.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22844	Why does a bottle of soda begin to fizz as soon as you crack the seal?	Because the pressure that is keeping the carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the liquid is released. The gas comes out of solution, forms bubbles and fizzing ensues.	[ "Although re-pressurizing the bottle with an ordinary atmospheric mixture of gases does not affect the equilibrium state, because it only slightly changes the CO partial pressure in the headspace, it does affect the kinetics of how that equilibrium state is reached. The increased overall pressure slows down the rate at which dissolved CO comes out of solution. For a few hours the bottle's contents are \"not\" in an equilibrium state. The application of the Fizz Keeper extends this period, but by hours not by days. Rohrig reports that this can be and has been easily confirmed by experiment.\n", "When a soft drink bottle is carbonated, it is pressurized with carbon dioxide to higher than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Eventually the dissolved CO and the CO in the headspace above the liquid reach a dynamic equilibrium, where the amount of CO dissolving in the liquid equals the amount of CO escaping the solution into the headspace, at a pressure of approximately 2 atmospheres. The bottle remains in this dynamic equilibrium until the first time that the cap is removed.\n", "In demand valves where the cracking pressure is adjustable by the diver, it may also occur as a result of maladjustment of the cracking pressure (dial a breath) knob. In these cases the freeflow can usually be eliminated by adjusting the setting.\n", "The first time that the cap is removed from the bottle, the pressure inside the bottle equalizes with the ambient atmospheric pressure. More importantly, however, after the outside air is allowed to mix with the gas inside the bottle the headspace no longer contains pure CO. Thus the partial pressure of CO is substantially reduced, from 2 atmospheres to the partial pressure of CO in the Earth's atmosphere, which is approximately 0.0003 atmospheres. In accordance with Henry's Law, the excess CO dissolved in the drink comes out of solution. Eventually it reaches a new dynamic equilibrium state, with a much lower partial pressure of CO in the headspace and thus a much lower amount of CO held in solution.\n", "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n", "where \"k\" is a temperature-dependent constant, \"p\" is the partial pressure and \"c\" is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid. Thus the partial pressure of CO in the gas has increased until Henry's law is obeyed. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid has decreased and the drink has lost some of its fizz.\n", "Section::::Occurrence.:History.\n\nThe phenomenon was first noticed in 1983 in hoop-wound fibre-reinforced aluminium alloy cylinders, which burst in use in the USA. The alloy was 6351 with a relatively high lead content (400 ppm), but even after the lead content was lowered, the problem recurred, and subsequently the problem was detected in monolithic aluminium cylinders. The first incidence of a SLC crack in the cylindrical part of a cylinder was reported in 1999.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.:Detection.\n", "BULLET::::- Consumption of the active ingredient (\"break-through\"). When there is insufficient active ingredient left to remove the carbon dioxide at the same rate that it is produced while the gas passes through the scrubber, the concentration will begin to build up in the loop. This occurs when the reaction front reaches the far end of the absorbent. This will occur in any scrubber if used for too long.\n\nBULLET::::- The scrubber canister has been incorrectly packed or configured allowing the exhaled gas to bypass the absorbent.\n", "An example where Henry's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression, leading to decompression sickness. An everyday example is given by one's experience with carbonated soft drinks, which contain dissolved carbon dioxide. Before opening, the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide, at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. After the bottle is opened, this gas escapes, moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower, resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution.\n", "Section::::Stress ratio effect.:Elber Equation.\n\nElber modified the Paris-Erdogen equation to allow for crack closure with the introduction of the \"opening\" stress intensity level formula_42 at which contact occurs. Below this level there is no movement at the crack tip and hence no growth. This effect has been used to explain the stress ratio effect and the increased rate of growth observed with short cracks. Elber's equation is \n\nSection::::Fatigue crack propagation in ductile and brittle materials.\n\nThe general form of the fatigue-crack growth rate in ductile and brittle materials is given by\n", "This is the case with certain types of draught beer such as draught stouts. In the case of these draught beers, which before dispensing also contain a mixture of dissolved nitrogen and carbon dioxide, the agitation is caused by forcing the beer under pressure through small holes in a restrictor in the tap. The surging mixture gradually settles to produce a very creamy head.\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "It takes time for the dissolved CO to come out of solution, in the form of gas bubbles that grow and bubble up within the liquid. Thus if the cap is replaced quickly after opening, an intermediate equilibrium state can be maintained, with CO previously dissolved in the liquid instead occupying the headspace. However, the CO partial pressure only ever decreases on each opening, as more of the gas escapes from the bottle entirely. The Fizz Keeper does not cause that partial pressure to increase significantly. Rohrig also observes from experiment that the Fizz Keeper forms a poorer seal than the bottle's own screw cap, thus allowing CO to leak out, and the CO partial pressure to decrease, more quickly with the Fizz Keeper on a bottle than with the normal cap.\n", "If the fluid is a liquid, a different type of limiting condition (also known as choked flow) occurs when the Venturi effect acting on the liquid flow through the restriction causes a decrease of the liquid pressure beyond the restriction to below that of the liquid's vapor pressure at the prevailing liquid temperature. At that point, the liquid will partially flash into bubbles of vapor and the subsequent collapse of the bubbles causes cavitation. Cavitation is quite noisy and can be sufficiently violent to physically damage valves, pipes and associated equipment. In effect, the vapor bubble formation in the restriction prevents the flow from increasing any further.\n", "When the valve closes, it causes a pile up of gas giving rise to a strong positive wave that must travel up the runner. The wave activity in the port/runner does not stop but continues to reverberate for some time. When the valve next opens, the remaining waves influence the next cycle.\n", "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n", "Pumping pure CO back into the bottle would raise that partial pressure, and force more CO back into solution. The Fizz Keeper, however, only pumps the normal atmospheric mixture of gases into the bottle, which (by Dalton's Law) does not raise the partial pressure of CO far above 0.0003 atmospheres, since only part of the overall increase in pressure within the bottle is attributable to CO. Hence little to no CO goes back into solution and effectively none of the \"fizz\" is actually returned (since the amount of additional CO that dissolves once more is several orders of magnitude lower than the amount that caused visible gas bubbles to form when first escaping the solution).\n", "BULLET::::- Bubbles of carbon dioxide \"nucleate\" shortly after the pressure is released from a container of carbonated liquid.\n", "In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation \"bubbles\" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container, by impurities in the liquid, or by small undissolved microbubbles within the liquid. It is generally accepted that hydrophobic surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These pre-existing bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed to a pressure below the threshold pressure, termed Blake's threshold.\n", "Cracking pressure — Refers to the minimum pressure differential needed between the inlet and outlet of the valve at which the first indication of flow occurs (steady stream of bubbles). Cracking pressure is also known as unseating head (pressure) or opening pressure .\n\nReseal pressure — Refers to the pressure differential between the inlet and outlet of the valve during the closing process of the CV, \n\nat which there shall be no visible leak rate. Reseal pressure is also known as sealing pressure, seating head (pressure) or closing pressure .\n", "Crack growth is reported to be very slow by Luxfer, a major manufacturer of aluminium high-pressure cylinders. Cracks are reported to develop over periods in the order of 8 or more years before reaching a stage where the cylinder is likely to leak, which allows timely detection by properly trained inspectors using eddy-current crack-detection equipment.\n\nSLC cracks have been detected in cylinders produced by several manufacturers, including Luxfer, Walter Kidde, and CIG gas cylinders.\n\nMost of the cracking has been observed in the neck and shoulder areas of cylinders, though some cracks in the cylindrical part have also been reported.\n", "Fizz keeper\n\nThe Fizz Keeper is a device that is sold as a means for preserving the carbonation in soft drinks. It comprises a small hand pump that screws onto the top of a plastic soft drink bottle, which is used to pump air into the bottle. Pressurizing the bottle in this way, it is claimed by most of those who sell the device, prevents the drink from going flat.\n", "The above equations calculate the initial instantaneous mass flow rate for the pressure and temperature existing in the source vessel when a release first occurs. The initial instantaneous flow rate from a leak in a pressurized gas system or vessel is much higher than the average flow rate during the overall release period because the pressure and flow rate decrease with time as the system or vessel empties. Calculating the flow rate versus time since the initiation of the leak is much more complicated, but more accurate. Two equivalent methods for performing such calculations are presented and compared at www.air-dispersion.com/feature2.html.\n", "BULLET::::1. Under plane stress conditions, the piece of material in the plastic zone is elongated, which is mainly balanced by an out-of-the-plane flow of the material. Hence, the plasticity-induced crack closure under plane stress conditions can be expressed as a consequence of the stretched material behind the crack tip, which can be considered as a wedge that is inserted in the crack and reduces the cyclic plastic deformation at the crack tip and hence the fatigue crack growth rate.\n", "BULLET::::- Carbonic gas: A natural by product of the fermentation process in which yeast cells convert sugar into nearly equal parts alcohol and carbonic gas. While a small amount stays presence in the wine as carbonic acid, most of the gas will rise to the surface of the fermentation vessel and attempt to escape into the air. If the fermentation vessel is closed (such as a sealed wine bottle used to make sparkling wine), the gas will dissolve into the wine and when released will make the wine sparkling.\n", "Conversely, the closing of the valve does not immediately stop flow at the runner entrance, which continues completely unaffected until the signal that the valve closed reaches it. The closing valve causes a buildup of pressure that travels up the runner as a positive wave. The runner entrance continues to flow at full speed, forcing the pressure to rise until the signal reaches the entrance. This very considerable pressure rise can be seen on the graph below, it rises far above atmospheric pressure.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03140	what does it mean when people say all carbs turn into sugar once consumed?	First thing to understand is that sugar is a pretty general term. When we talk about sugar in terms of our own bodies, we generally mean the molecule glucose. Secondly, chemical bonds (the links between atoms) can be though of as energy storage and transfer devices. We use and obtain energy by breaking and forming these bonds. Our body uses glucose by breaking it in half and fiddling with each half. By doing this, we can convert the energy stored into a form useable by the body, because most of our processes don't know what to do with pure glucose. Now, glucose is a monosaccharide, which means it is the smallest unit of sugar that is still considered sugar. Fructose (fruit sugar) is also a monosaccharide. When we talk about carbs in a food context, we are generally talking about the ways that we can link multiple monosaccharides together into a chain for energy storage. Our body only generates energy from glucose, so when we consume carbs, our body has to first break down these chains into individual units for it to be functional edit: typo, said fructose is almost a monosaccharide	[ "In the strict sense, \"sugar\" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nThe principal definition of free sugars was to split the term \"carbohydrate\" into elements that relate more directly to the impact on health rather than a chemical definition, and followed on from meta-studies relating to chronic disease, obesity, and dental decay. It also led to the WHO and FAO to publish a revised food pyramid that splits up the classic food groups into more health-directed groups, which appears, as yet, to have had little impact on the food pyramids in use around the world.\n", "Carbohydrate chemistry is a large and economically important branch of organic chemistry. Some of the main organic reactions that involve carbohydrates are:\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate acetalisation\n\nBULLET::::- Cyanohydrin reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Lobry de Bruyn–van Ekenstein transformation\n\nBULLET::::- Amadori rearrangement\n\nBULLET::::- Nef reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Wohl degradation\n\nBULLET::::- Koenigs–Knorr reaction\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate digestion\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Bioplastic\n\nBULLET::::- Fermentation\n\nBULLET::::- Glycobiology\n\nBULLET::::- Glycoinformatics\n\nBULLET::::- Glycolipid\n\nBULLET::::- Glycome\n\nBULLET::::- Glycomics\n\nBULLET::::- Glycosyl\n\nBULLET::::- Macromolecule\n\nBULLET::::- Low-carbohydrate diet\n\nBULLET::::- Pentose phosphate pathway\n\nBULLET::::- Photosynthesis\n\nBULLET::::- Resistant starch\n\nBULLET::::- Saccharic acid\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrate NMR\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime)\n", "Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term \"carbohydrate\" (or \"carbohydrate by difference\") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This includes chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes dietary fiber which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in the way of food energy (kilocalories), even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.\n", "Free sugars are defined by the World Health Organization and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in multiple reports as \"all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook, or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, and fruit juices\". The term is used to distinguish between the sugars that are naturally present in fully unrefined carbohydrates such as brown rice, wholewheat pasta, fruit, etc. and those sugars (or carbohydrates) that have been, to some extent, refined (normally by humans but sometimes by animals, such as the sugars in honey). They are referred to as \"sugars\" since they cover multiple chemical forms, including sucrose, glucose, fructose, dextrose, etc.\n", "Section::::Definitions.\n", "Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.\n\nSection::::Carbohydrate content of foods.\n", "Section::::Biochemical properties.:Glucose degradation.\n", "Section::::Metabolic pathways.:Glycogenesis.\n\nGlycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing glycogen. In humans, excess glucose is converted to glycogen via this process. Glycogen is a highly branched structure, consisting of glucose, in the form of glucose-6-phosphate, linked together. The branching of glycogen increases its solubility, and allows for a higher number of glucose molecules to be accessible for breakdown. Glycogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, skeletal muscles, and kidney.\n\nSection::::Metabolic pathways.:Pentose phosphate pathway.\n", "Section::::Biochemical properties.:Precursor.\n", "Section::::Carbohydrates.\n\nComprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CHO where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose, one of the more common sugar products found in plants, is formed.\n", "Section::::Chemical properties.\n", "Postprandial glucose test\n\nA postprandial glucose test is a blood glucose test that determines the amount of a type of sugar, called glucose, in the blood after a meal. Glucose is mainly made from carbohydrate foods. It is the main source of energy used by the body.\n", "In scientific literature, the term \"carbohydrate\" has many synonyms, like \"sugar\" (in the broad sense), \"saccharide\", \"ose\", \"glucide\", \"hydrate of carbon\" or \"polyhydroxy compounds with aldehyde or ketone\". Some of these terms, specially \"carbohydrate\" and \"sugar\", are also used with other meanings.\n\nIn food science and in many informal contexts, the term \"carbohydrate\" often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts).\n", "BULLET::::- Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar, occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of photosynthesis. Most ingested carbohydrates are converted into glucose during digestion and it is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Glucose syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.\n\nSection::::Types.:Disaccharides.\n", "Section::::Chemical properties.:Structure and nomenclature.\n", "Many crops can be used as the source of starch. Maize, rice, wheat, cassava, potato, barley, sweet potato, corn husk and sago are all used in various parts of the world. In the United States, corn starch (from maize) is used almost exclusively. Some commercial glucose occurs as a component of invert sugar, a roughly 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose that is produced from sucrose. In principle, cellulose could be hydrolysed to glucose, but this process is not yet commercially practical.\n\nSection::::Commercial production.:Conversion to fructose.\n", "Carbohydrate counting\n\nCarbohydrate counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it.\n\nSection::::What is carbohydrate?\n", "Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They are a diverse group of substances, with a range of chemical, physical and physiological properties. They make up a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products, but they are not an essential nutrient, meaning a human does not need to eat carbohydrates. The brain is the largest consumer of sugars in the human body, and uses particularly large amounts of glucose, accounting for 20% of total body glucose consumption. The brain uses mostly glucose for energy unless it is insufficient, in which case it switches to using fats.\n", "Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals. It is a reducing sugar with only one reducing end; no matter how large the glycogen molecule is or how many branches it has, each branch ends in a nonreducing sugar residue. When glycogen is broken down to be used as an energy source, glucose units are removed one at a time from the nonreducing ends by enzymes.\n\nSection::::Characterization.\n", "Section::::Analysis.:Instrumental Quantification.:Other sensory methods.\n", "Section::::Carbohydrates as storage.\n", "In 2009, Robert Lustig, a pediatric endocrinologist of the University of California, San Francisco, Medical School who has a special interest in childhood obesity, made a video called \"Sugar: The Bitter Truth\". Lustig had independently re-discovered and confirmed Yudkin's findings and, taking aim at Keys, asked his audience, \"Am I debunking?\"\n\nSection::::Scientific work.:BMI and other contributions.\n\nIn a 1972 article, Keys and his coauthors promoted Adolphe Quetelet's body mass index (BMI) as the best of various indices of obesity, which the U.S. National Institutes of Health then popularized in 1985.\n", "A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ by brand, region, and other factors. Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as \"food calories\" or kilo-calories), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.\n", "Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.\n\nSection::::Nutrients.:Macronutrients.:Carbohydrates.:Fiber.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10859	What causes the clouds to look purple during a thunderstorm?	The sky is usually blue. Similar to a sunset, the storm clouds cause a small amount of red light to scatter. Blue + red = purple.	[ "A cumulonimbus cloud that appears to have a greenish or bluish tint is a sign that it contains extremely high amounts of water; hail or rain which scatter light in a way that gives the cloud a blue color. A green colorization occurs mostly late in the day when the sun is comparatively low in the sky and the incident sunlight has a reddish tinge that appears green when illuminating a very tall bluish cloud. Supercell type storms are more likely to be characterized by this but any storm can appear this way. Coloration such as this does not directly indicate that it is a severe thunderstorm, it only confirms its potential. Since a green/blue tint signifies copious amounts of water, a strong updraft to support it, high winds from the storm raining out, and wet hail; all elements that improve the chance for it to become severe, can all be inferred from this. In addition, the stronger the updraft is, the more likely the storm is to undergo tornadogenesis and to produce large hail and high winds.\n", "At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple.\n\nA Crayola crayon called Purple Mountains' Majesty (or Purple Mountain Majesty) is named after this natural phenomenon. It was first formulated in 1993.\n\nSection::::Mythology.\n", "Cirrocumulus clouds tend to reflect the red and yellow colours during a sunset and sunrise, and thus they have been referred to as \"one of the most beautiful clouds\". This occurs because they reflect the unscattered rays of light from the early morning or evening sun, and those rays are yellow, orange, red, and sometimes purple\n\nSection::::Forecasting.\n", "Red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise and sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. When the angle between the sun and the horizon is less than 10 percent, as it is just after sunrise or just prior to sunset, sunlight becomes too red due to refraction for any colors other than those with a reddish hue to be seen. The clouds do not become that color; they are reflecting long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. The effect is much like if one were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. In combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood-red clouds. Clouds look darker in the near-infrared because water absorbs solar radiation at those wavelengths.\n", "The color heliotrope is a brilliant tone of purple; it is a pink-purple tint that is a representation of the color of the heliotrope flower.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"heliotrope\" as a color name in English was in 1882.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Psychedelic purple (phlox).\n", "Robert Vanderbei at Princeton University made the first \"Purple America\" map after the 2000 presidential election. It attempts to reflect the margin of victory in each county by coloring each with a shade between true blue and true red. In light of the general absence of overwhelming victories, this technique results in mostly shades. This map was reprinted in US News & World Report a few months prior to the 2004 election. After the 2004 election, Vanderbei and then others made similar maps summarizing the results. Quickly thereafter, the term \"Purple America\" permeated the political blogosphere and entered the public lexicon as a way of stating that the United States is not as divided as the political pundits would have the people believe.\n", "Section::::Cited in secondary works.\n\nBerlet and Lyons cite the report in their 2000 work, \"Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort\". The report is cited in Evan Mandery's 2001 book on the history of political campaigns, \"Eyes on City Hall\", and in an essay in the 2002 book \"My Enemy's Enemy\".\n", "Unlike spectral colors, which may be implemented, for example, by the nearly monochromatic light of a laser, with precision much finer than human chromaticity resolution, colors on the line are more difficult to depict. The sensitivity of each type of human cone cell to \"both\" spectral red and spectral violet, being at the opposite endpoints of the line and at the extremes of the visible spectrum, is very low. (See luminosity function) Therefore, common purple colors are not highly bright.\n", "An old name for this color, used by Robert Ridgway in his 1912 book on color nomenclature, \"Color Standards and Color Nomenclature\", is true purple.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.:Purple (HTML/CSS color) (patriarch).\n\nThis purple used in HTML and CSS actually is deeper and has a more reddish hue (#800080) than the X11 color purple shown below as \"purple\" (X11 color) (#A020F0), which is bluer and brighter.\n", "Polar mesospheric clouds form at an extreme-level altitude range of about . They are given the Latin name noctilucent because of their illumination well after sunset and before sunrise. They typically have a bluish or silvery white coloration that can resemble brightly illuminated cirrus. Noctilucent clouds may occasionally take on more of a red or orange hue. They are not common or widespread enough to have a significant effect on climate. However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change.\n", "Colour state\n\nColour states is a system used for quickly showing meteorological conditions.\n\nMeteorological colour states are determined by the relevant worst condition from the visibility and significant cloud height. In the US and parts of Europe the lowest significant cloud layer is five or more oktas; in the United Kingdom, Belgium, France and the Netherlands it is three oktas or more. If visibility or cloud height measurements fall on a boundary (e.g. 5000 m visibility or 1500 ft cloud height) the colour state assumes the higher value in this case WHT.\n", "STEVE (Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement) is an atmospheric optical phenomenon that appears as a purple and green light ribbon in the sky, formally discovered in late 2016 by aurora watchers from Alberta, Canada. According to analysis of satellite data from the European Space Agency's Swarm mission, STEVE is caused by a wide ribbon of hot plasma at an altitude of , with a temperature of and flowing at a speed of (compared to outside the ribbon). The phenomenon is not rare, but nobody had looked into it in detail prior to that. In August 2018, researchers determined that the phenomenon's skyglow was not associated with particle precipitation (electrons or ions) and, as a result, could be generated in the ionosphere.\n", "Noctilucent clouds are generally colourless or pale blue, although occasionally other colours including red and green occur. The characteristic blue colour comes from absorption by ozone in the path of the sunlight illuminating the noctilucent cloud. They can appear as featureless bands, but frequently show distinctive patterns such as streaks, wave-like undulations, and whirls. They are considered a \"beautiful natural phenomenon\". Noctilucent clouds may be confused with cirrus clouds, but appear sharper under magnification. Those caused by rocket exhausts tend to show colours other than silver or blue, because of iridescence caused by the uniform size of the water droplets produced.\n", "Cirrus cloud\n\nCirrus (cloud classification symbol: Ci) is a genus of atmospheric cloud generally characterized by thin, wispy strands, giving the type its name from the Latin word \"cirrus\", meaning a ringlet or curling lock of hair. This cloud can form at any altitude between and above sea level. The strands of cloud sometimes appear in tufts of a distinctive form referred to by the common name of \"mares' tails\".\n\nFrom the surface of Earth, cirrus typically appears white, or a light\n", "One of the dyed buildings was the Cape Headquarters of the National Party. The historic Town House, a national monument (now known as a provincial heritage site), was sprayed purple and the force of the jet smashed windows in the Central Methodist Church.\n", "BULLET::::- Purple needlegrass is the state grass of California.\n\nSection::::In science and nature.:Microbiology.\n\nBULLET::::- Purple bacteria are proteobacteria that are phototrophic, that is, capable of producing energy through photosynthesis.\n\nBULLET::::- In April 2007 it was suggested that early archaea may have used retinal, a purple pigment, instead of chlorophyll, to extract energy from the sun. If so, large areas of the ocean and shoreline would have been colored purple; this is called the Purple Earth hypothesis.\n\nSection::::In science and nature.:Astronomy.\n", "Section::::In science and nature.:Purple mountains phenomenon.\n\nIt has been observed that the greater the distance between a viewers eyes and mountains, the lighter and more blue or purple they will appear. This phenomenon, long recognized by Leonardo da Vinci and other painters, is called aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective. The more distant the mountains are, the less contrast the eye sees between the mountains and the sky.\n", "Other colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the cloud. In the visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths, while red and yellow are at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in the cloud. A cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is a sign that it is a severe thunderstorm, capable of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. The exact cause of green thunderstorms is still unknown, but it could be due to the combination of reddened sunlight passing through very optically thick clouds. Yellowish clouds may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. Yellowish clouds caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels.\n", "This is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, a color system widely used in Europe. The RAL color list first originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961. \n\nSection::::Additional variations of magenta.:Sky magenta.\n", "\"What about the purple people?\" a reader asked the Cape Times' Teleletters. \"Not only has the government messed up with the tricameral system, now their police have created another problem. They, the government, have made 'provision' for the so-called coloureds and Indians -- how are they going to accommodate the 'purple people? Perhaps the next time they use their water cannon, they would like to consult with their voters as to which colour is fashionable.\" \n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "BULLET::::- One of the stars in the Pleiades, called Pleione, is sometimes called \"Purple Pleione\" because, being a fast spinning star, it has a purple hue caused by its blue-white color being obscured by a spinning ring of electrically excited red hydrogen gas.\n\nBULLET::::- The Purple Forbidden enclosure is a name used in traditional Chinese astronomy for those Chinese constellations that surround the North Celestial Pole.\n\nSection::::In science and nature.:Geography.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nIn 2000, Allan Rahill, a meteorologist at the Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC) and amateur astronomer, created a forecast processing step that took data from CMC's Global Element Multi-scale (GEM) forecast model and created a new forecast of cloud cover. Rahill specially designed his cloud forecast to consider the formation of cirrus clouds. The cirrus cloud modeling distinguishes Rahill's model from other cloud forecast models, as sufficient cirrus clouds to make a night unusable for astronomers is still called \"clear\" by civil weather forecasts. \n", "This color may be called HTML/CSS purple. It seems likely that this color was chosen as the web color purple because its hue is exactly halfway between red and blue and its value is exactly halfway between white and black.\n\nA traditional name sometimes used for this tone of purple is patriarch. The first recorded use of \"patriarch\" as a color name in English was in 1925.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.:Purple (X11 color) (veronica).\n\nAt right is displayed the color purple, as defined in the X11 color, which is a lot brighter and bluer than the HTML purple shown above.\n", "A common optical phenomenon involving water droplets is the glory. A glory is an optical phenomenon, appearing much like an iconic Saint's halo about the head of the observer, produced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water droplets. A glory has multiple colored rings, with red colors on the outermost ring and blue/violet colors on the innermost ring.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19238	Why are Disneyworlds 3D "movies" so much better than movie theaters imax3D and RealD?	Normal movies are shot to be viewed in both 2D and 3D, this results in some compromises and relatively limited usage of 3D Disney knows that the movie will only be shown in 3D in that specific venue so they can specifically cater it to 3D and where the audience will be located which lets them achieve much more striking results Many modern 3D movies are also shot as 2D and then 3D'd later which results in rather disappointing 3D. Avatar was the first big 3D movie and it make fantastic use of 3D and was as striking as the Disney "movies" are, we really haven't seen another film that has made as good of use of 3D in the 9 years since Avatar released unfortunately.	[ "In November 2004, \"The Polar Express\" was released as IMAX's first full-length, animated 3D feature. It was released in 3,584 theaters in 2D, and only 66 IMAX locations. The return from those few 3D theaters was about 25% of the total. The 3D version earned about 14 times as much per screen as the 2D version. This pattern continued and prompted a greatly intensified interest in 3D and 3D presentation of animated films.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ultimate G's\" (2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cyberworld\" (Hugh Murray, 2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cirque du Soleil: Journey of Man\" (Keith Melton, 2000)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Haunted Castle\" (Ben Stassen, 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Panda Vision\" (Ben Stassen, 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Space Station 3D\" (Toni Myers, 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"SOS Planet\" (Ben Stassen, 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ocean Wonderland\" (2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Falling in Love Again\" (Munro Ferguson, 2003)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Misadventures in 3D\" (Ben Stassen, 2003)\n\nBy 2004, 54% of IMAX theaters (133 of 248) were capable of showing 3D films.\n", "In June 2005, the Mann's Chinese 6 theatre in Hollywood became the first commercial film theatre to be equipped with the Digital 3D format. Both \"Singin' in the Rain\" and \"The Polar Express\" were tested in the Digital 3D format over the course of several months. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format.\n", "On April 3, 2009, the Surprise Pointe 14 theatre in Surprise, Arizona with its 22 D-BOX Motion Controlled seats was among the first to present motion-enhanced theatrical films. The Apple Valley, California theatre also features 22 D-BOX seats since July 15, 2009, with the release of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. The Mission Valley, San Diego, California theatre installed 23 motion-enhanced seats for the opening of Sherlock Holmes on December 25, 2009.\n", "Film critic Mark Kermode, a noted detractor of 3D, has surmised that there is an emerging policy of distributors to limit the availability of 2D versions, thus \"railroading\" the 3D format into cinemas whether the paying filmgoer likes it or not. This was especially prevalent during the release of \"Prometheus\" in 2012, where only 30% of prints for theatrical exhibition (at least in the UK) were in 2D. His suspicions were later reinforced by a substantial number of complaints about \"Dredd\" from those who wished to see it in 2D but were denied the opportunity. In July 2017, IMAX announced that they will begin to focus on screening more Hollywood tentpole movies in 2D (even if there's a 3D version) and have fewer 3D screenings of movies in North America, citing that moviegoers in North America prefer 2D films over 3D films.\n", "On October 1, 2010 \"Scar3D\" was the first-ever stereoscopic 3D Video-on-demand film released through major cable broadcasters for 3D televisions in the United States. Released in the United States on May 21, 2010, \"Shrek Forever After\" by DreamWorks Animation (Paramount Pictures) used the Real D 3D system, also released in IMAX 3D.\n\nSection::::Timeline.:Mainstream resurgence (2003–present).:World 3-D Expositions.\n", "One of the first studios to use digital 3D was Walt Disney Pictures. In promoting their first CGI animated film \"Chicken Little\", they trademarked the phrase Disney Digital 3-D and teamed up with RealD in order to present the film in 3D in the United States. A total of over 62 theaters in the US were retrofitted to use the RealD Cinema system. The 2008 animated feature \"Bolt\" was the first movie which was animated and rendered for digital 3D whereas Chicken Little had been converted after it was finished.\n", "Section::::Digital 3D.\n\nOn February 2009, Caribbean Cinemas debuted its first digital 3D theater with \"\" at Plaza las Américas. Over the years, more digital 3D films have been projected in most locations with at least one theater hall dedicated for it.\n\nSection::::Premium large format.\n", "March and April 2010 saw three major 3D releases clustered together, with \"Alice in Wonderland\" hitting US theaters on March 5, 2010, \"How to Train Your Dragon\" on March 26, 2010, and \"Clash of the Titans\" on April 2, 2010. On May 13 of the same year, China's first IMAX 3D film started shooting. The pre-production of the first 3D film shot in France, \"Derrière les murs\", began in May 2010 and was released in mid-2011.\n", "In 2009, movie exhibitors became more interested in 3D film. The number of 3D screens in theaters is increasing. The RealD company expects 15,000 screens worldwide in 2010. The availability of 3D movies encourages exhibitors to adopt digital cinema and provides a way for theaters to compete with home theaters. One incentive for theaters to show 3D films is that although ticket sales have declined, revenues from 3D tickets have grown. In the 2010s, 3D films became popular again. The IMAX 3D system and digital 3D systems are used (the latter is used in the animated movies of Disney/Pixar).\n", "In 2004 The Polar Express was the first stereoscopic 3D computer animated feature film. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format. The first 3D feature by DreamWorks Animation \"Monsters vs Aliens\" followed in 2009 and used a new digital rendering process called InTru3D which is a process developed by Intel to create more realistic 3D images despite the fact that they are animated. InTru3D is not a way that films are exhibited in theaters in 3D, the films created in this process are seen in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D.\n\nSection::::Video games.\n", "Ever since \"Monsters vs. Aliens\" was made, all feature films released by DreamWorks Animation were produced in a stereoscopic 3-D format, using Intel's InTru3D technology. IMAX 3D, RealD and 2D versions were released.\n\nSection::::Release.\n\nSection::::Release.:Marketing.\n", "In late 2014, Dolby announced Dolby Cinema as an IMAX competitor with super-vivid image mainly in High Dynamic Range with shadow. In Australia and New Zealand, Event Cinemas sells a premium cinema experience with a bigger screen, improved imagery and better seats marketed as Vmax. In the United States Cinemark has its Cinemark XD: Extreme Digital Cinema.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of IMAX DMR films\n\nBULLET::::- List of IMAX films\n\nBULLET::::- List of IMAX venues\n\nBULLET::::- List of IMAX-based rides\n\nBULLET::::- China Film Giant Screen, a similar format developed to break IMAX's large-screen monopoly in China\n\nBULLET::::- Dolby Cinema\n", "Between 2003 and 2005, Dimension Films (then-owned by The Weinstein Company) had made a couple of 3D films. Two of them were \"\" and \"The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D\".\n\nSection::::History.:Post-2005 Disney 3-D films.\n\nThe first Disney Digital 3-D film was \"Chicken Little\", which was released in late 2005. For the release, Disney collaborated with RealD to install RealD's 3D digital projection system featuring Christie CP2000 2K DLP projectors along with silver screens for 84 screens in U.S. theaters.\n", "Section::::Design.:IMAX.\n", "Across the Cineworld estate there are seven different ways in which their customers can watch a movie: 2D, 3D, 4DX, IMAX, Superscreen, VIP and ScreenX. Prices are set according to the format the customer chooses, and not the movie they choose. As of April 2018, across the European estate there are 38 4DX screens, 35 IMAX screens and 12 VIP auditoriums. Out of 45 cinemas in the world that are fitted with IMAX with Laser projection systems, two are in the UK, both belonging to Cineworld, located in Leicester Square and Sheffield. In April 2018, IMAX And Cineworld Group signed an agreement to install 55 new IMAX with Laser experience in Cineworld and Regal IMAX locations.\n", "AMC offers a selection of premium formats at various theaters throughout the chain. Not every theater has a premium format offering, while those that do only offer 1 or 2 of the listed premium format offerings. All theater locations are equipped to show 3D films in RealD 3D.\n\nBULLET::::- IMAX at AMC\n\nBULLET::::- A joint-venture between IMAX Corporation and AMC Theatres, AMC offers IMAX auditoriums at many locations. IMAX Digital projectors are used in most locations, with a few using traditional 70mm analog projectors.\n\nBULLET::::- Dolby Cinema at AMC\n", "In 2011, CPG introduced a certification program for films deemed to have completed procedures required for quality stereoscopic film production. Specifically, the certification program seeks to provide a guidepost (akin to Dolby’s certification program) to filmgoers to ensure a positive viewing experience, free of the headaches or discomfort caused by subpar 3D production. \"Avatar\", Martin Scorsese’s \"Hugo\" and \"Walking with Dinosaurs\" have received CPG certification.\n", "In 2004 \"The Polar Express\" was the first stereoscopic 3D computer-animated feature film. The 3D version was solely release in Imax theaters. In November 2005, Walt Disney Studio Entertainment released \"Chicken Little\" in digital 3D format, being Disney's first CGI-animated film in 3D. The film was converted from 2D into 3D in post production. nWave Pictures' Fly Me To The Moon 3D (2008) was actually the first animated film created for 3D and released exclusively in 3D in digital theaters around the world. No other animation films have released solely in 3D since. The first 3D feature by DreamWorks Animation, \"Monsters vs Aliens\", followed in 2009 and used a new digital rendering process called InTru3D, which was developed by Intel to create more realistic animated 3D images. InTru3D is not used to exhibit 3D films in theaters; they are shown in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D.\n", "In April 2015, the IMAX system was upgraded to use the new dual-4K IMAX with Laser projector system for the premiere of \"Furious 7\".\n\nSection::::Re-creation.\n\nA full-scale recreation of the Chinese Theatre's exterior and lobby was built at Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida. The building formerly housed a ride called The Great Movie Ride. It will be the future home of Mickey & Minnie's Runaway Railway. It also has concrete handprints inside the sidewalks from the years 1988–1995.\n", "In celebration of Hong Kong Disneyland's 10th anniversary, the show features Projection mapping onto Sleeping Beauty Castle in 7 September 2015 as the preview. The projections in each area are different in order to evenly distribute crowds and to encourage people to view the show multiple times from different locations. The show then progresses all-new scenes from Disney films, including; \"Frozen\", \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", \"Pinocchio\", \"Peter Pan\", \"The Little Mermaid\", \"Aladdin\", \"The Princess and the Frog\", \"Tangled\", \"Big Hero 6\", \"Finding Nemo\", \"Cars\", \"Brave\" and \"Inside Out\".\n", "In February 2016, the park opened on a limited and trial run basis Pacific Rim 5-D, an in-theater special effects 3D movie. The experience is based on the Warner Bros. Pictures’ and Legendary Pictures’ sci-fi movie \"Pacific Rim\". Guests watch part of the movie wearing 3D glasses while sitting in seats that move, shake and bounce in response to the action on the movie screen.\n", "Switching to digital projection, introduced in July 2008, came at a steep cost in image quality, with 2K projectors having roughly an order of magnitude less resolution. Maintaining the same 7-story giant screen size would only make this loss more noticeable, and so many new theaters were being built with significantly smaller screen sizes, yet being marketed with the same brand name of \"IMAX\". These newer theaters with the much lower resolution and much smaller screens were soon being referred to by the derogatory name \"LieMAX\", particularly because the company did not make this major distinction clear to the public, going so far as to build the smallest \"IMAX\" screen having 10 times less area than the largest while persisting with the exact same brand name. \n", "In March 2010, theater industry executives accused Paramount Pictures (who distributed the film on behalf of DreamWorks) of using high-pressure tactics to coerce theaters to screen \"How to Train Your Dragon\" rather than competing 3D releases, \"Clash of the Titans\" and Tim Burton's \"Alice in Wonderland\". As theater multiplexes often had just one 3D screen, theaters were unable to accommodate more than one 3D presentation at a time.\n\nSection::::Release.:Box office.\n", "\"Slashfilm\" offered that before major studios recognized the financial potential of IMAX big screens for releases of blockbuster productions, the \"theaters primarily played nature and science documentaries\". They welcomed the return of such to IMAX theaters through \"Flight of the Butterflies\". And in noting the film's imminent October release, and the number of blockbuster films now being offered in the big-screen 3D format, \"The Film Stage\" offered it as a net positive that IMAX theaters will \"have a balance of blockbusters and nature films.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The superior quality of Disney World's 3D movies is a function of the theater they are shown in." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Disney World's 3D movies look better because they are only filmed in 3D, without having to take into account how they will look in 2D." ]
2018-04027	Why are almost all flavored liquors uniformly 35% alcohol content, while their unflavored counterparts are almost all uniformly 40% alcohol content?	Alcoholic beverage developer here! The main reason is the solubility of sugar. Most of these flavored spirits have a large amount of sugar in them, and sugar is not very soluble in alcohol. Therefore, to get the sweetness they want, they have to dilute the strength of the spirit.	[ "Since the 1890s, standard vodkas have been 40% alcohol by volume (ABV) (80 U.S. proof). The European Union has established a minimum alcohol content of 37.5% for vodka. Vodka in the United States must have a minimum alcohol content of 40%. \n", "For example, in the United States, a standard drink contains about 14 grams of alcohol. This corresponds to a glass of beer, a glass of 12% ABV (alcohol by volume) wine, or a so-called \"shot\" of spirit.Assuming that beer is 5% ABV, wine is 12% ABV, and spirits is 40% ABV (80 proof). Most wine today is higher than 12% ABV (the average ABV in Napa Valley in 1971 was 12.5% ). 80 proof is still the standard for spirits, though higher alcohol content is common.\n", "Shot sizes vary significantly from country to country. In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985). A single serving size of spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof. Beer is typically served in pints (568 ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints. In Israel, a single serving size of spirits is about twice as much, 50 or 60 mL.\n", "The \"Laphroaig Quarter Cask\" was introduced in 2004. This expression is aged in smaller casks and is not chill filtered. Due to the smaller barrels used, the oak surface contact is 30% greater than with standard barrels. The company describes the effect of this as \"creating a soft and velvety edge\". The Quarter Cask is bottled at 48% ABV (96 proof). The standard bearer 10-year-old bottling is bottled at 40% or 43% ABV, depending on the local market.\n", "BULLET::::- Richards Wild Irish Rose is an alcoholic beverage produced by Centerra Wine Company, which is part of the Constellation Brands organization. It was introduced in 1954 and currently sells about two million cases annually. The brand is available in 13.9% and 18% alcohol by volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Solntsedar was a Soviet brand of low-end fortified wine, marketed as \"port wine\", infamous for many severe cases of poisoning. Its production was canceled after Mikhail Gorbachev's anti-alcohol laws.\n", "BULLET::::- MD 20/20 (often called by its nickname Mad Dog) is an American fortified wine. MD 20/20 has an alcohol content that varies by flavor from 13% to 18% (with most of the 18% varieties discontinued, although Red Grape is reportedly available in 18% ABV). The MD actually stands for its producer: Mogen David. Originally, 20/20 stood for 20 oz at 20% alcohol. Currently, MD 20/20 is not sold in 20 oz bottles nor at 20% alcohol by volume.\n", "Outside of Ireland and Scotland, the use of continuous column stills and the use of a non-barley mash are not so closely associated with the production of \"light\" whisky (whisky with little flavor due to distillation at a very high ABV). For example, nearly all American whiskey is produced using column stills, and all American whiskey that is labeled as \"straight whiskey\" (including straight Bourbon and straight rye) is required to use a distillation level not exceeding 80% ABV. In the United States, whiskey produced at greater than 80% ABV is formally classified as \"light whiskey\" and cannot be labeled with the name of a grain or called malt, bourbon or straight.\n", "BULLET::::- Wiser's Small Batch – Canadian whisky using traditional methods. Rich oak, vanilla and spice flavours. 43.4% abv.\n\nBULLET::::- J.P. Wiser's Rye – Developed from the Canadian whisky mash recipe used in 1869. Caramel, honeycomb toffee, vanilla, dried fruits, rye spices, green apple and pear drops flavours. 40% abv.\n\nBULLET::::- J.P. Wiser's 18 Years Old – Blended Canadian whisky aged for minimum 18 years. Mature oak, baked apples, spice, caramel, fresh pine and autumn floral flavours. 40% abv.\n", "Most bottled whisky is diluted with water to reduce its strength (i.e., ABV level) to a level that makes it less expensive to produce and more palatable to most consumers – usually about 40% ABV, which is the statutory minimum in some countries, including the United States. The degree of dilution significantly affects the flavor and general drinking experience of the whisky.\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Liquor that contains 40% ABV (80 US proof) will catch fire if heated to about and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its flash point. The flash point of pure alcohol is , less than average room temperature.\n\nThe flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique flambé.\n\nThe flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% ABV to 96% ABV are:\n\nBULLET::::- 10% – – ethanol-based water solution\n\nBULLET::::- 12.5% – about – wine\n\nBULLET::::- 20% – – fortified wine\n\nBULLET::::- 30% –\n\nBULLET::::- 40% – – typical vodka, whisky or brandy\n", "Premium blends of arrack add no other ingredients, while the inexpensive and common blends are mixed with neutral spirits before bottling. Most people describe the taste as resembling \"…a blend between whiskey and rum\", similar, but distinctively different at the same time.\n\nSection::::Alcohol.:Arrack.:Products.\n\nAccording to the Alcohol and Drug Information Centre's 2008 report on alcohol in Sri Lanka, the types of arrack are:\n\nBULLET::::- Special arrack, which is produced in the highest volume, nearly doubling in production between 2002 and 2007.\n", "Forties are often mentioned in hip-hop and rap culture by rap stars endorsing the \"40\" Ounce tradition. A similar trend was common around the late 1990s' and early 2000s' punk scene, with such songs as \"40.oz Casualty\" by The Casualties and \"Rock the 40. Oz.\" by Leftöver Crack; and \"40oz. to Freedom\" by Sublime.\n", "Repeated distillation of vodka will make its ethanol level much higher than is acceptable to most end users, whether legislation determines strength limits or not. Depending on the distillation method and the technique of the stillmaster, the final filtered and distilled vodka may have as much as 95–96% ethanol. As such, most vodka is diluted with water prior to bottling.\n\nSection::::Production.:Flavoring.\n", "If a purer distillate is desired, a reflux still is the most common solution. Reflux stills incorporate a fractionating column, commonly created by filling copper vessels with glass beads to maximize available surface area. As alcohol boils, condenses, and reboils through the column, the effective number of distillations greatly increases. Vodka and gin and other neutral grain spirits are distilled by this method, then diluted to concentrations appropriate for human consumption.\n", "Details about typical amounts of alcohol contained in various beverages can be found in the articles about them.\n\nSection::::Alcohol proof.\n\nAnother way of specifying the amount of alcohol is alcohol \"proof\", which in the United States is twice the alcohol-by-volume (ABV) number. This may lead to confusion over similar products bought in varying regions that have different names on country specific labels. For example, Stroh rum that is 80% ABV is advertised and labeled as \"Stroh 80\" when sold in Europe, but is named \"Stroh 160\" when sold in the United States. \n", "Examples of the differences in proof is Colombia, requiring their rums possess a minimum alcohol content of 50% alcohol by volume (ABV), while Chile and Venezuela require only a minimum of 40% ABV. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados uses the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum. In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.\n", "The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV, the number of milliliters (ml) of pure ethanol in 100 ml of beverage) or as \"proof\". In the United States, \"proof\" is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80 proof = 40% ABV). \"Degrees proof\" were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof was equivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.\n", "Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain very high-percentage alcohol, commonly known as neutral spirit.\n\nSection::::History of distillation.:Microdistilling.\n\nMicrodistilling (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the microbrewing and craft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century. In contrast, large-scale distillation facilities were never as dominant in Scotland, so the tradition of small-scale distillation was never really lost in the Scotch whisky market.\n\nSection::::Flammability.\n", "BULLET::::- Bartlett Spirits of Maine (Gouldsboro, Maine)\n\nBULLET::::- Wiggly Bridge Distillery (York, Maine)\n\nBULLET::::- Maine Craft Distilling (Portland, Maine)\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:Maryland.\n\nBULLET::::- Lyon Distilling Company (Saint Michaels, Maryland)\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:Massachusetts.\n\nBULLET::::- Boston Harbor Distillery (Boston, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Berkshire Mountain Distillers (Sheffield, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Triple Eight Distillery (Nantucket, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Bully Boy Distillers (Boston, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- GrandTen Distilling (Boston, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Deacon Giles Distillery (Salem, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Short Path Distillery (Everett, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Rumson's (Salem, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- Privateer (Ipswich, Massachusetts)\n\nBULLET::::- South Hollow Spirits (Truro, Massachusetts)\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:Michigan.\n\nBULLET::::- Ugly Dog Distillery (Chelsea, Michigan)\n\nSection::::North America.:United States.:New Hampshire.\n", "Subsequently, the EU legalized dealcoholization with a 2% adjustment limit in its Code of Winemaking Practices, publishing that in its Commission Regulation (EC No. 606 of 10 July 2009) and stipulating that the dealcoholization must be accomplished by \"physical separation techniques\" which would embrace the spinning cone method.\n", "BULLET::::- Flavored rice wines—flavors include star anise-coffee, banana-cinnamon, coconut-pineapple, galangal-tamarind, ginger-red chili, green tea-orange, lemon-lemongrass and mango-green chili.\n\nBULLET::::- Flavored rums in the West Indies originally consisted only of spiced rums such as Captain Morgan whereas in the Indian Ocean (Madagascar, Reunion Island and Mauritius) only of vanilla and fruits. Available flavors include cinnamon, lemon, lime, orange, vanilla, and raspberry, and extend to such exotic flavors as mango, coconut, pineapple, banana, passion fruit, and watermelon.\n\nBULLET::::- Flavored tequilas—flavors include lime, orange, mango, coconut, watermelon, strawberry, pomegranate, chili pepper, cinnamon, jalapeño, cocoa and coffee.\n", "Distillation is generally a two-step process involving either pot stills, continuous stills, or a combination of both. The first step results in \"low wine\", a liquid with an alcohol content between 20 and 40%. The second step results in the final distillate with an alcohol content of 60 to 90%. It is generally distilled to between 33% and 50% alcohol by volume (ABV) or 66 to 100 proof. The entire distillation process is completed within 24 hours. Various blends of coconut arrack diverge in processing, yet the extracted spirit may also be sold raw, repeatedly distilled or filtered, or transferred back into halmilla vats for maturing up to 15 years, depending on flavor, color and fragrance requirements.\n", "BULLET::::- Sacred Old Tom Gin, 48%. Made with extra Juniper, Liquorice Root & vacuum distilled sweet Spanish Orange peels.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Christmas Pudding Gin, 40%. Made with juniper and real Christmas puddings, cooked to Ian's Great Aunt Nellie's recipe.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Organic Sloe Gin, 28.8%. Sloe Berries rested in Sacred Gin for two and a half years, with extra distilled Juniper added before bottling.\n\nSection::::Products.:Whisky.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Peated English Whisky, 48%. Peated single malt spirit distilled in Norfolk, aged in ex-bourbon casks for 3 years, followed by a two year finish in Pedro Ximenez casks in London.\n", "Within Europe, in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak.\n\nIn Germany \"Rum-Verschnitt\" 'blended/cut rum' is a cheap substitute for dark rum consisting of dark rum (often from Jamaica), rectified spirit, water, and often caramel coloring, but no spices; the legal minimum rum content is 5%. In Austria, \"Inländerrum\" 'domestic rum' is a similar rum, but is invariably is spiced; one brand is Stroh.\n\nUnder Canadian regulations, rum may contain caramel, fruit and other botanical substances, added water, and flavourings.\n\nSection::::Categorization.:Grades.\n", "BULLET::::- J.P. Wiser's Legacy – Most whiskies in blend are aged 10 years. 33% of the blend is Lot 40. Rich oak, apple, toffee, vanilla, spice and red apple flavours. 45% abv.\n\nBULLET::::- J.P. Wiser's Red Letter – Tribute whisky to J.P.Wiser's 150th anniversary. Aged 10 or more years. Oak, vanilla, toffee, wood spice and dried fruits flavours. 45% abv.\n\nSection::::Production.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04237	You often hear about people obsessed with Asia (Sinophiles, Japanophiles, etc) but not other peoples really, why is that?	If you're talking about America, that's simply not true. Go to any big Reddit thread and you'll see hundreds of comments talking about what a glorious socialist utopia Europe is. Many Americans also have varying degrees of obsession with British culture. Half the women in my family got up at 3 in the morning to watch Prince William and Kate Middleton's wedding live. See also: the British Invasion of the 1960's Historically, France was seen as the epitome of class and elegance as well.	[ "Easterns provide a counterpoint to familiar mythologies and conventions of the original genre, particularly as the makers were on the other side of a propaganda war without parallel, the Cold War, and this is partially why many have never been shown in the west, at least not until after the Cold War ended. In a war in which many fabrications were made on both sides, there was often a lingering fascination with the cultural developments in enemy countries.\n", "Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the white Westerner’s image of the Asian woman has been seen as subservient, loyal, and family oriented.\n", "Another popular example in video games is the \"Super Mario\" series, debuting in 1985 with \"Super Mario Bros.\", of which main antagonist includes a fictional species of anthropomorphic turtle-like creatures known as Koopas. Other games in the series, as well as of other of its greater \"Mario\" franchise, spawned similar characters such as Yoshi, Donkey Kong and many others.\n\nSection::::Art history.\n\nSection::::Art history.:Claes Oldenburg.\n", "The Romantic movement in literature began in 1785 and ended around 1830. The term \"Romantic\" references the ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the culture and objects of the East began to have a profound effect on Europe. Extensive traveling by artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales back to the West creating a great interest in all things \"foreign\". Romantic Orientalism incorporates African and Asian geographic locations, well-known colonial and \"native\" personalities, folklore, and philosophies to create a literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature as a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory.\n", "Many Asian characters were pitted against White American protagonists in early American comics, capturing America's real-world frustrations and political distrust of foreign Asian powers. Symbolizing America's \"phobia of the \"Yellow Peril\", these characters were frequently of foreign nationality (usually Chinese) and often possessed a stereotypically Asian appearance (for example, a long wispy moustache and yellow-tinted skin). They were often highly intelligent or in possession of a powerful, supernatural ability and generally occupied themselves with elaborate plans for world domination, although they were usually thwarted by the American heroes of their time. While usually serious threats, one somewhat humorous Yellow Peril villain was DC's Egg Fu, a giant Communist egg with facial features and a prehensile moustache.\n", "The Image Expedition states that they are committed to respecting and not imposing upon the cultures that they visit. Daniel Lorenzetti has said, \"As Americans, we can't pretend to understand many of these people's lives. We can only observe them.\"\n", "Said argues that the continuity of Orientalism into the present can be found in influential images, particularly through the Cinema of the United States, as the West has now grown to include the United States. Many blockbuster feature film, such as the \"Indiana Jones\" series, \"The Mummy\" films, and Disney's \"Aladdin\" film series demonstrate the imagined geographies of the East. The films usually portray the lead heroic characters as being from the Western world, while the villains often come from the East. The representation of the Orient has continued in film, although this representation does not necessarily have any truth to it.\n", "Regionalism has had a strong and lasting influence on popular culture, particularly in America. It has given America some of its most iconic pieces of art that symbolize the country. Regionalist-type imagery influenced many American children's book illustrators such as Holling Clancy Holling, and still shows up in advertisements, movies, and novels today. Works like \"American Gothic\" are commonly parodied around the world. Even John Steuart Curry's mural, \"Tragic Prelude\", which is painted on a wall at the Kansas State Capitol, was featured on the cover of American progressive rock band Kansas' debut album titled \"Kansas\" .\n\nSection::::Notable paintings.\n", "For Takeuchi, Asia is not a geographical concept but a concept against \"modern Europe\", and so, Japan is non-Asian. When the Japanese accomplish to overcome modernity, they can be Asian. By \"modern Europe\", it is feudal class society full of discrimination and authoritarianism. \"Asia\" could be liberation from imperialism, which cut off a relationship between dominant and subject. Perhaps, his views were non-realist and progressive in a sense.\n", "An Asian fetish is an obsession with or objectification of Asian people, culture, or things of Asian origin by those of non-Asian descent, especially when it is related to stereotyping. It applies to the enthusiasms experienced by some non-Asian people for such things as Asian cinema, tattoos made up of Chinese characters or the adoption of Asian children, especially to the exclusion or diminishment of other cultures. More specifically it refers to a type of sexual obsession. Non-Asian men who predominantly or exclusively date Asian women are referred to as \"men with an Asian fetish\" by some Asian-American women.\n", "The culture around the Pebbled Sea is strongly based on that of the Middle East. While most locations visited in the books are ethnically mixed, showing characters of apparent Chinese, black, caucasian, Indian, Middle Eastern and multiracial ethnicities, some of the clothing and most of the food consumed in the region have a strong Middle Eastern flavor. The cuisine favors chickpeas, \"flatbread\", couscous and baklawa, among other things.\n", "In her conclusion, Roan analyses David Cronenberg's \"M. Butterfly\" (1993), shot on location in Hungary, China, France, and Canada, and posits her reasons for the negative reception of the feature. She states that the previous Hollywood films shot in China showed the country's scenic beauty and tourist attractions to their audiences, but Cronenberg, contrary to the expectations of film viewers, focused more on the characters, narrative, and story. A few contemporary critics questioned the need for location shooting in China.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "He also recognized there was a gap in the coverage of contemporary Asia in the western book market, which was publishing either historical fiction or Asian-American identity works.\n", "BULLET::::- In the film \"Over the Top\" with Sylvester Stallone, a song called \"Gypsy Soul\" is credited to Asia, although John Wetton was the only member involved as the song was written and recorded by Giorgio Moroder.\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode \"Mystery Spot\" of the CW series \"Supernatural\", every Tuesday morning, Sam is awakened by \"Heat of the Moment\" coming from the radio, followed by a \"Rise and shine, Sammy!\" from Dean.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Rodney Matthews, a fantasy artist responsible for some of the album covers during the 1990s.\n", "Section::::Literature and music.\n", "Historically, there has been no shared \"Asian\" identity, and the concept of unified geographical regional identity at the time of its popularity in the 20th century was not strictly limited to Asia. Asian values gained popularity in the People's Republic of China, Malaysia (under Mahathir Mohamad), Singapore (under Lee Kuan Yew), Indonesia and in Japan (perhaps as early as the pre World War II era). In the West, the study of Asian values was seen as a way to understand Asia and foster a closer relationship with the region.\n", "Western academics emphasized their superiority (particularly in academic ability), patronizing the Orient. With the modern era came colonialism, when new knowledge of the Eastern world encouraged Western scholars to write about foreign histories, cultures, and traditions (despite scant, incomplete understanding of them). The Western world, most of which was engaged in colonialism, considered the Eastern world incapable of representing itself due to its non-Western knowledge. The colonial philosophy of manifest destiny led Western scholars to believe that they had a more civilized, valuable means of expression. They took it upon themselves to document societies, such as Tibet's, from their perspective. Often described as \"backward\" or \"incapable\" (particularly in self-governance), such portrayals helped to fuel racist, white-supremacist beliefs about Asian peoples across the West.\n", "Section::::Cultural impact.\n\nAccording to historian McCabe, early orientalism profoundly shaped French culture and gave it many of its modern characteristics. In the area of science, she stressed \"the role of Orientalism in the birth of science and in the creation of the French Academy of Science\". In the artistic area, referring to Louis XIV's fashion efforts that contrasted with the contemporary fashion for austere Spanish dress: \"ironically, endorsing oriental sartorial splendor at court gave rise to the creation of 'Frenchness' through fashion, which became an umbrella definition that broke through the class barrier\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- France-Asia relations\n", "Tōten Miyazaki (1870–1922) consistently supported a Chinese revolution of Sun Yat-sen with spiritual sacrifice and sympathy under imperial Japan. Okakura Kakuzō (1862–1913) criticized European imperialism as a destroyer of human beauty, and argued for romantic solidarity with diverse \"Asia as one\" against European civilization.\n", "The overly sexualized character of Princess Jasmine in \"Aladdin\" is simply a continuation of the paintings from the 19th century, where women were represented as erotic, sexualized fantasies.\n\nIn \"The Tea House of the August Moon\" (1956), as argued by Pedro Iacobelli, there are tropes of orientalism. He notes, that the film \"tells us more about the Americans and the American's image of Okinawa rather than about the Okinawan people\". The film characterizes the Okinawans as \"merry but backward\" and \"de-politicized\", which ignored the real-life Okinawan political protests over forceful land acquisition by the American military at the time.\n", "In her essay \"Hateful Contraries: Media Images of Asian Women\", British filmmaker Pratibha Parmar comments that the media's imagery of Asian women is \"contradictory\" in that it represents them as \"completely dominated by their men, mute and oppressed\" while also presenting them as \"sexually erotic creatures\".\n", "Science fiction writer William F. Wu, said that American adventure, crime, and detective pulp magazines in the 1930s had many Yellow Peril characters, loosely based on Fu Manchu, and that although \"most [Yellow Peril characters] were of Chinese descent\", the Asian geopolitics of the time led people to see Japan as a threat to the United States. In his book \"The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American fiction, 1850–1940\" (1982), Wu said that fear of Asians dates from the European Middle Ages during the 13th-century Mongol invasion of Europe. Most Europeans had never seen an Asian man or woman, and the great differences in language, custom and physique accounted for European paranoia about the nonwhite peoples from the Eastern world.\n", "Blatantly racist statements (not considered so at the time the novels were published) made by white protagonists such as: \"the swamping of the white world by yellow hordes might well be the price of our failure\" again add to East Asian stereotypes of exclusion. Fu Manchu's inventively sardonic methods of murder and white protagonist Denis Nayland Smith's grudging respect for his intellect reinforce stereotypes of East Asian intelligence, exoticism/mysticism, and extreme cruelty.\n\nSection::::Stereotypes in American fiction.:Charlie Chan.\n", "After World War II, overly feminized images of Asian women made interracial marriage between Asian American women and white men popular. Asian femininity and white masculinity are seen as a sign of modern middle-class manhood. Postcolonial and model minority femininity attract white men to Asian and Asian American women and men see this femininity as the perfect marital dynamic. White men often racialize Asian women as \"good wives\" or \"model minorities\" because of how Asian women are stereotyped as over feminized.\n", "Section::::Literature.:Japanese.\n\nIn the early eleventh century, court lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote Tale of the Genji considered the masterpiece of Japanese literatures and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel.\n" ]	[ "People are only obsessed with Asia. " ]	[ "People can be obsessed with any place or type of people. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People are only obsessed with Asia. " ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "People can be obsessed with any place or type of people. " ]
2018-04299	Why does licking or otherwise wetting your lips cause them to be more chapped/dry?	the air around us contains less water than our skin does, so the air flowing over our bodies absorbs a little bit of water from it constantly. To prevent this from getting too bad our skin is covered in a little bit of "grease" It's a realy thin layer so we dont notice it, but by licking our lips we remove the layer of grease. (which is already quite thin on our lips) The liquid you apply with your spit only lasts a short while and after that the dry air continues to drain fluid from your lips. So licking your lips isnt realy bad, you just need to do it continuesly all the time for it to be usefull. Lip balm has a similar effect, but for a longer time. So lip balm protects your lips, untill it is gone and then your lips are more vulnerable. This is a realy simplified explenation and I'm quite certain that it's not realy called "grease" but you get the point.	[ "Section::::Background and release.\n", "Redness around the lips in circumoral distribution with dryness and scale is typical. Chapping may also occur, especially in cold weather.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nRepeated licking resulting in a cycle of wetting and drying causes the redness, fissuring and scale. IIt can also occur with lip chewing, thumb sucking or excessive drooling.\n\nWind instrument players may also experience lip licker's dermatitis.\n\nCompulsive licking of lips causing lick lip dermatitis is also seen as psychological disorder.\n\nPersistent and continuous breathing from the mouth can cause dry lips and result in temptation to repeated lick lips.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Reception.\n", "Section::::Music video.\n\nSection::::Music video.:Background and concept.\n", "Section::::Music video.:Synopsis.\n", "BULLET::::- Lip plumper is a cosmetic product used to make lips appear fuller. These products work by irritating the skin of the lips with ingredients such as Capsaicin. This makes the lips swell slightly, temporarily creating the appearance of fuller lips.\n\nBULLET::::- Suction pumps, a special device for lips uses vacuum pumping to increase blood pressure in each lip and to pull them out a bit, making it quite an instrument to adjust proper lip length/value in a slow determinite step-by-step way.\n\nSection::::Risks and side effects.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Chemosensory neurons.\n\nChemosensory neurons are those that discriminate between tastant as well as between the presence or absence of a tastant. In these neurons, the responses to reinforced (stimulated by tastant) licks in rats were greater than to those for the unreinforced (not stimulated by tastant) licks. They found that 34.2% of the GC neurons exhibited chemosensory responses. The remaining neurons discriminate between reinforced and unreinforced licks, or process task related information.\n\nSection::::Tastant concentration-dependent neuronal activity.\n", "Sympathetic stimulation results in the release of norepinephrine. Norepinephrine binding to α-adrenergic receptors will cause an increase in intracellular calcium levels leading to more fluid vs. protein secretion. If norepinephrine binds β-adrenergic receptors, it will result in more protein or enzyme secretion vs. fluid secretion. Stimulation by norepinephrine initially decreases blood flow to the salivary glands due to constriction of blood vessels but this effect is overtaken by vasodilation caused by various local vasodilators.\n\nSaliva production may also be pharmacologically stimulated by so-called sialagogues. It can also be suppressed by so-called antisialagogues.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Spitting.\n", "Nonetheless, licking does play a role for humans. Even though humans cannot effectively drink water by licking, the human tongue is quite sufficient for licking more viscous fluids. Some foods are sold in a form intended to be consumed mainly by licking, e.g. ice cream cones and lollipops.\n\nSome people in the Afar tribe of Ethiopia have been reported to have used their tongues to lick other humans, as a way of cleaning them from the dust that accumulates on them in a very water-scarce region.\n", "Licking\n\nLicking is the action of passing the tongue over a surface, typically either to deposit saliva onto the surface, or to collect liquid, food or minerals onto the tongue for ingestion, or to communicate with other animals. Many animals both groom themselves and eat or drink by licking.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n\nGrooming: Animals commonly clean themselves through licking. In mammals, licking helps keep the fur clean and untangled. The tongues of many mammals have a rough upper surface that acts like a brush when the animal licks its fur. Certain reptiles, such as geckos, clean their eyes by licking them.\n", "Lip licking, biting, or rubbing habits are frequently involved. Counterintuitively, constant licking of the lips causes drying and irritation, and eventually the mucosa splits or cracks. The lips have a greater tendency to dry out in cold, dry weather. Digestive enzymes present in saliva may also irritate the lips, and the evaporation of the water in saliva saps moisture from them.\n\nSome children have a habit of sucking and chewing on the lower lip, producing a combination of cheilitis and sharply demarcated perioral erythema (redness). \n", "The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide an occlusive layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips and protect them from external exposure. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have a drying effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, and thus they are often the first to present signs of dryness. Occlusive materials like waxes and petroleum jelly prevent moisture loss and maintain lip comfort while flavorants, colorants, sunscreens, and various medicaments can provide additional, specific benefits.\n", "A useful parameter for gauging wetting is the \"spreading parameter S\",\n\nWhen \"S\" 0, the liquid wets the surface completely (complete wetting). When \"S\" 0, partial wetting occurs.\n\nCombining the spreading parameter definition with the Young relation yields the Young–Dupré equation:\n\nwhich only has physical solutions for θ when S 0.\n\nSection::::Ideal solid surfaces.:Minimization of energy, three phases.:The Jasper-Anand Equation for Flat and Curved Surfaces.\n", "Section::::Composition and lyrics.\n", "BULLET::::- Blistex\n\nBULLET::::- Carmex\n\nBULLET::::- ChapStick\n\nBULLET::::- Labello\n\nBULLET::::- Lip Smacker\n\nBULLET::::- Lypsyl\n\nBULLET::::- EOS\n\nSection::::Dependency.\n\nSome physicians have suggested that certain types of lip balm can be addictive or contain ingredients that actually cause drying. Lip balm manufacturers sometimes state in their FAQs that there is nothing addictive in their products or that all ingredients are listed and approved by the FDA. Snopes found the claim that there are substances in Carmex that are irritants necessitating reapplication, such as ground glass, to be false.\n", "Humans use licking for a number of other purposes. For example, licking can moisten the adhesive surfaces of stamps or envelopes. Many people lick a fingertip (usually the one of the index finger) for some extra grip when turning a page, taking a sheet of paper from the top of a pile or opening a plastic bag. In sewing, thread ends are commonly wet by licking to make the fibres stick together and thus make threading them through the eye of a needle easier. Another practice considered uncivilized is licking one's hand and using it to groom one's hair.\n", "The mechanism responsible for driving osmosis has commonly been represented in biology and chemistry texts as either the dilution of water by solute (resulting in lower concentration of water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore a diffusion of water along a concentration gradient) or by a solute's attraction to water (resulting in less free water on the higher solute concentration side of the membrane and therefore net movement of water toward the solute). Both of these notions have been conclusively refuted.\n", "Section::::Fitting.\n", "Section::::Process.\n", "The song's lyrics are about a philandering, untruthful man; they include, \"if your lips are movin', then you're lyin', lyin', lyin, babe\". It was reportedly written in eight minutes by Kevin Kadish and Meghan Trainor and produced by the former.\n", "Other questions yet to be answered include: \n\nBULLET::::- What are the effects of membrane protein levels?\n\nBULLET::::- What is the physiological function of lipid rafts?\n\nBULLET::::- What effect does flux of membrane lipids have on raft formation?\n\nBULLET::::- What effect do diet and drugs have on lipid rafts?\n\nBULLET::::- What effect do proteins located at raft boundaries have on lipid rafts?\n\nSection::::Common types.\n", "Laves lattices are the duals to the Archimedean lattices. Drawings from. See also Uniform tilings.\n\nSection::::Percolation on 2D lattices.:2-uniform lattices.\n\nTop 3 lattices: #13 #12 #36\n\nBottom 3 lattices: #34 #37 #11\n\nTop 2 lattices: #35 #30\n\nBottom 2 lattices: #41 #42\n\nTop 4 lattices: #22 #23 #21 #20\n\nBottom 3 lattices: #16 #17 #15\n\nTop 2 lattices: #31 #32\n\nBottom lattice: #33\n\nSection::::Percolation on 2D lattices.:Inhomogeneous 2-uniform lattice.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03039	Is there any logical reason as to why must there be a column of water in the toilet bowl?	Yes, the water acts as an air seal to prevent sewer gas rising up from the toilet into your room. Most people don't want to smell old poop water.	[ "The lower water level in a dual-flush toilet bowl may be slightly off-putting to visitors to Australia from countries where toilets with a full tank and one lever/button are the norm. However, the lower water level in the bowl was a standard feature of Australian toilets before the introduction of the dual-flush feature, and was not affected by the new type of cistern.\n", "The urine separation function can also be achieved by designing the toilet bowl in such a way as to take advantage of the Coandă effect. In this design, users must direct their urine stream against the interior walls of the bowl (usually assisted by a sloping front section) so that it can be collected via a small trough that is recessed into the base of the bowl.\n", "One disadvantage of this design is that it may require the more intense use of a toilet brush to remove bits of feces that may have left marks on the shelf. Additionally, this design presents the disadvantage of creating a strong lingering odor since the feces are not submerged in water immediately after excretion. Similar designs are found in some early toilets in the US, one particular brand being labeled the \"Grand Niagara\", as the flushing of the shelf created a waterfall effect into the drain chamber.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.:Squat toilet.\n", "It is a commonly held misconception that when flushed, the water in a toilet bowl swirls one way if the toilet is north of the equator and the other way if south of the equator, due to the Coriolis effect – usually, counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. In reality, the direction that the water takes is much more determined by the direction that the bowl's rim jets are pointed, and it can be made to flush in either direction in either hemisphere by simply redirecting the rim jets during manufacture. On the scale of bathtubs and toilets, the Coriolis effect is too weak to be observed except under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.\n", "Section::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.:Washdown toilet.\n\nWashdown toilets are the most common form of pedestal and cantilever toilets outside North America. The bowl has a large opening at the top which tapers down to a water trap at the base. It is flushed from the top by water discharged through a flushing rim or jets. The force of the water flowing into the bowl washes the waste through the trap and into the drains.\n", "Since 1994, there is a significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets. This has resulted in the emergence of low flush toilet designs and local or national standards on water consumption for flushing. As an alternative some people modify an existing high flush toilet to use less water by placing a brick or water bottle into the toilet's water tank. Other modifications are often done on the water system itself (such as by using greywater), or a system that pollutes the water less, for more efficient water use.\n", "Section::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.:Washout toilet.\n", "At the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed. Some designs use a large hole in the front of the rim to allow faster filling of the bowl. There may also be a siphon jet hole about one inch (2.5 cm) diameter in the bottom of the toilet.\n", "Within the bowl, there are three main waterway design systems: the siphoning trapped system (found primarily in North American residential installations, and in North American light commercial installations), the non-siphoning trapped system (found in most other installations), and the valve-closet system (found in trains, passenger aircraft, buses, and other such installations around the world). Older style toilets called \"washout\" toilets are now only found in a few locations.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Siphonic bowls.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Siphonic bowls.:Single trap siphonic toilet.\n", "Contrary to popular legend, Sir Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. He was, however, in the forefront of the industry in the late 19th century, and held nine patents, three of them for water closet improvements such as the floating ballcock. His flush toilets were designed by inventor Albert Giblin, who received a British patent for the \"Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer\", a siphon discharge system. Crapper popularized the siphon system for emptying the tank, replacing the earlier floating valve system which was prone to leaks.\n\nSection::::History.:Spread and further developments.\n", "In 1596 Sir John Harington (1561–1612) published \"A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, Called the Metamorphosis of Ajax\", describing a forerunner to the modern flush toilet installed at his house at Kelston in Somerset. The design had a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl. He installed one for his godmother Queen Elizabeth I at Richmond Palace.\n", "Standing water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas coming out of the sewer through the drain, and also as a receptacle for waste. Sewer gas is vented through a separate vent pipe attached to the sewer line. The water in the toilet bowl is connected to the drain by a drain pipe shaped like an extended \"S\" which curves up behind the bowl and down to the drain. The portion of the channel behind the bowl is arranged as a siphon tube, whose length is greater than the depth of the water in the bowl. The top of the curving tube limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The waterways in these toilets are designed with slightly smaller diameters than a non-siphonic toilet, so that the waterway will naturally fill up with water each time it is flushed, creating the siphon action.\n", "The siphonic toilet, also called \"siphon jet\" and \"siphon wash\", is perhaps the most popular design in North America for residential and light commercial toilet installations. All siphonic toilets incorporate an \"S\" shaped waterway.\n", "Because it is a development of the traditional Australian flushing toilet, the push-button dual-flush toilet differs from siphon-flush toilets in that it relies on gravity to remove waste from the toilet. In addition to its dual-flush feature, the lack of siphoning also means that the toilet requires less water to operate. The lack of siphoning means that the waterline is considerably lower than that in siphon-flush toilets. The main feature of the toilet is the two buttons on the cistern, which release different volumes of water: one button delivers 3 litres and the other 6 litres. The lesser quantity is designed to flush liquid waste and the larger is designed to flush solid waste. It also uses a larger 10 cm trapway in the bowl, allowing for water to come out faster and clear the bowl efficiently.\n", "Older installations, known as \"high suite combinations\", used a high-level cistern (tank), fitted above head height, activated by a pull chain connected to a flush lever on the cistern. When more modern close-coupled cistern and bowl combinations were first introduced, these were first referred to as \"low suite combinations\". Modern versions have a neater-looking low-level cistern with a lever that the user can reach directly, or a close-coupled cistern that is even lower down and fixed directly to the bowl. In recent decades the close coupled tank/bowl combination has become the most popular residential system, as it has been found by ceramic engineers that improved waterway design is a more effective way to enhance the bowl's flushing action than high tank mounting.\n", "Section::::Bowl design.\n\nThe \"bowl\" or \"pan\" of a toilet is the receptacle that receives bodily waste. A toilet bowl is most often made of a ceramic, but can sometimes be made of stainless steel or composite plastics. Toilet bowls are mounted in any one of three basic manners: above-floor mounted (pedestal), wall mounted (cantilever), or in-floor mounted (squat toilet).\n", "A toilet need not be connected to a water supply, but may be pour-flushed. This type of flush toilet has no cistern or permanent water supply, but is flushed by pouring in a few litres of water from a container. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres. This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a \"pour flush pit latrine\" or a \"twin pit pour flush pit latrine\". It can also be connected to a septic tank.\n\nSection::::Flushing systems.\n", "The rapid influx of water into the bowl causes the standing water in the bowl to rise and fill the S-shaped siphon tube mounted in the back of the toilet. This starts the toilet's siphonic action. The siphon action quickly \"pulls\" nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain in about 4–7 seconds —it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the continuous column of water through the siphon is broken when air enters the siphon tube. The toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet.\n", "Section::::Applications and terminology.:Flush toilet.\n\nFlush toilets often have some siphon effect as the bowl empties.\n\nSome toilets also use the siphon principle to obtain the actual flush from the cistern. The flush is triggered by a lever or handle that operates a simple diaphragm-like piston pump that lifts enough water to the crest of the siphon to start the flow of water which then completely empties the contents of the cistern into the toilet bowl. The advantage of this system was that no water would leak from the cistern excepting when flushed. These were mandatory in the UK until 2011.\n", "This system is suitable for locations plumbed with or water pipes which cannot supply water quickly enough to flush the toilet; the tank is needed to supply a large volume of water in a short time. The tank typically collects between of water over a period of time. In modern installations the storage tank is usually mounted directly above and behind the bowl.\n", "The flushing system provides a large flow of water into the bowl. They normally take the form of either fixed tanks of water or flush valves.\n\nSection::::Flushing systems.:Flush tanks.\n\nFlush tanks or cisterns usually incorporate a mechanism to release water from the tank and an automatic valve to allow the cistern to be refilled automatically.\n", "Some UDDT designs are arranged such that the users do their anal cleansing with water above the urine compartment. This may be done for simplicity reasons, i.e. in order to avoid the need for a third hole and drain pipe for the anal cleansing water. This mixture of urine and anal cleansing water requires further treatment to remove pathogens before it can be safely utilized in agriculture.\n", "By the 1880s the free-standing water closet was on sale and quickly gained popularity; the free-standing water closet was able to be cleaned more easily and was therefore a more hygienic water closet. Twyford's \"Unitas\" model was free-standing and made completely of earthenware. Throughout the 1880s he submitted further patents for improvements to the flushing rim and the outlet. Finally, in 1888 he applied for a patent protection for his \"after flush\" chamber; the device allowed the basin to be refilled by a lower quantity of clean water in reserve after the water closet was flushed. The modern pedestal \"flush-down\" toilet was demonstrated by Frederick Humpherson of the Beaufort Works, Chelsea, England in 1885.\n", "The double trap siphonic toilet is a less common type that is exceptionally quiet when flushed. There is a device known as an aspirator which uses the flow of water on a flush to suck air from the cavity between the two traps, reducing the air pressure there to create the siphon which sucks water and waste from the toilet bowl. Towards the end of the flush the aspirator ceases being covered in water, thus allowing air into the cavity between traps to break the siphon without the noise while the final flush water fills the pan.\n\nSection::::Bowl design.:Non-siphonic bowls.\n", "Another variant is the pour-flush toilet. This type of flush toilet has no cistern but is flushed manually with a few liters of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as . This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a \"pour flush pit latrine\" or a \"twin pit pour flush to pit latrine\". It can also be connected to a septic tank.\n\nFlush toilets on ships are typically flushed with seawater.\n\nSection::::With water as an odor seal.:High-tech toilet.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00991	How does a software know when it crashed in order to keep a log of the crash?	There are several different ways. The old school C programming way is based on the concept of signals. When a process does something that would normally trigger the OS to kill it you can ask the OS to let you do something else. This means that you can write a general function that creates a crash report and then ask the OS to call that function whenever the OS detects that you should crash (e.g. by reading a piece of memory you're not supposed to have access to). A more modern way is with exceptions and exception handlers. When a program detects a bad value (e.g. about to read a bad piece of memory, being asked to divide by zero, etc) it can "throw an exception." This allows the program to record some data about what it was doing and then start "unwinding the stack." If function A called function B and B called C then C throws an exception then C ends early and B gets a chance to handle the exception. If B doesn't handle it then A gets a chance. If A doesn't then the program crashes. Many developers working in a language that uses the exception model will wrap the whole program in an exception handlers and, upon receiving an exception, they will start the crash reporter. Another possibility is to have multiple threads running in a program. When the crash reporting thread detects that the main thread has terminated unexpectedly it pops up to try to send relevant data to the developers. As with most questions in programming there are a ton of ways to go about implementing a solution. What the answer ultimately comes down to is the fact that crashes don't just happen. They're a designed behavior at some layer, where software detects that it is in a state that it shouldn't be in and aborts. Reporting that crash comes down to getting whatever layer detected the exceptional state to communicate that fact to a piece of software that will report it to the developers.	[ "BULLET::::- the binary result - the only status visible to the host was presence or absence of a notification\n\nBULLET::::- the unidirectional communications - the drive firmware sending notification\n\nThe technology merged with IntelliSafe to form the Self-Monitoring, Analysis, and Reporting Technology (SMART).\n\nSection::::Processor and Memory.\n", "If any similar business application errors occurred in the past then the issue resolution steps are retrieved from the support knowledge base and the error is resolved using those steps. If it is a new support error, then new issue resolution steps are created and the error is resolved. The new support error resolution steps are recorded in the knowledge base for future use. For major business application errors (critical infrastructure or application failures), a phone conference call is initiated and all required support persons/teams join the call and they all work together to resolve the error.\n\nSection::::Application support.:Code correction.\n", "The business application support team member collects all the necessary information about the business software error. This information is then recorded in the support request. All of the data used by the business user is also used in the investigation. The application program is reviewed for any possible programming errors.\n\nSection::::Application support.:Error resolution.\n", "Microsoft Windows includes a crash reporting service called Windows Error Reporting that prompts users to send crash reports to Microsoft for online analysis. The information goes to a central database run by Microsoft. It consists of diagnostic information that helps the company or development team responsible for the crash to debug and resolve the issue if they choose to do so. Crash reports for third party software are available to third party developers who have been granted access by Microsoft.\n", "Ubuntu hosts a public error tracker at \"errors.ubuntu.com\" which collects hundreds of thousands of error reports daily from millions of machines. If a program crashes on Ubuntu, a crash handler (such as Apport) will notify the user and offer to report the crash. If the user chooses to report the crash, the details (possibly including a core dump) will be uploaded to an Ubuntu server (\"daisy.ubuntu.com\") for analysis. A core dump is automatically processed to create a stack trace and crash signature. The crash signature is used to classify subsequent crash reports caused by the same error.\n\nSection::::Linux.:GNOME.\n", "If the business application error occurred due to a work flow issue or human errors during data input, then the business users are notified. Business users then review their work flow and revise it if necessary. They also modify the user guide or user instructions to avoid such an error in the future.\n\nSection::::Application support.:Infrastructure issue correction.\n\nIf the business application error occurred due to infrastructure issues, then the specific infrastructure team is notified. The infrastructure team then implements permanent fixes for the issue and monitors the infrastructure to avoid the re-occurrence of the same error.\n", "In macOS there is a standard crash reporter in /System/Library/CoreServices/Crash Reporter.app. Crash Reporter.app sends the Unix crash logs to Apple for their engineers to look at. The top text field of the window has the crash log, while the bottom field is for user comments. Users may also copy and paste the log in their email client to send to the application vendor for them to use. Crash Reporter.app has 3 main modes: display nothing on crash, display \"Application has crashed\" dialog box or display Crash Report window.\n\nSection::::Windows.\n", "In order to detect problems automatically, system administrators and operations set up monitors on the generated logs. The log monitors scan the log files and search for known text patterns and rules that indicate important events. Once an event is detected, the monitoring system will send an alert, either to a person or to another software/hardware system. Monitoring logs help to identify security events that occurred or might occur.\n", "Section::::Example of FMEA worksheet.:Dormancy or Latency Period.\n\nThe average time that a failure mode may be undetected may be entered if known. For example:\n\nBULLET::::- Seconds, auto detected by maintenance computer\n\nBULLET::::- 8 hours, detected by turn-around inspection\n\nBULLET::::- 2 months, detected by scheduled maintenance block X\n\nBULLET::::- 2 years, detected by overhaul task x\n\nSection::::Example of FMEA worksheet.:Indication.\n", "The recovery works in three phases. The first phase, Analysis, computes all the necessary information from the logfile. The Redo phase restores the database to the exact state at the crash, including all the changes of uncommitted transactions that were running at that point in time. The Undo phase then undoes all uncommitted changes, leaving the database in a consistent state.\n\nSection::::Recovery.:Analysis.\n\nDuring the Analysis phase we restore the DPT and the TT as they were at the time of the crash.\n", "The Windows Error Reporting system is enabled to triage and map crash data. If it is determined that the root cause of the issue is in a driver or software product that maps to a company with a Winqual account, then that crash bucket will be assigned to that account. Winqual users with the permissions to view crash data can then download samples of the relevant crash data (in the form of memory dumps, logs, and optional additional information that the end-user having the issue has agreed to submit). \n", "If the user has enabled it, the system will also write an entry to the system event log. The log entry contains information about the bug check (including the bug check code and its parameters) as well as a link which will report the bug and provide the user with prescriptive suggestions if the cause of the check is definitive and well-known.\n", "Bug Buddy is the crash reporting tool used by the GNOME platform. When an application using the GNOME libraries crashes, Bug Buddy generates a stack trace using gdb and invites the user to submit the report to the GNOME bugzilla. The user can add comments and view the details of the crash report.\n\nSection::::Linux.:KDE.\n\nThe crash reporting tool used by KDE is called Dr. Konqi. The user can also get a backtrace using gdb.\n\nSection::::Mozilla.\n\nSection::::Mozilla.:Talkback.\n", "Another error reporting library for Windows is CrashRpt. CrashRpt library is a light-weight open source error handling framework for applications created in Microsoft Visual C++ and running under Windows. The library is distributed under New BSD License.\n\nCrashRpt intercepts unhandled exceptions, creates a crash minidump file, builds a crash descriptor in XML format, presents an interface to allow user to review the crash report, and finally it compresses and sends the crash report to the software support team.\n", "The system considers all parts of the debug and release process, such that targeted bug fixes can be applied through Windows Update. In other words, only people experiencing a particular type of crash can be offered the bug fix, thus limiting exposure to an issue.\n\nAccording to \"Der Spiegel\", the Microsoft crash reporter has been exploited by NSA's Tailored Access Operations (TAO) unit to hack into the computers of Mexico's Secretariat of Public Security. According to the same source, Microsoft crash reports are automatically harvested in NSA's XKeyscore database, in order to facilitate such operations.\n\nSection::::Windows.:CrashRpt.\n", "BULLET::::3. Provision of tools such as diagnostic software to end users and/or the technicians that can identify the source of problems, and distinguish between software and hardware issues.\n\nSection::::Impact.:Example of abuse.\n", "When a bug check is issued, a crash dump file will be created if the system is configured to create them. This file contains a \"snapshot\" of useful low-level information about the system that can be used to debug the root cause of the problem and possibly other things in the background.\n", "Software and hardware manufacturers can also close the loop with their customers by linking error signatures to Windows Error Reporting Responses. This allows distributing solutions as well as collecting extra information from customers (such as reproducing the steps they took before the crash) and providing them with support links.\n\nSection::::Impact on future software.\n", "Section::::Fault tolerance.:Adversarial failure.\n", "Section::::Logging and crash recovery.\n\nThe logging and recovery feature of ESE supports guaranteed data integrity and consistency in the event of a system crash. Logging is the process of redundantly recording database update operations in a log file. The log file structure is very robust against system crashes. Recovery is the process of using this log to restore databases to a consistent state after a system crash.\n", "In \"replay\" techniques, each trace is replayed against the process model one event at a time. When a replay error is detected, it is reported and a local correction is made to resume the replay procedure. The local correction may be for example to skip/ignore a task in the process model or to skip/ignore an event in the log.\n", "BULLET::::- Related events which occur on multiple systems can be detected which would be very difficult to detect if each system had a separate log.\n\nBULLET::::- Events which are sent from a system to a SEM remain on the SEM even if the sending system fails or the logs on it are accidentally or intentionally erased.\n\nSection::::Security analysis.\n", "Section::::History.:Windows 7.\n\nThe Problem Reports and Solutions Control Panel applet was replaced by the Maintenance section of the Windows Action Center on Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2.\n\nA new app, Problem Steps Recorder (PSR.exe), is available on all builds of Windows 7 and enables the collection of the actions performed by a user while encountering a crash so that testers and developers can reproduce the situation for analysis and debugging.\n\nSection::::System design.\n", "An early hard disk monitoring technology was introduced by IBM in 1992 in its IBM 9337 Disk Arrays for AS/400 servers using IBM 0662 SCSI-2 disk drives. Later it was named Predictive Failure Analysis (PFA) technology. It was measuring several key device health parameters and evaluating them within the drive firmware. Communications between the physical unit and the monitoring software were limited to a binary result: namely, either \"device is OK\" or \"drive is likely to fail soon\".\n", "During the recording phase, the user may introduce verification points, which capture an expected system state, such as a specific value in a field, or a given property of an object, such as enabled or disabled. During playback, any discrepancies between the baseline captured during recording and the actual result achieved during playback are noted in the Rational Functional Tester log. The tester can then review the log to determine if an actual software bug was discovered.\n\nSection::::Key Technologies.\n\nSection::::Key Technologies.:Storyboard Testing.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12159	Why do People Riot After Major Sports Victories?	People get increasingly stupider in groups... Good decision making goes straight out the window and is replaced by just trying to fit in... on the other hand, when you are surrounded by a violent crowd, fitting in generally keeps you from sticking out... and sticking out gets you killed. Mob mentality is a thing... a scary thing.	[ "Sports riots such as the Nika riots can be sparked by the losing or winning of a specific team or athlete. Fans of the two teams may also fight. Sports riots may happen as a result of teams contending for a championship, a long series of matches, or scores that are close. Sports are the most common cause of riots in the United States, accompanying more than half of all championship games or series. Almost all sports riots occur in the winning team's city.\n", "BULLET::::- At the end of the same season, violence erupted outside of Tiger Stadium in Detroit after the Detroit Tigers defeated the Padres in the World Series. A well known photo from the riot shows a Tigers fan holding a World Series pennant in front of an overturned burning Detroit Police car.\n\nBULLET::::- Heysel Stadium disaster – 39 people died when a wall collapsed under pressure of Juventus supporters fleeing from 'football hooligans' supporting Liverpool during the 1985 European Cup Final.\n", "Violence by supporters of sports teams dates back to Roman times, when supporters of chariot racing teams were frequently involved in major riots. Usually, underlying political and/or theological issues helped fuel riots related to sporting events in the Roman era. The Nika riots of 532 were especially deadly, with tens of thousands reportedly killed.\n", "Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular is a problem at some national and international sporting contests.\n\nSection::::Participation.\n\nSection::::Participation.:Gender participation.\n", "Spectator sports have built their own set of culture and traditions including, in the United States, cheerleading and pre-game and half time entertainment such as fireworks, particularly for big games such as competition decider events and international tests. The passion of some sports fans also means that there are occasionally spectator incidents.\n", "BULLET::::- In July 2000, 13 people were trampled to death in a riot at a 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying match in Harare, Zimbabwe after South Africa took a 2–0 lead over Zimbabwe.\n\nBULLET::::- In June 2000, Los Angeles Lakers fans stormed the streets of Los Angeles after the Lakers victory over the Indiana Pacers in the 2000 NBA Finals. Fans briefly celebrated by starting bonfires, but it soon turned into a riot, with fans dancing and stomping on parked cars, and even turning a news van over.\n", "Sports stories occasionally transcend the games themselves and take on socio-political significance: Jackie Robinson breaking the color barrier in baseball is an example of this. Modern controversies regarding the hyper-compensation of top athletes, the use of anabolic steroids and other, banned performance-enhancing drugs, and the cost to local and national governments to build sports venues and related infrastructure, especially for Olympic Games, also demonstrates how sports can intrude on to the news pages.\n", "This trend towards an increasing desire for violence on the part of the spectators is also reflected in the results of a viewer poll conducted by the owner of Team Spandau, which finds that their monitor viewers prefer to experience a crash rather than an actual motorball victory. The use of performance enhancing drugs is also becoming an accepted practice, as is shown in Dragunov's endorsement of the nervous system accelerant \"Accel\" and its rising popularity. He continues to use the drug after the dissolution of Team Spandau until his retirement from motorball as a result of abusing it.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1975, cyclist Eddy Merckx was viciously punched by a spectator as he climbed the Puy-de-Dôme in the Tour de France. Merckx, who had won the Tour de France five times previously and at the time was in the leader's yellow jersey, finished the stage barely able to breathe, and went on to finish the tour in second place overall.\n\nBULLET::::- The 1980 Scottish Cup Final between bitter Old Firm rivals Celtic and Rangers was marred by an on-pitch riot between rival fans. The result was the banning of alcohol from Scottish football and rugby matches.\n", "BULLET::::- In 1998, Denver Broncos fans rioted in the streets of Denver after their team won Super Bowl XXXII. Near-riots happened when the team won the Super Bowl again the following year and after the Colorado Avalanche's Stanley Cup wins in 1996 and 2001.\n\nBULLET::::- A similar incident occurred in Oakland, California in 2003 when fans rioted and destroyed property after the Oakland Raiders lost to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl XXXVII.\n", "Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants.\n", "BULLET::::- On 25 November 2017, in an NCAA football game between the Clemson Tigers and South Carolina Gamecocks in Columbia, South Carolina, South Carolina hooligans repeatedly threw bottles and trash at the Clemson players before and during the game.\n\nBULLET::::- On 10 December 2017, in an NFL football game between the Seattle Seahawks and Jacksonville Jaguars in Jacksonville, Florida, Jaguar hooligans threw trash at the visiting Seahawk players. Seahawk player Quinton Jefferson had to be restrained from climbing into the stands and confronting the hooligans.\n", "Sports riot\n\nA sports riot is a riot that occurs during or after sporting events. Sports riots occur worldwide. Most riots are known to occur after the event is done, but some have been during the game (see football hooliganism.) Whilst football (soccer) is one of the more well-known triggers for riots, other sports which have triggered riots include ice hockey and motorcycle racing. There are a number of factors believed to influence whether riots occur, including cultural factors; environmental factors such as temperature, darkness, and noise; and witnessing player violence. \n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "In this way, each club began having his barra brava, which was funded by the leaders of the institution. These groups were given their tickets and paid trips to the stadium, adding later other forms of financing. But the access to these \"benefits\" by the barra brava depended of the hierarchy inside her. For the barra brava to be prestigious, it had to be violent, so they began to increase the number of dead.\n", "Section::::Athlete violence.:Basketball.\n", "\"\"We always are drawn to the runt of the litter in a lot of ways. They have to scrap a little bit more. They're overlooked in many cases, and they shouldn't be. A lot of people who are against all odds and are maybe unnoticed, I think, with all the obstacles end up being stronger and have to find a different way to stand out. That even goes in the music industry as well. It felt like that for me anyways.\"\"\n", "Athletes sometimes resort to violence, in hopes of injuring and intimidating opponents. Such incidents may be part of a strategy developed by coaches or players.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 12, 2005, the UEFA Champions League quarterfinal between intracity rivals A.C. Milan and Inter Milan was abandoned after Inter fans threw missiles and flares on to the pitch at the San Siro stadium, with A.C. Milan goalkeeper Dida hit by a flare.\n", "\"When something like that happens, you can't help but think back to Donington\", noted guitarist Izzy Stradlin, referring to the 1988 festival at which two fans died during Guns' set. \"What's to stop us having some more people trampled, because the singer doesn't like something?\"\n", "There was a conspicuous act of bravery in the second half of this week's World Cup championship game... The play-acting police that Pussy Riot put out onto the field during the World Cup championship were intended to signal to the roughly 80,000 spectators in the stadium, many of whom were visiting foreign football fans, that in the real Russia they couldn't see during the games, police and security forces intrude into everyday life.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "Section::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::1. Noise: Because participants gather in the streets and other public areas, the noise can disturb surrounding residents and citizens. Also, loud music contributes to the amount of noise, which is one reason why participants have begun moving to less populated areas in cities.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.:\"Dynamo: Defending the Honour of Kiev\" (2001).\n\nIn the Anglo-American media, the publication of a book \"Dynamo: Defending the Honour of Kiev\" by the Scottish journalist Andy Dougan inspired many articles. Dougan specialises in publications about Hollywood and has written books about George Clooney, Robert De Niro and Robin Williams. On the front page of his Dynamo book, he exposes his thesis: \"If ever soccer was a matter of life and death, then it was here.\"\n", "BULLET::::- May 18 – During the Olympic rugby union final between and the at Colombes Stadium, French fans booed and hissed the American team for the remainder of the game after star player Adolphe Jauréguy was flattened by a hard tackle two minutes after the opening whistle, leaving him unconscious with blood pouring down his face and having to be carried off the field on a stretcher. In the second half, French fans threw bottles and rocks onto the field and at American players and officials, wild brawls broke out in the stands, U.S. reserve Gideon Nelson was knocked unconscious after being hit in the face by a walking stick, and French fans invaded the pitch at the final whistle, leaving the French team, aided by the police, to protect the Americans. At the medal ceremony, \"The Star Spangled Banner\" was drowned out by the booing and hissing of French fans, and the American team had to be escorted to their locker room under police protection.\n", "A very famous case when sport and politics collided was the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05840	why does live tv look “cleaner” / different than a pre-recorded show?	People have become accustomed to how certain shows "look". Live TV has a certain "look" to it, 3-camera sitcoms have a certain look, soap operas have a certain look, movies have a [certain look]( URL_0 ). The audience expects a show to look a certain way... so the programmers deliver.	[ "BULLET::::6. While TV studio audiences may feel that they are at a public “live” performance, these performances are often edited and remixed for the benefit of their intended primary audience, the home audiences which are viewing the mass broadcast in private. Broadcasts of “Great Performances” by PBS and other theatrical events broadcast into private homes, give the TV viewers the sense that they are secondary viewers of a primary “live” event. In addition, archival or real-time web-casts which do not generate feedback influencing the “live” performances are not within the range of digital theatre. In each case, a visible interface such as TV or monitor screen, like a camera frames and interprets the original event for the viewers.\n", "In general, a live television program was more common for broadcasting content produced specifically for commercial television in the early years of the medium, before technologies such as video tape appeared. As video tape recorders (VTR) became more prevalent, many entertainment programs were recorded and edited before broadcasting rather than being shown live.\n\nSection::::Types of shows.:Morning shows.\n", "The challenge may come from working outside in the elements. It could be 50 degrees when we rehearse and 50 below on game day, we're working under the pretext that we can be doing this in snow or rain ... In a normal indoor environment we have seven minutes to install the stage and get it camera ready. That can be stretched to nine minutes. It's the same time frame for this.\n", "BULLET::::- December 20, 2015 – Miss Universe host Steve Harvey crowned the wrong winner by mistake then crowned the actual winner on live television.\n\nBULLET::::- January 8, 2016 – \"The Late Show with Stephen Colbert\" airs a live episode for the first time in the 23-year history of CBS's late-night franchise.\n\nBULLET::::- July 21, 2016 - Late Night with Seth Meyers airs a live episode for the first time in the 30-year history of NBC's late-night franchise.\n", "Live episodes have long been a staple of television programming, but the shift towards event television has greatly accelerated development of new styles of \"DVR-proof\" programming and new methods of marketing in response to the growth of these new technologies.\n\nNetworks are focusing on more live entertainment and investing into more sports programming which are less attractive to DVR users, but excite and engage live viewers. \n\nScripted programs have adopted the strategy as well, by making more frequent use of sudden, unannounced plot twists or major character deaths. \n", "Live television\n\nLive television is a television production broadcast in real-time, as events happen, in the present. In a secondary meaning, it may refer to streaming television over the internet. In most cases live programming is not being recorded as it is shown on TV, but rather was not rehearsed or edited and is being shown only as it was recorded prior to being aired. Shows broadcast live include newscasts, morning shows, awards shows, sports programs, reality programs and, occasionally, episodes of scripted television series.\n", "Notable examples of shows that have had a live episode include:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gimme a Break!\" (1985)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Roc\" (The entire second season, 1993)\n\nBULLET::::- \"ER\" (1997)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Coronation Street\" (for its 40th anniversary in 2000, its 50th anniversary in 2010 and ITV's 60th anniversary in 2015)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Drew Carey Show\" (1999, 2000, and 2001)\n\nBULLET::::- \"One Life to Live\" (Went live for an entire week of episodes in May 2002)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Bill\" (2003 and 2005)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Daily Show\" (2004, 2008, 2009)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blue Heelers\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Will & Grace\" (2005 and 2006)\n", "Postgame shows are generally shorter and less structured than pre-game shows, especially for national broadcasts. In many cases, especially in prime time matchups, there may be virtually no post-game show at all. This is partially due to the unpredictability of the length of a typical sporting event, which can vary in length by a considerable amount depending on clock stoppages and overtime. The post-game show is expected to fill the gap between the end of the game and the start of regularly scheduled programming. A team's success may also portend whether a post-game show is detailed or merely a summary of the box score and highlights.\n", "Cable outlets (such as CNN and Fox News Channel) incorporate the word \"LIVE\" in their network logo (also known as a digital on-screen graphic) when those networks broadcast live content. Some (but not all) sports cable networks will opt to insert the word \"LIVE\" somewhere on the corner of the screen. With the exception of special breaking news reports and overseas sporting events, broadcast television networks rarely display such a graphic during its live programming. (although NBC did display the word LIVE next to their logo during its Olympic coverage when live content was being broadcast, a practice that is being continued by its sister station: NBCSN)\n", "During the tech, all of the previous actions taken during the dry tech are repeated, so as to check lighting in concordance with the staged blocking and stage placement (for example, finding whether the performer is in the light hotspot or not, or how the followspot operates), check the levels on the performers' microphones (if used) and how well the performers can project if orating concurrently with sound or music, allow the performers to know when there are incoming flying rigs, allow performers to experience and become accustomed to the special effects that will occur so that it will not interfere with the actual performance and generally make sure the director and designers are happy with all aspects of the production that can be seen or heard. One very significant effect that is added in tech is blood. This allows actors to get used to it and the costume designer to see how the blood will affect the costumes.\n", "A topic of debate amongst listeners, critics, and artists themselves is to what degree a performance is actually \"live\". A possible determining factor could be the degree to which the performing artist has real-time control over individual elements of the final musical output. Using this criterion, an artist who mimics or mimes the playing of instruments whilst simply having a prerecorded CD or digital audio track sound over the PA system or broadcast, might not be considered particularly \"live\" by most people. \n", "Television shows can be viewed as they are broadcast in real time (live), be recorded on home video or a digital video recorder for later viewing, or be viewed on demand via a set-top box or streamed over the internet.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- April 29, 2018 - \"American Idol\" becomes the first reality competition series in the history of American television to air live coast to coast, allowing for real time voting throughout the mainland United States.\n\nSection::::Live television episodes.\n\nAlthough all programs were once live, the use of video tape means that very few television programs in the modern era have ever attempted such a feat. In the U.S., soap operas including \"As the World Turns\" and \"The Edge of Night\" were broadcast live until 1975.\n", "Section::::Types of shows.:Entertainment shows.\n\nMajor entertainment events, such as award shows and beauty pageants, are often broadcast live in primetime hours based on U.S. East Coast's schedule. In the 21st century, reality competition franchises began to emerge (such as, in the United States, \"American Idol\" and \"Dancing With The Stars\"), where viewers could vote for their favorite acts featured in live performances, but \"Idol\", as of 2020, is the only reality competition series to have broadcast live in all U.S. territories at the same time.\n", "BULLET::::- February 9, 1964 – The Beatles make their 1st appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show. This live broadcast on CBS drew an estimated 73 million viewers (40% of the American population), the largest audience in the history of American television up to that time.\n\nBULLET::::- April 18, 1966 – The Academy Awards broadcast in color for the first time.\n", "From the early days of television until about 1958, live television was used heavily, except for filmed shows such as \"I Love Lucy\" and \"Gunsmoke\". Although videotape was invented in 1956, it cost $300 per one hour reel ()\n\nmeaning it was only very gradually adopted. Some genres, such as soap operas, did not completely abandon live broadcasts until the mid-1970s.\n", "Section::::Uses of live television.\n\nLive television is often used as a device, even in scripted programming to take advantage of these often to great success in terms of attracting viewers. The NBC live comedy/variety program \"Saturday Night Live\", for example, has been on that network continuously since 1975 and airs live in the Eastern and Central zones (including the Pacific and Mountain zones beginning 2017 in its transition to its first live season all across the continental U.S. beginning 2018) during the show's season which runs from October though May.\n", "Local television station newscasts display time and temperature during their broadcasts, and only display the word LIVE when they air a news report or a live shot on location. Some networks have begun to insert (in addition to the word LIVE) the local time of where that news report is originating from, particularly when that report is airing live via satellite from overseas.\n\nSection::::Types of shows.:Sports and other events.\n", "Section::::Artifactualities.:Artifactuality, Homohegemony.\n", "Modern outside broadcasts now use specially designed OB vehicles, many of which are now built based around IP technology rather than relying on coaxial cable. There has been an increasing rise in the use of flyaway or flypack Portable Production Units, which allow for an increased level of customisation and can be rigged in a larger variety of venues.\n", "Section::::Types of shows.:News shows.\n", "In 1970, closed circuit video cameras and videocassette machines became available and Live Event Visual Amplification came of age. For the first time live closeups of stage performers could be displayed in real time. These systems also made it possible to show pre-recorded videos that added information & visual intensity to a live event.\n", "Live television was more common until the late 1950s, when videotape technology was invented. Because of the prohibitive cost, adoption was slow, and some television shows remained live until the 1970s, such as soap operas. To prevent unforeseen issues, live television programs may be delayed, which allows censors to edit the program. Some programs may be broadcast live in certain time zones and delayed in others.\n\nSection::::Types of shows.\n", "Most shows in the first three seasons began with a shot of Pennington in the team's bus saying, \"I'm Ty Pennington, and the renovation starts right now!\" The exceptions were those episodes which featured a guest host in his place.\n\nIn the fourth and fifth seasons, the opening shot was of Pennington in a location iconic of the state the episode was in, and a declaration of what state the episode was in was added to the tagline. Then, the chosen family was briefly profiled; their nomination video was shown to the team (and to the television audience).\n", "BE-AT.TV broadcasts consist of high definition, full-length video and audio footage which is shot from multiple camera angles, including exclusive camera access from the DJ booth. The sets are then archived for members to watch on-demand, and can be accessed through any computer or iOS device with a high speed internet connection.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03606	Why are people more likely to yawn when they see someone else yawn?	It's called a mirror effect, when a member of a species observes a stimulus from a member of the same species mirror neurons fire off causing to impulsively mirror the response. It synchronizes the mood of herd.	[ "In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.\n", "There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not.\n\nSection::::Animal yawning.\n", "The relationship between yawn contagion and empathy is strongly supported by a 2011 behavioral study, conducted by Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi (University of Pisa, Italy). The study revealed that—among other variables such as nationality, gender, and sensory modality—only social bonding predicted the occurrence, frequency, and latency of yawn contagion. As with other measures of empathy, the rate of contagion was found to be greatest in response to kin, then friends, then acquaintances, and lastly strangers. Related individuals (r≥0.25) showed the greatest contagion, in terms of both occurrence of yawning and frequency of yawns. Strangers and acquaintances showed a longer delay in the yawn response (latency) compared to friends and kin. Hence, yawn contagion appears to be primarily driven by the emotional closeness between individuals.\n", "The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, \"One man's yawning makes another yawn\", and the French proverbialized the idea to \"Un bon bâilleur en fait bâiller sept\" (\"One good gaper makes seven others gape\"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to \"empathetically\" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), reading or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn. The proximate cause for contagious yawning may lie with mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus from conspecific (same species) and occasionally interspecific organisms, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation, which lies at the root of much human learning, such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse.\n", "Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the University of Albany, proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning. \n", "Gordon Gallup, who hypothesizes that yawning may be a means of keeping the brain cool, also hypothesizes that \"contagious\" yawning may be a survival instinct inherited from our evolutionary past. \"During human evolutionary history, when we were subject to predation and attacks by other groups, if everybody yawns in response to seeing someone yawn the whole group becomes much more vigilant and much better at being able to detect danger.\"\n", "A study by the University of London has suggested that the \"contagiousness\" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them, but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth. \n", "In certain neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, the patient has an impaired ability to infer the mental states of others. In such cases, yawn contagion can be used to evaluate their ability to infer or empathize with others. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder which severely affects social and communicative development, including empathy. The results of various studies have showed a diminished susceptibility to contagious yawn compared to the control group of typically-developing children. Since atypical development of empathy is reported in autism spectrum disorder, results support the claim that contagious yawning and the capacity of empathy share common neural and cognitive mechanisms. Similarly, patients suffering neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, have shown an impaired ability to empathize with others. Contagious yawning is one means of evaluating such disorders. The Canadian psychiatrist Heinz Lehmann claimed that increases in yawning could predict recovery in schizophrenia. The impairment of contagious yawning can provide greater insight into its connection to the underlying causes of empathy.\n", "In a 2014 study, wolves were observed in an effort to answer this question. The results of the study showed that wolves are capable of yawn contagion. This study also found that the social bond strength between individuals affected the frequency of contagious yawning in wolves, supporting previous research which ties contagious yawning to emotional proximity.\n\nSome evidence for contagious yawning has also been found in budgerigars (\"Melopsittacus undulatus\"), a species of social parrots. This indicates that contagious yawning may have evolved several times in different lineages. In budgerigars, contagious yawning does not seem to be related to social closeness.\n", "The Discovery Channel's show \"MythBusters\" also tested this concept. In their small-scale, informal study they concluded that yawning is contagious, although elsewhere the statistical significance of this finding has been disputed.\n", "A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to typically developing children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos. This supports the claim that contagious yawning is related to empathic capacity.\n", "Yawning (\"oscitation\") most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, or even boredom and hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This \"contagious\" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, and reptiles (including birds), and can occur across species. Approximately 20 psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars, but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.\n", "Evidence for the occurrence of contagious yawning linked to empathy is rare outside of primates. It has been studied in Canidae species, such as the domestic dog and wolf. Domestic dogs have shown the ability to yawn contagiously in response to human yawns. Domestic dogs have demonstrated they are skilled at reading human communication behaviors. This ability makes it difficult to ascertain whether yawn contagion among domestic dogs is deeply rooted in their evolutionary history or is a result of domestication. \n", "Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's \"contagiousness\".\n", "Research by Garrett Norris (2013) involving monitoring the behavior of students kept waiting in a reception area indicates a connection (supported by neuro-imaging research) between empathic ability and yawning. \"We believe that contagious yawning indicates empathy. It indicates an appreciation of other peoples' behavioral and physiological state,\" says Norris.\n", "Another proposal points out that animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological \"contagious\" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it may not be as alert as it should be - to spring into action. Therefore, the \"contagious\" yawn could be an instinctual reaction to a signal from one member of the group reminding the others to stay alert.\n", "Additionally, the presence or absence of extrinsic incentives can be interpreted by observers as signals of an agent's motivations for engaging in some activity. To the extent that agents are concerned with cultivating an image as an altruist, the presence of extrinsic incentives can lower interest in engaging in some task that might signal non-altruistic motives. Compatible with these findings are studies showing that the effect of crowding out is greater in the case when extrinsic incentives are known publicly compared to when they are known only to the actor but not to observers.\n\nSection::::Debate and meta-analyses.\n", "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in many other situations.\n", "Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions.\n\nSection::::Social function.\n\nTo look at the issue in terms of a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. For example, theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to the howling of the wolf pack. It signals tiredness to other members of the group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.\n", "Section::::Culture.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"weak\" version, introduced by Darwin, sees the feedback intensify or reduce an emotion already present. Thomas McCanne and Judith Anderson (1987) instructed participants to suppress or increase the zygomatic or corrugator muscle while imagining pleasant or unpleasant scenes. Subsequent alteration of the emotional response was shown to have occurred.\n\nBULLET::::- The \"strong\" version implies that facial feedback by itself can create the whole emotion.\n", "Section::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 3: Strength Part I.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun and Heechul\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Eunhyuk\n\nBULLET::::- Arm wrestling\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic muscle stimulation\n\nSection::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 4: Strength Part II.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun, Heechul (first and last parts of the show) and Han Geng (last part of the show)\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Eunhyuk\n\nBULLET::::- Weightlifting, the use of liquid Ammonia and Magnesium Carbonate\n\nBULLET::::- Long jumping; holding the golf balls and using tape on toe finger\n\nBULLET::::- Lifting person with your fingers\n\nSection::::Episode Summaries.:Episode 5: Laughter.\n\nAbsentees: Kyuhyun and Heechul\n\nBULLET::::- Co-MC: Siwon\n\nBULLET::::- laughing gas / Nitrous Oxide\n\nBULLET::::- why is laughter contagious?\n", "Section::::Neurological basis.\n\nVittorio Gallese posits that mirror neurons are responsible for intentional attunement in relation to others. Gallese and colleagues at the University of Parma found a class of neurons in the premotor cortex that discharge when macaque monkeys execute goal-related hand movements or when they watch others doing the same action. One class of these neurons fires with action execution and observation, and with sound production of the same action. Research in humans shows an activation of the premotor cortex and parietal area of the brain for action perception and execution.\n", "Helt and Eigsti (2010) showed that dogs, like humans, develop a susceptibility to contagious yawning gradually, and that while dogs above seven months 'catch' yawns from humans, younger dogs are immune to contagion. The study also indicated that nearly half of the dogs responded to the human's yawn by becoming relaxed and sleepy, suggesting that the dogs copied not just the yawn, but also the physical state that yawns typically reflect.\n\nYawning has multiple possible functions, and may occur when the body perceives the benefits.\n\nSection::::Social function.:Relation to empathy.\n", "In 2015, researchers from Baylor University proposed the connection between psychopaths' cold-heartedness and their inaability to “catch” the contagious yawning. Those who had more psychopathic qualities were less likely to yawn while watching the yawning clip.\n\nSection::::Factor structure.:Development.:Revised factors.:Relationship to other psychopathy theories.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-05023	What is the significance of the falcons that SpaceX continues to launch?	I can't speak to the NASA space x connection But...spaceX is utilizing reusable boosters. This is a huge deal because prior to space X...the boosters utilized in rocket launches were dumped over the ocean. Hence the location that NASA launches from. This is important because it moves space travel more into the same realm as air travel. A good analog is that spaceX makes planes that can take off and land. Prior to spacex, NASA had planes that could launch, deliver their payload in the air...and then smashed into the ground. That's a lot of money down the drain over and over. So now spaceX just has to, after they get better at designing rockets, worry about fuel and upkeep. Not starting from the ground up over and over.	[ "BULLET::::- For the second time, SpaceX successfully lands the first stage of its Falcon 9 rocket on a platform floating in the Atlantic Ocean off Florida after a launch from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station which placed a Japanese satellite in orbit. The first successful landing had occurred four weeks earlier, on 8 April 2016.\n\nBULLET::::- 7 May\n\nBULLET::::- Turkish Air Force F-4 Phantom II and F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft strike Kurdistan Workers Party shelters, ammunition depots, and weapon positions in northern Iraq, including in the Qandil Mountains, where the group's headquarters is located.\n\nBULLET::::- 9 May\n", "The Falcon Heavy is a heavy-lift rocket developed and produced by SpaceX. It is being certified for the NSSL program, with the STP-2 launch completed on 25 June 2019. As of 2019, it has two manifested classified national security flights for the US Air Force in 2020 and 2021.\n\nSection::::Launch vehicles.:Next generation vehicle competition.\n", "BULLET::::- SpaceX uses its reusable Falcon 9 rocket to launch a U.S. national security payload for the first time, launching the National Reconnaissance Office′s NROL-76 satellite into orbit from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida. The Falcon 9's reusable first stage returns for a successful soft landing. The launch had originally been scheduled for 30 April, but had been postponed due to what SpaceX describes as a \"sensor issue.\"\n", "A competitive contract award to launch national security spacecraft is currently underway between ULA, Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (NGIS), Blue Origin, and SpaceX. Two providers will be selected to launch spacecraft to a number of reference orbits. In October 2018, the USAF awarded funding to ULA, NGIS, and Blue Origin to develop their rockets:\n\nSection::::Launch vehicles.:Next generation vehicle competition.:OmegA.\n\nOmegA is a rocket design by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems with two main solid stages, a cryogenic upper stage, and the possibility of strap-on boosters. The first flight is expected in 2021.\n\nSection::::Launch vehicles.:Next generation vehicle competition.:New Glenn.\n", "In March 2017 SpaceX won (vs ULA) with a bid of $96.5 million for the 3rd GPS III launch (due Feb 2019).\n\nIn March 2018, SpaceX secured an additional $290 million contract from the U.S. Air Force to launch three next-generation GPS satellites, known as GPS III. The first of these launches is expected to take place in March 2020.\n\nIn February 2019, SpaceX secured a $297 million contract from the US. Air Force to launch three national security missions, including AFSPC-44, NROL-87, and NROL-85, all slated to launch NET FY 2021.\n\nSection::::Launch contracts.:International contracts.\n\nSection::::Launch contracts.:International contracts.:Kazakhstan.\n", "BULLET::::- on drone ships: JCSAT-16 on 14 August 2016, Iridium NEXT-1 on 14 January 2017, SES-10 on 30 March and BulgariaSat-1 on 23 June (first and second recoveries of re-flown boosters), Iridium NEXT-2 on 25 June, Formosat-5 on 24 August, Iridium NEXT-3 on 9 October, SES-11/EchoStar 105 on 11 October, and Koreasat 5A on 30 October 2017.\n\nSection::::Test program.:Falcon 9 booster post-mission flight tests.:Future tests.\n", "BULLET::::- The first successful launch and landing of a used orbital rocket takes place as the first stage of a SpaceX Falcon 9 space launch vehicle returns to a soft landing aboard a platform in the Atlantic Ocean after launching a communications satellite from Cape Canaveral, Florida. SpaceX previously had used the rocket in an April 2016 launch.\n\nBULLET::::- 31 March\n\nBULLET::::- The A319neo, the smallest variant of the Airbus A320neo family, makes its first flight, powered by CFM International LEAP engines.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 2014\n\nBULLET::::- Thaicom-6\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku- and C-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 1/6/14\n\nBULLET::::- SES-8\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku- and Ka-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 12/3/13\n\nBULLET::::- Azerspace/Africasat-1a\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: C- and Ku-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 2/7/13\n\nBULLET::::- Mexsat Bicentenario\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: C- and Ku-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 12/19/12\n\nBULLET::::- Star One C3\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: C- and Ku-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 11/10/12\n\nBULLET::::- Intelsat 23\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku- and C-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 10/14/12\n\nBULLET::::- HYLAS 2\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Two-way Ka-band Communications\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 8/2/12\n\nBULLET::::- Intelsat 18\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku- and C-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 10/5/11\n\nBULLET::::- Intelsat 28\n", "BULLET::::- FalconSAT-5 – was launched on 19 November 2010 on board a Minotaur IV. Though the $12,000,000 mission is listed on a NASA website here, data are not being made available to the public through that portal. Instead, all satellite information and data are maintained internally at USAFA, with no public information being released regarding the status of this mission.\n\nBULLET::::- FalconSAT-6 – was launched on 3 December 2018 on board a Falcon 9. The satellite will test various thrusters and measure the local plasma.\n", "Section::::Launches and payloads.:First DoD contract: USAF.:STP-2 payload.\n\nThe payload for the STP-2 mission included 25 small spacecraft from the U.S. military, NASA, and research institutions:\n", "In April 2015, SpaceX sent the U.S. Air Force an updated letter of intent outlining a certification process for its Falcon Heavy rocket to launch national security satellites. The process includes three successful flights of the Falcon Heavy including two consecutive successful flights, and the letter stated that Falcon Heavy can be ready to fly national security payloads by 2017. But in July 2017, SpaceX announced that the first test flight would take place in December 2017, pushing the launch of the second launch (Space Test Program 2) to June 2018. In May 2018, on the occasion of the first launch of the Falcon 9 Block 5 variant, a further delay to October 2018 was announced, and the launch was eventually pushed back to June 25, 2019. The STP-2 mission used three Block 5 cores.\n", "BULLET::::- SpaceX successfully launches its Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on a NASA cargo run to the International Space Station, and lands its reusable main-stage booster on an autonomous spaceport drone ship.\n\nBULLET::::- April 9The United States Air Force deploys B-52 bombers to Al Udeid Air Base in Doha, Qatar, to join the fight against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.\n", "BULLET::::- SpaceX successfully fires the engines of the first stage of Falcon 9 rocket it had used to launch a satellite into orbit and then landed successfully on land in December 2015, the first time in a history a rocket stage had made a soft, controlled landing. The firing of the engines demonstrates the feasibility of reusing the rocket stage, an important step in the development of reusable rockets that make space launches less expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- 16 January\n", "BULLET::::- Flight 30, CRS-10, first launch from historic pad LC-39A at the Kennedy Space Center\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 32, SES-10, first launch and landing of a previously flown orbital class booster (B1021, previously used for CRS-8), first recovery of a fairing\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 33, NROL-76, first classified payload\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 35, CRS-11, first reflight of a recovered Dragon capsule to the ISS (C106, previously used for CRS-4)\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 39, SpaceX CRS-12, first flight of the Block 4 version, last use of a new Dragon capsule\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 41, Boeing X-37B OTV-5, first launch of a spaceplane\n", "BULLET::::- December 2 – Two gunmen open fire at a workplace in San Bernardino, California, killing 14 before dying themselves in a shootout with police. ISIL claimed responsibility.\n\nBULLET::::- December 12 – A global climate change pact is agreed at the COP 21 summit, committing all countries to reduce carbon emissions for the first time.\n\nBULLET::::- December 15 – The Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition is formed in order to fight terrorism.\n\nBULLET::::- December 22 – SpaceX lands an unmanned Falcon 9 rocket, the first reusable rocket to successfully enter orbital space and return.\n\nSection::::Births.\n", "BULLET::::- Orbital ATK (Formerly Orbital Sciences) Pegasus\n\nBULLET::::- Under development\n\nBULLET::::- Stratolaunch\n\nBULLET::::- Virgin Orbit LauncherOne\n\nBULLET::::- CubeCab\n\nBULLET::::- ARCASPACE\n\nBULLET::::- Generation Orbit Launch Services - contracted for NASA NEXT\n\nBULLET::::- NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center Towed Glider Air-Launch System\n\nBULLET::::- CDTI, CNES, DLR Aldebaran (rocket)\n\nBULLET::::- Antonov, Aerospace Industry Corporation of China Antonov An-225 Mriya\n\nBULLET::::- Proposed\n\nBULLET::::- Vulcan Aerospace 75-percent-scaled Dream Chaser crew-carrying spaceplane with rocket by Orbital Sciences\n\nBULLET::::- (proposed by Ukraine)\n\nBULLET::::- (proposed by Ukraine)\n\nBULLET::::- Abandoned projects\n\nBULLET::::- DARPA ALASA\n\nBULLET::::- AirLaunch LLC\n\nBULLET::::- MAKS\n\nBULLET::::- Ishim\n", "and will be the first launch of the larger v1.1 rocket using the rebuilt erector structure at SpaceX' Cape Canaveral launch pad. \n\nAs a result, a number of systems on the launch vehicle will be flown for only the second time, while several parts of the ground infrastructure at Cape Canaveral were used in a launch for the first time. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- second use of the upgraded Merlin 1D engines, generating approximately 56 percent more sea-level thrust than the Merlin 1C engines used on the first five Falcon 9 flights\n", "SpaceX Falcon rockets are being offered to the launch industry at highly competitive prices, allowing SpaceX to build up a large manifest of over 50 launches by late 2013, with two-thirds of them for commercial customers exclusive of US government flights.\n", "BULLET::::- Flight 20, Orbcomm OG-2, first full-thrust rocket version, first deployment of multiple satellites (11 on this mission) in a constellation from a custom dispenser, first vertical landing achieved on Landing Zone 1 at Cape Canaveral by booster B1019\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 23, CRS-8, first vertical landing achieved on an autonomous spaceport drone ship at sea\n\nBULLET::::- Flight 24, JCSAT-14, high-energy atmospheric re-entry and first landing from a GTO mission\n\nBULLET::::- Amos-6, total vehicle and payload loss prior to static fire test (would have been flight 29)\n", "BULLET::::- The first private company to send a satellite into geosynchronous orbit (SES-8 on Falcon 9 flight 7 on December 3, 2013)\n\nBULLET::::- The first landing of an orbital rocket's first stage on land (Falcon 9 flight 20 on December 22, 2015)\n\nBULLET::::- The first landing of an orbital rocket's first stage on an ocean platform (Falcon 9 flight 23 on April 8, 2016)\n\nBULLET::::- The first relaunch and landing of a used orbital rocket stage (B1021 on Falcon 9 flight 32 on March 30, 2017)\n", "Several manufacturers have announced the first orbital launches of new rockets for 2019: Astra, Firefly Alpha, LauncherOne and Vector-R in the US, Smart Dragon-1, Hyperbola-1, Kuaizhou-11 and OneSpace OS-M1 in China, Bloostar in Spain, and SSLV in India. As of the beginning of the year, around 100 small satellite launchers were in active use, in development, or were recently cancelled or stalled. The maiden flight of OS-M1 in March failed to reach orbit.\n\nThe \"single stick\" Delta IV and the analog-controlled Soyuz-FG are expected to be retired in 2019.\n\nSection::::Orbital launches.\n\nSection::::Orbital launches.:August.\n\nSection::::Suborbital flights.\n\nSection::::Orbital launch statistics.\n", "Due to improvements to the performance of Falcon 9, some of the heavier satellites flown to GTO, such as Intelsat 35e and Inmarsat-5 F4, ended up being launched before the debut of Falcon Heavy. SpaceX anticipated the first commercial Falcon Heavy launch would be three to six months after a successful maiden flight, but due to delays the first commercial payload, Arabsat-6A, was successfully launched on April 11, 2019, a year and two months after the first flight.\n\nSection::::Launches and payloads.:First commercial contracts.\n", "The PRIDE programme was approved at the ESA Ministerial Council in Naples, Italy on November 21, 2012 under the parent ESA programme called Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (FLPP). The Space Rider spaceplane will be similar to, but smaller and cheaper than, the Boeing X-37. It will be launched in 2020 by the Vega light rocket, operate robotically in orbit, and land automatically on a runway.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- Mission: Ku- and C-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 4/22/11\n\nBULLET::::- KOREASAT 6\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band DBS and FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 12/29/10\n\nBULLET::::- SES-1, SES-2 and SES-3\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band BSS, C-band FSS and Ka-band\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: SES-1: 4/24/10; SES-2: 2011; SES-3: 2011\n\nBULLET::::- NSS-9\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: C-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 2/12/09\n\nBULLET::::- MEASAT-3a\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band DTH, C-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 6/21/09\n\nBULLET::::- AMC-21\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 8/14/08\n\nBULLET::::- Thor 5\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band FSS and BSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 2/11/08\n\nBULLET::::- Horizons-2\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band FSS\n\nBULLET::::- Launch: 12/21/07\n\nBULLET::::- Intelsat 16\n\nBULLET::::- Mission: Ku-band DTH\n", "BULLET::::- reduction of propellant from 2.5 tonne to 2 tonne in the fourth liquid propellant stage\n\nBULLET::::- incorporation of a video imaging system to capture payload and DLA separation events\n\nBULLET::::- altitude based day of launch wind-biased steering programme during Open Loop Guidance\n\nBULLET::::- removal of Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control (SITVC) system for one of the strapons ignited in the air.\n\nSection::::Notable missions.:PSLV flight C9.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-02743	Why does a phone camera flash twice before actually taking the picture?	> When you press the shutter release, aTTL flash will fire a pre-flash before the actual shot, the camera will then measure the pre-flash with the ambient light level to calculate the power needed in the actual flash for the shot. Basically what you're seeing is a preflash. The camera uses that to measure how much power the actual flash requires.	[ "Most high-end camera phones and some mid-range phones, and a few low end ones, provide burst shooting. For example, the Samsung Galaxy SIII Mini can capture 20 photos continuously at 3.3 fps by tapping and holding the shutter button. Other examples include: Samsung Galaxy Note 3 at 4-5 fps, Apple iPhone 5S at 10 fps, or up to 30 fps with special software, and the ASUS Padfone Mini at 16fps.\n", "Section::::Rear-curtain sync.\n\nSome modern electronic cameras include the ability to fire the flash just before the closing of the shutter, so that moving objects will show a streak where they came from and a sharp image where they were at the end of the exposure, useful for moving objects to convey a sense of speed. This mode is called either \"rear-curtain sync\" or \"2nd-curtain sync\".\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe first camera to implement a flash synchronizer was the Exakta, in 1935.\n\nSection::::Wireless sync.\n", "Faster shutter speeds are often better when there is significant ambient illumination, and flash is used to flash-fill subjects that are backlit without motion blur, or to increase depth of field by using a small aperture. In another creative use, the photographer of a moving subject may deliberately combine a slow shutter speed with flash exposure in order to record motion blur of the ambient-lit regions of the image superimposed on the flash-lit regions.\n\nSection::::S, M, F, FP, X and HSS sync.\n", "The Pixel 2 XL has an issue where the screen may flash randomly. It occurs when the phone is locked or unlocked. The issue was fixed in the June system software update, but returned with the July update.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Audio issues.\n", "High-end flash units address this problem by offering a mode, typically called FP sync or HSS (High Speed Sync), which fires the flash tube multiple times during the time the slit traverses the sensor. Such units require communication with the camera and are thus dedicated to a particular camera make. The multiple flashes result in a significant decrease in guide number, since each is only a part of the total flash power, but it's all that illuminates any particular part of the sensor. In general, if s is the shutter speed, and t is the shutter traverse time, the guide number reduces by . For example, if the guide number is 100, and the shutter traverse time is 5 ms (a shutter speed of 1/200s), and the shutter speed is set to 1/2000 s (0.5 ms), the guide number reduces by a factor of , or about 3.16, so the resultant guide number at this speed would be about 32.\n", "BULLET::::2. Hear a dial tone\n\nBULLET::::3. Dial the first number and greet the first party\n\nBULLET::::4. Press the hook flash button (or quickly tap the on-hook sensor on the phone)\n\nBULLET::::5. Hear a stutter dial tone (a series of beeps followed by another dial tone)\n\nBULLET::::6. Dial the second number and greet the second party\n\nBULLET::::7. Press the hook flash button again.\n\nThe second \"flash\" signals the Central Office Switch to link the two active conversations, so that all three parties are connected to the same logical telephone line.\n", "BULLET::::- Temporal aliasing, including partial exposure. If a camera flash goes on for only part of the time of the exposure, the illumination of the flash may only be present for some rows of pixels in a given frame. For example, the top 1/3 of the picture may be brightly lit by a flash, while the bottom 2/3 of the picture is dark and unlit, as the flash was off by the time that part of the CMOS was sequenced. The difference between the two distinct parts of the frame can look odd. Similar problems can arise with fluorescent lighting, strobe effects, lightning, or any extreme situation where very fast motion or very fast bursts of light are seen in the time between when the CMOS chip sequentially records a frame.\n", "In the past, slow-burning single-use flash bulbs allowed the use of focal-plane shutters at maximum speed because they produced continuous light for the time taken for the exposing slit to cross the film gate. If these are found they cannot be used on modern cameras because the bulb must be fired before the first shutter curtain begins to move (M-sync); the X-sync used for electronic flash normally fires only when the first shutter curtain reaches the end of its travel.\n", "Many compact cameras, however, only have a built-in flash and no hotshoe and no connector for an external flash and there is no way to suppress the pre-flash. In those instances, slave units are used that are able to skip a number of flashes, thus skipping one or more pre-flashes and only firing simultaneously with the main flash firing. Some modern flash units have this capacity built in. An example at the low end is the Godox 18, a simple flash unit that can be set to skip a max of 3 flashes. A more advanced flash that can set to skip one pre-flash is the popular 'strobist' flash, the Lumopro160. Also, some studio flashes can be set to ignore pre-flash.\n", "Section::::Speedlite products.:90 series flashes.:90 EX.\n\nIntroduced in autumn 2012, the Speedlite 90 EX is a very small unit designed specifically for the company's first mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera, the EOS M. It runs off two AAA batteries, and can serve as a wireless flash controller. At introduction, the 90 EX was bundled with all EOS M kits sold in the EU, though not in the U.S.\n\nSection::::Speedlite products.:200 series flashes.\n\nSection::::Speedlite products.:200 series flashes.:220 EX.\n", "An internal camera circuit shorts the center contact and shoe mount to trigger the flash. The magnitude and polarity of the voltage between the contacts on the flash in the open-circuit condition has varied between different flash units; this is of no consequence for a simple electromechanical contact on the camera so long as the energy is not so high as to damage the contacts. However, with more recent cameras with electronic triggering, excessive or insufficient voltage, or incorrect polarity can cause failure to fire, or damage the camera.\n", "In both types of rotating mirror cameras, double exposure can occur if the system is not controlled properly. In a pure rotating mirror camera, this happens if the mirror makes a second pass across the optics while light is still entering the camera. In a rotating drum camera, it happens if the drum makes more than one revolution while light is entering the camera. Typically this is controlled by using fast extinguishing xenon strobe light sources that are designed to produce a flash of only a specific duration.\n", "Small cameras, including digital ones, encourage the occurrence of photographic orbs — unexpected, typically circular artifacts that occur in flash photography — where the short distance between the lens and the built-in flash decreases the angle of light reflection to the lens. The resulting retroreflection makes dust particles bright and visible.\n\nSection::::Camera types.\n", "Section::::Signal timing.\n\nThe image below shows the relative signal timing of the clock and one data line of one of the Channel Link transceivers used for Camera Link transmissions. Data words start in the middle of the high phase of the clock, and the most significant bit is transmitted first.\n\nSection::::Bit assignments.\n", "On some cameras the flash exposure measuring logic fires a pre-flash very quickly before the real flash. In some camera/people combinations this will lead to shut eyes in every picture taken. The blink response time seems to be around 1/10 of a second. If the exposure flash is fired at approximately this interval after the TTL measuring flash, people will be squinting or have their eyes shut. One solution may be the FEL (flash exposure lock) offered on some more expensive cameras, which allows the photographer to fire the measuring flash at some earlier time, long (many seconds) before taking the real picture. Unfortunately many camera manufacturers do not make the TTL pre-flash interval configurable.\n", "Section::::Specifications.:Hardware.:Camera.\n\nThe main/primary rear-mounted camera retains the \"UltraPixel\" image sensor (OmniVision OV4688) composed of pixels that are 2.0 µm in size. The UltraPixel sensor was updated to provide better color accuracy in lit photographs, and the device now includes a dual-tone flash.\n", "X-sync is the simplest to explain and implement: the flash is fired at the instant the shutter is fully open. Electronic flash equipment produces a very short flash\n", "Section::::Disadvantages.:Interference.\n\nIn certain types of TOF devices, if several time-of-flight cameras are running at the same time, the TOF cameras may disturb each other's measurements. To be clear, this is not true of all TOF sensors. There exist several possibilities for dealing with this problem:\n\nBULLET::::- Time multiplexing: A control system starts the measurement of the individual cameras consecutively, so that only one illumination unit is active at a time.\n", "In addition to the central contact point, many cameras have additional metal contacts within the \"U\" of the hot shoe. These are proprietary connectors that allow for more communication between the camera and a \"dedicated flash\". A dedicated flash can communicate information about its power rating to the camera, set camera settings automatically, transmit color temperature data about the emitted light, and can be commanded to light a focus-assist light or fire a lower-powered pre-flash for focus-assist, metering assist or red-eye effect reduction.\n", "The BlackBerry Z30 camera contains the same Time Shift feature as the previous models which is described as: \"Time Shift mode captures milliseconds before and after your photo—so you can scroll back on the dial to open one friend's eyes and then forward to catch your other friend smiling, before combining it all to create the perfect picture.\"\n", "The Nikon F offered FP, M, and ME bulb synchronizations, in addition to the X sync.\n\nX (xenon) sync is a mode designed for use with electronic flash. In this mode, the timing of the contacts coincides exactly with the full opening of the shutter, since xenon flashes respond almost instantly.\n", "The \"red-eye effect\" is another problem with on camera and ring flash units. Since the retina of the human eye reflects red light straight back in the direction it came from, pictures taken from straight in front of a face often exhibit this effect. It can be somewhat reduced by using the \"red eye reduction\" found on many cameras (a pre-flash that makes the subject's irises contract). However, very good results can be obtained only with a flash unit that is separated from the camera, sufficiently far from the optical axis, or by using bounce flash, where the flash head is angled to bounce light off a wall, ceiling or reflector.\n", "Mid- to high-end Nikon DSLRs with a maximum shutter speed of 1/8000 s (roughly D7000 or D800 and above) have an unusual menu-selectable feature which increases the maximum X-Sync speed to 1/320 s = 3.1ms with some electronic flashes. At 1/320 s only 3.1ms - 2.4ms = 0.7ms are available to trigger and fire the flash while achieving a uniform flash exposure, so the maximum flash duration, and therefore maximum flash output, must be, and is, reduced.\n", "Samsung is only displayed on the phone's casing and Sprint is only mentioned on-screen when the battery is improperly inserted. When the phone is turned on, the message \"WELCOME\" is shown, and when the phone is turned off, the message \"GOOD BYE\" is shown, in a manner reminiscent of Neo's first encounter with the Matrix. Three screensaver themes that come with the phone are Reloaded, The Animatrix and Camera, even though the SPH-N270 cannot be used as a camera. Several ringtones from the first two Matrix films can be selected along with a beep option and a vibrate option. These ringtones can be applied to contacts individually.\n", "The Speedlite 470EX-AI is an external flash made by Canon for use with their EOS line of cameras that was announced on February 25, 2018. It is Canon's first flash to feature AI Bounce, which \"determines the optimal bounce angle and swivels into position to capture the appropriate camera exposure and flash output.\"\n\nSection::::Speedlite products.:500 and 600 series flashes.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04377	If power utility companies make money selling electricity, why do they want their customers to make their homes as efficient as possible? Won't that mean less utility sold?	Different power sources have different costs associated with them. Some cost you $X/day whether you use 0% or 100% of their capacity, some cost $X/day+$Y/MWh so their costs scale with how much power you pull from them. Power companies want to generate the most cost effective power possible because they're selling it to you at a fixed price. If the demand on the grid goes up they have to make more MWh and have to use their less cost effective plants to do so. By making customers' homes more efficient they can reduce their costs which increases their profit margins by only generating the most cost effective power. Some areas have issues where the grid gets overloaded in the summer with HVAC systems, in these places its extra important to push for efficiency because getting everyone to install LED bulbs could save them from having to spend $100M to build a new power plant to avoid brown outs.	[ "Utilities invest in energy efficiency for the following reasons:\n\nBULLET::::1. Social interests: environmental issues and resource conservation\n\nBULLET::::2. Economic interests: to prevent costly construction of power plants or the purchase of more energy\n\nThe end result is that utility companies have more energy to sell, or in other words, they are able to sell their excess capacity to more customers in the area without increasing their production capacity.\n\nSection::::Utilities.:Effects.\n", "Current average cost pricing, where customers pay the same price per unit of power regardless of the true cost of their service, subsidizes sprawl development. With electricity deregulation, some states now charge customers/developers fees for extending distribution to new locations rather than rolling such costs into utility rates.\n", "Public utilities may be able to offer home energy upgrades that are as profitable to the utility as the profit from conventional utility supplied electricity and natural gas. Rocky Mountain Institute published a revenue and cost estimate in December 2014, developed by participants from Rocky Mountain Institute, Fort Collins Utilities, Brendle Group, Colorado Clean Energy Cluster and Telluride Research Group. Their report projected that with substantial sale of home energy upgrades, Fort Collins Utilities total income from its single family business would increase slightly, with income as a percentage of revenue rising from 8% to 12%. \n\nSection::::Upgrades.\n", "BULLET::::- Some utilities are engaged in accelerated modernization of distribution systems that involve high levels of capital expenditure for several years.\n\nBULLET::::- Diffusion of “smart grid” technologies creates opportunities for new products and services.\n\nBULLET::::- Some customers will pay a premium for better quality service.\n\nUnder cost of service regulation, utilities will respond to these conditions by filing rate cases more frequently and requesting additional marketing flexibility. Frequent rate cases raise regulatory cost and weaken utility cost containment incentives. The recurrent issues of cost allocation and cross-subsidies will incline regulators to discourage desired marketing flexibility.\n", "The generating source mix of a particular utility will thus have a substantial effect on their electricity pricing. Electric utilities that have a high percentage of hydroelectricity will tend to have lower prices, while those with a large amount of older coal-fired power plants will have higher electricity prices. Recently the LCOE of solar photovoltaic technology has dropped substantially. In the U.S., 70% of current coal-fired power plants run at a higher cost than new renewable energy technologies (excluding hydro) and by 2030 all of them will be uneconomic. In the rest of the world 42% of coal-fired power plants were operating at a loss in 2019.\n", "As Don Dewees explains, investors in a competitive market will build new capacity when they expect to recover \"all capital and operating costs from the expected markets price. If market prices will not cover the cost of the investment, that investment is socially excessive\". In theory, this particular aspect of deregulation should correct the systemic over-expansionary tendencies of centrally planned regimes.\n", "Since 2005, the Ontario Energy Board (OEB) put into place two mechanisms to create incentives for local distribution companies (LDCs) to promote C&DM program: a Lost Revenue Adjustment Mechanism (LRAM), by which utilities recover all of the revenues that they would have collected had they not promoted sales reductions through conservation and energy efficiency; and a Shared Savings Mechanism (SSM), by which consumers and utilities share the benefits associated with the implementation of C&DM program.\n", "Some states exempt non investor-owned utilities from some aspects of deregulation such as customer choice of supplier. For example, some of the New England states exempt municipal lighting plants from several aspects of deregulation and these municipal utilities do not have to allow customers to purchase from competitive suppliers. Municipal utilities in these states can also opt to function as vertically-integrated utilities and operate generation assets both inside and outside of their service area to supply their utility customers as well as sell output to the market.\n\nSection::::Nature of the market.\n", "The Public Power Council observed in February 2014 that the variable cost of Columbia operations in recent years were slightly above spot market energy prices. However, the council stated that a single unanticipated shift in the markets \"can easily wipe out years of anticipated benefits\" gained from replacement power.\n", "The executive compensation received by the executives in utility companies often receives the most scrutiny in the review of operating expenses. Just as regulated utilities and their governing bodies struggle to maintain a balance between keeping consumer costs reasonable and being profitable enough to attract investors, they must also compete with private companies for talented executives and then be able to retain those executives.\n", "In order to motivate utilities to consider all the options when planning and making resource decisions on how to meet their customers' needs, the sales-revenue link in current rate design must be broken. Breaking that link between the utility's commodity sales and revenues, removes both the incentive to increase electricity sales and the disincentive to run effective energy efficiency programs or invest in other activities that may reduce load. Decision-making then refocuses on making least-cost investments to deliver reliable energy services to customers even when such investments reduce throughput. The result is a better alignment of shareholder and customer interests to provide for more economically and environmentally efficient resource decisions.\n", "In Ohio, American Electric Power (AEP) proposed to more than double its fixed charges from $8.40 per month to $18.40 per month, affecting nearly 1.5 million customers in order to accommodate for the increase costs due to net metering.\n", "Public Utility Commissions in many states mandate that their utilities design and implement energy efficiency programs. The funding for these can be reflected in their rates or are collected through a surcharge in monthly customer bills. Some utilities design their own programs and implement them using a rebate form or other application, and administer the programs using their own staff. Most major utilities hire implementation contractors who are responsible for the design and implementation, and some implement programs already designed and approved by their PUC. Some programs require a co-pay by the customer, some are installed at no-cost.\n", "BULLET::::- ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the short term following completion.\n\nBULLET::::- ESCO provided M & V to show the projected energy savings during the entire payback period.\n", "In Vermont, the eHome program is offered by Green Mountain Power. Green Mountain Power seeks to \"use energy as a force for good that improves lives and transforms communities\". eHome partners with its customers to help their homes (and businesses) use current energy technology, reduce energy costs, and be more comfortable. \n\nSection::::Recent programs.:North America.:Washington.\n\nClark Public Utilities in southwestern Washington state offers many programs to help make customers’ homes both energy-efficient and comfortable. Energy counselors are available to help homeowners explore options. \n\nSection::::Recent programs.:North America.:Wisconsin.\n", "Started in northern Colorado in 2014, the Efficiency Works program is offered by Estes Park Light & Power, Fort Collins Utilities, Longmont Power & Communications, Loveland Water and Power, and Platte River Power Authority. On its website, Efficiency Works states that it \"has achieved energy savings equivalent to the average energy use of 10,000 homes in our communities, and we plan to continue increasing our energy savings goals each year\" (as of December 31, 2017). \n", "\"Utilities are typically guaranteed a rate of return of about 10.5% for the cost of each new plant regardless of need. This creates a major incentive to keep construction going: Utilities can make more money building new plants than by buying and reselling readily available electricity from existing plants run by competitors.\"\n\n\"Independents like Calpine don't have a captive audience of residential customers like regulated utilities do. Instead, they sell their electricity under contract or into the electricity market, and make money only if they can find customers for their power.\"\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Metcalf sniper attack on transformers (2013)\n", "Section::::Customer expectations.\n\nUtilities have found that it isn't simple to meet the unique needs of individual customers, whether residential, corporate, industrial, government, military, or otherwise. Customers in the twenty-first century have new and urgent expectations that demand a transformation of the electric grid. They want a system that increases a utility's capacity to use solar and wind to produce electricity. Customers also want a system that gives them new tools, better data to help manage energy usage, advanced protections against cyberattacks, and a system that minimizes outage times and quickens power restoration.\n\nSection::::See also.\n", "The nature and state of market reform of the electricity market often determines whether electric companies are able to be involved in just some of these processes without having to own the entire infrastructure, or citizens choose which components of infrastructure to patronise. In countries where electricity provision is deregulated, end-users of electricity may opt for more costly green electricity.\n\nSection::::Organization.:Generation.\n", "As of December 2017 Xcel Energy's efficiency programs had served 1.9 million electric program participants and 640,000 natural gas program participants in Minnesota. Xcel has been giving its customers “more control and new options for using and managing energy”. The utility began tracking results for its efficiency assistance programs in 1992. \n\nXcel's energy saving efforts include Home Lighting, Home Energy Squad, Heating System Rebate and other rebates. The Utility Dive publication awarded Xcel Energy its 2018 \"Utility of the Year\" award, in part for Xcel's project with Google to develop new ways for customers to personalize energy management. \n", "Smart grid applications improve the ability of electricity producers and consumers to communicate with one another and make decisions about how and when to produce and consume electrical power. This emerging technology will allow customers to shift from an event-based demand response where the utility requests the shedding of load, towards a more 24/7-based demand response where the customer sees incentives for controlling load all the time. Although this back-and-forth dialogue increases the opportunities for demand response, customers are still largely influenced by economic incentives and are reluctant to relinquish total control of their assets to utility companies.\n", "Ideally, utilities should be rewarded based on how well they meet their customers' energy service needs. However, most current rate designs place the focus on commodity sales instead, tying a distribution company's recovery of fixed costs directly to its commodity sales.\n", "The increase in annual costs to consumers in New England alone were calculated at $3 billion during the recent FERC hearings on the NEPOOL market structure. Several mechanisms that are intended to incent new investment where it is most needed by offering enhanced capacity payments (but only in zones where generation is projected to be short) have been proposed for NEPOOL, PJM and NYPOOL, and go under the generic heading of \"locational capacity\" or LICAP (the PJM version is called the \"Reliability Pricing Model\", or \"RPM\"). There is substantial doubt as to whether any of these mechanisms will in fact incent new investment, given the regulatory risk and chronic instability of the market rules in US systems, and there are substantial concerns that the result will instead be to increase revenues to incumbent generators, and costs to consumers, in the constrained areas.\n", "DSO's can focus on creating good customer engagement strategies to create loyalty and trust towards the customer. To retain and attract customers who decide to produce their own energy through microgrids, DSO's can offer purchase agreements for the sale of surplus energy that the consumer produces. Indifference from the IT companies, both DSO's and utilities can use their market experience to give consumers energy-use advice and efficiency upgrades to create excellent customer service.\n\nSection::::Technology.:IT companies disrupting the energy market.:Create alliances with new entered technology companies.\n", "Extreme volatility of wholesale electricity prices, which can be up to two orders of magnitude higher than that of any other commodity or financial asset, has forced market participants to hedge not only against volume risk but also against price movements. A generator, utility company or large industrial consumer who is able to forecast the volatile wholesale prices with a reasonable level of accuracy can adjust its bidding strategy and its own production or consumption schedule in order to reduce the risk or maximize the profits in day-ahead trading. Yet, since load and price forecasts are being used by many departments of an energy company, it is very hard to quantify the benefits of improving them. A rough estimate of savings from a 1% reduction in the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) for a utility with 1GW peak load is:\n" ]	[ "Power companies profit more from selling more power." ]	[ "Power companies profit by selling power and by reducing their costs." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Power companies profit more from selling more power.", "There is infinite power sources and power companies should maximize their profits." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Power companies profit by selling power and by reducing their costs.", "Using too much power can cause blackouts and reduce efficiency, leading to less profits for power companies." ]
2018-01121	Why does sunlight through a window still bring warmth even if outside is freezing tempuratures? Why isn't the outside temperature more affected by the sun's heat?	The Earth loses heat about as fast as it gains it. (That's why the temperature doesn't go from "this is okay" to "I'm sure there was an ocean there the other day, why is it all steam now?" Or from "I can breathe" to "I'm swimming in liquid oxygen, send help.") In winter, the sun isn't visible for as much of the day, so your neck of the woods isn't getting as much incoming heat. But it's still losing heat as fast as normal. That's why it gets cold. You're inside a house that was designed to keep heat in. It's also got windows. They're designed to slow down heat from flowing through them using conduction. But they let heat come through in the form of light. So the sun heats the area under the window just as well as it heats the outside, and your house keeps that heat from leaving.	[ "One type of coating (low-e coatings) reduces the emission of radiant infrared energy, thus tending to keep heat on the side of the glass where it originated, while letting visible light pass. This results in glazing with better control of energy - heat originating from indoors in winter remains inside (the warm side), while heat during summer does not emit from the exterior, keeping it cooler inside.\n", "Historically, windows are designed with surfaces parallel to vertical building walls. Such a design allows considerable solar light and heat penetration due to the most commonly occurring incidence of sun angles. In passive solar building design, an extended eave is typically used to control the amount of solar light and heat entering the window(s).\n", "In Central Europe and most of the United States, for unobstructed south-facing Passivhaus windows, the heat gains from the sun are, on average, greater than the heat losses, even in mid-winter.\n\nSection::::Design and construction.:Airtightness.\n", "Objects struck by sunlight absorb its visible and short-wave infrared components, increase in temperature, and then re-radiate that heat at longer infrared wavelengths. Though transparent building materials such as glass allow visible light to pass through almost unimpeded, once that light is converted to long-wave infrared radiation by materials indoors, it is unable to escape back through the window since glass is opaque to those longer wavelengths. The trapped heat thus causes solar gain via a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. In buildings, excessive solar gain can lead to overheating within a space, but it can also be used as a passive heating strategy when heat is desired.\n", "Passive solar designs typically employ large south facing windows with a high SHGC and overhangs that block sunlight in summer months and permit it to enter the window in the winter. When placed in the path of admitted sunlight, high thermal mass features such as concrete slabs or trombe walls store large amounts of solar radiation during the day and release it slowly into the space throughout the night. When designed properly, this can modulate temperature fluctuations. Some of the current research into this subject area is addressing the tradeoff between opaque thermal mass for storage and transparent glazing for collection through the use of transparent phase change materials that both admit light and store energy without the need for excessive weight.\n", "In order to reduce these factors the heating radiators are always placed under window sills. As far as people can feel cold and heat, the actual temperature of environment is not the only factor which defines the total level of comfort. In reality, the heat radiation of surrounding surfaces has a greater influence than air temperature. If the window surface is cold then to maintain the comfort atmosphere it is necessary to increase the heating temperature, but it will also increase energy consumption. \n", "Temperature variations between the exterior and interior wall surfaces drive heat through the mass wall. Inside the building, however, daytime heat gain is delayed, only becoming available at the interior surface of the thermal mass during the evening when it is needed because the sun has set. The time lag is the time difference between when sunlight first strikes the wall and when the heat enters the building interior. Time lag is contingent upon the type of material used in the wall and the wall thickness; a greater thickness yields a greater time lag. The time lag characteristic of thermal mass, combined with dampening of temperature fluctuations, allows the use of varying daytime solar energy as a more uniform night-time heat source. Windows can be placed in the wall for natural lighting or aesthetic reasons, but this tends to lower the efficiency somewhat.\n", "Different types of glass can be used to increase or to decrease solar heat gain through fenestration, but can also be more finely tuned by the proper orientation of windows and by the addition of shading devices such as overhangs, louvers, fins, porches, and other architectural shading elements.\n\nSection::::Solar Gain and Building Design.:Passive Solar Heating.\n", "An alternative method is to calculate an optimum window mounting angle that accounts for summer sun load minimization, with consideration of actual latitude of the building. This process has been implemented, for example, in the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California—in which most of the fenestration is designed to reflect summer heat load and help prevent summer interior over-illumination and glare, by canting windows to nearly a 45 degree angle.\n\nSection::::Impact of the sun.:Solar window.\n", "Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.\n", "In climate-responsive design for cold and mixed climates, windows are typically sized and positioned in order to provide solar heat gains during the heating season. To that end, glazing with a relatively high solar heat gain coefficient is often used so as not to block solar heat gains, especially in the sunny side of the house. SHGC also decreases with the number of glass panes used in a window. For example, in triple glazed windows, SHGC tends to be in the range of 0.33 - 0.47. For double glazed windows SHGC is more often in the range of 0.42 - 0.55.\n", "Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and cooling-and-heating degree days on energy performance.\n\nSection::::Additional measures.:Operable shading and insulation devices.\n\nA design with too much equator-facing glass can result in excessive winter, spring, or fall day heating, uncomfortably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and excessive heat transfer on winter nights and summer days.\n", "The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes: \"There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . .\" Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published.\n\nSection::::Kinetics of the infrared atmospheric window.\n", "Section::::Window Solar Gain Properties.\n\nSolar gain is most frequently addressed in the design and selection of windows and doors. Because of this, the most common metrics for quantifying solar gain are used as a standard way of reporting the thermal properties of window assemblies. In the United States, The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and The National Fenestration Rating Council (NRFC) maintain standards for the calculation and measurement of these values.\n\nSection::::Window Solar Gain Properties.:Shading Coefficient.\n", "Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (HO) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.\n\nThe greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are and HO.\n\nSection::::Optical properties.:Refractive index.\n", "In a well-designed isolated solar gain building with a solarium, sunroom, greenhouse, etc., there is usually significant glass on the equator side. A large area of glass can also be added between the sun room and the interior living quarters. Low-cost, high-volume-produced patio door safety glass is an inexpensive way to accomplish this goal.\n", "Because greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the rate at which the low frequency infrared radiant energy emitted by the Earth leaves.\n\nSection::::Climate sensitivity.\n", "Almost all of the energy that affects Earth's climate is received as radiant energy from the Sun. The planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while long-wave energy is radiated back into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the average global temperature. Because the atmosphere absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the planet is warmer than it would be in the absence of the atmosphere: see greenhouse effect.\n", "Solar heat loading through standard window designs usually leads to high demand for air conditioning in summer months. An example of building design overcoming this excessive heat loading is the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, where fenestration was designed to achieve an angle with respect to sun incidence to allow maximum reflection of solar heat; this design also assisted in reducing interior over-illumination to enhance worker efficiency and comfort.\n", "To convert the sun's light into heat indirectly, a separate insulated space is constructed on the sunny side of the house walls. Looking at the outside, and moving through a cross section there is an outside clear layer. This was traditionally built using glass, but with the advent of cheap, robust Polycarbonate glazing most designs use twin- or triple-wall polycarbonate greenhouse sheeting. Typically the glazing is designed to pass visible light, but block IR to reduce losses, and block UV to protect building materials.\n", "By the end of the day the slab has in turn warmed up, and now, as external temperatures decrease, the heat can be released and the slab cooled down, ready for the start of the next day. However this \"regeneration\" process is only effective if the building ventilation system is operated at night to carry away the heat from the slab. In naturally ventilated buildings it is normal to provide automated window openings to facilitate this process automatically.\n\nSection::::Thermal mass in buildings.:Use of thermal mass in different climates.:Hot, arid climates (e.g. desert).\n", "The “radiation effect” results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces, such as walls and ceilings. It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature. For example, in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22° Celsius at all times, but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10° Celsius in the winter or 25° Celsius in the summer, heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur, resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature.\n", "Section::::Geometry of Sun angle.\n\nWhen sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.\n", "Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. \"The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation.\" Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be \"relatively\" stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 340 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global temperatures in response.\n", "Insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's cosine; see effect of sun angle on climate.\n" ]	[ "Temperature outside should be warm because it is warm in the house standing in the sunlight.", "If it is freezing cold outside, but also sunny, the cold outside should overwhelm the heat from the light that enters the window." ]	[ "Houses are insulated and keep heat in and don't allow the wind to strip it of heat. Outside the wind drastically reduces the temperature. ", "Homes are designed to keep the warmth inside, therefore they don't allow too much of the cold weather inside, however the heat from light is unaffected." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Temperature outside should be warm because it is warm in the house standing in the sunlight.", "If it is freezing cold outside, but also sunny, the cold outside should overwhelm the heat from the light that enters the window." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Houses are insulated and keep heat in and don't allow the wind to strip it of heat. Outside the wind drastically reduces the temperature. ", "Homes are designed to keep the warmth inside, therefore they don't allow too much of the cold weather inside, however the heat from light is unaffected." ]
2018-03813	Why do our brains go into autopilot mode?	It's easier. Doing things intentionally takes up mental resources, so our brains are always trying to put behaviors on autopilot to save bandwidth, so to speak.	[ "Evidence has pointed to disruptions in the DMN of people with Alzheimer's and autism spectrum disorder.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nHans Berger, the inventor of the electroencephalogram, was the first to propose the idea that the brain is constantly busy. In a series of papers published in 1929 he showed that the electrical oscillations detected by his device do not cease even when the subject is at rest. However, his ideas were not taken seriously, and a general perception formed among neurologists that only when a focused activity is performed does the brain (or a part of the brain) become active. \n", "Following the response, the anterior dorsal ACC is involved in response evaluation, deciding whether one's response were correct or incorrect. Activity in this region increases when the probability of an error is higher.\n\nThe activity of any of the areas involved in this model depends on the efficiency of the areas that came before it. If the DLPFC imposes a lot of control on the response, the ACC will require less activity.\n", "Considering the relation of the PCC with the DMN, with suppressed posterior cingulate activity favoring low cognitive introspection and higher external attention and increased activity indicating memory retrieval and planning, it has been hypothesized that this brain region is heavily involved in noticing internal and external changes and in facilitating novel behavior or thought in response. High activity, then, would indicate continued operation with the current cognitive set, while lower activity would indicate exploration, flexibility and renewed learning.\n", "In the second phase, the organism executes a locomotor reaction to the phenomenon. Motion towards the source of the stimulus is performed if the stimulus signifies a positive possibility. If the stimulus was evaluated negatively in the first phase, then it is likely that the executed reaction will take the form of escape, fight or immobilization. During the second phase, the organism is primarily occupied by its own actions. It observes their effect and makes adjustments (which forms a feedback loop). Despite the feedback, its connection with reality is less intensive than during the first phase. The separation from reality in the second phase of information metabolism is greater in complex animals and reaches its maximum in humans.\n", "The default mode network is active during passive rest and mind-wandering which usually involves thinking about others, thinking about one's self, remembering the past, and envisioning the future rather than the task being performed. Recent work, however, has challenged a specific mapping between the default mode network and mind-wandering, given that the system is important in maintaining detailed representations of task information during working memory encoding. Electrocorticography studies (which involve placing electrodes on the surface of a subject's scalp) have shown the default mode network becomes activated within a fraction of a second after participants finish a task. Additionally, during attention demanding tasks, sufficient deactivation of the default mode network at the time of memory encoding has been shown to result in more successful long-term memory consolidation. \n", "Shimamura proposed Dynamic Filtering Theory to describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is presumed to act as a high-level gating or filtering mechanism that enhances goal-directed activations and inhibits irrelevant activations. This filtering mechanism enables executive control at various levels of processing, including selecting, maintaining, updating, and rerouting activations. It has also been used to explain emotional regulation.\n", "Section::::Applications.:Mindfulness.\n", "\"Cognitive capture\" or, \"cognitive tunneling\", is an inattentional blindness phenomenon in which the observer is too focused on instrumentation, task at hand, internal thought, etc. and not on the present environment. For example, while driving, a driver focused on the speedometer and not on the road is suffering from cognitive capture.\n\nSection::::The cognition debate: early vs. late selection of attention.\n", "In the 1990s, with the advent of positron emission tomography (PET) scans, researchers began to notice that when a person is involved in perception, language, and attention tasks, the same brain areas become less active compared to passive rest, and labeled these areas as becoming “deactivated”.\n\nIn 1995, Bharat Biswal, a graduate student at the Medical College of Wisconsin in Milwaukee, discovered that the human sensorimotor system displayed \"resting-state connectivity,\" exhibiting synchronicity in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans while not engaged in any task. \n", "In our every day-to-day life, articulatory suppression can affect our ability to switch between tasks. A study by Liefooghe, Vandierendonck, Muyllaert, Verbruggen and Vanneste looked at the role of articulatory suppression can have on task switching. During their study, they conducted three experiments. In the first experiment, participants were asked to sort cards and were instructed either to perform the task silently or to repeat the word \"de\". The results indicated that articulatory suppression affected how quick participants were to switching between the sorting tasks. The reaction time increased for participants who were under articulatory suppression compared to those who were not. The remaining two experiments also received results indicating articulatory suppression had an effect on task switching.\n", "One form of cue that can be implemented in an inhibition of return task are exogenous cues. Exogenous cues are stimuli that are produced in the environment surrounding. Because one's attention is shifted to the stimulus without much thought or effort, these cues are seen as a form of reflex that the person has low control over. Due to this cue's automatic nature and lack of effort, it uses very few of our attentive resources. This also causes our attention shift to be quick for exogenous cues than for endogenous cues\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nThe mesolimbic pathway regulates incentive salience, motivation, reinforcement learning, and fear, among other cognitive processes.\n", "Studies have shown that steering cognition is distinct from the mind's engine or 'algorithmic processing' which is responsible for how we process complex calculations.\n\nThe state of steering cognition at any time is influenced by 'priming' effects - cues in the surrounding environment such as sights, sounds and messages of which we may not be conscious. Studies have shown that environmental biasing of our steering cognition can contribute to non-conscious in-group behaviours, e.g. an increased likelihood of groupthink or emotional contagion.\n", "Changes in spatial attention can occur with the eyes moving, overtly, or with the eyes remaining fixated, covertly. Within the human eye only a small part, the fovea, is able to bring objects into sharp focus. However, it is this high visual acuity that is needed to perform actions such as reading words or recognizing facial features, for example. Therefore, the eyes must continually move in order to direct the fovea to the desired goal. Prior to an overt eye movement, where the eyes move to a target location, covert attention shifts to this location. However, it is important to keep in mind that attention is also able to shift covertly to objects, locations, or even thoughts while the eyes remain fixated. For example, when a person is driving and keeping their eyes on the road, but then, even though their eyes do not move, their attention shifts from the road to thinking about what they need to get at the grocery store. The eyes may remain focused on the previous object attended to, yet attention has shifted.\n", "In 1984 visual tracking movements were investigated. Evidence was found that the frontal cortex (SMA, prefrontal cortex) gives the starting command of the movement or action and supervises it, but the SMA does not execute the action. The frontal brain (including the SMA) is ‘delegating' this to the ‘expert systems for tracking in the brain‘, namely to the visual cortex and to the M1.\n", "It is quite likely that a large range of cognitive operations are necessary to freely press a button. Research at least suggests that our conscious self does not initiate all behavior. Instead, the conscious self is somehow alerted to a given behavior that the rest of the brain and body are already planning and performing. These findings do not forbid conscious experience from playing some moderating role, although it is also possible that some form of unconscious process is what is causing modification in our behavioral response. Unconscious processes may play a larger role in behavior than previously thought.\n", "BULLET::::- The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is involved in emotional drives, experience and integration. Associated cognitive functions include inhibition of inappropriate responses, decision making and motivated behaviors. Lesions in this area can lead to low drive states such as apathy, abulia or akinetic mutism and may also result in low drive states for such basic needs as food or drink and possibly decreased interest in social or vocational activities and sex.\n", "Many actions in response to sensory inputs are rapid, transient, stereotyped, and unconscious. They could be thought of as cortical reflexes and are characterized by rapid and somewhat stereotyped responses that can take the form of rather complex automated behavior as seen, e.g., in complex partial epileptic seizures. These automated responses, sometimes called \"zombie behaviors\", could be contrasted by a slower, all-purpose conscious mode that deals more slowly with broader, less stereotyped aspects of the sensory inputs (or a reflection of these, as in imagery) and takes time to decide on appropriate thoughts and responses. Without such a consciousness mode, a vast number of different zombie modes would be required to react to unusual events.\n", "In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the continuous attention of a pilot to fly safely. As aircraft range increased, allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue. An autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot.\n", "Section::::Research on supervisory attentional system.:Age.\n\nResearch has examined the influence of age on some specific executive functions that are characteristic of the Supervisory Attentional System. Functions such as planning, inhibition and abstraction of logical rules have been shown to be sensitive to patients with frontal dysfunction.\n", "The advent of bloodflow-based neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) has more recently permitted the demonstration that neural activity in a number of sensory regions, including color-, motion-, and face-responsive regions of visual cortex, is enhanced when subjects are directed to attend to that dimension of a stimulus, suggestive of gain control in sensory neocortex. For example, in a typical study, Liu and coworkers presented subjects with arrays of dots moving to the left or right, presented in either red or green. Preceding each stimulus, an instruction cue indicated whether subjects should respond on the basis of the colour or the direction of the dots. Even though colour and motion were present in all stimulus arrays, fMRI activity in colour-sensitive regions (V4) was enhanced when subjects were instructed to attend to the colour, and activity in motion-sensitive regions was increased when subjects were cued to attend to the direction of motion. Several studies have also reported evidence for the biasing signal prior to stimulus onset, with the observation that regions of the frontal cortex tend to come active prior to the onset of an expected stimulus.\n", "It is commonly assumed that the default mode network is known to be involved during mind-wandering. The default mode network is active when a person is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at wakeful rest because experiences such as mind-wandering and daydreaming are common in this state. It is also active when the individual is thinking about others, thinking about themselves, remembering the past, and planning for the future. However, recent studies show that signals in the default mode network provide information regarding patterns of detailed experience in active tasks states. These data suggest that the relationship between the default mode network and mind-wandering remains a matter of conjecture.\n", "Section::::Voluntary vs. automatic shifts in attention.:Neural overlap for voluntary and reflexive attention.\n", "This suggests that awareness of an intention to move may literally be the \"sensation\" of the body's early movement, but certainly not the cause. Other studies have at least suggested that \"The greater activation of the SMA, SACC, and parietal areas during and after execution of internally generated actions suggests that an important feature of internal decisions is specific neural processing taking place during and after the corresponding action. Therefore, awareness of intention timing seems to be fully established only after execution of the corresponding action, in agreement with the time course of neural activity observed here.\"\n", "Others believe that IOR is caused by both a delay in activation of attentional and motor processes.\n\nSection::::Functional significance.\n\nIt has been suggested that IOR promotes exploration of new, previously unattended objects during visual search or foraging by preventing attention from returning to already-attended objects, providing an evolutionary advantage.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03063	What's the practical use of supply and demand curves?	An acquaintance of mine works for Coca Cola as an economist, and her job basically consists on estimating its demand curve. At least where I live, most of the tasks an economist has when working at a company are estimating demands. Now, what's the point of having these demand curves? First, it allows you to plan production and avoid over and under supply. For example, Coca Cola considered in their demand equation a month dummy, the average temperature of the past 30 days, the growth in income, the inflation rate, the price of their main local competitors, and many more that I have forgotten. Based on this information, they can project how many units they'll need to produce in a given month, and purchasing their inputs accordingly. In addition, demands are useful for determining your pricing policy. Firms tend to work as monopolists for their product, and as you probably saw in basic Micro, the demand curve is what determines the behavior of a monopolists. Taking into consideration all the variables mentioned above, they can pick the optimal price. Supply curves are also used, for example when the government regulates public services. Knowing how producers react to different policies is important in making policy decisions.	[ "Demand curves are usually considered as theoretical structures that are expected to exist in the real world, but real world measurements of actual demand curves are difficult and rare.\n\nSection::::Shape of the demand curve.\n\nDemand curves are often graphed as straight lines, where \"a\" and \"b\" are parameters:\n", "Long-run cost curves\n\nThe cost function represents the minimum cost of producing a quantity of some good. The long run cost curve is a cost function that models this minimum cost over time, meaning inputs are not fixed. In practice, this means firms can scale their means of production to reduce the costs associated with producing the good.\n\nThe principal cost functions (or 'curves') used in microeconomic analysis are:\n\nBULLET::::- long-run total cost (LRTC) is the cost function that represents the total cost of production for all goods produced\n", "Section::::Graphing cost curves together with revenue curves.\n\nCost curves can be combined to provide information about firms. In this diagram for example, firms are assumed to be in a perfectly competitive market. In a perfectly competitive market the price that firms are faced with in the long run would be the price at which the marginal cost curve cuts the average cost curve, since any price above or below that would result in entry to or exit from the industry, driving the market-determined price to the level that gives zero economic profit.\n\nSection::::Cost curves and production functions.\n", "If these curves are plotted for many different prices of good Y, a demand curve for good Y can be constructed. The diagram below shows the demand curve for good Y as its price varies. Alternatively, if the price for good Y is fixed and the price for good X is varied, a demand curve for good X can be constructed.\n\nSection::::Income effect.\n", "Section::::Movement along a demand curve.\n", "This simple result enables very quick analysis, taking into account releases associated with the entire supply chain requirements needed to provide a specific final demand, on average. The equations are based on average data in the current economy, but they can be used to make predictions for marginal changes in output (such as one more unit of a particular product) if \n\nBULLET::::1. average output and marginal output are assumed to be sufficiently close (i.e., the impact of \"one more unit\" = the impact of \"the average unit\"), and\n", "The concept of the derived demand curve for an input was developed by Alfred Marshall. It can be constructed under two assumptions: First, production conditions, the demand curve for the final good, and the supply curves for all other factors of production are held constant. Second, competitive markets for the final good and all other factors of production are always in equilibrium.\n", "For each quantity of output there is one cost–minimizing level of capital and a unique short–run average cost curve associated with producing the given quantity. The following statements assume that the firm is using the optimal level of capital for the quantity produced. If not, then the SRAC curve would lie \"wholly above\" the LRAC and would not be tangent at any point.\n", "Practical uses of supply and demand analysis often center on the different variables that change equilibrium price and quantity, represented as shifts in the respective curves. Comparative statics of such a shift traces the effects from the initial equilibrium to the new equilibrium.\n\nDemand curve shifts:\n", "Just like the supply curves reflect marginal cost curves, demand curves are determined by marginal utility curves. Consumers will be willing to buy a given quantity of a good, at a given price, if the marginal utility of additional consumption is equal to the opportunity cost determined by the price, that is, the marginal utility of alternative consumption choices. The demand schedule is defined as the \"willingness\" and \"ability\" of a consumer to purchase a given product in a given frame of time.\n", "where formula_3 is the original supply curve and formula_23 is the minimum wage. The new curve has thus a horizontal first branch and a kink at the point\n\nas is shown in the diagram by the kinked black curve \"MC' S\" (the black curve to the right of point B). The resulting equilibria (the profit-maximizing choices that rational companies will make) can then fall into one of three classes according to the value taken by the minimum wage, as shown by the following table:\n", "The supply curve represents the amount of food intake that industry professionals would permit a model to consume in order to maintain a certain value, ceteris paribus.\n\nThe demand curve represents the amount of food that models are willing and able to eat in relation to a target value or pay rate, ceteris paribus. Following the law of demand, the demand curve is downward-sloping, meaning that a model's worth decreases as they eat more food.\n", "BULLET::::- \"M\" is the exogenous nominal money supply\n\nBULLET::::- \"P\" is the exogenous price level\n\nBULLET::::- \"i\" is the nominal interest rate\n\nBULLET::::- \"L\" is liquidity preference (real money demand)\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is real taxes levied\n\nBULLET::::- \"NX\" is real net exports\n\nSection::::Basic set-up.:Equations.\n\nThe Mundell–Fleming model is based on the following equations:\n\nThe IS curve:\n\nwhere \"NX\" is net exports.\n\nThe LM curve:\n\nA higher interest rate or a lower income (GDP) level leads to lower money demand.\n\nThe BoP (Balance of Payments) Curve:\n", "Hall and Hitch further present a hypothesis for the initial setting of prices; this explains why the \"kink\" in the curve is located where it is. They base this on a notion of \"full cost\" - marginal cost of each unit plus a percent of overhead costs or fixed costs with an additional percent added for profit. They emphasize the importance of industry tradition in history in determining this initial price, noting further, \"An overwhelming majority of the entrepreneurs thought that a price based on full average cost…was the ‘right’ price, the one which ‘ought’ to be charged.\"\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "Since determinants of supply and demand other than the price of the goods in question are not explicitly represented in the supply-demand diagram, changes in the values of these variables are represented by moving the supply and demand curves (often described as \"shifts\" in the curves). By contrast, responses to changes in the price of the good are represented as movements along unchanged supply and demand curves.\n\nSection::::Graphical representations.:Supply schedule.\n", "Demand curves are used to estimate behaviors in competitive markets, and are often combined with supply curves to estimate the equilibrium price (the price at which sellers together are willing to sell the same amount as buyers together are willing to buy, also known as market clearing price) and the equilibrium quantity (the amount of that good or service that will be produced and bought without surplus/excess supply or shortage/excess demand) of that market. In a monopolistic market, the demand curve facing the monopolist is simply the market demand curve.\n", "There are two forecasting sub-problems: predicting time-phased demand and predicting demand response to the pricing decisions. In yield management-type applications, predicting time-phased demand, at a very granular level, is central since these applications are characterized by fixed capacity against which demand must be balanced by use of pricing or related controls. In many of these types of applications, predicting response to pricing decisions is also important, since price is often the control instrument used to modulate demand. However, there are a number of yield management applications in which the control is directly on product availability; prices are typically taken as fixed in these cases and prediction of price response is not required.\n", "Some of the more important factors are the prices of related goods (both substitutes and complements), income, population, and expectations. However, demand is the willingness and ability of a consumer to purchase a good \"under the prevailing circumstances\"; so, any circumstance that affects the consumer's willingness or ability to buy the good or service in question can be a non-price determinant of demand. As an example, weather could be a factor in the demand for beer at a baseball game.\n", "Section::::Short-run average fixed cost curve (SRAFC).\n\nSince fixed cost by definition does not vary with output, its average per unit of output is lower when output is higher, giving rise to the downward-sloped curve shown.\n\nSection::::Short-run and long-run average total cost curves (SRATC or SRAC and LRATC or LRAC).\n", "There is movement \"along\" a demand curve when a change in price causes the quantity demanded to change. It is important to distinguish between movement along a demand curve, and a shift in a demand curve. Movements along a demand curve happen only when the price of the good changes. When a non-price determinant of demand changes, the curve shifts. These \"other variables\" are part of the demand function. They are \"merely lumped into intercept term of a simple linear demand function.\" Thus a change in a non-price determinant of demand is reflected in a change in the x-intercept causing the curve to shift along the x axis.\n", "The determinants of supply are:\n\nBULLET::::1. Production costs: how much a goods costs to be produced. Production costs are the cost of the inputs; primarily labor, capital, energy and materials. They depend on the technology used in production, and/or technological advances. See: Productivity\n\nBULLET::::2. Firms' expectations about future prices\n\nBULLET::::3. Number of suppliers\n\nSection::::Graphical representations.:Demand schedule.\n\nA demand schedule, depicted graphically as the demand curve, represents the amount of some\n", "The basic VWAP formula is very slightly amended in MIDAS approaches, with the volume in the denominator of the MIDAS formula at the start of an indicator's launch being continually subtracted from the cumulative volume of the current price bar. The basic formula is as follows:\n\nformula_1\n\nwhere:\n\n\"x\" = cumulative volume of bar\n\n\"x\" = cumulative price of bar\n\n\"d\" = cumulative volume difference between price bars i and \"j\" = \"x\" - \"x\"\n\nThis same minor volume amendment underlies \"all\" MIDAS indicators when they are created from Gen-1 curves (see below).\n\nSection::::Full Repertoire of MIDAS curves.\n", "The idealized \"long run\" for a firm refers to the absence of time based restrictions on what inputs (such as the factors of production) a firm can employ in its production technology. For example, in the short run a firm is not able to build an additional factory, but in the long run this restriction no longer applies. Since forecasting introduces more complexity, it is typically assumed that the long run costs are based on the current technology, information, and prices the firm faces currently. The long run cost curve doesn't try to anticipate changes in how the firm, the technology, and the industry will look in the future – it just reflects how costs would be different if there were no constraints on what inputs can be changed in the current period.\n", "EIO-LCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product. To the extent that the good or service of interest is representative of a sector, EIOLCA can provide very fast estimates of full supply chain implications for that good or service.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Both the SRAC and LRAC curves are typically expressed as U-shaped. However, the shapes of the curves are not due to the same factors. For the short run curve the initial downward slope is largely due to declining average fixed costs. Increasing returns to the variable input at low levels of production also play a role, while the upward slope is due to diminishing marginal returns to the variable input. With the long run curve the shape by definition reflects economies and diseconomies of scale. At low levels of production long run production functions generally exhibit increasing returns to scale, which, for firms that are perfect competitors in input markets, means that the long run average cost is falling; the upward slope of the long run average cost function at higher levels of output is due to decreasing returns to scale at those output levels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10067	Why are some metals/plastics/papers recyclable and others are not?	All metals are recyclable as they can all be melted down, paper must be separated and if it's wax impregnated like in the case of cups or milk cartons it takes more energy to separate the wax from the paper than it is worth. Thermal plastics like milk jugs can easily be melted down but must be separated. If your recycling center doesn't separate plastics then most likely it is being downcycled into a lower grade product like carpet. Thermoset plastics, on the other hand are much more difficult to recycle since they are created by mixing two components together and don't readily melt, they burn instead. Glass fiber reinforced plastic also makes it less recyclable	[ "PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.\n", "BULLET::::- Bismuth recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Lead recycling\n\nSection::::Plastic.\n\nThe vast majority of plastic is non-biodegradable, so recycling is a part of global efforts to reduce plastic in the waste stream. There are many types of plastic and they generally have to be separated by type for successful recycling. The low density of plastics increases transportation costs per unit weight.\n\nSection::::Timber.\n", "The report authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground (the term \"urban mining\" has been coined with this idea in mind). However, they found that the recycling rates of many metals are very low. The report warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.\n", "Section::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Aluminum.\n\nAluminum offers the most savings, with cans from recycled material requiring as little as 4% of the energy required to make the same cans from bauxite ore. Metals don't degrade as they're recycled in the same way plastics and paper do, fibers shortening every cycle, so many metals are prime candidates for recycling, especially considering their high value per ton compared to other recyclables.\n\nSection::::Recycled Materials vs New Materials.:Plastics.\n", "A wide range of metals in commercial and domestic use have well developed recycling markets in most developed countries. Domestic recycling is commonly available for Iron and steel, aluminium and in particular beverage and food cans. In addition, building metals such as copper, zinc and lead are readily recyclable through specialised companies. In the UK, these are usually either specialised scrap dealers or car breakers. Other metals present in smaller quantities in the domestic waste stream such as tin and chromium are also extracted from metal put into the recycling system but are rarely recovered from the general waste stream.\n", "Recyclable materials that may be separately collected from municipal waste include:\n\n\"Biodegradable waste component\"\n\nBULLET::::- Green waste\n\nBULLET::::- Kitchen and food waste\n\n\"Recyclable materials\", depending on location\n\nBULLET::::- Office paper\n\nBULLET::::- Newsprint\n\nBULLET::::- Paperboard\n\nBULLET::::- Cardboard\n\nBULLET::::- Corrugated fiberboard\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics (#1 PET, #2 HDPE natural and colored, #3 PVC narrow-necked containers, #4 LDPE, #5 PP, #6 Polystyrene (however, not EXPANDED polystyrene, an example of recyclable polystyrene may be a plastic yoghurt pot) #7 other mixed resin plastics)\n\nBULLET::::- Glass\n\nBULLET::::- Copper\n\nBULLET::::- Aluminium\n\nBULLET::::- Steel and Tinplate\n\nBULLET::::- Co-mingled recyclables- can be sorted by a clean materials recovery facility\n", "Globally, metal recycling is generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates. The authors of the report observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground. They warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.\n", "Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components frequently contain copper, gold, tantalum, silver, platinum, Palladium, and lead as well as other valuable materials suitable for reclamation.\n", "Incorporating recycled materials into the manufacturing process of new goods is an integral change. Mineral resources are finite, such as bauxite ore for aluminum or fossil fuels to make plastics, so it is imperative to start reusing what we have already mined so that we do not deplete what is left. There are many technologies available that help tremendously with recycling efforts such as near-infrared equipment which, \"is a common sortation technology in large recycling operations and can accurately identify many different types of polymers.\" Near-infrared equipment is a much easier way to sort through plastics compared to the human eye.\n", "Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful components such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to workers and communities in developed countries and great care must be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.\n", "Due to their extensive use, non-ferrous scrap metals are usually recycled. The secondary materials in scrap are vital to the metallurgy industry, as the production of new metals often needs them. Some recycling facilities re-smelt and recast non-ferrous materials; the dross is collected and stored onsite while the metal fumes are filtered and collected. Non-ferrous scrap metals are sourced from industrial scrap materials, particle emissions and obsolete technology (for example, copper cables) scrap.\n\nSection::::Ancient history.\n", "Like aluminium, copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality, regardless of whether it is in a raw state or contained in a manufactured product. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.\n\nSection::::Metals.:Iron and steel.\n", "As with environmental economics, care must be taken to ensure a complete view of the costs and benefits involved. For example, paperboard packaging for food products is more easily recycled than most plastic, but is heavier to ship and may result in more waste from spoilage.\n\nSection::::Criticisms and responses.:Energy and material flows.\n", "The type of recycling material accepted varies by city and country. Each city and country have different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials.\n\nSection::::Materials used as a source.:Wastewater and excreta.\n", "Most common plastics contain chlorinated compounds and plasticizers, which can migrate out and harm objects. Polyethylene and polyester are considered archival plastics because they do not offgas harmful chemicals, but they can produce static electricity in a low RH, so they should be avoided around friable objects.\n\nBULLET::::- Polyester film, or Mylar, is a good tool for paper preservation and can act as a vapor barrier.\n", "The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.\n\nPVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.\n", "Ferrous metals are able to be recycled, with steel being one of the most recycled materials in the world. Ferrous metals contain an appreciable percentage of iron and the addition of carbon and other substances creates steel.\n\nSection::::Ferrous metal recycling.:Description.\n", "Almost all paper can be recycled today, but some types are harder to recycle than others. Papers coated with plastic or aluminium foil, and papers that are waxed, pasted, or gummed are usually not recycled because the process is too expensive. Gift-wrap paper also cannot be recycled due to its already poor quality.\n", "Metals are inherently recyclable, so in principle, can be used over and over again, minimizing these negative environmental impacts and saving energy. For example, 95% of the energy used to make aluminium from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.\n", "In-plant recycling has long been common for producing packaging materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper-based products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, post-consumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling, consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.\n", "Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and reprocessing the material into useful products. Compared to glass or metallic materials, plastic poses unique challenges. Because of the massive number of types of plastic, they each carry a resin identification code, and must be sorted before they can be recycled. This can be costly; while metals can be sorted using electromagnets, no such 'easy sorting' capability exists for plastics. In addition to this, while labels do not need to be removed from bottles for recycling, lids are often made from a different kind of non-recyclable plastic.\n", "A process has also been developed in which many kinds of plastic can be used as a carbon source in the recycling of scrap steel. There is also a possibility of mixed recycling of different plastics, which does not require their separation. It is called compatibilization and requires use of special chemical bridging agents compatibilizers. It can help to keep the quality of recycled material and to skip often expensive and inefficient preliminary scanning of waste plastics streams and their separation/purification.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nSection::::Applications.:PET.\n", "In the United States, steel containers, cans, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials contribute the greatest weight of recycled materials. For example, in 2008, more than 97% of structural steel and 106% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced (the late 2000s recession and the associated sharp decline in automobile production in the US explains the over-100% calculation). A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron.\n", "Section::::Comparison.\n", "Recycling is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents hazardous waste, including heavy metals and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill or waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable disposal of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the European Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.\n\nSection::::Reasons for recycling.\n" ]	[ "Some metals are not recyclable.", "Some metals can't be recycled." ]	[ "All metals are recyclable as they can all be melted down.", "All metals can be recycled after they are melted down." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Some metals are not recyclable.", "Some metals can't be recycled." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "All metals are recyclable as they can all be melted down.", "All metals can be recycled after they are melted down." ]
2018-10499	Why do boat steering wheels need so much more turning than car steering wheels?	What you're talking about is Mechanical Advantage. Depends on the size and design of the rudder and steering gear. However the idea is that turning the rudder or propeller stem shouldn't require excessive effort on the wheel. This, regardless of the total force or torque on the rudder itself produced by water flowing around it. A fairly large rudder on a boat of 100 tons displacement is going to take a lot of force to turn over underway, so the wheel will have a fairly high gear ratio to give the helmsman easy control, and to prevent loss of control in high seas. In general boats don't need to turn quickly to avoid sudden obstacles because they don't tend to move quickly and there's usually plenty of room to manoeuvre. So having to turn the wheel a couple dozen times from extreme port to extreme starboard, isn't really a problem. Also makes it easier to trim the rudder slightly to maintain a straight course.	[ "Section::::Land vehicle steering.\n\nSection::::Land vehicle steering.:Basic geometry.\n\nThe basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions. This is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental concepts is that of \"caster angle\" – each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel; this makes the steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction of travel.\n", "A similar device in aircraft is the yoke. Water vessels not steered from a stern-mounted tiller are directed with the ship's wheel, which may have inspired the concept of the steering wheel. The steering wheel is better than other user interfaces and has persisted because driving requires precise feedback that only comes from a large interface.\n", "Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and go-karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bellcrank (also commonly known as a Pitman arm) attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated steering linkages (e.g. the capstan and bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built vehicles such as soapbox cars and recumbent tricycles.\n\nSection::::Land vehicle steering.:Power steering.\n", "Precision of the steering is particularly important on ice or hard packed snow where the slip angle at the limit of adhesion is smaller than on dry roads.\n", "BULLET::::- sheet-to-tiller (a spring load at the tiller is counteracted by the pulling force of a foresail and/or main sail sheet)\n\nSection::::Early boat autopilots.\n", "According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is effectively RHT: a vessel proceeding along a narrow channel must keep to starboard (the right-hand side), and when two power-driven vessels are meeting head-on both must alter course to starboard also. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water.\n", "On mechanical paddle steamers, the motorized paddling is not done with a mass of paddles or oars but by rotating one or a few paddle wheels (rather the inverse of a water mill).\n", "The use of wind vane self steering was common on long distance cruising yachts but is increasingly being supplemented or replaced by electrical auto-pilots.\n", "The main concern with moving such vehicles on land is torque, as their high mass presents a large amount of inertia to overcome. For this reason, the propulsion system must be able to supply considerable amounts of initial torque to get the machine moving from standstill.\n", "The cam track is not a regular helix but varies in pitch angle and depth. The variation in steering ratio between straight ahead and full lock results from the variance in pitch angle of the track. The more the steering wheel is turned, the lower the steering ratio becomes. In the Rover P5B, for example, the ratio of the power steering unit was 16:1 at the straight ahead and 11.3:1 at full lock.\n", "Section::::Land vehicle steering.:Speed sensitive steering.\n", "The rudder of a vessel can steer the ship only when water is passing over it. Hence, when a ship is not moving relative to the water it is in or cannot move its rudder, it does not respond to the helm and is said to have \"lost steerage.\" The motion of a ship through the water is known as \"making way.\" When a vessel is moving fast enough through the water that it turns in response to the helm, it is said to have \"steerage way.\" That is why boats on rivers must always be under propulsion, even when traveling downstream.\n", "Near the start of the 18th century, a large number of sea vessels appeared using the ship's wheel design, but historians are unclear when that approach to steering was first used. The first automobiles were steered with a tiller, but in 1894, Alfred Vacheron took part in the Paris–Rouen race with a Panhard 4 hp model which he had fitted with a steering wheel. That is believed to be one of the earliest employments of the principle.\n", "Boats can be propelled by manpower (e.g. rowboats and paddle boats), wind (e.g. sailboats), and motor (including gasoline, diesel, and electric).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conform to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually travelling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for driving in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical plane also influences steering dynamics (see \"camber angle\") as do the tires.\n\nSection::::Land vehicle steering.:Rack and pinion, recirculating ball, worm and sector.\n", "Additionally, a twin-rudder configuration and/or a bow thruster can significantly contribute to the maneuverability of even the largest ships. When the rudders are at angles of 90 degrees or more to the direction of the propeller generated thrust, they can direct the thrust forward and provide a significant braking effect on the ship.\n\nSection::::Shape.\n", "According to the NTSB, 24 percent of reported PWC accidents list steering problems or loss of control as contributing factors; in Florida, it is the second-leading cause of PWC-related accidents. PWC manufacturers have been working to develop a system to prevent off-throttle steering. Modifications have been made to solve this problem in newer PWC models.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Driver inexperience.\n", "Section::::Comparative performance.\n", "Like all rudders, the main effect of a Schilling rudder is to deflect the flow of water generated by the propeller. Schilling rudders are most commonly used on ships that are difficult to maneuver, such as large ships (example: container ships and oil tankers), slow-moving ships and boats, longer and narrower ships, or boats with slow-moving propellers.\n", "Another use of the term steering ratio is for the ratio between the theoretical turning radius based on ideal tire behavior and the actual turning radius based on real tire behavior. Values less than one, where the front wheel side slip is greater than the rear wheel side slip, are described as under-steering; equal to one as neutral steering; and greater than one as over-steering. Values less than zero, in which the front wheel must be turned opposite the direction of the curve due to much greater rear wheel side slip than front wheel have been described as counter-steering.\n", "Although this system seems confusing and contradictory today, to generations of sailors trained on sailing vessels with tiller steering it seemed perfectly logical and was understood by all seafarers. Only when new generations of sailors trained on ships with wheel-and-tiller steering came into the industry was the system replaced.\n\nSection::::Other vehicles.\n\nSection::::Other vehicles.:Landcraft.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Obstacle navigation.\n\nWork by engineer Mieczysław G. Bekker implies that the distribution of irregularities in natural terrains is log-normal; that is, small obstacles are far more common than larger ones. Thus, obstacle navigation presents a challenge to locomotion in natural terrains at all size scales. The primary means of obstacle navigation on land are to go around obstacles and to go over them; each has its attendant challenges.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Obstacle navigation.:Going around.\n", "During test runs with \"S-2\", the first boat from series production, it was then accidentally discovered that the boat stopped responding to the rudder at high speed and full rudder positions but started to display the effects described above. When investigating what caused this behaviour, the basic principles of the Lürssen effect were discovered. Starting with \"S-2\", the following boats were then equipped with the two small rudders on either side of the main rudder which could be angled outboard up to 30°.\n", "Zermelo's navigation problem\n\nIn mathematical optimization, Zermelo's navigation problem, proposed in 1931 by Ernst Zermelo, is a classic optimal control problem that deals with a boat navigating on a body of water, originating from a point formula_1 to a destination point formula_2. The boat is capable of a certain maximum speed, and the goal is to derive the best possible control to reach formula_2 in the least possible time.\n", "On the small motor pinnace \"Arielle\", a 13-metre boat propelled by a 65HP French made Baudouin diesel engine which sailed from New York to Le Havre in 1936, the task of steering a motor boat in the Atlantic swells was more daunting. \"Arielle\" had two rudders; the main one under the hull, in the propeller race, was for manual steering and the smaller auxiliary rudder was transom mounted. This auxiliary rudder could be mechanically driven by a special wind vane mounted atop of the coachroof consisting of two rectangular airfoils set at an angle on a vertical axle and balanced by a counterweight. It was simple and worked quite well, but could not steer the boat in very light breezes or flat calm.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "The steering wheel of a boat could turn the rudder just as easily as the steering wheel of a car turns the tires." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The force required to turn a rudder depends on the displacement of the rudder." ]
2018-22698	Why do our faces scrunch up when we taste something too sweet or sour?	To express disgust. Facial reactions begin development early on when we are babies to show whether we like something or not to our carers. This is how babies communicate before learning to speak.	[ "Modiolus (face)\n\nIn facial anatomy, the modiolus is a chiasma of facial muscles held together by fibrous tissue, located lateral and slightly superior to each angle of the mouth. It is important in moving the mouth, facial expression and in dentistry. It is extremely important in relation to stability of lower denture, because of the strength and variability of movement of the area. It derives its motor nerve supply from the facial nerve, and its blood supply from labial branches of the facial artery.\n", "Facial muscles\n\nThe facial muscles are a group of striated skeletal muscles supplied by the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) that, among other things, control facial expression. These muscles are also called mimetic muscles.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThe facial muscles are just under the skin (subcutaneous) muscles that control facial expression. They generally originate from the surface of the skull bone (rarely the fascia), and insert on the skin of the face. When they contract, the skin moves. These muscles also cause wrinkles at right angles to the muscles’ action line.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n", "BULLET::::- Facial expression: Facial gestures play an important role in animal communication. Often a facial gesture is a signal of emotion. Dogs, for example, express anger through snarling and showing their teeth. In alarm their ears perk up, in fear the ears flatten while the dogs expose their teeth slightly and squint their eyes. Jeffrey Mogil studied the facial expressions of mice during increments of increasing pain; there were five recognizable facial expressions; orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.\n", "Section::::Creation.\n\nSection::::Creation.:Facial muscles.\n\nFacial expressions are vital to social communication between humans. They are caused by the movement of muscles that connect to the skin and fascia in the face. These muscles move the skin, creating lines and folds and causing the movement of facial features, such as the mouth and eyebrows. These muscles develop from the second pharyngeal arch in the embryo. The temporalis, masseter, and internal and external pterygoid muscles, which are mainly used for chewing, have a minor effect on expression as well. These muscles develop from the first pharyngeal arch.\n\nSection::::Creation.:Neuronal pathways.\n", "There are differences between the \"pain face\" of mice and rats. In mice, the nose and cheek at baseline have a smooth appearance, but in the presence of pain, change to distinct bulges in both the nose and cheek regions. By contrast, in rats at baseline, the nose and cheek regions show distinct bulging, and with pain, the bridge of the nose flattens and elongates causing the whisker pads to flatten. As a consequence of these differences, the GS for rats sometimes use four FAU, i.e. Orbital Tightening, Nose/Cheek Flattening, Ear Changes and Whisker Changes. Nose/Cheek Flattening, appears to show the highest correlation with the presence of pain in the rat.\n", "BULLET::::- Presynaptic parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular ganglion, providing secretomotor innervation to two salivary glands: the submandibular gland and sublingual gland and to the vessels of the tongue, which when stimulated, cause a dilation of blood vessels of the tongue.\n\nSection::::Function.:Taste.\n\nThere are similarities between the tastes the chorda tympani picks up in sweeteners between mice and primates, but not rats. Relating research results to humans is therefore not always consistent.\n", "The \"deep branches\" pass beneath the zygomaticus and the quadratus labii superioris, supplying them and forming an infraorbital plexus with the infraorbital branch of the maxillary nerve. These branches also supply the small muscles of the nose.\n\nThe \"lower deep branches\" supply the buccinator and orbicularis oris, and join with filaments of the buccinator branch of the mandibular nerve.\n\nSection::::Muscles of facial expression.\n\nThe facial nerve innervates the muscles of facial expression. The buccal branch supplies these muscles\n\nSection::::Testing the nerve.\n\n• Puff up cheeks (buccinator)\n", "This response is characterized by the animal curling back its top lip exposing the front teeth and gums, then inhaling and holding the posture for several seconds. The behavior may be performed over particular locations, in which case the animal may also lick the site of interest, or may perform the flehmen with the neck stretched and head held high in the air for a more general gustatory or taste-related investigation. The flehmen response often gives the \"appearance\" that the animal is looking spiteful, grimacing, smirking or laughing.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "For rats, software (Rodent Face Finder®) has been developed which successfully automates the most labour-intensive step in the process of quantifying the GS, i.e. frame-grabbing individual face-containing frames from digital video, which is hindered by animals not looking directly at the camera or poor images due to motion blurring.\n\nSection::::In rabbits.\n", "Section::::\"The Mechanism of Human Facial Expression\".\n", "The cell bodies for the facial nerve are grouped in anatomical areas called nuclei or ganglia. The cell bodies for the afferent nerves are found in the geniculate ganglion for taste sensation. The cell bodies for muscular efferent nerves are found in the facial motor nucleus whereas the cell bodies for the parasympathetic efferent nerves are found in the superior salivatory nucleus.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Development.\n", "BULLET::::- The eyes, sitting in the orbit and protected by eyelids and eyelashes\n\nBULLET::::- The distinctive human nose shape, nostrils, and nasal septum\n\nBULLET::::- The cheeks, covering the maxilla and mandibula (or jaw), the extremity of which is the chin\n\nBULLET::::- The mouth, with the upper lip divided by the philtrum, sometimes revealing the teeth\n\nFacial appearance is vital for human recognition and communication. Facial muscles in humans allow expression of emotions.\n", "BULLET::::- The facial motor nucleus and the superior salivary nucleus of the facial nerve are located within the pontine tegmentum. The facial motor nucleus serve motor control of the muscles of facial expression and the stapedius muscle of the ear, while the superior salivary nucleus controls the secretion of saliva and tears through parasympathetic innervation of structures including the lacrimal gland and the mucosal glands of the nose, palate, and pharynx. The facial solitary nucleus, which carries taste information from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, is located caudal to the pontine tegmentum in the medulla.\n", "Action units (AUs) can be examined frame by frame, since these micro-expressions are often rapid. Paul Ekman’s research in facial deception has found several constants in certain expressions, with the action units relating to lip-corner pulling (AU12) and cheek-raising (AU6) qualifiers for happiness in most people. Brow-lowering (AU4) and lip-stretching (AU20) are disqualifiers for happiness. Emotional leakage appears in these fleeting expressions.\n", "Section::::Live performances.\n", "Section::::Universality hypothesis.\n", "Flehmen response\n\nThe flehmen response (), (from German \"flehmen\", to bare the upper teeth, and Upper Saxon German \"flemmen\", to look spiteful), (also called the flehmen position, flehmen reaction, flehming, or flehmening), is a behavior in which an animal curls back its upper lip exposing its front teeth, inhales with the nostrils usually closed, and then often holds this position for several seconds. It may be performed over a site or substance of particular interest to the animal, or may be performed with the neck stretched and the head held high in the air.\n", "BULLET::::5. The pyramidal eminence is the second bend in the facial nerve, where the nerve runs downward as the mastoid segment. In the temporal part of the facial canal, the nerve gives rise to the stapedius and chorda tympani. The chorda tympani supplies taste fibers to the anterior two thirds of the tongue, and also synapses with the submandibular ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the submandibular ganglion supply the sublingual and submandibular glands.\n", "BULLET::::- Virginia North had so much trouble trying not to laugh in a dance scene with Vincent Price in \"The Abominable Dr. Phibes\" that she had to be photographed behind him to conceal her face, although her smile is briefly visible.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"The Wizard of Oz,\" during an encounter with the Cowardly Lion (played by Bert Lahr), Judy Garland, as Dorothy, hides her face behind the dog Toto in order to conceal the fact that she is laughing rather than frightened as she observes Lahr's performance.\n", "The muscles acting on the lips are considered part of the muscles of facial expression. All muscles of facial expression are derived from the mesoderm of the second pharyngeal arch, and are therefore supplied (motor supply) by the nerve of the second pharyngeal arch, the facial nerve (7th cranial nerve). The muscles of facial expression are all specialized members of the panniculus carnosus, which attach to the dermis and so wrinkle, or dimple the overlying skin. Functionally, the muscles of facial expression are arranged in groups around the orbits, nose and mouth.\n\nThe muscles acting on the lips:\n\nBULLET::::- Buccinator\n", "Section::::Composition.\n", "Facial perception has well identified, neuroanatomical correlates in the brain. During the perception of faces, major activations occur in the extrastriate areas bilaterally, particularly in the fusiform face area, the occipital face area (OFA), and the superior temporal sulcus (fSTS). Perceiving an inverted human face involves increased activity in the inferior temporal cortex, while perceiving a misaligned face involves increased activity in the occipital cortex. However, none of these results were found when perceiving a dog face, suggesting that this process may be specific to perception of human faces.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "The nucleus has a dorsal and ventral region, with neurons in the dorsal region innervating muscles of the upper face and neurons in the ventral region innervating muscles of the lower face.\n\nSection::::Function.\n\nBecause it innervates muscles derived from pharyngeal arches, the facial motor nucleus is considered part of the special visceral efferent (SVE) cell column, which also includes the trigeminal motor nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, and (arguably) the spinal accessory nucleus.\n\nSection::::Function.:Cortical input.\n", "Section::::In rats.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-01096	Why can't salt water fish survive short term in fresh water.	Well, I typed out an explanation, but then did a quick search to see if I could phrase things better. I am an aspiring marine biologist, but this fisheries scientist put it pretty well a year ago. I suggest you read his explanation. @mynameismrguyperson --- "Fisheries scientist here. I am seeing a lot of incomplete or partially correct answers here. This might be more ELI15. Freshwater fishes tend to have much higher concentrations of ions (like sodium) in their blood compared with the concentrations in the water. Their bodies are designed to expel large volumes of very dilute urine frequently. This works to their advantage in a freshwater environment because they are surrounded by water with low salt concentrations. So, just pee a lot and hang onto what little salts you have. They also have specialized cells in their gills to allow them to directly take up sodium and chloride from the water to fine-tune the salt balance in their blood and cells. Saltwater fishes face the opposite problem. They need to maintain salt concentrations in their blood that are much lower than the surrounding environment. To do this, they actively drink water and form a highly-concentrated urine to expel the excess salts. They also actively expel salts at their gills. So the basic freshwater strategy is to pee like hell and absorb salt. The basic saltwater strategy is to drink and hold it so they can absorb as much of the water (while leaving behind the salts) as possible. Put either of these fishes in the opposite environment, and these critical systems fail to function. The "pee like hell" strategy will quickly deplete cells of water in a saltwater environment, while the "drink and hold it" strategy will completely water-log them. These salt concentrations are critical to many bodily functions. Just think about what happens to people when they get dehydrated or, in some cases, drink TOO MUCH water. They are at real risk of death. Same for these fish. What about things like salmon? Or sharks? Many salmon and their relatives live in both fresh and saltwater at different points in their lives. Pacific salmon (e.g., Chinook salmon) are born in freshwater. They have nice, normal freshwater adaptations. However, when they reach a certain age and are ready to leave their rivers, they go through dramatic physical transformations during which they develop the necessary adaptations to live in a marine environment. When they are old enough, and are ready to breed in freshwater as adults, they undergo yet another transformation. This, and the energy required to to migrate and produce eggs/sperm, exacts such a toll on the fish that they almost always die immediately after spawning. Moving between fresh and saltwater is not easy. What about sharks, like bullsharks? How do they move between fresh and saltwater? Sharks are very different from what people normally call "fish". They also have a completely different strategy for surviving in saltwater, which will inform us about how some survive in freshwater. Rather than deal with the threat of constant water loss by drinking saltwater and excreting the extra salt, a shark's blood is filled with urea (a nitrogen-based compound that makes your pee stink [EDIT: the stink is actually from the urea decomposing into ammonia; urea is odorless on its own]). In fact, they store so much of it that their blood ion concentrations are actually close to that of sea water. Sharks that can spend time in freshwater are able to expel excess urea (which is just a metabolic waste product, hence why it's in your pee) rather than retain it in their blood. This allows them to adjust the levels of dissolved ions in their blood so that they can flexibly move between salt and freshwaters. Now, this doesn't cover everything (there are 25,000+ fish species), but hopefully it gives a more complete overview... EDIT: There has been some confusion regarding my use of the word "fishes." My use of this word is completely intentional. "Fishes" has a particular use among ichthyologists and fisheries scientists. "Fish" can be singular or plural. We use it as a general plural, as in, "there are 20 fish over there." "Fishes" is used when one is discussing multiple types (species, genera, whatever), as in, "a red fish and a blue fish makes two fishes". When I say "fishes", I am referring to more than one type. When I say "fish", I am referring to multiple fish of the same type." URL_0	[ "In nature, this species often travels to the limits of where salt water becomes fresh water, so they can be kept in fresh water for brief times. For long-term care, however, they should be kept in salt water. A salt concentration equal to 1/4th of ocean levels is suitable for younger fish, but adult fish spend most of their time in the ocean, so it is recommended to raise the salt level to 1/2 of ocean levels. Some also recommend using normal ocean water levels for adult fish. Suitable temperatures are 24-28 °C. A pH level of 8 is recommended.\n\nSection::::Ecology.\n", "Other than their temperature sensitivity, tilapia exist in or can adapt to a very wide range of conditions. An extreme example is the Salton Sea, where tilapia introduced when the water was merely brackish now live in salt concentrations so high that other marine fish cannot survive.\n\nTilapia are also known to be a mouth-breeding species, which means they carry the fertilized eggs and young fish in their mouths for several days after the yolk sac is absorbed.\n\nSection::::Species.\n", "Fish kills can also result from a dramatic or prolonged drop in air (and thus, water) temperature. This kind of fish kill is selective – usually the dead fish are species that cannot tolerate cold. This has been observed in cases where a fish native to a more tropical region has been introduced to cooler waters, such as the introduction of the tilapia to bodies of water in Florida. Native to Africa's Nile River, the tilapia stop feeding when water temperatures drop below and die when it reaches . Thus, tilapia that have survived and successfully reproduced in Florida are occasionally killed by a winter cold front.\n", "Serious problems can occur when fish originally raised in ponds or aquaria are released into the wild. While tropical fish do not survive in temperate climates, they can thrive in waters that are similar to their native habitat. Non–native species that become established are called exotic species. Freshwater examples include various cichlids in Florida, goldfish in temperate waters, and South American suckermouth catfishes in warm waters around the world. Invasive species can seriously disrupt their new homes by preying on, or competing with, native species. Many marine fish have also been introduced into non-native waters, disrupting the local habitat.\n", "The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean.\n", "BULLET::::- Gobio\n\nBULLET::::- Amur bitterling\n\nBULLET::::- Rosy bitterling\n\nBULLET::::- Light's bitterling\n\nBULLET::::- Deep bodied bitterling\n\nBULLET::::- Rainbow shiner (\"Notropsis chromosus\")\n\nBULLET::::- Black shark (not to be confused with the tropical red tailed black shark)\n\nBULLET::::- Golden cobra snakehead\n\nBULLET::::- Dwarf snakehead\n\nBULLET::::- Rainbow snakehead\n\nBULLET::::- Spotted snakehead (\"Channa punctata\")\n\nBULLET::::- Pearl danio\n\nBULLET::::- Northern snakehead\n\nBULLET::::- Chinese algae eater\n\nNote: The above contains a mix of true coldwater fish and sub-tropical fish that can survive and thrive at room temperature which ranges from 15 °C (59 °F) and to 30 °C (86 °F).\n\nSection::::Freshwater pond fish.\n\nBULLET::::- Three-spined stickleback\n\nBULLET::::- Nine-spined stickleback\n", "The abiotic factors the Atlantic silverside needs to survive varies for populations of fish based on their geographical location. A rule of thumb for the species includes an average temperature of , a salt content of the water ranging from 0 to 37ppt (Tagatz and Dudley 1961), and a well-mixed body of water to prevent hypoxic conditions.\n", "Many species of fish do reproduce in freshwater, but spend most of their adult lives in the sea. These are known as anadromous fish, and include, for instance, salmon, trout, sea lamprey and three-spined stickleback. Some other kinds of fish are, on the contrary, born in salt water, but live most of or parts of their adult lives in fresh water; for instance the eels. These are known as catadromous fish.\n", "Schooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African sardine run. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern coastline of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration.\n", "For example, since 2004 fish kills have been observed in the Shenandoah River basin in the spring, from the time water temperatures are in the 50s (°F) until they reach the mid-70s. So far, investigators suspect certain bacteria, along with environmental and contaminant factors that may cause immune suppression.\n", "Alternatively, the fish may have originated in fresh water and moved from a nearby river into a subterranean water current or cave system in response to seasonal changes. Subsequent heavy rains wash the fish up out of this habitat and the water recedes to leave the fish stranded.\n\nSection::::Explanation.:Father Subirana miracle.\n", "Yellowmouth rockfish are susceptible to infection by common marine fish pathogens. Out of the yellowmouth rockfish surveyed for pathogens off of the coast of Oregon in 2001, 10% were found to be infected with \"Ichthyophonus\" and 2% with \"Mycobacterium\". The spleens and kidneys of rockfish infected with these pathogens contained multiple, discrete nodules of cartilaginous metaplasia.\n\nLike other rockfish, yellowmouth rockfish have swim bladders that are unable to adjust to rapid pressure changes. Consequently, yellowmouth rockfish are extremely vulnerable to injury when caught from deep water, and bycatch mortality for most rockfish species is close to 100%.\n", "Freshwater fish\n\nFreshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 0.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, the most obvious being the difference in levels of salinity. To survive fresh water, the fish need a range of physiological adaptations.\n", "Species migrating between marine and fresh waters need adaptations for both environments; when in salt water they need to keep the bodily salt concentration on a level lower than the surroundings, and vice versa. Many species solve this problem by associating different habitats with different stages of life. Both eels, anadromous salmoniform fish and the sea lamprey have different tolerances in salinity in different stages of their lives.\n\nSection::::Classification in the United States.\n", "Tilapia raised in inland tanks or channels are considered safe for the environment, since their waste and disease is contained and not spread to the wild. However, tilapiines have acquired notoriety as being among the most serious invasive species in many subtropical and tropical parts of the world. For example, \"Oreochromis aureus\", \"O. mossambicus\", \"Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron\", \"Tilapia mariae\", and \"T. zilli\" have all become established in the southern United States, particularly in Florida and Texas.\n", "Section::::Habitats.\n", "In unusual environments, osmosis can be very harmful to organisms. For example, freshwater and saltwater aquarium fish placed in water of a different salinity than that to which they are adapted to will die quickly, and in the case of saltwater fish, dramatically. Another example of a harmful osmotic effect is the use of table salt to kill leeches and slugs.\n\nSuppose an animal or a plant cell is placed in a solution of sugar or salt in water.\n\nBULLET::::1. If the medium is \"hypotonic\" relative to the cell cytoplasm — the cell will gain water through osmosis.\n", "Atlantic salmon do not require saltwater. Numerous examples of fully freshwater (i.e., \"landlocked\") populations of the species exist throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including a now extinct population in Lake Ontario, which have been shown in recent studies to have spent their entire life cycle in watershed of the lake. In North America, the landlocked strains are frequently known as \"ouananiche\".\n\nSection::::Life stages.:Freshwater phase.\n", "Oceanic epipelagic fish can be true residents, partial residents, or accidental residents. True residents live their entire life in the open ocean. Only a few species are true residents, such as tuna, billfish, flying fish, sauries, pilotfish and remoras, dolphin, ocean sharks and ocean sunfish. Most of these species migrate back and forth across open oceans, rarely venturing over continental shelves. Some true residents associate with drifting jellyfish or seaweeds.\n", "Murray cod have soft skin and very fine scales that leave them vulnerable to infection from exotic disease organisms. The following exotic disease organisms all seriously affect wild Murray cod; all have been introduced by imports of exotic fish. \"Chilodenella\" is a single-celled, parasitic protozoa that infects the skin of Murray cod and has caused a number of serious kills of wild Murray cod. \"Saprolegnia\" is a fungus-like oomycete or \"water mould\" that frequently infects Murray cod eggs and the skin of Murray cod that have been roughly handled through poor catch and release technique. (It is essential that Murray cod intended for release only touch cool wet surfaces and are not put down on any hard, dry, rough or hot surfaces, e.g. boat gunwales, boat floors, dry grass, dry rocks, gravel banks, dry towels or mats, etc. Hands should also be wetted before touching them. They must not be hung vertically by the mouth or gill covers.) Wild Murray cod populations across their range suffer extremely severe infestations of \"Lernaea\" or \"anchor worm\", a parasitic copepod vectored by introduced carp and that burrows into the skin of Murray cod. \"Lernaea\" puncture wounds are often secondarily infected by bacteria. Severe \"Lernaea\" infestations probably causes the death of many more adult Murray cod than commonly recognised. Ebner reports a young adult Murray cod seemingly killed by severe \"Lernaea\" infestation.\n", "Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney. Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (\"Anguilla anguilla\") uses the hormone prolactin, while in salmon (\"Salmo salar\") the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.\n", "Marine teleosts also use gills to excrete electrolytes. The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Saltwater is less dilute than these internal fluids, so saltwater fish lose large quantities of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of seawater and excrete the salt. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water osmotically through their gills.\n", "BULLET::::- Ophidiidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leucicorus lusciosus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leucochlamys cryptophthalmus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Leucochlamys jonassoni\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lucifuca subterraneus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Monothrix polylepis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sciadonus pedicellaris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sciadonus kullenbergi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tauredophidium hextii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sciadonus cryptophthalmus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Typhliasina pearsi\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tauredophidium hextii\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Typhlonus nasus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Synbranchiformes\n\nBULLET::::- Synbranchidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophisternon candidum\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Macrotrema caligans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophisternon bengalense\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Ophisternon infernale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Monopterus boueti\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mastacembelidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mastacembelus brichardi\"\n\nBULLET::::- Perciformes\n\nBULLET::::- Gobiidae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caragobius urolepis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lethops connectens\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Luciogobius albus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Milyeringa veritas\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Typhleotris madagascariensis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Caragobius urolepis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gobioididae\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brachyamblyopus brachysoma\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brachyamblyopus multiradiatus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brachyamblyopus coectus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brachyamblyopus urolepis\"\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.:Environmental osmotic conditions.\n\nSouthern bluefin tuna migrate between a variety of different ocean regions, however the osmotic conditions faced by the tuna stay relatively similar. This species of tuna inhabits ocean areas that are relatively high in salinity compared to the rest of the world’s oceans. Like other marine teleost fish, the southern bluefin tuna maintain a constant ion concentration in both their intracellular and extracellular fluids. This regulation of an internal ion concentration classifies southern bluefin tuna as osmoregulators.\n", "In captivity, breeding can be difficult to achieve. Some aquarists report that large water changes with relatively cold water can stimulate habrosus in to spawning.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-10466	How do scientists discover the specific functions of tiny structures such as cytokines or neurotransmitters?	I think the current answer is pretty whack. The answer has historically gone like this: Some biologist crushes up some organ, usually brain or kidney, and through various extraction procedures, comes up with something with some powder that they reckon is a single compound, though because it's the 1920-40s, they aren't sure. The put it on some piece of tissue (like a loop of gut, or a blood vessel), and see if it does anything. And if it does something unusual, or if it isn't blocked by drugs which other people have shown blocks other extracts from that same organ, then the biologist says they have extracted a new compound. It's the 1950s and Chemistry gets better, and then people find out which of these extracts are single compounds, and what there structure is. They often give them new names at this point, when they realize that compounds that they thought were unrelated are actually related, or even the same thing. People also develop a technology called "immunohistochemistry". It used the ability of antibodies to bind to very specific things. For instance, if you inject rabbits with small amounts of a foreign protein, after a while, you can find antibodies to that protein in their blood. You can separate out those proteins, and bind a chemical to them: maybe one that glows, or maybe one that makes visible chemicals. If you treat tissue with these antibodies, you can find where that protein you started with is. This allowed us to see where receptors, and some neurotransmitters lived within a cell, and continues to be an incredibly important technique to this day. In the 1960s people start making really good drugs which allow you to figure out exactly what receptors exist, e.g. they might think a neurotransmitter binds to a single receptor, but they found out that with a new drug they could block some of the effects of the neurotransmitter, but not others. This made them conclude that there were in fact more than one receptor. This goes on, and something like serotonin goes from binding to two receptors, to something like 16. During this time, basic pharmacologists keep injecting cells, tissues and animals with lots of drugs, figuring out how individual receptors had an effect. In the 1990s, people got good at messing with genes. They found lots of new receptors this way, because they gene of one receptor usually looks a lot like the gene for another. (These dates are approximate, but give you some idea).	[ "In 1985, research by neuropharmacologist Candace Pert, of the National Institutes of Health at Georgetown University, revealed that neuropeptide-specific receptors are present on the cell walls of both the brain and the immune system. The discovery that neuropeptides and neurotransmitters act directly upon the immune system shows their close association with emotions and suggests mechanisms through which emotions, from the limbic system, and immunology are deeply interdependent. Showing that the immune and endocrine systems are modulated not only by the brain but also by the central nervous system itself affected the understanding of emotions, as well as disease.\n", "Section::::Systems of interest.:Combinatorial chemistry.\n\nChemical biologists used automated synthesis of many diverse compounds in order to experiment with effects of small molecules on biological processes. More specifically, they observe changes in the behaviors of proteins when small molecules bind to them. Such experiments may supposedly lead to discovery of small molecules with antibiotic or chemotherapeutic properties. These combinatorial chemistry approaches are identical to those employed in the discipline of pharmacology.\n\nSection::::Systems of interest.:Molecular sensing.\n", "Modern developments in neuroanatomy are directly correlated to the technologies used to perform research. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the various tools that are available. Many of the histological techniques used to study other tissues can be applied to the nervous system as well. However, there are some techniques that have been developed especially for the study of neuroanatomy.\n\nSection::::Tools.:Cell staining.\n\nIn biological systems, staining is a technique used to enhance the contrast of particular features in microscopic images.\n", "Cytokinin sensor kinases are the initial sensors that detect and are bound by cytokinins. Research with maize and \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" suggest that some cytokinin sensor kinases bind multiple types of cytokinins while other cytokinin sensor kinases are specific for distinct cytokinins.\n\nAHK4, a cytokinin histidine kinase in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\", is a cytokinin sensor that allows binding of multiple types of cytokinins. AHK4 has been shown, through three-dimensional modeling, to completely surround bound cytokinin in the binding pocket.\n", "Section::::Tools.:Dye-based methods.\n", "The neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini \"factories\" for producing secretory products; their nerve terminals are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons are good \"model systems\" for studying general questions, like \"how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?\" and \"how is information encoded in electrical activity?\"[It appears that this is a primary source observation.]\n\nSection::::Neuroendocrine system.:Pituitary gland.\n", "BULLET::::- Neurotransmitters are signaling molecules of the nervous system, also including neuropeptides and neuromodulators. Neurotransmitters like the catecholamines are also secreted by the endocrine system into the systemic circulation.\n\nBULLET::::- Cytokines are signaling molecules of the immune system, with a primary paracrine or juxtacrine role, though they can during significant immune responses have a strong presence in the circulation, with systemic effect (altering iron metabolism or body temperature). Growth factors can be considered as cytokines or a different class.\n", "BULLET::::- Find active subnetworks/pathway modules. The network is screened against gene expression data to identify connected sets of interactions, i.e. interaction subnetworks, whose genes show particularly high levels of differential expression. The interactions contained in each subnetwork provide hypotheses for the regulatory and signaling interactions in control of the observed expression changes.\n", "The scope of this activity has been stretched even further to the very blueprint of life since the clarification of the mechanism underlying gene transcription. The synthesis of cellular proteins from nuclear DNA has the same fundamental machinery for all cells; the exploration of which now has a firm basis thanks to the Human Genome Project which has enumerated the entire human DNA sequence, although many of the estimated 35,000 genes remain to be identified. The complete neurotransmission process extends to the genetic level. Gene expression determines protein structures through type II RNA polymerase. So enzymes which synthesize or breakdown neurotransmitters, receptors, and ion channels are each made from mRNA via the DNA transcription of their respective gene or genes. But neurotransmission, in addition to controlling ion channels either directly or otherwise through metabotropic processes, also actually modulates gene expression. This is most prominently achieved through modification of the \"transcription initiation process\" by a variety of transcription factors produced from receptor activity.\n", "It is common to model such a network with a set of coupled ordinary differential equations (ODEs) or SDEs, describing the reaction kinetics of the constituent parts. Suppose that our regulatory network has formula_1 nodes, and let formula_2 represent the concentrations of the formula_1 corresponding substances at time formula_4. Then the temporal evolution of the system can be described approximately by\n", "After introducing one or more such compounds into tissue via perfusion, injection or gene expression, the 1 or 2-dimensional distribution of electrical activity may be observed and recorded. \n\nSection::::Intracellular recording.\n\nIntracellular recording involves measuring voltage and/or current across the membrane of a cell. To make an intracellular recording, the tip of a fine (sharp) microelectrode must be inserted inside the cell, so that the membrane potential can be measured. Typically, the resting membrane potential of a healthy cell will be -60 to -80 mV, and during an action potential the membrane potential might reach +40 mV.\n", "Aside from the important pharmacological possibilities of gene expression pathways, the correspondence of a gene with its protein allows the important analytical tool of gene knockout. Living specimens can be created using homolog recombination in which a specific gene cannot be expressed. The organism will then be deficient in the associated protein which may be a specific receptor. This method avoids chemical blockade which can produce confusing or ambiguous secondary effects so that the effects of a lack of receptor can be studied in a purer sense.\n\nSection::::Drugs.\n", "Another means for intercellular signaling could be via the exchange of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). These vesicles are produced from the outer membrane of myxobacterial cells and are found in large quantities within bacterial biofilms. OMVs appear to play a variety of roles in myxobacterial swarming, predation, and development.\n\nSection::::Current Research.:Natural secondary metabolites.\n\nNatural products have been the source of most of the active ingredients in medicine, and continue to be an important source despite the advent of automated high-throughput screening methods for drug discovery in synthetic compounds.\n", "By using known neurotransmitters that affect non-spiking neurons, modeled neural networks may be modified to either ease neuromuscular hyperactivity, or cells themselves may be transformed to be able to provide stronger signals. A calcium transporter study indicates the effect that protein channels have on the overall fidelity and firing capacity of the non-spiking neurons. Since most of the propagated messages are based on a proportionality constant, meaning, there is not a temporal or spatial significance to the presynaptic firing, these signals literally \"repeat what they have been told\". When it comes down to chemical systems in the body, a non-spiking neural network is definitely an area of exploration. The amacrine cell study poses new and exciting components to the study of altering the chemical and mechanical properties of the non-spiking neural networks.\n", "Each component (or node) of a signaling pathway is classified according to the role it plays with respect to the initial stimulus. Ligands are termed \"first messengers\", while receptors are the \"signal transducers\", which then activate \"primary effectors\". Such effectors are often linked to second messengers, which can activate \"secondary effectors\", and so on. Depending on the efficiency of the nodes, a signal can be amplified (a concept known as signal gain), so that one signaling molecule can generate a response involving hundreds to millions of molecules. As with other signals, the transduction of biological signals is characterised by delay, noise, signal feedback and feedforward and interference, which can range from negligible to pathological. With the advent of computational biology, the analysis of signaling pathways and networks has become an essential tool to understand cellular functions and disease, including signaling rewiring mechanisms underlying responses to acquired drug resistance.\n", "Immunocytochemistry is a special case of histochemistry that uses selective antibodies against a variety of chemical epitopes of the nervous system to selectively stain particular cell types, axonal fascicles, neuropiles, glial processes or blood vessels, or specific intracytoplasmic or intranuclear proteins and other immunogenetic molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters. Immunoreacted transcription factor proteins reveal genomic readout in terms of translated protein. This immensely increases the capacity of researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and glia) in various regions of the nervous system.\n", "Patients with Midgut Carcinoid disease (MGC) commonly receive neurokinin A test to determine the progression of their disease. Midgut Carcinoid disease is an uncommon disease with occurrence rates of approximately 1.4 per 100,000 of the population per year. MGC has an unpredictable disease progression depending on the patient, symptoms and progression range from rapid and aggressive to chronic. Treatment is difficult because of the varying degrees of severity, so assessing the extent of the disease is extremely important in effective treatment.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Asthma.\n", "After initial exploration with a single protein, increasingly complex systems were studied by bio-electrosprays. These include, but are not limited to, neuronal cells, stem cells, and even whole embryos. The potential of the method was demonstrated by investigating cytogenetic and physiological changes of human lymphocyte cells as well as conducting comprehensive genetic, genomic and physiological state studies of human cells and cells of the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.\n", "Each of the phases is subject to physico-chemical interactions between a drug and an organism, which can be expressed mathematically. Pharmacokinetics is therefore based on mathematical equations that allow the prediction of a drug's behavior and which place great emphasis on the relationships between drug plasma concentrations and the time elapsed since the drug's administration.\n\nSection::::Analysis.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Bioanalytical methods.\n", "Many secretomic studies are conducted \"in vitro\" with cell culture methods, but it is unclear whether the same proteins are secreted \"in vivo\". More and more studies, especially those looking at the cancer secretome, are using \"in vivo\" methods to confirm the relevance of the results obtained \"in vitro\". For example, proximal biological fluids can be collected adjacent to a tumor in order to conduct a secretomic analysis.\n\nSection::::Methods.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Genome-wide prediction.\n", "By the last decade of the 20th century, the essential knowledge of all the central features of neurotransmission had been gained. These features are:\n\nBULLET::::- The synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter substances,\n\nBULLET::::- The transport of synaptic vesicles and subsequent release into the synapse,\n\nBULLET::::- Receptor activation and cascade function,\n\nBULLET::::- Transport mechanisms (reuptake) and/or enzyme degradation\n", "At Cornell, Dr. August worked with Dr. Bo Dupont, working on unraveling the molecular basis for T cell costimulation by the cell surface protein CD28. This work resulted in 9 publications (see references at PubMed). This work also led to the production of his PhD thesis entitled \"On the molecular basis of the two signal hypothesis of T cell activation: Signaling by CD3 and CD28\".\n", "Bioanalytical methods are necessary to construct a concentration-time profile. Chemical techniques are employed to measure the concentration of drugs in biological matrix, most often plasma. Proper bioanalytical methods should be selective and sensitive. For example, microscale thermophoresis can be used to quantify how the biological matrix/liquid affects the affinity of a drug to its target.\n\nSection::::Analysis.:Mass spectrometry.\n", "The F-H method allowed, for the first time, the examiner to watch these monoamines light up in the microscope and to precisely determine in which cells they were present, and thereby understanding their functions. The method was developed by Bengt Falck and Nils-Åke Hillarp in the 1960s at the Department of Histology, University of Lund. For intense neurobiological research it became possible to demonstrate the presence of monoamines in nerve cells belonging to the central and the peripheral nervous system and for the first time comprehend that these substances act as signal substances, i.e. transmitters.\n", "Immunocytochemistry, which involves raising antibodies against targeted chemical or biological entities, includes a few other techniques of interest. A targeted neurotransmitter could be specifically tagged by primary and secondary antibodies with radioactive labeling in order to identify the neurotransmitter by autoradiography. The presence of neurotransmitters (though not necessarily the location) can be observed in enzyme-linked immunocytochemistry or enzyme--linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) in which substrate-binding in the enzymatic assays can induce precipitates, fluorophores, or chemiluminescence. In the event that neurotransmitters cannot be histochemically identified, an alternative method is to locate them by their neural uptake mechanisms.\n\nSection::::Voltage-gated ion channels.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03831	Why do some businesses prefer to be paid in cash?	Probably because credit card processing companies charge them a percentage per transaction and with cash, they get to keep it all. That’s why you see places have a credit card minimum — transactions under a certain amount probably aren’t worth it for them because of the associated fees.	[ "In some countries COD remains a popular option with internet-based retailers, since it is far easier to set up for small businesses and does not require the purchaser to have a credit card. Many small businesses prefer cash payment to credit card payment, as it avoids credit card processing fees. Some shops also offer discounts if paid in cash, because they can offer a better price to the consumer.\n", "However, companies with a big value of cash and cash equivalents are targets for takeovers (by other companies), since their excess cash helps buyers to finance their acquisition. High cash reserves can also indicate that the company is not effective at deploying its CCE resources, whereas for big companies it might be a sign of preparation for substantial purchases. The opportunity cost of saving up CCE is the return on equity that company could earn by investing in a new product or service or expansion of business.\n\nSection::::Components of cash.\n\nBULLET::::- Currency\n\nBULLET::::- Coins\n", "In the US and Eurozone, 80% of transactions are still made using cash. Cash handling products provide security for those parties involved in the cash handling chain. Typically these include central banks, retail banks, retailers and cash-in-transit (CIT) companies.\n\nCash handling encompasses products for cash transfer, cash deposit, cash recycling, coin roll dispensing and the management of cash handling processes.\n\nSection::::Products.:Physical Security.\n", "BULLET::::- Advanced web services: Most banks have an Internet-based system which is more advanced than the one available to consumers. This enables managers to create and authorize special internal logon credentials, allowing employees to send wires and access other cash management features normally not found on the consumer web site.\n\nBULLET::::- Armored car services/cash collection: Large retailers who collect a great deal of cash may have the bank pick this cash up via an armored car company, instead of asking its employees to deposit the cash.\n", "Cashless payments eliminate several risks, including counterfeit money (though stolen cards are still a risk), theft of cash by employees, and burglary or robbery of cash. The costs of physical security, physically processing cash (withdrawing from the bank, transporting, counting) are also reduced once a business goes completely cashless, as is the risk that the business will not have enough cash on hand to make change.\n\nSection::::Advantages of a cashless society.:Reducing transmittal of disease via cash.\n\nCash provides a good home for disease-causing bacteria, according to a study on the bacterial composition in banknotes.\n\nSection::::Advantages of a cashless society.:Transaction speed.\n", "The trend towards use of non-cash transactions and settlement began in daily life during the 1990s, when electronic banking became common. By the 2010s digital payment methods were widespread in many countries, with examples including intermediaries such as PayPal, digital wallet systems operated by companies like Apple, contactless and NFC payments by electronic card or smartphone, and electronic bills and banking, all in widespread use. By the 2010s cash had become actively disfavored in some kinds of transaction which would historically have been very ordinary to pay with physical tender, and larger cash amounts were in some situations treated with suspicion, due to its versatility and ease of use in money laundering and financing of terrorism, and actively prohibited by some suppliers and retailers, to the point of coining the expression of a \"war on cash\". \n", "Section::::Usage.\n\nMerchant cash advances are most often used by retail businesses that do not qualify for regular bank loans and are generally more expensive than bank loans. Competition and innovation led to downward pressure on rates and terms are now more closely correlated with an applicant's FICO score.\n\nSmall businesses take out loans and cash advances when they believe that the opportunities offered by expanded financial assets will outweigh the costs. Small businesses that don’t have the cash on hand to fund an expansion by themselves could rely on external funding, such as a merchant cash advance.\n", "The phrase was a favorite of Alex Spanos and has sometimes appeared in Motley Fool articles and commentaries. It describes the importance of sufficient cash as an asset in the business for short term operations, purchases and acquisitions. A company could have a large amount of accounts receivables on its balance sheet which would also increase equity, but the company could still be short on cash with which to make purchases, including paying wages to workers for labor. Unless it was able to convert its accounts receivable and other current assets to cash quickly, it could fail and be technically bankrupt despite a positive net worth.\n", "A higher pay out rate of earning in the form of share repurchase or cash/share dividend might also increase the risk of future dividend cut and is an indication of lack of growth opportunity.\n\nSince the business unit can maintain profits with little maintenance or investment, a cash cow can also be used to describe a profitable but complacent company or business unit.\n", "Firms always have the option to pay down debt with excess cash, but they do not always choose to do so. This can lead to firms burning their cash reserves and putting them into worse situations in the future. A cash sweep forces the firm to pay at least a portion of all excess cash flows a year to pay down its debt at a quicker rate to minimize credit risk and liability.\n", "In Wisconsin, for example, forest-products and lumber companies were specifically exempted from the state law requiring employers to pay workers' wages in cash. Lumber and timber companies frequently paid their workers in scrip which was redeemable at the company store. Company-run stores served as a convenience for workers and their families, but also allowed the companies to recapture some of their labor expenses. In certain cases, employers included contract provisions requiring employees to patronize the company stores. Employees who wanted to change their scrip to cash generally had to do so at a discount.\n", "As of 13 July 2017, the company's official website is inactive and displays a message about a \"time out\" of business activities.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe term \"CashCashPinoy\" was coined using the words \"cash\" (for the discount aspect) and \"pinoy\" (an informal demonym referring to the local Filipino people). The company was founded by Frederic Levy, together with 2 other French and a Filipino entrepreneur.\n", "The origin of ”cash is king” is not clear. It was used in 1988, after the global stock market crash in 1987, by Pehr G. Gyllenhammar, who at the time was Chief Executive Officer of Swedish car group Volvo. \n\nThe phrase was widely used during the global financial crisis, which started in the fall of 2008. In the recession which followed the financial crisis, the phrase was often used to describe companies which could avoid share issues or bankruptcy. ”Cash is king” is relevant also to households, i.e., to avoid foreclosures.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::4. While business planning, skills enhancement and training support is useful, if a clear investment opportunity (fishing boat, cow, etc.) is available, that is normally enough.\n\nBULLET::::5. Context must be considered, e.g. people cannot build a house if they have no access to land.\n\nBULLET::::6. Large cash transfers risk creating corruption or being used as a tool to gain political support for the government.\n\nSection::::Wider economic, political and social implications.\n", "BULLET::::- Lockbox—wholesale services: Often companies (such as utilities) which receive a large number of payments via checks in the mail have the bank set up a post office box for them, open their mail, and deposit any checks found. This is referred to as a \"lockbox\" service.\n\nBULLET::::- Lockbox—retail services: are for companies with small numbers of payments, sometimes with detailed requirements for processing. This might be a company like a dentist's office or small manufacturing company.\n", "When payment transactions are stored in servers, it increases the risks of unauthorized breaches by hackers. Financial cyber attacks and digital crime also form a greater risks when going cashless. Many companies already suffer data breaches, including of payment systems. Electronic accounts are vulnerable to unauthorized access and transfer of funds to another account or unauthorized purchases.\n\nAttacks on or accidental outages of telecommunication infrastructure also prevents electronic payments from working, unlike cash transactions which can continue with minimal infrastructure.\n\nSection::::Concerns.:Centralized control.\n", "The context level processes are utilized in a number of ways by businesses such as business process reengineering, aligning enterprise architectures and IT solutions as well as \"blueprinting\" as part of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems.\n", "Cash account\n\nIn business practice, cash account refers to a business-to-business or business-to-consumer account which is conducted on an immediate payment basis i.e. no credit is offered.\n", "Often, both the employer and employee agree on paying in cash. Frequently, the employer is running an unreported cash-based business. These methods make detection by authorities to be time-consuming and difficult. Most small-scale operations take place without any real enforcement effort. Lawn-mowing is a good example of a cash-based business that is frequently unreported.\n", "Qualitative and participatory research carried out by the Overseas Development Institute (in Kenya, Mozambique, the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Uganda and Yemen) investigating individual and community perceptions of cash transfer programmes reveals that the money has a number of positive, and potentially transformative, effects on the lives of the individuals and families that receive them, including:\n\n• People prefer to receive cash than other forms of assistance (food aid, public works, etc.) because it gives them the freedom to spend the money on the things they feel they need.\n", "A cash register's drawer can only be opened by an instruction from the cash register except when using special keys, generally held by the owner and some employees (e.g. manager). This reduces the amount of contact most employees have with cash and other valuables. It also reduces risks of an employee taking money from the drawer without a record and the owner's consent, such as when a customer does not expressly ask for a receipt but still has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than inventory).\n", "Section::::Salary packaging in Australia.\n\nContrary to popular belief, provisions in the FBT (Fringe Benefits Tax) act allow for the employees of private companies to utilise.\n\nItems commonly salary packaged include:\n\nBULLET::::- vehicles (either a company car or through a novated lease)\n\nBULLET::::- mobile phones\n\nBULLET::::- laptop computers\n", "People are more likely to spend more and get into debt when they use credit cards vs. cash for buying products and services. This is primarily because of the transparency effect and consumer's \"pain of paying.\" The transparency effect refers to the fact that the further you are from cash (as in a credit card or another form of payment), the less transparent it is and the less you remember how much you spent. The less transparent or further away from cash, the form of payment employed is, the less an individual feels the “pain of paying” and thus is likely to spend more. Furthermore, the differing physical appearance/form that credit cards have from cash may cause them to be viewed as “monopoly” money vs. real money, luring individuals to spend more money than they would if they only had cash available.\n", "BULLET::::- Money order is a financial instrument issued by government or financial institutions which is used by payee to receive cash on demand. The advantage of money orders over checks is that it is more trusted since it is always prepaid. They are acceptable for payment of personal or small business's debts and can be purchased for a small fee at many locations such as post office and grocery.\n", "By 2016, only about 2% of the value transacted in Sweden was by cash, and only about 20% of retail transactions were in cash. Fewer than half of bank branches in the country conducted cash transactions. The move away from cash is attributed to banks convincing employers to use direct deposit in the 1960s, banks charging for checks starting in the 1990s, banks launching the convenient Swish smartphone-to-phone payment system in 2012, and the launch of iZettle for small merchants to accept credit cards in 2011.\n\nSection::::Measurement.\n\nSection::::Measurement.:Share of payments.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-15773	Why are human eyeballs white?	It is theorized that humans evolved whites of the eyes as a form of nonverbal communication. Because your eyes have whites, I can look at your eyes and see what you’re looking at. I can see if you’re making eye contact with me, or looking down. You can silently catch my eye, and then gesture with your eyes, like “look at the caboose on her!”. You can open them wide and express surprise, or narrow them and appear angry or suspicious. Just one more way to interact socially, which is about all we do.	[ "The structure of the mammalian eye has a laminar organization that can be divided into three main layers or \"tunics\" whose names reflect their basic functions: the fibrous tunic, the vascular tunic, and the nervous tunic.\n\nBULLET::::- The fibrous tunic, also known as the \"tunica fibrosa oculi\", is the outer layer of the eyeball consisting of the cornea and sclera. The sclera gives the eye most of its white color. It consists of dense connective tissue filled with the protein collagen to both protect the inner components of the eye and maintain its shape.\n", "The sclera, also known as the white of the eye, is the opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of the human eye containing mainly collagen and some elastic fiber. In humans, the whole sclera is white, contrasting with the coloured iris, but in other mammals the visible part of the sclera matches the colour of the iris, so the white part does not normally show. In the development of the embryo, the sclera is derived from the neural crest. In children, it is thinner and shows some of the underlying pigment, appearing slightly blue. In the elderly, fatty deposits on the sclera can make it appear slightly yellow. Many people with dark skin have naturally darkened sclerae, the result of melanin pigmentation.\n", "Human eyes are somewhat distinctive in the animal kingdom in that the sclera is very plainly visible whenever the eye is open. This is not just due to the white colour of the human sclera, which many other species share, but also to the fact that the human iris is relatively small and comprises a significantly smaller portion of the exposed eye surface compared to other animals. It is theorized that this adaptation evolved because of our social nature as the eye became a useful communication tool in addition to a sensory organ. It is believed that the conspicuous sclera of the human eye makes it easier for one individual to infer where another individual is looking, increasing the efficacy of this particular form of nonverbal communication. Animal researchers have also found that, in the course of their domestication, dogs have also developed the ability to pick up visual cues from the eyes of humans. Dogs do not seem to use this form of communication with one another and only look for visual information from the eyes of humans.\n", "Section::::Behaviour.\n\nSection::::Behaviour.:Vocalisations.\n", "White eyeshine occurs in many fish, especially walleye; blue eyeshine occurs in many mammals such as horses; green eyeshine occurs in mammals such as cats, dogs, and raccoons; and red eyeshine occurs in coyote, rodents, opossums and birds.\n\nAlthough human eyes lack a tapetum lucidum, they still exhibit a weak reflection from the fundus, as can be seen in photography with the red-eye effect and with near-infrared eyeshine. Another effect in humans and other animals that may resemble eyeshine is \"leukocoria\", which is a white shine indicative of abnormalities such as cataracts and cancers.\n\nSection::::Eyeshine.:In blue-eyed cats and dogs.\n", "Unlike other primates, human beings have eyes with a distinct colour contrast between the white sclera, the coloured iris, and the black pupil. This is due to a lack of pigment in the sclera. Other primates have pigmented sclerae that are brown or dark in colour. There is also a higher contrast between human skin, sclera, and irises. Human eyes are also larger in proportion to body size, and are longer horizontally. Among primates, humans are the only ones where the outline of the eye and the position of the iris can be clearly seen.\n\nSection::::Studies.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "The color of the fundus varies both between and within species. In one study of primates the retina is blue, green, yellow, orange, and red; only the human fundus (from a lightly pigmented blond person) is red. The major differences noted among the \"higher\" primate species were size and regularity of the border of macular area, size and shape of the optic disc, apparent 'texturing' of retina, and pigmentation of retina.\n\nSection::::Clinical significance.\n", "Section::::Pigmentation.\n\nThe pigment molecules used in the eye are various, but can be used to define the evolutionary distance between different groups, and can also be an aid in determining which are closely related—although problems of convergence do exist.\n\nOpsins are the pigments involved in photoreception. Other pigments, such as melanin, are used to shield the photoreceptor cells from light leaking in from the sides.\n\nThe opsin protein group evolved long before the last common ancestor of animals, and has continued to diversify since.\n", "In humans and most other primates, melanin occurs throughout the choroid. In albino humans, frequently melanin is absent and vision is low. In many animals, however, the partial absence of melanin contributes to superior night vision. In these animals, melanin is absent from a section of the choroid and within that section a layer of highly reflective tissue, the tapetum lucidum, helps to collect light by reflecting it in a controlled manner. The uncontrolled reflection of light from dark choroid produces the photographic red-eye effect on photos, whereas the controlled reflection of light from the tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine (see Tapetum lucidum).\n", "BULLET::::- The vascular tunic, also known as the \"tunica vasculosa oculi\" or the \"uvea\", is the middle vascularized layer which includes the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. The choroid contains blood vessels that supply the retinal cells with necessary oxygen and remove the waste products of respiration. The choroid gives the inner eye a dark color, which prevents disruptive reflections within the eye. The iris is seen rather than the cornea when looking straight in one's eye due to the latter's transparency, the pupil (central aperture of iris) is black because there is no light reflected out of the interior eye. If an ophthalmoscope is used, one can see the fundus, as well as vessels (which supply additional blood flow to the retina) especially those crossing the optic disk—the point where the optic nerve fibers depart from the eyeball—among others\n", "Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called \"nerve fiber tracts\". A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored white matter, in contrast to the darker-colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Evolution.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Evolution.:Generic bilaterian nervous system.\n", "Section::::Function.\n\nThe protein coded by the \"white\" gene functions as an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter. It carries the precursors of the red and brown eye color pigments, guanine and tryptophan, into the developing eyes during pupation. White-eyed flies are not blind; instead they are easily temporarily blinded by bright light at certain frequencies because they lack the protection provided by the red and brown pigments. The human version of \"white\" is ABCG1, and is involved in transporting lipids and cholesterol into cells.\n\nSection::::Effects of White Eye Mutation.\n", "The human eye is relatively rare for having an iris that is small enough for its position to be plainly visible against the sclera. This makes it easier for one individual to infer where another individual is looking, and the cooperative eye hypothesis suggests this has evolved as a method of nonverbal communication.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "The conjunctiva covers the sclera, or whites of the eyes, as well as the insides of the eyelids and provides nutrients to underlying and surrounding tissue. The conjunctiva is also one of the closest vascularized tissues to the cornea. As such, it provides a major source of immune components in the cornea. Not only does the conjunctiva produce IgA, like the lacrimal glands, but it also contains macrophages, neutrophilic granulocytes, mast cells, lymphocytes, and other aspects of the general mucosal immune system. Like the rest of the MALT pathway, the conjunctiva has been found to possess lymphoid follicles, which develop at puberty and decline in old age, as well as diffuse lymphoid tissues. The conjunctiva also possess macrophages that play a part in modulating the T-cell immune response and mediating both the innate and acquired immune responses.\n", "BULLET::::7. Immune privilege of the eye: The inner eye represents an immune privileged space which is disconnected from the immune system of the blood stream. The immune privilege is supported by the RPE in two ways. First, it represents a mechanical and tight barrier which separates the inner space of the eye from the blood stream. Second, the RPE is able to communicate with the immune system in order to silence immune reaction in the healthy eye or, on the other hand, to activate the immune system in the case of disease.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "BULLET::::- The fibrous tunic consists of the sclera and cornea and protects the eye. The sclera (white of the eye) is made up of elastin and collagen. The cornea (clear covering on the front of the eye) is made up of connective tissue and bathed in lacrimal fluid and aqueous humor, which provides it nutrition, as it does not have access to blood vessels.\n", "BULLET::::3. Corneal stroma (also \"substantia propria\"): a thick, transparent middle layer, consisting of regularly arranged collagen fibers along with sparsely distributed interconnected keratocytes, which are the cells for general repair and maintenance. They are parallel and are superimposed like book pages. The corneal stroma consists of approximately 200 layers of mainly type I collagen fibrils. Each layer is 1.5-2.5 μm. Up to 90% of the corneal thickness is composed of stroma. There are 2 theories of how transparency in the cornea comes about:\n", "Section::::Behaviour.:Diet and feeding.\n", "Section::::Type II opsins.:C-opsins (ciliary).:OPN3 (Encephalopsin or Panopsin).\n\nPanopsins are found in many tissues (skin, brain, testes, heart, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, lung, pancreas and retina). They were originally found in the human and mouse brain and thus called encephalopsin.\n", "The human cornea has five layers (possibly six, if the Dua's layer is included). Corneas of other primates have five known layers. The corneas of cats, dogs, wolves, and other carnivores only have four. From the anterior to posterior the layers of the human cornea are:\n", "Section::::Corneal keratocytes.\n", "Section::::Corneal epithelial cells.\n", "Section::::Function.:Possible role in conscious sight.\n", "The eye is made up of three coats, or layers, enclosing various anatomical structures. The outermost layer, known as the fibrous tunic, is composed of the cornea and sclera. The middle layer, known as the vascular tunic or uvea, consists of the choroid, ciliary body, pigmented epithelium and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its oxygenation from the blood vessels of the choroid (posteriorly) as well as the retinal vessels (anteriorly).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09036	how a black man and a white man with all the same size body parts have distinct voices where you can tell their nationalities apart before even seeing them	Accents don't have a physiological basis. It's learned behavior. There's nothing unique about people with the same accent.	[ "The process of intergroup distinctiveness, as theorized by Tajfel argues, \"... when members of different groups are in contact, they compare themselves on dimensions that are important to them, such as personal attributes, abilities, material possessions and so forth.\" In these \"intergroup social comparisons\" individuals seek to find ways to make themselves positively distinct from the out-group to enhance their social identity. Because speech style and language is an important factor in defining social groups, divergence in speech style or language is often used to maintain intergroup distinctiveness and differentiate from the out-group, especially when group membership is a salient issue or the individual's identity and group membership is being threatened.\n", "BULLET::::- Independent convergent evolution: All three avian groups evolved vocal learning and similar neural pathways independently (not through a common ancestor). This suggests that there are strong epigenetic constraints imposed by the environment or morphological needs, and so this hypothesis predicts that groups that newly evolve vocal learning will also develop similar neural circuits.\n", "For instance, Rickford and McNair-Knox (1994) examined the speech of Foxy Boston, an African-American teenager. Whilst on the whole they found that Foxy showed higher levels of AAVE features when communicating with African-American interviewers than with the European interviewer, thereby demonstrating the effect of audience design, in one situation Foxy showed considerably lower levels of AAVE features when interacting with the African-American interviewers. Interpreting these patterns, Rickford and McNair-Knox argue that Foxy's speech can be interpreted in terms of referee design. At the time, Foxy was attending a mainstream American High School where Standard American English was likely to be overtly prescribed. Thus, it is possible that Foxy was designing her speech to reflect the norms of a non-present speech community with which she identifies.\n", "An often cited study, the \"Teamsterville\" study, was conducted by Philipsen in Chicago. The study took place in the late 1960s and early 1970s. According to Miller, the \"Teamsterville\" nickname was given to the area of Chicago studied because the primary job of the area's men was truck driving. For three years, Philipsen spoke with everyone he could; from a kid on the corner to the women on their front porches, and men in bars. Although the people all spoke English, Philipsen could recognize the differences between their speech codes and his. As a follow up, another study, the \"Nacirema\" (American spelled backwards) study was conducted that contrasted the speech of Teamsterville with that of the average American.\n", "Some speakers who are not part of a particular ethnic group may also make use of elements of the group’s ethnolect, which can include behaviours like crossing or passing when people imitate an ethnic stereotype or assimilate to an ethnic group’s behaviour to be included. This can be observed in phenomena such as ‘crossing’ in multi-ethnic interactions. For example, elements of AAVE are used by people who have little association with African Americans because of the language's influence in hip-hop. Non-group members may also extensively employ features from an ethnic group’s repertoire in their speech if they spend much of their time with the group members. \n", "It is because of these personal differences, that in studying cultural communication patterns we sometimes find it necessary to speak in stereotypes and generalizations. Just as one might say that Puerto Ricans who speak Spanish tend to use a louder voice than others communicating at the same distance, it would not be fair to say that all Puerto Ricans exhibit the same qualities. There are obviously enormous variations within each culture. These variations can depend on age, gender, geographical location, race, socioeconomic status, and personality. Because there are so many factors to study, most are generally glossed over in favor of stereotypes and generalizations.\n", "If a subject who is a monolingual native English speaker is presented with a stimulus of speech in German, the string of phonemes will appear as mere sounds and will produce a very different experience than if exactly the same stimulus was presented to a subject who speaks German.\n\nHe also examines how speech perception changes when one learning a language. If a subject with no knowledge of the Japanese language was presented with a stimulus of Japanese speech, and then was given the exact \"same\" stimuli after being taught Japanese, this \"same\" individual would have an extremely \"different\" experience.\n", "A major precedent was formed on the use of linguistic profiling in the case of \"Sanchez v. People\". A witness testified against a suspect based on his overhearing of an argument between two apparent Spanish speakers where the killer was identified as having a Dominican rather than a Puerto Rican accent. The New York Superior Court ruled that distinguishing between accents was permissible based on the fact that \"human experience has taught us to discern the variation in the mode of speech of certain individuals.\" The court found that a certain degree of familiarity with the accents and dialects of a region or ethnic group qualified an individual to identify ethnicity or race in a court based on auditory evidence.\n", "Early research asserted that primate calls are fully formed at an early age in development, yet recently some studies have suggested these calls are modified later in life. In 1989, Masataka and Fujita cross-fostered Japanese and rhesus monkeys in the same room and demonstrated that foraging calls were learned directly from their foster mothers, providing evidence of vocal learning. However, when another independent group was unable to reproduce these results, Masataka and Fujita's findings were questioned. Adding to the evidence against vocal learning in non-human primates is the suggestion that regional differences in calls maybe be attributed to genetic differences between populations and not vocal learning.\n", "Kentucky's highest court in the case of \"Clifford vs. Commonwealth\" held that a white police officer, who had not seen the black defendant allegedly involved in a drug transaction, could, nevertheless, identify him as a participant by saying that a voice on an audiotape \"sounded black\". The police officer based this \"identification\" on the fact that the defendant was the only African American man in the room at the time of the transaction and that an audio-tape contained the voice of a man the officer said \"sounded black\" selling crack cocaine to a European American informant planted by the police.\n", "Baker et al. had similar findings in a study in which Utah residents and non-Utah residents were asked to discern the degree of residency of a sample of speakers. Perhaps unsurprisingly, they found that Utah residents and western non-Utah residents tended to correctly identify speakers as being from Utah; the difficulty of other non-Utah residents in identifying Utah speakers was attributed to lack of expertise. However, the western non-Utah residents tended to use more stereotypical phonetic cues to identify speakers than Utah residents. Such findings point to the importance of experience when correctly identifying dialect or region of origin.\n", "Of the four geographical locations chosen in the study, those with the lowest populations of African Americans and Hispanic Americans were shown to have the greatest bias towards the non-standard dialects.\n\nSection::::Ascribed categories.:Race.:Between racial groups.:Distinguishing dialect.\n\nIn order to determine the ability of people to distinguish dialect, a separate experiment was conducted. Fifty undergraduate students, all Caucasian speakers of Standard American English, were asked to identify the ethnicity behind a recording of the word \"hello\" spoken in either Chicano English, African American Vernacular English, and Standard American English.\n", "On the other hand, like the inter-group distinctiveness theory argues, several studies have revealed that when second language learners feel their social identity is threatened due to patronizing behavior towards their ethnic group they are more likely to engage in divergence. In a study conducted by Zuengler (1982) amongst Spanish and Greek speakers learning English, subjects were asked both ethnically threatening and neutral questions by a native English speaker. Those subjects that answered the ethnic-threatening question in a more personal form were noted to decrease the \"native English-like pronunciations of the sounds\" in their answers. Similar results were obtained in a study conducted by Giles and Bourhis conducted in Wales. In this study Welshmen with strong ties to their nation and their language who were learning Welsh were asked questions about methods of second language acquisition. In this study the questions were asked by an English speaker with an RP-sounding accent \"...who at one point arrogantly challenged their reasons for what he called \"... a dying language which had a dismal future.\" In response to this question, which greatly threatened their identity and intergroup distinctiveness, the informants diverged considerably by strengthening their Welsh accents and using Welsh.\n", "\"Can You Make Out Their Voices\" derives from a news story in January 1931 about tenant farmers in Arkansas, who raided a local Red Cross office to feed themselves. Chambers picked up on a common fear of the moment, namely, that this event marked the beginning of further popular uprisings in the face of drought and depression. In his story, the farmers have in their midst a quiet, dignified man—a communist—who unites them so that they take food by gunpoint, opposing the town's top businessman (a local banker, no less—a typical fat cat).\n", "Whale songs recorded along the east coast of Australia in 1996 showed introduction of a novel song by two foreign whales who had migrated from the west Australian coast to the east Australian coast. In just two years, all members of the population had switched songs. This new song was nearly identical to ones sung by migrating humpback whales on the west Australian Coast, and the two new singers who introduced the song are hypothesized to have introduced the new \"foreign\" song to the population on the east Australian coast.\n", "Since the discovery of infants’ statistical learning abilities in word learning, the same general mechanism has also been studied in other facets of language learning. For example, it is well-established that infants can discriminate between phonemes of many different languages but eventually become unable to discriminate between phonemes that do not appear in their native language; however, it was not clear how this decrease in discriminatory ability came about. Maye et al. suggested that the mechanism responsible might be a statistical learning mechanism in which infants track the distributional regularities of the sounds in their native language. To test this idea, Maye et al. exposed 6- and 8-month-old infants to a continuum of speech sounds that varied on the degree to which they were voiced. The distribution that the infants heard was either bimodal, with sounds from both ends of the voicing continuum heard most often, or unimodal, with sounds from the middle of the distribution heard most often. The results indicated that infants from both age groups were sensitive to the distribution of phonemes. At test, infants heard either non-alternating (repeated exemplars of tokens 3 or 6 from an 8-token continuum) or alternating (exemplars of tokens 1 and 8) exposures to specific phonemes on the continuum. Infants exposed to the bimodal distribution listened longer to the alternating trials than the non-alternating trials while there was no difference in listening times for infants exposed to the unimodal distribution. This finding indicates that infants exposed the bimodal distribution were better able to discriminate sounds from the two ends of the distribution than were infants in the unimodal condition, regardless of age. This type of statistical learning differs from that used in lexical acquisition, as it requires infants to track frequencies rather than transitional probabilities, and has been named “distributional learning.”\n", "It has been found that Korean American and Chinese American English speakers tend to have a longer voice onset time (VOT), or the length of time between a plosive and voicing, than other speakers of Standard American English. Furthermore, Korean American speakers tend to have a longer VOT than Chinese American speakers. This distinction is apparent when considering the VOT of the phonemes [p], [k] and [t].\n\nSection::::Ascribed categories.:Race.:Within racial groups.:Chinese American and Korean American English speech.:Rhythm.\n", "Recognizing the speaker can simplify the task of translating speech in systems that have been trained on specific voices or it can be used to authenticate or verify the identity of a speaker as part of a security process. Speaker recognition has a history dating back some four decades and uses the acoustic features of speech that have been found to differ between individuals. These acoustic patterns reflect both anatomy and learned behavioral patterns.\n\nSection::::Verification versus identification.\n", "Diagnosis, up until today, is generally purely perceptually based. However, in order to find out what subtype the patient is suffering from, complementary investigations are necessary. This differentiation is necessary for the clinician to allow for correct therapeutic guidance. Psychological evaluations may be performed in order to rule out any psychiatric condition that may be causing the change in speech, as well as tests to assess reading, writing, and language comprehension in order to identify comorbid disorders often co-occurring with the disorder. One of the symptoms of this syndrome is that the patient moves their tongue or jaw differently while speaking, which creates a different sound, so a recording is done of the speech pattern in order to analyze it. Often images of the brain are taken with either MRI, CT, SPECT or PET scans. This is done in order to see if there is structural and or functional damage in the areas of the brain that control speech and/or rhythm and melody of speech. EEG is sometimes performed to investigate whether there are disturbances at the electrophysiological level.\n", "A well-known example of the identification of race based on auditory sample in a legal setting occurred during the prosecution of O.J. Simpson. A witness testified against Simpson based on his memory of hearing a \"male Black\" voice. The objection of Simpson’s lawyer, Mr. Cochran, was overruled by the presiding judge.\n\nSection::::In institutions.:Legal system.:\"Sanchez v. People\".\n", "These and similar studies have however been criticized by linguists who argue that they are based on a flawed analogy between genes and phonemes, since phonemes are frequently transferred laterally between languages unlike genes, and on a flawed sampling of the world's languages, since both Oceania and the Americas also contain languages with very high numbers of phonemes, and Africa contains languages with very few. They argue that the actual distribution of phonemic diversity in the world reflects recent language contact and not deep language history - since it is well demonstrated that languages can lose or gain many phonemes over very short periods. In other words, there is no valid linguistic reason to expect genetic founder effects to influence phonemic diversity.\n", "Synchronic contrastive study, whether of different languages or of one language (e.g. comparing two dialects of a language), and diachronic contrastive study (e.g. comparing two states in the history of a language) can be a very motivating activity in the language class. Not only does it plug the (apparent) gaps between different languages, it is an opportunity for (re)discovering one’s native language as well.\n\nSection::::The Metaoperational Theory.:An utterer-centered approach.\n", "In an experiment looking at vocal behavior in birds, researchers Marler & Tamura found evidence of song dialects in a sparrow species. Located in the eastern and southern parts of North America, \"Zonotrichia leucophrys\" is a species of white-crowned song-birds that exhibit learned vocal behavior. Marler & Tamura found that while song variation existed between individual birds, each population of birds had a distinct song pattern that varied in accordance to geographical location. For this reason, Marler & Tamura called the patterns of each region a \"dialect\".\n", "Voice analysis has a role in speaker identification, this is when the identity of a speaker is unknown, and has to be identify from an array of other voices or suspects when pertaining to a crime investigation or court trial. Proper identification of speaker and voices particularly for criminal cases depend on a list of factors, like familiarity, exposure, delay, tone of voice, voice disguising, and accents. Familiarity with a speaker increases the chances of properly identifying a voice, and distinguishing it. The amount of exposure to a voice also aids in correctly identifying a voice, even if it is an unfamiliar one. A hearer that listen to a longer utterance or was exposed to a voice more often is better at recognizing a voice, than someone who perhaps was only able to hear one word. A delay between the time of hearing a voice and the time of identifying the speaker also decreases the prospect of identifying the correct speaker. The tone of voice affects the ability to identify the right speaker. If the tone does not match that of the speaker at the time of comparison, it will prove to be more difficult to analyse. Disguise of the voice, for example when a speaker is whispering, will also hinder the ability to accurately match and identify the speaker. In some cases, individuals who speak the same language as the speaker whose voice is being analysed will have an easier time identifying them because of the accent and stress of the voice. \n", "Section::::Criticism of the \"ethnolect\" approach.:Intra-speaker variation.\n\nSpeakers of ethnolects tend to be aware of the differences in their speech compared to others to some extent. They may therefore temper their usage of salient features in their ethnolects when speaking to interlocutors who are not part of their ethnic group and may also be able to code-switch fluently between their ethnolectal variety and Standard English. Speakers who do that are considered to be \"bidialectal\". Yet, the selective use of elements from an ethnolect is not predictable, which then confounds the notion of code-switching.\n\nSection::::Criticism of the \"ethnolect\" approach.:Out-group use.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-17281	Even with their increased speed, how do planes get places so much faster when their altitude means they have so much more distance to travel?	Their altitude typically adds less than 1% to the distance they have to travel. By contrast, they are about 700% as fast as a car on a freeway. And they can fly pretty straight, while a car must follow the road.	[ "The speed for greatest range (i.e., distance travelled) is the speed at which a straight line from the origin is tangent to the fuel flow rate curve. The curve of range versus airspeed is normally very flat and it is customary to operate at the speed for 99% best range since this gives about 5% greater speed for only 1% less range. (Of course, flying higher where the air is thinner will raise the speed at which minimum drag occurs, and so permits a faster voyage for the same amount of fuel. If the plane is flying at the maximum permissible speed, then there is an altitude at which the air density will be what is needed to keep it aloft while flying at the angle of attack that minimizes the drag. The optimum altitude at maximum speed, and the optimum speed at maximum altitude, may change during the flight as the plane becomes lighter.)\n", "Naturally, net thrust will decrease with altitude, because of the lower air density. There is also, however, a flight speed effect.\n", "BULLET::::- An aircraft will climb more slowly as a result of its reduced power production and reduced lift.\n\nDue to these performance issues, an aircraft’s takeoff weight may need to be lowered, or takeoffs may need to be scheduled for cooler times of the day. The wind direction and the runway slope may need to be taken into account.\n\nSection::::Skydiving.\n", "Aircraft efficiency increases with height. Burning fuel decreases the weight of an aircraft which may then choose to increase its flight level to further improve fuel consumption. For example, an aircraft may be able to reach FL290 early in a flight, but step climb to FL370 later in the route after weight has decreased due to fuel burn off.\n\nBULLET::::- RVSM\n\nSection::::Alternate airports.\n", "With EAS constant, true airspeed increases as aircraft altitude increases. This is because air density decreases with higher altitude, but an aircraft's wing requires the same amount of air particles (i.e., mass of air) flowing around it to produce the same amount of lift for a given AOA; thus, a wing must move faster through thinner air than thicker air to obtain the same amount of lift.\n", "Hypermobile travelers are \"highly mobile individuals\" who take \"frequent trips, often over great distances.\" They \"account for a large share of the overall kilometres travelled, especially by air.\" These people contribute significantly to the overall amount of airmiles flown within a given society. Although concerns over hypermobility apply to several modes of transport, the environmental impact of aviation and especially its greenhouse gas emissions have brought particular focus on flying. Among the reasons for this focus is that these emissions, because they are made at high altitude, have a climate impact that is commonly estimated to be 2.7 higher than the same emissions if made at ground-level.\n", "Air transport is the fastest method of transport, Commercial jets reach speeds of up to and a considerably higher ground speed if there is a jet stream tailwind, while piston-powered general aviation aircraft may reach up to or more. This celerity comes with higher cost and energy use, and aviation's impacts to the environment and particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates a commercial jet's flight to have some 2-4 times the effect on the climate than if the same CO emissions were made at ground level, because of different atmospheric chemistry and radiative forcing effects at the higher altitude. U.S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the twelve months between October 2013 and September 2014. WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time are on planes. The global trend has been for increasing numbers of people to travel by air, and individually to do so with increasing frequency and over longer distances, a dilemma that has the attention of climate scientists and other researchers, the press, and the World Wide Web. The issue of impacts from frequent travel, particularly by air because of the longer distances that are easily covered in one or a few days, is called hypermobility and has been a topic of research and governmental concern for many years.\n", "Section::::Comparison with other modes of transport.:Optimal distance.\n\nWhile commercial high-speed trains have lower maximum speeds than jet aircraft, they offer shorter total trip times than air travel for short distances. They typically connect city centre rail stations to each other, while air transport connects airports that are typically farther from city centres.\n", "Section::::Flight efficiency theory.:Weight.:Flight distance.\n\nFor long-haul flights, the airplane needs to carry additional fuel, leading to higher fuel consumption. Above a certain distance it becomes more fuel-efficient to make a halfway stop to refuel, despite the energy losses in descent and climb. For example, a Boeing 777-300 reaches that point at . It is more fuel-efficient to make a non-stop flight at less than this distance and to make a stop when covering a greater total distance.\n", "For long range jet operating in the stratosphere (altitude approximately between 11–20 km), the speed of sound is constant, hence flying at fixed angle of attack and constant Mach number causes the aircraft to climb, without changing the value of the local speed of sound. In this case:\n\nformula_37\n\nwhere formula_38 is the cruise Mach number and formula_39 the speed of sound. W is the weight in kilograms (kg). The range equation reduces to:\n\nformula_40 \n", "BULLET::::- Drag is proportional to the lift required for flight, which is equal to the weight of the aircraft. As induced drag increases with weight, mass reduction, with improvements in engine efficiency and reductions in aerodynamic drag, has been a principal source of efficiency gains in aircraft, with a rule-of-thumb being that a 1% weight reduction corresponds to around a 0.75% reduction in fuel consumption.\n", "Aircraft taking off from a “hot and high” airport, such as the Quito Airport or Mexico City, are at a significant aerodynamic disadvantage. The following effects result from a density altitude that is higher than the actual physical altitude:\n\nBULLET::::- An aircraft will accelerate more slowly on takeoff as a result of its reduced power production.\n\nBULLET::::- An aircraft will need to achieve a higher true airspeed to attain the same amount of lift — this implies both a longer takeoff roll and a higher true airspeed, which must be maintained while airborne to avoid stalling.\n", "BULLET::::2. Naturally, as altitude increases, there is a decrease in air density and, therefore, the net thrust of an engine. There is also a flight speed effect, termed thrust lapse rate. Consider the approximate equation for net thrust again:formula_2With a high specific thrust (e.g., fighter) engine, the jet velocity is relatively high, so intuitively one can see that increases in flight velocity have less of an impact upon net thrust than a medium specific thrust (e.g., trainer) engine, where the jet velocity is lower. The impact of thrust lapse rate upon a low specific thrust (e.g., civil) engine is even more severe. At high flight speeds, high-specific-thrust engines can pick up net thrust through the ram rise in the intake, but this effect tends to diminish at supersonic speeds because of shock wave losses.\n", "There are several ways to reduce energy usage in air transportation, from modifications to the planes themselves, to how air traffic is managed. As in cars, turbochargers are an effective way to reduce energy consumption; however, instead of allowing for the use of a smaller-displacement engine, turbochargers in jet turbines operate by compressing the thinner air at higher altitudes. This allows the engine to operate as if it were at sea-level pressures while taking advantage of the reduced drag on the aircraft at higher altitudes.\n", "Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount, which is why high-bypass turbofans and turboprops are commonly used on cargo planes and airliners.\n", "Step and cruise climbs are not normally applicable to lower-flying aircraft propelled by conventional piston engines with propellers or turboprops, since their performance characteristics may be very different from those of turbofan or jet engined aircraft. In fact, the most efficient altitude for a small general aviation aircraft may be only a few thousand feet above the ground, and increasing altitude may diminish efficiency rather than improve it (propellers tend to lose efficiency in thinner air, and many small general aviation aircraft lack supercharging, effectively decreasing the engine's compression pressure, and therefore efficiency, as the aircraft climbs into more rarified atmosphere).\n", "BULLET::::- Flight altitude affects engine efficiency. Jet-engine efficiency increases at altitude up to the tropopause, the temperature minimum of the atmosphere; at lower temperatures, the Carnot efficiency is higher. Jet engine efficiency is also increased at high speeds, but above about Mach 0.85 the airframe aerodynamic losses increase faster.\n\nBULLET::::- Compressibility effects: beginning at transonic speeds of around Mach 0.85, shockwaves form increasing drag.\n\nBULLET::::- For supersonic flight, it is difficult to achieve a lift to drag ratio greater than 5, and fuel consumption is increased in proportion.\n", "Air density decreases with altitude, thus lowering drag, assuming the aircraft maintains a constant equivalent airspeed. This means an aircraft may be more efficient at higher altitude. With increasing altitude, air pressure and temperature both decrease, causing the maximum power or thrust of aircraft engines to reduce. In a piston engine, this trend towards a decline in maximum power can be mitigated by the installation of a turbocharger. Decreasing air temperature with altitude increases thermal efficiency.\n\nSection::::Operations.:Airlines.\n", "BULLET::::- Above 34000 ft: M0.83\n\nWith their higher performance characteristics, military aircraft have higher holding speed limits.\n\nIn Canada, the speeds are:\n\nBULLET::::- All propeller including turboprop aircraft – MHA to :\n\nBULLET::::- Civilian Jet – MHA to :\n\nBULLET::::- Above 14000 ft:\n\nBULLET::::- turboprop – normal climb speed\n\nBULLET::::- Jet aircraft – maximum\n\n\"MHA – Minimum Holding Altitude\"\n\nSection::::Timing corrections.\n\nTo achieve a one-minute inbound leg, there are two commonly used ways to modify timings:\n", "At constant propulsive efficiency, the maximum range speed is when the ratio between velocity and drag is minimal, while maximum endurance is attained at the best lift-to-drag ratio.\n\nSection::::Operations.:Altitude.\n", "Section::::Challenges of supersonic passenger flight.:Engines.\n\nJet engine design shifts significantly between supersonic and subsonic aircraft. Jet engines, as a class, can supply increased fuel efficiency at supersonic speeds, even though their specific fuel consumption is greater at higher speeds. Because their speed over the ground is greater, this decrease in efficiency is less than proportional to speed until well above Mach 2, and the consumption per unit distance is lower.\n", "Using the lift equation, \n\nformula_30\n\nwhere formula_31 is the air density, and S the wing area.\n\nthe specific range is found equal to:\n\nformula_32\n\nInserting this into (1) and assuming only formula_33 is varying, the range (in meters) becomes:\n\nformula_34 ; here formula_1 is again mass.\n\nWhen cruising at a fixed height, a fixed angle of attack and a constant specific fuel consumption, the range becomes:\n\nformula_36\n\nwhere the compressibility on the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane are neglected as the flight speed reduces during the flight.\n\nSection::::Derivation.:Cruise/climb.\n", "Section::::Climate change.:Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre.\n\nSection::::Climate change.:Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre.:Averaged emissions.\n\nEmissions of passenger aircraft per passenger kilometre vary extensively because of differing factors such as the size and type of aircraft, the altitude and the percentage of passenger or freight capacity of a particular flight, and the distance of the journey and number of stops en route. Also, the effect of a given amount of emissions on climate (radiative forcing) is greater at higher altitudes: see below.\n\nSection::::Climate change.:Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre.:Averaged emissions.:Europe.\n", "At more modest altitudes, flying faster compresses the air at the front of the engine, and this greatly heats the air. The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach 5–8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and this consumes significant energy. The exception to this is scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15 or more, as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again have no particular speed limit.\n\nSection::::General physical principles.:Noise.\n", "The power needed varies almost linearly with altitude, but the nature of drag means that it varies with the square of speed—in other words it is typically easier to go higher than faster, up to the altitude where lack of oxygen for the engines starts to play a significant role.\n\nSection::::Velocity vs. load factor chart.\n\nA chart of velocity versus load factor (or V-n diagram) is another way of showing limits of aircraft performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different airspeeds.\n" ]	[ "Altitude creates much more distance for planes that have to travel, making it difficult for planes to increase their speed.", "Increased altitude of planes adds so much more distance to travel." ]	[ "Altitude hardly causes any added distance for planes, they are also much faster than grounded vehicles and fly straight pretty often.", "Increased altitude of aircraft typically adds less than 1% to the distance they have to travel." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Altitude creates much more distance for planes that have to travel, making it difficult for planes to increase their speed.", "Increased altitude of planes adds so much more distance to travel." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Altitude hardly causes any added distance for planes, they are also much faster than grounded vehicles and fly straight pretty often.", "Increased altitude of aircraft typically adds less than 1% to the distance they have to travel." ]
2018-17742	Why can’t hurricanes hit land and turn into tornadoes or vice versa?	Because they're totally unrelated weather phenomenon. Superficially they might seem similar in that they both rotate and have high wind speeds, but that's where the similarities end.	[ "The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns tornadoes. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.\n", "The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone, and vertical wind shear at its periphery, spawns tornadoes. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.\n", "This is consistent with the Second Law, which requires that the total disorder of a system \"and its surroundings\" must increase with time. Order can be created in a system by an even greater decrease in order of the system's surroundings. In the hurricane example, hurricanes are formed from unequal heating within the atmosphere. The Earth's atmosphere is then far from thermal equilibrium. The order of the Earth's atmosphere increases, but at the expense of the order of the sun. The sun is becoming more disorderly as it ages and throws off light and material to the rest of the universe. The total disorder of the sun and the earth increases despite the fact that orderly hurricanes are generated on earth.\n", "Tornadoes may be formed out of season, especially during the months of hurricane season in the Gulf Coast states and Southeastern states. Because these areas are prone to hurricanes, they may be struck with tornadoes that are spawned from hurricanes. Tornadoes are most likely to form in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane, but can also form in rain bands associated with the storm. This is caused by the large amount of vertical wind shear to the right of the storm. Tornadoes are also spawned from U.S. hurricanes due to the moistness of the air at the landfall of the storm, which makes conditions favorable for a supercell storm to develop within the hurricane.\n", "The broad rotation of a land-falling tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes, particularly in their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non-tropical counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned\n\nas a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall.\n\nSection::::Deaths.\n", "Occasionally, cyclogenesis will re-occur with occluded cyclones. When this happens a new low center will form on the triple-point (the point where the cold front, warm front, and occluded front meet). During triple-point cyclogenesis, the occluded parent low will fill as the secondary low deepens into the main weathermaker.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.\n", "Some evidence does suggest that the Southern Oscillation is weakly correlated with changes in tornado activity, which vary by season and region, as well as whether the ENSO phase is that of El Niño or La Niña. Research has found that fewer tornadoes and hailstorms occur in winter and spring in the U.S. central and southern plains during El Niño, and more occur during La Niña, than in years when temperatures in the Pacific are relatively stable. Ocean conditions could be used to forecast extreme spring storm events several months in advance.\n", "The thunderstorm system can be divided into two zones in the figure to the left: the precipitation-free zone, located on the left where the airmass has a widespread up motion, and the precipitation zone, on the right where the airmass is sinking. At the point where the two zones meet, there is a wall cloud that could initiate tornadoes. Moreover, even the cumulus congestus associated with a supercell thunderstorm can be very dangerous. Tornadoes can be produced up to from the main cell.\n", "Section::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.\n\nA second competing theory for extratropical cyclone development over the oceans is the Shapiro-Keyser model, developed in 1990. Its main differences with the Norwegian Cyclone Model are the fracture of the cold front, treating warm-type occlusions and warm fronts as the same, and allowing the cold front to progress through the warm sector perpendicular to the warm front. This model was based on oceanic cyclones and their frontal structure, as seen in surface observations and in previous projects which used aircraft to determine the vertical structure of fronts across the northwest Atlantic.\n\nSection::::Cyclone evolution.:Shapiro-Keyser model.:Warm seclusion.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n\nBaroclinic instability has been cited as one of the principal mechanisms for the development of most explosively deepening cyclones. However, the relative roles of baroclinic and diabatic processes in explosive deepening of extratropical cyclones have been subject to debate (citing case studies) for a long time. Other factors include the relative position of a 500-hPa trough and thickness patterns, deep tropospheric frontogenetic processes which happen both upstream and downstream of the surface low, the influence of air–sea interaction, and latent heat release.\n\nSection::::Formation.:Regions and motion.\n", "North Dakota, Minnesota, and upper Michigan are also vulnerable to derecho storms when such conditions are in place. They often occur along stationary fronts on the northern periphery of where the most intense heat and humidity bubble exists. Late-year derechos are normally confined to Texas and the Deep South, although a late-summer derecho struck upper parts of the New York State area after midnight on 7 September 1998. Warm season derechos have greater instability than their cold season counterpart, while cool season derechos have greater shear than their warm season counterpart.\n", "BULLET::::- Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear.\n\nThe process in which an extratropical cyclone undergoes a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure (24 millibars or more) in a 24-hour period is referred to as explosive cyclogenesis, and is usually present during the formation of a nor'easter. The anticyclonic equivalent, the process of formation of high pressure areas, is anticyclogenesis. The opposite of cyclogenesis is cyclolysis.\n\nSection::::Meteorological scales.\n", "The source of energy for all hurricanes is the elevated temperatures of the tropical Atlantic Ocean and the associated warm surface temperatures of the Gulf Stream flowing northwards along the eastern seaboard. Accordingly, hurricanes are most dangerous when their track lies slightly offshore.\n", "In 2017, Hurricanes Hilary and Irwin interacted. Hilary stopped Irwin's westward movement, and caused Irwin to turn northward.\n\nIn 2018, Hurricane John absorbed a nearby weaker storm, Tropical Storm Ileana.\n\nSection::::Tropical cyclones.:Examples.:Northwest Pacific.\n\nIn September 1994, Typhoon Pat and Tropical Storm Ruth completed a full orbit around their centroid before collapsing into a single cyclone. In August 1997, Tropical Storm Yule merged with Tropical Depression 16W.\n", "El Niño (ENSO) shifts the region (warmer water, up and down welling at different locations, due to winds) in the Pacific and Atlantic where more storms form, resulting in nearly constant Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) values in any one basin. The El Niño event typically decreases hurricane formation in the Atlantic, and far western Pacific and Australian regions, but instead increases the odds in the central North and South Pacific and particular in the western North Pacific typhoon region.\n", "Not every thunderstorm, supercell, squall line, or tropical cyclone will produce a tornado. Precisely the right atmospheric conditions are required for the formation of even a weak tornado. On the other hand, 700 or more tornadoes a year are reported in the contiguous United States.\n", "Tornadoes are most common in spring and least common in winter. The seasonal transition during autumn and spring promotes the development of extratropical cyclones and frontal systems that support strong convective storms. Tornadoes are also common in landfalling tropical cyclones, where they are focused in the right poleward section of the cyclone. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. However, favorable conditions for tornado development can occur any time of the year.\n", "Hurricane strengthening and weakening is the product of extensive thermodynamic interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean. Generally speaking, the evolution of a hurricane's intensity is determined by three factors. First, the initial intensity of a tropical cyclone is a predominant factor and its strength will be reflected throughout the storm's life. Second, the thermodynamic state of the atmosphere through which the cyclone moves will affects its ability to strengthen, as strong horizontal winds will disperse internal circulation and prevent the vertical stacking of energy within the storm. The third component affecting hurricane intensity is the heat exchange between the upper layer of ocean waters and the core of the storm. For this reason, a major focus of hurricane research has been sea surface temperature prior to a storm. However, recent studies have revealed that surface temperature is less important in hurricane deepening than the depth of the ocean mixed layer. In fact, a hurricane's sea level pressure has been shown to be more closely correlated with the 26 °C isotherm depth (and oceanic heat content) than the sea surface temperature. Storms passing over the Loop Current or warm core eddies have access to more tepid water, and therefore the higher energy content of the heated molecules.\n", "The existence of such transients are also closely related to the formation of the Icelandic and Aleutian Low — the two most prominent general circulation features in the mid- to sub-polar northern latitudes. The two lows are formed by both the transport of kinetic energy and the latent heating (the energy released when water phase changed from vapor to liquid during precipitation) from the extratropical cyclones.\n\nSection::::Historic storms.\n", "Hurricanes form over tropical waters in areas of high humidity, light winds, and warm sea surface temperatures. These areas which were described above are usually between the latitudes of 8° and 20° north. The perfect temperature for a hurricane is approximately 26 °C. This temperature has been set as a standard. If the water is colder the hurricane will most likely weaken, but if the waters are warmer rapid growth can occur.\n", "Binary interaction is seen between nearby extratropical cyclones when within of each other, with significant acceleration occurring when the low-pressure areas are within of one another. Interactions between their circulations at the 500 hPa level (18,000 feet above sea level) behave more predictably than their surface circulations. This most often results in a merging of the two low-pressure systems into a single extratropical cyclone, or can less commonly result in a mere change of direction of one or both of the cyclones. The precise results of such interactions depend on factors such as the size of the two cyclones, their distance from each other, and the prevailing atmospheric conditions around them.\n", "As the tornado enters the dissipating stage, its associated mesocyclone often weakens as well, as the rear flank downdraft cuts off the inflow powering it. Sometimes, in intense supercells, tornadoes can develop cyclically. As the first mesocyclone and associated tornado dissipate, the storm's inflow may be concentrated into a new area closer to the center of the storm and possibly feed a new mesocyclone. If a new mesocyclone develops, the cycle may start again, producing one or more new tornadoes. Occasionally, the old (occluded) mesocyclone and the new mesocyclone produce a tornado at the same time.\n", "On rare occasions, tropical-like systems that can reach the intensity of hurricanes, occur over the Mediterranean Sea. Such a phenomenon is called a Medicane (Mediterranean-hurricane). Although the geographical dimensions of tropical oceans and the Mediterranean Sea are clearly different, the precursor mechanisms of these perturbations, based on the air-sea thermodynamic imbalance, are similar. Their origins are typically non-tropical, and develop over open waters under strong, initially cold-core cyclones, similar to subtropical cyclones or anomalous tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Basin, like Karl (1980), Vince (2005), Grace (2009), Chris (2012), or Ophelia (2017). Sea surface temperatures in late-August and early-September are quite high over the basin (24/28 °C or 75/82 °F), though research indicates water temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F) are normally required for development.\n", "Notably, Hurricane Opal passed over a ring and had sudden increases of wind speed from 110 miles per hour to 135 miles per hour shortly before landfall, a trend also seen in Hurricane Allen and Hurricane Camille. There is evidence that Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, both notable storms which reached Category 5 intensity, as well as Hurricane Ivan, were also strengthened by warm core rings.\n\nSection::::Adverse Effects.:Effects on Wildlife.\n", "Also of note: tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes gain strength from, but are not steered by, the temperature of the water. They are steered by the atmosphere, and the atmospheric level involved in steering a hurricane is different at different intensities (i.e., it relates to the minimum pressure of the hurricane).\n\nSection::::Effect on tropical cyclones.:Process.:Sea level and sea temperature.\n" ]	[ "Hurricanes and tornadoes are the same thing, but one occurs over water and the other occurs over land.", "When hurricanes hit land, they should be able to turn into tornadoes." ]	[ "Hurricanes and tornadoes are unrelated weather phenomenon, despite both rotating and having high wind speeds.", "Hurricanes and tornadoes are completely different weather phenomenons, therefore it is not possible." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hurricanes and tornadoes are the same thing, but one occurs over water and the other occurs over land.", "When hurricanes hit land, they should be able to turn into tornadoes." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Hurricanes and tornadoes are unrelated weather phenomenon, despite both rotating and having high wind speeds.", "Hurricanes and tornadoes are completely different weather phenomenons, therefore it is not possible." ]
2018-03722	Would it be possible to only drink X ammount of water to keep you alive, while not having to pee at all?	Nope. You need to pee to get rid of waste byproducts, not to get rid of water. Frankly people don’t drink enough water but still pee. You would die if you didn’t pee.	[ "Megee said that he survived by eating leeches, insects, snakes, ants and lizards, and edible plants. He drank water from \"various dams and waterholes\" and scavenged in the bush every evening, eating \"only one meal a day, just enough to stay alive\". When water was unavailable, he drank his urine after chilling it to suppress the flavour.\n", "BULLET::::- Waterworld - Is it possible to sufficiently purify one's own urine to be able to drink it?\n\nBULLET::::- Fight Club - Can high quality soap be made from liposuction fat?\n\nBULLET::::- The Great Outdoors - Could someone eat a 96-ounce steak?\n\nTricky Situations\n\nBULLET::::- Deep Blue Sea - Is it possible to be surrounded by electricity and water without being electrocuted?\n\nBULLET::::- The Last Castle - How far can a water cannon fire a grappling iron?\n\nBULLET::::- A View to a Kill - Can one survive underwater by breathing the air from a car tyre?\n\nEscapes\n", "Fluid intake should be adjusted individually as factors such as body weight, sex, climate, pace, fitness (VO max), and sweat rate are just a few variables that change fluid requirements between people and races. The International Marathon Medical Directors Association (IMMDA) advises that runners drink a sports drink that includes carbohydrates and electrolytes instead of plain water and that runners should \"drink to thirst\" instead of feeling compelled to drink at every fluid station. Heat exposure leads to diminished thirst drive and thirst may not be a sufficient incentive to drink in many situations. The IMMDA and HSL Harpur Hill give recommendations to drink fluid in small volumes frequently at an approximate rate falling between every 15 minutes. A patient suffering hyponatremia can be given a small volume of a concentrated salt solution intravenously to raise sodium concentrations in the blood. Some runners weigh themselves before running and write the results on their bibs. If anything goes wrong, first aid workers can use the weight information to tell if the patient had consumed too much water.\n", "BULLET::::- November 16, 1995: Leah Betts, an English schoolgirl, died as the result of drinking too much water, though in the media her death was mistakenly attributed to taking an ecstasy tablet at her 18th birthday party.\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: British actor Anthony Andrews survived a case of water intoxication. He was performing as Henry Higgins in a revival of the musical \"My Fair Lady\" at the time, and consumed up to eight litres of water a day. He was unconscious and in intensive care for three days.\n", "BULLET::::- The use of liquids that provide calories (usually in combination with flavoring and perhaps rehydration salts) increases the cleaning burden by nourishing bacteria, and if the user neglects to empty and rinse the bladder, judging the cleanliness of the bladder at a later date involves more effort than with containers that are more transparent and in some cases more accessible. Some users carry plain water, with or without ice, in a bladder, but drink something else from Nalgene-style bottles during rests.\n", "Under normal circumstances, accidentally consuming too much water is exceptionally rare. Nearly all deaths related to water intoxication in normal individuals have resulted either from water-drinking contests, in which individuals attempt to consume large amounts of water, or from long bouts of exercise during which excessive amounts of fluid were consumed. In addition, water cure, a method of torture in which the victim is forced to consume excessive amounts of water, can cause water intoxication.\n", "If it is given by injection into a vein without making it more or less isotonic, breakdown of red blood cells may occur. This can then result in kidney problems. Excessive amount may also result in fluid overload. Water for injection is generally made by distillation or reverse osmosis. It should contain less than a mg of elements other than water per 100 ml. Versions with agents that stop bacterial growth are also available.\n", "Sodium deficit = (140 – serum sodium) x total body water\n\nTotal body water = kilograms of body weight x 0.6 \n\nSection::::Treatment.:Fluids.\n\nOptions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Mild and asymptomatic hyponatremia is treated with adequate solute intake (including salt and protein) and fluid restriction starting at 500 ml per day of water with adjustments based on serum sodium levels. Long-term fluid restriction of 1,200–1,800 mL/day may maintain the person in a symptom free state.\n", "A daily intake of water is required for the normal physiological functioning of the human body. The USDA recommends a daily intake of \"total water\": not necessarily by drinking but by consumption of water contained in other beverages and foods. The recommended intake is 3.7 liters (appx. 1 gallon) per day for an adult male, and 2.7 liters (appx. 0.75 gallon) for an adult female. Other sources, however, claim that a high intake of fresh drinking water, separate and distinct from other sources of moisture, is necessary for good health – eight servings per day of eight fluid ounces (1.8 liters, or 0.5 gallon) is the amount recommended by many nutritionists, although there is no scientific evidence supporting this recommendation.\n", "BULLET::::- 1991, Andy Warhol: Five years after his death, Warhol's family publicly accused the hospital where he had his gallbladder removed of causing his death by water intoxication administered post-operatively. A claimed autopsy weight of , with his weight being when admitted, was cited as evidence that too much fluid had been given.\n\nBULLET::::- October 24, 1995: Anna Wood, a 15-year-old Australian schoolgirl, died from the effects of water intoxication secondary to use of MDMA (commonly known as Ecstasy).\n", "Urine osmolality\n\nUrine osmolality is a measure of urine concentration, in which large values indicate concentrated urine and small values indicate diluted urine. Consumption of water (including water contained in food) affects the osmolality of urine.\n\nIn healthy humans with restricted fluid intake, urine osmolality should be greater than 800 mOsm/kg, while a 24-hour urine osmolality should average between 500 and 800 mOsm/kg.\n", "Section::::Prevention.\n\nWater intoxication can be prevented if a person's intake of water does not grossly exceed their losses. Healthy kidneys are able to excrete approximately 800 millilitres to 1 litre of fluid water (0.84 - 1.04 quarts) per hour. However, stress (from prolonged physical exertion), as well as disease states, can greatly reduce this amount.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nMild intoxication may remain asymptomatic and require only fluid restriction. In more severe cases, treatment consists of:\n\nBULLET::::- Diuretics to increase urination, which are most effective for excess blood volume.\n\nBULLET::::- Vasopressin receptor antagonists\n\nSection::::Notable cases.\n", "When fresh water is unavailable (e.g. at sea or in a desert), seawater and ethanol will worsen the condition. Urine contains a lower solute concentration than seawater, and numerous guides advise against its consumption in survival situations. If somebody is dehydrated and is taken to a hospital, IVs are also used.\n", "One of the medical supplies that might be needed is a considerable mass of intravenous fluid, which is mainly water but contains other substances so it can be added directly to the human blood stream. If it could be created on the spot from existing water, this would reduce mass requirements. A prototype for this capability was tested on the International Space Station in 2010. \n\nBULLET::::- Breathing gases\n", "On September 11, 2014, Sharif Mobley made an unapproved/unofficial cellphone call to his wife. During a 10-minute conversation, Mobley described enduring acts of brutality and torture. One of these, was being forced to drink \"water out of bottles that had contained urine\".\n", "For routine activities, thirst is normally an adequate guide to maintain proper hydration. Minimum water intake will vary individually depending on weight, environment, diet and genetics. With exercise, exposure to hot environments, or a decreased thirst response, additional water may be required. In athletes in competition drinking to thirst optimizes performance and safety, despite weight loss, and as of 2010, there was no scientific study showing that it is beneficial to stay ahead of thirst and maintain weight during exercise.\n", "One of the medical supplies that may be needed is intravenous fluid, which is mostly water but contains other things so it can be added directly to the human blood stream. If it can be created on the spot from existing water then it could spare the weight of hauling earth-produced units, whose weight is mostly water. A prototype for this capability was tested on the International Space Station in 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- Eight glasses, or two to three liters, of water a day are not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person (weight), activity level, clothing, and environment (heat and humidity). Water does not actually need to be drunk in pure form, but can be derived from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables.\n", "BULLET::::- On trips over a day, or in especially hot conditions, need for more water than is carried may require purification of local water.\n\nBULLET::::- Attention to mechanical compatibility of a filtration system with the bladder, or with a Nalgene-style bottle that may be carried to fill the bladder, can be worthwhile.\n\nBULLET::::- Use of chemical purification systems raises issues both of staining of the bladder and the possibility of weakening its material. Besides the aesthetic discomfort of drinking from a perfectly sterile but \"dirty looking\" bladder, staining can also interfere with judging later the cleanliness of a bladder.\n", "High concentrations in the blood can be damaging. Ingestion of low concentrations of urea, such as are found in typical human urine, are not dangerous with additional water ingestion within a reasonable time-frame. Many animals (e.g., dogs) have a much more concentrated urine and it contains a higher urea amount than normal human urine; this can prove dangerous as a source of liquids for consumption in a life-threatening situation (such as in a desert).\n", "A constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as respiration, sweating and urination. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake.\n\nIn the normal resting state, input of water through ingested fluids is approximately 1200 ml/day, from ingested foods 1000 ml/day and from aerobic respiration 300 ml/day, totaling 2500 ml/day.\n\nSection::::Routes of fluid loss and gain.:Input.:Regulation of input.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 2009 novel \"The Lost Symbol\" by Dan Brown, Robert Langdon (the protagonist) is completely submerged in breathable liquid mixed with hallucinogenic chemicals and sedatives as a torture and interrogation technique by Mal'akh (the antagonist). He goes through a near death experience when he inhales the liquid and blacks out, losing control over his body, but is soon revived.\n", "Similar to wudu, some water is permissible for use for ghusl whereas some water is not. Permissible water sources include:\n\nBULLET::::- Rainwater\n\nBULLET::::- Well water\n\nBULLET::::- Spring, sea, or river water\n\nBULLET::::- Water of melting snow or hail\n\nBULLET::::- Water of a big tank or pond\n\nGhusl is not allowed with unclean or impure water or water extracted from fruit and trees.\n\nSection::::The acts of ghusl.\n\nThe Quranic mandate for ghusl comes in surah an-Nisa:\n", "BULLET::::- Heart failure - Giving 2.5 times of previous oral dose twice daily for those with acute decompensated heart failure is a reasonable strategy. However, daily assessment of clinical response is needed to adjust the subsequent doses.\n\nBULLET::::- Edema associated with liver cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome\n", "BULLET::::- When obtaining water is hazardous or prohibitively expensive.\n\nBULLET::::- When using water poses a health risk.\n\nBULLET::::- When the water available is impure.\n\nBULLET::::- When you don’t have potable water.\n" ]	[ "Possible to drink a minimal amount of water and never need to pee." ]	[ "You will always need to pee to remove waste product." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Possible to drink a minimal amount of water and never need to pee." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "You will always need to pee to remove waste product." ]
2018-14034	Why is reading from a book considered a more worthy/constructive form of reading than browsing websites and articles?	I’ve also heard that you read differently when it’s on a screen. I was listening to a podcast and they referenced a study, (I can’t remember the group who did it)about reading in print vs. a screen. They found that when you read on a screen you are more likely to skim the article for the information needed. In a printed format you are more than likely to read the information more closely and read more of the article.	[ "Embedded hyperlinks in documents or Internet pages have been found to make different demands on the reader than traditional text. Authors, such as Nicholas Carr, and psychologists, such as Maryanne Wolf, contend that the internet may have a negative impact on attention and reading comprehension. Some studies report increased demands of reading hyperlinked text in terms of cognitive load, or the amount of information actively maintained in one’s mind (also see working memory). One study showed that going from about 5 hyperlinks per page to about 11 per page reduced college students’ understanding (assessed by multiple choice tests) of articles about alternative energy. This can be attributed to the decision-making process (deciding whether to click on it) required by each hyperlink, which may reduce comprehension of surrounding text.\n", "Researchers from the University College London have done a 5-year study on Internet habits, and have found that people using the sites exhibited “a form of skimming activity,” hopping from one source to another and rarely returning to any source they’d already visited. The 2008 report says, \"It is clear that users are not reading online in the traditional sense; indeed there are signs that new forms of “reading” are emerging as users “power browse” horizontally through titles, contents pages and abstracts going for quick wins. It almost seems that they go online to avoid reading in the traditional sense.\"\n", "Since the first notion of screen reading, many studies have been performed to discern any differences between reading off of an electronic device and reading off of a paper. In a 2013 study, a group of 72 high school students in Norway were randomly assigned into one of two groups: one that read using PDF files on a computer and one that used standard paper. The students were put through various tests involving reading-comprehension and vocabulary. The results indicated that those who read using the PDF files performed much worse than those reading off of a paper. A conclusion was reached that certain aspects of screen reading, such as scrolling, can impede comprehension.\n", "In interpreting these results, it may be useful to note that the studies mentioned were all performed in closed content environments, not on the internet. That is, the texts used only linked to a predetermined set of other texts which was offline. Furthermore, the participants were explicitly instructed to read on a certain topic in a limited amount of time. Reading text on the internet may not have these constraints.\n\nSection::::Professional development.\n", "BULLET::::2. Selecting texts that connect to students' interests and backgrounds-reading articles or stories about common interests can spark conversations in classrooms as well as promote interest in reading the texts. If some students in a classroom play baseball, reading a story about a baseball player can spark interest and enthusiasm in the classroom\n", "On the other hand, other studies have shown that if a short summary of the link’s content is provided when the mouse pointer hovers over it, then comprehension of the text is improved. \"Navigation hints\" about which links are most relevant improved comprehension. Finally, the background knowledge of the reader can partially determine the effect hyperlinks have on comprehension. In a study of reading comprehension with subjects who were familiar or unfamiliar with art history, texts which were hyperlinked to one another hierarchically were easier for novices to understand than texts which were hyperlinked semantically. In contrast, those already familiar with the topic understood the content equally well with both types of organization.\n", "In the latter part of the 1990s, literacy researchers started to explore the differences between printed text and the network-enabled devices with screens. This research was largely focused on two areas: the credibility of information that can be found on the World Wide Web and the difference that hypertext makes to 'reading' and 'writing'. These skills were included in definitions of information literacy and included in a SCONUL position paper in 1999. This paper became the '7 Pillars of Information Literacy', which was last updated in 2011.\n\nSection::::Web Literacy Map.\n", "The interactive novel is a form of digital fiction. While authors of traditional paper-and-ink novels have sometimes tried to give readers the random directionality offered by true hypertexting, this approach was not completely feasible until the development of HTML. Paper novels (indeed, some digital novels) are linear, that is, read from page to page in a straight line. Interactive novels, however, offer readers a unique way to read fiction by choosing a page, a character, or a direction. By following hyperlinked phrases within the novel, readers can find new ways to understand characters. There is no wrong way to read a hypertext interactive novel. Links embedded within the pages are meant to be taken at a reader's discretion – to allow the reader a choice in the novel's world.\n", "As a consequence, although one may experience pleasure in the readerly text, it is when one sees the text from the writerly point of view that the experience is blissful.\n\nSection::::Influences.\n", "It is found that those who read articles online go through the article more thoroughly than those who read from print-based materials. Upon choosing their reading material, online readers read 77% of the content, which can be compared to broadsheet newspaper where the corresponding number is 62%.\n\nSection::::Effects of anonymity.\n\nInteracting on the Internet mostly does not involve \"physical\" interactions with another person (i.e. face-to-face conversation), and therefore easily leads to a person feeling free to act differently online, as well as unrestraint in civility and minimization of authority, etc.\n", "With the continuous update of advanced media technology and popularization of Internet, people are stepping into mobile Internet era shifting. In this process, an obvious change is that traditional reading mode is gradually shifting to shallow reading. The prevalence of shallow reading has attracted attention of media, publishing and library fields.\n\nSection::::Features.\n\n1. Superficial\n\nIn order to enable people obtain useful information during the process of quick browsing, the target materials of shallow reading are usually very clear and easy to understand as well as with clear-cut topics.\n\n2. Visual\n", "Similar to extensive reading is \"extensive listening\", which is the analogous approach to listening. One issue is that listening speed is generally slower than reading speed, so simpler texts are recommended – one may be able to read a text extensively, but not be able to listen to it extensively.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Word lists by frequency\n\nBULLET::::- Literacy\n\nBULLET::::- Second language learning\n\nBULLET::::- Vocabulary acquisition\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Surveys.\n", "The use of slow reading in literary criticism is sometimes referred to as close reading. Of less common usage is the term, \"deep reading\". Slow reading is contrasted with speed reading which involves techniques to increase the rate of reading without adversely affecting comprehension, and contrasted with skimming which employs visual page cues to increase reading speed. \n\nSection::::Philosophy and literature.\n", "Section::::Comparison to printed books.\n\nSection::::Comparison to printed books.:Advantages.\n", "The earliest reference to slow reading appears to be in Nietzsche's preface to the 1887 \"Daybreak\": \"It is not for nothing that one has been a philologist, perhaps one is a philologist still, that is to say, a teacher of slow reading.\"\n", "Multimodality has evolved along with technology. This evolution has created a new concept of writing, a collaborative context keeping the reader and writer in relationship. The concept of reading is different with the influence of technology due to the desire for a quick transmission of information. In reference to the influence of multimodality on genre and technology, Professor Anne Frances Wysocki expands on how reading as an action has changed in part because of technology reform: “These various technologies offer perspectives for considering and changing approaches we have inherited to composing and interpreting pages...”. Along with the interconnectedness of media, computer-based technologies are designed to make new texts possible, influencing rhetorical delivery and audience.\n", "BULLET::::- Multimedia principle: Deeper learning is observed when words and relevant graphics are both presented than when words are presented alone (also called the multimedia effect). Simply put, the three most common elements in multimedia presentations are relevant graphics, audio narration, and explanatory text. Combining any two of these three elements works better than using just one or all three.\n", "An online book is a resource in book-like form that is only available to read on the Internet. It differs from the common idea of an e-book, which is usually available for users to download and read locally on a computer, smartphone or on an e-reader. \"Book-like\" means: information is presented in a page format; pages are normally available to read sequentially (though \"flipping\" to another page is possible using a mouse, keyboard or other controllers); and pages are read passively, with little or no interaction or multimedia. This contrasts with a text which a user is reading on an interactive Web 2.0 website, which usually enables the user to click on online links, look up words or keywords online, etc. \"Online\" means the content may only be read while the reader is connected to the Internet. Thus the reader's experience with an online book is similar to reading a printed book, except that the book is read at a computer and is only accessible while the reader is online. \n", "A group of German researchers conducted a study that examined the Web browsing behavior of 25 participants over the course of around one hundred days.The researchers concluded that \"browsing is a rapidly interactive activity,\" and that Web pages are mostly viewed for 10 seconds or less. Nielsen analyzed this data in 2008 and found that, on average, users read 20-28% of the content on a webpage.\n\nSection::::Research.:Google Golden Triangle.\n", "I do ask something of the reader and many reviewers say I ask too much . . . and as I say, it's not reader-friendly. Though I think it is, and I think the reader gets satisfaction out of participating in, collaborating, if you will, with the writer, so that it ends up being between the reader and the page. . . . Why did we invent the printing press? Why do we, why are we literate? Because the pleasure of being all alone, with a book, is one of the greatest pleasures.\n", "Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting than many other activities. Therefore, the possibility of doing this comfortably in cafés, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in parks greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day.\n\nReading from screens that produce their own light does not depend on external light, except that external light may lessen visual fatigue. For controlling what is on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces dependency on external light.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Joe Queenan has written about the pros and cons of e-books:\n\nApart from all the emotional and habitual aspects, there are also some readability and usability issues that need to be addressed by publishers and software developers. Many e-book readers who complain about eyestrain, lack of overview and distractions could be helped if they could use a more suitable device or a more user-friendly reading application, but when they buy or borrow a DRM-protected e-book, they often have to read the book on the default device or application, even if it has insufficient functionality.\n", "Section::::Read-only culture vs. read/write culture.\n\nLessig outlines two cultures - the read-only culture (RO) and the read/write culture (RW). The RO culture is the culture we consume more or less passively. The information or product is provided to us by a 'professional' source, the content industry, that possesses an authority on that particular product/information. Analog technologies inherently supported RO culture's business model of production and distribution and limited the role of the consumer to just that, 'consuming'.\n", "Another factor in favour of electronic publishing is the lack of a visible cover. Cooper notes that \"part of the appeal of digital reading is that nobody necessarily knows what you're reading.\" Kendrick supports this view as well, saying, \"one of the things about reading romance is that slightly furtive thing, the 'oh God, I can't be seen on the train reading a romance'. If you've got a Kindle then no one knows what you're reading. It's not about embarrassment, really—it's more that you don't want to be judged, and we are often judged by what we read.\"\n", "Several studies noted that children in poor neighborhoods had less access to books at home and in libraries, and often the books available to them were not books that they wanted to read. Prize-winning books were often not especially popular with children. Comic books, on the other hand, are often not available in libraries, but are popular with many boys, and reading comics was found to increase reading of other books.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19964	Why does everything sound loud at night?	In my experience, it’s just relative. Think of when you turn the AC way up in your car and then play the radio for a while. When you turn the fans off, the music seems kinda loud. The music didn’t actually get louder, but ambient noise decreased. At night, far far fewer people are out driving or operating machinery etc. so I’d think that would have quite an impact. I can hear even my microwave humming in a different room, so I imagine just the general use of appliances by thousands to millions of people might contribute a good deal to ambient noise too, which might decrease dramatically at night.	[ "Section::::European guidelines.\n\nThe European Union (EU) set up European guidelines in respect to noise pollution. For nighttime, it is advised to not exceed the 40 dB L threshold outside the residence. An interim threshold of 55 dB L is set as an upper bound, because above this limit, (sleeping) disorders are more prevalent. However, about 20% of people living in or near urban areas suffer from sounds at night that exceed even the interim threshold.\n\nSection::::Law in the Netherlands.\n", "Section::::Style.:Sound.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A 2-minute YouTube video addressing this issue by audio engineer Matt Mayfield has been referenced by \"The Wall Street Journal\" and the \"Chicago Tribune\". Pro Sound Web quoted Mayfield, \"When there is no quiet, there can be no loud.\"\n", "Indeed, a side effect of the reduced visibility is heightened audibility, as soldiers focus more on what they can hear. There are many instances of soldiers losing their bearings at night due to flashes from guns or enemy searchlights. The difficulties of perception lend themselves to fear of the unknown. Soldiers under fire can't tell where the fire originates and can't devise appropriate countermeasures. Such uncertainty is associated with feelings of loneliness and helplessness, and creates a tendency to over estimate enemy strength or be excessively pessimistic of the combat situation.\n", "Section::::Human disturbances.:Spatial disturbance.\n", "\"The hours wore quietly on. The party were dispersed from garret to cellar. At the hour of midnight, as I and two others were crossing the threshold of a room on the second floor, three feminine shrieks rose from the center of the room. Aghast we stood. From all quarters the party rushed… Too brave to desert, yet cowards at heart, we watched the gray light of morning dawn, and each man of us thanked God his night among ghosts was past. After those screams our band was closely knit together… collectively we listened through the waning hours of night to the clanking of sabers and tramping of footfalls.\"\n", "European robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly. The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time light pollution, to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise reduced the species richness of birds found in Neoptropical urban parks.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::History.:From the beginning to World War II.\n", "There was renewed exploration of exterior lighting in architecture in the 1950s and 1960s, this time brought to a close by the Energy Crisis of the 1970s.\n", "br\n", "Although lightning has a broad-spectrum emission, its noise power increases with decreasing frequency. Therefore, at very low frequency and low frequency, atmospheric noise often dominates, while at high frequency, man-made noise dominates in urban areas.\n\nSection::::Survey.\n", "Architecture of the night or nocturnal architecture, also referred to as illuminated architecture and, particularly in German, light architecture, is architecture designed to maximize the effect of night lighting, which may include lights from within the building, lights on the facade or outlining elements of it, illuminated advertising, and floodlighting. With the rise of artificial lighting in the 19th and 20th centuries, architects were increasingly aware of it as an element to be integrated into design; deliberate use of it has been popular at various times, notably in the design of skyscrapers and other commercial buildings in the 1920s and 1930s, in the 1950s and 1960s, and in modern festive city architecture.\n", "Another important cover is by Alfie Boe, from his album ’Trust’, featuring Shawn Colvin.\n", "Section::::Style.\n\nSection::::Style.:Cinematography.\n", "Section::::Original stage productions.:\"Five Kings\" (1939).\n", "BULLET::::8. \"Because the Night\" (Manox remix) – 6:19\n\nSection::::Garbage and Screaming Females version.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Section::::Climate.\n", "BULLET::::- Tishman Building, New York (1958): Slim office tower with setbacks, clad in folded aluminum, evenly illuminated by mercury vapor lamps to create \"tower of light,\" a similar appearance to daytime but with the \"666\" of the address in red neon near the top. Building design: Carson, Lundin & Shaw. Lighting design: Abe Feder.\n", "The visibility of celestial objects in the night sky is affected by light pollution. The presence of the Moon in the night sky has historically hindered astronomical observation by increasing the amount of ambient brightness. With the advent of artificial light sources, however, light pollution has been a growing problem for viewing the night sky. Optical filters and modifications to light fixtures can help to alleviate this problem, but for optimal views, both professional and amateur astronomers seek locations far from urban skyglow.\n\nSection::::Brightness.\n", "An old neighborhood tradition told that, after midnight, one could hear the clanking of chains coming from the cellar. This was attributed to the ghosts of slaves who were kept there during the American Revolution. Another apocryphal story is that of a British soldier hanging himself from a beam in the parlor because of a broken heart. It is said that the sound of his military boots and the clinking of his spurs may be heard in that room after midnight.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of the oldest buildings in New York\n", "The content is divided into 14 chapters. The first chapter serves as an introduction and considers the mythological and geological origin of night. The next 12 chapters are each titled after an hour starting with chapter 2's 6 pm and ending with chapter 13's 5 am. Chapter 2 discusses the transition into night, including sunsets, the green flash, the stages of twilight, as well as Olbers' paradox, and a definition of the size and speed of night. The 7 pm chapter deals with nature at night, how animals see and hear differently at night with a focus on bats, nighthawks, and nocturnal insects. The 8 pm chapter analyzes children's literature and bedtime stories. The 9 pm chapter discusses aspects of the city at night, including the evolution of nightclubs, street lights, and the impacts of light pollution. The 10 pm chapter discusses night festivals around the world and throughout history. The 11 pm chapter explains the circadian rhythm and the physiology of sleep and dreams.\n", "In the case of more conventional office environments, the techniques in architectural acoustics discussed above may apply. Other solutions may involve researching the quietest models of office equipment, particularly printers and photocopy machines. Impact printers and other equipment were often fitted with \"acoustic hoods\", enclosures to reduce emitted noise. One source of annoying, if not loud, sound level emissions are lighting fixtures (notably older fluorescent globes). These fixtures can be retrofitted or analyzed to see whether over-illumination is present, a common office environment issue. If over-illumination is occurring, de-lamping or reduced light bank usage may apply. Photographers can quieten noisy still cameras on a film set using sound blimps.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00954	Colombia still produces hundreds of tons of cocaine each year, why aren't there cartels in the country like when the Cali and Medellin were big in the 80's and 90's? And if there aren't big cartels, who is moving all those drugs out of the country?	I know that the US gives Colombia a lot of money to shut down cartels before they become powerful...and they are pushed out of major cities and into the jungle. Its kind of like a win win. They get major cities back for tourism and the production of drugs is out of sight out of mind in the jungle somewhere. Also a lot of cartels moved to neighboring countries...ie Peru..	[ "A 1992 Central Intelligence Agency report acknowledged that \"the FARC had become increasingly involved in drugs through their 'taxing' of the trade in areas under their geographical control and that in some cases the insurgents protected trafficking infrastructure to further fund their insurgency.\" The report also described the relationship between the FARC and the drug traffickers as one \"characterized by both cooperation and friction\". The 1992 report concluded by stating \"we do not believe that the drug industry [in Colombia] would be substantially disrupted in the short term by attacks against guerillas. Indeed, many traffickers would probably welcome, and even assist, increased operations against insurgents.\"\n", "In 1994, the DEA came to three similar conclusions. First, that any connections between drug trafficking organizations and Colombian insurgents were \"ad hoc 'alliances of convinence'\". Second, that \"the independent involvement of insurgents in Colombia's domestic drug productions, transportation, and distribution is limited…there is no evidence that the national leadership of either the FARC or the ELN has directed, as a matter of policy, that their respective organizations directly engage in independent illicit drug production, transportation, or distribution.\" Third, the report determined that the DEA \"has no evidence that the FARC or ELN have been involved in the transportation, distribution, or marketing of illegal drugs in the United States. Furthermore it is doubtful that either insurgent group could develop the international transportation and logistics infrastructure necessary to establish independent drug distribution in the United States or Europe…the DEA believes that the insurgents never will be major players in Colombia's drug trade.\"\n", "Colombia is the world's leading producer of cocaine, and also produces heroin that is mostly destined for the US market.\n\nThe Medellín Cartel was an organized network of drug suppliers and smugglers originating in the city of Medellín, Colombia. The gang operated in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Central America, the United States, as well as Canada and Europe throughout the 1970s and 1980s. It was founded and run by Ochoa Vázquez brothers with Pablo Escobar.\n\nBy 1993, the Colombian government, helped by the US, had successfully dismantled the cartel by imprisoning or hunting and gunning down its members.\n", "The cartel's non-confrontational strategy and its integration within the existing power structure, in contrast to the political challenge attempted by members of the Medellín Cartel, meant that they were threatened much less by law enforcement, from both Colombian investigators and the DEA. The head of the DEA in Bogotá said that in comparison with the Medellín bosses, the Cali bosses were \"more refined, more cultured\". The DEA regularly left the Cali Cartel alone in exchange for information that would allow them to arrest figures from the Medellín Cartel.\n\nSection::::Influence upon the armed conflict.\n", "A 1992 Central Intelligence Agency report \"acknowledged that the FARC had become increasingly involved in drugs through their \"taxing\" of the trade in areas under their geographical control and that in some cases the insurgents protected trafficking infrastructure to further fund their insurgency\", but also described the relationship between the FARC and the drug traffickers as one \"characterized by both cooperation and friction\"\" and concluded that \"\"we do not believe that the drug industry [in Colombia] would be substantially disrupted in the short term by attacks against guerrillas. Indeed, many traffickers would probably welcome, and even assist, increased operations against insurgents.\"\n", "In 1994, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) came to three similar conclusions. First, that any connections between drug trafficking organizations and Colombian insurgents were \"ad hoc 'alliances of convenience'\". Second, that \"the independent involvement of insurgents in Colombia's domestic drug productions, transportation, and distribution is limited ... there is no evidence that the national leadership of either the FARC or the ELN has directed, as a matter of policy, that their respective organizations directly engage in independent illicit drug production, transportation, or distribution.\" Third, the report determined that the DEA \"has no evidence that the FARC or ELN have been involved in the transportation, distribution, or marketing of illegal drugs in the United States. Furthermore it is doubtful that either insurgent group could develop the international transportation and logistics infrastructure necessary to establish independent drug distribution in the United States or Europe ... DEA believes that the insurgents never will be major players in Colombia's drug trade.\"\n", "In 1994, the DEA came to three similar conclusions. First, that any connections between drug trafficking organizations and Colombian insurgents were \"\"ad hoc 'alliances of convenience'\"\". Second, that \"\"the independent involvement of insurgents in Colombia's domestic drug productions, transportation, and distribution is limited...there is no evidence that the national leadership of either the FARC or the ELN has directed, as a matter of policy, that their respective organizations directly engage in independent illicit drug production, transportation, or distribution.\"\" Third, the report determined that the DEA \"\"has no evidence that the FARC or ELN have been involved in the transportation, distribution, or marketing of illegal drugs in the United States. Furthermore it is doubtful that either insurgent group could develop the international transportation and logistics infrastructure necessary to establish independent drug distribution in the United States or Europe... DEA believes that the insurgents never will be major players in Colombia's drug trade.\"\"\n", "The Hispanic Commonwealth (HC) was built on the strength, money, and power of the Medellín Cartel which unified the Central and South American republics into a potent economic unit. But as drug use became decriminalized around the globe, the center of power shifted from Medellín. In what many consider an over-reaction, the HC is now the only combine with penalties for drug abuse.\n\nOne of the major tasks the HC has set for itself is the reforestation of the Amazon basin.\n", "The few positive outcomes from the manufacturing of cocaine include temporarily providing a job for a family struggling financially and raising Colombia’s GDP and standard of living.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nProhibition of drugs in Colombia was based on the introduction of prohibition laws in the United States with the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914 which prohibited the production and consumption of opiates and cocaine, in 1937 added marijuana, tobacco and alcohol and later on a variety of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogenic drugs between 1964 and 1968.\n", "Carey described that the illicit drug trade could spill over into other areas, including the smuggling of illegal aliens. \"Although organized crime groups appear to be only peripherally involved in the gray arms market—which is dominated by freelance brokers, corrupt exporters, and import front companies—conflicts in the Balkans and in the former Soviet Union have encouraged Italian and Russian criminal organizations in particular to expand their involvement in arms trafficking.\n", "A 1992 Central Intelligence Agency report \"acknowledged that the FARC had become increasingly involved in drugs through their 'taxing' of the trade in areas under their geographical control and that in some cases the insurgents protected trafficking infrastructure to further fund their insurgency,\" but also described the relationship between the FARC and the drug traffickers as one \"\"characterized by both cooperation and friction\"\" and concluded that \"\"we do not believe that the drug industry [in Colombia] would be substantially disrupted in the short term by attacks against guerrillas. Indeed, many traffickers would probably welcome, and even assist, increased operations against insurgents.\"\"\n", "Activities by foreign terrorist or drug-trafficking groups in Colombia have been minimal, consisting mostly of criminal activities involving Maicao-based Hezbollah members or international crime groups, such as the Russian Mafia, which was last reported to have supplied the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia—FARC) with sophisticated weapons in 2000. In 1998 an Islamic terrorist was deported for engaging in illegal transactions with the FARC.\n", "\"As criminal organizations grow in sophistication and expand their networks, they could become increasingly involved in supporting proliferation and terrorist activities. Their networks and mechanisms for illicit financial deals could also make them greater players in international sanctions violations.\n\nDr. Bruce Michael Bagley, of the University of Miami, found that US counterdrug policy in Colombia was counterproductive.\n", "In 1999, a U.S. Department of State annual report stated that \"government forces continued to commit numerous, serious abuses, including extrajudicial killings, at a level that was roughly similar to that of 1998. Despite some prosecutions and convictions, the authorities rarely brought officers of the security forces and the police charged with human rights offenses to justice, and impunity remains a problem. At times the security forces collaborated with paramilitary groups that committed abuses; in some instances, individual members of the security forces actively collaborated with members of paramilitary groups by passing them through roadblocks, sharing intelligence, and providing them with ammunition. Paramilitary forces find a ready support base within the military and police, as well as local civilian elites in many areas.\"\n", "Section::::History.:Successor criminal organizations (2006–present).\n\nNew paramilitary groups and related drug trafficking organizations that have continued operating after the AUC demobilization process are referred to as \"bandas criminales emergentes\" or BACRIM (Spanish for \"emerging criminal organizations\") by the Colombian government.\n", "In the 1980s the conflict's levels of violence largely increased as a cause of the beginning of the drug trafficking in the country. Initially, a group of Americans began to smuggle marijuana during the decades of the sixties and seventies. Later, the American Mafia began to establish drug trafficking in Colombia in cooperation with local marijuana producers. Cocaine (and other drugs) manufactured in Colombia were historically mostly consumed in the US as well as Europe. \n", "Despite Colombia having the dubious distinction of being the world leading producer of coca for many years those plans, slowly but surely, diminished the drug produced, to the extent that in 2010 the country reduced cocaine production by 60%, relative to the peak in 2000. In that same year, Peru surpassed Colombia as the main producer of coca leaves in the world. The level of drug related violence was halved in the last 10 years, when the country moved from being the most violent country in the world to have a homicide rate that is inferior to the one registered in countries like Honduras, Jamaica, El Salvador, Venezuela, Guatemala, Trinidad and Tobago and South Africa.\n", "As part of transnational counterdrug activity, the CIA financed a military intelligence network in Colombia in 1991. Speaking on behalf of the Deputy Director for Intelligence, David Carey, director of the DCI Crime and Narcotics center, spoke about \n", "Colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities. Through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication, Colombia has attempted to keep coca, opium poppy, and cannabis cultivation from expanding. The government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of drug shipments, and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Alternative development programs were introduced in 1999.\n", "With prohibition, established producers and traffickers formed armed and clandestine cartels. During the 1980s, as demand increased, the cartels expanded and organized into major criminal conglomerates usually headed by one or several kingpins as in the case of the Medellín Cartel and the North Coast Cartel, along with federation-style groups such as the Cali Cartel and Norte del Valle Cartel.\n\nSection::::History.:Cocaine & heroin cartels (late 1970s-Present).:Medellín Cartel (1976–1993).\n", "Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens.\n", "During the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, the government applied more military pressure on the FARC and other outlawed far-left groups. After the offensive, many security indicators improved. As part of a controversial peace process, the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. Colombia achieved a great decrease in cocaine production, leading White House drug czar R. Gil Kerlikowske to announce that Colombia is no longer the world's biggest producer of cocaine. The United States is still the world's largest consumer of cocaine and other illegal drugs.\n", "The cartel is believed to have employed the services of the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), a right-wing paramilitary organization internationally classified as a terrorist organization, to protect the cartel’s drug routes, its drug laboratories, and its members and associates. The AUC is one of the 37 Foreign Terrorist Organizations identified by the U.S. State Department in 2004.\n\nSection::::History.:Cocaine & heroin cartels (late 1970s-Present).:North Coast Cartel (1999−2004).\n", "During the 1980s the Medellín Cartel led by Pablo Escobar was at its height and the U.S. and Colombian governments were moving towards enforcing laws regarding the illegal drug trade. The Medellín Cartel associated with 19th of April Movement (M-19) guerrilla among others to rely on them the production and processing of the illegal drugs. The guerrillas saw in the illegal drug trade a form of financing their guerrilla movement. Other guerrillas such as FARC and ELN followed the same example and also began collecting taxes on small illegal drug trafficking organizations to improve their financial stability.\n", "In 2010, the Washington Office on Latin America concluded that both Plan Colombia and the Colombian government's security strategy \"came at a high cost in lives and resources, only did part of the job, are yielding diminishing returns and have left important institutions weaker.\"\n\nA 2014 report by the RAND Corporation, which was issued to analyze viable strategies for the Mexican drug war considering successes experienced in Columbia, noted:\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "No cartels in the countries." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "There are cartels they are just forced out to the jungles where they are less visible. " ]
2018-00531	How can water be boiling but not evaporate?	First of all, the boiling temperature of water (and many other liquids) depends on the surrounding pressure, but let's leave that out for now. At sea level, the boiling point of water is indeed 100 degrees Celsius. The fact that water may be boiling a long time at 100 degrees C and just a little bit of water actually evaporates at first is because water needs loads of energy to go from one state to another. So the same is happening when melting ice. Water will need something like 4.2kJ/g (if I recall correctly from thermodynamics years back) to gain about 1 degree Celsius of temperature, but the amount of energy required to transform from liquid to gas is huge. IIRC, that term is called "latent heat". Let me quickly refer to that figure: URL_0 The ice is given a certain amount of energy (horizontal) and increases its temperature by a certain amount (vertical). At zero degrees C, loads of energy are required to melt the ice. Then there is the same linear behavior between energy and temperature before a lot of energy is required again to create steam. Edit: Added figure and short description of it.	[ "where \"P\", \"P\" are the vapor pressures at temperatures \"T\", \"T\" respectively, Δ\"H\" is the enthalpy of vaporization, and \"R\" is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.\n", "Boiling is also a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase, but boiling is the formation of vapor as bubbles of vapor \"below the surface\" of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the equilibrium vapor pressure of the substance is greater than or equal to the environmental pressure. The temperature at which boiling occurs is the boiling temperature, or boiling point. The boiling point varies with the pressure of the environment.\n", "For example, if the vapor's partial pressure is 2% of atmospheric pressure and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point, and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If the humidity is increased at room temperature, for example, by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and then condenses out as minute water droplets, commonly referred to as steam.\n", "Like all liquids, water boils when its vapor pressure reaches its surrounding pressure. In nature, the atmospheric pressure is lower at higher elevations and water boils at a lower temperature. The boiling temperature of water for atmospheric pressures can be approximated by the Antoine equation:\n\nor transformed into this temperature-explicit form:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_32 is the boiling point in degrees Celsius and the pressure formula_33 is in Torr.\n\nSection::::Dühring's rule.\n\nDühring's rule states that a linear relationship exists between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapor pressure.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Water is said to \"boil\" when bubbles of water vapor grow without bound, bursting at the surface. For a vapor bubble to expand, the temperature must be high enough that the vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure (the atmospheric pressure, primarily). Below that temperature, a water vapor bubble will shrink and vanish.\n\nSuperheating is an exception to this simple rule; a liquid is sometimes observed not to boil even though its vapor pressure does exceed the ambient pressure. The cause is an additional force, the surface tension, which suppresses the growth of bubbles.\n", "Section::::Table of specific latent heats.\n\nThe following table shows the specific latent heats and change of phase temperatures (at standard pressure) of some common fluids and gases.\n\nSection::::Specific latent heat for condensation of water in clouds.\n\nThe specific latent heat of condensation of water in the temperature range from −25 °C to 40 °C is approximated by the following empirical cubic function:\n\nwhere the temperature formula_4 is taken to be the numerical value in °C.\n", "Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid.\n\nSection::::Saturation temperature and pressure.\n", "Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.\n", "By contrast, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. If wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates, the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium, and it becomes \"saturated steam\".\n", "At room temperature and pressure, the water jar reaches equilibrium when the air over the water has a humidity of about 3%. This percentage increases as the temperature goes up. At 100 °C and atmospheric pressure, equilibrium is not reached until the air is 100% water. If the liquid is heated a little over 100 °C, the transition from liquid to gas will occur not only at the surface, but throughout the liquid volume: the water boils.\n\nSection::::Number of phases.\n", "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.\n", "Data in the table above is given for water–steam equilibria at various temperatures over the entire temperature range at which liquid water can exist. Pressure of the equilibrium is given in the second column in kPa. The third column is the heat content of each gram of the liquid phase relative to water at 0 °C. The fourth column is the heat of vaporization of each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The fifth column is the work \"P\"Δ\"V\" done by each gram of liquid that changes to vapor. The sixth column is the density of the vapor.\n", "If the vapor then condenses to a liquid on a surface, then the vapor's latent energy absorbed during evaporation is released as the liquid's sensible heat onto the surface.\n\nThe large value of the enthalpy of condensation of water vapor is the reason that steam is a far more effective heating medium than boiling water, and is more hazardous.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Meteorology.\n", "The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in the water cycle. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The \"balance\" between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called vapor partial pressure.\n", "Section::::Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated.:Supersaturation.\n\nThe amount of water that can exist as vapor in a given volume increases with the temperature. When the amount of water vapor is in equilibrium above a flat surface of water the level of vapor pressure is called saturation and the relative humidity is 100%. At this equilibrium there are equal numbers of molecules evaporating from the water as there are condensing back into the water. If the relative humidity becomes greater than 100%, it is called supersaturated. Supersaturation occurs in the absence of condensation nuclei.\n", "If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be \"saturated\", and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:\n", "A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air the water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result in water formation are the burning of hydrogen or hydrocarbons in air or other oxygen containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers.\n", "Two different regimes may be distinguished in the nucleate boiling range. When the temperature difference is between approximately to above T, isolated bubbles form at nucleation sites and separate from the surface. This separation induces considerable fluid mixing near the surface, substantially increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient and the heat flux. In this regime, most of the heat transfer is through direct transfer from the surface to the liquid in motion at the surface and not through the vapor bubbles rising from the surface.\n", "Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.\n", "Section::::Types of steam and conversions.\n\nSteam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, but it is also possible to create steam with solar energy. Water vapor that includes water droplets is described as \"wet steam\". As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates and the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium.\n", "Chemists often use the phrase \"standard temperature and pressure\" or \"STP\" to convey that they are working at a temperature of 25 °C and one atmosphere of pressure. There are three states of matter under these conditions: solids, liquids, and gases. Although all three are distinct states, both solids and gases can dissolve (or disperse) in liquids. The most commonly occurring liquid in the biosphere is water. All components of the atmosphere are capable of dissolving in water to some degree. The bulk of the stable natural components of the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, gaseous water, argon, and other trace gases. \n", "There are many cooking techniques that do not use oil as part of the process such as steaming or boiling. Water based techniques are typically used to cook vegetables or other plants which can be consumed as food. When no oil is present the method of heat transfer to the food is typically water vapor. Water vapor molecules do not have any significant surface interactions with the food surface. Since food, including vegetables, is cooked by the vaporization of water within the food, the use of water vapor as the mode of heat transfer has no effect on the chemical interactions on the surface of the food.\n", "On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen. \n", "Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-03961	What is the point of the immigration forms many countries make you fill out when traveling as a tourist?	At one point they didn't have computers all networked everywhere so it made sense to make you write down passport stuff so they could put it in a folder somewhere. It probably makes a lot less sense now and a few countries are starting to move towards 'scan your passport and this weird robot camera will take a picture of your face"	[ "According to the Schengen rules, hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff. The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. Enforcement of these rules varies by country.\n", "Mexico's Viajero Confiable program is open to Mexican citizens and US citizens who are members of Global Entry and are permanent residents of Mexico . Prospective members must pass a background check, interview with a Mexican immigration officer, and have fingerprints and iris scans taken. Kiosks are currently available at the Cancun, Los Cabos, and Mexico City international airports, but the Mexican government hopes to expand it to other cities in the near future.\n", "Foreign nationals must report in-person to the nearest Registration Officer in their jurisdiction. Persons suffering from medical issues may be exempt from appearing in-person for registration. Foreign registration was mandated and is regulated by the \"Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939\" and the \"Registration of Foreigners Rules, 1992\". Persons who fail to register within the specified time period are charged a late fee of US$ 30.\n\nForeign nationals are issued a residential permit at the time of registration. The permit has a validity matching the period of stay specified in the visa.\n", "Implementing hassle free travel has not proven as easy as might be expected, however, given the need to reconcile the differing requirements within member states (between the immigration and tourism departments, for example) and among Member States. The forms of identification that are acceptable to some Member States include: travel permits; ID cards with photographs; birth certificates; and, drivers’ licences. However, among the countries which accept these forms of identification, limits are still imposed with respect to the specific countries whose nationals will be allowed to use the facility.\n", "The card may also provide information on health and character requirements for non-citizens entering the country. Some countries require an arrival card for each incoming passenger, while others require one card per family unit, and some only require an arrival card for non-citizens only.\n\nSome countries, such as Singapore and Thailand, attach a departure card to the arrival card, which is retained in the alien's passport until their eventual departure. The arrival card can also be combined with a customs declaration, which some countries require incoming passengers to fill out separately.\n", "India requires citizens of most countries to hold a valid passport and apply for a travel visa at their local Indian embassy or consulate, before their visit. Travellers can apply directly by mail or in person, or through their local travel services company. India has recently implemented an online method for citizens of 40 countries to apply for an e-Tourist Visa.\n", "In addition to the other documents designated under WHTI, U.S. citizens on round-trip cruise-ship voyages that begin and end at the same port of entry in the United States may also carry a government-issued photo ID and birth certificate, Consular Report of Birth Abroad, or Certificate of Naturalization. Foreign nationals need a WHTI-designated document to travel to the United States on a cruise ship.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Scare stories of benefits tourism propagated by some media in the UK have been described as 'baseless' by the Migrants' Rights Network, which in March 2011 pointed out that EU migrants must meet the usual Habitual Residence Tests in order to register for British National Insurance (without a National Insurance number you can't receive any benefits), and are in fact moving to other areas of the EU where employment opportunities are better.\n", "Certain Asian countries have policies that similarly require certain categories of citizens to seek official authorisation prior to travelling or emigrating. This is usually either as a way to enforce national service obligations or to protect migrant workers from travelling to places where they may be abused by employers. Singapore, for instance, operates an Exit Permit scheme in order to enforce the national service obligations of its male citizens and permanent residents. These restrictions vary according to age and status. South Korea and the Taiwan region in China have similar policies. India, on the other hand, requires citizens who have not met certain educational requirements (and thus may be targeted by human traffickers or be coerced into modern slavery) to apply for approval prior to leaving the country and endorses their passports with ”Emigration Check Required”. Nepal similarly requires citizens emigrating to the United States on an H-1B visa to present an exit permit issued by the Ministry of Labour. This document is called a work permit and needs to be presented to immigration to leave the country. In a bid to increase protection for the large amount of Indian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Nepali citizens smuggled through Indian airports to the middle east as underpaid labourers, many Indian airline companies require travellers to obtain an ‘OK to Board’ confirmation sent directly from visa authorities in certain GCC countries directly to the airline and will bar anyone who has not obtained this endorsement from clearing exit immigration.\n", "In 1997, Ireland changed its immigration legislation to allow immigration officers to examine (i.e. request identity documents from) travellers arriving in the state from elsewhere in the CTA and to refuse them permission to land if they are not entitled to enter. Although this is stated to apply only to people other than Irish and British citizens, both of the latter groups are effectively covered as they may be required to produce identity documents to prove that they are entitled to the CTA arrangements.\n", "Being listed in the visa-free list will sometimes but not always exempt the listed nationality or class from the requirement to obtain a work permit if they wish to take up employment or self-employed activity during their stay; business trips are not normally considered employment in this sense.\n\nSection::::Regulation of external borders.:Schengen visa fee.\n\nIn accordance with the guidelines of the European Union, any Schengen visa application has to be accompanied by a payment of visa fees.\n", "Members of Mexico's Viajero Confiable Program may apply for the NEXUS Program online as of 2016. US citizens who are members of Global Entry and meet other requirements may apply for the Viajero Confiable card.\n", "Foreigner registration in India\n\nForeigner registration is a mandatory requirement by the Government of India under which all foreign nationals (excluding overseas citizens of India) visiting India on a long term visa (more than 180 days) are required to register themselves with a Registration Officer within 14 days of arriving in India. Pakistani nationals visiting India are required to register within 24 hours of arrival regardless of the duration of their stay. Foreign children below the age of 16 are exempt from registration requirements.\n", "Citizens of EU member countries must be always ready to display an identity document that is legally government-issued in their country. Non-EU residents must have their passport with customs entrance stamp or a residence permit issued by Italian authorities; while all resident/immigrant aliens must have a residence permit (they are otherwise illegal and face deportation), foreigners from certain non-EU countries staying in Italy for a limited amount of time (typically for tourism) may be only required to have their passport with a proper customs stamp. Additionally, permanently resident foreigners can ask to be issued an Italian ID card by the local authorities of their city/town of residence.\n", "Residency status may be granted for a number of reasons and the criteria for acceptance as a resident may change over time. In New Zealand the current range of conditions include being a skilled migrant, a retired parent of a New Zealand National, an investor and a number of others \n\nSection::::Biometric residence permit.\n\nSome countries have adopted biometric residence permits, which are cards including embedded machine readable information and RFID NFC capable chips.\n\nSection::::In France.\n\nSee Permanent residency in France \n\nSection::::In Italy.\n", "Taxation of income earned by J-1 visitors varies according to the specific category the visitor was admitted under; the visitor's country of origin; and the duration of the visitor's stay in the United States. J-1 visa holders are exempt from paying Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) taxes (for Social Security and Medicare) when they are nonresident aliens for tax purposes, which is usually the first five calendar years if they are categorized as students, or the first two calendar years if they are categorized as teachers or trainees. However, they are subjected to other applicable federal, state, and local taxes. People on J-1 filing their federal income taxes who have been in the United States for five years or fewer (for students) or two years or fewer (for teachers and trainees) need to use the non-resident 1040NR or 1040NR-EZ tax forms. Some J-1 visa holders may be eligible for certain tax treaty provisions based on their country of origin.\n", "Visa policy of Mexico\n\nMexican visas are documents issued by the National Migration Institute, dependent on the Secretariat of the Interior, with the stated goal of regulating and facilitating migratory flows.\n\nA foreign national wishing to enter Mexico must obtain a visa unless they are a citizen of one of the 67 eligible visa-exempt countries or one of the three Electronic Authorization System eligible countries.\n", "An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the European Union Value Added Tax Area, as well as jurisdictions such as Andorra which are not officially a part of the Schengen area but can not be accessed without passing through it, has resulted in the existence of sporadic internal border controls for customs purposes. Additionally, as per Schengen area rules, hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff. The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. A Schengen state is also permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where there is a serious threat to that state's \"public policy or internal security\" or when the \"control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances\". When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states. In April 2010 Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI's visit. It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls.\n", "Section::::Documents required for registration.\n\nBULLET::::- Valid passport and visa\n\nBULLET::::- 4 passport size colour photographs (4 cm x 4cm) with white background, without spectacles or cap/hat\n\nBULLET::::- The foreigner registration form\n\nBULLET::::- Photocopy of,\n\nBULLET::::- The photo page of the passport;\n\nBULLET::::- The page displaying validity of the passport;\n\nBULLET::::- The page displaying the Indian visa and arrival stamp\n\nBULLET::::- A letter of undertaking and identity document of an Indian sponsor\n\nBULLET::::- Proof of residential address in India\n\nBULLET::::- Payment of registration fee of\n\nBULLET::::- For employment visas\n", "Within in some countries in Europe, it is clear to see some contemporary examples of flexible citizenship. The example of Turkish guest workers in Germany is a great example of both transnationalism and flexible citizenship. For instance, after World War II there was shortage of able-bodied men to work lower position jobs, therefore migrant workers from many different countries were recruited to take this position. Primarily, these guest workers came from Turkey to fill these positions. Although there was initially a rule of ‘quick return’ for the migrant workers, the German government realized it was more profitable to keep the migrant workers there, and issued them guest worker permits that let these Turkish guest workers stay indefinitely.\n", "National laws regarding the immigration of citizens of that country are regulated by international law. The United Nations' International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandates that all countries allow entry to their own citizens.\n\nSection::::Control measures.\n\nTo control immigration, many countries set up customs at entry points. Some common location for entry points are airports and roads near the border. At the customs department, travel documents are inspected. Some required documents are a passport, an international certificate of vaccination and an onward ticket. Sometimes travelers are also required to declare or register the amount of money they are carrying.\n", "Visitors are eligible if they are in good health, can convince an immigration officer that they have ties (job, home, financial assets or family) that will take them back to their home country and have enough money for their stay. In some cases a medical exam or a letter of invitation may be required. Immigration officials have the discretion to limit the duration that visitors may enter the country as well as impose additional conditions.\n\nBULLET::::- Allowed stay\n", "US or Canadian citizen children under age 16 (or, when traveling as part of certain groups, under age 19) can also use other documents as identification, including a birth certificate, for land and sea border crossings.\n\nNative Americans in the United States, Mexico, and Canada may be able to use certain additional forms of identification (in addition to the documents valid for citizens of those countries):\n", "The United Arab Emirates has a work visa sponsorship system to issue work permits for foreign alien nationals who wish to migrate for work in the UAE. Most of the visas are sponsored by institutions and companies. A person looking to enter the UAE for work needs to first procure a work permit from the Ministry of Human Resources. The work permit allows the holder to enter the UAE for employment and it is valid for two months from the date of issue. After the employee enters the UAE on the basis for work, the sponsoring company or institution arranges to complete the requirements of medical testing, obtaining Emirates ID card, labor card and stamping the work residency permit on his passport. The work residency permit on the employee's passport denotes that his legal presence for work in the country is provided by the company he is employed by. After this process, the employee can sponsor his family members and bring them into the country. Per Article 1 of Ministerial Decree No. 766 of 2015, an employee whose employment was terminated because of expiry of his contract can get a new work permit when he wishes to join a new employment. The employee may remain in the UAE on a 6 month job seeker visa to find a new job which will legalize his residency status to work in the country for a longer period. A new work permit is also issued if it is determined that the employer has failed to meet the legal and contractual obligations, including but not limited to failure to pay wages for more than 60 days. A worker may request his contract to be terminated after at least 6 months of employment. A worker whose employer terminated him unfairly is entitled to receive a new work permit without the need to complete six months.\n", "Identity cards are generally issued as a means of identification within a country, but in some cases they may also be used as a travel document. For example, EU, EEA and Swiss citizens can use their national identity cards to exercise their right of free movement in the EU, EEA and Switzerland without a visa. They can also visit most other countries in Europe as well as a few countries and territories outside Europe. Similarly, citizens of most South American countries can use their ID cards for travel between the countries.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12756	Why aren't the tickets you get while waiting for a seat/order in restaurants consecutive numbers?	In the mcdonalds they are consecutive, at least in my country. The only thing that might throw you off is people ordering at multiple counters at once, so somebody else has the number after you and your mate grts one after that	[ "Through the \"Childhood\" menu, Next sold tickets through their website in batches. Several tables would be opened up, and announcements were made on their Facebook and Twitter pages when tickets were available. The tickets sold rapidly. Next tickets are transferrable, but not refundable or exchangeable. This has sparked the creation of a secondary market for the tickets, which has resulted in reports of people scalping the tickets for several times their face value.\n", "Another form of virtual queuing is where the ticket carries a time-slot on it, rather than just a sequentially incremented number. This type of ticket would allow someone to do other things and then return for a roller-coaster ride, for example, without having to actually stand and wait in line.\n\nSection::::Coach ticket.\n", "There has been criticism against the cost overrun and delay, and to some user problems. For example, people who forget to check out need to pay extra, and that the onboard GPS can give delayed position at when checking in, resulting in too high a price being charged. Receipts are not given, and the trips can be checked online only after a few days, making it hard to verify that the correct amount was paid.\n", "After a situation of havoc created unintentionally by Lee Jaijin, in one of the latter episodes, the production team created a rule stating that the Transfer Ticket only can be used & only available in same day the Flower Crew members receive or get it from the lucky draw or the guest. It only can be used before midnight at any situation, for anyone & any place.\n\nSection::::Transfer Ticket.\n", "In an attempt to eliminate the secondary market on Next tickets, the sales model was changed in 2012 to follow a season ticket model, where in-advance tickets were only available if patrons purchased tickets for one meal from each of the restaurant's seasonal menus being offered for the year. Additional benefits (including access to the invite-only The Office) were given along with the season tickets with the stipulation that if the tickets were sold, these additional benefits would be lost. For the 2012 season, the wait list during ticket purchasing reached a queue of over 6,600 people. With just over 900 packages available in total for the year, the people who were able to buy the tickets were in line within 8–10 seconds of their release.\n", "On the other hand, because sellers on the secondary ticket market set the price, there is a wide range of prices to choose from, which can be beneficial, but can also lead to uncertainty for the buyer. Sellers could take advantage of uninformed buyers and thus overcharge with prices of up to 300% above face value.\n\nSection::::Opinions.\n", "Various amusement parks around the world have employed a similar virtual queue system for guests wishing to queue for their amusement rides. One of the most notable examples is Disney's Fastpass which issues guests a ticket which details a time for the guest to return and board the attraction. More recent virtual queue system have utilised technology, such as the Q-Bot, to reserve a place for them in the queue. Implementations of such a system include the Q-Bot at Legoland parks, the Flash Pass at Six Flags parks and the Q4U at Dreamworld.\n", "In October 2014, Disney's Hollywood Studios began testing a new procedure that would require all riders to have FastPass reservations for the attraction. The test, scheduled to last only a few days, eliminated the standby line that is used by visitors who have not already obtained a FastPass ticket for the ride, either because they had all been claimed or they were holding FastPasses for other attractions. Some analysts suggest that this process could become more common in years to come as amusement parks attempt to keep guests from getting frustrated or waiting in extremely long lines.\n\nSection::::Name variation.\n", "The basic concept of a ticket lock is similar to the ticket queue management system. This is the method that many bakeries and delis use to serve customers in the order that they arrive, without making them stand in a line. Generally, there is some type of dispenser from which customers pull sequentially numbered tickets upon arrival. The dispenser usually has a sign above or near it stating something like \"Please take a number\". There is also typically a dynamic sign, usually digital, that displays the ticket number that is now being served. Each time the next ticket number (customer) is ready to be served, the \"Now Serving\" sign is incremented and the number called out. This allows all of the waiting customers to know how many people are still ahead of them in the queue or line.\n", "Some hotel chains have specific company policies which determine which customers will be walked in order of priority, often customers who belong to the highest tier level of the hotel's loyalty program or are considered a VIP guest will likely not be walked or would be the last to be walked in an extreme situation. Customers with third-party reservations that were not made directly with the hotel or first time customers with a discounted rate may be at a higher risk of being walked.\n\nSection::::Solutions.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Sweden.\n\nThe rail operator SJ had a loophole around 2010, where ticket prices were calculated the shortest way, even if going a detour with a train change. It was possible to book a short distance ticket with an extreme detour, and end the journey halfway. This loophole has been tightened.\n\nSection::::Examples.:United Kingdom.\n", "BULLET::::- \"In-line\" entertainment can be added. This is popular at amusement parks like Walt Disney World, which uses TV screens and other visuals to keep people in the queue area occupied.\n\nBULLET::::- Secondary queue areas for patrons with special tickets, like the \"FASTPASS\" system used at Disney parks, or the Q-bot as used in Legoland Windsor.\n\nSection::::Types.:Physical.:Psychology.\n\nPeople experience \"occupied\" time as shorter than \"unoccupied\" time, and generally overestimate the amount of time waited by around 36%.\n\nThe technique of giving people an activity to distract them from a wait has been used to reduce complaints of delays at:\n", "BULLET::::- Some TOCs machines, notably those on the Southern network, allow tickets to be bought for the next day. This option is only available after 4.00pm, at which point two buttons appear on the main menu screen: one for \"travel today\", the other for \"travel tomorrow\".\n\nBULLET::::- Southern uses the name QUICKticket for its machines, both in publicity material and on the machines themselves, as shown on the Hassocks example above.\n", "During a test where three tickets were purchased, the average transaction took about ten minutes to complete which did not leave time to read the purchase conditions. Once the transactions were completed, the average price paid was about twice that charged by official ticket sellers.\n\nSection::::Partnerships.\n", "The counter-argument is that passengers, particularly by train, can check in, travel a distance that would be more expensive than the deposit amount, and then not check out, allowing the passenger to save more than if they had checked out at the station of destination. Furthermore, a passenger is able to check in at the departure station, cross the country, not check out and then dishonestly reclaim the money from NS as if she had travelled only one stop.\n", "In 2004, bonus paper tickets issued by some (higher-priced) arcade machines which could be redeemed for prizes were replaced by a ticket count kept on the card. Eventually, paper tickets were now being dispensed again instead of being loaded into the card, prevalent in the India, Philippines and Singapore franchises. In the India and Philippines franchises, a rare golden ticket allows the player to earn an extra 500 tickets.\n", "It is an advantage for the customer to know in advance that he will not have to go through the trouble of waiting until a table is available, or being put on a waiting list, or in the worst case, needing to find another place to eat, because the one chosen won't be able to serve him.\n", "Those who support the existence of the secondary ticket market say it is merely a natural phenomena with the potential to garner greater economic efficiency for buyers and sellers. “A ticket never moves into the secondary market in the first place unless the original vendor has been paid their asking price. Moreover, the originator would benefit from the seat being filled as this would improve souvenir sales and concessions.\n", "Next also releases \"Same-Day\" tickets via their Facebook page. They guarantee there will be at least one table available via Facebook every day they are open.\n\nNext, Alinea, and The Aviary, each in their own right, served as a testing and development ground for Nick Kokonas's proprietary ticketing system. Kokonas's system allows for dynamic pricing for restaurant tickets/reservations. The system, now held under a new company called Tock, is being commercially offered to restaurants around the country and the world. Some of the earliest adopters include, Thomas Keller's The French Laundry and Per Se and Daniel Patterson's Coi.\n\nSection::::Awards.\n", "Seamless does not prepare or deliver any food. Once a user submits an order, it is automatically sent to a dedicated computer terminal or fax machine at the restaurant. The restaurant confirms the order with Seamless and then prepares and delivers the order. At many restaurants, users also have the option to pick up their meals at the restaurant. The ordering process works in the same way, except that the user goes to the restaurant for their food instead of having the food delivered.\n\nSection::::Recognition.\n", "Problems occurred when the flights were close to full. In that case the booking agent would have to inform the sales agent that there were no seats, and the sales agent would then ask the customer if there were any other flights they might choose as an alternative. The booking agent would have to return to the cabinets each time to retrieve the flight cards; since there were many booking agents who might want to retrieve the cards, the agents couldn't take more than one at a time. During busy schedule periods, this process could stretch out the booking process indefinitely.\n", "A paper ticket often is perforated so it can be separated into two parts, one (the ticket stub) to be kept by the customer, and one to be kept by the ticket controller. Whether or not one can leave and reenter with the customer part only varies. It may not be allowed to avoid subsequent use of one ticket by multiple people, or even simultaneous use by giving the ticket to someone before the ticket check (if this is physically possible), but it may also be allowed, ex: in a movie theatre to buy, during a movie, a snack or drink before the ticket check and reenter.\n", "Offering table reservations may be a good tool to increase demand for certain restaurants. As clients know that there is a limited capacity of seats, they will always prefer to make a table reservation instead of arriving at the restaurant and facing a long waiting line. This tool helps the restaurant to keep a high demand of its customers on busy nights, and even better, to increase traffic on slow nights, when customers make reservations because they don't know how crowded the restaurant will be.\n", "Like this system, a ticket lock is a first in first out (FIFO) queue-based mechanism. It adds the benefit of fairness of lock acquisition and works as follows; there are two integer values which begin at 0. The first value is the queue ticket, the second is the dequeue ticket. The queue ticket is the thread's position in the queue, and the dequeue ticket is the ticket, or queue position, that now has the lock (Now Serving).\n", "The priority queuing system was originally controversial. An earlier version implemented at Cedar Point in the early 2000s allowed guests to enter a virtual queue, similar to Disney's FastPass, where riders could return to a ride hours later and skip to the front of the line. It was first called Ticket to Ride, and later it was renamed FreeWay. The system was discontinued in 2004 due to negative reception; guests were uncomfortable with the park \"sanctioning line-jumping\". Fast Lane received higher marks when assessed internally by Cedar Fair, and the system has been in place at all Cedar Fair parks since 2012.\n" ]	[ "The tickets you get while waiting for a seat/order in all restaurants are not consecutive numbers.", "The tickets given in restaurants while waiting for an order are not consecutive numbers." ]	[ "In McDonalds the ticket numbers for orders are consecutive.", "The tickets given in a restaurant are consecutive numbers except when orders are taken at multiple counters." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The tickets you get while waiting for a seat/order in all restaurants are not consecutive numbers.", "The tickets given in restaurants while waiting for an order are not consecutive numbers." ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "In McDonalds the ticket numbers for orders are consecutive.", "The tickets given in a restaurant are consecutive numbers except when orders are taken at multiple counters." ]
2018-23223	In America on tv they are uslng shoes indoors, is this true? And if its true how cant the floors be dirty all the time?	America is too big and has too many people in it for this to be true of everyone. In America, many people take their shoes off at the door. And yes, also in America, many people don’t. There’s no universal truth. People who don’t take their shoes off at the door usually have floors that get dirty faster, yes. They either have dirty floors or they work harder to keep them clean, by mopping or vacuuming or shampooing the carpet.	[ "In Northern Europe and Austria, it is generally considered rude or unhygienic to keep one's shoes on when entering a house, in particular boots or outdoor walking shoes. There may be exceptions, especially when it is a short visit where it is not necessary to enter the interior rooms of the house or flat. Dress shoes or other shoes worn with formal wear are usually accepted, but those are generally not worn outside; the custom is to bring shoes for indoor wear in a bag and put them on when outdoor clothes are removed. This custom is also common (but to a lesser extent, except for Bavaria) in Germany.\n", "In some parts of the United States, where taboos against barefoot walking are strong , it is common for people to wear the same shoes indoors and outdoors, and for guests to keep their shoes on when visiting other people's houses. \n", "Section::::In the world.:Europe.:UK, Ireland, Netherlands, Belgium.\n\nIn the Netherlands and Belgium, people usually don't wear shoes indoors. In the United Kingdom shoes have traditionally been kept on, unless there are certain weather conditions (for example, snow) or a certain type of floor or carpet. However it is now becoming increasingly common to take them off at all times. In Ireland however it is very uncommon to take one's shoes off when entering a house, especially for visitors.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Europe.:Southwestern Europe.\n", "Section::::In the world.:America.\n\nSection::::In the world.:America.:United States.\n\nIn the United States, taking shoes off indoors is not a tradition within the Continental United States, but is considered expected in Hawaii and Alaska. It is also more prevalent in the North East due to poor weather in the winter, as well as in the Pacific Northwest, with standards differing from household to household. This is especially the case during rainy weather, when one's shoes could easily get very muddy, wet, or dirty. However, removing of shoes is common among certain immigrant communities.\n\nSection::::In the world.:America.:Canada.\n", "After removing shoes, one must avoid stepping on the tiled or concrete in socks or with bare feet, to avoid bringing dirt into the house. Once inside, generally one will change into : slippers or shoes intended for indoor wear.\n\nSchools and have large with compartments for each person's outdoor shoes. In private residences, \"getabako\" may be absent, and shoes are usually turned to face the door so they can be slipped on easily when leaving.\n\n\"Genkan\" are also occasionally found in other buildings in Japan, especially in old-fashioned businesses.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Barefoot customs by country.:South Africa.\n\nIn South Africa barefoot walking in public is part of the predominantly white Afrikaans speaking culture, although English speaking people also often walk barefoot in public, especially in the summer months and in cities such as Cape Town.\n\nThe National Guidelines on School Uniform list shoes as an optional item while the Draft Guidelines state \"Pupils, especially in lower grades, should also\n", "In Italy (with the exception of the region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia), France, Spain, and Portugal it is normal entering a home with shoes on. They can be removed only in rare cases, as for a wooden floor.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Europe.:Eastern Europe.\n", "In the United States, there have been myths that regulations require the wearing of footwear. In the United States, during the period of the counterculture movement of the 1960s, business establishments would deny admittance to barefoot hippies arguing that health regulations required that shoes be worn. This led to a belief by many in nonexistent OSHA or local health department regulations preventing people from going to stores, restaurants, and other establishments without shoes. However, those regulations that exist apply only to employees and not customers. Specifically, the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires employers to \"ensure that each affected employee uses protective footwear\" when there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, objects piercing the sole of an employee's foot, and where an employee's feet may be exposed to electrical hazards. Additionally, employee footwear, where required by OSHA, must comply with one of the standards described in OSHA's regulations. State and local laws may dictate when and where an employee must wear shoes.\n", "Section::::Barefoot customs by country.:United Kingdom.\n\nBeing barefoot in public is more common during warmer months, and often accepted as a social norm, however this does not extend to metropolitan cities such as London, but more for rural areas and more common for young children and teenagers. Some British schools also allow children to attend school barefoot in warmer months, and encourage it for indoor and outdoor physical education lessons. The National Health Service has recommended that people \"go barefoot or wear open-toed sandals whenever you can in the hot weather...to help stop your feet getting sweaty and smelly.\"\n", "Section::::In the world.:Asia.:Vietnam.\n\nIn Vietnam, it is a custom to remove shoes before entering any house or flat. It is also common to remove shoes in kindergarten schools and in some small private businesses.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Asia.:Arab world.\n\nIn the Arab world, no shoes are allowed indoors, as the shoes' soles are seen as dirty and unsanitary.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Asia.:Thailand.\n", "The custom of concealing shoes in the structure of a building appears to have more or less died out some time during the 20th century.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "The custom of concealing shoes in the fabric of a building appears to have more or less died out some time during the 20th century, although not entirely. The shoe manufacturer Norvic incorporated a pair of their women's high-leg boots in the foundations of their new factory built in 1964, and an even more recent account comes from Knebworth House, where in 1991 an estate worker's shoe replaced an \"old court shoe\" that had been discovered behind some panelling. Nevertheless, only 50 post-1900 instances of concealed shoes have been recorded.\n\nSection::::Location of finds.\n", "BULLET::::- The series 3 episode 5 episode \"Diddle Diddle Dumpling\", of British dark comedy series Inside No. 9, is based around the premise of a man becoming fixated trying to trace the owner of an abandoned shoe.\n\nSection::::In sport.\n\nLeaving behind shoes can be a symbol of retirement in sport. For example, as ESPN's Sherry Skalko describes about Rulon Gardner's last wrestling bout in Athens, Greece: \n\nAn emotional Rulon Gardner prepares to leave his shoes on the mat -- a symbol of retirement.\n", "Every main character in the show has its own unique footstep sound. The sound of Patrick's footsteps is recorded by the show's Foley crew, with a Foley talent wearing a slip-on shoe. Jeff Hutchins, show's sound designer said, \"[Going] barefoot makes it tough to have much presence, so we decided that Patrick would be performed with shoes on.\"\n\nSection::::Character.:Voice.\n", "India, Thailand, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, Pakistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Kazakhstan and China have this tradition as well as many other Asian countries.\n\nIn China when you enter homes, you also put on indoor slippers after taking your shoes off. It can be the fabric kind in the winter and the plastic/rubber kind in the summer.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Asia.:Iran and Turkey.\n", "In neighborhood countries, Iran and Turkey, this is a widespread tradition. Cleanliness of a home is very important for families. It is also common to remove shoes in kindergarten schools and, although rarely, in some small private businesses.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Asia.:Israel.\n\nOnly some Israelis remove their shoes at home. During the Priestly Blessing in the synagogue, the kohanim (priests) will remove their shoes.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Asia.:India.\n\nIn India, it is the widespread norm to take shoes off when entering the home. It may even be considered rude for guests to keep their shoes on inside the house. \n", "BULLET::::- Shoes are not worn inside; Turkish people don't want the floor to be stained by soil, sand or dust that may be attached to the soles. Instead, shoes are removed before entering the house, either left outside near the doorstep or placed in the shoe cabinet at the entryway, and often replaced with slippers. Just wearing socks is also acceptable in informal situations. There are also separate slippers used when using a bathroom, due to hygienic reasons.\n", "Shiny-floor show\n\nA shiny-floor show is a light entertainment television program that is recorded in or broadcast from the floor of a television studio, often in front of a live audience. The name derives from the flat floor of the studio, which is typically covered in a shiny temporary self-adhesive plastic overlay.\n\nExamples of shiny-floor shows include studio-based celebrity competition shows such as the BBC's \"Strictly Come Dancing\", game shows such as BBC's \"The Weakest Link\", and talent shows such as \"The Voice\" and \"The X Factor.\"\n", "Some South African schools have sport uniforms where bare feet are compulsory, such as primary school rugby. Another sport where bare feet for kids are compulsory is \"tou trek\" or tug of war. Being barefoot in public is generally tolerated. In South African shopping malls, stores, and events, it is not an uncommon sight to see barefoot adults, kids and especially teenagers and young adults.\n\nSection::::Barefoot customs by country.:United States.\n", "Section::::Barefoot customs by country.\n\nSection::::Barefoot customs by country.:Australia.\n", "Concealed shoes hidden in the fabric of a building have been discovered in many European countries, as well as in other parts of the world, since at least the early modern period. Independent researcher Brian Hoggard has observed that the locations in which these shoes are typically found – in chimneys, under floors, above ceilings, around doors and windows, in the roof – suggest that some may have been concealed as magical charms to protect the occupants of the building against evil influences such as demons, ghosts and witches. Others may have been intended to bestow fertility on a female member of the household, or been an offering to a household deity.\n", "A bespoke shoe company based in London that was established in 1847 developed the first loafer as a country house shoe for the landed gentry and the royal family. The \"Wildsmith Loafer\" made by Raymond Lewis Wildsmith of Wildsmith Shoes, was designed for King George VI as a casual house shoe. The shoe has subsequently been marketed and sold by other London shoe firms and dubbed \"the Harrow\".\n", "In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples.\n\nIn several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. In a similar context deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity.\n", "Tradition of removing shoes in home\n\nIn many cultures there is a tradition of removing one's shoes in the home and places like church, temples and schools.\n\nSection::::In the world.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Europe.\n\nSection::::In the world.:Europe.:Germany, Austria, and Northern Europe.\n", "An analysis of the Concealed Shoe Index maintained by Northampton Museum, conducted by June Swann and published in 1996, reveals that the most common place of concealment is the chimney, fireplace or hearth (26.2 per cent), followed by under the floor or above the ceiling (22.9 per cent), and almost as many concealed in the roof. Shoes have also been found around doors and windows, under the stairs, and among the foundations. Concealed shoes have been discovered in many types of building: country cottages, town houses, manor houses, hospitals, workhouses, factories, public houses, and two Oxford colleges, St John's and Queen's. They have even been found in ecclesiastical buildings, including a Benedictine monastery in Germany and a Baptist church in Cheshire, England.\n" ]	[ "Because Americans wear their shoes indoors, said households whereas Americans are wearing their shoes indoors should be dirty.", "Because Americans wear their shoes in doors, their floors should be dirty.", "Because Americans wear their shoes indoors, the floors should be dirty." ]	[ "Not every American wears their shoes indoors, and those who do can clean their floors by vacuuming and mopping, which would prevent the floors from being dirty. ", "Not every American wears their shoes indoors, and those who do can clean their floors with multiple appliances to rid the floor of dirt. ", "Not every American wears their shoes indoors and there is insufficient data to prove that every American wears their shoes indoors, some remove their shoes before entering, and some mop the floors to keep them clean." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Because Americans wear their shoes indoors, said households whereas Americans are wearing their shoes indoors should be dirty.", "Because Americans wear their shoes in doors, their floors should be dirty.", "Because Americans wear their shoes indoors, the floors should be dirty.", "Americans wear their shoes indoors." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Not every American wears their shoes indoors, and those who do can clean their floors by vacuuming and mopping, which would prevent the floors from being dirty. ", "Not every American wears their shoes indoors, and those who do can clean their floors with multiple appliances to rid the floor of dirt. ", "Not every American wears their shoes indoors and there is insufficient data to prove that every American wears their shoes indoors, some remove their shoes before entering, and some mop the floors to keep them clean.", "In America, many people take their shoes off at the door." ]
2018-03545	Why do things sound significantly different when you listen to them with one ear vs both ears? For example when only using one out of a pair of headphones, even when listening to things recorded in mono.	For the same reason things look different when you look at them with one eye versus with two eyes (or at least, they should!). Just like we humans have binocular (bi-n-ocular, two eyes) vision, we have binaural (bi-n-aural, two ears) hearing. When you see something with just one eye, you lose a whole lot of information compared to seeing it with both eyes, such as the ability to tell how far away from you it is (depth perception). It's the same when you hear something with just one ear - you lose the same kind of information, and things sound much "flatter" and less vibrant. Plus there's the influence of whatever the other ear is hearing - maybe silence, maybe room noise, etc. The brain kind of mixes both channels to get a sense of the environment, and so it can have an impact on how you hear what goes into the other ear.	[ "Binaural recordings are made specifically to be heard through headphones rather than loudspeakers. When listening to sound through loudspeakers, the left and right ear can both hear the sound coming from both speakers. By distinction, when listening to sound through headphones, the sound from the left earpiece is audible only to the left ear, and the sound from the right ear piece is audible only to the right ear. When producing binaural media, the sound source is recorded by two separate microphones, placed at a distance comparable to that between two ears, and they are not mixed, but remain separate on the final medium, whether video or audio.\n", "Section::::Other masking conditions.\n\nIpsilateral (\"same side\") masking is not the only condition where masking takes place. Another situation where masking occurs is called contralateral (\"other side\") simultaneous masking. In this case, the instance where the signal might be audible in one ear but is deliberately taken away by applying a masker to the other ear.\n", "2004 saw the release of an EP from singer/songwriter Andy Zipf, an EP from Chasing Victory; and, in the fall, the highly acclaimed debut album from The Showdown titled \"A Chorus of Obliteration\".\n", "The ILD arises from the fact that,a sound coming from a source located to one side of the head will have a higher intensity, or be louder, at the ear nearest the sound source. One can therefore create the illusion of a sound source emanating from one side of the head merely by adjusting the relative level of the sounds that are fed to two separated speakers or headphones. This is the basis of the commonly used pan control.\n", "Equal-loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called \"side-presentation\", which is not how we normally hear. Real-life sounds arrive as planar wavefronts, if from a reasonably distant source. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the masking effect of the head, and also highly dependent on reflection off the pinna (outer ear). Off-centre sounds result in increased head masking at one ear, and subtle changes in the effect of the pinna, especially at the other ear. This combined effect of head-masking and pinna reflection is quantified in a set of curves in three-dimensional space referred to as head-related transfer functions (HRTFs). Frontal presentation is now regarded as preferable when deriving equal-loudness contours, and the latest ISO standard is specifically based on frontal and central presentation.\n", "BULLET::::- September 18, 2007: \"Feel Like Hell EP\" - The Showdown\n\nBULLET::::- September 23, 2008: \"The End Is Not the End\" - House of Heroes\n\nBULLET::::- June 10, 2009: \"Forget and Not Slow Down\" - Relient K\n\nBULLET::::- October 27, 2009: \"Birds and Cages\" - Deas Vail\n\nBULLET::::- April 26, 2011: \"The Ones Who Wait\" - Denison Witmer\n\nBULLET::::- December 7, 2011: \"Out for Blood\" - Farewell Flight\n\nBULLET::::- April 10, 2011: \"Is for Karaoke\" - Relient K\n\nBULLET::::- November 10, 2011: \"Deas Vail\" - Deas Vail\n\nBULLET::::- November 29, 2011: \"For Shepards and Kings\" - Deas Vail\n", "Directional sound perception is based on the delay between the same sound reaching a person's left and right ears. In stereo speakers, the sound from one speaker reaches both ears, although at different levels, and with a delay between one ear and another, since the speaker is placed away from the center. In headphones, this \"crossfeed\" does not occur, so the resulting stereo image is different from what is heard from speakers. A crossfeed signal processor attempts to recreate the stereo image heard from speakers by mixing some signal from the left channel into the right channel, and vice versa.\n", "Since most animals have two ears, many of the effects of the human auditory system can also be found in other animals. Therefore, interaural time differences (interaural phase differences) and interaural level differences play a role for the hearing of many animals. But the influences on localization of these effects are dependent on head sizes, ear distances, the ear positions and the orientation of the ears.\n\nSection::::Animals.:Lateral information (left, ahead, right).\n", "The result is a realistic stereo field that has reasonable compatibility with mono playback. Since the cardioid polar pattern rejects off-axis sound, less of the ambient room characteristics is picked up. This means that the mics can be placed farther away from the sound sources, resulting in a blend that may be more appealing. Further, the availability of purpose-built microphone mounts makes ORTF easy to achieve.\n", "Depending on where the source is located, our head acts as a barrier to change the timbre, intensity, and spectral qualities of the sound, helping the brain orient where the sound emanated from. These minute differences between the two ears are known as interaural cues.\n\nLower frequencies, with longer wavelengths, diffract the sound around the head forcing the brain to focus only on the phasing cues from the source.\n", "Once recorded, the binaural effect can be reproduced using headphones. It does not work with mono playback; nor does it work while using loudspeaker units, as the acoustics of this arrangement distort the channel separation via natural crosstalk (an approximation can be obtained if the listening environment is carefully designed by employing expensive crosstalk cancellation equipment.)\n", "A consequence of this duplex system is that it is also possible to generate so-called \"cue trading\" or \"time–intensity trading\" stimuli on headphones, where ITDs pointing to the left are offset by ILDs pointing to the right, so the sound is perceived as coming from the midline.\n", "2006 began with the release of another new act House of Heroes. This was followed by a concept album called \"My Other Band\" which featured five different side projects from members of Relient K, Demon Hunter, Bleach, and Audio Adrenaline. In August the second album from road dogs Last Tuesday was released, and on the heels of that came Gasoline Heart's debut album.\n\nIn the first half of 2007 released from The Showdown and Chasing Victory were released to critical acclaim. \n\nSection::::History.:2008–present.\n", "Section::::Media.:Binaural recording.\n\nSome ASMR video creators use binaural recording techniques to simulate the acoustics of a three-dimensional environment, reported to elicit in viewers and listeners the experience of being in proximity to actor and vocalist. Binaural recordings are usually made using two microphones, just like stereo recordings. However, in binaural recordings, the two microphones tend to be more specially designed to mimic ears on humans. In many cases, microphones are separated the same distance as ears are on humans, and microphones are surrounded by ear-shaped cups to get similar reverb as human ears.\n", "Monaural or monophonic sound reproduction (often shortened to mono) is sound intended to be heard as if it were emanating from one position. This contrasts with stereophonic sound or \"stereo\", which uses two separate audio channels to reproduce sound from two microphones on the right and left side, which is reproduced with two separate loudspeakers to give a sense of the direction of sound sources. In mono, only one loudspeaker is necessary, but, when played through multiple loudspeakers or headphones, identical signals are fed to each speaker, resulting in the perception of one-channel sound \"imaging\" in one sonic space between the speakers (provided that the speakers are set up in a proper symmetrical critical-listening placement). Monaural recordings, like stereo ones, typically use multiple microphones fed into multiple channels on a recording console, but each channel is \"panned\" to the center. In the final stage, the various center-panned signal paths are usually mixed down to two identical tracks, which, because they are identical, are perceived upon playback as representing a single unified signal at a single place in the soundstage. In some cases, multitrack sources are mixed to a one-track tape, thus becoming one signal. In the mastering stage, particularly in the days of mono records, the one- or two-track mono master tape was then transferred to a one-track lathe intended to be used in the pressing of a monophonic record. Today, however, monaural recordings are usually mastered to be played on stereo and multi-track formats, yet retain their center-panned mono soundstage characteristics. \n", "Stereophonic sound attempts to create an illusion of location for various sound sources (voices, instruments, etc.) within the original recording. The recording engineer's goal is usually to create a stereo \"image\" with localization information. When a stereophonic recording is heard through loudspeaker systems (rather than headphones), each ear, of course, hears sound from both speakers. The audio engineer may, and often does, use more than two microphones (sometimes many more) and may mix them down to two tracks in ways that exaggerate the separation of the instruments, in order to compensate for the mixture that occurs when listening via speakers.\n", "\"Bilingual\" was recorded at Bunk Junk & Genius, Sarm West and Sarm Hook End in London, at Axis and Bass Hit in New York City, and at the State House of Broadcasting and Sound Recording in Moscow.\n", "Examples of binaural re-recording were produced by Stanford engineering student Jorge Miramontes by watching sections of the film Saving Private Ryan whilst wearing Sound Professionals SP-TFB-2 in-ear binaural microphones. As mentioned previously when using binaural microphones, all audio being recorded is subjected to one set of HRTFʼs and the outcome may not translate well to every listener (although it is worth pointing out that this is the case with all methods of improving spatial awareness in soundtracks).\n\nSection::::Playback.\n", "“We take a lot of pride in being independent, which allows us to do whatever we want musically,” Skyler says. “No two songs on this record are about the same thing or same person, yet each song was written in confidence that the listener will be able to relate.”\n", "Section::::Amplitude difference.\n", "In everyday life, speech is more easily understood in noise when speech and noise come from different directions, a phenomenon known as \"spatial release from masking\". In this situation, the speech and noise have distinct interaural time differences and interaural level differences. The time differences are produced by the differences in the length of the sound path to the two ears and the level differences are caused by the acoustic shadowing effect of the head. These two cues play a major role in sound localisation, and have both been shown to have independent effects in spatial release from masking. The interaural level differences can give rise to one ear or the other having a better signal-to-noise ratio, which would allow the listener to gain an intelligibility improvement by simply listening to that ear. However, the interaural time differences can only be exploited by comparing the waveforms at the two ears. It is thought that binaural unmasking is the main mechanism involved. Successful models of spatial release from masking tend to use equalization-cancellaton theory to generate the effects of interaural time differences.\n", "Same as You\n\nSame as You is the sixth studio album by British jazz band Polar Bear. It was released on 30 March 2015 by The Leaf Label.\n\nSection::::Background.\n\nThe band rehearsed and recorded the album in the UK, after which Seb Rochford went to California and mixed the album with Ken Barrientos in the Mojave Desert. Rochford instructed members Pete Wareham and Mark Lockheart not to rehearse their solos prior to recording, using their spontaneous first takes as the definitive versions.\n", "Mono vs Stereo was established in 2003 and released its first project The compilation album featured the debut song from The Evan Anthem (also Mono vs Stereo's first signing) as well as an exclusive track from Matthew Thiessen and the Earthquakes (side project from Relient K's lead vocalist). Soon after followed a release by Relient K titled \"The Vinyl Countdown\", and the debut album from The Evan Anthem titled \"Prologue\".\n", "When wearing stereo headphones, people with unilateral hearing loss can hear only one channel, hence the panning information (volume and time differences between channels) is lost; some instruments may be heard better than others if they are mixed predominantly to one channel, and in extreme cases of sound production, such as complete stereo separation or stereo-switching, only part of the composition can be heard; in games using 3D audio effects, sound may not be perceived appropriately due to coming to the disabled ear. This can be corrected by using settings in the software or hardware—audio player, OS, amplifier or sound source—to adjust balance to one channel (only if the setting downmixes sound from both channels to one), or there may be an option to outright downmix both channels to mono. Such settings may be available via the device or software's accessibility features.\n", "Section::::Artist background.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-09585	Why does eating certain foods make you almost immediately have to go to the bathroom, but no way the food went through your whole digestive tract?	If your digestive system wants to move that food out of your body quickly-- it has to get other stuff out of the way first.	[ "Along with social environmental factors, ingestive behaviors are also influenced by atmospheric environmental factors. Atmospheric factors include:\n\nSection::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from stomach.\n", "Section::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.\n\nSection::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.:Cephalic phase.\n", "Section::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.\n\nThe patterns of GI contraction as a whole can be divided into two distinct patterns, peristalsis and segmentation. Occurring between meals, the migrating motor complex is a series of peristaltic wave cycles in distinct phases starting with relaxation, followed by an increasing level of activity to a peak level of peristaltic activity lasting for 5–15 minutes.\n\nThis cycle repeats every 1.5–2 hours but is interrupted by food ingestion. The role of this process is likely to clean excess bacteria and food from the digestive system.\n\nSection::::Motility.:Contraction patterns.:Peristalsis.\n", "Section::::Regulation.:Short reflexes.\n", "Section::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery.\n\nAlthough the passage of food into the gastrointestinal tract results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines, this is achieved by diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue and by increasing the volume of blood pumped forward by the heart each minute. The flow of oxygen and blood to the brain is extremely tightly regulated by the circulatory system and does not drop after a meal.\n\nSection::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Turkey and tryptophan.\n", "Induction of secretion by external cues other than contact with host cells also takes place \"in vivo\", in infected organisms. The bacteria sense such cues as temperature, pH, osmolarity and oxygen levels, and use them to \"decide\" whether to activate their T3SS. For instance, \"Salmonella\" can replicate and invade better in the ileum rather than in the cecum of animal intestine. The bacteria are able to know where they are thanks to the different ions present in these regions; the ileum contains formate and acetate, while the cecum does not. The bacteria sense these molecules, determine that they are at the ileum and activate their secretion machinery. Molecules present in the cecum, such as propionate and butyrate, provide a negative cue to the bacteria and inhibit secretion. Cholesterol, a lipid found in most eukaryotic cell membranes, is able to induce secretion in \"Shigella\".\n", "There are several sets of receptors located in the head: eyes, nose, tongue, and throat. The most important role of head factors in satiety is that taste and odor can serve as stimuli that permit learning about caloric contents of different foods. Tasting and swallowing of food contributes to the feeling of fullness caused by the presence of food in the stomach.\n\nSection::::Satiety signals.:Short-term signals.:Gastric and intestinal factors.\n", "The digestive system can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the cephalic phase of digestion. The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. Chemoreceptors and mechanorceptors, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.\n", "Regulation of gastric function\n\nThe nervous system and endocrine system collaborate to increase gastric secretion and motility when food is eaten and to suppress them as the stomach empties. Gastric activity associated with eating is divided into three stages called the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase, based on whether the stomach is being controlled by the brain, by itself, or by the small intestine, respectively. These phases overlap and all three can occur simultaneously. \n", "Long reflexes to the digestive system involve a sensory neuron sending information to the brain, which integrates the signal and then sends messages to the digestive system. While in some situations, the sensory information comes from the GI tract itself; in others, information is received from sources other than the GI tract. When the latter situation occurs, these reflexes are called feedforward reflexes. This type of reflex includes reactions to food or danger triggering effects in the GI tract. Emotional responses can also trigger GI response such as the butterflies in the stomach feeling when nervous. The feedforward and emotional reflexes of the GI tract are considered cephalic reflexes.\n", "Section::::Initiating ingestion.:Metabolic signals.\n\nHunger is the result of a fall in blood glucose level or depriving cells of the ability to metabolize fatty acids—glucoprivation and lipoprivation, respectively, stimulate eating. Detectors in the brain are only sensitive to glucoprivation; detectors in the liver are sensitive to both glucoprivation and lipoprivation outside the blood–brain barrier. However, no single set of receptors is solely responsible for the information the brain uses to control eating.\n\nSection::::Satiety signals.\n", "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nSymptoms of ileus include, but are not limited to:\n\nBULLET::::- moderate, diffuse abdominal discomfort\n\nBULLET::::- constipation\n\nBULLET::::- abdominal distension\n\nBULLET::::- nausea/vomiting, especially after meals\n\nBULLET::::- vomiting of bilious fluid\n\nBULLET::::- lack of bowel movement and/or flatulence\n\nBULLET::::- excessive belching\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nDecreased propulsive ability may be broadly classified as caused either by bowel obstruction or intestinal atony or paralysis. However, instances with symptoms and signs of a bowel obstruction occur, but with the absence of a mechanical obstruction, mainly in acute colonic pseudo-obstruction, Ogilvie's syndrome.\n\nSection::::Cause.:Bowel obstruction.\n", "It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.\n", "Segmentation also occurs during and shortly after a meal within short lengths in segmented or random patterns along the intestine. This process is carried out by the longitudinal muscles relaxing while circular muscles contract at alternating sections thereby mixing the food. This mixing allows food and digestive enzymes to maintain a uniform composition, as well as to ensure contact with the epithelium for proper absorption.\n\nSection::::Secretion.\n", "While some only experience symptoms following some meals, most experience episodes following any ingestion, from a single bite to a large meal. However, some long-term patients will find a select couple of food or drink items that do not trigger a response.\n\nUnlike typical vomiting, the regurgitation is typically described as effortless and unforced. There is seldom nausea preceding the expulsion, and the undigested food lacks the bitter taste and odour of stomach acid and bile.\n", "Enterohemorrhagic \"E. coli\" (EHEC) and enteropathogenic \"E. coli\" (EPEC) are pathogens that rely on OmpT to colonize in the intestine of their host. In response to the presence of \"E. coli\" in the gut, the host releases antimicrobial peptides as part of the innate immune response. Since OmpT can break down these antimicrobials and inactivate them, EHEC and EPEC can colonize within the colon or small intestine of the host and lead to serious diarrheal diseases.\n", "Section::::Function of neurons in the gastrointestinal tract.:Segmentation.\n\nSegmentation contractions are the contractions in intestines carried out by the smooth muscle walls. Unlike peristalsis, which involves the contraction and relaxation of muscles in one direction, segmentation occurs simultaneously in both directions as the circular muscles alternatively contract. This allows for thorough mixing of intestinal contents, known as chyme, to allow greater absorption.\n\nSection::::Function of neurons in the gastrointestinal tract.:Secretion.\n", "Section::::Systematic response.:Digestive-system response.:Enteric nervous system.\n\nThe digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.\n\nSection::::Research methods and techniques.\n\nSection::::Research methods and techniques.:Clamping techniques.\n", "The first of the gut–brain interactions was shown to be between the sight and smell of food and the release of gastric secretions, known as the cephalic phase, or cephalic response of digestion.\n\nSection::::Gut–brain integration.\n", "The TIM systems are being used to study the behavior of oral products during transit through the stomach, the small intestine and large intestine. Commonly performed studies concern the digestibility of food and food components, the bioaccessibility for absorption of pharmaceutical compounds, proteins, fat, minerals and (water- and fat-soluble) vitamins. \n\nThere are different models for the stomach and small intestine (TIM-1 and Tiny-TIM) and a model simulating the physiological conditions of the colon (TIM-2).\n", "Intestinal atresia can also by classified by the type of malformation. The classification system by Louw and Barnard (1955) divided them into four families of malformation:\n\nBULLET::::- Type I – web with complete or incomplete obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Type II – blind end (complete obstruction)\n\nBULLET::::- Type III – flaws in the blood supply\n\nBULLET::::- Type IIIa – mesenteric gap\n\nBULLET::::- Type IIIb – apple peel syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Type IV – multiple blockages\n", "Section::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.\n\nThe time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12 to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Immune function.\n\nSection::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Immune function.:Immune barrier.\n", "Enteral administration is food or drug administration via the human gastrointestinal tract. This contrasts with parenteral nutrition or drug administration (Greek \"para\", \"besides\" + \"enteros\"), which occurs from routes outside the GI tract, such as intravenous routes. Enteral administration involves the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines (i.e., the gastrointestinal tract). Methods of administration include oral, sublingual (dissolving the drug under the tongue), and rectal. Parenteral administration is via a peripheral or central vein. In pharmacology, the route of drug administration is important because it affects drug metabolism, drug clearance, and thus dosage. The term is from Greek \"enteros\", \"intestine\".\n", "Section::::Regulation.\n\nThe digestive system has a complex system of motility and secretion regulation which is vital for proper function. This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the central nervous system (CNS), short reflexes from the enteric nervous system (ENS) and reflexes from GI peptides working in harmony with each other.\n\nSection::::Regulation.:Long reflexes.\n", "Gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying) may occur and is due to metabolic causes (e.g. poorly controlled diabetes mellitus), decreased gastric motility (e.g. due to head injury) or pyloric obstruction (e.g. pyloric stenosis). Delayed gastric emptying usually only affects the emptying of the stomach of high-cellulose foods such as vegetables. Gastric emptying of clear fluids such as water or black coffee is only affected in highly progressed delayed gastric emptying.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19028	Why does the speed of sound change with altitude, and what are the fastest/slowest speeds possible?	Sound requires a medium to travel through. Air in this case. At higher altitudes, air is a lot less dense so sound has to have more initial energy in order to travel as fast. I'm not sure fastest speeds, but air is around 343 m/s. There is a table online you can access in order to determine speed of sound in various mediums	[ "In the Earth's atmosphere, the chief factor affecting the speed of sound is the temperature. For a given ideal gas with constant heat capacity and composition, the speed of sound is dependent \"solely\" upon temperature; see Details below. In such an ideal case, the effects of decreased density and decreased pressure of altitude cancel each other out, save for the residual effect of temperature.\n", "Mach number, a useful quantity in aerodynamics, is the ratio of air speed to the local speed of sound. At altitude, for reasons explained, Mach number is a function of temperature.\n\nAircraft flight instruments, however, operate using pressure differential to compute Mach number, not temperature. The assumption is that a particular pressure represents a particular altitude and, therefore, a standard temperature. Aircraft flight instruments need to operate this way because the stagnation pressure sensed by a Pitot tube is dependent on altitude as well as speed.\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.\n", "In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound \"c\" depends on temperature only, not on the pressure or density (since these change in lockstep for a given temperature and cancel out). Air is almost an ideal gas. The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following variations in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere—\"actual conditions may vary\".\n\nGiven normal atmospheric conditions, the temperature, and thus speed of sound, varies with altitude:\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.\n\nSection::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:General physical considerations.\n", "Air conducts sound at a certain speed, the \"speed of sound\". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with altitude (until the tropopause), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the International Standard Atmosphere for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)\n", "However, there are variations in this trend above . In particular, in the stratosphere above about , the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the ozone layer. This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above .\n\nSection::::Practical formula for dry air.\n\nThe approximate speed of sound in dry (0% humidity) air, in metres per second, at temperatures near , can be calculated from\n\nwhere \"formula_4\" is the temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).\n", "A practical example can be observed in Edinburgh when the \"One o' Clock Gun\" is fired at the eastern end of Edinburgh Castle. Standing at the base of the western end of the Castle Rock, the sound of the Gun can be heard through the rock, slightly before it arrives by the air route, partly delayed by the slightly longer route. It is particularly effective if a multi-gun salute such as for \"The Queen's Birthday\" is being fired.\n\nSection::::Basic concepts.:Compression and shear waves.\n", "Since temperature (and thus the speed of sound) decreases with increasing altitude up to , sound is refracted upward, away from listeners on the ground, creating an acoustic shadow at some distance from the source. The decrease of the speed of sound with height is referred to as a negative sound speed gradient.\n", "Note that the speed of sound decreases somewhat with altitude, due to lower temperatures found there (typically up to 25 km). At even higher altitudes the temperature starts increasing, with the corresponding increase in the speed of sound.\n\nWhen an inflated balloon is burst, the torn pieces of latex contract at supersonic speed, which contributes to the sharp and loud popping noise.\n\nSection::::Supersonic land vehicles.\n", "Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.\n\nSection::::Physical properties.:Density and mass.\n", "If the speed of sound is reached in a stage, the group of stages can be analyzed till that stage, which is the last in the group, the remaining stages forming another group of analysis. This division is imposed by the stage working in \"limited\" (choked) mode. The cone is shifted in the formula_24 axis direction, appearing a triangular surface, depending on the critical pressure ratio formula_25, where formula_26 is the outlet critical pressure of the stage group.\n\nThe analytical expression of the flow ratio is:\n\nFor condensing turbine the ratio formula_28 is very low, previous relation reduces to:\n", "In non-ideal gas behavior regimen, for which the van der Waals gas equation would be used, the proportionality is not exact, and there is a slight dependence of sound velocity on the gas pressure.\n\nHumidity has a small but measurable effect on the speed of sound (causing it to increase by about 0.1%–0.6%), because oxygen and nitrogen molecules of the air are replaced by lighter molecules of water. This is a simple mixing effect.\n\nSection::::Altitude variation and implications for atmospheric acoustics.\n", "Here it is the case that \"v\" = \"fλ\".\n\nSection::::Experimental methods.:High-precision measurements in air.\n", "Section::::Effect of frequency and gas composition.:Practical application to air.\n\nBy far the most important factor influencing the speed of sound in air is temperature. The speed is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, giving an increase of about per degree Celsius. For this reason, the pitch of a musical wind instrument increases as its temperature increases.\n", "In the standard atmosphere:\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= ), giving a theoretical value of (= = = = ). Values ranging from 331.3 to 331.6 m/s may be found in reference literature, however;\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= = ), giving a value of (= = = = );\n\nBULLET::::- \"T\" is (= = ), giving a value of (= = = = ).\n", "A range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound in air.\n", "The speed of sound is raised by humidity but decreased by carbon dioxide. The difference between 0% and 100% humidity is about at standard pressure and temperature, but the size of the humidity effect increases dramatically with temperature. The carbon dioxide content of air is not fixed, due to both carbon pollution and human breath (e.g., in the air blown through wind instruments).\n", "For long range jet operating in the stratosphere (altitude approximately between 11–20 km), the speed of sound is constant, hence flying at fixed angle of attack and constant Mach number causes the aircraft to climb, without changing the value of the local speed of sound. In this case:\n\nformula_37\n\nwhere formula_38 is the cruise Mach number and formula_39 the speed of sound. W is the weight in kilograms (kg). The range equation reduces to:\n\nformula_40 \n", "The limitations of the concept of speed of sound due to extreme attenuation are also of concern. The attenuation which exists at sea level for high frequencies applies to successively lower frequencies as atmospheric pressure decreases, or as the mean free path increases. For this reason, the concept of speed of sound (except for frequencies approaching zero) progressively loses its range of applicability at high altitudes. The standard equations for the speed of sound apply with reasonable accuracy only to situations in which the wavelength of the soundwave is considerably longer than the mean free path of molecules in a gas.\n", "A given airspeed, divided by the speed of sound in that air, gives a ratio known as the Mach number. A Mach number of 1.0 indicates an airspeed equal to the speed of sound in that air. Because the speed of sound increases with air temperature, and air temperature generally decreases with altitude, the true airspeed for a given Mach number generally decreases with altitude.\n", "At sea level in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and at low speeds where air compressibility is negligible (and so a constant air density may be assumed), TAS equals CAS. Above approximately , the compressibility error rises significantly.\n\nIn flight, it can be calculated using an E6B flight calculator or equivalent.\n\nSince temperature variations are of a smaller influence, the ASI error can be roughly estimated as indicating about 2% less than TAS per of altitude above sea level. For example, an aircraft flying at in the international standard atmosphere with an IAS of , is actually flying at TAS.\n", "In fluids, only the medium's compressibility and density are the important factors, since fluids do not transmit shear stresses. In heterogeneous fluids, such as a liquid filled with gas bubbles, the density of the liquid and the compressibility of the gas affect the speed of sound in an additive manner, as demonstrated in the hot chocolate effect.\n", "These flow regimes are not chosen arbitrarily, but rather arise naturally from the strong mathematical background that underlies compressible flow (see the cited reference textbooks). At very slow flow speeds the speed of sound is so much faster that it is mathematically ignored, and the Mach number is irrelevant. Once the speed of the flow approaches the speed of sound, however, the Mach number becomes all-important, and shock waves begin to appear. Thus the transonic regime is described by a different (and much more difficult) mathematical treatment. In the supersonic regime the flow is dominated by wave motion at oblique angles similar to the Mach angle. Above about Mach 5, these wave angles grow so small that a different mathematical approach is required, defining the Hypersonic speed regime. Finally, at speeds comparable to that of planetary atmospheric entry from orbit, in the range of several km/s, the speed of sound is now comparatively so slow that it is once again mathematically ignored in the Hypervelocity regime.\n", "The lower limit of audibility is defined as SPL of , but the upper limit is not as clearly defined. While ( or ) is the largest pressure variation an undistorted sound wave can have in Earth's atmosphere, larger sound waves can be present in other atmospheres or other media such as under water, or through the Earth.\n", "In gases, adiabatic compressibility is directly related to pressure through the heat capacity ratio (adiabatic index), while pressure and density are inversely related to the temperature and molecular weight, thus making only the completely independent properties of \"temperature and molecular structure\" important (heat capacity ratio may be determined by temperature and molecular structure, but simple molecular weight is not sufficient to determine it).\n", "In practice, it is customary to neglect the effects of viscosity on the fluid, i.e. one takes formula_27, because it is generally accepted that the effects of the latter on noise generation, in most situations, are orders of magnitude smaller than those due to the other terms. Lighthill provides an in-depth discussion of this matter.\n\nIn aeroacoustic studies, both theoretical and computational efforts are made to solve for the acoustic source terms in Lighthill's equation in order to make statements regarding the relevant aerodynamic noise generation mechanisms present.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-22031	do businesses benefit when we make charitable donations through them?	Even if they don't get to do a tax write-off, it can still generate positive PR by running a campaign or even letting the bell ringers for Salvation Army stand out front.	[ "Corporate charitable giving can be divided into direct cash and non-cash contributions. Direct cash giving comes from corporate headquarters, regional offices, or company sponsored foundations. Examples of direct cash contributions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Community grants to support local community efforts or nonprofits - 100% of Fortune 500 companies provide some form of community grant or sponsor at least one fundraising event.\n\nBULLET::::- Matching gifts - Corporate donations to nonprofits as a match to employee giving. Approximately 65% of Fortune 500 companies offer these programs.\n", "Financial figures (e.g. tax refund, revenue from fundraising, revenue from sale of goods and services or revenue from investment) are indicators to assess the financial sustainability of a charity, especially to charity evaluators. This information can impact a charity's reputation with donors and societies, and thus the charity's financial gains.\n\nCharitable organizations often depend partly on donations from businesses. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a major form of corporate philanthropy.\n", "BULLET::::1. being able to issue \"official donation receipts\" for gifts to the registered charity which may assist a Canadian donor in reducing the amount of federal and provincial tax payable. For a donor in a high marginal tax rate in Canada, their donation can result in a reduction in taxes of between 40-60% of the donation depending on the province of the taxpayer and type of property donated.\n", "BULLET::::- Application of professional services, such as tax and financial advice, strategic planning and organizational development, graphic arts and copy writing, and legal assistance.\n\nNon-cash contributions can also be interpreted through an organization's policy to allow employees paid time off when performing volunteer work.\n\nSection::::Charitable donations.:Annual charitable giving figures.\n\nTotal corporate cash donations in 2010 are estimated to be $15.29 billion in the United States. Of that, ~80%-85% came from corporate grants and sponsorship of fundraising events while ~15%-20% or $2–$3 billion came from corporate matching gifts and volunteer grants.\n\nSection::::Political donations.\n", "A large majority of businesses will usually concentrate on the financial benefits of its owners and shareholders when setting up a business. The main aim of most businesses, including Charitable for-profit entities, are to generate some sort of profit for the business. By producing profit, the charitable for-profit entity is able to continue its work to a high standard and also pay the stakeholders of the company. Charitable for-profit entities will however have to pay taxes on the profit that is made. This differs from a traditional (non-profit) charity because they do not have to pay taxes as no profit is generated for themselves.\n", "Families, individuals, businesses, and nonprofit groups establish funds within community foundations into which they can contribute a variety of assets to be used for charitable purposes. The people or organizations that establish the funds can then recommend that grants be distributed, in the name of the fund or anonymously, to qualified nonprofit groups and schools. In the USA the donor receives a charitable tax deduction in the year that gifts are made into their funds, but not all countries where community foundations currently operate provide such incentives for donors. Increasingly, community foundations are hosting giving circles as a way to further support giving in their communities.\n", "Some technology programs are created specifically for use by nonprofit organizations. For instance, there are more than 30 software packages designed for nonprofits to use to analyse donations, manage volunteers. There is software designed to help in the management of animal shelters, software to help nonprofit manage pets, animal rescue, county code management software to help nonprofit performing arts groups sell tickets and manage donors, software to manage sports clubs, and on and on.\n", "Charitable giving by corporations in the U.S was estimated to be $20.77 billion in 2017. This consists of corporate grants as well as matching gift and volunteer grants. 65% of Fortune 500 companies offer employee matching gift programs and 40% offer volunteer grant programs. These are charitable giving programs set up by corporations in which the company matches donations made by employees to eligible nonprofit organizations or provides grants to eligible nonprofit organizations as a way to recognize and promote employee volunteerism.\n\nSection::::Sources.:Individual donors.\n", "In 2010, corporations donated $15 billion to nonprofit organizations, which represents a 22% increase over 2008 corporate giving levels. Approximately 40% of Fortune 500 companies offer volunteer grant programs\n\nMany corporations contract out their volunteer grant program administration. The JK Group, CyberGrants, and Volunteer Match are three of the largest vendors for contracting out corporate matching gift and volunteer grant programs.\n\nSection::::Other countries.\n", "Being a registered charity is conclusive proof of charitable status, but is not the only method to establish it. Simply being owned by a charity will not, however, be sufficient to qualify for the reliefs. The property must also be used wholly or mainly for charitable purposes, and the criteria set out in the Local Government Finance Act 1988 must also be met. The criteria for eligibility are not straightforward and there is some case law, especially in relation to charity shops, which provides guidance.\n", "Although there are many differences between charitable for-profit entities and traditional charities, they do hold some similarities that can be said to be quite major. Both will have a strong vision in what they want from the business overall. Both will therefore have similar strategic plans in order to get the best out of the business regardless of their aims and objectives being different to an extent. For-profit entities and non-profit charities will both strive to meet their objectives that are laid out on their mission statements. They are both given limited funds, so will therefore have to aim to meet their goals with the funds provided.\n", "Open businesses can be more attractive to donors, especially if the \"name of the donors\" in social networks (as real names, Twitter-, Facebook- or other branded Online Ids) are made public too. So in this case even the donors participate in the charity as business and beyond by increasing their positive community karma (earning \"whuffies\") and building their reputation.\n\nThe risk of bankruptcy of such transaction oriented businesses is reduced due to the fact, that\n\nBULLET::::- they earn an increased trust by disclosing the cash flow to the public\n\nBULLET::::- get more support by \"vested\" visible supporters\n\nSection::::Members.\n", "As more and more companies continue to acknowledge their corporate social responsibility, they are also recognizing the benefits of participating in gifts in kind programs. In \" The Business Case for Product Philanthropy, \" a 63-page report published by the Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs, authors Justin M. Ross and Kellie L. McGiverin-Bohan argue that businesses can do well by doing good through product philanthropy, as well as explore the advantages of donating goods over the liquidation and/or destruction of goods. In addition, with cash donations on the decrease over the past several years, offering donations of goods and services is a way for corporations to continue pursuing their philanthropic goals.\n", "Types of technology do not differ between nonprofit and for profit organizations. Nonprofit technology is differentiated by specific strategies and purposes. Numerous nonprofit organizations approach technology with an emphasis on cost effectiveness due to limited budgets. Information technology in particular offers low-cost solutions for non profits to address administrative, service and marketing needs. Technology deployment grants nonprofits the opportunity to better allocate staff resources away from administrative tasks to focus on direct services provided by the organization.\n\nSection::::Definitional Issues.\n", "Technology use associated with nonprofits is not dedicated in nature, that is, technologies and specific uses of such technology by nonprofits cannot be linked solely to the nonprofit sector. Because of this, constructing a definition of nonprofit technology is based in large part on use.\n\nSection::::Uses.\n", "The types of charitable organization that are considered by the IRS to be organized for the public benefit include those that are organized for:\n\nBULLET::::- Relief of the poor, the distressed, or the underprivileged\n\nBULLET::::- Advancement of religion\n\nBULLET::::- Advancement of education or science\n\nBULLET::::- Construction or maintenance of public buildings, monuments, or works\n\nBULLET::::- Lessening the burdens of government\n\nBULLET::::- Lessening of neighborhood tensions\n\nBULLET::::- Elimination of prejudice and discrimination\n\nBULLET::::- Defense of human and civil rights secured by law\n\nBULLET::::- Combating community deterioration and juvenile delinquency.\n", "FairTax advocates state that total philanthropy as a percentage of GDP has held steady at around 2% for at least two decades, regardless of changes in income tax deductibility. According to the National Bureau of Economic Research, GDP would increase almost 10.5% in the first year after the FairTax goes into effect. FairTax advocates claim this economic boost, along with an estimated 8% real wage increase, would strengthen charitable giving. In a 2007 study, the Beacon Hill Institute concluded that total charitable giving would increase under the FairTax, although increases in giving would not be distributed proportionately amongst the various types of charitable organizations. \"Due to differences in preferences for type of charitable organizations between itemizers and non-itemizers, religious charities stand to gain disproportionately under the FairTax, while education, health, and cultural charities will actually suffer a small loss.\"\n", "A fee-based service is not a new concept for nonprofit organizations. Prior to the 1960s, nonprofits quite often utilized a fee-for-service model. This most commonly is seen in nonprofit hospitals. Additionally, gift shops at museums are another form of revenue often associated with fee-for-service models.\n\nSection::::Marketization of the nonprofit and voluntary sector.:Perspectives on marketization: A pro/con discussion of current literature.\n", "Being a benefit corporation can be very beneficial for the company as it allows them to legally protect their social goals by concentrating on other sectors rather than only considering profit. This allows the business to instead of only concentrating on the shareholders that designated them in the first place, they are able to concentrate on all stakeholders and take into consideration of their interests which can help them solve social and environmental challenges. The demand for corporate accountability is increasing rapidly and is at the highest it has ever been and therefore benefit corporations can differentiate their company from other leading company’s and concentrate on these customers.\n", "The use of social media by nonprofits should follow a stewardship model that includes acts of reciprocity, responsibility, and accountability in an effort to nurture nonprofit relationships and place supporters at the forefront. Referencing organizational partners and supporters is one way in which these ideals can be expressed through social media use. Furthermore, listing the nonprofits specific use of donations and volunteers as well as posting the names of board members and mission statement can cover the responsibility and accountability components.\n", "Charities can also participate in Community Economic Development (CED) activities. CED activities may further charitable purposes that: relieve poverty; advance education; or benefit the community in other ways the law regards as charitable. However, it is important to note that the CRA does not recognize CED activities as a distinctly charitable in and of itself. CED activities have been closely linked to developments in social enterprise and social finance as a way for charities and non-profits to be more sustainable. According to Mark Blumberg, in 2012 charities earned more revenue than they received donations. A number of organizations, such as Enterprising Non-Profits, Centre for Social Innovation and Assiniboine Credit Union have been supporting charities and non-profits participating in CED activities across Canada. Other notable Canadian leaders in the field supporting charities to engage in CED and social enterprise development are Tonya Surman, Mitchell Kutney, David LePage and Bruce Campbell.\n", "Other major grant distributors in the United Kingdom are the National Lottery, charitable trusts and corporate foundations (through Corporate Social Responsibility policies). For example, Google contributes to the grants process through its Google Grants programme, where any charitable organization can benefit financially from free AdWords advertising if they share Google's social responsibility outcomes.\n", "Implemented correctly, technology stands to benefit nonprofits in a variety of ways. One obvious benefit is the dissemination of information. Technological tools (e.g., computers and cellular telephones) and platforms (e.g., Facebook and Twitter) allow for the aggregation and wide-scale distribution of knowledge and information. To the extent that tools and platforms can be integrated, nonprofits may better serve themselves and their clients.\n", "Many examples of inclusive business models have been documented by the United Nations Development Programme and made available on an online searchable database.\n\nSection::::Benefits for business.\n\nBULLET::::- Generating profits. Business with the poor can sometimes yield higher rates of return than ventures in developed markets. Some microfinance institutions for instance have demonstrated their ability to reap significant profits.\n", "There is no legal framework for the registration of charities in Ireland. The Office of the Revenue Commissioners, Charities Section maintains a database of organizations to which they have granted charitable tax exemption. In granting tax exemption, Charities Section gives the body a CHY reference number. The full list of bodies granted exemption is published on the Revenue Commissioners website.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-19445	Why is price a function of supply and demand?	If you make more money this tomato season, you can now buy more land to grow more tomatoes next year. Then your supply will match the demand to re-normalize the pricing.	[ "Cambridge economist Joan Robinson attacked the theory in similar line, arguing that the concept is circular: \"Utility is the quality in commodities that makes individuals want to buy them, and the fact that individuals want to buy commodities shows that they have utility\" Robinson also pointed out that if we take changes in peoples' behavior in relation to a change in prices or a change in the underlying budget constraint we can never be sure to what extent the change in behavior was due to the change in price or budget constraint and how much was due to a change in preferences.\n", "During the late 19th century the marginalist school of thought emerged. The main innovators of this approach where Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger, and Léon Walras. The key idea was that the price was set by the subjective value of a good at the margin. This was a substantial change from Adam Smith's thoughts on determining the supply price.\n", "By its very nature, conceptualising a demand curve requires that the purchaser be a perfect competitor—that is, that the purchaser has no influence over the market price. This is true because each point on the demand curve is the answer to the question \"If this buyer is faced with this potential price, how much of the product will it purchase?\". If a buyer has market power, so its decision of how much to buy influences the market price, then the buyer is not \"faced with\" any price and the question is meaningless.\n", "That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. The \"Law of Supply\" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.\n", "Supply is more elastic in the long run than in the short run, for two reasons. First, for each individual firm the long run is defined as a length of time such that the usages of all factors of production, even those such as physical capital, can be varied. So for example, if the price of a good goes up, in the long run the usages of both labor and capital can be increased, leading to more of an increase in output supplied than if, as in the short run, only labor usage can be increased.\n", "goods that buyers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, assuming all determinants of demand other than the price of the good in question, such as income, tastes and preferences, the price of substitute goods, and the price of complementary goods, remain the same. Following the law of demand, the demand curve is almost always represented as downward-sloping, meaning that as price decreases, consumers will buy more of the good.\n", "The production price then refers basically to the \"normal or dominant price level\" for a type of product that prevails during a longer interval of time. It presupposes that both the inputs and the outputs of production are \"priced\" goods and services—that is, that production is fully integrated in fairly sophisticated market relations enabling a sum of capital invested into it to be transformed into a larger sum of capital. In pre-capitalist economies, this was not the case; many inputs and outputs of production were not priced. \n", "In capitalist economic structures, supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a market. It concludes that in a competitive market, the unit price for a particular good will vary until it settles at a point where the quantity demanded by consumers (at the current price) will equal the quantity supplied by producers (at the current price), resulting in an economic equilibrium for price and quantity.\n\nThe four basic laws of supply and demand are:\n", "BULLET::::- in a static model, it is impossible to uphold the postulate of a uniform rate of profit and the postulate of total values=total prices at the same time;\n\nBULLET::::- to find production-prices, a uniform rate of profit must be assumed, while at the same time to find a uniform rate of profit, production-prices must already be assumed;\n\nBULLET::::- a price level must be assumed, rather than be \"deduced\" from labour-values.\n", "A demand schedule, depicted graphically as the demand curve, represents the amount of some goods that buyers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, assuming all determinants of demand other than the price of the good in question, such as income, tastes and preferences, the price of substitute goods and the price of complementary goods, remain the same. According to the law of demand, the demand curve is almost always represented as downward-sloping, meaning that as price decreases, consumers will buy more of the good.\n", "Although it is normal to regard the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied as functions of the price of the goods, the standard graphical representation, usually attributed to Alfred Marshall, has price on the vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis.\n", "When technological progress occurs, the supply curve shifts. For example, assume that someone invents a better way of growing wheat so that the cost of growing a given quantity of wheat decreases. Otherwise stated, producers will be willing to supply more wheat at every price and this shifts the supply curve outward, to —an \"increase in supply\". This increase in supply causes the equilibrium price to decrease from to . The equilibrium quantity increases from to as consumers move along the demand curve to the new lower price. As a result of a supply curve shift, the price and the quantity move in opposite directions. If the quantity supplied \"decreases\", the opposite happens. If the supply curve starts at , and shifts leftward to , the equilibrium price will increase and the equilibrium quantity will decrease as consumers move along the demand curve to the new higher price and associated lower quantity demanded. The quantity demanded at each price is the same as before the supply shift, reflecting the fact that the demand curve has not shifted. But due to the change (shift) in supply, the equilibrium quantity and price have changed.\n", "John Locke's 1691 work \"Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money\". includes an early and clear description of supply and demand and their relationship. In this description demand is rent: “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.”\n", "Section::::Basic explanation.:Regulating prices.\n\nThe regulating price of a given type of product is a sort of modal average price level, above or below which people would be much less likely to trade the product. If the price is too high, buyers cannot afford to buy it, or try to get cheaper alternatives. If the price is too low, sellers cannot cover their costs and make a profit. So normally there is a limited range of prices within which the product can be traded, with upper and lower bounds. \n", "By its very nature, conceptualizing a demand curve requires that the purchaser be a perfect competitor—that is, that the purchaser has no influence over the market price. This is true because each point on the demand curve is the answer to the question \"If this buyer is \"faced with\" this potential price, how much of the product will it purchase?\" If a buyer has market power, so its decision of how much to buy influences the market price, then the buyer is not \"faced with\" any price, and the question is meaningless.\n", "In \"The Wealth of Nations\", Smith generally assumed that the supply price was fixed but that its \"merit\" (value) would decrease as its \"scarcity\" increased, in effect what was later called the law of demand also. Ricardo, in \"Principles of Political Economy and Taxation\", more rigorously laid down the idea of the assumptions that were used to build his ideas of supply and demand. Antoine Augustin Cournot first developed a mathematical model of supply and demand in his 1838 \"Researches into the Mathematical Principles of Wealth\", including diagrams.\n", "Historically, the best-known proponent of such theories is probably Adam Smith. Piero Sraffa, in his introduction to the first volume of the \"Collected Works of David Ricardo\", referred to Smith's \"adding-up\" theory. Smith contrasted natural prices with market price. Smith theorized that market prices would tend toward natural prices, where outputs would stand at what he characterized as the \"level of effectual demand\". At this level, Smith's natural prices of commodities are the sum of the natural rates of wages, profits, and rent that must be paid for inputs into production. (Smith is ambiguous about whether rent is price determining or price determined. The latter view is the consensus of later classical economists, with the Ricardo-Malthus-West theory of rent.)\n", "John Locke's 1691 work \"Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money\" includes an early and clear description of supply and demand and their relationship. In this description, demand is rent: \"The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers\" and \"that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent\".\n", "The production price is the price at which output would have to sell, in order to realize the average, normal rate of profit on the capital invested in producing that output. That is largely a matter of cost-prices, profit margins and sales turnover. If we find that the distribution of sale-prices for a given type of commodity converges on a particular normal price-level, then, Marx argues, the real reason is, that only at that price-level the commodity can be supplied at an acceptable or normal profit.\n", "The concept of the derived demand curve for an input was developed by Alfred Marshall. It can be constructed under two assumptions: First, production conditions, the demand curve for the final good, and the supply curves for all other factors of production are held constant. Second, competitive markets for the final good and all other factors of production are always in equilibrium.\n", "For a given quantity of a consumer good, the point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility, to consumers for that unit. It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for that unit. The corresponding point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good. The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand. In a perfectly competitive market, supply and demand equate marginal cost and marginal utility at equilibrium.\n", "Those goods which command the highest prices (when summed among all individuals) provide an incentive for businesses to provide these goods in a corresponding descending hierarchy of priority. However, the ordering of this hierarchy of wants is not constant. Consumer preferences change. When consumer preferences for a good increase, then bidding pressure raises the price for a particular good as it moves to a higher position in the hierarchy. As a result of higher prices for this good, more productive forces are applied to satisfying the demand driven by the opportunity for higher profits in satisfying this new consumer preference. In other words, the high price sends a \"price signal\" to producers. This causes producers to increase supply, either by the same firms increasing production or new businesses coming into the market, which eventually lowers the price and the profit incentive to increase supplies. Hence, the now lower price provides a price signal to producers to decrease production and, as a result, a surplus is prevented. Since resources are scarce (including labor and capital), supplies of other goods will be diminished as the productive resources are taken from other areas of production to be applied toward increasing output of the good that has risen in the hierarchy of consumer preferences. Also, as resources become more scarce the price increases, which signals to consumers to reduce consumption thereby ensuring that the quantity demanded does not exceed the quantity supplied. It is in this way that the free price system persuades consumers to ration dwindling resources. Hence, supply and demand affect price, while at the same time price affects supply and demand. If prices remain high because increases in supply cannot keep pace with demand, then this also signals other business to provide substitute goods in order to take advantage of profit opportunities.\n", "In another interpretation, however, the production price reflects only an empirical output price-level which \"dominates\" in the market for that output (a \"norm\" applying to a branch of production or economic sector, which producers cannot escape from). That is, the prevailing value proportions and necessary labour requirements set a range or band within which product-prices will move. In practice, that means simply that there exists a minimum sale price at which a commodity can be viably and profitably produced; if it is not possible to sell a product at that price, it is unlikely that it will be produced at all.\n", "The cost-of-production theory of value states that the price of an object or condition is determined by the sum of the cost of the resources that went into making it. The cost can comprise any of the factors of production: labour, capital, land, entrepreneur. Technology can be viewed either as a form of fixed capital (e.g.\n\nplant) or circulating capital (e.g.\n\nintermediate goods).\n", "BULLET::::1. If demand increases (demand curve shifts to the right) and supply remains unchanged, then a shortage occurs, leading to a higher equilibrium price.\n\nBULLET::::2. If demand decreases (demand curve shifts to the left) and supply remains unchanged, then a surplus occurs, leading to a lower equilibrium price.\n\nBULLET::::3. If demand remains unchanged and supply increases (supply curve shifts to the right), then a surplus occurs, leading to a lower equilibrium price.\n\nBULLET::::4. If demand remains unchanged and supply decreases (supply curve shifts to the left), then a shortage occurs, leading to a higher equilibrium price.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-13342	Why do women vomit during pregnancy?	A theory with a fair amount of evidence is that this has to do with plant toxins. Pregnancy sickness is typically restricted to the time when the fetus is quickly developing rather complicated and sensitive systems. During this time the fetus is particularly vulnerable to toxins found in a lot of plants that a grown human can deal with, but could cause birth defects in the fetus. During this period the fetus isn't rapidly gaining in mass, so caloric intake isn't as important as avoiding those toxins. Thus the throwing up, to help protect the fetus. Pregnancy sickness typically goes away once that period of development is done, and the fetus starts putting on mass, when calorie intake becomes important, and the danger of birth defect causing toxins is lower.	[ "Constipation is another GI symptom that is commonly encountered during pregnancy. It is associated with the narrowing of the colon as it gets pushed by the growing uterus found adjacent it leading to mechanical blockade. Reduced motility in the entire GI system as well as increased absorption of water during pregnancy are thought to be contributing factors.\n", "While vomiting in pregnancy has been described as early as 2,000 BC, the first clear medical description of HG was in 1852 by Antoine Dubois. HG is estimated to affect 0.3–2.0% of pregnant women. While previously known as a common cause of death in pregnancy, with proper treatment this is now very rare. Those affected have a lower risk of miscarriage but a higher risk of premature birth. Some pregnant women choose to have an abortion due to HG symptoms.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nWhen vomiting is severe, it may result in the following:\n", "Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy, commonly known as “morning sickness”, is one of the most common GI symptoms of pregnancy. It begins between the 4 and 8 weeks of pregnancy and usually subsides by 14 to 16 weeks. The exact cause of nausea is not fully understood but it correlates with the rise in the levels of human chorionic gonadotropin, progesterone, and the resulting relaxation of smooth muscle of the stomach. Hyperemesis gravidarum, which is a severe form of nausea and vomiting of pregnancy can lead to nutritional deficiencies, weight loss, electrolytes imbalance and is one of the leading causes of hospitalization in the first trimester of pregnancy.\n", "Pregnancy alters the vaginal microbiota with a reduction in species/genus diversity.\n\nPhysiological hydronephrosis may appear from six weeks.\n\nSection::::Gastrointestinal.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Maternal changes.:Trimesters.\n\nPregnancy is typically broken into three groups of three months, each known as a trimester. Each trimester is defined as 14 weeks, for a total duration of 42 weeks, although the average duration of pregnancy is 40 weeks.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Maternal changes.:First trimester.\n\nMinute ventilation increases by 40% in the first trimester. The womb will grow to the size of a lemon by eight weeks. Many symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy like nausea and tender breasts appear in the first trimester.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Maternal changes.:Second trimester.\n", "In late pregnancy liver function decreases significantly, which can be easily monitored by blood tests. Early clinical manifestations of ALF in late pregnancy include hypodynamia, decrease in appetite, dark amber urine, deep jaundice, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal distention. Among patients whose deaths were attributed to ALF in late pregnancy, the majority had experienced vaginal deliveries.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "BULLET::::- () Gestational (pregnancy-induced) oedema and proteinuria without hypertension\n\nBULLET::::- () Gestational (pregnancy-induced) hypertension without significant proteinuria\n\nBULLET::::- () Gestational (pregnancy-induced) hypertension with significant proteinuria\n\nBULLET::::- () Severe pre-eclampsia\n\nBULLET::::- HELLP syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- () Eclampsia\n\nBULLET::::- () Unspecified maternal hypertension\n\nSection::::O00–O99 – Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium.:(O20–O29) Other maternal disorders predominantly related to pregnancy.\n\nBULLET::::- () Haemorrhage in early pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- () Excessive vomiting in pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- () Mild hyperemesis gravidarum\n\nBULLET::::- () Hyperemesis gravidarum with metabolic disturbance\n\nBULLET::::- () Late vomiting of pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- () Other vomiting complicating pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- () Vomiting of pregnancy, unspecified\n", "Nausea or \"morning sickness\" is common during early pregnancy but may occasionally continue into the second and third trimesters. In the first trimester nearly 80% of women have some degree of nausea. Pregnancy should therefore be considered as a possible cause of nausea in any women of child bearing age. While usually it is mild and self-limiting, severe cases known as hyperemesis gravidarum may require treatment.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Disequilibrium.\n\nA number of conditions involving balance such as motion sickness and vertigo can lead to nausea and vomiting.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Psychiatric.\n\nNausea may be caused by depression, anxiety disorders and eating disorders.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Potentially serious.\n", "BULLET::::- Increased clotting time (due to possibly associated vitamin K deficiency)\n\nBULLET::::- Fatigue\n\nBULLET::::- Increased nausea\n\nBULLET::::- Decrease in appetite\n\nBULLET::::- Jaundice (less than 10% of women)\n\nBULLET::::- Upper right quadrant pain\n\nNot all ICP sufferers have all of the above symptoms.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n\nThe causes of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy are still not fully understood. Hormones, environmental and genetic factors are all thought to contribute to the condition.\n\nBULLET::::- ICP occurs in the third trimester at the time when hormone levels are at their highest.\n", "Section::::Toxins.:Smoking.\n\nThe negative consequences of smoking are well-known, and these may be even more apparent during pregnancy. Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy, commonly known as \"in utero\" maternal tobacco smoke exposure (MTSE), can contribute towards various problems in babies of smoking mothers. About 20% of mothers smoke whilst pregnant and this is associated with increased risk of complications, such as preterm birth, decreased fetal growth leading to lower birth weight, and impaired fetal lung development.\n\nSection::::Toxins.:Drugs.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Pica.\n\nPica is a craving for nonedible items such as dirt or clay. It is caused by iron deficiency which is normal during pregnancy and can be overcome with iron in prenatal vitamins or, if severe, parenteral iron\n\nSection::::Examples.:Round Ligament or Lower abdominal pain.\n\nCaused by rapid expansion of the uterus and stretching of ligaments such as the round ligament. This pain is typically treated with paracetamol (acetaminophen).\n\nSection::::Examples.:Increased urinary frequency.\n", "Section::::Maternal complications.:Convulsions.\n\nConvulsions (Seizures) in pregnancy can be caused by pregnancy specific causes of seizures such as eclampsia and by normal causes of seizures such as epilepsy. Warning signs that may lead to convulsions include pre-eclamsia, which is a condition that pregnant women can get after 20 weeks of pregnancy that is characterized by new-onset high blood pressure, headaches, blurry vision, trouble breathing from fluid in lungs, protein in urine from kidney failure, and elevated liver enzymes from liver dysfunction, and possibly coagulation defects from platelet dysfunction.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Constipation.\n", "Morning sickness may have a defensive purpose. One professor has posited that morning sickness discourages pregnant women from eating meat and strong-tasting vegetables, which may contain toxins and microorganisms. If ingested, the fetus might be harmed in the first 18 weeks of pregnancy.\n\nSection::::In animals.\n\nTurkey vultures will vomit to dispel any disturbing animal. They can propel their vomit up to .\n", "Intrauterine exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy has the potential to cause adverse effects on prenatal development, and to cause pregnancy complications. Air pollution has been associated with low birth weight infants. Conditions of particular severity in pregnancy include mercury poisoning and lead poisoning. To minimize exposure to environmental toxins, the \"American College of Nurse-Midwives\" recommends: checking whether the home has lead paint, washing all fresh fruits and vegetables thoroughly and buying organic produce, and avoiding cleaning products labeled \"toxic\" or any product with a warning on the label.\n", "BULLET::::- Hyperemesis gravidarum, excessive nausea and vomiting that is more severe than normal morning sickness.\n\nBULLET::::- Pulmonary embolism, a blood clot that forms in the legs and migrates to the lungs.\n\nBULLET::::- Acute fatty liver of pregnancy is a rare complication thought to be brought about by a disruption in the metabolism of fatty acids by mitochondria.\n\nThere is also an increased susceptibility and severity of certain infections in pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Intercurrent diseases.\n", "Delivery by 35–37 completed weeks may be important to fetal outcome as a recent study demonstrated that in severe ICP (defined as bile acids greater than 40 umol/L) the risk of stillbirth was 1.5% compared to 0.5% of uncomplicated pregnancies. This risk rose further if bile acids doubled. The most recent research, published in The Lancet, suggests that around 90% of women with ICP could wait until 39 weeks of pregnancy to be induced. However, this relies on regular bile acid testing with rapid return of results.\n\nSection::::Risks if untreated.\n\nMaternal consequences include the following:\n", "Section::::Risk factors.:Morning sickness.\n\nNausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP, or morning sickness) are associated with a decreased risk. Several possible causes have been suggested for morning sickness but there is still no agreement. NVP may represent a defense mechanism which discourages the mother's ingestion of foods that are harmful to the fetus; according to this model, a lower frequency of miscarriage would be an expected consequence of the different food choices made by women experiencing NVP.\n\nSection::::Risk factors.:Chemicals and occupational exposure.\n", "Another core feature of pre-eclampsia is proteinuria, which is the presence of excess protein in the urine. To determine if proteinuria is present, the urine can be collected and tested for protein; if there is 0.3 grams of protein or more in the urine of a pregnant woman collected over 24 hours, this is one of the diagnostic criteria for pre-eclampsia and raises the suspicion that a seizure is due to eclampsia.\n", "The following problems originate mainly in the mother.\n\nSection::::Maternal problems.:Gestational diabetes.\n\nGestational diabetes is when a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.\n\nSection::::Maternal problems.:Hyperemesis gravidarum.\n\nHyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss. It is more severe than the more common morning sickness and is estimated to affect 0.5–2.0% of pregnant individuals.\n\nSection::::Maternal problems.:Pelvic girdle pain.\n", "Food poisoning usually causes an abrupt onset of nausea and vomiting one to six hours after ingestion of contaminated food and lasts for one to two days. It is due to toxins produced by bacteria in food.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Medications.\n\nMany medications can potentially cause nausea. Some of the most frequently associated include cytotoxic chemotherapy regimens for cancer and other diseases, and general anaesthetic agents. An old cure for migraine, ergotamine, is well known to cause devastating nausea in some patients; a person using it for the first time will be prescribed an antiemetic for relief if needed.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Pregnancy.\n", "There are many causes of \"fetal distress\" including:\n\nBULLET::::- Breathing problems\n\nBULLET::::- Abnormal position and presentation of the fetus\n\nBULLET::::- Multiple births\n\nBULLET::::- Shoulder dystocia\n\nBULLET::::- Umbilical cord prolapse\n\nBULLET::::- Nuchal cord\n\nBULLET::::- Placental abruption\n\nBULLET::::- Premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus\n\nBULLET::::- Uterine rupture\n\nBULLET::::- Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy, a liver disorder during pregnancy\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Nausea (morning sickness).\n\nMorning sickness occurs in about seventy percent of all pregnant women, and typically improves after the first trimester. Although described as \"morning sickness\", women can experience this nausea during the afternoon, evening, and throughout the entire day. Unfortunately there is no strong evidence showing one treatment that works for all women. Ginger may help some women but the results change from study to study.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Bleeding.\n", "Section::::Epidemiology.\n\nVomiting is a common condition affecting about 50% of pregnant women, with another 25% having nausea. However, the incidence of HG is only 0.3–1.5%. After preterm labor, hyperemesis gravidarum is the second most common reason for hospital admission during the first half of pregnancy. Factors, such as infection with \"Helicobacter pylori\", a rise in thyroid hormone production, low age, low body mass index prior to pregnancy, multiple pregnancies, molar pregnancies, and a past history of hyperemesis gravidarum have been associated with the development of HG.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In Lipsitz \"et al\".'s survey, women afflicted with emetophobia said that they either delayed pregnancy or avoided pregnancy altogether because of the morning sickness associated with the first trimester, and if they did become pregnant, it made pregnancy difficult.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-03104	We grow from microscopic to full grown human, but we can't even heal some scars completely. Why?	As an embryo, the body has a type of cell that provides to be a sort of scaffolding that the body uses to grow the body. As we grow older, however, the body restricts these cells so we don't grow random body parts(which would be a hassle). As such, the body, once damaged to the point of scarring, the body doesn't have the "blueprints" necessary to heal up to be the same. The scars are, to my knowledge, just the body's method of fixing the body.	[ "Analysis using microarrays has also shown that gene expression profiles greatly differ between scar free fetal wounds and postnatal wounds with scar formation. In scarlesss wound healing there is a significant up-regulation in genes associated with cell growth and proliferation, thought to be a major contributing factor to the rapid wound closure seen in the foetus. Whilst wound healing in the fetus has been shown to be completely scarless in an age-dependent manner, adult mammals do not have complete scar free healing but have retained some regenerative properties. Adult regeneration is limited to a number of organs, most notably, the liver.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Intrauterine environment.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Role of the extracellular matrix and its components.\n", "Section::::Fetal vs adult healing in humans.:Immune system cells and inflammatory response.\n\nOne of the major differences between embryonic scar-free healing wounds and adult scar-forming wounds is the role played by the cells of the immune system and the inflammatory response.\n\nTable 1: Summary of the major differences identified between fetal and adult wound healing.\n", "Proteins and cell surface receptors found in the ECM differ in fetal and adult wound healing. This is due to the early up regulation of cell adhesion proteins such as fibronectin and tenascin in the fetus. During early gestation in the fetal wounds of rabbits, the production of fibronectin occurs around 4 hours after wounding, much faster than in adult wounds where expression of fibronectin does not occur until 12 hours post wounding. The same pattern can be seen in the deposition of tenascin. It is this ability of the fetal fibroblast to quickly express and deposit fibronectin and tenascin, which ultimately allows cell migration and attachment to occur, resulting in an organised matrix with less scarring.\n", "Reparation of tissue in the mammalian fetus is radically different than the healing mechanisms observed in a healthy adult. During early gestation fetal skin wounds have the remarkable ability to heal rapidly and without scar formation. Wound healing itself is a particularly complex process and the mechanisms by which scarring occurs involves inflammation, fibroplasia, the formation of granulation tissue and finally scar maturation. Since the observation of scar free healing was first reported in the early fetus more than three decades ago, research has focused intently on the underlying mechanisms which separate scarless fetal wound repair from normal adult wound healing.\n", "Another difference between the healing of embryonic and adult wounds is due to the role of fibroblast cells. Fibroblasts are responsible for the synthesis of the ECM and collagen. In the fetus, fibroblasts are able to migrate at a faster rate than those found in the adult wound. Fetal fibroblasts can also proliferate and synthesize collagen simultaneously, in comparison to adult fibroblasts where collagen synthesis is delayed. It is this delay in both collagen deposition and migration, which is likely to contribute to formation of a scar in the adult.\n", "One of the most significant barriers to the procedure is the inability of nerve tissue to heal properly; scarred nerve tissue does not transmit signals well (this is why a spinal cord injury is so devastating). Research at the Wistar Institute of the University of Pennsylvania involving tissue-regenerating mice (known as MRL mice) may provide pointers for further research as to how to regenerate nerves without scarring. It is possible that a completely clean cut will not generate scarred tissue.\n", "In 1997, it was proven that wounds created with an instrument that are under 2mm can heal scar free, but larger wounds that are larger than 2mm healed with a scar.\n", "Section::::Scar free healing in nature.\n", "Mammalian wounds that involve the dermis of the skin heal by repair not regeneration (except in 1st trimester inter-uterine wounds and in the regeneration of deer antlers). Full thickness wounds heal by a combination of wound contracture and edge re-epitheliasation. Partial thickness wounds heal by edge re-epithelialisation and epidermal migration from adnexal structures (hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The site of keratinocyte stem cells remains unknown but stem cells are likely to reside in the basal layer of the epidermis and below the bulge area of hair follicles.\n", "Since the 1960s, comprehension of the basic biologic processes involved in wound repair and tissue regeneration have expanded due to advances in cellular and molecular biology. Currently, the principal goals in wound management are to achieve rapid wound closure with a functional tissue that has minimal aesthetic scarring. However, the ultimate goal of wound healing biology is to induce a more perfect reconstruction of the wound area. Scarless wound healing only occurs in mammalian foetal tissues and complete regeneration is limited to lower vertebrates, such as salamanders, and invertebrates. In adult humans, injured tissue are repaired by collagen deposition, collagen remodelling and eventual scar formation, where fetal wound healing is believed to be more of a regenerative process with minimal or no scar formation. Therefore, foetal wound healing can be used to provide an accessible mammalian model of an optimal healing response in adult human tissues. Clues as to how this might be achieved come from studies of wound healing in embryos, where repair is fast and efficient and results in essentially perfect regeneration of any lost tissue.\n", "Section::::Continued regeneration in adult humans.\n\nThere are few examples of regeneration in humans continuing after fetal life in to adulthood. Generally, adult wound healing involves fibrotic processes causing wound contraction which may lead to the formation of scar tissue. In regeneration, however, completely new tissue is synthesized. This can lead to scar free healing where the function and structure of the organ is reinstated. However organ regeneration is not yet fully understood.\n\nTwo types of regeneration in human adults are currently recognised; spontaneous and induced.\n", "The fibroblast involved in scarring and contraction is the myofibroblast, which is a specialized contractile fibroblast. These cells express α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA).\n\nThe myofibroblasts are absent in the first trimester in the embryonic stage where damage heals scar free; in small incisional or excision wounds less than 2 mm that also heal without scarring; and in adult unwounded tissues where the fibroblast in itself is arrested; however, the myofibroblast is found in massive numbers in adult wound healing which heals with a scar.\n", "Originally, it was thought that the intrauterine environment, the sterile amniotic fluid surrounding the embryo, was responsible for fetal scar free healing. Reasoning that embryonic wounds healed scarlessly because they were not exposed to the same contaminating agents which normal adult wounds were exposed to such as bacteria and viruses. However this theory was discredited by investigating fetal wound healing in the pouch of a young marsupial. These pouches can often be exposed to maternal faeces and urine, a highly different environment to the sterile intrauterine environment seen in eutherian embryos. Despite these differences skin wounds on the marsupial healed without the formation of a scar, proving the irrelevance of the embryonic environment in scar free healing.\n", "HLA genes are highly polymorphic, i.e. have many different serotypes (i.e. alleles) while T cell receptor genes receptors are edited. i.e. altered to encode proteins with different amino acid sequences. Humans, it is estimated, express more than 10,000 different HLA class I proteins, 3,000 different HLA class II proteins, and 100 trillion different T cell receptors. An individual, however, expresses only a fraction of these polymorphic or edited gene products. Since a SCARs-inducing drug interacts with only one or a few types of HLA proteins or T cell receptors, its ability to induce a SCARs disorder is limited to those individuals who express those HLA proteins that make the appropriate HLA/non-self peptide or the T cell that expresses the T cell receptor that recognize the non-self epitope created by the drug. Thus, only rare individuals are predisposed to develop a SCARs disorder in response to a particular drug on the bases of their expression of specific HLA protein or T cell receptor types.\n", "In 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square area removed; and all of the fractional full thickness holes in the square area healed without scarring. In 2016 this fractional pattern technique was also proven in human tissue.\n\nSection::::History of human tissue regeneration.:History of regeneration techniques.:Regeneration with materials.\n", "The tissue injury in SCARs is initiated principally by CD8 or CD4 T cells. Once drug-activated, these lymphocytes elicit immune responses to self tissues that can result in SCARs drug reactions by mechanisms which vary with the type of disorder that develops. Salient elements mediating tissue injury for each type of disorder include:\n", "A reverse to scarless wound healing is scarification (wound healing to scar more). Historically, certain cultures consider scarification attractive; however, this is generally not the case in the modern western society, in which many patients are turning to plastic surgery clinics with unrealistic expectations. Depending on scar type, treatment may be invasive (intralesional steroid injections, surgery) and/or conservative (compression therapy, topical silicone gel, brachytherapy, photodynamic therapy). Clinical judgment is necessary to successfully balance the potential benefits of the various treatments available against the likelihood of a poor response and possible complications resulting from these treatments. Many of these treatments may only have a placebo effect, and the evidence base for the use of many current treatments is poor.\n", "The etymology of the term scarless wound healing has a long history. In print the antiquated concept of scarless healing was brought up the early 20th century and appeared in a paper published in the London Lancet. This process involved cutting in a surgical slant, instead of a right angle…; it was described in various Newspapers.\n\nSection::::Research and development.:Cancer.\n", "Scar free healing is the process by which significant injuries can heal without permanent damage to the tissue the injury has affected. In most healing, scars form due to the fibrosis and wound contraction, however in scar free healing tissue is completely regenerated. Scar improvement, and scar-free healing are an important and relevant area of medicine. During the 1990s, published research on the subject increased; it's a relatively recent term in the literature. Scar free healing is something which takes place in foetal life but the capacity is lost during progression to adulthood. In amphibians, tissue regeneration occurs, for example, as in skin regeneration in the adult axolotl.\n", "Growth factors, stimulated by integrins and MMPs, cause cells to proliferate at the wound edges. Keratinocytes themselves also produce and secrete factors, including growth factors and basement membrane proteins, which aid both in epithelialization and in other phases of healing. Growth factors are also important for the innate immune defense of skin wounds by stimulation of the production of antimicrobial peptides and neutrophil chemotactic cytokines in keratinocytes. \n", "Another major component of the ECM is hyaluronic acid (HA), a glycosaminoglycan. It is known that fetal skin contains more HA than adult skin due to the expression of more HA receptors. The expression of HA is known to down-regulate the recruitment of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α); since fetal wounds contain a reduced number of pro-inflammatory mediators than adult wounds it is thought that the higher levels of HA in the fetal skin aid in scar free healing.\n", "Filler injections of collagen can be used to raise atrophic scars to the level of surrounding skin. Risks vary based upon the filler used, and can include further disfigurement and allergic reaction.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Laser treatment.\n\nNonablative lasers, such as the 585 nm pulsed dye laser, 1064 nm and 1320 nm , or the 1540 nm are used as laser therapy for hypertrophic scars and keloids. There is tentative evidence for burn scars that they improve the appearance.\n" ]	[ "If embyro's can grow from a microscopic being to a full grown human, then humans should possess the ability to heal scars." ]	[ "Embyro's possess cells that serves as a scaffolding for body growth, as we grow the body begins to restrict these cells, making it difficult for the body to fix scar damage fully." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "If embyro's can grow from a microscopic being to a full grown human, then humans should possess the ability to heal scars.", "If embyro's can grow from a microscopic being to a full grown human, then humans should possess the ability to heal scars." ]	[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Embyro's possess cells that serves as a scaffolding for body growth, as we grow the body begins to restrict these cells, making it difficult for the body to fix scar damage fully.", "Embyro's possess cells that serves as a scaffolding for body growth, as we grow the body begins to restrict these cells, making it difficult for the body to fix scar damage fully." ]
2018-00318	Why is Dryer Lint so much more flammable and regular clothing?	I going to go with the fact that that the lint is a bunch of very small particles packed loosely together. This creates a whole lot more surface area for oxygen to react with the fiber	[ "Dryer lint, which collects on the lint screen of a clothes dryer, is highly flammable and therefore presents a fire hazard. However, because of this flammability, dryer lint may be collected for use as tinder, although burning man-made fibres can produce toxic fumes.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.:Composting.\n", "Dryers expose flammable materials to heat. Underwriters Laboratories recommends cleaning the lint filter after every cycle for safety and energy efficiency, provision of adequate ventilation, and cleaning of the duct at regular intervals. UL also recommends that dryers not be used for glass fiber, rubber, foam or plastic items, or any item that has had a flammable substance spilled on it.\n", "Section::::Problems related to lint.:Mechanical problems.\n\nLint contamination also presents what may be the most serious threat of damage to delicate mechanical devices. In order to prevent lint contamination, workers entering clean rooms are generally required to wear an outer layer of clothing made from artificial fibers that are longer and thicker, and therefore much less likely to shed any material. Lint-resistant clothing materials include elastic fabrics like spandex (or Lycra), for which the fibers will tend to stretch rather than break, and longer, stronger non-woven polyolefin fibers.\n\nSection::::Problems related to lint.:Other problems.\n", "Fabric flammability is an important textile issue, especially for stage drapery that will be used in a public space such as a school, theatre or special event venue. In the United States, Federal regulations require that drapery fabrics used in such spaces be certified as flame or fire-retardant. For draperies and other fabrics used in public places, this is known as the NFPA 701 Test, which follows standards developed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Although all fabrics will burn, some are naturally more resistant to fire than others. Those that are more flammable can have their fire resistance drastically improved by treatment with fire-retardant chemicals.\n", "Fire-retardant fabric\n\nFire-retardant fabrics are textiles that are naturally more resistant to fire than others through chemical treatment or manufactured fireproof fibers.\n\nSection::::Terminology and test limitations.\n", "Because of their low surface area, static cling causes fibers that have detached from an article of clothing to continue to stick to one another and to that article or other surfaces with which they come in contact. Other small fibers or particles also accumulate with these clothing fibers, including human and animal hair and skin cells, plant fibers, and pollen, dust, and microorganisms.\n", "When a fabric is designated as \"inherently fire-retardant\", \"permanently fire-retardant\", or \"durably fire-retardant\", the flame retardancy will last for the life of the fabric as it has been woven into the fabric fiber itself. The drapery can be laundered or dry-cleaned as recommended by the drapery manufacturer. In the case of fabrics that are designated as \"fire-retardant\", that have been topically treated with chemicals, the flame retardancy of the fabric will dissipate over time, particularly with repeated cleaning. As these chemicals are soluble in liquids-either water or dry cleaning fluid, these fabrics must be dry-cleaned with a non-liquid cleaning agent. The flame retardants work by coating the flammable fabrics with a mineral based barrier, preventing fire from reaching the fibres. \n", "BULLET::::- Source 5 (Crib 5) is related to upholstery and furniture coverings, and is related to BS 5852. The crib test uses a plank made from wood that is glued together. The fabrics is attached over the lint, then at bottom and a propane-diol is added. The testing unit is then ignited with a match. To decide whether the test has been passed the fabric and the crib are assessed to see whether there is flaming or smoldering on both the outer cover and the interior material. Assuming it does not ignite or smolder, the material will pass the test as no ignition. Similar tests include Source 0 (smouldering cigarette) and Source 1 (simulated match).\n", "Section::::Curtains.\n\nInherently flame-retardant fabrics are certified in the United Kingdom by various British Standards. Fire-retardant fabrics sold in the UK for use as curtains must abide by BS 5867 Part 2 B & C, a British Standard. Other relevant UK standards include BS 5815-1 2005, BS 7175, Crib 5, IMO A563 and NFPA 701.\n\nSection::::Stage drapery.\n", "A study was done in 2016 to look at how long third-hand smoke stayed in three different fabrics over a timespan of 72 hours and post washing. The three different fiber types included wool, cotton, and polyester. Levels of THS were measured using a self-designed surface acoustic wave gas sensor (SAW) which measures a frequency change when a compound is laid down on the surface of the sensor. The results of this study found that third-hand smoke does tend to stay in wool the most right after smoking and polyester the least. Wool had the slowest desorption while polyester had the fastest. Also, the study concluded that even though doing laundry and washing these fibers with detergent was an effective way to get rid of some of the smoke, there was still about an average of 300 Hz of THS residue left on all the fibers.\n", "BULLET::::- BS 5867 is for flame retardant fabrics. It relates to curtains, blinds and drapes for windows when tested by the methods specified in BS 5438:1976. Where appropriate, a cleansing or wetting procedure specified in BS 5651 may also be required.\n", "Over the years, different versions of lint were developed for many C and C++ compilers and while modern-day compilers have lint-like functions, lint-like tools have also advanced their capabilities. For example, Gimpel's PC-Lint, used to analyze C++ source code, is still being sold even though it was introduced in 1985.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "In the United States, the U.S. Fire Administration in a 2012 report estimated that from 2008 to 2010, fire departments responded to an estimated 2,900 clothes dryer fires in residential buildings each year across the nation. These fires resulted in an annual average loss of 5 deaths, 100 injuries, and $35 million in property loss. The Fire Administration attributes “Failure to clean” (34%) as the leading factor contributing to clothes dryer fires in residential buildings, and observed that new home construction trends place clothes dryers and washing machines in more hazardous locations away from outside walls, such as in bedrooms, second-floor hallways, bathrooms, and kitchens.\n", "Several factors can contribute to or accelerate rapid lint build-up. These include long or restrictive ducts, bird or rodent nests in the termination, crushed or kinked flex transition hose, terminations with screen-like features, and condensation within the duct due to un-insulated ducts traveling through cold spaces, such as a crawl space or attic.\n", "When deciding on a fabric it is imperative to keep certain fabric properties in mind. These include stress versus strain (unit load versus unit elongation), expected service life, the mechanisms of joining the material together (welding, gluing, etc.), and the fabric’s behavior in or around fire.\n", "Lint on clothing is generally considered unattractive and unprofessional. Furthermore, lint may be abrasive and may damage the clothing itself. For these reasons, visible lint is often removed with a lint remover or clothes brush. The accumulation of lint during clothes cleaning can be reduced with the use of a fabric softener, which reduces the amount of static electricity on clothing surfaces and therefore prevents the lint from sticking to the clothes.\n", "Typically, the flame retardancy of topically treated fabric is certified for one year, though the actual length of time in which the treatment remains effective will vary based on the number of times the drapery is dry-cleaned and the environmental conditions in the location in which the drapery is used. It is recommended that topically treated drapery be re-tested for fire-retardancy on an annual basis and re-treated by a qualified professional as needed.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Marko (fabric)\n\nBULLET::::- BSI Group\n\nBULLET::::- Flame retardant\n\nBULLET::::- Marlan (fabric)\n\nBULLET::::- Technical textile\n\nBULLET::::- Polybenzimidazole Fiber\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Farmers had been spraying sodium chlorate, a government recommended weedkiller, onto the ragwort, and some of the spray had ended up on their clothes. Sodium chlorate is a strong oxidizing agent, and reacted with the organic fibres (i.e. the wool and the cotton) of the clothes. Reports had farmers' trousers variously smoldering and bursting into flame, particularly when exposed to heat or naked flames. One report had trousers that were hanging on a washing line starting to smoke. There were also several reports of trousers exploding while farmers were wearing them, causing severe burns.\n", "BULLET::::- Flame retardancy does not have the same meaning as flameproofing. Fabric that contains a flame-retardant coating can withstand even a very hot point source. However, it can still burn if a large ignition source is present.\n\nBULLET::::- Free Form Tensile fabric allows one to use free form in building construction as it is flexible material.\n\nSection::::Structural properties.\n", "Inherently flame-retardant fabrics such as polyester are commonly used for flame retardant curtain fabrics.\n\nSection::::Fire-retardancy fabric treatment.\n\nFire-retardant fabrics are normally treated to different British Standards; normally this depends on the end usage of the fabrics. BS 476 is a fire treatment for fabrics that are normally for wall hanging, and must only be used as for that purpose, where as CRIB 5 is a fabric fire treatment for upholstery and must only be used for furnishing and upholstery purposes, even if both fabrics have been treated for fire-retardancy.\n\nThe relevant standards for fire-retardant fabrics include:\n", "BULLET::::- Class 0\n\nBULLET::::- Class 1\n\nBULLET::::- BS 476\n\nThe M1 standard is a European standard that is widely used in Europe only. Most UK fire officers are reluctant to accept MI certification, they prefer BS certificates.\n\nSection::::Durability and cleaning of fabric and drapes.\n", "Lint is useful to examine in forensic science because it is accumulated over time, and because the fibers shed from clothing adhere to not only that clothing, but also other particles to which the carrier is exposed. The lint on a person's clothing is therefore likely to contain material transferred from the various environments through which that person has passed, enabling forensic examiners to collect and examine lint to determine the movements and activities of the wearer. Examiners may use various chemicals to isolate lint fibers from different articles of clothing based on differences in color and other characteristics.\n", "A clean, unobstructed dryer vent improves the safety and efficiency of the dryer. As the dryer duct pipe becomes partially obstructed and filled with lint, drying time increases and causes the dryer to overheat and waste energy. In extreme cases, a blocked vent may result in a fire. Clothes dryers are one of the more costly home appliances to operate.\n", "It is possible to compost lint retrieved from the lint screen on a dryer by adding it to other materials being composted. The texture of the material allows the organic matter within it to compost quickly and easily, but depending on the source, it may include inorganic fibers and materials which never break down.\n\nSection::::Uses of lint.:Forensic science.\n", "When natural hair-type fibers are burned, they tend to singe and have a smell of burnt hair; this is because many, as human hair, are protein-derived. Cotton and viscose (rayon) yarns burn as a wick. Synthetic yarns generally tend to melt though some synthetics are inherently flame-retardant. Noting how an unidentified fiber strand burns and smells can assist in determining if it is natural or synthetic, and what the fiber content is.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]
2018-04614	Why are phone batteries fine for years but portable battery packs can deform or 'bulge' within months?	This is a sign that you have a dangerously defective battery. You are just buying defective battery packs.	[ "Palm handheld modifications\n\nSeveral Palm (PDA) enthusiasts have successfully documented internal and external handheld battery modifications to allow longer charge times for their handheld device. Rapidly advancing battery technology allows smaller and longer-lasting batteries to be placed into the space of the original batteries. Modifications of this type can be technically challenging and will almost certainly void any manufacturer warranty and have the potential to damage the modified device permanently.\n\nSection::::Popular modifications.\n\nMany PDAs are not suitable for modification or do not require it; the newest devices include advanced high-capacity batteries, whilst some devices cannot be dismantled without permanent damage.\n", "Some products contain batteries that are not user-replaceable after they have worn down. While such a design can help make the device thinner, it can also make it difficult to replace the battery without sending the entire device away for repairs or purchasing a replacement.\n\nSection::::Types.:Perceived obsolescence.\n\nObsolescence of desirability or stylistic obsolescence occurs when designers change the styling of products so customers will purchase products more frequently due to the decrease in the perceived desirability of unfashionable items.\n", "Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For example, disposable batteries often use a zinc \"can\" both as a reactant and as the container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the container. The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the equipment that the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time.\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Automotive battery sizes\n\nBULLET::::- Battery holder\n\nBULLET::::- Battery recycling\n\nBULLET::::- Battery (vacuum tube)\n\nBULLET::::- Button cell\n\nBULLET::::- Comparison of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- Nine-volt battery\n\nBULLET::::- \"Search for the Super Battery\" (2017 PBS film)\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-1: Primary batteries - Part 1: General\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-2: Primary batteries - Part 2: Physical and electrical specifications\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-3: Primary batteries - Part 3: Watch batteries\n\nBULLET::::- IEC 60086-4: Primary batteries - Part 4: Safety of lithium batteries\n", "Section::::Disposal.\n\nRegulations for disposal and recycling of batteries vary widely; local governments may have additional requirements over those of national regulations. In the United States, one manufacturer of lithium iron disulfide primary batteries advises that consumer quantities of used cells may be discarded in municipal waste, as the battery does not contain any substances controlled by US Federal regulations. Another manufacturer states that \"button\" size lithium batteries contain perchlorate, which is regulated as a hazardous waste in California; regulated quantities would not be found in typical consumer use of these cells.\n", "BULLET::::- Anticipated loss, damage, or reasonably rough use: Feature phones are often more durable, less complex, and more affordable, and for these reasons are preferred as travel devices, children's devices, and for field use scenarios. The devices' low cost means that loss of such an item is manageable, and usually serves as a disincentive for theft in mature markets.\n", "The computer industry's drive to increase battery capacity can test the limits of sensitive components such as the membrane separator, a polyethylene or polypropylene film that is only 20–25 µm thick. The energy density of lithium batteries has more than doubled since they were introduced in 1991. When the battery is made to contain more material, the separator can undergo stress.\n\nSection::::Safety issues and regulation.:Rapid-discharge problems.\n", "Many guides have been written on the battery replacement process, including many users of popular PDA forums such as brighthand.com and spug.net . Many companies that supply PDA parts also provide their own guides for battery replacement; these are usually less radical and require little or no actual modification. Most guides include a clear disclaimer explaining the dangers involved and the definite loss of warranty from the vendor/manufacturer. Specific examples of step-by-step guides can be found below in the links section.\n\nSection::::Popular modifications.:External power modifications.\n", "When exposed to high temperatures, the lithium-ion batteries in smartphones are easily damaged and can fail faster than expected, in addition to letting the device run out of battery too often. Debris and other contaminants that enter through small cracks in the phone can also infringe on smartphone life expectancy. One of the most common factors that causes smartphones and other electronic devices to die quickly is physical impact and breakage, which can severely damage the internal pieces.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Speculation.\n\nIn an interview by Car and Driver in 2015, when asked the readiness of Sakti3’s batteries for automotive applications, Dr. Ann Marie Sastry responded that Sakti3 would first go to markets where their batteries can meet regulatory standards for the products and pointed out that durability standards for batteries in automotive applications are very different from phones or vacuums.\n", "In summary, for portable batteries, the regulations require the following:\n\nBULLET::::- Large portable battery producers will have to register with a batteries compliance scheme by mid October each year, paying an Agency fee of £680 plus a proportion of the scheme's £118k annual registration fee.\n\nBULLET::::- Small producers - those who place one tonne or less onto the market - will have to register with one of the Agencies by mid October.\n\nBULLET::::- Data from producers for the quantity of portable batteries placed onto the UK market in 2009 must be supplied to the Agencies by 31 January 2010.\n", "Battery Council International (BCI) group size specifies a battery's physical dimensions, such as length, width, and height. These groups are determined by the organization. \n\nSection::::Specifications.:Date codes.\n\nBULLET::::- In the United States there are codes on batteries to help consumers buy a recently produced one. When batteries are stored, they can start losing their charge. A battery made in October 2015 will have a numeric code of 10-5 or an alphanumeric code of K-5. \"A\" is for January, \"B\" is for February, and so on (the letter \"I\" is skipped).\n", "Many devices now contain one, or sometimes two, batteries in the range, which fall within the sizes that can be carried on an airline. Airlines may restrict carrying some devices due to the earlier product defects. As a rule, every 100 WHours of capacity will provide 6–7 miles of range.\n\nThe price of lithium batteries fell 80% between 2011 and 2017. These batteries, which have good energy density, energy-to-mass ratio provide the range, torque, operational life required, unlike the previously available lead–acid, NiMH and NiCad technologies.\n\nSection::::Technology.:Brushless motors.\n", "Packs are often simpler for end users to repair or tamper with than a sealed non-serviceable battery or cell. Though some might consider this an advantage it is important to take safety precautions when servicing a battery pack as they pose a danger as potential chemical, electrical, and fire risks.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery balancer\n\nBULLET::::- Battery charger\n\nBULLET::::- Battery Management System (BMS)\n\nBULLET::::- Battery monitoring\n\nBULLET::::- Battery regulator\n\nBULLET::::- List of battery types\n\nBULLET::::- Smart Battery Data\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Battery Monitor – Bar Graph\n\nBULLET::::- BMS:\n\nBULLET::::- BMS Concepts\n", "Design of the battery holder requires knowledge of how and where the larger product will be used. Human factors to be considered include ease of battery exchange, age range and physical condition of the intended user. These elements must be taken into account for a design to be successful and are part of the design process. A designer must select between a battery holder molded into the product case or made as a separate part. For many products regulations and product safety standards affect the battery holder selection.\n", "Lithium ion rechargeable battery cells are rather more sensitive to overcharging, overheating, improper charge levels during storage, and other forms of mistreatment, than most commonly used battery chemistries. The reason is that the various lithium battery chemistries are susceptible to chemical damage (e.g., cathode fouling, molecular breakdown, etc.) by only very slight overvoltages (i.e., millivolts) during charging, or more charging current than the internal chemistry can tolerate at this point in its charge/discharge cycle, and so on. Heat accelerates these unwanted, but so far inescapable, chemical reactions and overheating during charging amplifies those effects. Because lithium chemistries often permit flexible membrane structures, lithium cells can be deployed in flexible though sealed bags, which permits higher packing densities within a battery pack. Some of the breakdown products (usually of electrolyte chemicals or additives) outgas when mistreated; such cells will become 'puffy' and are very much on the way to failure. In sealed lithium ion cylinders, the same outgassing has caused rather large pressures (800+ psi has been reported); such cells can explode if not provided with a relief failure mechanism. Compounding the danger is that many lithium cell chemistries include hydrocarbon chemicals (the exact nature of which is typically proprietary) which are flammable. Not only is explosion a possibility with mistreated lithium cells, but even a non-explosive leak can cause a fire.\n", "Lithium-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture if overheated or overcharged, and in extreme cases this can lead to combustion. To reduce these risks, lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range. When handled improperly, or if manufactured defectively, some rechargeable batteries can experience thermal runaway resulting in overheating. Sealed cells will sometimes explode violently if safety vents are overwhelmed or nonfunctional. Reports of exploding cellphones have been published in newspapers. In 2006, batteries from Apple, HP, Toshiba, Lenovo, Dell and other notebook manufacturers were recalled because of fire and explosions.\n", "While alkaline, silver oxide, and mercury batteries of the same size may be mechanically interchangeable in any given device, use of a cell of the right voltage but unsuitable characteristics can lead to short battery life or failure to operate equipment. Common lithium batteries, with a terminal voltage around 3 volts, are not made in sizes interchangeable with 1.5 volt cells. Use of a battery of significantly higher voltage than equipment is designed for can cause permanent damage.\n\nSection::::Type designation.\n", "BULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 1 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.1, Part 2 Portable Primary Cells and Batteries With Aqueous Electrolyte Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 1 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.2, Part 2 Portable Rechargeable Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 1 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries - General and Specifications\n\nBULLET::::- ANSI C18.3, Part 2 Portable lithium Primary Cells and Batteries Safety Standard\n", "The large variation in size and type of batteries makes their recycling extremely difficult: they must first be sorted into similar kinds and each kind requires an individual recycling process. Additionally, older batteries contain mercury and cadmium, harmful materials that must be handled with care. Because of their potential environmental damage, proper disposal of used batteries is required by law in many areas. Unfortunately, this mandate has been difficult to enforce.\n", "Most cell phones contain precious metals and plastics that can be recycled to save energy and resources that would otherwise be required to mine or manufacture. When placed in a landfill, these materials can pollute the air and contaminate soil and drinking water. Cell phone coatings are typically made of lead, which is a toxic chemical that can result in adverse health effects when exposed to it in high levels. The circuit board on cell phones can be made of copper, gold, lead, zinc, beryllium, tantalum, coltan, and other raw materials that would require significant resources to mine and manufacture. This is why it is important to recycle old cell phones and source these increasingly scarce materials whenever possible.\n", "A cell phone's shelf life is only about 24 months for the average user. This means that newer cell phone models are constantly put up on the market to replace older ones. This is as a result of the rapid progression of technology in the mobile industry. According to Matt Ployhar of Intel, the industry is rapidly evolving, possibly even at “Moore's law pace or faster.” This means that newer cell phone models are continually on the rise of consumerism and more outdated models are likely to end up in landfills.\n", "Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In the past 20 years, although there has not been an increase in the total number of button cell batteries ingested in a year, researchers have noted a 6.7-fold increase in the risk that an ingestion would result in a moderate or major complication and 12.5-fold increase in fatalities comparing the last decade to the previous one.\n", "Section::::Welfare concerns.:Forced moulting.\n", "As lithium in used but non working (i.e. extended storage) button cells is still likely to be in the cathode cup, it is possible to extract commercially useful quantities of the metal from such cells as well as the manganese dioxide and specialist plastics. From experiment the usual failure mode is that they will read 3.2 V or above but be unable to generate useful current (5 mA versus 40 mA for a good new cell)\n\nSome also alloy the lithium with magnesium (Mg) to cut costs and these are particularly prone to the mentioned failure mode.\n\nSection::::See also.\n" ]	[ "Battery packs bulge in a few months.", "If phone battery packs can last for years, then portable battery packs should not deform or bulge within months. " ]	[ "Battery packs should not do that. That is a sign of defective battery packs. ", "Portable battery packs should not deform or bulge within months, if they do it is likely that one is using a defective battery." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "Battery packs bulge in a few months.", "If phone battery packs can last for years, then portable battery packs should not deform or bulge within months. " ]	[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]	[ "Battery packs should not do that. That is a sign of defective battery packs. ", "Portable battery packs should not deform or bulge within months, if they do it is likely that one is using a defective battery." ]
2018-04285	How come wheels don't occur naturally in nature?	Wheels are fantastic if you have hard flat paths to roll on. Not so much if you are mainly traveling across wild terrain. The caveman would stare in wonder as you fall off the bike every ten feet because you hit a rock or got stuck in a bush.	[ "Wheels incur mechanical and other disadvantages in certain environments and situations that would represent a decreased fitness when compared with limbed locomotion. These disadvantages suggest that, even barring the biological constraints discussed above, the absence of wheels in multicellular life may not be the \"missed opportunity\" of biology that it first seems. In fact, given the mechanical disadvantages and restricted usefulness of wheels when compared with limbs, the central question can be reversed: not \"Why does nature not produce wheels?\", but rather, \"Why do human vehicles not make more use of limbs?\" The use of wheels rather than limbs in most engineered vehicles can likely be attributed to the complexity of design required to construct and control limbs, rather than to a consistent functional advantage of wheels over limbs.\n", "According to neo-Darwinism, adaptations are produced incrementally through natural selection, so major genetic changes will usually spread within populations only if they do not decrease the fitness of individuals. Although neutral changes (ones which provide no benefit) can spread through genetic drift, and detrimental changes can spread under some circumstances, large changes that require multiple steps will occur only if the intermediate stages increase fitness. Richard Dawkins describes the matter: \"The wheel may be one of those cases where the engineering solution can be seen in plain view, yet be unattainable in evolution because it lies [on] the other side of a deep valley, cutting unbridgeably across the massif of Mount Improbable.\" In such a fitness landscape, wheels might sit on a highly favorable \"peak\", but the valley around that peak may be too deep or wide for the gene pool to migrate across by genetic drift or natural selection. Stephen Jay Gould notes that biological adaptation is limited to working with available components, commenting that \"wheels work well, but animals are debarred from building them by structural constraints inherited as an evolutionary legacy\".\n", "Rolling resistance is also the reason at least one historical human civilization abandoned the use of wheels. During the time of the Roman Empire, wheeled chariots were common in the Middle East and North Africa; yet when the Empire collapsed and its roads fell into disrepair, wheels fell out of favor with the local populations, who turned to camels to transport goods in the sandy desert climate. In his book \"Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes\", Stephen Jay Gould explains this curiosity of history, asserting that, in the absence of maintained roads, camels required less manpower and water than a cart pulled by oxen.\n", "The 1995 short story \"Microbe\", by Kenyon College biologist and feminist science fiction writer Joan Slonczewski, describes an exploratory expedition to an alien world whose plant and animal life consists entirely of doughnut-shaped organisms.\n\nSection::::Wheeled creatures.\n\nToy animals with wheels dating from the Pre-Columbian era were uncovered by archaeologists in Veracruz, Mexico in the 1940s. The indigenous peoples of this region did not use wheels for transportation prior to the arrival of Europeans.\n", "Given the ubiquity of the wheel in human technology, and the existence of biological analogues of many other technologies (such as wings and lenses), the lack of wheels in the natural world would seem to demand explanation—and the phenomenon is broadly explained by two main factors. First, there are several developmental and evolutionary obstacles to the advent of a wheel by natural selection, addressing the question \"Why can't life evolve wheels?\" Secondly, wheels are often at a competitive disadvantage when compared with other means of propulsion (such as walking, running, or slithering) in natural environments, addressing the question \"If wheels \"could\" evolve, why might they be rare nonetheless?\" This environment-specific disadvantage also explains why at least one historical civilization abandoned the wheel as a mode of transport.\n", "The absence of wheels in nature is frequently attributed to constraints imposed by biology: natural selection constrains the evolutionary paths available to species, and the processes by which multicellular organisms grow and develop may not permit the construction of a functioning wheel.\n\nSection::::Biological barriers to wheeled organisms.:Evolutionary constraints.\n\nThe processes of evolution, as they are presently understood, can help explain why wheeled locomotion has not evolved in multicellular organisms: simply put, a complex structure or system will not evolve if its incomplete form provides no benefit to the organism.\n", "Several twentieth-century writers explored possibilities of wheeled creatures. L. Frank Baum's 1907 children's novel \"Ozma of Oz\" features humanoid creatures with wheels instead of hands and feet, called Wheelers. Their wheels are composed of keratin, which has been suggested by biologists as a means of avoiding nutrient and waste transfer problems with living wheels. Despite moving quickly on firm open terrain, the Wheelers cannot cross sand, and are stymied by obstacles in their path that do not hinder creatures with limbs.\n", "In the latter half of the twentieth century, wheeled or wheel-using creatures featured in works by fantasy and science fiction writers including Clifford D. Simak, Piers Anthony, David Brin, K. A. Applegate, Philip Pullman, and writing partners Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen. Some of these works address the developmental and biomechanical constraints on wheeled creatures: Brin's creatures suffer from arthritic axles, and Pullman's Mulefa are not born with wheels, but roll on seed pods with which they coevolved.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Biomimicry, which includes biologically inspired engineering\n\nBULLET::::- Projectile use by living systems, another adaptation commonly associated with human technology\n", "Section::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Versatility.\n\nLimbs used by animals for locomotion over terrain are frequently also used for other purposes, such as grasping, manipulating, climbing, branch-swinging, swimming, digging, jumping, throwing, kicking, and grooming. With a lack of articulation, wheels would not be as useful as limbs in these roles.\n\nSection::::In fiction and legend.\n\nLegends and speculative fiction reveal a longstanding human fascination with rolling and wheeled creatures. Such creatures appear in mythologies from Europe, Japan, pre-Columbian Mexico, the United States, and Australia.\n\nSection::::In fiction and legend.:Rolling creatures.\n", "In the 2000 novel \"Wheelers\", by English mathematician Ian Stewart and reproductive biologist Jack Cohen, a Jovian species called \"blimps\" has developed the ability to biologically produce machines called \"wheelers\", which use wheels for locomotion.\n\nThe children's television series \"Jungle Junction\", which premiered in 2009, features hybrid jungle animals with wheels rather than legs; one such animal, Ellyvan, is a hybrid of an elephant and a van. These animals traverse their habitat on elevated highways.\n", "Using human manufacturing processes, wheeled systems of varying complexity have proven fairly simple to construct, and issues of power transmission and friction have proven tractable. It is not clear, however, that the vastly different processes of embryonic development are suited to—or even capable of—producing a functioning wheel, for reasons described below.\n", "L. Frank Baum's 1907 children's novel \"Ozma of Oz\" features humanoid creatures with wheels instead of hands and feet, called Wheelers. Their wheels are composed of keratin, which has been suggested by biologists as a means of avoiding nutrient and waste transfer problems with living wheels. Despite moving quickly on open terrain, the Wheelers are stymied by obstacles in their path that do not hinder creatures with limbs. They also make an appearance in the 1985 film \"Return to Oz\", based partly on \"Ozma of Oz\".\n", "Molecular biologist Robin Holliday has written that the absence of biological wheels argues against creationist or intelligent design accounts of the diversity of life, because an intelligent creator—free of the limitations imposed by evolution—would be expected to deploy wheels wherever they would be of use.\n\nSection::::Biological barriers to wheeled organisms.:Developmental and anatomical constraints.\n", "A wheel can also offer advantages in traversing irregular surfaces if the wheel radius is sufficiently large compared to the irregularities.\n\nThe wheel alone is not a machine, but when attached to an axle in conjunction with bearing, it forms the wheel and axle, one of the simple machines. A driven wheel is an example of a wheel and axle. Wheels pre-date driven wheels by about 6000 years, themselves an evolution of using round logs as rollers to move a heavy load—a practice going back in pre-history so far that it has not been dated.\n\nSection::::Construction.\n\nSection::::Construction.:Rim.\n", "Section::::Biological barriers to wheeled organisms.:Developmental and anatomical constraints.:Power transmission to driven wheels.\n", "The Dutch graphic artist M. C. Escher illustrated a rolling creature of his own invention in a 1951 lithograph. Rolling creatures are also featured in works written by comic author Carl Barks, science fiction writers Fredric Brown, George R. R. Martin, and Joan Slonczewski, and in the \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" video game series, which first appeared in 1991.\n\nSection::::In fiction and legend.:Wheeled creatures.\n\nToy animals with wheels dating from the Pre-Columbian era were uncovered by archaeologists in Veracruz, Mexico, in the 1940s. The indigenous peoples of this region did not use wheels for transportation prior to the arrival of Europeans.\n", "The first commercially successful use of wired wheels was on bicycles. They were introduced early on in the development of the bicycle, following soon after the adoption of solid rubber tires. This development marked a major improvement over the older wooden wheels, both in terms of weight and comfort (the increased elasticity of the wheel helping to absorb road vibrations).\n\nIn England, the engineer William Stanley developed the \"steel-wired spider wheel\" in 1849, an improvement over the cumbersome wooden spoked wheels then fitted to the tricycles that his employer was making.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages of wheels.\n", "Another potential problem that arises at the interface between wheel and axle (or axle and body) is the limited ability of an organism to transfer materials across this interface. If the tissues that make up a wheel are living, they will need to be supplied with oxygen and nutrients and have wastes removed to sustain metabolism. A typical animal circulatory system, composed of blood vessels, would not be able to provide transportation across the interface. In the absence of circulation, oxygen and nutrients would need to diffuse across the interface, a process that would be greatly limited by the available partial pressure and surface area, in accordance with Fick's law of diffusion. For large multicellular animals, diffusion would be insufficient. Alternatively, a wheel could be composed of excreted, nonliving material such as keratin, of which hair and nails are composed.\n", "The 2000 novel \"The Amber Spyglass\", by English author Philip Pullman, features an alien race known as the Mulefa, which have diamond-shaped bodies with one leg at the front and back and one on each side. The Mulefa use large, disk-shaped seed pods as wheels. They mount the pods on bone axles on their front and back legs, while propelling themselves with their side legs. The Mulefa have a symbiotic relationship with the seed pod trees, which depend on the rolling action to crack open the pods and allow the seeds to disperse.\n", "Anatomist Michael LaBarbera of the University of Chicago illustrates the poor maneuverability of wheels by comparing the turning radii of walking and wheelchair-using humans. As Jared Diamond points out, most biological examples of rolling are found in wide open, hard packed terrain, including the use of rolling by dung beetles and tumbleweeds.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Obstacle navigation.:Going over.\n", "Wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archaeological evidence for this. Most early wheels appear to have been attached to fixed axles, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils or separation by leather to be effective. The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have been used in Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC and two-wheel chariots appeared in about 2800 BC. They were hauled by onagers, related to donkeys.\n", "Natural selection therefore explains why wheels are an unlikely solution to the problem of locomotion: a partially evolved wheel, missing one or more key components, would probably not impart an advantage to an organism. The exception to this is the flagellum, the only known example of a freely rotating propulsive system in biology; in the evolution of flagella, individual components were recruited from older structures, where they performed tasks unrelated to propulsion. The basal body that is now the rotary motor, for instance, might have evolved from a structure used by the bacterium to inject toxins into other cells. This recruitment of previously evolved structures to serve new functions is called \"exaptation\".\n", "Another critical influence that duikers have on the environment is acting as “seed dispersers for some plants”. They maintain a mutualistic relationship with certain plants; the plants serve as a nutritious and abundant food source for the duikers, and simultaneously benefit from the extensive dispersal of their seeds by the duikers.\n\nSection::::Conservation.\n", "Section::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Efficiency.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages of wheels.:Efficiency.:Rolling resistance.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Wheels should occur naturally." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Wheels don't have a natural use." ]
2018-12451	Why does it seem difficult to look at something directly, in the dark?	Rod cells in your eye work well in low light conditions. These are located mostly in the periphery of your retina. Your cone cells, which are used for color and detail, are concentrated in the center of your retina.	[ "Section::::Debate over role of attention.:More recent evidence reasserting the need for focused attention.\n", "Averted vision works because there are virtually no rods (cells which detect dim light in black and white) in the fovea: a small area in the center of the eye. The fovea contains primarily cone cells, which serve as bright light and color detectors and are not as useful during the night. This situation results in a decrease in visual sensitivity in central vision at night. Based on the early work of Osterberg (1935), and later confirmed by modern adaptive optics, the density of the rod cells usually reaches a maximum around 20 degrees off the center of vision. \n", "BULLET::::- Focused attention stage\n\nThe second stage of processing depends on attention. In this stage, the features are recombined, so we perceive the whole object rather than individual features.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nForm perception is a demanding task for the brain because a retina has a significant blind spot and retinal veins that obstruct light from reaching cells that detect light, or photoreceptor cells. The brain handles the blind spots through boundary processes, includes perceptual grouping, boundary completion, and figure-ground separation, and through surface processing, including compensation for variable illumination (“discounting the illuminant”), and filling blank areas with the surviving illuminant-discounted signals.\n", "Section::::Debate over role of attention.:Evidence against the need for focused attention.\n", "Cones are responsible for colour vision. They require brighter light to function than rods require. In humans, there are three types of cones, maximally sensitive to long-wavelength, medium-wavelength, and short-wavelength light (often referred to as red, green, and blue, respectively, though the sensitivity peaks are not actually at these colours). The colour seen is the combined effect of stimuli to, and responses from, these three types of cone cells. Cones are mostly concentrated in and near the fovea. Only a few are present at the sides of the retina. Objects are seen most sharply in focus when their images fall on the fovea, as when one looks at an object directly. Cone cells and rods are connected through intermediate cells in the retina to nerve fibres of the optic nerve. When rods and cones are stimulated by light, they connect through adjoining cells within the retina to send an electrical signal to the optic nerve fibres. The optic nerves send off impulses through these fibres to the brain.\n", "The notion that a meal can be more enjoyable without sight is typically described as \"the theory that flavors are intensified when people can't see what they're eating\". A counter-argument has been put that \"most of us eat with our eyes, enjoying a plate before we've tasted it. So the trade-off might not be even.\"\n", "Section::::Perceptions of light and shadows.\n", "The grain of a photographic mosaic has just as limited resolving power as the \"grain\" of the retinal mosaic. In order to see detail, two sets of receptors must be intervened by a middle set. The maximum resolution is that 30 seconds of arc, corresponding to the foveal cone diameter or the angle subtended at the nodal point of the eye. In order to get reception from each cone, as it would be if vision was on a mosaic basis, the \"local sign\" must be obtained from a single cone via a chain of one bipolar, ganglion, and lateral geniculate cell each. A key factor of obtaining detailed vision, however, is inhibition. This is mediated by neurons such as the amacrine and horizontal cells, which functionally render the spread or convergence of signals inactive. This tendency to one-to-one shuttle of signals is powered by brightening of the center and its surroundings, which triggers the inhibition leading to a one-to-one wiring. This scenario, however, is rare, as cones may connect to both midget and flat (diffuse) bipolars, and amacrine and horizontal cells can merge messages just as easily as inhibit them.\n", "\"The best thing about the Eye is the journey. It’s not like the Eiffel tower, where you get in a dark lift and come out on to a platform at the top. The trip round is as important as the view.\" -Julia Barfield, 2015\n", "Section::::Works.:\"Night Vision\".\n", "Rods, which are extremely abundant (about 120 million), are in the periphery of the human retina. Rods respond only to faint levels of light and are very light sensitive, therefore, completely useless in daylight. Cones have three types of pigments with different color sensitivities, whereas rods only have one and so are achromatic (colorless). Because of the distribution of rods and cones in the human eye, people have good color vision near the fovea (where cones are) but not in the periphery (where the rods are).\n", "Section::::Factors that influence object-based attention.\n\nThe deployment of attention depends jointly on the goals and expectations of the observer, and the properties of the image.\n\nSection::::Factors that influence object-based attention.:Cues and attentional focus.\n", "Teller's initial research studies were focused on the spatial and temporal properties of a phenomenon first described by Professor Gerald Westheimer and sometimes referred to as the “Westheimer effect” or the “Westheimer function.” In this phenomenon, which Teller termed “spatial sensitization,” the detectability of a test light is first decreased and then increased by adding light to successively larger surrounding or annular regions. Westheimer proposed that the increase in detectability with surround illumination might represent the manifestation of lateral inhibition within the retina, and this possibility motivated Teller's interest in the phenomenon.\n\nSection::::Professional career.:Research interests.:Visual development.\n", "Section::::Optical microscopy.:Limitations.\n\nLimitations of standard optical microscopy (bright field microscopy) lie in three areas;\n\nBULLET::::- This technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively.\n\nBULLET::::- Diffraction limits resolution to approximately 0.2 micrometres (\"see: microscope\"). This limits the practical magnification limit to ~1500x.\n\nBULLET::::- Out-of-focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity.\n", "Section::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Oblique illumination.\n\nThe use of oblique (from the side) illumination gives the image a three-dimensional (3D) appearance and can highlight otherwise invisible features. A more recent technique based on this method is \"Hoffmann's modulation contrast\", a system found on inverted microscopes for use in cell culture. Oblique illumination suffers from the same limitations as bright field microscopy (low contrast of many biological samples; low apparent resolution due to out of focus objects).\n\nSection::::Optical microscopy.:Techniques.:Dark field.\n", "A study by Remington, Johnston, & Yantis (1992) found that attention is involuntarily drawn away from a given task when a visual stimulus interferes. In this study, participants were presented with four boxes; they were told that an image would precede a letter that they were to memorize. The conditions were either to attend to the same box, a different one, all four, or to focus on the center. However, even though they were told to not attend to a certain box, the participant was consistently drawn to the image before the letter in all cases, resulting in a longer response time in all conditions except for the same. The results prove that there is a consistent need for vision to dominate the other senses, and attention is immediately drawn away by it in a controlled setting.\n", "Both of the Stiles–Crawford effects of the first and second kind are highly wavelength-dependent, and they are most evident under photopic conditions. There are several factors that contribute to the Stiles–Crawford effect, though it is generally accepted that it is primarily a result of the guiding properties of light of the cone photoreceptors. The reduced sensitivity to light passing near the edge of the pupil enhances human vision by reducing the sensitivity of the visual stimulus to light that exhibits significant optical aberrations and diffraction.\n\nSection::::Discovery.\n", "The stimulus modality for vision is light; the human eye is able to access only a limited section of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 380 and 760 nanometres. Specific inhibitory responses that take place in the visual cortex help create a visual focus on a specific point rather than the entire surrounding.\n\nSection::::Light modality.:Perception.\n", "Since the fovea does not have rods, it is not sensitive to dim lighting. Hence, in order to observe dim stars, astronomers use averted vision, looking out of the side of their eyes where the density of rods is greater, and hence dim objects are more easily visible.\n", "Section::::Stereo vision.:Challenging earlier views.\n", "Section::::Looking versus seeing.\n", "The parafoveal magnification paradigm compensates for how visual acuity drops off as a function of retinal eccentricity. On each fixation and in real time, parafoveal text is magnified to equalize its perceptual impact with that of concurrent foveal text.\n", "Section::::Thin-slice vision.:Predictiveness.:Behavior.\n", "BULLET::::5. The distribution of atmospheric seeing through the atmosphere (the C profile described below) causes the image quality in adaptive optics systems to degrade the further you look from the location of reference star\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-00727	Where do all the chromosomes “go” during mitosis?	All the chromosomes split like the 1 or 2 you see in the pictures. It's just so much easier to see what's going on and to fit a diagram on the page without drawing every single chromosome. For example, [here's what mitosis looks like in onion cells.]( URL_0 ) The cells look really crowded and onions only have 8 chromosomes, so you can probably imagine how tough it would be to look at a picture with all 46 chromosomes in human cells. Additionally, the way mitosis works is the same for all the chromosomes, so a complete image wouldn't provide much useful information that couldn't be seen on a simplified diagram. When mitosis is not occuring, the chromosomes become less tightly packed, so they lose their distinctive shapes and just look like a single blob inside the nucleus.	[ "When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the DNA from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally within the cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome apart. Sister chromatids at this point are called \"daughter chromosomes\". As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated daughter chromosomes, which decondense to form interphase nuclei.\n", "The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.\n", "Section::::Phases.:Mitosis.:Prophase.\n\nDuring prophase, which occurs after G interphase, the cell prepares to divide by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere.\n", "Division of the macronucleus occurs by amitosis, and the segregation of the chromosomes occurs by a process whose mechanism is unknown. This process is not perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging. Periodically the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during \"conjugation\". Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micronuclei and macronuclei.\n\nSection::::Cell structure.:Cytoplasm.\n", "Section::::Phases.:Meiosis I.:Prophase I.:Diplotene.\n\nDuring the \"diplotene\" stage, also known as \"diplonema\", from Greek words meaning \"two threads\", the synaptonemal complex degrades and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I.\n", "Telophase (from the Greek word \"τελος\" meaning \"end\") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. If the nuclear envelope has broken down, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms around each set of separated daughter chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, begin to \"relax\" or decondense. Mitosis is complete. Each daughter nucleus has an identical set of chromosomes. Cell division may or may not occur at this time depending on the organism.\n", "The primary result of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during the S phase of interphase. Chromosome duplication results in two identical \"sister chromatids\" bound together by cohesin proteins at the \"centromere\".\n", "\"Endoreduplication\" (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes. Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to be a normal part of development. Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during S phase and enter, but prematurely terminate, mitosis. Instead of being divided into two new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus. The cells then re-enter G and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again. This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during cell differentiation.\n", "Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as \"Aspergillus nidulans\" and \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" (yeast) undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. \n\nSection::::Phases.:Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components).\n", "Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a different process called binary fission. Mitosis varies between organisms. For example, animal cells undergo an \"open\" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a \"closed\" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Most animal cells undergo a shape change, known as mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most human cells are produced by mitotic cell division. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis.\n", "In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase.\n", "The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer \"interphase\", where the cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases: G (first gap), S (synthesis), and G (second gap). During all three parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle. All these phases in the cell cycle are highly regulated by cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases follow one another in strict order and there are \"checkpoints\" that give the cell cues to proceed from one phase to another. Cells may also temporarily or permanently leave the cell cycle and enter G phase to stop dividing. This can occur when cells become overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to carry out specific functions for the organism, as is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G cells have the ability to re-enter the cell cycle.\n", "Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will ordinarily not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other. Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II - by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles. If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any new recombinant genotypes.\n", "Usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23 chromosomes from egg cell fuse (half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome and the other half Y chromosome). Their membranes dissolve, leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes. During this dissolution, a mitotic spindle forms between them. The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in the egg cytoplasm. Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis (which includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase) the cell gathers genetic material from the male and female together. Thus, the first mitosis of the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of their chromosomes.\n", "The \"pachytene\" stage ( ), also known as \"pachynema\", from Greek words meaning \"thick threads\". At this point a tetrad of the chromosomes has formed known as a bivalent. This is the stage when homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), occurs. Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes may exchange segments over regions of homology. Sex chromosomes, however, are not wholly identical, and only exchange information over a small region of homology. At the sites where exchange happens, chiasmata form. The exchange of information between the non-sister chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage.\n", "\"Completely inactive mitotic checkpoints\" may cause nondisjunction at multiple chromosomes, possibly all. Such a scenario could result in each daughter cell possessing a disjoint set of genetic material.\n\n\"Merotelic attachment\" occurs when one kinetochore is attached to both mitotic spindle poles. One daughter cell would have a normal complement of chromosomes; the second would lack one. A third daughter cell may end up with the 'missing' chromosome.\n\nMultipolar spindles: more than two spindle poles form. Such a mitotic division would result in one daughter cell for each spindle pole; each cell may possess an unpredictable complement of chromosomes.\n", "Errors can occur during mitosis, especially during early embryonic development in humans. Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have too few or too many of one or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer. Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can also suffer from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements.\n", "In \"nondisjunction\", sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell receives both sister chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other cell receives none. As a result, the former cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a condition known as \"trisomy\", and the latter will have only one copy, a condition known as \"monosomy\". On occasion, when cells experience nondisjunction, they fail to complete cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in binucleated cells.\n", "Another mechanism for retaining the extra chromosome is through a nondisjunction event during meiosis II in the egg. Nondisjunction occurs when sister chromatids on the sex chromosome, in this case an X and an X, fail to separate. An XX egg is produced, which when fertilized with a Y sperm, yields an XXY offspring. This XXY chromosome arrangement is one of the most common genetic variations from the XY karyotype, occurring in about one in 500 live male births. See also Triple X syndrome.\n", "The extra chromosome is retained because of a nondisjunction event during paternal or maternal meiosis I (gametogenesis). Nondisjunction occurs when homologous chromosomes, in this case the X and Y or two X sex chromosomes, fail to separate, producing a sperm with an X and a Y chromosome or an egg with two X chromosomes. Fertilizing a normal (X) egg with this sperm produces an XXY offspring (Klinefelter). Fertilizing a double X egg with a normal sperm also produces an XXY offspring (Klinefelter).\n", "BULLET::::- merotelic: at least one chromatid is anchored simultaneously to MTs emanating from both poles. This situation generates centromeric tension, and for this reason the spindle checkpoint is not activated. If it is not corrected, the chromatid bound to both poles will remain as a lagging chromosome at anaphase, and finally will be broken in two fragments, distributed between the daughter cells, generating aneuploidy.\n", "Section::::Meiotic prophase.:Prophase I.:Diplotene.\n\nIn the fourth phase of prophase I, diplotene (from the Greek for “twofold”), crossing-over is completed. Homologous chromosomes retain a full set of genetic information; however, the homologous chromosomes are now of mixed maternal and paternal descent. Visible junctions called chiasmata hold the homologous chromosomes together at locations where recombination occurred as the synaptonemal complex dissolves. It is at this stage where meiotic arrest occurs in many species.\n\nSection::::Meiotic prophase.:Prophase I.:Diakinesis.\n", "Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.\n", "Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes align at the mitotic plate. Kinetochores emit anaphase-inhibition signals until their attachment to the mitotic spindle. Once the final chromosome is properly aligned and attached the final signal dissipates and triggers the abrupt shift to anaphase. This abrupt shift is caused by the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex and its function of tagging degradation of proteins important towards the metaphase-anaphase transition. One of these proteins that is broken down is securin which through its breakdown releases the enzyme separase that cleaves the cohesin rings holding together the sister chromatids thereby leading to the chromosomes separating. After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The chromosomes are split apart as the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell. While the sister chromatids are being pulled apart, the cell and plasma are elongated by non-kinetochore microtubules.\n", "In most cells, the disassembly of the nuclear envelope marks the end of the prophase of mitosis. However, this disassembly of the nucleus is not a universal feature of mitosis and does not occur in all cells. Some unicellular eukaryotes (e.g., yeasts) undergo so-called closed mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope remains intact. In closed mitosis, the daughter chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus, which then divides in two. The cells of higher eukaryotes, however, usually undergo open mitosis, which is characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope. The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle, and new nuclei reassemble around them.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[ "Chromosomes go somewhere during mitosis." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "Chromosomes simply lose their shape and become less recognizable. " ]
2018-04630	Why is a tattoo artist's stencil always purple?	Not from tattooing knowledge, but medical skin marker is purple, so it might be simply because they're using approved body-safe pigments.	[ "The pure essence of purple was approximated in pigment in the late 1960s by mixing fluorescent magenta and fluorescent blue pigments together to make \"fluorescent purple\" to use in psychedelic black light paintings. This tone of purple was very popular among hippies and was the favorite color of Jimi Hendrix. Thus it is called psychedelic purple. Psychedelic purple is the color halfway between electric purple and magenta.\n", "By the 1970s, because of the advent of psychedelic art, artists became used to brighter pigments, and pigments called \"purple\" or \"bright purple\" that are the pigment equivalent of became available in artists pigments and colored pencils. Reproducing electric purple in pigment requires adding some white pigment and a small amount of blue pigment to red-violet pigment. Even then, the reproduction will not be exact because it is impossible for pigment colors to be so bright as colors displayed on a computer. \n\nSection::::Variations of red-violet.\n\nSection::::Variations of red-violet.:Kobi.\n\nAt the right is displayed the color kobi.\n", "In Saint-Gobain Corp. v. 3M Co., 90 USPQ2d 1425 (TTAB 2007), the purple colour was considered functional for coated abrasives, because “[i]n the field of coated abrasives, color serves a myriad of functions, including color coding, and the need to color code lends support for the basic finding that color, including purple, is functional in the field of coated abrasives having paper or cloth backing.” Saint-Gobain Corp. v. 3M Co., 90 USPQ2d 1425, 1447 (TTAB 2007).\n", "Using additive colors such as those on computer screens, it is possible to create a much brighter purple than with pigments where the mixing subtracts frequencies from the component primary colors. The equivalent color on a computer to the pigment color red-violet shown above would be this electric purple, i.e. the much brighter purple you can see reproduced on the screen of a computer. This color is pure purple conceived as computer artists conceive it, as the color on the color wheel halfway between color wheel violet and electric magenta. Thus, electric purple is the purest and brightest purple that it is possible to display on a computer screen. Its RGB code is (191, 0, 255).\n", "An old name for this color, used by Robert Ridgway in his 1912 book on color nomenclature, \"Color Standards and Color Nomenclature\", is true purple.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.:Purple (HTML/CSS color) (patriarch).\n\nThis purple used in HTML and CSS actually is deeper and has a more reddish hue (#800080) than the X11 color purple shown below as \"purple\" (X11 color) (#A020F0), which is bluer and brighter.\n", "Unlike spectral colors, which may be implemented, for example, by the nearly monochromatic light of a laser, with precision much finer than human chromaticity resolution, colors on the line are more difficult to depict. The sensitivity of each type of human cone cell to \"both\" spectral red and spectral violet, being at the opposite endpoints of the line and at the extremes of the visible spectrum, is very low. (See luminosity function) Therefore, common purple colors are not highly bright.\n", "In the 1980s there was a \"Jimi Hendrix Museum\" in a Victorian house on the east side of Central Avenue one half block south of Haight Street in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco which was painted this color.\n\nAnother name for this color is phlox, as it is the color of the phlox flower. The first recorded use of \"phlox\" as a color name in English was in 1918.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Purple pizzazz.\n\nDisplayed at right is the color purple pizzazz.\n\nThis color was formulated by Crayola in 1990.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Liseran purple.\n\nDisplayed at right is the color liseran purple.\n", "In color printing, purple is sometimes represented by the color magenta, or sometimes by mixing magenta with red or blue. It can also be created by mixing just red and blue alone, but in that case the purple is less bright, with lower\n\nsaturation or intensity. A less bright purple can also be created with light or paint by adding a certain quantity of the third primary color (green for light or yellow for pigment).\n", "'Royal purple' (shown above) or the dark violet color known as \"generic purple\" is the common layman's idea of purple, but professional artists, following Munsell color system (introduced in 1905 and widely accepted by 1930), regard purple as being synonymous with the red-violet color shown at right, represented by the web color medium violet red, in order to clearly distinguish purple from violet and thus have access to a larger palette of colors. This red-violet color, called artist's purple by artists, is the pigment color that would be on a pigment color color wheel between pigment violet and pigment (process) magenta. In the Munsell color system, this color at its maximum chroma of 12 is called Red-Purple, or more specifically Munsell 5RP.\n", "BULLET::::- Han purple was the first synthetic purple pigment, invented in China in about 700 BC. It was used in wall paintings and pottery and other applications. In color, it was very close to indigo, which had a similar chemical structure. Han purple was very unstable, and sometimes was the result of the chemical breakdown of Han blue.\n", "In 3-dimensional color spaces the line, if present, becomes a 2-dimensional shape. For example, in the CIE XYZ it is a planar sector bounded by black–red and black–violet rays. In systems premised on pigment colors, such as the Munsell and Pantone systems, boundary purples might be absent because the maximally possible lightness of a pigment vanishes when its chromaticity approaches the Line, such that purple pigments near the line are indistinguishable from black.\n", "\"Pearly purple\" is one of the colors in the special set of metallic colored Crayola crayons called Silver Swirls, the colors of which were formulated by Crayola in 1990.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Purpureus.\n\nThe color purpureus is displayed at right. Another name for this color is purpura.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"purpura\" as a color name in English was in 1382.\n\nSection::::Additional variations.:Northwestern Purple.\n", "On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term \"purple\" with a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color \"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \"purple\" and \"violet\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color.\n", "This color may be called HTML/CSS purple. It seems likely that this color was chosen as the web color purple because its hue is exactly halfway between red and blue and its value is exactly halfway between white and black.\n\nA traditional name sometimes used for this tone of purple is patriarch. The first recorded use of \"patriarch\" as a color name in English was in 1925.\n\nSection::::Computer web color purples.:Purple (X11 color) (veronica).\n\nAt right is displayed the color purple, as defined in the X11 color, which is a lot brighter and bluer than the HTML purple shown above.\n", "BULLET::::- Hematite and manganese are the oldest pigments used for the color purple. They were used by Neolithic artists in the form of sticks, like charcoal, or ground and powdered and mixed with fat, and used as a paint. Hematite is a reddish iron oxide which, when ground coarsely, makes a purple pigment. Manganese was also used in Roman times to color glass purple.\n", "BULLET::::- Cobalt violet was the first modern synthetic color in the purple family, manufactured in 1859. It was found, along with cobalt blue, in the palette of Claude Monet, Paul Signac, and Georges Seurat. It was stable, but had low tinting power and was expensive, so quickly went out of use.\n\nBULLET::::- Manganese violet was a stronger color than cobalt violet, and replaced it on the market.\n\nBULLET::::- Quinacridone violet, one of a modern synthetic organic family of colors, was discovered in 1896 but not marketed until 1955. It is sold today under a number of brand names.\n", "BULLET::::- Since the mid-1960s, water based fluorescent magenta paint has been available to paint psychedelic black light paintings. (Fluorescent cerise, fluorescent chartreuse yellow, fluorescent blue, and fluorescent green.)\n\nSection::::In science and culture.:In astronomy.\n\nBULLET::::- Astronomers have reported that spectral class T brown dwarfs (the ones with the coolest temperatures except for the recently discovered Y brown dwarfs) are colored magenta because of absorption by sodium and potassium atoms of light in the green portion of the spectrum.\n\nSection::::In science and culture.:In botany.\n", "Section::::Historical development of purple.:Artists' pigment purple (red-violet): 1930s.\n", "Artists' pigments and colored pencils labeled as purple are typically colored the red-violet color shown at right. On an RYB color wheel, red-violet is the color between red and violet.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Electric purple: 2000s.\n\nThis color, electric purple, is precisely halfway between violet and magenta and thus fits the artistic definition of purple.\n", "In the RGB color model, named for the colors red, green, and blue, used to create all the colors on a computer screen or television, the range of purples is created by mixing red and blue light of different intensities on a black screen. The standard HTML color purple is created by red and blue light of equal intensity, at a brightness that is halfway between full power and darkness.\n", "Han purple is a type of artificial pigment found in China between 500 BC and AD 220. It was used in the decoration of the Terracotta Army.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Royal purple: 17th century.\n\nThe color royal purple is shown at right.\n\nThis tone of purple is bluer than the ancient Tyrian purple.\n\nThe first recorded use of \"royal purple\" as a color name in English was in 1661.\n\nIn 1990, \"royal purple\" was formulated as one of the Crayola crayon colors.\n\nSection::::Historical development of purple.:Mauveine: 1860s–1890s.\n", "Displayed at right is the color purple pizzazz. \n\nThis color was formulated by Crayola in 1990.\n\nSection::::Additional variations of magenta.:Shocking pink.\n\nShocking pink (the original 1937 \"shocking pink\") takes its name from the tone of pink used in the lettering on the box of the perfume called \"Shocking\", designed by Leonor Fini for the Surrealist fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli in 1937.\n\nSection::::Additional variations of magenta.:Orchid.\n\nThe color orchid, since it has a hue code of 302, may be classified as a rich tone of magenta. \"Orchid\" is a representation of the color of the orchidaceae flower. \n", "The colour-fast (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by Romans, who used it to colour ceremonial robes. Used as a dye, the color shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590 nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520 nm, which is green). It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. Vitruvius mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish. In his \"History of Animals\", Aristotle described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye. Pliny the Elder described the production of Tyrian purple in his \"Natural History\":\n", "\"Tyrian purple\" is the contemporary English name of the color that in Latin is denominated \"\"purpura\"\". Other contemporary English names for \"purpura\" are \"imperial purple\" and \"royal purple\". The English name \"purple\" itself originally denominated the specific color \"purpura\". \"Purpura\" is the color of a dye extracted from a mollusk found on the shores of the city of Tyre in ancient Phoenicia (contemporarily in Lebanon), which color in classical antiquity was a symbol of royalty and political authority because only the very wealthy could afford it, including the Roman Emperors. Therefore, Tyrian purple was also denominated \"imperial purple\".\n", "As early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, (present day Lebanon), were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex. Clothing colored with the Tyrian dye was mentioned in both the Iliad of Homer and the Aeneid of Virgil. The deep, rich purple dye made from this snail became known as Tyrian purple.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12786	Why do streaming services care so much about people with a family plan living under the same address?	They want the amount of subscriptions sold to match the amount of pairs of eyes consuming their products as closely as possible. If they could, they'd sell 1 subscription per person, not even per family. Obviously they would lose customers if they started demanding you pay an additional fee for each of your kids or your spouse, so they have to accept that families are going to share a subscription. But they're not just going to let you share it with as many people as you want. If you've got an apartment building or a dorm with 10 unrelated people of legal age, that's 10 subscriptions. They're not just going to be cool with selling 1 or 2 instead of 10 and eat the loss in possible revenue. They're running a business selling a product, not a charity. So they say you can share with your family (because customers demand it) and that you can't share with a bunch of strangers. One way to determine if someone signing on to an account is family or not is if they live at the same address. Families tend to live together, random strangers tend not to. So it's a good enough method to try to get as close to possible to their target goal.	[ "The ethical dilemma lies in that upon the agreement to register for SNSs, the personal information disclosed is legally accessible and managed by the sites privately established online security operators and operating systems; leaving access of user data to be \"under the discretion\" of the site(s) operators. Giving rise to the moral obligation and responsibility of the sites operators to maintain private information to be within user control. However, due to the legality of outsourcing of user data upon registration- without prior discretion, data outsourcing has been frequented by SNSs operating systems- regardless of user privacy settings.\n", "Since the arrival of early social networking sites in the early 2000s, online social networking platforms have expanded exponentially, with the biggest names in social media in the mid-2010s being Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and SnapChat. The massive influx of personal information that has become available online and stored in the cloud has put user privacy at the forefront of discussion regarding the database's ability to safely store such personal information. The extent to which users and social media platform administrators can access user profiles has become a new topic of ethical consideration, and the legality, awareness, and boundaries of subsequent privacy violations are critical concerns in advance of the technological age.\n", "Section::::Principles.:Currency.\n\nThe business models driving tech giants have uncovered the possibility of making the human identity the product to be consumed. While the tech services including search engines, communication channels and maps are provided for free, the new currency that has been uncovered in the process is personal data.\n", "Willingness to share data varies from person to person. Preliminary studies have been conducted into the determinants of the willingness to share data. For example, some have suggested that baby boomers are less willing to share data than millennials.\n\nSection::::Personal Data of Children.\n", "Contracts with service providers may be automatically terminated (by the terms of service) when a customer dies. This may mean that there is no right for heirs to access that data. This is compounded by the fact that many digital assets are only granted with non-transferrable rights of use. For example, both Amazon and Apple only offer their digital products with single user rights. This means that digital products bought through such services can only be used by the purchaser, and cannot be passed on.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Social media.\n", "In the aftermath of the February 14, 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, activists created the hashtags #stopNRAmazon and #DumpNRATV asking Amazon to discontinue streaming programs from NRATV, an initiative supported by celebrities like Alyssa Milano, Denis O’Hare, Evan Handler, Ben Gleib, Joshua Malina, Warren Leight, Genevieve Angelson, Joe Scarborough, Mika Brzezinski, and Misha Collins. Other companies offering NRATV programs as part of their streaming services became the target of a similar campaign launched by Moms Demand Action for Gun Sense and Everytown for Gun Safety.\n", "Ownership puts emphasis on the ability to conveniently move data from one service to another i.e. portability.\n", "When personal data is owned by the individual they have the option to simply remove it and take it to another site if they become dissatisfied with the service. Individuals should be offered a high degree of convenient portability allowing one to switch to alternatives without losing historic data collections describing product preferences and personal conversations. For example, one may choose to switch to an alternative messaging app, and this should be possible without losing the record of your previous conversations and contacts. Giving individuals the option to switch services without the inconveniences of losing historical data means that the services need to keep customers happy by providing good services rather than locking them in by means of incompatibility with alternatives.\n", "However, in November 2017, ProPublica found that automated enforcement of these new policies was inconsistent. They were also able to successfully create housing ads that excluded users based on interests and other factors that effectively imply associations with protected classes, including interests in wheelchair ramps, the Spanish-language television network Telemundo, and New York City ZIP codes with majority minority populations. In response to the report, Facebook temporarily disabled the ability to target any ad with exclusions based on multicultural affinities.\n", "Section::::Social networks.:Snapchat.:Live Stories.\n\nWith the 2015 new update of Snapchat, users are able to do “Live Stories,” which are a “collection of crowdsourced snaps for a specific event or region.” By doing that, you are allowing snapchat to share your location with not just your friends, but with everyone. According to Snapchat, once you pick the option of sharing your content through a Live Story, you are providing to the company \"unrestricted, worldwide, perpetual right and license to use your name, likeness, and voice in any and all media and distribution channels.\"\n\nSection::::Social networks.:Snapchat.:Privacy Concerns with Snapchat.\n", "On most social media websites, user's geographical location can be gathered either by users (through voluntary check-in applications like Foursquare and Facebook Places) or by applications (through technologies like IP address geolocation, cellphone network triangulation, RFID and GPS). The approach used matters less than the result which holds that the content produced is coupled with the geographical location where the user produced it. Additionally, many applications attach the contents of other forms of information like OS language, device type and capture time. The result is that by posting, tweeting or taking pictures, users produce and share an enormous amount of personal information.\n", "Additionally, live streaming to large audiences carries the risk that viewers may commit crimes both remotely and in person. Twitch co-founder Justin Kan had been a frequent target of swatting. An incident occurred in April 2017 at the Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport when a viewer called in a bomb threat and named a streamer as the culprit, temporarily shutting down the airport. They may also be victim to stalking as with other celebrities; for example, a teenager showed up uninvited to a streamer's house and requested to live with him after having saved up for a one-way transcontinental flight. A Taiwan-based American streamer fell victim to a doxing and targeted harassment campaign by a Taiwanese streamer, coordinated through a private Facebook group with 17,000 members \"whose activities involved tracking [his] whereabouts,\" death threats and \"the distribution of his parents’ U.S. phone number and address\". Twitch responded by temporarily suspending the harassed streamer.\n", "Some streaming services incorporate digital rights management. The W3C made the controversial decision to adopt Encrypted Media Extensions due in large part to motivations to provide copy protection for streaming content. Sky Go has software that is provided by Microsoft to prevent content being copied.\n", "Facebook has faced accusations that its targeted advertising platform facilitates housing discrimination, as it allowed advertisers to target or exclude specific audiences from campaigns, and that its advertising-delivery system is optimized to favor demographics that are the most likely to interact with an ad, even if they are not explicitly specified by the advertiser. After an investigation by ProPublica, Facebook removed the ability for housing advertisers to target ads based on a user's \"affinity\" to a specific culture or ethnicity—a behavior that is calculated based on the user's interactions on the service. However, it was found that advertisers could still discriminate based on interests implicating protected classes (such as Spanish-language television networks), and redlining ZIP code ranges. \n", "There are concerns about the access Amazon has to private conversations in the home and other non-verbal indications that can identify who is present in the home with non-stop audio pick-up from Alexa-enabled devices. Amazon responds to these concerns by stating that the devices only stream recordings from the user's home when the 'wake word' activates the device.\n\nAmazon uses past voice recordings sent to the cloud service to improve responses to future questions. Users can delete voice recordings that are associated with their account.\n", "As big data and machine learning algorithms that use big data have come into use across fields as diverse as online advertising, credit ratings, and criminal sentencing, all with the promise of providing more objective, data-driven results, they have been identified as a source for perpetuating social inequalities and discrimination. For example, a 2015 study found that women were less likely to be shown high-income job ads by Google's AdSense and another study found that Amazon’s same-day delivery service was systematically not available in black neighborhoods, both for reasons that the companies could not explain, but were just the result of the black box methods they used.\n", "The app raises potential privacy issues arising from the tracking of a user's exact location, without them being notified that they are being tracked. Several safety features allow a user to share their location only with people they choose and turn off the permission at any time. \"Friends\" can only track users who have accepted their access request. The user can remove them from access at any time or only make the tracking temporary. \n", "This feature however has raised privacy concerns because “‘It is very easy to accidentally share everything that you've got with more people than you need too, and that's the scariest portion,’ cyber security expert Charles Tendell told ABC News of the Snapchat update.” For protecting younger users of Snapchat, “Experts recommend that parents stay aware of updates to apps like Snapchat. They also suggest parents make sure they know who their kids' friends are on Snapchat and also talk to their children about who they add on Snapchat.”\n\nSection::::Social networks.:Snapchat.:Privacy Concerns with Snapchat.:Snapchat Spectacles.\n", "A platform’s boundaries can be well-defined with a stable set of members dedicated wholly to that platform, or they can be amorphous and changing, with members entering and exiting freely, and participating in multiple platforms simultaneously. For example, consider the difference between the television/movie streaming services HBO on Demand and Amazon Prime. HBO on Demand exists to serve only HBO content up to consumers. The shows available are tightly controlled, and there is limited entry and exit of show producers. The Amazon Prime ecosystem is much more open. In fact, just about any content producer – including individual independent filmmakers—can make their content available on Amazon Prime.\n", "Even in the consumer market, people have flocked to Ancestry.com and 23andMe to discover their heritage and elucidate their genotypes. As the nature of consumer transactions allows for these electronic click wrap models to bypass traditional forms of consent in research and healthcare, consumers may not completely comprehend the implications of having their genetic sequence digitized and stored. Furthermore, corporate privacy policies often operate outside the realm of federal jurisdiction, exposing consumers to informational risks, both in terms of their genetic privacy and their self-disclosed consumer profile, including self-disclosed family history, health status, race, ethnicity, social networks, and much more. Simply having databases invites potential privacy risks, as data storage inherently entails the possibility of data breaches and governmental solicitation of datasets. 23andMe have already received four requests from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to access consumer datasets and although those requests were denied, this reveals a similar conundrum as the FBI–Apple encryption dispute.\n", "The Department of Homeland Security's Office of Inspector General concluded that this practice, which it calls \"metering\" legal entry \"leads some aliens who would otherwise seek legal entry into the United States to cross the border illegally.\"\n", "Individuals who hold legal status in the United States enjoy many advantages over those who do not. Differences in legal status are also associated with differing access to various resources such as employment opportunities, as well as a host of social benefits. In addition, children in mixed-status families are at-risk and precisely the types of clients targeted by many social services, social workers, and public health organizations. For example, Hispanics in general are less likely to be insured, within the pan-ethnic Hispanic population, immigrants without legal authorization are less likely to have employer coverage and are currently excluded from purchasing coverage from the federal exchange in the Affordable Care Act.\n", "On October 18, 2017, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was scheduled to begin using personal information collected using social media platforms to screen immigrants arriving in the U.S. The department made this new measure known in a posting to the Federal Register in September 2017, noting that “...social media handles, aliases, associated identifiable information and search results...” would be included in an applicant's immigration file. This announcement, which was made relatively quietly, has received criticism from privacy advocates. The Department of Homeland Security issued a statement in late September 2017 asserting that the planned use of social media is nothing new, with one department spokesperson saying DHS has been using social media to collect information for years. According to a statement made to National Public Radio, DHS uses “...social media handles, aliases, associated identifiable information, and search results” to keep updated records on persons of interest. According to the DHS, the posting to the Federal Register was an effort to be transparent regarding information about social media that is already being collected from immigrants.\n", "Although often aligned with discrimination that falls into a geographically based context; not all digital redlining is geographically based. Trade schools and community colleges, which typically have a more working class student body, have been found to block public internet content from their students where elite research institutions do not. The use of big data and analytics allow for a much more nuanced form of discrimination that can target specific vulnerable populations. For example, Facebook has been criticized for providing tools that allow advertisers to target ads by ethnic affinity and gender, effectively blocking minorities from seeing specific ads for housing and employment. A broad array of consumers can be particularly vulnerable to digital redlining when it is used to target those who are impulse buyers or who have been identified as gullible.\n", "Despite numerous reports of separations in which parents were not given information about their children, Senator James Lankford, speaking on \"Meet the Press\" blamed \"media that's not been responsible with this\" for reports of difficulties locating parents or children. Calling the government personnel working for the various agencies that have been handling the separations \"professionals\", he stated, \"They know where every child is to be able to connect them to their parent or their relative that came.\"\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23941	Why are maggots sold by the pint and not in grams or pounds?	Weighing the maggots for packaging is an extra step costing the company selling the maggots more time and effort (and therefore a loss of productivity) to complete the same task. It's just simpler and easier to scoop a pint of maggots into a container for packaging and shipment than weighing them and having to adjust to match the normal product amount. Efficiency is the short answer I suppose.	[ "BULLET::::- Original costs and prices:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Magnet\" refers to Magnet Bitter from John Smith's Brewery, widely available in Yorkshire. Some people claim that the second line is really \"Like a gallon of maggots\". Maggots are obtained from fishing tackle outlets in denominations of imperial pints and hence this version would not be unreasonable, as fishing is popular in the region and hence a gallon of maggots would mean a good day out fishing.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Woodbines\" refers nostalgically to a once popular brand of strong cigarette.\n", "The British Virgin Islands also requires that beer and cider be sold in pints. Also, in Canada, water amounts in air purifiers are advertised in pints as well as BTUs (\"British thermal units\"), see metrication.\n", "BULLET::::- Herring Curing (Scotland) Welfare Order 1926 S.R. & O. 1926/535 (S.24)\n\nSection::::1927.\n\nBULLET::::- Bakehouses Welfare Order 1927 S.R. & O. 1927/191\n\nBULLET::::- Coroners (Orders as to Districts) Rules 1927 S.R. & O. 1927/343\n\nBULLET::::- Herring Curing Welfare Order 1927 S.R. & O. 1927/813\n\nBULLET::::- Sacks (Cleaning and Repairing) Welfare Order 1927 S.R. & O. 1927/860\n\nBULLET::::- Biscuit Factories Welfare Order 1927 S.R. & O. 1927/872\n\nSection::::1928.\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacture of Cinematograph Film Regulations 1928 S.R. & O. 1928/82\n\nBULLET::::- Horizontal Milling Machines Regulations 1928 S.R. & O. 1928/548\n\nBULLET::::- France (Extradition) Order in Council 1928 S.R. & O. 1928/575\n\nSection::::1929.\n", "BULLET::::- County Court Rules 1936 S.R. & O. 1936/626 L17\n\nBULLET::::- Doncaster, Rotherham and Wakefield Extension Order 1936 S.R. & O. 1936/1127\n\nSection::::1937.\n\nBULLET::::- Order in Council (No. 30) of 2 February 1937 S.R. & O. 1938/54\n\nSection::::1938.\n\nBULLET::::- Kiers Regulations 1938 S.R. & O. 1938/106\n\nBULLET::::- Epizootic Lymphangitis Order 1938 S.R. & O. 1938/193\n\nBULLET::::- Glanders or Farcy Order 1938 S.R. & O. 1938/228\n\nBULLET::::- Factories Act (Docks, Building and Engineering Construction, etc.) Modification Regulations 1938 S.R. & O. 1938/610\n\nBULLET::::- Sanitary Accommodation Regulations 1938 S.R. & O. 1938/611\n", "On 8 May 2007, several British newspapers including \"The Times\" used correspondence between Giles Chichester MEP and EU Commissioner Günter Verheugen to report that the European Commission had decided to allow meat, fish, fruit and vegetables to continue to be sold in pounds and ounces. These reports did not mention that pounds and ounces would only retain supplementary unit status. On 10 September, the EU Commission published proposed amendments to the Units of Measurement Directive that would permit supplementary units (such as pounds and ounces) to be used indefinitely alongside, \"but not instead of\", the units catalogued in the Units of Measurement Directive. The reporting of this decision in the British press was sufficiently misleading that the Roger Marles, Head of [British] Trading Standards, issued the following statement:\n", "BULLET::::- Inclosure (Consolidation) Act 1801 41 Geo 3 UK c 109\n\nBULLET::::- Inclosure Act 1821 1 & 2 Geo 4 c 23\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Burghs (Scotland) Act 1822 3 Geo 4 c 91\n\nBULLET::::- Masters and Workmen Arbitration Act 1824 5 Geo 4 c 96\n\nBULLET::::- Quarantine Act 1825 6 Geo 4 c 78\n\nBULLET::::- Licensing (Scotland) Act 1828 9 Geo 4 c 58\n\nBULLET::::- Charities (Ireland) Act 1832 2 & 3 Will 4 c 85\n\nBULLET::::- Royal Burghs (Scotland) Act 1833 3 & 4 Will 4 c 76\n", "BULLET::::- Rice Products from the United States of America (Restriction on First Placing on the Market) (Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2008 (S.I. 2008/1646)\n\nBULLET::::- European Parliament (House of Lords Disqualification) Regulations 2008 (S.I. 2008/1647)\n\nBULLET::::- North Wales National Health Service Trust (Establishment) Order 2008 (S.I. 2008/1648)\n\nBULLET::::- Income-related Benefits (Subsidy to Authorities) Amendment (No. 3) Order 2008 (S.I. 2008/1649)\n\nBULLET::::- Armed Forces Act 2006 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2008 (S.I. 2008/1650)\n\nBULLET::::- Armed Forces (Service Inquiries) Regulations 2008 (S.I. 2008/1651)\n\nBULLET::::- Coroners (Amendment) Rules 2008 (S.I. 2008/1652)\n", "BULLET::::- The National Patient Safety Agency (Establishment and Constitution) Amendment Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1077)\n\nBULLET::::- Diseases of Poultry (England) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1078)\n\nBULLET::::- The Diseases of Poultry (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1079 (W.148))\n\nBULLET::::- Gorchymyn Clefydau Dofednod (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 1079 (Cy.148))\n\nBULLET::::- The General Optical Council (Registration and Enrolment (Amendment) Rules) Order of Council 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1080)\n\nBULLET::::- The General Dental Council (Constitution of Committees) Order of Council 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1081)\n\nBULLET::::- The Ammonium Nitrate Materials (High Nitrogen Content) Safety Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 1082)\n", "In its initial form, the scope of directive 80/181/EEC was restricted to \"economic, public health, public safety and administrative\" purposes only. An outcome of the 2007 consultations was a proposal by the EU Commission to extend the scope of the directive to include \"consumer protection\" and \"environmental issues\". This was implemented by removing the phrase limiting the scope of the directive, thereby extending it to all matters that come under the ambit of the Internal Market Chapter of the EU Treaty.\n", "BULLET::::- Healthy Start Scheme (Description of Healthy Start Food) (Wales) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006/3108)\n\nBULLET::::- Borough of Kettering (Electoral Changes) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3109)\n\nBULLET::::- City of Lincoln (Electoral Changes) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3110)\n\nBULLET::::- District of South Northamptonshire (Electoral Changes) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3111)\n\nBULLET::::- District of North Hertfordshire (Electoral Changes) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3112)\n\nBULLET::::- Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2006 (S.I. 2006/3116)\n\nBULLET::::- Network Rail (Thameslink 2000) Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3117)\n\nBULLET::::- Luton Dunstable Translink Order 2006 (S.I. 2006/3118)\n", "By the beginning of 1980, 95% of the \"basic shopping basket\" of foods were sold in metric quantities, with only a few products not being sold in prescribed metric quantities. The final report of the Metrication Board catalogues dried vegetables, dried fruit, flour and flour products, oat products, cocoa and chocolate powder, margarine, instant coffee, pasta, biscuits, bread, sugar, corn flakes, salt, white fats, dripping and shredded suet as being sold by prescribed metric quantities while no agreement had been reached with the industry regarding jam, marmalade, honey, jelly preserves, syrup, cereal grain and starches.\n", "retailed by the victuallers at twopence per pint or fourpence per quart under the name of twopenny.\n", "BULLET::::- The Food for Particular Nutritional Uses (Addition of Substances for Specific Nutritional Purposes) (England) Regulations (SI 2009/3051)\n\nBULLET::::- The City and County of Cardiff (Old St. Mellons, Rumney and Trowbridge Communities) Order (SI 2009/3052)\n\nBULLET::::- The Finance Act 2009, Section 96 and Schedule 48 (Appointed Day, Savings and Consequential Amendments) Order (SI 2009/3054)\n\nBULLET::::- The Registered Pension Schemes (Modification of the Rules of Existing Schemes) Regulations (SI 2009/3055)\n\nBULLET::::- The Scottish and Northern Ireland Banknote Regulations (SI 2009/3056)\n", "The directive specifically excluded units of measurement used in international treaties relating to rail traffic, aviation and shipping such as expressing aircraft altitude in feet.\n\nThe United Kingdom's legislation of 2009 that implemented these changes made no reference to the extension of the directive's scope.\n\nSection::::Regulatory aspects.:Weighing machines.\n", "Simple sugars are also produced as a consequence of the malting process that eventually produces beer. The complex sugars are not broken down by the yeast, and are eventually consumed by the beer drinker, possibly causing flatulence. Homebrewers have found adding Beano to their brew may produce a beer that has a less malty flavor. The Beano breaks the complex sugars into simple sugars, and these simple sugars are consumed by the yeast, producing alcohol (or some acetic acid in the aerobic reactions in early fermentation).\n", "At the end of 1988, the derogation was extended generally until the end of 1994, and until the end of 1999 for the sale of loose goods. This amendment was transposed into United Kingdom law by the Units of Measurement Regulations 1994. At the same time, regulations were passed prescribing metric quantities by which the remaining pre-packaged retail commodities not yet defined in metric terms could be sold. From the beginning of 1995, pre-packed coffee, coffee mixtures and coffee bags had to be sold in the prescribed quantities of , , , , , , , , , , or a multiple of or of ; and honey, jam and marmalade other than diabetic jam or marmalade, jelly preserves and molasses, syrup and treacle in quantities of , , , , , or a multiple of .\n", "BULLET::::- The Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1647 (W.128))\n\nBULLET::::- Rheoliadau Deunyddiau ac Eitemau mewn Cysylltiad â Bwyd (Cymru) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1647 (Cy.128))\n\nBULLET::::- The Education (Listed Bodies) (Wales) (Amendment) Order 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1648 (W.129))\n\nBULLET::::- Gorchymyn Addysg (Cyrff sy'n Cael eu Rhestru) (Cymru) (Diwygio) 2005 (S.I. 2005 Rhif 1648 (Cy.129))\n\nBULLET::::- The Plastic Materials and Articles in Contact with Food (Amendment) (No. 2) (Wales) Regulations 2005 (S.I. 2005 No. 1649 (W.130))\n", "BULLET::::- Food (Suspension of the use of E 128 Red 2G as Food Colour) (Wales) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2288)\n\nBULLET::::- Gaming Machine (Single Apparatus) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2289)\n\nBULLET::::- Income Tax (Pay As You Earn) (Amendment No. 3) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2296)\n\nBULLET::::- Docklands Light Railway (Capacity Enhancement and 2012 Games Preparation) Order 2007 (S.I. 2007/2297)\n\nBULLET::::- A449 Trunk Road (Dudley, Staffordshire and Worcestershire) (Detrunking) Order 2007 (S.I. 2007/2298)\n\nSection::::2301-2400.\n\nBULLET::::- National Lottery (Amendment) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2307)\n\nBULLET::::- Education (Fees and Awards) (Wales) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2310)\n\nBULLET::::- Education Maintenance Allowances (Wales) Regulations 2007 (S.I. 2007/2311)\n", "A New York State law of March 19, 1813 required each town to choose as many poundmasters as the electors determined to be \"necessary and convenient.\" While other town officials were elected by secret ballot, the town clerk used a blank sheet of paper to write the names of poundmaster candidates and record their votes.\n\nIn some areas, the poundmaster would slaughter the animals and sell only the meat.\n", "A European fly bottle is more conical, with small feet that raise it , with a trough about an wide and deep that runs inside the bottle all around the central opening at the bottom of the container. In use, the bottle is stood on a plate and some sugar is sprinkled on the plate to attract the flies, which eventually fly up into the bottle, whose trough is filled with beer or vinegar, into which the flies fall and drown. In the past, the trough was also sometimes filled with a dangerous mixture of milk, water, and arsenic or mercury chloride.\n", "BULLET::::- Food (Control of Irradiation) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2490)\n\nBULLET::::- Milk & Dairies (Semi-skimmed and Skimmed Milk) (Heat Treatment and Labelling) (Amendment) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2491)\n\nBULLET::::- Milk (Special Designation) (Amendment) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2492)\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh Meat Export (Hygiene and Inspection) (Amendment) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2493)\n\nBULLET::::- Fresh Meat and Poultry Meat (Hygiene, Inspection and Examinations for Residues) (Charges) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2494)\n\nBULLET::::- Meat Inspection (Amendment) Regulations 1990 (S.I. 1990/2495)\n\nBULLET::::- Medicines (Veterinary Drugs) (Pharmacy and Merchants' List) (No. 2) (Amendment No. 2) Order 1990 (S.I. 1990/2496)\n", "BULLET::::- Protected Designation of Origin (PDO): this designation covers products that are \"produced, processed \"and\" prepared\" in a specific area, using a particular, usually traditional, method.\n\nBULLET::::- Protected Geographical Indication (PGI): this designation covers products whose \"production, processing \"or\" preparation\" takes places in a specific area.\n", "BULLET::::- The Food (Hot Chilli and Hot Chilli Products) (Emergency Control) (Wales) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2455 (W.238))\n\nBULLET::::- Rheoliadau Bwyd (Tsilis Poeth a Chynhyrchion Tsilis Poeth) (Rheolaeth Frys) (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2455 (Cy.238))\n\nBULLET::::- The Classical Swine Fever (Wales) Order 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2456 (W.239))\n\nBULLET::::- Gorchymyn Clwy Clasurol y Moch (Cymru) 2003 (S.I. 2003 Rhif 2456 (Cy.239))\n\nBULLET::::- The Management of Health and Safety at Work and Fire Precautions (Workplace) (Amendment) Regulations 2003 (S.I. 2003 No. 2457)\n", "BULLET::::- County Institutions (Ireland) Act 1838 1 & 2 Vict c 116\n\nBULLET::::- Stannaries Act 1839 2 & 3 Vict c 58\n\nBULLET::::- Inclosure Act 1840 3 & 4 Vict c 31\n\nBULLET::::- Manufacturies Improvement Fund (Scotland) Act 1847 10 & 11 Vict c 91\n\nBULLET::::- County Cess (Ireland) Act 1848 11 & 12 Vict c 32\n\nBULLET::::- Indictable Offences (Ireland) Act 1849 12 & 13 Vict c 69\n\nBULLET::::- Burghs (Scotland) Act 1852 15 & 16 Vict c 32\n\nBULLET::::- Berwickshire Courts Act 1853 16 & 17 Vict c 27\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-04538	How do potholes form in a road, and why is tar used to fill them instead of asphalt?	Car wheels are like 500 lb rolling hammers, and truck or bus wheels are even heavier. To say vehicles 'pound' the road is an understatement. Over time, heat, cold and water cause cracks in the road surface. Water and debris make the cracks worse over a few weeks or months. When the crack is large enough that a car's wheel might even fit a little inside, then every wheel that goes over it could take a chunk out. Depending on traffic and weather, this can turn a small crack into a dangerous pothole in as little as a few hours. Asphalt is mixed with rock and uses a tar-like substance to hold the rocks together. It's more work to lay asphalt than just the tar by itself, and tar on its own more easily flattens. Often, repairing a pothole is just temporary until the entire road can be repaved. Again depending on traffic and weather, this can/should be done about once a decade, more or less. (Small infrastructure budgets and small towns notwithstanding.) Potholes don't damage the road all that much because the thing that actually does the work of carrying the weight of cars and trucks is actually a thick gravel layer underneath the asphalt: the surface just keeps those rocks dry and protected from things moving them around.	[ "Asphaltic patch materials consist of a binder and aggregate that come in two broad categories, hot mix and cold mix. Hot mixes are used by some agencies, they are produced at local asphalt plants. The FHWA manual cites three types of cold mixes, those produced by a local asphalt plant, either 1) using the available aggregate and binder or 2) according to specifications set by the agency that will use the mix. The third type is a proprietary cold mix, which is manufactured to an advertised standard.\n\nSection::::Repair.:Throw-and-roll repair.\n", "The terms \"asphalt\" and \"bitumen\" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, \"asphalt\" (or \"asphalt cement\") is commonly used for a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called \"bitumen\", and geologists worldwide often prefer the term for the naturally occurring variety. Common colloquial usage often refers to various forms of asphalt as \"tar\", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits.\n", "Of particular note is the use of re-refined engine oil bottoms -- \"REOB\" or \"REOBs\"—the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically iron and copper). Some research has indicated a correlation between this adulteration of asphalt and poorer-performing pavement.\n\nSection::::Occurrence.\n", "Section::::Composition.\n\nSection::::Composition.:Normal composition.\n\nThe components of asphalt include four main classes of compounds:\n\nBULLET::::- Naphthene aromatics (naphthalene), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds\n\nBULLET::::- Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids produced by partial oxidation of the material\n\nBULLET::::- Saturated hydrocarbons; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point\n\nBULLET::::- Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds\n", "Section::::Modern use.:Non-upgraded crude bitumen.\n", "BULLET::::- Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP): Chunks of asphalt that have been removed from a road, parking lot or driveway are considered reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). These chunks of asphalt typically are ripped up when making a routine asphalt repair, man hole repair, catch basin repair or sewer main repair. Because the asphalt has been compacted, RAP is a denser asphalt material and typically takes longer to recycle than blacktop cookies.\n", "The expression \"bitumen\" originated in the Sanskrit words \"jatu\", meaning \"pitch\", and \"jatu-krit\", meaning \"pitch creating\" or \"pitch producing\" (referring to coniferous or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally \"gwitu-men\" (pertaining to pitch), and by others, \"pixtumens\" (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to \"bitumen\", thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the Anglo-Saxon word \"cwidu\" (mastix), the German word \"Kitt\" (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word \"kvada\".\n\nSection::::Terminology.:Modern terminology.\n", "Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits and in the Dead Sea.\n\nBitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as \"oil sands\" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar \"tar sands\" in Utah, US.\n", "The manufacture of coated roadstone demands the combination of a number of aggregates, sand and a filler (such as stone dust), in the correct proportions, heated, and finally coated with a binder, usually bitumen based or, in some cases tar, although tar was removed from BS4987 in 2001 and is not referred to in BSEN 13108/1. The temperature of the finished product must be sufficient to be workable after transport to the final destination. A temperature in the range of 100 to 200 degrees Celsius is normal.\n", "Section::::Wood tar.\n", "Section::::Production.:Oil sands.\n", "Section::::Composition.:Additives, mixtures and contaminants.\n\nFor economic and other reasons, asphalt is sometimes sold combined with other materials, often without being labeled as anything other than simply \"asphalt\".\n", "Likewise, macadam and tarmac pavements can still sometimes be found buried underneath asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, but are rarely constructed today.\n", "Asphalt concrete that is removed from a pavement is usually stockpiled for later use as aggregate for new hot mix asphalt at an asphalt plant. This reclaimed material, or RAP, is crushed to a consistent gradation and added to the HMA mixing process. Sometimes waste materials, such as asphalt roofing shingles, crushed glass, or rubber from old tires, are added to asphalt concrete as is the case with rubberized asphalt, but there is a concern that the hybrid material may not be recyclable.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Asphalt\n\nBULLET::::- Asphalt plant\n\nBULLET::::- Free floating screed\n\nBULLET::::- Paver\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic armour\n", "Section::::Modern use.\n\nSection::::Modern use.:Global use.\n", "BULLET::::- Pitch Lake – largest natural deposit of asphalt in the world, located at La Brea, Trinidad and Tobago. From this source many of the first asphalt roads of New York City, Washington D.C., and other Eastern U.S. cities were paved. In 1887, Amzi Barber, an American businessman known as \"The Asphalt King\", secured a monopoly concession over the lake from the British Government that lasted 42 years.\n\nBULLET::::- Tar pits of Venezuela – have generated interest over the past decade as the source of a rich fossil record crossing ecosystems and spanning millennia, perhaps several ice ages.\n", "Asphalt deterioration can include crocodile cracking, potholes, upheaval, raveling, bleeding, rutting, shoving, stripping, and grade depressions. In cold climates, frost heaves can crack asphalt even in one winter. Filling the cracks with bitumen is a temporary fix, but only proper compaction and drainage can slow this process.\n\nFactors that cause asphalt concrete to deteriorate over time mostly fall into one of three categories: construction quality, environmental considerations, and traffic loads. Often, damage results from combinations of factors in all three categories.\n", "Due to its high viscosity as a sludge-like liquid, as well as the hardness of its solid state after cooling, tar can be poured into most cracks and rifts in a road, making it excellent for road repair. Rather than replacing a damaged road with completely new paving, small fissures can be fixed through the application of tar. Still, a method of paving a road known as tar-and-chipping involves laying down a heavy layer of tar across a gravel base the width of the road, spreading chipped stone across the surface, and compacting the result smooth.\n", "The asphalt plant is mainly composed of cold aggregate supply system, drum dryer, coal burner, coal feeder, dust collector, hot aggregate elevator, vibrating screen, filler supply system, weighing and mixing system, asphalt storage, bitumen supply system. All these components have characteristics that impact not only the overall quality of the asphalt but also the effect on the environment.\n", "Bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. The Persian word for asphalt is \"moom\", which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the Dead Sea, which the Romans knew as \"Palus Asphaltites\" (Asphalt Lake).\n", "BULLET::::- Cut-back asphalt concrete: Is a form of \"cold mix asphalt\" produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum prior to mixing with the aggregate. While in its dissolved state, the asphalt is less viscous and the mix is easy to work and compact. After the mix is laid down the lighter fraction evaporates. Because of concerns with pollution from the volatile organic compounds in the lighter fraction, cut-back asphalt has been largely replaced by asphalt emulsion.\n", "Tar pit\n\nA tar pit, or more accurately an asphalt pit or asphalt lake, is the result of a type of petroleum seep where subterranean bitumen leaks to the surface, creating a large area of natural asphalt. This happens because, after the material reaches the surface, its lighter components vaporize, leaving only the thick asphalt.\n\nSection::::Notable tar pits.\n\nMajor tar pits include Binagadi asphalt lake, the La Brea Tar Pits, the Carpinteria Tar Pits, the McKittrick Tar Pits, Pitch Lake, and Lake Bermudez.\n\nSection::::Paleontological significance.\n", "The creation of an asphalt lake is related to deep faults, often between two tectonic plates. In connection with motion along the plates or subduction, pressure is created against underlying oil source rock, in this case the Monterey Formation.\n\nThe oil moves towards the surface and slowly transforms into bitumen and on its way picks up clay and water, and is cooled into asphalt. Lighter hydrocarbon fractions volatilize on contact with the atmosphere, leaving behind the heavier fractions, which are principally asphaltum.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The asphalt is added from a dump truck or a material transfer unit into the paver's hopper. The conveyor then carries the asphalt from the hopper to the auger. The auger places a stockpile of material in front of the screed. The screed takes the stockpile of material and spreads it over the width of the road and provides initial compaction.\n", "Water trapped under the pavement softens the subbase and subgrade, making the road more vulnerable to traffic loads. Water under the road freezes and expands in cold weather, causing and enlarging cracks. In spring thaw, the ground thaws from the top down, so water is trapped between the pavement above and the still-frozen soil underneath. This layer of saturated soil provides little support for the road above, leading to the formation of potholes. This is more of a problem for silty or clay soils than sandy or gravelly soils. Some jurisdictions pass frost laws to reduce the allowable weight of trucks during the spring thaw season and protect their roads.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-10181	Why does it hurt when water goes up your nose?	So you don't die. Water doesn't go there, and when it does, you can be at risk of drowning. Having a severe reaction to even a little water up your nose it a good way to keep you out of trouble.	[ "There is a risk of infection if the water is not sterile or the device is not cleaned after use. If the device is used improperly this can be harmful. In fact, proper application suggests the use of boiled water or saline water. In 2018, a patient was reported to have contracted \"Balamuthia mandrillaris\" after using tap water during nasal irrigation. Rare cases of fatal naegleriasis have occurred due to nasal insufflation of the amoeba \"Naegleria fowleri\" from untreated tap water.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Advice stated in the press release from Taiwan's Centers for Disease Control recommended people prevent fresh water from entering the nostrils and avoid putting their heads down into fresh water or stirring mud in the water with feet. When starting to suffer from fever, headache, nausea, or vomiting subsequent to any kind of exposure to fresh water, even in the belief that no fresh water has traveled through the nostrils, people with such conditions should be carried to hospital quickly and make sure doctors are well-informed about the history of exposure to fresh water.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "Michael Beach, a recreational waterborne illness specialist for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, stated in remarks to the Associated Press that wearing of nose-clips to prevent insufflation of contaminated water would be effective protection against contracting PAM, noting that \"You'd have to have water going way up in your nose to begin with\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"unfair\" - the prefix un- is still productive.\n\nSection::::Dutch.\n", "When the face is submerged and water fills the nostrils, sensory receptors sensitive to wetness within the nasal cavity and other areas of the face supplied by the fifth (V) cranial nerve (the trigeminal nerve) relay the information to the brain. The tenth (X) cranial nerve, (the vagus nerve) – part of the autonomic nervous system – then produces bradycardia and other neural pathways elicit peripheral vasoconstriction, restricting blood from limbs and all organs to preserve blood and oxygen for the heart and the brain (and lungs), concentrating flow in a heart–brain circuit and allowing the animal to conserve oxygen.\n", "A rapidly dilating arteriolar circulation to these bones may lead to a sharp increase in the pressure within, in response to acute cooling of the body core. The pain from this pressure is often referred to as \"brain freeze\", and is frequently associated with the rapid consumption of ice cream. The shallowness of the venous blood supply of the mucosa contributes to the ease with which nosebleed can occur.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "In humans, the diving reflex is not induced when limbs are introduced to cold water. Mild bradycardia is caused by subjects holding their breath without submerging the face in water. When breathing with the face submerged, the diving response increases proportionally to decreasing water temperature. However, the greatest bradycardia effect is induced when the subject is holding his breath with his face wetted. Apnea with nostril and facial cooling are triggers of this reflex.\n", "It affects healthy children or young adults who have recently been exposed to bodies of fresh water. Some people have presented with a clinical triad of edematous brain lesions, immune suppression, and fever.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\n\"N. fowleri\" invades the central nervous system via the nose, specifically through the olfactory mucosa of the nasal tissues. This usually occurs as the result of the introduction of water that has been contaminated with \"N. fowleri\" into the nose during activities such as swimming, bathing, or nasal irrigation.\n", "Gas is very compressible. Humans have many air spaces: sinuses, middle ears, gas in our bowels, cavities in our teeth, and largest of all, our lungs. On land in our daily lives, the pressure in our air spaces is usually exactly the same as the pressure outside, because our air spaces are connected to the outside world. If there was a pressure difference between the outside world and one of our air spaces, then we experience painful pressure on the walls of that air space, as air pushes from the higher-pressure side to the lower-pressure side. This is why we sometimes get painful ears on air trips.\n", "If the outlet is blocked during ascent, the situation is reversed and \"reverse squeeze\" appears. Pressure inside the sinus increases, affecting the walls of the sinus and producing pain or epistaxis.\n\nSection::::Location.\n\nThe majority of episodes of sinus barotrauma occur in the frontal sinuses with pain localized over the frontal area. Possible explanations for this might be the relatively long and delicate nasofrontal duct that connects the narrow frontal recess with the frontal sinuses.\n", "BULLET::::- The nasociliary nerve – conveys sensation to the skin area of the nose, and the mucous membrane of the nasal vestibule.\n\nBULLET::::- The anterior ethmoidal nerve is a continuation of the nasociliary nerve and conveys sensation in the anterior half of the nasal cavity: (a) the internal areas of the ethmoid sinus and the frontal sinus; and (b) the external areas, from the nasal tip to the rhinion: the anterior tip of the terminal end of the nasal-bone suture.\n\nBULLET::::- The posterior ethmoidal nerve – serves the upper half of the nasal cavity, the sphenoid and the ethmoid sinuses.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Barosinusitis.\n\nThe sinuses similar to other air-filled cavities are susceptible to barotrauma if their openings become obstructed. This can result in pain as well as epistaxis (nosebleed).\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Mask squeeze.\n\nIf a diver's mask is not equalized during descent the relative negative pressure can produce petechial hemorrhages in the area covered by the mask along with subconjunctival hemorrhages.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.:Helmet squeeze.\n", "In extremely rare but documented cases, nose-blowing has resulted in unusual conditions, such as in the case of a woman who fractured her left eye socket after blowing her nose.\n\nSection::::Etiquette.\n", "Saline is also often used for nasal washes to relieve some of the symptoms of the common cold. The solution exerts a softening and loosening influence on the mucus to make it easier to wash out and clear the nasal passages for both babies and adults. In this case \"home-made\" saline may be used: this is made by dissolving approximately half a teaspoon of table salt into 240ml (approx. 8 ounces) of clean tap water. In very rare instances, amoeba \"Naegleria fowleri\" infection can occur if amoeba enters the body through the nose, therefore water used for nasal irrigation should be sterile. Note that clean tap water is not necessarily a sterile liquid.\n", "Bone conduction plays a major role in underwater hearing when the head is in contact with the water (not inside a helmet), but human hearing underwater, in cases where the diver’s ear is wet, is less sensitive than in air.\n", "Fish have a relatively good sense of smell . Unlike that of tetrapods, the nose has no connection with the mouth, nor any role in respiration. Instead, it generally consists of a pair of small pouches located behind the nostrils at the front or sides of the head. In many cases, each of the nostrils is divided into two by a fold of skin, allowing water to flow into the nose through one side and out through the other.\n", "BULLET::::- The nose game appears on a 2010 episode of \"Community\", “Aerodynamics of Gender” (Season 2, Episode 7) to decide who would take care of Pierce to make sure he did not overdose. The game appears again in Season 3's “Remedial Chaos Theory” as a recurring event.\n\nBULLET::::- The nose game has been extensively used in the Fox comedy series \"Raising Hope\", usually when concerning who has to give MawMaw a bath.\n", "Section::::Nerve supply.:Parasympathetic supply.\n", "The skin of the lips is stratified squamous epithelium. The mucous membrane is represented by a large area in the sensory cortex, and is therefore highly sensitive. The \"Frenulum Labii Inferioris\" is the frenulum of the lower lip. The \"Frenulum Labii Superioris\" is the frenulum of the upper lip.\n\nSection::::Structure.:Nerve supply.\n\nBULLET::::- Trigeminal nerve\n\nBULLET::::- The infraorbital nerve is a branch of the maxillary branch. It supplies not only the upper lip, but much of the skin of the face between the upper lip and the lower eyelid, except for the bridge of the nose.\n", "Voorhoeve ascertains that the nasal prefix serves as a distinguishing factor between singular and plural noun pairs. As seen in Table 19, this nasal prefix does not surface in all constructions, especially with singular nouns that are already nasal word-initially. \n", "Section::::Water in the amphitheatres.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Irrigation test.\n\nIn irrigation test, a lacrimal irrigation cannula is passed into the punctum and advanced through the canaliculus to the lacrimal fossa. Clear water or saline is then irrigated through the cannula. If fluid passes into the nose without reflux out of the opposite canaliculus, the system is patent. If no fluid passes but it all comes back through either punctum, nasolacrimal duct obstruction is present.\n\nSection::::Management.\n\nSection::::Management.:Intubation and stenting.\n", "This sinus is a common place for food particles to become trapped; if foreign material becomes lodged in the piriform fossa of an infant, it may be retrieved nonsurgically. If the area is injured (e.g., by a fish bone), it can give the sensation of food stuck in the subject's throat.\n\nThe persistency of the piriform sinus (especially on the left side) is a common cause of acute thyroiditis in children and adolescents. Local anesthesia can be given here because of the presence of the internal laryngeal nerve underneath the mucous membrane.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- - \"Pharynx: The Laryngopharynx\"\n", "The effects of changes in atmospheric pressure upon water levels observed in wells has been known for many years. The effect is a direct one, an increase in atmospheric pressure is an increase in load on the water in the aquifer, which increases the depth to water (lowers the water level elevation). Pascal first qualitatively observed these effects in the 17th century, and they were more rigorously described by the soil physicist Edgar Buckingham (working for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)) using air flow models in 1907.\n\nSection::::Head loss.\n", "Section::::Battle of Ridanieh.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-12193	If brains use electricity to send and recieve messages, why do EMPs not shut down brains?	The answer has two parts: 1. EMP's have an effect on metals. The EM pulse is a pulse - a rapidly-changing electric and magnetic field, and because of [induction]( URL_0 ), it causes mirrored electric and magnetic currents in metals in the vicinity. Electronic chips have a lot of thin metal wires in them, and even a little bit of static electricity (1 volt going the wrong way) can fry these sensitive wires / chips. That's what the EMP does. 2. The brain (neurons) don't have metals and don't use electricity in the way you imagine (electrons moving through metals). If you look at a [basic explanation]( URL_1 ) of a neuron firing, the neuron cell creates a moving wave of extra sodium^+ ions, followed by potassium^+ ions; it's more of a chemistry pulse than an electrical pulse. But, technically, you do have "charged particles" (the ions) moving down the length of the cell, so technically you do have an "electrical current". But it's really a chemistry pulse, and once it reaches the end (the dendrites), it activates neurotransmitters, which are purely chemical and not electrical at all, to actually signal into the next neuron cell. So, TLDR, neuron transmission is chemical. This is why human [reaction time]( URL_2 ) is a quarter of a second (1/4th of a second), rather than speed of light (electricity would move at the speed of light, and speed of light from your head to your toes would be 1/100,000,000th of a second).	[ "The range of NNEMP weapons is much less than nuclear EMP. Nearly all NNEMP devices used as weapons require chemical explosives as their initial energy source, producing only 10 (one millionth) the energy of nuclear explosives of similar weight. The electromagnetic pulse from NNEMP weapons must come from within the weapon, while nuclear weapons generate EMP as a secondary effect. These facts limit the range of NNEMP weapons, but allow finer target discrimination. The effect of small e-bombs has proven to be sufficient for certain terrorist or military operations. Examples of such operations include the destruction of electronic control systems critical to the operation of many ground vehicles and aircraft.\n", "No such procedure in humans has ever been reported by a research paper in a scholarly journal, or other reliable source. Also, the ability to send external electric signals to the brain of a sort that the brain can interpret, and the ability to communicate thoughts or perceptions to any external entity by wire, is, except for very basic commands, well beyond current (2017) technology.\n\nSection::::Grown.\n", "An EMP has a smaller effect the shorter the length of an electrical conductor; though other factors affect the vulnerability of electronics as well, so no cutoff length determines whether some piece of equipment will survive. However, small electronic devices, such as wristwatches and cell phones, would most likely withstand an EMP.\n\nSection::::Effects.:On humans and animals.\n\nThough voltages can accumulate in electrical conductors after an EMP, it will generally not flow out into human or animal bodies, and thus contact is safe.\n\nSection::::Post-Cold War attack scenarios.\n", "High-level EMP signals can pose a threat to human safety. In such circumstances, direct contact with a live electrical conductor should be avoided. Where this occurs, such as when touching a Van de Graaf generator or other highly-charged object, care must be taken to release the object and then discharge the body through a high resistance, in order to avoid the risk of a harmful shock pulse when stepping away.\n", "At the top end of the scale, large outdoor test facilities incorporating high-energy EMP simulators have been built by several countries. The largest facilities are able to test whole vehicles including ships and aircraft for their susceptibility to EMP. Nearly all of these large EMP simulators used a specialized version of a Marx generator.\n", "The damaging effects of high-energy EMP have led to the introduction of EMP weapons, from tactical missiles with a small radius of effect to nuclear bombs tailored for maximum EMP effect over a wide area.\n\nSection::::Control.\n\nLike any electromagnetic interference, the threat from EMP is subject to control measures. This is true whether the threat is natural or man-made.\n\nTherefore, most control measures focus on the susceptibility of equipment to EMP effects, and hardening or protecting it from harm. Man-made sources, other than weapons, are also subject to control measures in order to limit the amount of pulse energy emitted.\n", "Equipment that is running at the time of an EMP is more vulnerable. Even a low-energy pulse has access to the power source, and all parts of the system are illuminated by the pulse. For example, a high-current arcing path may be created across the power supply, burning out some device along that path. Such effects are hard to predict, and require testing to assess potential vulnerabilities.\n\nSection::::Effects.:On aircraft.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"Battlefield 4\", during a mission in Shanghai, upon exiting the city, an EMP blast occurs darkening the city and causing a nearby helicopter to crash. It is later remarked by some fellow Marines on board a US navy vessel that the blast also disabled some of the ships in the U.S. Naval fleet engaged around the area. Some are still able to function due to operating on diesel fuel and having no spark plug within the engines.\n", "Herniation can also occur in the absence of high ICP when mass lesions such as hematomas occur at the borders of brain compartments. In such cases local pressure is increased at the place where the herniation occurs, but this pressure is not transmitted to the rest of the brain, and therefore does not register as an increase in ICP.\n", "EMP has been used at doses of 140 to 1,400 mg/day orally. Low doses, such as 280 mg/day, have been found to have comparable effectiveness as higher doses but with improved tolerability and reduced toxicity. Doses of 140 mg/day have been described as a very low dosage. EMP has been used at doses of 240 to 450 mg/day intravenously.\n", "By adding a braid-breaker filter to the system common mode signals will be attenuated while unbalanced signals will be allowed to pass unhindered. This is also something which is added to long leads in military electronic equipment which is intended to continue to function even after being subjected to a nuclear electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and also would increase the likelihood of an electronic device surviving a nearby lightning strike (direct lightning hits are very hard to protect against).\n", "NNEMP generators can be carried as a payload of bombs, cruise missiles (such as the CHAMP missile) and drones, with diminished mechanical, thermal and ionizing radiation effects, but without the consequences of deploying nuclear weapons.\n", "Studies have been completed to determine the current density at which overt brain damage occurs in rats. It was found that in cathodal stimulation, a current density of 142.9 A/m delivering a charge density of 52400 C/m or higher caused a brain lesion in the rat. This is over two orders of magnitude higher than protocols that were in use as of 2009.\n\nSection::::Mechanism of action.\n", "Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in conductive material such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect. Proper shielding is a complex subject due to the large number of variables involved. Semiconductors, especially integrated circuits, are extremely susceptible to the effects of EMP due to the close proximity of the PN junctions, but this is not the case with thermionic tubes (or valves) which are relatively immune to EMP. A Faraday cage does not offer protection from the effects of EMP unless the mesh is designed to have holes no bigger than the smallest wavelength emitted from a nuclear explosion.\n", "A battery-powered radio may be helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance. However, radio and other electronic equipment may be disabled by electromagnetic pulse. For example, even at the height of the cold war, EMP protection had been completed for only 125 of the approximately 2,771 radio stations in the United States Emergency Broadcast System. Also, only 110 of 3,000 existing Emergency Operating Centers had been protected against EMP effects. The Emergency Broadcast System has since been supplanted in the United States by the Emergency Alert System.\n", "At a high voltage level an EMP can induce a spark, for example from an electrostatic discharge when fuelling a gasoline-engined vehicle. Such sparks have been known to cause fuel-air explosions and precautions must be taken to prevent them.\n\nA large and energetic EMP can induce high currents and voltages in the victim unit, temporarily disrupting its function or even permanently damaging it.\n", "Recordings from the maternal abdomen or cervix have less than 5 cm of tissue between the maternal skin and the fetal cortex. A typical human slow wave is 100-500 mV in amplitude, but the voltage strength declines with the square of the distance between the neural activity and the recording electrode. Even with modern techniques, scientists still have difficulties detecting brain activity recorded from outside the womb.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Recordings from the scalp during labor.\n", "Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality for people with paralysis. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during neurosurgery. Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but are prone to scar-tissue build-up, causing the signal to become weaker, or even non-existent, as the body reacts to a foreign object in the brain.\n", "Section::::Influence on brain function.\n\nThe different EM field theories disagree as to the role of the proposed conscious EM field on brain function. In McFadden's cemi field theory, as well as in Drs Fingelkurts' Brain-Mind Operational Architectonics theory, the brain's global EM field modifies the electric charges across neural membranes, and thereby influences the probability that particular neurons will fire, providing a feed-back loop that drives free will. However, in the theories of Susan Pockett and E. Roy John, there is no necessary causal link between the conscious EM field and our consciously willed actions.\n", "Older, [[vacuum tube]] (valve) based equipment is generally much less vulnerable to nuclear EMP than [[Solid state (electronics)\|solid state]] equipment, which is much more susceptible to damage by large, brief voltage and current surges. [[Soviet Union\|Soviet]] [[Cold War]]-era military aircraft often had [[avionics]] based on vacuum tubes because solid-state capabilities were limited and vacuum-tube gear was believed to be more likely to survive.\n", "EBS could elicit the ritualistic, motor responses of sham rage in cats by stimulation of the anterior hypothalamus, as well as more complex emotional and behavioral components of \"true rage\" in both experimental animals by stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus, and in human subjects by stimulating various deep areas of the brain. EBS in human patients with epilepsy could trigger seizures in the surface of the brain and pathologic aggression and rage with stimulation of the amygdala.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "Brain emulations could be erased by computer viruses or malware, without need to destroy the underlying hardware. This may make assassination easier than for physical humans. The attacker might take the computing power for its own use.\n", "Concerns immediately arise about the nursing home in town where Matherson's elderly cancer-stricken father-in-law resides. The elderly and frail need refrigerated medicines, and many require constant nursing care. The EMP has disabled the nursing home's generator which cannot be started.\n\nThere are no AM/FM radio broadcasts, no television, no Internet, and thus, no communication with anyone outside the town is possible. However, two months later, a working antique telephone is set up to connect Black Mountain with the nearby town of Swannanoa.\n", "Given that many of the comforts and necessities we enjoy in the 21st century are predicated on electronics and their functioning, an EMP would disable hospitals, water treatment facilities, food storage facilities, and all electronic forms of communication. An EMP blast threatens the foundation which supports the existence of the modern human condition. Certain EMP attacks could lead to large loss of power for months or years. Currently, failures of the power grid are dealt with using support from the outside. In the event of an EMP attack, such support would not exist and all damaged components, devices, and electronics would need to be completely replaced.\n", "The family of Matherson's late wife are small-scale car collectors who happen to own a 1959 Edsel, in addition to a Mustang. The two cars are so old that the EMP did not affect them because they have no modern EMP-sensitive electronics, such as transistors. Another local resident owns a vintage airplane that later becomes very useful, as it too is so old that it has no vulnerable electronics.\n" ]	[ "The electricity in the brain is the same as electricity in metals." ]	[ "The brain's electricity is a chemistry pulse more than an electrical pulse." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The electricity in the brain is the same as electricity in metals.", "The electricity in the brain is the same as electricity in metals." ]	[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]	[ "The brain's electricity is a chemistry pulse more than an electrical pulse.", "The brain's electricity is a chemistry pulse more than an electrical pulse." ]
2018-00128	How is it possible to make hd versions of (not too) old movies ?	While we wait for a better explanation: the movie was originally recorded on film that is way better quality than what you get broadcast or on a dvd/vhs/betamax/laserdisc. As our viewing screens and home media get better they can revisit making new higher quality copies of the film for you.	[ "If so, it would arguably be the first digital high definition movie, using a film-friendly 50 Hz field rate, 7 years before \"Vidocq\" and 8 years before \"\".. For a historical perspective on HD-originated movies, one can mention early attempts such as 'Harlow', shot in 1965 using a near-HD analogue 819 lines process that later evolved to higher resolutions (see Electronovision).\n\nSection::::Project's afterlife.\n", "Section::::Featured people.:Shelby Westbrook.\n", "For the making of the HD-based movie \"L'affaire Seznec\", the Thomson company certified it would be able to transfer HD to 35 mm film. But none of the attempts were successful (shooting was done on dual-D1).\n\nHowever, another French movie shot in 1994, \"Du fond du coeur: Germaine et Benjamin\", allegedly achieved such a transfer. It is said to have been shot in digital high definition, in 1250 lines.\n", "Section::::Featured people.:Rockie Blunt.\n", "Section::::Featured people.:Richard Tregaskis.\n", "Film is absolutely right for this project. It has scale, big exterior locations and that's something that still challenges HD ... The HD cameras available to us on our budget are still vulnerable in difficult weather conditions [encountered during filming]. There's no doubt that what we've got on 35mm is just so much more detailed. It has so much more depth of field and richness than we could have got on HD.\n\nSection::::Production.:Historical inaccuracies.\n", "Rainbow Media's AMC Network and its annual October \"Monsterfest\" (now known as \"Fear Fest\") programming of horror films served as the springboard and promotional platform for the launch of Monsters HD. Monsters HD commissioned the digital restoration of its film library, bringing them to high definition, and presented world television premieres of films like the Director's Cut of the Stuart Gordon film version of H.P. Lovecraft's From Beyond.\n\nSection::::High Definition Horror: Restoration and Remastering.\n", "Section::::Featured people.:June Wandrey.\n", "Every frame of film was scanned in high definition at Premier and had more than 10,000 particles removed by hand by the restoration team. A new sound mix was also created from the original elements in Premier’s in-house audio department. In an article with \"The Weekender\" in November 2017 John discussed the importance restoration and preservation of older films to future-protect film such as \"Monarch\":\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- 1993: \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" – First film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film at 4K resolution. The restoration project was done entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the new Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches and restore faded colors.\n", "Section::::Featured people.:Jack Yusen.\n", "High-definition pre-recorded media and compression\n\nThe first attempt at producing pre-recorded HDTV media was a scarce Japanese analog MUSE-encoded laser disc which is no longer produced (see MUSE-LD).\n", "Olive Films released a bare bones Blu-Ray in March 2013, utilizing a 2012 2k scan of a 35mm Technicolor element with the original Mono track. Olive's release had no involvement from Batjac Productions, as the 2k restoration was provided by Library of Congress and classifies as public domain, whereas the \"official\" restoration is copyrighted to Batjac with Paramount handling exclusive distribution. \n", "In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely. \"Anchorman 2\" was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while \"The Wolf of Wall Street\" was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally.\n\nSection::::Technology.\n", "Note: When transferring a Techniscope film to a digital video format, the 2-perf negative or 2-perf interpositive A/B rolls can be used (the original film negative from the camera, or the first-generation film elements prepared for the making of the anamorphic 4-frame 35 mm release print negative), thus bypassing any blown-up 4-perf element. Many DVD editions have been transferred this way and the results have frequently been stunning, e.g. Blue Underground's \"The Bird with the Crystal Plumage\" and MGM's special editions of Sergio Leone's Westerns.\n\nSection::::Specifications.\n", "Of course, having an intermediate digital stage, followed by forming a new film master by lasering the digital results onto new film stock does represent an extra generation. So would an intermediate film master that was restored frame-by-frame by hand. The choice of film vs. digital restoration will be driven by the amount, if any, of restoration required, the taste and skill set of the restorer, and the economics of film restoration vs. digital restoration.\n\nSection::::Digital as archival medium.\n", "Restoration was completed at Premier. The film scanning and restoration team worked closely with director John Walsh, re-mastering from the original 35mm colour camera negative after it was discovered in a vault almost 20 years after it was originally filmed. In an interview about the project for the BBC, John Walsh explained:\n", "Another method worth mentioning, which has become increasingly common in recent years, is to transfer the original colour print to a high resolution digital format and manipulate the image in the digital domain before reconstituting it back on film. Without a doubt this method offers the widest freedom in terms of restoration, since many things are possible with digital that would not be possible by traditional photochemical means.\n", "Original high quality elements for the film are damaged and incomplete, and scattered among various international archives. As of August 2018, it is the only film originally shot in Cinerama to remain unrestored. The cost of a full digital scan and restoration of the best surviving elements has been estimated by film preservationist Robert A. Harris at between $1 million to $2 million.\n", "An example of a restored film is the 1939 film \"The Wizard of Oz\". The color portions of \"Oz\" were shot in the three-strip Technicolor process, which in the 1930s yielded three separate black and white negatives created from red, green, and blue light filters which were used to print the cyan, magenta, and yellow portions of the final printed color film answer print. These three negatives were scanned individually into a computer system, where the digital images were tinted and combined using proprietary software.\n", "Section::::Restoration and home video.\n\nThe Swedish Film Institute has carried out three restorations of \"Häxan\":\n\nBULLET::::- 1976 tinted photochemical restoration\n\nBULLET::::- 2007 tinted photochemical restoration\n\nBULLET::::- 2016 tinted digital restoration\n\nThe 1976 restoration has been released on DVD in the US and UK, along with \"Witchcraft Through the Ages\", while the 2007 has been released on DVD in Sweden. The 2016 digital restoration is as yet unreleased on home video.\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Initial response.\n", "Many major film studios are now backing up their libraries by converting them to electronic media files, such as .AIFF or .WAV-based files via digital audio workstations. That way, even if the digital platform manufacturer goes out of business or no longer supports their product, the files can still be played on any common computer.\n\nThere is a detailed process that must take place previous to the final archival product now that a digital solution is in place. Sample rates and their conversion and reference speed are both critical in this process.\n", "BULLET::::- George Eastman House – Laserdisc preservation with stills showing missing scenes\n\nBULLET::::- George Eastman House – Film restoration using materials from Czech National Film Archive. Some sequences still missing and some inadvertently left out\n\nBULLET::::- David Shepard, Serge Bromberg – DVD version using Kodascope prints, Czech archive materials and trailers. Like the George Eastman House restoration, some sequences are still missing and some inadvertently left out\n", "Section::::Photochemical restoration steps.\n\nModern, photochemical restoration follows roughly the same path as digital:\n\nBULLET::::1. Extensive research is done to determine what version of the film can be restored from the existing material. Often, extensive efforts are taken to search out alternative material in film archives located around the world.\n", "On 30 May 2012, Lovefilm partnered with NBC Universal to bring Universal films to their service, and also announced that they would be bringing HD Streaming to their services.\n" ]	[ "HD versions of old movies are made now." ]	[ "The old movie was originally HD but it was not broadcast in HD." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "HD versions of old movies are made now." ]	[ "false presupposition" ]	[ "The old movie was originally HD but it was not broadcast in HD." ]
2018-04150	why are NCAA tournament basketball games rarely played near either school?	Tournament venues are selected well in advance of knowing who's actually going to be playing. They are spread out around all member schools with sufficient facilities to help spread out both the costs of hosting the tournament and the profits derived from sales.	[ "BULLET::::- \"Trinity (TX) 1971–73\"\n\nBULLET::::- Troy 1994–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tulane 1948–85, 1990–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tulsa 1948–present\n\nSection::::U.\n\nBULLET::::- UAB 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- UC Davis 2005–present\n\nBULLET::::- UC Irvine 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- UC Riverside 2001–present\n\nBULLET::::- UC Santa Barbara 1964–present\n\nBULLET::::- UCSD Coming in 2020\n\nBULLET::::- UCF 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- UCLA 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- UIC 1982–present\n\nBULLET::::- UMass Lowell 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- UMBC 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- UNC Asheville 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- UNC Greensboro 1992–present\n\nBULLET::::- UNC Wilmington 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- UNLV 1970–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"U.S. International 1982–1991\"\n\nBULLET::::- Utah 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Utah State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Utah Valley 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- UTEP 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Utica 1982–87\"\n\nBULLET::::- UTRGV 1969–present\n\nBULLET::::- UTSA 1982–present\n\nSection::::V.\n", "In recent years, \"money games\" in men's basketball have also included preseason exhibitions against D-I programs, typically in the same region, that do not count in official statistics for either team. Under NCAA rules, Division I teams are allowed to play two exhibition games in a season, and must host these games.\n\nThe University of Kansas helps the state's four Division II members by rotating them onto the Jayhawks' exhibition schedule annually. Milwaukee, which has been a Division I member since 1990, has continued its series with their former Division II rival Wisconsin-Parkside as part of their exhibition schedule.\n", "Section::::L.\n\nBULLET::::- La Salle 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Lafayette 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Lamar 1970–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Lawrence Tech 1948\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lehigh 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Liberty 1989–present\n\nBULLET::::- Lipscomb 2004–present\n\nBULLET::::- Little Rock 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- LIU 1948–51, 1969–present\n\nBULLET::::- Long Beach State 1970–present\n\nBULLET::::- Longwood 2008–present\n\nBULLET::::- Louisiana 1972–73, 1976–present\n\nBULLET::::- Louisiana–Monroe 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Louisiana Tech 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Louisville 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Loyola Marymount 1950–present\n\nBULLET::::- Loyola–Chicago 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loyola (LA) 1952–53, 1955–72\"\n\nBULLET::::- Loyola (MD) 1948–50, 1982–present\n\nBULLET::::- LSU 1948–present\n\nSection::::M.\n\nBULLET::::- Maine 1962–present\n\nBULLET::::- Manhattan 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Marist 1982–present\n\nBULLET::::- Marquette 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Marshall 1948, 1954–present\n\nBULLET::::- Maryland 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Maryland Eastern Shore 1974–75, 1982–present\n", "Section::::History.\n\nFor decades, Iowa State (of the Big 12 Conference) and Iowa (of the Big Ten Conference) had home-and-home series with in-state rivals Drake and UNI, with Iowa visiting Drake in even-numbered years and Northern Iowa in odd-numbered years (with the corresponding return trips to Iowa in the opposite years) and Iowa State visiting Northern Iowa in even-numbered years and Drake in odd-numbered years. Drake and Iowa State, in particular, played in 104 of 105 seasons.\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Houston State 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- Samford 1973–present\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego 1980–present\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego State 1971–present\n\nBULLET::::- San Francisco 1948–82, 1986–present\n\nBULLET::::- San Jose State 1953–present\n\nBULLET::::- Santa Clara 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Savannah State 2003–2019\n\nBULLET::::- \"Scranton 1948\"\n\nBULLET::::- Seattle 1953–80, 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- Seton Hall 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Siena 1948–49, 1951–60, 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- SMU 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Alabama 1972–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Carolina 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Carolina State 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Carolina Upstate 2008–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Dakota 2011–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Dakota State 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- South Florida 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southeast Missouri State 1992–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southeastern Louisiana 1981–89, 1991–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southern U. 1978–present\n", "BULLET::::- Valparaiso 1948–50, 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- Vanderbilt 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- VCU 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Vermont 1962–present\n\nBULLET::::- Villanova 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- VMI 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia Tech 1948–present\n\nSection::::W.\n\nBULLET::::- Wagner 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- Wake Forest 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Washington 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Washington-St. Louis 1948–50, 1954–60\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Washington & Lee 1948–59\"\n\nBULLET::::- Washington State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Wayne State (NE) 1948–50\"\n\nBULLET::::- Weber State 1964–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"West Chester 1974–82\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"West Texas A&M 1951–86\"\n\nBULLET::::- West Virginia 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Western Carolina 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- Western Illinois 1982–present\n\nBULLET::::- Western Kentucky 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Western Michigan 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Western Reserve 1948–1955\"\n\nBULLET::::- Wichita State 1948–present\n", "BULLET::::- \"Baldwin Wallace 1948–1953\"\n\nBULLET::::- Ball State 1970–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Baltimore 1979–1983\"\n\nBULLET::::- Baylor 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Belmont 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bethune–Cookman 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Binghamton 2002–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Birmingham–Southern 2004–2006\"\n\nBULLET::::- Boise State 1972–present\n\nBULLET::::- Boston College 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Boston University 1948–1949, 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bowling Green 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bradley 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Brooklyn 1948–1949, 1983–1992\"\n\nBULLET::::- Brown 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bryant 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- Bucknell 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Buffalo 1974–1977, 1992–present\n\nBULLET::::- Butler 1948–50, 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- BYU 1948–present\n\nSection::::C.\n\nBULLET::::- California 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- California Baptist 2018-present\n\nBULLET::::- Cal Poly 1995–present\n\nBULLET::::- Cal State Fullerton 1975–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cal State Los Angeles 1971–1975\"\n\nBULLET::::- Cal State Northridge 1991–present\n", "BULLET::::- Florida Gulf Coast 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- Florida State 1957–present\n\nBULLET::::- Fordham 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Fresno State 1956–1958, 1971–present\n\nBULLET::::- Furman 1948–present\n\nSection::::G.\n\nBULLET::::- Gardner–Webb 2003–present\n\nBULLET::::- George Mason 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- George Washington 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Georgetown 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia Southern 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia State 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Georgia Tech 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Gettysburg 1948–51, 1959–73\"\n\nBULLET::::- Gonzaga 1953–present\n\nBULLET::::- Grambling 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Grand Canyon 2018–present\n\nBULLET::::- Green Bay 1982–present\n\nSection::::H.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hamline 1948–48\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hampton 1996–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hardin–Simmons 1951–63, 1965–90\"\n\nBULLET::::- Hartford 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- Harvard 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Hawaii 1971–present\n\nBULLET::::- High Point 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Hofstra 1967–present\n\nBULLET::::- Holy Cross 1948–present\n", "BULLET::::- Massachusetts 1962–present\n\nBULLET::::- Merrimack Coming in 2019\n\nBULLET::::- McNeese State 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Memphis 1956–present\n\nBULLET::::- Mercer 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Miami (FL) 1949–53, 1955–71, 1986–present\n\nBULLET::::- Miami (OH) 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Michigan State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Middle Tennessee 1959–present\n\nBULLET::::- Milwaukee 1974–80, 1991–present\n\nBULLET::::- Minnesota 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Mississippi Valley State 1980–present\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Missouri State 1983–present\n\nBULLET::::- Monmouth 1984–present\n\nBULLET::::- Montana 1948, 1952–present\n\nBULLET::::- Montana State 1948, 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Morehead State 1956–present\n\nBULLET::::- Morgan State 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Morris Brown 2002–03\"\n\nBULLET::::- Mount Saint Mary's 1989–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Muhlenberg 1948–63\"\n", "BULLET::::- Southern California 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Illinois 1968–present\n\nBULLET::::- SIU Edwardsville 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Mississippi 1969, 1973–present\n\nBULLET::::- Southern Utah 1989–present\n\nBULLET::::- Stanford 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Stephen F. Austin 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- Stetson 1972–present\n\nBULLET::::- Stony Brook 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Syracuse 1948–present\n\nSection::::T.\n\nBULLET::::- TCU 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Temple 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tennessee 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tennessee–Martin 1993–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tennessee State 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Tennessee Tech 1956–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas A&M 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas A&M–Corpus Christi 1973, 2003–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas–Arlington 1969–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Southern 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas State 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- Texas Tech 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Texas Wesleyan 1948\"\n\nBULLET::::- Toledo 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Towson 1980–present\n", "Many Division II schools frequently schedule matches against members of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), which consists of colleges and universities across the United States and Canada that promote competitive and character-based athletics that is controlled by its membership, as opposed to the NCAA that serves as a regulating body.\n\nSection::::Interaction with other divisions.:Division I.\n\nDivision II schools also frequently schedule \"money games\", usually in football and men's basketball, against Division I schools.\n", "Before the Texas A&M Aggies' departure for the Southeastern Conference at the end of the 2012 academic year, Texas and Texas A&M had played at least twice (and up to four times) yearly since 1917. During their concurrent membership in the Big 12, the Longhorns and the Aggies played two games during the regular season, with the venue alternating between the home courts of each school. Texas leads the overall series 137–86.\n", "BULLET::::- Murray State 1954–present\n\nSection::::N.\n\nBULLET::::- Navy 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Nebraska 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Nevada 1948, 1970–present\n\nBULLET::::- New Hampshire 1962–present\n\nBULLET::::- NJIT 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- New Mexico 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- New Mexico State 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- New Orleans 1976–present\n\nBULLET::::- Niagara 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Nicholls 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Norfolk State 1998–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Alabama 2018–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina Central 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina A&T 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Carolina State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota 2013–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Dakota State 2009–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Florida 2006–present\n\nBULLET::::- North Texas 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northeastern 1973–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Northeastern Illinois 1991–98\"\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Arizona 1951–53, 1972–present\n", "BULLET::::- Northern Colorado 1974–78, 2008–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Illinois 1968–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Iowa 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northern Kentucky 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northwestern 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Northwestern State 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- Notre Dame 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"NYU 1948–71; 1984\"\n\nSection::::O.\n\nBULLET::::- Oakland 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Ohio State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Oklahoma 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oklahoma City 1951–85\"\n\nBULLET::::- Oklahoma State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Old Dominion 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- Omaha 2016–present\n\nBULLET::::- Oral Roberts 1972–89, 1994–present\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Oregon State 1948–present\n\nSection::::P.\n\nBULLET::::- Pacific 1954–present\n\nBULLET::::- Penn 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Penn State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Pepperdine 1956–present\n\nBULLET::::- Pittsburgh 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Portland 1954–present\n\nBULLET::::- Portland State 1973–81, 1999–present\n", "When these exhibition games do happen, there are times when the Division II team does win, and against a well-respected Division I program. In 2009, a Division II team beat the eventual Big East regular season champion. In 2010, two other Division II teams beat teams that reached the NCAA Division I tournament. In 2011, another Division II team defeated a Division I team that finished in the top half of the Pac-12 Conference. In 2012, another Division II team beat eventual Atlantic Coast Conference regular-season and tournament champion Miami.\n", "BULLET::::- Campbell 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Canisius 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Catholic 1977–1981\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"CCNY 1948–1953\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Centenary (LA) 1960–2011\"\n\nBULLET::::- Central Arkansas 2011–present\n\nBULLET::::- Central Connecticut 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- Central Michigan 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Charleston 1992–present\n\nBULLET::::- Charleston Southern 1975–present\n\nBULLET::::- Charlotte 1973–present\n\nBULLET::::- Chattanooga 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Chicago State 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- Cincinnati 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Citadel 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Clemson 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Cleveland State 1973–present\n\nBULLET::::- Coastal Carolina 1987–present\n\nBULLET::::- Colgate 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Colorado State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Columbia 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Connecticut 1948, 1952–present\n\nBULLET::::- Coppin State 1986–present\n\nBULLET::::- Cornell 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Creighton 1948–56, 1960–present\n\nBULLET::::- CSU Bakersfield 2011–present\n\nSection::::D.\n\nBULLET::::- Dartmouth 1948–present\n", "BULLET::::- Davidson 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dayton 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Delaware 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Delaware State 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Denver 1948–80, 1999–present\n\nBULLET::::- DePaul 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Detroit Mercy 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Dixie State Coming in 2020\n\nBULLET::::- Drake 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Drexel 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Duke 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Duquesne 1948–present\n\nSection::::E.\n\nBULLET::::- East Carolina 1965–present\n\nBULLET::::- East Tennessee State 1959–present\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Illinois 1982–present\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Kentucky 1948, 1952–present\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Michigan 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Eastern Washington 1984–present\n\nBULLET::::- Elon 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Evansville 1978–present\n\nSection::::F.\n\nBULLET::::- Fairfield 1965–present\n\nBULLET::::- Fairleigh Dickinson 1968–present\n\nBULLET::::- FIU 1988–present\n\nBULLET::::- Florida 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Florida A&M 1979–present\n\nBULLET::::- Florida Atlantic 1994–present\n", "BULLET::::- Houston 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- Houston Baptist 1974–89, 2012–present\n\nBULLET::::- Howard 1974–present\n\nSection::::I.\n\nBULLET::::- Idaho 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Idaho State 1959–present\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Incarnate Word 2018–present\n\nBULLET::::- Illinois State 1972–present\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- IUPUI 1999–present\n\nBULLET::::- Indiana State 1948, 1969–present\n\nBULLET::::- Iona 1954–present\n\nBULLET::::- Iowa 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Iowa State 1948–present\n\nSection::::J.\n\nBULLET::::- Jackson State 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville 1967–present\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville State 1996–present\n\nBULLET::::- James Madison 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"John Carroll 1948–55\"\n\nSection::::K.\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas City 1990–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kansas State 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kennesaw State 2010–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kent State 1948, 1952–present\n\nBULLET::::- Kentucky 1948–52, 1954–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Kentucky Wesleyan 1957–58\"\n", "On January 27, 2004, both teams met in NCAA Division I conference play for the first time, with Belmont prevailing 66–64 in overtime. \n", "In the 2000s, Iowa State, wanting to gain a greater presence in the Des Moines area, offered and played multiple games at Wells Fargo Arena with various teams. When they offered Drake the opportunity to move their rivalry to Wells Fargo Arena, Drake declined. Iowa and Iowa State also offered Drake and UNI money to play only in Iowa City/Ames but both schools declined. \n", "School names listed here reflect those in current use, which may or may not reflect names used in an institution's earlier history.\n\nSection::::A.\n\nBULLET::::- Abilene Christian 1971–1973, 2018–present\n\nBULLET::::- Air Force 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Akron 1948–1950, 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama A&M 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Alabama State 1983–present\n\nBULLET::::- Albany 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- Alcorn State 1978–present\n\nBULLET::::- American 1967–present\n\nBULLET::::- Appalachian State 1974–present\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona 1948, 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- Arizona State 1951–present\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas–Pine Bluff 1999–present\n\nBULLET::::- Arkansas State 1971–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Armstrong Atlantic 1983–1987\"\n\nBULLET::::- Army 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Auburn 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Augusta State 1984–1990\"\n\nBULLET::::- Austin Peay 1964–present\n\nSection::::B.\n", "NCAA Men's Division I basketball alignment history\n\nThis is a list of NCAA Division I Basketball Alignment History. Teams in \"italics\" are no longer in Division I. Seasons are listed by the calendar year in which they end—for example, if a school's first Division I season was the 1991–92 school year, it will be listed as having begun in 1992.\n", "BULLET::::- Prairie View A&M 1981–present\n\nBULLET::::- Presbyterian 2007–present\n\nBULLET::::- Princeton 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Providence 1949, 1958–present\n\nBULLET::::- Purdue 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Purdue Fort Wayne 2003–present\n\nSection::::Q.\n\nBULLET::::- Quinnipiac 1999–present\n\nSection::::R.\n\nBULLET::::- Radford 1985–present\n\nBULLET::::- \"Regis 1962–64\"\n\nBULLET::::- Rhode Island 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Rice 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Richmond 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Rider 1968–present\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Morris 1977–present\n\nBULLET::::- Rutgers 1948–present\n\nSection::::S.\n\nBULLET::::- Sacramento State 1992–present\n\nBULLET::::- Sacred Heart 2000–present\n\nBULLET::::- St. Bonaventure 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- St. Francis Brooklyn 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Francis (PA) 1956–present\n\nBULLET::::- St. John's 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Joseph's 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Louis 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Mary's 1948–present\n\nBULLET::::- Saint Peter's 1965–present\n", "Probably one of the more memorable basketball games played at Stokely didn't even involve a UT team. The NCAA Mideast Regional Final (AKA \"The Dream Game\") was played there on March 26, 1983, with Louisville beating Kentucky 80-68 in overtime. It was the first game between the two since the 1959 NCAA tournament.\n", "BULLET::::- 22 Final Fours (26%; 22/81) have been held in the border states of the Confederacy, namely Missouri; (13; Kansas City: 1940–1942, 1953–1955, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1988; St. Louis: 1973, 1978, 2005), Kentucky (7; Lexington: 1985; Louisville: 1958–1959, 1962–1963, 1967, 1969), and Maryland (2; College Park: 1966, 1970).\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]
2018-23342	why homes are used as offices rather than housing.	It may be that the area is converted from a residential zone to a commercial zone. Rather than tear down a building that's in good condition in this rezone, it may be cheaper to simply convert it into a commercial space. Just the same, it may be that the buyer of a new property decides it's cheaper to buy a residential property and have it rezoned rather than invest in already-constructed commercial property.	[ "Von Clemm came from Boston and when he looked through the porthole at Shed 31, a simple brick-concrete infill, he commented that it reminded him of the warehouses in Boston harbour which had been converted into back up offices and small business premises. Reg Ward, at the time LDDC Chief Executive, remembers him suddenly leaning back and saying: \"I do not know why we do not go for a shed like 31 as a back up office.\" \n", "The original model requires that buildings needing employees be sited close to where people live in order to establish a physical connection through walker contact. This mechanism is absent from \"Zeus\" onwards.\n\nSection::::Series concepts and mechanics.:Services.\n\nSome houses at particular housing quality levels require certain services before they can evolve to the next level.\n", "Before the 19th century, and the spread of the industrial revolution around the globe, nearly all offices were small offices and/or home offices, with only a few exceptions. Most businesses were small, and the paperwork that accompanied them was limited. The industrial revolution aggregated workers in factories, to mass-produce goods. In most circumstances, the white collar counterpart—office work—was aggregated as well in large buildings, usually in cities or densely populated suburban areas.\n", "Aside from these two building types, many parties – public and private – now ask for residential open building on a regular basis. This is evident in Finland, Poland, Japan, and the Netherlands. In other countries, residential open building – known by many names – is no longer recognized as something unusual. Evidence of this is found in Russia, Switzerland, Germany, China and to a lesser extent in the United States. New examples of housing in less-developed economies, designed by professionals to be incrementally upgraded in a user-controlled process, come to light in Chile, Mexico, and South Africa.\n", "While the savings (monetary, materials and construction hours) can be had with reusing a building and adapting it to modern standards and local building codes, there is more to adapting a building for modern reuse than just focusing on saving money.\n", "Strictly speaking, HMOs are not the same as purpose-built blocks of flats, since most result from the subdivision of houses (often but not always large houses) designed for and occupied by one family. Some legislation makes a distinction between those buildings occupied mainly on long leases and those where the majority of the occupants are short-term tenants.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"A focus on single-family homes instead of public buildings.\" Access to new public buildings, such as government offices and restaurants, is typically already required under various national laws, such as the \"Americans with Disabilities Act\" of 1990 in the United States. Outside of the UK, single-family homes are the one kind of building which is still routinely constructed without regard to access.\n", "BULLET::::- Service Remote Locations - Given that relocatable buildings are constructed offsite in controlled settings, finding a skilled labor force in remote locations is less of an issue. From the hottest, driest desert locations to the coldest, most severe winter climates, relocatable buildings can be utilized anywhere.\n\nBULLET::::- Shorter Depreciation Schedules - The primary difference between permanent modular construction and relocatable buildings is that in many cases, relocatable buildings are not permanently affixed to real estate. This allows for the building to be considered personal property or equipment and depreciated over a shorter span.\n\nSustainable\n", "The National Audit Office of the UK has produced a guide to help Government Departments and public bodies to assess the case for flexible managed space instead of conventional office space.\n\nIn November 2014, a business report carried out by the Business Centre Association showed that serviced offices in the UK are using 70 million square feet of space, house around 80,000 businesses, provide over 400,000 jobs and generate in the region of £2bn to the UK economy.\n\nSection::::Client types.\n\nClients of serviced office facilities fall into the following categories:\n", "This vision and promise passed into law as the Housing (Temporary Accommodation) Act 1944, which planned to build 300,000 prefab houses in Britain over the next four years, with a structural lifetime of between 10 and 15 years. In fact just over 150,000 were built.\n\nBy 1951 the EFM housing programme and its offshoots had created one million new council houses, resulting in 15 per cent of all the dwellings in Britain being state-owned, more than the proportion in the Soviet Union at that time.\n\nSection::::Standards.\n", "Open plan offices are often divided up into smaller offices for managers, meeting rooms, etc. When this happens the designer has to take into account several factors including:\n\nBULLET::::- Heating/cooling zoning\n\nBULLET::::- Ventilation\n\nBULLET::::- Lighting and light switches\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency lighting\n\nBULLET::::- Small power\n\nBULLET::::- Voice and data cabling\n\nBULLET::::- Fire alarms\n\nBULLET::::- Fire stopping\n\nBULLET::::- Fire escape routes\n\nBULLET::::- Noise/acoustics\n\nSection::::Staff welfare facilities.\n", "These changes in attitude and priorities are taking the force of law. In part this can be explained by the widespread–and parallel - adoption of a sustainability agenda. In 2008 the Japanese parliament passed new laws mandating 200 year housing, accompanying the legislation with a set of regulatory and administrative tools for use by local building officials who have the responsibility to evaluate and approve building projects. Projects approved under the new law receive a reduced rate of taxation. In Finland, one of the largest real estate companies develops open building projects for their residential portfolio. In the Netherlands, a number of companies–from product manufacturers to developers to architects–implement open building by other names. In Warsaw, Poland, open building is known as the “Warsaw Standard”. In San Francisco, residential developers build “bulk” housing, ready to be fitted out individually. Around the world, old office buildings that have retained their social and economic value are converted to residential occupancy, after being “gutted” to prepare them for new uses and layouts.\n", "Executive homes are generally found in outlying suburban areas because lot sizes in older neighborhoods generally are not conducive to new residences of this large scale. However there have been many instances of developers buying large lots or multiple lots in historic neighborhoods, demolishing the older homes and building executive homes. This may have the effect of destroying the setting of older neighborhoods, and adversely impacting the integrity of historic districts. These lots are in desirable neighborhoods, and desirable school districts, and are close to urban centers, so the trend will likely continue. However, some communities such as Wellesley, Massachusetts and Austin, Texas have created policies and ordinances to retain older neighborhoods against these development pressures.\n", "Foyers are a way \"to help people who aren't ready to be on their own to develop the life skills, job skills and maturity to lead independent, successful lives,\" according to Sister Paulette LoMonaco, executive director of New York City's Good Shepherd Services.\n\nSection::::Programs.:Other programs.\n\nHomeLink, Re-Entry Housing Initiative, Vulnerability Index, Hospital to Home, and Innovations Team\n\nSection::::Current residences.\n\nAs of 2018 Breaking Ground has 23 buildings with 3,924 units.\n\nSection::::Current residences.:The Times Square.\n", "The concept of HMOs arose from the Housing Act 1985, which first defined an HMO as \"a house which is occupied by persons who do not form a single household\". The Local Government and Housing Act 1989 expanded the definition to include any part of a building which:\n\nBULLET::::1. \"would not [ordinarily] be regarded as a house\" and\n\nBULLET::::2. \"was originally constructed or subsequently adapted for occupation by a single household\"\n", "While offices can be built in almost any location and in almost any building, some modern requirements for offices make this more difficult, such as requirements for light, networking, and security. The major purpose of an office building is to provide a workplace and working environment - primarily for administrative and managerial workers. These workers usually occupy set areas within the office building, and usually are provided with desks, PCs and other equipment they may need within these areas.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Such approach is perceived as win-win for both property owners who get tax benefits, and users and a wider city community who get new content in those spaces. Moreover, buildings are less prone to decay because they are in use. Furthermore, such use is intrinsically bottom-up driven by citizens and can demonstrate needs in a city which would otherwise be left undiscovered.\n\nSection::::Criticism.\n", "As mercantilism became the dominant economic theory of the Renaissance, merchants tended to conduct their business in the same buildings, which might include retail sales, warehousing and clerical work. During the 15th century, population density in many cities reached the point where stand-alone buildings were used by merchants to conduct their business, and there was a developing a distinction between church, government/military, and commerce uses for buildings.\n\nSection::::History.:Emergence of the modern office.\n", "Section::::History and evolution.:Application to youth employment and accommodation.\n", "The relatively high price of land in the central core of cities lead to the first multi-story buildings, which were limited to about 10 stories until the use of iron and steel allowed for higher structures. The first purpose-built office block was the Brunswick Building, built in Liverpool in 1841. The invention of the safety elevator in 1852 by Elisha Otis saw the rapid escalation upward of buildings. By the end of the 19th century, larger office buildings frequently contained large glass atriums to allow light into the complex and improve air circulation.\n\nSection::::History.:20th century.\n", "Section::::Current Government Buildings.\n\nIn the mid-1980s, increasingly unhappy at the cramped office space, Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald decided to convert the entire building for government use. This policy was implemented by his successor, Charles Haughey, who had the state sell a block of Georgian houses across the road, which up to then had been in state ownership, for £17 million to fund the rebuild. A new engineering faculty was also built on University College Dublin's Belfield campus at tens of millions of pounds.\n", "Beginning in the mid-1980s, the advent of the personal computer and fax machine, plus breakthroughs in telecommunications, created opportunities for office workers to decentralize. Decentralization was also perceived as benefiting employers in terms of lower overheads and potentially greater productivity.\n\nSection::::Professions.\n\nMany consultants and the members of such professions like lawyers, real estate agents, and surveyors in small and medium-sized towns operate from home offices.\n", "\"My understanding of the original (Lanham Act) was that it was not the purpose to make (homes) ideal, but it was the purpose to build them in areas where they could be used permanently and of a standard that would be suitable for permanent residence, because in that way the Government has the best chance of recouping its investment by the sale of the homes, and, of course, this (mutual ownership plan) is different in that respect from many of these housing projects, because these are built from the standpoint of sale and recouping the expenditure insofar as possible, at the same time affording an opportunity to these industrial workers to get a home where they are permanently engaged.\"\n", "In the late 19th century, People's Palaces started being built in grim urban districts. The concept was to raise morale and morality through inspiring buildings which offered cultural nourishment. Costly, taking years to build and lavishly decorated, they were designed to provide a focal point for civic pride, venues for meetings and public events.\n", "Many office buildings also have kitchen facilities and a staff room, where workers can have lunch or take a short break. Many office spaces are now also serviced office spaces, which means that those occupying a space or building can share facilities.\n\nSection::::Office and retail rental rates.\n" ]	[]	[]	[ "normal" ]	[]	[ "normal", "normal" ]	[]

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