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It is difficult to keep deep wounds free of bacteria. Even strong antibiotics fail to kill the bacteria that live in such wounds. However, many physicians have succeeded in eliminating bacteria from deep wounds by packing the wound with a sweet substance like sugar. | 199106_3-LR1_1_1 | [
"Bacteria that live in deep wounds thrive in a moist environment, and sugar has a dehydrating effect.",
"Sugar that is nearly pure is readily available for use in medical treatments.",
"Many kinds of bacteria can use sugar as a nutrient and will reproduce rapidly when sugar is available to them.",
"Some foods that contain sugar can weaken the effects of certain antibiotics.",
"Strong antibiotics were developed only recently, but the use of sugar as a treatment for wounds dates back to ancient times."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why treating deep wounds with sugar as described above is successful? |
People who are red/green color-blind cannot distinguish between green and brown. Gerald cannot distinguish between green and brown. Therefore Gerald is red/green color-blind. | 199106_3-LR1_2_2 | [
"People who are fair-skinned suffer from sunburn. William is fair-skinned. Therefore William suffers from sunburn.",
"People who are suffering from sinusitis lose their sense of smell. Mary has lost her sense of smell. Therefore Mary is suffering from sinusitis.",
"People who have suffered from jaundice cannot become blood donors. Jean is a blood donor. Therefore Jean has not suffered from jaundice.",
"People who are color-blind cannot become airline pilots. Arthur is color-blind. Therefore Arthur cannot become an airline pilot.",
"People who are diabetic cannot eat large amounts of sugar. Freda is diabetic. Therefore Freda is on a special diet."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument presented in the passage? |
Early in this century Alfred Wegener developed the concept of continental drift. His ideas were rejected vehemently because he postulated no identifiable force strong enough to make the continents move. We have come to accept Wegener's theory, not because we have pinpointed such a force, but because new instruments have finally allowed continental movement to be confirmed by observation. | 199106_3-LR1_3_3 | [
"The aim of science is to define the manifold of nature within the terms of a single harmonious theory.",
"In accepting a mathematical description of nature, science has become far more accurate at identifying underlying forces.",
"The paradox of science is that every improvement in its measuring instruments seems to make adequate theories harder to work out.",
"Science, employing statistics and the laws of probability, is concerned not with the single event but with mass behavior.",
"When the events a theory postulates are detected, the theory is accepted even without an explanation of how those events are brought about."
]
| 4 | The passage best illustrates which one of the following statements about science? |
The theory of military deterrence was based on a simple psychological truth, that fear of retaliation makes a would-be aggressor nation hesitate before attacking and is often sufficient to deter it altogether from attacking. Clearly, then, to maintain military deterrence, a nation would have to be believed to have retaliatory power so great that a potential aggressor nation would have reason to think that it could not defend itself against such retaliation. | 199106_3-LR1_4_4 | [
"A would-be aggressor nation can be deterred from attacking only if it has certain knowledge that it would be destroyed in retaliation by the country it attacks.",
"A nation will not attack another nation if it believes that its own retaliatory power surpasses that of the other nation.",
"One nation's failing to attack another establishes that the nation that fails to attack believes that it could not withstand a retaliatory attack from the other nation.",
"It is in the interests of a nation that seeks deterrence and has unsurpassed military power to let potential aggressors against it become aware of its power of retaliatory attack.",
"Maintaining maximum deterrence from aggression by other nations requires that a nation maintain a retaliatory force greater than that of any other nation."
]
| 3 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following can be properly inferred? |
To the Editor: In 1960, an astronomer proposed a mathematical model for determining whether extraterrestrial life exists. It was based on the assumptions that life as we know it could exist only on a planet and that many stars are, like our Sun, orbited by planets. On the basis that there are nine planets in our solar system and one of them has life as we know it, the astronomer predicted that there are as many as one million extraterrestrial civilizations across all solar systems. Yet astronomers to date have not detected even one planet outside our solar system. This indicates that the astronomer's model is wrong, and life as we know it exists only on the planet Earth. Clay Moltz. | 199106_3-LR1_5_5 | [
"Forms of life other than life as we know it exist on other planets.",
"There are many stars that are not orbited by planets.",
"Detecting planets outside our solar system requires more sophisticated instruments than are currently available.",
"The soundness of the conclusion reached by applying a mathematical model depends on the soundness of the assumptions on which the model is based.",
"Due to sheer distances and expanses of space involved, any extraterrestrial civilization would have great difficulty communicating with ours."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if accepted by Clay Moltz, would require him to reconsider his conclusion? |
If Max were guilty, he would not ask the police to investigate. Therefore, his asking the police to investigate shows that he is not guilty. | 199106_3-LR1_6_6 | [
"If Lucille were in the next room, I would not be able to see her. Therefore, the fact that I can see her shows that she is not in the next room.",
"If Sam were rich, he would not spend his vacation in Alaska. Therefore, his spending his vacation in the Bahamas shows that he is rich.",
"If Joe were over 40 he would not want to learn to ski. Therefore, the fact that he does not want to learn to ski shows that he is over 40.",
"If Mark were a good cook, he would not put cinnamon in the chili. Therefore, the fact that he is not a good cook shows that he put cinnamon in the chili.",
"If Sally were sociable, she would not avoid her friends. Therefore, the fact that she is sociable shows that she does not avoid her friends."
]
| 0 | The logical structure of the argument above is most similar to which one of the following? |
A population of game ducks at a western lake contains 55 males to every 45 females, while a population of game ducks at an eastern lake contains 65 males for every 35 females. Among those ducks that have not yet bred there are only slightly more males than females, but among older ducks the number of males greatly exceeds the number of females. Because there are appreciably more males among adult ducks than among young ducks, we can infer that the greater the disparity in overall sex ratios, the greater the percentage of older male ducks in the population. | 199106_3-LR1_7_7 | [
"The population of game ducks at the western lake contains a lower percentage of adult males than the population at the eastern lake contains.",
"The population of game ducks at the eastern lake contains a higher percentage of nonadult game ducks than the population at the western lake contains.",
"The total number of male game ducks is higher in the eastern lake's population than in the western lake's population.",
"The number of nonadult ducks hatched in a breeding season is higher in the eastern lake's population than in the western lake's population.",
"Adult female game ducks outnumber nonadult female game ducks in the eastern lake's population."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
The common procedure for determining whether a food additive should be banned from use is to compare its health-related benefits with its potential risks. Yellow Dye No. 5, an additive used to color lemon soda, might cause allergic reactions in a few consumers. For most consumers of lemon soda, however, the coloring enhances their enjoyment of the beverage. This particular additive should not be banned, therefore, because its benefits greatly outweigh its risks. | 199106_3-LR1_8_8 | [
"implies that the dye entails no health-related risks",
"treats enjoyment of a beverage as a health-related benefit",
"ignores the possibility that some food additives are harmful to most people",
"bases the argument on an unproven claim regarding a danger in using Yellow Dye No. 5",
"presumes that most consumers heed the warning labels on beverage containers"
]
| 1 | A flaw in the argument is that the author |
Fines levied against those responsible for certain environmentally damaging accidents are now so high that it costs a company responsible for such an accident more to pay the fine than it would have cost to adopt measures that would have prevented the accident. Therefore, since businesses value their profits, those that might have such accidents will now install adequate environmental safeguards. | 199106_3-LR1_9_9 | [
"Businesses generally greatly underestimate the risk of future accidents.",
"Businesses are as concerned with long-term as they are with short-term strategies for maximizing profits.",
"Businesses generally do the environmentally \"right\" thing only if doing so makes good business sense.",
"Businesses treat fines that are levied against them as an ordinary business expense.",
"Businesses are learning to exploit the public's environmental awareness in promoting themselves."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Even in a democracy, it is necessary to restrict the dissemination of advanced technological knowledge that is of commercial or national-security value. Dissemination to certain countries, those that are or will be competitors or enemies, should be selectively prohibited. There must, however, be free exchange of scientific information. | 199106_3-LR1_10_10 | [
"It is possible to distinguish with confidence, despite any changes in the international environment, friendly or noncompetitive from hostile or competitive nations.",
"In a democracy, it is not necessary that the public have detailed knowledge of the country's advanced technology in order, for example, to make informed decisions about the direction public policy should take.",
"In most fields of science, basic scientific research is further advanced in countries that are democracies than in countries that are not democracies.",
"In each field of science, it is possible to distinguish scientific information from advanced technological knowledge that is of commercial or national-security value.",
"In cases where a company that uses advanced technology is a multinational organization, it is possible to keep information about the technology from being passed across designated national boundaries."
]
| 2 | In order to act in accordance with the position above, it would be necessary to be able to rely on each of the following EXCEPT: |
Water vapor evaporated from the ocean contains a greater proportion of oxygen-16 and a smaller proportion of the heavier oxygen-18 than does seawater. Normally, this phenomenon has no effect on the overall composition of the ocean, because evaporated seawater returns to the ocean through precipitation. During an ice age, however, a large amount of precipitation falls on ice caps, where it is trapped as ice. | 199106_3-LR1_11_11 | [
"The proportions of oxygen-16 and oxygen-18 are the same in vapor from seawater as in the seawater itself.",
"The concentration of oxygen-18 in seawater is increased.",
"Rain and snow contain relatively more oxygen-16 than they do in interglacial periods.",
"During the ice age, more of the Earth's precipitation falls over land than falls over the ocean.",
"The composition of seawater changes more slowly than it does in interglacial periods."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following conclusions about a typical ice age is most strongly supported by the statements above? |
Some of the most prosperous nations in the world have experienced a pronounced drop in national savings rates—the percentage of after-tax income an average household saves. This trend will undoubtedly continue if the average age of these nations' populations continues to rise, since older people have fewer reasons to save than do younger people. | 199106_3-LR1_12_12 | [
"It fails to specify the many reasons younger people have for saving money, and it fails to identify which of those reasons is the strongest.",
"It assumes that a negative savings rate—the result of the average household's spending all of its after-tax income as well as some of its existing savings—cannot ever come about in any nation.",
"It fails to cite statistics showing that the average age of the population of certain nations is rising.",
"It only takes into account the comparative number of reasons older and younger people, respectively, have for saving, and not the comparative strength of those reasons.",
"It uses after-tax income as the base for computing the national savings rate without establishing by argument that after-tax income is a more appropriate base than before-tax income."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following indicates an error in the reasoning leading to the prediction above? |
The term "pit bull" does not designate a breed of dog, as do the terms "German shepherd" and "poodle." It is like the terms "Seeing-Eye dog" and "police dog," which designate dogs according to what they do. If you take two German shepherds and place them side by side, you cannot tell by appearance alone which is the police dog and which is the Seeing-Eye dog. | 199106_3-LR1_13_13 | [
"German shepherds can be pit bulls.",
"Pit bulls can be distinguished from other kinds of dogs by appearance alone.",
"A dog is a pit bull because of what it does, not because of its breed.",
"German shepherds can function both as police dogs and as Seeing-Eye dogs.",
"Some breeds of dogs cannot be distinguished from other breeds of dogs by appearance alone."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is the main point of the passage? |
Historically, monetary systems have developed only in population centers with marketplaces. Through the fourth century B.C., Mesopotamian cities engaged in trade, but had never had marketplaces. By that period, however, Greek cities all had marketplaces, or agorae. The Greek cities' agorae were centrally located and goods were traded there either for money or for commodities. | 199106_3-LR1_14_14 | [
"In the fourth century B.C., Greek cities were the only population centers with monetary systems.",
"The development of monetary systems has historically led to the development of marketplaces.",
"In the fourth century B.C., the Greeks and the Mesopotamians traded with each other.",
"After the fourth century B.C., Mesopotamian cities had marketplaces and monetary systems.",
"The Mesopotamian cities of the fourth century B.C. did not have monetary systems."
]
| 4 | If all of the statements in the passage are true, then which one of the following must also be true? |
Computer operating system software has become increasingly standardized. But when a large business with multiple, linked computer systems uses identical operating system software on all of its computers, a computer vandal who gains access to one computer automatically has access to the data on all the computers. Using a program known as a "virus," the vandal can then destroy much of the data on all the computers. If such a business introduced minor variations into its operating system software, unauthorized access to all the computers at the same time could be virtually eliminated. Furthermore, variations in operating system software can be created without any loss of computer compatibility to the business. Therefore, it is advisable for businesses to implement such variations. | 199106_3-LR1_15_15 | [
"Standardization of computer operating system software has increased computer compatibility among different businesses.",
"Correcting any damage resulting from an invasion by a computer virus program is more expensive than preventing the damage.",
"It is not costly for a business to maintain incompatible computer operating systems.",
"There are other kinds of destructive computer programs that do not depend on intercomputer links.",
"Not all businesses need to share data among their internal computer systems."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, supports the conclusion in the passage? |
Computer operating system software has become increasingly standardized. But when a large business with multiple, linked computer systems uses identical operating system software on all of its computers, a computer vandal who gains access to one computer automatically has access to the data on all the computers. Using a program known as a "virus," the vandal can then destroy much of the data on all the computers. If such a business introduced minor variations into its operating system software, unauthorized access to all the computers at the same time could be virtually eliminated. Furthermore, variations in operating system software can be created without any loss of computer compatibility to the business. Therefore, it is advisable for businesses to implement such variations. | 199106_3-LR1_15_16 | [
"If a business does not introduce variety into its computer operating systems, it will lose data on its computers because of damage from virus programs.",
"If a computer virus program is introduced into a business' computer, all of the data on that computer will be destroyed.",
"If a business introduces variety into its linked computer operating systems, it will have increased overall protection for its systems, but will not have protected every computer from viral invasion.",
"If a business does not have multiple, linked computer systems, its computers cannot be protected from computer viruses.",
"If minor variations are created in computer operating system software, it will be easier to access the data on the computers that use that software."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
It is the mark of a superior conductor that he or she has the authority to insist, even with a top orchestra, that rehearsal work must be intensified. This authority cannot simply be claimed; the conductor must earn it by winning the orchestra's respect for the artistic interpretations he or she is currently pursuing. | 199106_3-LR1_16_17 | [
"Superior conductors devise different interpretations of a composition for each orchestra with which they perform it.",
"Superior conductors are perfectionists who are never satisfied with any performance even by a top orchestra.",
"Top orchestras are always ready to put in additional work on rehearsals if the conductor considers additional rehearsing necessary.",
"Top orchestras can appreciate the merits of an interpretation even before they have brought it to full realization.",
"Even top orchestras are not always led by superior conductors."
]
| 3 | In taking the position outlined, the author presupposes which one of the following? |
In the United States proven oil reserves—the amount of oil considered extractable from known fields—are at the same level as they were ten years ago. Yet over this same period no new oil fields of any consequence have been discovered, and the annual consumption of domestically produced oil has increased. | 199106_3-LR1_17_18 | [
"Over the past decade the annual consumption of imported oil has increased more rapidly than that of domestic oil in the United States.",
"Conservation measures have lowered the rate of growth of domestic oil consumption from what it was a decade ago.",
"Oil exploration in the United States has slowed due to increased concern over the environmental impact of such exploration.",
"The price of domestically produced oil has fallen substantially over the past decade.",
"Due to technological advances over the last decade, much oil previously considered unextractable is now considered extractable."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, best reconciles the discrepancy described above? |
Train service suffers when a railroad combines commuter and freight service. By dividing its attention between its freight and commuter customers, a railroad serves neither particularly well. Therefore, if a railroad is going to be a successful business, then it must concentrate exclusively on one of these two markets. | 199106_3-LR1_18_19 | [
"Commuter and freight service have little in common with each other.",
"The first priority of a railroad is to be a successful business.",
"Unless a railroad serves its customers well, it will not be a successful business.",
"If a railroad concentrates on commuter service, it will be a successful business.",
"Railroad commuters rarely want freight service as well."
]
| 2 | For the argument to be logically correct, it must make which of the of the following assumptions? |
Most people in the United States view neither big nor small business as particularly efficient or dynamic and regard both as providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services. However, most people consistently perceive small business as a force for good in society, whereas big business is perceived as socially responsible only in times of prosperity. | 199106_3-LR1_19_20 | [
"Most people in the United States give little thought to the value of business to society.",
"If big business were more efficient, it would be perceived more favorably by the public generally.",
"If small business were regarded as being more dynamic, it, too would receive strongly favorable ratings only in times of general prosperity.",
"Even if people did not regard big business as providing consumers with value for their money, they would still regard it as socially responsible in times of general prosperity.",
"Many people in the United States regard the social responsibility of big business as extending beyond providing consumers with fairly priced goods and services."
]
| 4 | The statements above, if true, would provide the strongest support for which one of the following hypotheses? |
The energy an animal must expend to move uphill is proportional to its body weight, whereas the animal's energy output available to perform this task is proportional to its surface area. This is the reason that small animals, like squirrels, can run up a tree trunk almost as fast as they can move on level ground, whereas large animals tend to slow down when they are moving uphill. | 199106_3-LR1_20_21 | [
"The amount of energy needed to move uphill is no greater for large animals than it is for small animals.",
"Small animals can move more rapidly than large animals can.",
"The ratio of surface area to body weight is smaller in large animals than it is in small animals.",
"There is little variation in the ratio of energy output to body weight among animals.",
"The amount of energy needed to run at a given speed is proportional to the surface area of the running animal."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the explanation above depends? |
The 1980s have been characterized as a period of selfish individualism that threatens the cohesion of society. But this characterization is true of any time. Throughout history all human actions have been motivated by selfishness. When the deeper implications are considered, even the simplest "unselfish" acts prove to be instances of selfish concern for the human species. | 199106_3-LR1_21_22 | [
"The claim that selfishness has been present throughout history is not actually relevant to the argument.",
"No statistical evidence is provided to show that humans act selfishly more often than they act unselfishly.",
"The argument assumes that selfishness is unique to the present age.",
"The argument mentions only humans and does not consider the behavior of other species.",
"The argument relies on two different uses of the term \"selfish.\""
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a flaw in the argument? |
A medical journal used a questionnaire survey to determine whether a particular change in its format would increase its readership. Sixty-two percent of those who returned the questionnaire supported that change. On the basis of this outcome, the decision was made to introduce the new format. | 199106_3-LR1_22_23 | [
"Of the readers who received questionnaires, 90 percent returned them.",
"Other journals have based format changes on survey results.",
"The percentage of surveyed readers who like the format change was almost the same as the percentage of the entire potential readership who would like the format change.",
"It was determined that the new format would be less costly than the old format.",
"Ninety percent of the readers who were dissatisfied with the old format and only 50 percent of the readers who liked the old format returned their questionnaires."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if it were determined to be true, would provide the best evidence that the journal's decision will have the desired effect? |
Shanna: Owners of any work of art, simply by virtue of ownership, ethically have the right to destroy that artwork if they find it morally or aesthetically distasteful, or if caring for it becomes inconvenient. Jorge: Ownership of unique artworks, unlike ownership of other kinds of objects, carries the moral right to possess but not to destroy. A unique work of art with aesthetic or historical value belongs to posterity and so must be preserved, whatever the personal wishes of its legal owner. | 199106_3-LR1_23_24 | [
"Truly great works of art are never morally or aesthetically distasteful to any serious student of the history of art.",
"The right of future generations to have their artistic heritage preserved is of greater importance than the rights of any presently living individual.",
"It would be imprudent to allow the present stock of artworks to be destroyed without some guarantee that the artists of the future will produce works as great as those produced in the past.",
"There are certain entities over which no one would be ethically justified in claiming absolute rights to ownership.",
"The autonomy of individuals to do what they wish with what is theirs must not be compromised in the absence of a threat to anyone's health or safety."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would contribute most to Shanna's defense of her position against that of Jorge? |
Shanna: Owners of any work of art, simply by virtue of ownership, ethically have the right to destroy that artwork if they find it morally or aesthetically distasteful, or if caring for it becomes inconvenient. Jorge: Ownership of unique artworks, unlike ownership of other kinds of objects, carries the moral right to possess but not to destroy. A unique work of art with aesthetic or historical value belongs to posterity and so must be preserved, whatever the personal wishes of its legal owner. | 199106_3-LR1_23_25 | [
"Anyone who owns a portrait presenting his or her father in an unflattering light would for that reason alone be ethically justified in destroying it.",
"People who own aesthetically valuable works of art have no moral obligation to make them available for public viewing.",
"Valuable paintings by well-known artists are seldom intentionally damaged or destroyed by their owners.",
"If a piece of sculpture is not unique, its owner has no ethical obligation to preserve it if doing so proves burdensome.",
"It is legally permissible for a unique and historically valuable mural to be destroyed by its owner if he or she tires of it."
]
| 0 | On the basis of their statements, Shanna and Jorge are committed to disagreeing about the truth of which one of the following statements? |
Radioactive waste from nuclear power plants has been temporarily stored on-site, but this is not a satisfactory kind of place for long-range storage. Since no suitable plan of safe permanent storage of such waste from the nation's existing and planned nuclear plants has been devised, some people propose that we should stop trying to develop such a plan and instead should shut down all present nuclear plants and build no new nuclear plants. | 199106_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"it would prevent the development of safe technologies for producing electric power",
"it does not distinguish between nuclear plants that have, and plants that do not have, a reputation for operating safely",
"it does not provide for the permanent storage of already-existing waste",
"the generation of electric power from fossil fuels is relatively safe",
"the risks of unsafe disposal of waste from nuclear power plants lie in the future, but the benefits from such plants are in the present"
]
| 2 | The proposal mentioned above falls short of offering a complete solution to the problem it addresses because |
Only 1,000 to 2,000 species of fruit flies exist worldwide. Nowhere in the world are fruit flies more taxonomically diverse than in the Hawaiian islands, which host some 500 species. A subset of fruit flies called the picture-winged drosophilids is represented in Hawaii by 106 species. All of the fruit fly species now present in the Hawaiian archipelago are thought to be the descendants of the same one or two ancestral females. | 199106_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"All of the picture-winged drosophilids in Hawaii are believed to be the descendants of the same one or two ancestral female fruit flies.",
"Picture-winged drosophilids are found only in the Hawaiian islands.",
"All of the 1,000 to 2,000 species of fruit flies worldwide are believed to be the descendants of one or two females.",
"If 500 new species of fruit flies were discovered, then Hawaiian fruit flies would no longer be the most taxonomically diverse population.",
"Some fruit flies originated in Hawaii and spread from there to other parts of the world."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
In 1860 Bavarian quarry workers discovered the impression of a feather in a limestone slab dating to the Mesozoic era. It had previously been assumed that birds developed only after the close of the Mesozoic era and after the disappearance of pterosaurs, a species characteristic of that era. But there in limestone lay the imprint of a fully aerodynamic, three-inch-long feather. This, therefore, must have been the earliest bird—certainly, the earliest found to that date. | 199106_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"The creature to which the feather belonged was a descendant of the pterosaurs.",
"Birds with such feathers were preceded by species of birds with less-developed feathers.",
"In the Mesozoic era, no creatures other than birds had such feathers.",
"The feather belonged to a Mesozoic creature that was neither a pterosaur nor a bird, but an intermediate between them.",
"The earliest bird flew in an awkward manner."
]
| 2 | The argument assumes which one of the following? |
State researchers have found that since the oil price increases of the 1970s, there has been a decline in home energy consumption. They concluded that almost all of the decline has been achieved through reduced standards of living and changes in the way people spend their time. | 199106_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"Sales of portable heaters rose as families concentrated their winter activities in a limited number of rooms.",
"During the winter months, more people frequented public places such as libraries and community centers and, on the average, spent considerably longer periods in them than they had previously.",
"More than 39 percent of households were able to decrease energy costs substantially by having relatively inexpensive work done to improve the efficiency of their existing heating systems.",
"At least 59 percent of households maintained a lower indoor temperature than they had been accustomed to maintain on very cold days.",
"Members of at least 60 percent of households showered for shorter periods of time than they had previously."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, would support the conclusion above EXCEPT: |
Senator Strongwood reported that, contrary to a study cited by the administration, a thorough study by his own party concluded that a reduction in the capital gains tax would lead to an increase in the federal deficit. "Hooray for common sense," he said. "Everyone knows that when you cut taxes you lose revenue." He concluded that the administration's plan for reducing the capital gains tax was now dead, because he could not imagine any senator voting to increase the deficit. | 199106_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"He implies that increasing the capital gains tax would decrease the federal deficit.",
"He assumes senators will believe his party's report instead of the administration's.",
"He resorts to name-calling by expressly stating that his opponents lack common sense.",
"He assumes that senators will rarely vote for unpopular legislation.",
"He assumes that a study commissioned by his party must be more objective than one commissioned by the administration."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following accurately describes something Senator Strongwood does in advancing his argument? |
The most successful economies have been, and will continue to be, those that train as many people as possible in the human skills required to research, to develop, and to apply new technology. Japan is a model for this sort of training effort. Europe as a whole is in a weaker position: there is a shortage of skilled labor trained to use the new technologies, and there are not enough scientists able to develop and apply the technology. However, even in Japan there is a shortage of technically qualified people, and, like most European countries, Japan has far too many workers qualified to perform only menial tasks. | 199106_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"There is a greater worldwide shortage of research scientists than there is of engineers.",
"Japan is not the best country against which to measure a country's economic success.",
"Japan's successful economy depends upon an uncommonly narrow base of highly skilled labor.",
"To be economically more successful, Europe needs to train more people in the new technologies.",
"European countries have economies that are more successful than those of most other countries."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
When Cortez arrived in Mexico in A.D. 1519, he observed the inhabitants playing a ceremonial game with a rubber ball. The pre-Columbian inhabitants of Mexico began to use rubber around A.D. 1000. Thus, we can be sure that the game must have originated sometime between approximately A.D. 1000 and Cortez' arrival. | 199106_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The pre-Columbian inhabitants of Mexico played games on all ceremonial occasions.",
"The making of rubber balls was one of the earliest uses of rubber by the inhabitants of Mexico.",
"The ceremonial game referred to was popular throughout Mexico.",
"The game had been played since its inception with a rubber ball.",
"The dating of the first use of rubber in Mexico was due to Cortez."
]
| 3 | The conclusion reached above depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
The Baysville Chamber of Commerce recently met to discuss a proposal to beautify the Baysville area's freeways by relocating power lines, adding landscaping, and removing billboards. At the meeting, Mary Simms, who was representing an outdoor advertising company, declared, "Billboards are the basis of our business. If they are torn down, our ability to earn a living will be severely damaged." "I don't agree," said Jack Jordan, a local merchant. "The basis of our business is an attractive community. People who might shop in Baysville don't want to see ugly billboards on their way into town. Billboards are hurting our ability to earn a living." | 199106_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"billboards",
"basis",
"our",
"ability",
"damaged"
]
| 2 | Jack Jordan's remarks suggest that he is misinterpreting which one of the following words used by Mary Simms? |
Some people are Montagues and some people are Capulets. No Montague can be crossed in love. All Capulets can be crossed in love. Therefore, Capulets are not Montagues. Anyone who is not a Montague is intemperate. | 199106_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"The only people who can be crossed in love are intemperate Capulets.",
"Anyone who is not a Capulet is a Montague.",
"All intemperate people can be crossed in love.",
"All intemperate people are Capulets.",
"All Capulets are intemperate."
]
| 4 | Assume that all of the statements in the passage are true. If it is also true that no Montague is intemperate, then which one of the following must be true? |
The formation of hurricanes that threaten the United States mainland is triggered by high atmospheric winds off the western coast of Africa. When abundant rain falls in sub-Saharan Africa, hurricanes afterward hit the United States mainland with particular frequency. Therefore, the abundant rains must somehow promote the ability of the winds to form hurricanes. | 199106_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"People who exercise vigorously tend to sleep well. Therefore, people who exercise vigorously tend to be healthy.",
"Cars drive faster on long city blocks than on short city blocks. Long blocks are thus more dangerous for pedestrians than short blocks.",
"Many people who later become successful entrepreneurs played competitive sports in college. Therefore, playing competitive sports must enhance a person's entrepreneurial ability.",
"The blossoms of the chicory plant close up in full sun. Therefore, the chicory plant's blossoms must open up in the dark.",
"Events in Eastern Europe can affect the political mood in Central America. Therefore, liberalization in Eastern Europe will lead to liberalization in Central America."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments contains a flaw that is most similar to one in the argument above? |
It is even more important that we criticize democracies that have committed human rights violations than that we criticize dictatorships that have committed more violent human rights offenses. Human rights violations are always inexcusable, but those committed by governments that represent the will of the people are even more reprehensible than those committed by dictators. Further, our criticism is more likely to have an effect on the former than on the latter. | 199106_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"All governments commit some inexcusable and reprehensible acts.",
"Some human rights violations are more reprehensible than other, more violent human rights violations.",
"Criticism of human rights violations is certain to have no effect on a dictatorship.",
"Human rights violations are more likely to occur in democracies than in dictatorships.",
"Those who do represent the will of the people are less likely to be moved by criticism than are those who merely claim to represent the will of the people."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is a proper inference from the passage? |
A recent study found that snoring, though not common in either group, is more common among smokers than among nonsmokers. On the basis of this evidence, the author hypothesized that smoking by itself can induce snoring. | 199106_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"Stress induces both snoring and smoking in certain individuals.",
"Obesity induces many individuals to smoke.",
"Most snorers do not smoke.",
"Most smokers do not snore.",
"Both smoking and snoring cause throat problems."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the author's hypothesis? |
The press reports on political campaigns these days as if they were chess games. One candidate's campaign advisor makes a move; the other candidate's advisor makes a countermove. The press then reports on the campaign advisors and not on the candidates. The losers in this chess game are the voters. They are deprived of the information they need to make informed decisions because the press is ignoring substantive policy issues and reporting only on the process of the campaign. It is clear that the campaign advisors should stay out of the limelight and let the press report on the most revealing positions on substantive issues the candidates have taken. | 199106_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"Chess is the most appropriate analogy to reporting on political campaigns.",
"The candidates in the election are taking positions on substantive policy issues.",
"How the press reports politics determines the substantive issues in the campaign.",
"The voters are not paying enough attention to the election to be able to make informed decisions.",
"There is no difference between reporting on the political process and reporting on substantive issues."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument in the passage depends? |
The press reports on political campaigns these days as if they were chess games. One candidate's campaign advisor makes a move; the other candidate's advisor makes a countermove. The press then reports on the campaign advisors and not on the candidates. The losers in this chess game are the voters. They are deprived of the information they need to make informed decisions because the press is ignoring substantive policy issues and reporting only on the process of the campaign. It is clear that the campaign advisors should stay out of the limelight and let the press report on the most revealing positions on substantive issues the candidates have taken. | 199106_4-LR2_13_14 | [
"The candidates prefer that the press report on substantive policy issues.",
"The press enjoys being in the limelight during political campaigns.",
"The candidates believe political campaigning is analogous to a chess game.",
"The reporters find it easier to report on the processes and personalities of a campaign than on substantive policy issues.",
"Reporting on the campaign advisors is not providing all of the information the voters need in order to make informed decisions."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
Studies of brain lateralization in animals have purported to show that, whereas most human beings are right-handed, about half of any given group of animals will be "left-handed" (i.e., showing a preference for their left limbs) and half will be "right-handed." This finding is suspect, however; it has long been noted that dogs will almost always "shake hands" with the right paw. | 199106_4-LR2_14_15 | [
"Dogs are observed to scratch themselves with the left leg as well as with the right leg.",
"People who observe dogs \"shaking hands\" are observing a behavior that dogs perform only with a front paw.",
"Left-handed people sometimes feel inconvenienced or even stigmatized in a \"right-handed world,\" but dogs face no analogous difficulties.",
"Dogs that have lost a limb are able to compensate for the loss, regardless of whether the limb was lost from the right or left side.",
"In learning to perform tricks, dogs are influenced by the behavior of their trainers."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest defense against the counterexample of dogs that "shake hands" ? |
Professor: If both parents have type O blood then their children can only have type O blood. This is a genetic law. Student: But that's not true. My father has type B blood and I have type O blood. | 199106_4-LR2_15_16 | [
"only people with type O blood can have children with type O blood",
"people with type O blood cannot have children with type B blood",
"people with type B blood invariably have children with type O blood",
"what is true of one child in the family must also be true of all children in that family",
"if both parents have type B blood, then their child will have type B blood"
]
| 0 | The student has most likely misinterpreted the professor's remark to imply that |
A recent survey of brand preferences showed that R-Bar Beans are considered the best of all brands among all age groups, leading both Texas T Beans and Aunt Sally's Beans by a wide margin. However, the national sales figures show that Texas T and Aunt Sally's each sold many more cans of beans last year than did R-Bar. | 199106_4-LR2_16_17 | [
"Texas T Beans and Aunt Sally's Beans are each much less expensive than R-Bar Beans.",
"Some of the surveyed age groups showed more of a preference for R-Bar Beans than did others.",
"The survey was carried out only in the small geographic area where R-Bar distributes its beans, not nationwide.",
"Most food stores refuse to carry R-Bar Beans because the manufacturer demands that R-Bar Beans be carried exclusively.",
"R-Bar Beans were only introduced to the market three months prior to the calculation of sales figures, while Texas T Beans and Aunt Sally's Beans had been available for years."
]
| 1 | Each of the following would, by itself, help to resolve the apparent paradox described in the passage EXCEPT: |
Several cosmetics firms are committed to the active development, validation, and adoption of new product-safety tests that use cultures of human cells. They argue that the new tests serve to reduce the need for tests on live animals. | 199106_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"The pressure on cosmetics firms to cease conducting experiments that use live animals was initiated by groups of social activists.",
"Consumers are no more likely to buy products whose safety was tested on cultures of human cells than they are to buy products whose safety was tested on animals.",
"Financial consultants for the cosmetics firms believe that using human cell cultures rather than live animals to test product safety will cost the firm less in actual product-development costs.",
"Researchers in the cosmetics firms believe that fewer tests of products will be needed if cell cultures rather than live animals are used.",
"Managers of the cosmetics firms believe that it is better for their firms not to perform tests on live animals if there is an acceptable alternative way of determining product safety."
]
| 4 | The statements above most strongly support which one which one of the following conclusions? |
Can any research be found to validate the contention that those who spend time plucking out their gray hairs have more negative attitudes toward the elderly than those who shrug their shoulders about their gray hairs? Unless a person's psychopathology leads him or her to overgeneralize, there is no necessary connection. Certainly it is reasonable to like the elderly yet dislike the idea of impaired eyesight and hearing. Furthermore, holding negative attitudes toward older people merely because they are old is immoral, according to nearly universally accepted ethical standards. But there is nothing immoral about disliking some concomitants of the aging process. | 199106_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"It cannot be assumed that people who dislike some of the physical concomitants of growing old necessarily have negative feelings toward the elderly.",
"To dislike some of the physical concomitants growing old is reasonable, while to dislike the elderly is immoral.",
"Since no one likes the physical concomitants of growing old, it is wrong to dislike the elderly merely because of their physical characteristics.",
"Being elderly is fine, but the process of becoming elderly is not; and people need to understand the distinction between the two.",
"To dislike the elderly is immoral, and to do so just because one dislikes some of the physical concomitants of growing old is unreasonable."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following best expresses the main point of the passage? |
Can any research be found to validate the contention that those who spend time plucking out their gray hairs have more negative attitudes toward the elderly than those who shrug their shoulders about their gray hairs? Unless a person's psychopathology leads him or her to overgeneralize, there is no necessary connection. Certainly it is reasonable to like the elderly yet dislike the idea of impaired eyesight and hearing. Furthermore, holding negative attitudes toward older people merely because they are old is immoral, according to nearly universally accepted ethical standards. But there is nothing immoral about disliking some concomitants of the aging process. | 199106_4-LR2_18_20 | [
"dismiss an assertion as unfounded",
"appeal to reason",
"appeal to a general principle",
"discredit a common stereotype about the elderly",
"make a distinction about attitudes"
]
| 3 | In order to advance her point of view, the author does all of the following EXCEPT |
A society in which there are many crimes, such as thefts and murders, should not be called "lawless." That is an abuse of the meaning of words. As a suffix, "-less" means "without," so "lawless" means "without laws." However, a society that has no laws has no crimes, because no laws can be broken. A lawless society would, therefore, be a crimeless society. So what some have termed a lawless society should actually be called "crimeful." | 199106_4-LR2_19_21 | [
"A society that has laws has crimes.",
"A society that has no crimes has no laws.",
"A society that has many laws has many crimes.",
"A society that has some crimes has some laws.",
"A society that has many crimes has many laws."
]
| 3 | If the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
A fourteen-year study of finches on the Galapagos islands concluded that there is a definite relationship between climate and the population size of finch species that thrive at various times. During droughts, more members of large finch species survive because their bills are large enough to crack large, hard seeds, giving them a food supply unavailable to smaller birds. In rainy years, fewer members of the large finch species survive because the additional moisture fosters the growth of plants that produce small seeds. The larger finch varieties have to consume enormous numbers of small seeds to meet their energy demands, and some just cannot eat them fast enough. | 199106_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"During drought conditions, the weather promotes the growth of plants that produce small, hard seeds.",
"A lengthy period of rainy weather results in fewer large, hard seeds being produced.",
"In rainy periods, the small finches gather enough food to grow much larger and heavier, but their ultimate size is limited by their inability to eat small seeds fast.",
"The Galapagos climate during this fourteen-year period had about as much dry weather as it had wet weather.",
"Small seeds do not have to be cracked open in order to be digested by any of the finch varieties."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following must be assumed in order to justify the conclusion that climatic variations cause a major difference in survival rates of small and large finches? |
Mr. Blatt:Expert consultants are sought after by management because they help executives make better decisions. That is why they are worth the substantial fees they charge. Ms. Fring: Nonsense. Expert consultants are hired in order to enable executives to avoid responsibility. The more the experts cost, the more they can be blamed when things go wrong. | 199106_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"A company that is trying to decide whether to move its manufacturing plant hires an expensive expert to conduct a cost/benefit analysis.",
"Two competing companies faced with very similar problems adopt different solutions, one with the help of a consultant, one without.",
"A successful firm of expert consultants seeks to increase its volume of business by reducing its fees, but its volume of business drops.",
"An expert consultant builds up a successful business by charging clients a substantial percentage of the amount an independent assessor judges that the consultant saved the company.",
"A company follows a consultant's advice to open two new stores, but both stores are only marginally profitable at first."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if it occurred, would be the strongest evidence favoring Ms. Fring's position over Mr. Blatt's position? |
Although all contemporary advertising tries to persuade, only a small portion of contemporary advertising can be considered morally reprehensible. It nevertheless follows that some attempts at persuasion can be regarded as morally reprehensible. | 199106_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"None of the chemicals used for cleaning the Sistine Chapel will affect the original dyes. Hence, the colors used by Michelangelo will be fully restored.",
"Not all operational tracking studies are conducted to illustrate exact corporate returns on investment. Hence, some of these studies are not reliable.",
"A good manager always makes important decisions on the basis of adequate data, although of course some managers fail to do this. It follows that some managers are not good managers.",
"There is a direct correlation between the number of times you repeat something and the degree to which you retain it. Therefore, repetition is always a critical factor in remembering.",
"Some short poems are thematically pluralistic, since some sonnets are characterized by such pluralism, and all sonnets are short poems."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, in its logical features, most closely parallels the reasoning used in the passage? |
Some people believe that witnessing violence in movies will discharge aggressive energy. Does watching someone else eat fill one's own stomach? | 199110_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"Some people think appropriating supplies at work for their own personal use is morally wrong. Isn't shoplifting morally wrong?",
"Some people think nationalism is defensible. Hasn't nationalism been the excuse for committing abominable crimes?",
"Some people think that boxing is fixed just because wrestling usually is. Are the two sports managed by the same sort of people?",
"Some people think that economists can control inflation. Can meteorologists make the sun shine?",
"Some people think workaholics are compensating for a lack of interpersonal skills. However, aren't most doctors workaholics?"
]
| 3 | In which one of the following does the reasoning most closely parallel that employed in the passage? |
Ann: All the campers at Camp Winnehatchee go to Tri-Cities High School. Bill: That's not true. Some Tri-Cities students are campers at Camp Lakemont. | 199110_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"most of the campers at Camp Lakemont come from high schools other than Tri-Cities",
"most Tri-Cities High School students are campers at Camp Winnehatchee",
"some Tri-Cities High School students have withdrawn from Camp Lakemont",
"all Tri-Cities High School students attend summer camp",
"only campers at Camp Winnehatchee are students at Tri-Cities High School"
]
| 4 | Bill's answer can be best explained on the assumption that he has interpreted Ann's remark to mean that |
More than a year ago, the city announced that police would crack down on illegally parked cars and that resources would be diverted from writing speeding tickets to ticketing illegally parked cars. But no crackdown has taken place. The police chief claims that resources have had to be diverted from writing speeding tickets to combating the city's staggering drug problem. Yet the police are still writing as many speeding tickets as ever. Therefore, the excuse about resources being tied up in fighting drug-related crime simply is not true. | 199110_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"every member of the police force is qualified to work on combating the city's drug problem",
"drug-related crime is not as serious a problem for the city as the police chief claims it is",
"writing speeding tickets should be as important a priority for the city as combating drug-related crime",
"the police could be cracking down on illegally parked cars and combating the drug problem without having to reduce writing speeding tickets",
"the police cannot continue writing as many speeding tickets as ever while diverting resources to combating drug-related crime"
]
| 4 | The conclusion in the passage depends on the assumption that |
Dried grass clippings mixed into garden soil gradually decompose, providing nutrients for beneficial soil bacteria. This results in better-than-average plant growth. Yet mixing fresh grass clippings into garden soil usually causes poorer-than-average plant growth. | 199110_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"The number of beneficial soil bacteria increases whenever any kind of plant material is mixed into garden soil.",
"Nutrients released by dried grass clippings are immediately available to beneficial soil bacteria.",
"Some dried grass clippings retain nutrients originally derived from commercial lawn fertilizers, and thus provide additional enrichment to the soil.",
"Fresh grass clippings mixed into soil decompose rapidly, generating high levels of heat that kill beneficial soil bacteria.",
"When a mix of fresh and dried grass clippings is mixed into garden soil, plant growth often decreases."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the difference in plant growth described above? |
A gas tax of one cent per gallon would raise one billion dollars per year at current consumption rates. Since a tax of fifty cents per gallon would therefore raise fifty billion dollars per year, it seems a perfect way to deal with the federal budget deficit. This tax would have the additional advantage that the resulting drop in the demand for gasoline would be ecologically sound and would keep our country from being too dependent on foreign oil producers. | 199110_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"The author cites irrelevant data.",
"The author relies on incorrect current consumption figures.",
"The author makes incompatible assumptions.",
"The author mistakes an effect for a cause.",
"The author appeals to conscience rather than reason."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most clearly identifies an error in the author's reasoning? |
As symbols of the freedom of the wilderness, bald eagles have the unique capacity to inspire people and foster in them a sympathetic attitude toward the needs of other threatened species. Clearly, without that sympathy and the political will it engenders, the needs of more obscure species will go unmet. The conservation needs of many obscure species can only be met by beginning with the conservation of this symbolic species, the bald eagle. | 199110_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"Because bald eagles symbolize freedom, conservation efforts should be concentrated on them rather than on other, more obscure species.",
"The conservation of bald eagles is the first necessary step in conserving other endangered species.",
"Without increased public sympathy for conservation, the needs of many symbolic species will go unmet.",
"People's love of the wilderness can be used to engender political support for conservation efforts.",
"Other threatened species do not inspire people or foster sympathy as much as do bald eagles."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is the main point of the passage as a whole? |
There is no reason why the work of scientists has to be officially confirmed before being published. There is a system in place for the confirmation or disconfirmation of scientific findings, namely, the replication of results by other scientists. Poor scientific work on the part of any one scientist, which can include anything from careless reporting practices to fraud, is not harmful. It will be exposed and rendered harmless when other scientists conduct the experiments and obtain disconfirmatory results. | 199110_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Scientific experiments can go unchallenged for many years before they are replicated.",
"Most scientists work in universities, where their work is submitted to peer review before publication.",
"Most scientists are under pressure to make their work accessible to the scrutiny of replication.",
"In scientific experiments, careless reporting is more common than fraud.",
"Most scientists work as part of a team rather than alone."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, would weaken the argument? |
Alice: Quotas on automobile imports to the United States should be eliminated. Then domestic producers would have to compete directly with Japanese manufacturers and would be forced to produce higher-quality cars. Such competition would be good for consumers. David: You fail to realize, Alice, that quotas on automobile imports are pervasive worldwide. Since Germany, Britain, and France have quotas, so should the United States. | 199110_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"David falsely accuses Alice of contradicting herself.",
"David unfairly directs his argument against Alice personally.",
"David uncovers a hidden assumption underlying Alice's position.",
"David takes a position that is similar to the one Alice has taken.",
"David fails to address the reasons Alice cites in favor of her conclusion."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following most accurately characterizes David's response to Alice's statement? |
Governments have only one response to public criticism of socially necessary services: regulation of the activity of providing those services. But governments inevitably make the activity more expensive by regulating it, and that is particularly troublesome in these times of strained financial resources. However, since public criticism of child-care services has undermined all confidence in such services, and since such services are socially necessary, the government is certain to respond. | 199110_2-LR1_9_9 | [
"The quality of child care will improve.",
"The cost of providing child-care services will increase.",
"The government will use funding to foster advances in child care.",
"If public criticism of policy is strongly voiced, the government is certain to respond.",
"If child-care services are not regulated, the cost of providing child care will not increase."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage? |
Advertisers are often criticized for their unscrupulous manipulation of people's tastes and wants. There is evidence, however, that some advertisers are motivated by moral as well as financial considerations. A particular publication decided to change its image from being a family newspaper to concentrating on sex and violence, thus appealing to a different readership. Some advertisers withdrew their advertisements from the publication, and this must have been because they morally disapproved of publishing salacious material. | 199110_2-LR1_10_10 | [
"The advertisers switched their advertisements to other family newspapers.",
"Some advertisers switched from family newspapers to advertise in the changed publication.",
"The advertisers expected their product sales to increase if they stayed with the changed publication, but to decrease if they withdrew.",
"People who generally read family newspapers are not likely to buy newspapers that concentrate on sex and violence.",
"It was expected that the changed publication would appeal principally to those in a different income group."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument? |
"If the forest continues to disappear at its present pace, the koala will approach extinction," said the biologist. "So all that is needed to save the koala is to stop deforestation," said the politician. | 199110_2-LR1_11_11 | [
"Deforestation continues and the koala becomes extinct.",
"Deforestation is stopped and the koala becomes extinct.",
"Reforestation begins and the koala survives.",
"Deforestation is slowed and the koala survives.",
"Deforestation is slowed and the koala approaches extinction."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements is consistent with the biologist's claim but not with the politician's claim? |
People have long been fascinated by the paranormal. Over the years, numerous researchers have investigated telepathy only to find that conclusive evidence for its existence has persistently evaded them. Despite this, there are still those who believe that there must be "something in it" since some research seems to support the view that telepathy exists. However, it can often be shown that other explanations that do comply with known laws can be given. Therefore, it is premature to conclude that telepathy is an alternative means of communication. | 199110_2-LR1_12_12 | [
"supports the conclusion by pointing to the inadequacy of evidence for the opposite view",
"supports the conclusion by describing particular experiments",
"supports the conclusion by overgeneralizing from a specific piece of evidence",
"draws a conclusion that is not supported by the premises",
"rephrases the conclusion without offering any support for it"
]
| 0 | In the passage, the author |
If retail stores experience a decrease in revenues during this holiday season, then either attitudes toward extravagant gift-giving have changed or prices have risen beyond the level most people can afford. If attitudes have changed, then we all have something to celebrate this season. If prices have risen beyond the level most people can afford, then it must be that salaries have not kept pace with rising prices during the past year. | 199110_2-LR1_13_13 | [
"Attitudes toward extravagant gift-giving have changed.",
"Retail stores will not experience a decrease in retail sales during this holiday season.",
"Prices in retail stores have not risen beyond the level that most people can afford during this holiday season.",
"Attitudes toward extravagant gift-giving have not changed, and stores will not experience a decrease in revenues during this holiday season.",
"Either attitudes toward extravagant gift-giving have changed or prices have risen beyond the level that most people can afford during this holiday season."
]
| 2 | Assume the premises above to be true. If salaries have kept pace with rising prices during the past year, which one of the following must be true? |
The "suicide wave" that followed the United States stock market crash of October 1929 is more legend than fact. Careful examination of the monthly figures on the causes of death in 1929 shows that the number of suicides in October and in November was comparatively low. In only three other months were the monthly figures lower. During the summer months, when the stock market was flourishing, the number of suicides was substantially higher. | 199110_2-LR1_14_14 | [
"The suicide rate is influenced by many psychological, interpersonal, and societal factors during any given historical period.",
"October and November have almost always had relatively high suicide rates, even during the 1920s and 1930s.",
"The suicide rate in October and November of 1929 was considerably higher than the average for those months during several preceding and following years.",
"During the years surrounding the stock market crash, suicide rates were typically lower at the beginning of any calendar year than toward the end of that year.",
"Because of seasonal differences, the number of suicides in October and November of 1929 would not be expected to be the same as those for other months."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would best challenge the conclusion of the passage? |
A well-known sports figure found that combining publicity tours with playing tours led to problems, so she stopped combining the two. She no longer allows bookstore appearances and playing in competition to occur in the same city within the same trip. This week she is traveling to London to play in a major competition, so during her stay in London she will not be making any publicity appearances at any bookstore in London. | 199110_2-LR1_15_15 | [
"Wherever there is an Acme Bugkiller, many wasps are killed. The Z family garden has an Acme Bugkiller, so any wasps remaining in the garden will soon be killed.",
"The only times that the hospital's emergency room staff attends to relatively less serious emergencies are times when there is no critical emergency to attend to. On Monday night the emergency room staff attended to a series of fairly minor emergencies, so there must not have been any critical emergencies to take care of at the time.",
"Tomato plants require hot summers to thrive. Farms in the cool summers of country Y probably do not have thriving tomato plants.",
"Higher grades lead to better job opportunities, and studying leads to higher grades. Therefore, studying will lead to better job opportunities.",
"Butter knives are not sharp. Q was not murdered with a sharp blade, so suspect X's butter knife may have been the murder weapon."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning used in the passage? |
The advanced technology of ski boots and bindings has brought a dramatic drop in the incidence of injuries that occur on the slopes of ski resorts: from 9 injuries per 1,000 skiers in 1950 to 3 in 1980. As a result, the remainder of ski-related injuries, which includes all injuries occurring on the premises of a ski resort but not on the slopes, rose from 10 percent of all ski-related injuries in 1950 to 25 percent in 1980. The incidence of these injuries, including accidents such as falling down steps, increases with the amount of alcohol consumed per skier. | 199110_2-LR1_16_16 | [
"As the number of ski injuries that occur on the slopes decreases, the number of injuries that occur on the premises of ski resorts increases.",
"The amount of alcohol consumed per skier increased between 1950 and 1980.",
"The technology of ski boots and bindings affects the incidence of each type of ski-related injury.",
"If the technology of ski boots and bindings continues to advance, the incidence of ski-related injuries will continue to decline.",
"Injuries that occurred on the slopes of ski resorts made up a smaller percentage of ski-related injuries in 1980 than in 1950."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
The advanced technology of ski boots and bindings has brought a dramatic drop in the incidence of injuries that occur on the slopes of ski resorts: from 9 injuries per 1,000 skiers in 1950 to 3 in 1980. As a result, the remainder of ski-related injuries, which includes all injuries occurring on the premises of a ski resort but not on the slopes, rose from 10 percent of all ski-related injuries in 1950 to 25 percent in 1980. The incidence of these injuries, including accidents such as falling down steps, increases with the amount of alcohol consumed per skier. | 199110_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"The number of ski injuries that occurred on the slopes was greater in 1980 than in 1950.",
"A skier was less likely to be injured on the slopes in 1950 than in 1980.",
"The reporting of ski injuries became more accurate between 1950 and 1980.",
"The total number of skiers dropped between 1950 and 1980.",
"Some ski-related injuries occurred in 1980 to people who were not skiing."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following conflicts with information in the passage? |
Learning how to build a nest plays an important part in the breeding success of birds. For example, Dr. Snow has recorded the success of a number of blackbirds in several successive years. He finds that birds nesting for the first time are less successful in breeding than are older birds, and also less successful than they themselves are a year later. This cannot be a mere matter of size and strength, since blackbirds, like the great majority of birds, are fully grown when they leave the nest. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that they benefit by their nesting experience. | 199110_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"Blackbirds build better nests than other birds.",
"The capacity of blackbirds to lay viable eggs increases with each successive trial during the first few years of reproduction.",
"The breeding success of birds nesting for the second time is greater than that of birds nesting for the first time.",
"Smaller and weaker blackbirds breed just as successfully as bigger and stronger blackbirds.",
"Up to 25 percent of all birds are killed by predators before they start to nest."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument? |
How do the airlines expect to prevent commercial plane crashes? Studies have shown that pilot error contributes to two-thirds of all such crashes. To address this problem, the airlines have upgraded their training programs by increasing the hours of classroom instruction and emphasizing communication skills in the cockpit. But it is unrealistic to expect such measures to compensate for pilots' lack of actual flying time. Therefore, the airlines should rethink their training approach to reducing commercial crashes. | 199110_2-LR1_18_19 | [
"Training programs can eliminate pilot errors.",
"Commercial pilots routinely undergo additional training throughout their careers.",
"The number of airline crashes will decrease if pilot training programs focus on increasing actual flying time.",
"Lack of actual flying time is an important contributor to pilot error in commercial plane crashes.",
"Communication skills are not important to pilot training programs."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends? |
All savings accounts are interest-bearing accounts. The interest from some interest-bearing accounts is tax-free, so there must be some savings accounts that have tax-free interest. | 199110_2-LR1_19_20 | [
"All artists are intellectuals. Some great photographers are artists. Therefore, some great photographers must be intellectuals.",
"All great photographers are artists. All artists are intellectuals. Therefore, some great photographers must be intellectuals.",
"All great photographers are artists. Some artists are intellectuals. Therefore, some great photographers are intellectuals.",
"All great photographers are artists. Some great photographers are intellectuals. Therefore, some artists must be intellectuals.",
"All great photographers are artists. No artists are intellectuals. Therefore, some great photographers must not be intellectuals."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following arguments is flawed in a way most similar to the way in which the passage is flawed? |
One method of dating the emergence of species is to compare the genetic material of related species. Scientists theorize that the more genetically similar two species are to each other, the more recently they diverged from a common ancestor. After comparing genetic material from giant pandas, red pandas, raccoons, coatis, and all seven bear species, scientists concluded that bears and raccoons diverged 30 to 50 million years ago. They further concluded that red pandas separated from the ancestor of today's raccoons and coatis a few million years later, some 10 million years before giant pandas diverged from the other bears. | 199110_2-LR1_20_21 | [
"Giant pandas and red pandas are more closely related than scientists originally thought they were.",
"Scientists now count the giant panda as the eighth species of bear.",
"It is possible to determine, within a margin of just a few years, the timing of divergence of various species.",
"Scientists have found that giant pandas are more similar genetically to bears than to raccoons.",
"There is substantial consensus among scientists that giant pandas and red pandas are equally related to raccoons."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
Despite improvements in treatment for asthma, the death rate from this disease has doubled during the past decade from its previous rate. Two possible explanations for this increase have been offered. First, the recording of deaths due to asthma has become more widespread and accurate in the past decade than it had been previously. Second, there has been an increase in urban pollution. However, since the rate of deaths due to asthma has increased dramatically even in cities with long-standing, comprehensive medical records and with little or no urban pollution, one must instead conclude that the cause of increased deaths is the use of bronchial inhalers by asthma sufferers to relieve their symptoms. | 199110_2-LR1_21_22 | [
"Urban populations have doubled in the past decade.",
"Records of asthma deaths are as accurate for the past twenty years as for the past ten years.",
"Evidence suggests that bronchial inhalers make the lungs more sensitive to irritation by airborne pollen.",
"By temporarily relieving the symptoms of asthma, inhalers encourage sufferers to avoid more beneficial measures.",
"Ten years ago bronchial inhalers were not available as an asthma treatment."
]
| 0 | Each of the following, if true, provides support to the argument EXCEPT: |
Despite improvements in treatment for asthma, the death rate from this disease has doubled during the past decade from its previous rate. Two possible explanations for this increase have been offered. First, the recording of deaths due to asthma has become more widespread and accurate in the past decade than it had been previously. Second, there has been an increase in urban pollution. However, since the rate of deaths due to asthma has increased dramatically even in cities with long-standing, comprehensive medical records and with little or no urban pollution, one must instead conclude that the cause of increased deaths is the use of bronchial inhalers by asthma sufferers to relieve their symptoms. | 199110_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"Urban pollution has not doubled in the past decade.",
"Doctors and patients generally ignore the role of allergies in asthma.",
"Bronchial inhalers are unsafe, even when used according to the recommended instructions.",
"The use of bronchial inhalers aggravates other diseases that frequently occur among asthma sufferers and that often lead to fatal outcomes even when the asthma itself does not.",
"Increased urban pollution, improved recording of asthma deaths, and the use of bronchial inhalers are the only possible explanations of the increased death rate due to asthma."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
There is little point in looking to artists for insights into political issues. Most of them hold political views that are less insightful than those of any reasonably well-educated person who is not an artist. Indeed, when taken as a whole, the statements made by artists, including those considered to be great, indicate that artistic talent and political insight are rarely found together. | 199110_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"There are no artists who have insights into political issues.",
"A thorough education in art makes a person reasonably well educated.",
"Every reasonably well-educated person who is not an artist has more insight into political issues than any artist.",
"Politicians rarely have any artistic talent.",
"Some artists are no less politically insightful than some reasonably well-educated persons who are not artists."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
A major art theft from a museum was remarkable in that the pieces stolen clearly had been carefully selected. The criterion for selection, however, clearly had not been greatest estimated market value. It follows that the theft was specifically carried out to suit the taste of some individual collector for whose private collection the pieces were destined. | 199110_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Any art theft can, on the evidence of the selection of pieces stolen, be categorized as committed either at the direction of a single known individual or at the direction of a group of known individuals.",
"Any art theft committed at the direction of a single individual results in a pattern of works taken and works left alone that defies rational analysis.",
"The pattern of works taken and works left alone can sometimes distinguish one type of art theft from another.",
"Art thefts committed with no preexisting plan for the disposition of the stolen works do not always involve theft of the most valuable pieces only.",
"The pattern of works taken and works left alone in an art theft can be particularly damaging to the integrity of the remaining collection."
]
| 2 | The argument tacitly appeals to which one of the following principles? |
The teeth of some mammals show "growth rings" that result from the constant depositing of layers of cementum as opaque bands in summer and translucent bands in winter. Cross sections of pigs' teeth found in an excavated Stone Age trash pit revealed bands of remarkably constant width except that the band deposited last, which was invariably translucent, was only about half the normal width. | 199110_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"in an unusually early winter",
"at roughly the same age",
"roughly in midwinter",
"in a natural catastrophe",
"from starvation"
]
| 2 | The statements above most strongly support the conclusion that the animals died |
The United States has never been a great international trader. It found most of its raw materials and customers for finished products within its own borders. The terrible consequences of this situation have become apparent, as this country now owes the largest foreign debt in the world and is a playground for wealthy foreign investors. The moral is clear: a country can no more live without foreign trade than a dog can live by eating its own tail. | 199110_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"draw on an analogy",
"appeal to historical fact",
"identify a cause and an effect",
"suggest a cause of the current economic situation",
"question the ethical basis of an economic situation"
]
| 4 | In order to advance her point of view, the author does each of the following EXCEPT |
Giselle: The government needs to ensure that the public consumes less petroleum. When things cost more, people buy and use less of them. Therefore, the government should raise the sales tax on gasoline, a major petroleum product. Antoine: The government should not raise the sales tax on gasoline. Such an increase would be unfair to gasoline users. If taxes are to be increased, the increases should be applied in such a way that they spread the burden of providing the government with increased revenues among many people, not just the users of gasoline. | 199110_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"he ignores the fact that Giselle does not base her argument for raising the gasoline sales tax on the government's need for increased revenues",
"he fails to specify how many taxpayers there are who are not gasoline users",
"his conclusion is based on an assertion regarding unfairness, and unfairness is a very subjective concept",
"he mistakenly assumes that Giselle wants a sales tax increase only on gasoline",
"he makes the implausible assumption that the burden of increasing government revenues can be more evenly distributed among the people through other means besides increasing the gasoline sales tax"
]
| 0 | As a rebuttal of Giselle's argument, Antoine's response is ineffective because |
A government agency publishes ratings of airlines, ranking highest the airlines that have the smallest proportion of late flights. The agency's purpose is to establish an objective measure of the relative efficiency of different airlines' personnel in meeting published flight schedules. | 199110_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"Travelers sometimes have no choice of airlines for a given trip at a given time.",
"Flights are often made late by bad weather conditions that affect some airlines more than others.",
"The flight schedules of all airlines allow extra time for flights that go into or out of very busy airports.",
"Airline personnel are aware that the government agency is monitoring all airline flights for lateness.",
"Flights are defined as \"late\" only if they arrive more than fifteen minutes past their scheduled arrival time, and a record is made of how much later than fifteen minutes they are."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, would tend to invalidate use of the ratings for the agency's purpose? |
Although this bottle is labeled "vinegar," no fizzing occurred when some of the liquid in it was added to powder from this box labeled "baking soda." But when an acidic liquid such as vinegar is added to baking soda the resulting mixture fizzes, so this bottle clearly has been mislabeled. | 199110_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"ignores the possibility that the bottle contained an acidic liquid other than vinegar",
"fails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effect",
"depends on the use of the imprecise term \"fizz\"",
"does not take into account the fact that scientific principles can be definitively tested only under controlled laboratory conditions",
"assumes that the fact of a labeling error is proof of an intention to deceive"
]
| 1 | A flaw in the reasoning in the argument above is that this argument |
Marine biologists have long thought that variation in the shell color of aquatic snails evolved as a protective camouflage against birds and other predators. Brown shells seem to be more frequent when the underlying seafloor is dark-colored and white shells more frequent when the underlying seafloor is light-colored. A new theory has been advanced, however, that claims that shell color is related to physiological stress associated with heat absorption. According to this theory, brown shells will be more prevalent in areas where the wave action of the sea is great and thus heat absorption from the Sun is minimized, whereas white shells will be more numerous in calmer waters where the snails will absorb more heat from the Sun's rays. | 199110_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"dark-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a dark, rocky bottom and many predators",
"dark-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a white, sandy bottom",
"light-shelled snails in an inlet with much wave action and a dark, rocky bottom",
"light-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a dark, rocky bottom and many predators",
"light-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a white, sandy bottom and many predators"
]
| 3 | Evidence that would strongly favor the new theory over the traditional theory would be the discovery of a large majority of |
Measurements of the extent of amino-acid decomposition in fragments of eggshell found at archaeological sites in such places as southern Africa can be used to obtain accurate dates for sites up to 200,000 years old. Because the decomposition is slower in cool climates, the technique can be used to obtain accurate dates for sites almost a million years old in cooler regions. | 199110_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"The oldest archaeological sites are not in southern Africa, but rather in cooler regions of the world.",
"The amino-acid decomposition that enables eggshells to be used in dating does not take place in other organic matter found at ancient archaeological sites.",
"If the site being dated has been subject to large unsuspected climatic fluctuations during the time the eggshell has been at the site, application of the technique is less likely to yield accurate results.",
"After 200,000 years in a cool climate, less than one-fifth of the amino acids in a fragment of eggshell that would provide material for dating with the technique will have decomposed and will thus no longer be suitable for examination by the technique.",
"Fragments of eggshell are more likely to be found at ancient archaeological sites in warm regions of the world than at such sites in cooler regions."
]
| 2 | The information above provides the most support for which one of the following conclusions? |
Advertisement: Clark brand-name parts are made for cars manufactured in this country. They satisfy all of our government automotive tests—the toughest such tests in the world. With foreign-made parts, you never know which might be reliable and which are cheap look-alikes that are poorly constructed and liable to cost you hundreds of dollars in repairs. Therefore, be smart and insist on brand-name parts by Clark for your car. | 199110_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Clark parts are available only in this country",
"foreign-made parts are not suitable for cars manufactured in this country",
"no foreign-made parts satisfy our government standards",
"parts that satisfy our government standards are not as poorly constructed as cheap foreign-made parts",
"if parts are made for cars manufactured in our country, they are not poorly constructed"
]
| 3 | The argument requires the assumption that |
Even if a crime that has been committed by computer is discovered and reported, the odds of being both arrested and convicted greatly favor the criminal. | 199110_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"The preparation of computer-fraud cases takes much more time than is required for average fraud cases, and the productivity of prosecutors is evaluated by the number of good cases made.",
"In most police departments, officers are rotated through different assignments every two or three years, a shorter time than it takes to become proficient as a computer-crime investigator.",
"The priorities of local police departments, under whose jurisdiction most computer crime falls, are weighted toward visible street crime that communities perceive as threatening.",
"Computer criminals have rarely been sentenced to serve time in prison, because prisons are overcrowded with violent criminals and drug offenders.",
"The many police officers who are untrained in computers often inadvertently destroy the physical evidence of computer crime."
]
| 3 | Each of the following, if true, supports the claim above EXCEPT: |
Every week, the programming office at an FM radio station reviewed unsolicited letters from listeners who were expressing comments on the station's programs. One week, the station received 50 letters with favorable comments about the station's news reporting and music selection and 10 letters with unfavorable comments on the station's new movie review segment of the evening program. Faced with this information, the programming director assumed that if some listeners did not like the movie review segment, then there must be other listeners who did like it. Therefore, he decided to continue the movie review segment of the evening program. | 199110_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"He failed to recognize that people are more likely to write letters of criticism than of praise.",
"He could not properly infer from the fact that some listeners did not like the movie review segment that some others did.",
"He failed to take into consideration the discrepancy in numbers between favorable and unfavorable letters received.",
"He failed to take into account the relation existing between the movie review segment and the news.",
"He did not wait until he received at least 50 letters with unfavorable comments about the movie review segment before making his decision."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following identifies a problem with the programming director's decision process? |
"Though they soon will, patients should not have a legal right to see their medical records. As a doctor, I see two reasons for this. First, giving them access will be time-wasting because it will significantly reduce the amount of time that medical staff can spend on more important duties, by forcing them to retrieve and return files. Second, if my experience is anything to go by, no patients are going to ask for access to their records anyway." | 199110_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"The new law will require that doctors, when seeing a patient in their office, must be ready to produce the patient's records immediately, not just ready to retrieve them.",
"The task of retrieving and returning files would fall to the lowest-paid member of a doctor's office staff.",
"Any patients who asked to see their medical records would also insist on having details they did not understand explained to them.",
"The new law does not rule out that doctors may charge patients for extra expenses incurred specifically in order to comply with the new law.",
"Some doctors have all along had a policy of allowing their patients access to their medical records, but those doctors' patients took no advantage of this policy."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, establishes that the doctor's second reason does not cancel out the first? |
Alia: Hawthorne admits that he has influence with high government officials. He further admits that he sold that influence to an environmental interest group. There can be no justification for this kind of unethical behavior. Martha: I disagree that he was unethical. The group that retained Hawthorne's services is dedicated to the cause of preventing water pollution. So, in using his influence to benefit this group, Hawthorne also benefited the public. | 199110_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"the meaning of ethical behavior has changed over time",
"the consequences of Hawthorne's behavior can ethically justify that behavior",
"the standards for judging ethical behavior can be imposed on Hawthorne by another",
"the meaning of ethical behavior is the same in a public situation as in a private one",
"the definition of ethical behavior is rooted in philosophy or religion"
]
| 1 | Alia and Martha disagree on whether |
The mayor boasts that the average ambulance turnaround time, the time from summons to delivery of the patient, has been reduced this year for top-priority emergencies. This is a serious misrepresentation. This "reduction" was produced simply by redefining "top priority." Such emergencies used to include gunshot wounds and electrocutions, the most time-consuming cases. Now they are limited strictly to heart attacks and strokes. | 199110_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"The number of heart attacks and strokes declined this year.",
"The mayor redefined the city's financial priorities this year.",
"Experts disagree with the mayor's definition of \"top-priority emergency.\"",
"Other cities include gunshot wound cases in their category of top-priority emergencies.",
"One half of all of last year's top-priority emergencies were gunshot wounds and electrocution cases."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following would strengthen the author's conclusion that it was the redefinition of "top priority" that produced the reduction in turnaround time? |
In a large residential building, there is a rule that no pets are allowed. A group of pet lovers tried to change that rule but failed. The rule-changing procedure outlined in the building's regulations states that only if a group of tenants can obtain the signatures of 10 percent of the tenants on a petition to change a rule will the proposed change be put to a majority vote of all the tenants in the building. It follows that the pet lovers were voted down on their proposal by the majority of the tenants. | 199110_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"The pet lovers succeeded in obtaining the signatures of 10 percent of the tenants on their petition.",
"The signatures of less than 10 percent of the tenants were obtained on the pet lovers' petition.",
"Ninety percent of the tenants are against changing the rule forbidding pets.",
"The support of 10 percent of the tenants for a rule change ensures that the rule change will be adopted.",
"The failure of the pet lovers to obtain the signatures of 10 percent of the tenants on their petition for a rule change ensures that the rule change will be voted down by a majority of the tenants."
]
| 0 | The argument depends on which one of the following assumptions? |
Nuclear fusion is a process whereby the nuclei of atoms are joined, or "fused," and in which energy is released. One of the by-products of fusion is helium-4 gas. A recent fusion experiment was conducted using "heavy" water contained in a sealed flask. The flask was, in turn, contained in an air-filled chamber designed to eliminate extraneous vibration. After the experiment, a measurable amount of helium-4 gas was found in the air of the chamber. The experimenters cited this evidence in support of their conclusion that fusion had been achieved. | 199110_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"Helium-4 was not the only gas found in the experiment chamber.",
"When fusion is achieved, it normally produces several by-products, including tritium and gamma rays.",
"The amount of helium-4 found in the chamber's air did not exceed the amount of helium-4 that is found in ordinary air.",
"Helium-4 gas rapidly breaks down, forming ordinary helium gas after a few hours.",
"Nuclear fusion reactions are characterized by the release of large amounts of heat."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would cast doubt on the experimenters' conclusion? |
Every photograph, because it involves the light rays that something emits hitting film, must in some obvious sense be true. But because it could always have been made to show things differently than it does, it cannot express the whole truth and, in that sense, is false. Therefore, nothing can ever be definitively proved with a photograph. | 199110_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"Whatever is false in the sense that it cannot express the whole truth cannot furnish definitive proof.",
"The whole truth cannot be known.",
"It is not possible to determine the truthfulness of a photograph in any sense.",
"It is possible to use a photograph as corroborative evidence if there is additional evidence establishing the truth about the scene photographed.",
"If something is being photographed, then it is possible to prove definitively the truth about it."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption that would permit the conclusion above to be properly drawn? |
Some cleaning fluids, synthetic carpets, wall paneling, and other products release toxins, such as formaldehyde and benzene, into the household air supply. This is not a problem in well-ventilated houses, but it is a problem in houses that are so well insulated that they trap toxins as well as heat. Recent tests, however, demonstrate that houseplants remove some household toxins from the air and thereby eliminate their danger. In one test, 20 large plants eliminated formaldehyde from a small, well-insulated house. | 199110_4-LR2_18_18 | [
"There will no longer be any need to ventilate the house.",
"The concentration of toxins in the household air supply will remain the same.",
"The house will be warm and have a safe air supply.",
"If there is formaldehyde in the household air supply, its level will decrease.",
"If formaldehyde and benzene are being released into the household air supply, the quantities released of each will decrease."
]
| 3 | Assume that a person who lives in a small, well-insulated house that contains toxin-releasing products places houseplants, such as those tested, in the house. Which one of the following can be expected as a result? |
Some cleaning fluids, synthetic carpets, wall paneling, and other products release toxins, such as formaldehyde and benzene, into the household air supply. This is not a problem in well-ventilated houses, but it is a problem in houses that are so well insulated that they trap toxins as well as heat. Recent tests, however, demonstrate that houseplants remove some household toxins from the air and thereby eliminate their danger. In one test, 20 large plants eliminated formaldehyde from a small, well-insulated house. | 199110_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"Houseplants can remove benzene from the air.",
"Nonsynthetic products do not release toxins into houses.",
"Keeping houseplants is an effective means of trapping heat in a poorly insulated house.",
"Keeping houseplants can compensate for some of the negative effects of poor ventilation.",
"The air in a well-insulated house with houseplants will contain fewer toxins than the air in a well-ventilated house without houseplants."
]
| 3 | The passage is structured to lead to which one of the following conclusions? |
Normal full-term babies are all born with certain instinctive reflexes that disappear by the age of two months. Because this three-month-old baby exhibits these reflexes, this baby is not a normal full-term baby. | 199110_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"Because carbon dioxide turns limewater milky and this gas is oxygen, it will not turn limewater milky.",
"Because no ape can talk and Suzy is an ape, Suzy cannot talk.",
"Because humans are social animals and Henry is sociable, Henry is normal.",
"Because opossums have abdominal pouches and this animal lacks any such pouch, this animal is not an opossum.",
"Because some types of trees shed their leaves annually and this tree has not shed its leaves, it is not normal."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following has a logical structure most like that of the argument above? |
Efficiency and redundancy are contradictory characteristics of linguistic systems; however, they can be used together to achieve usefulness and reliability in communication. If a spoken language is completely efficient, then every possible permutation of its basic language sounds can be an understandable word. However, if the human auditory system is an imperfect receptor of sounds, then it is not true that every possible permutation of a spoken language's basic language sounds can be an understandable word. | 199110_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"Efficiency causes a spoken language to be useful and redundancy causes it to be reliable.",
"Neither efficiency nor redundancy can be completely achieved in spoken language.",
"If a spoken language were completely redundant, then it could not be useful.",
"If the human auditory system were a perfect receptor of sounds, then every permutation of language sounds would be an understandable word.",
"If the human auditory system is an imperfect receptor of sounds, then a spoken language cannot be completely efficient."
]
| 4 | If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
All intelligent people are nearsighted. I am very nearsighted. So I must be a genius. | 199110_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"I must be stupid because all intelligent people are nearsighted and I have perfect eyesight.",
"All chickens have beaks. This bird has a beak. So this bird must be a chicken.",
"All pigs have four legs, but this spider has eight legs. So this spider must be twice as big as any pig.",
"John is extremely happy, so he must be extremely tall because all tall people are happy.",
"All geniuses are very nearsighted. I must be very nearsighted since I am a genius."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following exhibits both of the logical flaws exhibited in the argument above? |
An advertisement states: Like Danaxil, all headache pills can stop your headache. But when you are in pain, you want relief right away. Danaxil is for you—no headache pill stops pain more quickly. Evelyn and Jane are each suffering from a headache. | 199110_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"Evelyn's headache pain will be relieved, but Jane's will not.",
"Evelyn's headache pain will be relieved more quickly than Jane's.",
"Evelyn's headache will be relieved at least as quickly as Jane's.",
"Jane's headache pain will be relieved at the same time as is Evelyn's.",
"Jane will be taking Danaxil for relief from headache pain."
]
| 2 | Suppose Evelyn takes Danaxil and Jane takes its leading competitor. Which one of the following can be properly concluded from the claims in the advertisement? |
In opposing the 1970 Clean Air Act, the United States automobile industry argued that meeting the act's standards for automobile emissions was neither economically feasible nor environmentally necessary. However, the catalytic converter, invented in 1967, enabled automakers to meet the 1970 standards efficiently. Currently, automakers are lobbying against the government's attempt to pass legislation that would tighten restrictions on automobile emissions. The automakers contend that these new restrictions would be overly expensive and unnecessary to efforts to curb air pollution. Clearly, the automobile industry's position should not be heeded. | 199110_4-LR2_23_24 | [
"The automakers' premises are shown to lead to a contradiction.",
"Facts are mentioned that show that the automakers are relying on false information.",
"A flaw is pointed out in the reasoning used by the automakers to reach their conclusion.",
"A comparison is drawn between the automakers' current position and a position they held in the past.",
"Evidence is provided that the new emissions legislation is both economically feasible and environmentally necessary."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following most accurately expresses the method used to counter the automakers' current position? |
In opposing the 1970 Clean Air Act, the United States automobile industry argued that meeting the act's standards for automobile emissions was neither economically feasible nor environmentally necessary. However, the catalytic converter, invented in 1967, enabled automakers to meet the 1970 standards efficiently. Currently, automakers are lobbying against the government's attempt to pass legislation that would tighten restrictions on automobile emissions. The automakers contend that these new restrictions would be overly expensive and unnecessary to efforts to curb air pollution. Clearly, the automobile industry's position should not be heeded. | 199110_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"The more stringent the legislation restricting emissions becomes, the more difficult it becomes for automakers to provide the required technology economically.",
"Emissions-restriction technology can often be engineered so as to avoid reducing the efficiency with which an automobile uses fuel.",
"Not every new piece of legislation restricting emissions requires new automotive technology in order for automakers to comply with it.",
"The more automobiles there are on the road, the more stringent emission restrictions must be to prevent increased overall air pollution.",
"Unless forced to do so by the government, automakers rarely make changes in automotive technology that is not related to profitability."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, lends the most support to the automakers' current position? |
If you have a large amount of money in the bank, your spending power is great. If your spending power is great, you are happy. So if you have a large amount of money in the bank, you are happy. | 199112_2-LR1_1_1 | [
"If you have good health, you can earn a lot. If you can earn a lot, you can buy an expensive house. So if you have good health, you can have a comfortable life.",
"If you drink too much alcohol, you will feel sick. If you drink too much alcohol, you will have no money left. So if you have no money left, you will feel sick.",
"If you swim energetically, your heart rate increases. If your heart rate increases, you are overexcited. So if you swim energetically, you are overexcited.",
"If you take a great deal of exercise, you are physically fit. If you take a great deal of exercise, you are exhausted. So if you are physically fit, you are exhausted.",
"If you have a large amount of money in the bank, you are confident about the future. If you are optimistic by nature, you are confident about the future. So if you have a large amount of money in the bank, you are optimistic by nature."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above? |
For a television program about astrology, investigators went into the street and found twenty volunteers born under the sign of Gemini who were willing to be interviewed on the program and to take a personality test. The test confirmed the investigators' personal impressions that each of the volunteers was more sociable and extroverted than people are on average. This modest investigation thus supports the claim that one's astrological birth sign influences one's personality. | 199112_2-LR1_2_2 | [
"The personality test was not administered or scored personally by the investigators.",
"People born under astrological signs other than Gemini have been judged by astrologers to be much less sociable than those born under Gemini.",
"The personal impressions the investigators first formed of other people have tended to be confirmed by the investigators' later experience of those people.",
"There is not likely to be a greater proportion of people born under the sign of Gemini on the street than in the population as a whole.",
"People who are not sociable and extroverted are not likely to agree to participate in such an investigation."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, indicates the most serious flaw in the method used by the investigators? |
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