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In Europe, schoolchildren devote time during each school day to calisthenics. North American schools rarely offer a daily calisthenics program. Tests prove that North American children are weaker, slower, and shorter-winded than European children. We must conclude that North American children can be made physically fit only if they participate in school calisthenics on a daily basis. | 199112_2-LR1_3_3 | [
"All children can be made physically fit by daily calisthenics.",
"All children can be made equally physically fit by daily calisthenics.",
"Superior physical fitness produces superior health.",
"School calisthenics are an indispensable factor in European children's superior physical fitness.",
"North American children can learn to eat a more nutritious diet as well as to exercise daily."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following is assumed in the passage? |
A work of architecture, if it is to be both inviting and functional for public use, must be unobtrusive, taking second place to the total environment. Modern architects, plagued by egoism, have violated this precept. They have let their strong personalities take over their work, producing buildings that are not functional for public use. | 199112_2-LR1_4_4 | [
"Unobtrusive architecture is both inviting and functional.",
"Modern architects who let their strong personalities take over their work produce buildings that are not unobtrusive.",
"An architect with a strong personality cannot produce buildings that function well for the public.",
"A work of architecture that takes second place to the environment functions well for public use.",
"A work of architecture cannot simultaneously express its architect's personality and be functional for public use."
]
| 1 | Which one of the statements below follows logically from the statements in the passage? |
Observatory director: Some say that funding the megatelescope will benefit only the astronomers who will work with it. This dangerous point of view, applied to the work of Maxwell, Newton, or Einstein, would have stifled their research and deprived the world of beneficial applications, such as the development of radio, that followed from that research. | 199112_2-LR1_5_5 | [
"It appeals to the authority of experts who cannot have known all the issues involved in construction of the megatelescope.",
"It does not identify those opposed to development of the megatelescope.",
"It launches a personal attack on opponents of the megatelescope by accusing them of having a dangerous point of view.",
"It does not distinguish between the economic and the intellectual senses of \"benefit.\"",
"It does not show that the proposed megatelescope research is worthy of comparison with that of eminent scientists in its potential for applications."
]
| 4 | If the statements above are put forward as an argument in favor of development of the megatelescope, which one of the following is the strongest criticism of that argument? |
The Transit Authority's proposal to increase fares by 40 percent must be implemented. Admittedly, this fare increase will impose a hardship on some bus and subway riders. But if the fare is not increased, service will have to be cut severely and that would result in an unacceptably large loss of ridership. | 199112_2-LR1_6_6 | [
"It offers evidence that the recommended course of action would have no undesirable consequences.",
"It shows that a proponent of any alternative position would be forced into a contradiction.",
"It arrives at its conclusion indirectly by providing reasons for rejecting an alternative course of action.",
"It explains why the recommended course of action would not be subject to the objections raised against the alternative.",
"It justifies the conclusion by showing that such a course of action has proven effective in the past."
]
| 2 | The passage employs which one of the following argumentative strategies? |
Those who participate in local politics include people who are genuinely interested in public service and people who are selfish opportunists. Everyone who participates in local politics has an influence on the community's values. | 199112_2-LR1_7_7 | [
"Some selfish opportunists have an influence on the community's values.",
"Some persons who are interested in public service do not have an influence on the community's values.",
"All those who have an influence on the community's values participate in local politics.",
"Some of those who influence the community's values neither are interested in public service nor are selfish opportunists.",
"All those who have an influence on the community's values are either interested in public service or are selfish opportunists."
]
| 0 | If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Although nondairy coffee lighteners made with coconut oil contain 2 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, or 7 times more than does whole milk, those lighteners usually contain no cholesterol. Yet one tablespoon of such lighteners causes the consumer's blood cholesterol to rise to a higher level than does an identical amount of whole milk, which contains 2 milligrams of cholesterol per tablespoon. | 199112_2-LR1_8_8 | [
"Nutritionists recommend that adults consume as little saturated fat as possible and no more than 250 milligrams of cholesterol a day.",
"One gram of saturated fat in food has roughly the same effect on blood cholesterol as 25 milligrams of cholesterol in food.",
"Light cream, a dairy product that contains 5 times more cholesterol than does whole milk, is often chosen as a lightener by consumers who normally prefer whole milk.",
"Certain nondairy coffee lighteners made without coconut oil contain less saturated fat and less cholesterol than does whole milk.",
"The lower the saturated fat content of dairy products, the less cholesterol they usually contain."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of the apparent discrepancy noted above? |
Although nondairy coffee lighteners made with coconut oil contain 2 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon, or 7 times more than does whole milk, those lighteners usually contain no cholesterol. Yet one tablespoon of such lighteners causes the consumer's blood cholesterol to rise to a higher level than does an identical amount of whole milk, which contains 2 milligrams of cholesterol per tablespoon. | 199112_2-LR1_8_9 | [
"Consumers of lighteners made with coconut oil who avoid other high-cholesterol foods and exercise more than average tend to have lower-than-average blood cholesterol levels.",
"Coffee is frequently consumed with pastries and other rich desserts that themselves result in high blood cholesterol levels.",
"One popular nondairy coffee lightener that is not based on coconut oil has reduced its fat content by 20 percent while keeping its cholesterol content at zero.",
"Consumers typically add to their coffee substantially smaller quantities of coconut oil-based lighteners than of whole milk.",
"Most consumers are convinced that whole dairy products increase blood cholesterol and that nondairy coffee lighteners do not."
]
| 3 | Manufacturers of coffee lighteners based on coconut oil claim that their products usually cause the typical consumer's blood cholesterol to rise to a lower level than does the use of whole milk as a lightener. Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the manufacturers' claim? |
People with serious financial problems are so worried about money that they cannot be happy. Their misery makes everyone close to them—family, friends, colleagues—unhappy as well. Only if their financial problems are solved can they and those around them be happy. | 199112_2-LR1_9_10 | [
"Only serious problems make people unhappy.",
"People who solve their serious financial problems will be happy.",
"People who do not have serious financial problems will be happy.",
"If people are unhappy, they have serious financial problems.",
"If people are happy, they do not have serious financial problems."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements can be properly inferred from the passage? |
It is often said that people should be rewarded for doing a given job in proportion to the effort it costs them to do it. However, a little reflection will show that this is, in fact, a very bad idea, since it would mean that those people with the least skill or natural aptitude for a particular task would be the ones given the most incentive to do it. | 199112_2-LR1_10_11 | [
"stating a general principle and then presenting reasons in favor of adopting it",
"providing evidence that where the principle under discussion has been adopted, the results usually have been undesirable",
"demonstrating that a consequence that had been assumed to follow from the principle under consideration need not follow from it",
"attempting to undermine a general principle by arguing that undesirable consequences would follow from it",
"showing that, in practice, the principle under consideration could not be uniformly applied"
]
| 3 | Which one of the following argumentative strategies is used above? |
Photovoltaic power plants produce electricity from sunlight. As a result of astonishing recent technological advances, the cost of producing electric power at photovoltaic power plants, allowing for both construction and operating costs, is one-tenth of what it was 20 years ago, whereas the corresponding cost for traditional plants, which burn fossil fuels, has increased. Thus, photovoltaic power plants offer a less expensive approach to meeting demand for electricity than do traditional power plants. | 199112_2-LR1_11_12 | [
"The cost of producing electric power at traditional plants has increased over the past 20 years.",
"Twenty years ago, traditional power plants were producing 10 times more electric power than were photovoltaic plants.",
"None of the recent technological advances in producing electric power at photovoltaic plants can be applied to producing power at traditional plants.",
"Twenty years ago, the cost of producing electric power at photovoltaic plants was less than 10 times the cost of producing power at traditional plants.",
"The cost of producing electric power at photovoltaic plants is expected to decrease further, while the cost of producing power at traditional plants is not expected to decrease."
]
| 3 | The conclusion of the argument is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed? |
If that insect is a bee, it can only sting once. It only did sting once. So it is a bee. | 199112_2-LR1_12_13 | [
"Spring is here. It has to be, because when it is spring, I cannot stop sneezing; and I just sneezed.",
"When the sky is clear, the atmospheric pressure is high. At the moment, it is clearing up, so the atmospheric pressure is bound to be high soon.",
"Old and brittle paintings are always moved with extreme care. That particular painting is never moved with extreme care. So it must not be old and brittle.",
"Only one more thunderstorm was needed to ruin that roof. But the roof was still fine a month later. There must not have been any thunderstorms over that month.",
"To survive in the wild requires physical stamina like Mark's. All the same, Mark's fear of spiders would prevent his survival."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar to that in the argument above? |
Pamela: Physicians training for a medical specialty serve as resident staff physicians in hospitals. They work such long hours—up to 36 consecutive hours—that fatigue impairs their ability to make the best medical decisions during the final portion of their shifts. Quincy: Thousands of physicians now practicing have been trained according to the same regimen, and records show they generally made good medical decisions during their training periods. Why should what has worked in the past be changed now? | 199112_2-LR1_13_14 | [
"The basic responsibilities of resident staff physicians in hospitals have not changed substantially over the past few decades.",
"Because medical reimbursement policies now pay for less recuperation time in hospitals, patients in hospitals are, on the average, more seriously ill during their stays than in the past.",
"It is important that emergency-room patients receive continuity of physician care, insofar as possible, over the critical period after admission, generally 24 hours.",
"The load of work on resident physicians-in-training varies according to the medical specialty for which each is being trained.",
"The training of physicians should include observation and recognition of the signs indicating a hospitalized patient's progress or decline over a period of at least 36 hours."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, is the most effective counter Pamela might make to Quincy's argument? |
When a group of children who have been watching television programs that include acts of violence is sent to play with a group of children who have been watching programs that do not include acts of violence, the children who have been watching violent programs commit a much greater number of violent acts in their play than do the children who have been watching nonviolent programs. Therefore, children at play can be prevented from committing violent acts by not being allowed to watch violence on television. | 199112_2-LR1_14_15 | [
"Television has a harmful effect on society.",
"Parents are responsible for the acts of their children.",
"Violent actions and passive observation of violent actions are not related.",
"There are no other differences between the two groups of children that might account for the difference in violent behavior.",
"Children who are treated violently will respond with violence."
]
| 3 | The argument in the passage assumes which one of the following? |
It is repeatedly claimed that the dumping of nuclear waste poses no threat to people living nearby. If this claim could be made with certainty, there would be no reason for not locating sites in areas of dense population. But the policy of dumping nuclear waste only in the more sparsely populated regions indicates, at the very least, some misgiving about safety on the part of those responsible for policy. | 199112_2-LR1_15_16 | [
"Evacuation plans in the event of an accident could not be guaranteed to work perfectly except where the population is small.",
"In the event of an accident, it is certain that fewer people would be harmed in a sparsely populated than in a densely populated area.",
"Dumping of nuclear waste poses fewer economic and bureaucratic problems in sparsely populated than in densely populated areas.",
"There are dangers associated with chemical waste, and it, too, is dumped away from areas of dense population.",
"Until there is no shred of doubt that nuclear dumps are safe, it makes sense to situate them where they pose the least threat to the public."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the argument? |
A society's infant mortality rate is an accepted indicator of that society's general health status. Even though in some localities in the United States the rate is higher than in many developing countries, in the United States overall the rate has been steadily declining. This decline does not necessarily indicate, however, that babies in the United States are now, on the average, healthier at birth than they were in the past. | 199112_2-LR1_16_17 | [
"The figure for infant mortality is compiled as an overall rate and thus masks deficiencies in particular localities.",
"Low birth weight is a contributing factor in more than half of the infant deaths in the United States.",
"The United States has been developing and has achieved extremely sophisticated technology for saving premature and low-birth-weight babies, most of whom require extended hospital stays.",
"In eleven states of the United States, the infant mortality rate declined last year.",
"Babies who do not receive adequate attention from a caregiver fail to thrive and so they gain weight slowly."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following reasons, if true, most strongly supports the claim made above about the implications of the decline? |
Like a number of other articles, Ian Raghnall's article relied on a recent survey in which over half the couples applying for divorces listed "money" as a major problem in their marriages. Raghnall's conclusion from the survey data is that financial problems are the major problem in marriages and an important factor contributing to the high divorce rate. Yet couples often express other types of marital frustrations in financial terms. Despite appearances, the survey data do not establish that financial problems are the major problem in contemporary marriages. | 199112_2-LR1_17_18 | [
"Financial problems are not an important factor contributing to the divorce rate.",
"Marital problems are more easily solved by marriage counselors than by married couples on their own.",
"The conclusion drawn in Raghnall's article is inadequately justified.",
"Over half the couples applying for divorces listed money as a major problem in their marriages.",
"Many articles wrongly claim that financial problems are the major factor contributing to the divorce rate."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following sentences best expresses the main point of the passage? |
Like a number of other articles, Ian Raghnall's article relied on a recent survey in which over half the couples applying for divorces listed "money" as a major problem in their marriages. Raghnall's conclusion from the survey data is that financial problems are the major problem in marriages and an important factor contributing to the high divorce rate. Yet couples often express other types of marital frustrations in financial terms. Despite appearances, the survey data do not establish that financial problems are the major problem in contemporary marriages. | 199112_2-LR1_17_19 | [
"undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by offering a specific counterexample",
"undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by offering an alternative explanation for some of the data",
"undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by showing that one cannot prove the presence of an emotion by using statistical methods",
"undermines a conclusion drawn from statistical data by criticizing the survey for which the data was gathered",
"undermines a conclusion by showing that couples cannot accurately describe their own problems"
]
| 1 | In the passage, the author does which one of the following? |
In Brazil, side-by-side comparisons of Africanized honeybees and the native honeybees have shown that the Africanized bees are far superior honey producers. Therefore, there is no reason to fear that domestic commercial honey production will decline in the United States if local honeybees are displaced by Africanized honeybees. | 199112_2-LR1_18_20 | [
"The honeybees native to Brazil are not of the same variety as those most frequently used in the commercial beekeeping industry in the United States.",
"Commercial honey production is far more complicated and expensive with Africanized honeybees than it is with the more docile honeybees common in the United States.",
"If Africanized honeybees replace local honeybees, certain types of ornamental trees will be less effectively pollinated.",
"In the United States a significant proportion of the commercial honey supply comes from hobby beekeepers, many of whom are likely to abandon beekeeping with the influx of Africanized bees.",
"The area of Brazil where the comparative study was done is far better suited to the foraging habits of the Africanized honeybees than are most areas of the United States."
]
| 2 | Each of the following, if true, would weaken the argument EXCEPT: |
The public is well aware that high blood cholesterol levels raise the risk of stroke caused by blood clots. But a recent report concludes that people with low blood cholesterol levels are at increased risk of the other lethal type of stroke—cerebral hemorrhage, caused when a brain artery bursts. The report suggests that because blood cholesterol plays a vital role in maintaining cell membranes, low blood cholesterol weakens artery walls, making them prone to rupture. The conclusion thus supports a long-standing contention by Japanese researchers that Western diets better protect against cerebral hemorrhage than do non-Western diets. | 199112_2-LR1_19_21 | [
"Western diets are healthier than non-Western diets.",
"Western diets result in higher blood cholesterol levels than do non-Western diets.",
"High blood cholesterol levels preclude the weakening of artery walls.",
"Cerebral hemorrhages are more dangerous than strokes caused by blood clots.",
"People who have low blood pressure are at increased risk of cerebral hemorrhage."
]
| 1 | The argument is based on which one of the following assumptions? |
Public reports by national commissions, governors' conferences, and leadership groups have stressed the great need for better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry. If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, the need is undeniable. If there is such a need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs, then all of our new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation. | 199112_2-LR1_20_22 | [
"If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then new teachers must be prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation.",
"If new teachers are prepared to teach their subject matter with an international orientation, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness.",
"If there is better understanding of international affairs by the citizenry, then the country will remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness.",
"If the country is to remain a leading nation in an era of international competitiveness, then there is no need for the citizenry to have a better understanding of international affairs.",
"Public reports from various groups and commissions have stressed the need for a more international orientation in the education of teachers."
]
| 0 | If all of the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
"DNA fingerprinting" is a recently-introduced biochemical procedure that uses a pattern derived from a person's genetic material to match a suspect's genetic material against that of a specimen from a crime scene. Proponents have claimed astronomically high odds against obtaining a match by chance alone. These odds are based on an assumption that there is independence between the different characteristics represented by a single pattern. | 199112_2-LR1_21_23 | [
"The large amount of genetic material that people share with all other people and with other animals is not included in the DNA fingerprinting procedure.",
"There is a generally accepted theoretical basis for interpreting the patterns produced by the procedure.",
"In the whole population there are various different subgroups, within each of which certain sets of genetic characteristics are shared.",
"The skill required of laboratory technicians performing the DNA fingerprinting procedure is not extraordinary.",
"In the investigation of certain genetic diseases, the techniques used in DNA fingerprinting have traced the transmission of the diseases among the living members of very large families."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, casts the most doubt on the claim of the proponents of DNA fingerprinting? |
Anthropologists assert that cultures advance only when independence replaces dependence—that is, only when imposition by outsiders is replaced by initiative from within. In other words, the natives of a culture are the only ones who can move that culture forward. Non-natives may provide valuable advice, but any imposition of their views threatens independence and thus progress. If one looks at individual schools as separate cultures, therefore, the key to educational progress is obvious: ____. | 199112_2-LR1_22_24 | [
"individual schools must be independent of outside imposition",
"some schools require more independence than others, depending on the initiative of their staffs and students",
"school system officials must tailor their initiatives for change to each individual school in the system",
"outsiders must be prevented from participation in schools' efforts to advance",
"the more independent a school is, the more educational progress it will make"
]
| 0 | Which one of the following best completes the passage? |
The public in the United States has in the past been conditioned to support a substantial defense budget by the threat of confrontation with the Eastern bloc. Now that that threat is dissolving, along with the Eastern bloc itself, it is doubtful whether the public can be persuaded to support an adequate defense budget. | 199112_2-LR1_23_25 | [
"It presupposes that public opinion can be manipulated indefinitely, without the public's becoming aware of that manipulation.",
"It refers to past and present events that do not have a causal connection with public support of the budget.",
"It assumes as fact what it seeks to establish by reasoning.",
"It fails to give any reason for the judgment it reaches.",
"It hinges on the term \"adequate,\" the precise meaning of which requires reevaluation in the new context."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following indicates a weakness in the position expressed above? |
The translator of poetry must realize that word-for-word equivalents do not exist across languages, any more than piano sounds exist in the violin. The violin can, however, play recognizably the same music as the piano, but only if the violinist is guided by the nature and possibilities of the violin as well as by the original composition. | 199112_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"poetry cannot be effectively translated because, unlike music, it is composed of words with specific meanings",
"some languages are inherently more musical and more suitable to poetic composition than others",
"the translator should be primarily concerned with reproducing the rhythms and sound patterns of the original, not with transcribing its meaning exactly",
"the translator must observe the spirit of the original and also the qualities of expression that characterize the language into which the original is translated",
"poetry is easier to translate if it focuses on philosophical insights or natural descriptions rather than on subjective impressions"
]
| 3 | As applied to the act of translating poetry from one language into another, the analogy above can best be understood as saying that |
Behind the hope that computers can replace teachers is the idea that the student's understanding of the subject being taught consists in knowing facts and rules, the job of a teacher being to make the facts and rules explicit and convey them to the student, either by practice drills or by coaching. If that were indeed the way the mind works, the teacher could transfer facts and rules to the computer, which would replace the teacher as drillmaster and coach. But since understanding does not consist merely of knowing facts and rules, but of the grasp of the general concepts underlying them, the hope that the computer will eventually replace the teacher is fundamentally misguided. | 199112_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"Computers are as good as teachers at drilling students on facts and rules.",
"The job of a teacher is to make students understand the general concepts underlying specific facts and rules.",
"It is possible to program computers so that they can teach the understanding of general concepts that underlie specific facts and rules.",
"Because they are not subject to human error, computers are better than teachers at conveying facts and rules.",
"It is not possible for students to develop an understanding of the concepts underlying facts and rules through practice drills and coaching."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would most seriously undermine the author's conclusion that computers will not eventually be able to replace teachers? |
If the city council maintains spending at the same level as this year's, it can be expected to levy a sales tax of 2 percent next year. Thus, if the council levies a higher tax, it will be because the council is increasing its expenditures. | 199112_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"If house-building costs are not now rising, builders cannot be expected to increase the prices of houses. Thus, if they decrease the prices of houses, it will be because that action will enable them to sell a greater number of houses.",
"If shops wish to reduce shoplifting, they should employ more store detectives. Thus, if shops do not, they will suffer reduced profits because of their losses from stolen goods.",
"If the companies in the state do not increase their workers' wages this year, the prices they charge for their goods can be expected to be much the same as they were last year. Thus, if the companies do increase prices, it will be because they have increased wages.",
"If airlines wish to make profits this year that are similar to last year's, they should not increase their prices this year. Thus, if they charge more, they should be expected to improve their services.",
"If newspaper publishers wish to publish good papers, they should employ good journalists. Thus, if they employ poor journalists, it will not be surprising if their circulation falls as a result."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most closely similar to that of the argument above? |
The mind and the immune system have been shown to be intimately linked, and scientists are consistently finding that doing good deeds benefits one's immune system. The bone marrow and spleen, which produce the white blood cells needed to fight infection, are both connected by neural pathways to the brain. Recent research has shown that the activity of these white blood cells is stimulated by beneficial chemicals produced by the brain as a result of magnanimous behavior. | 199112_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"good deeds must be based on unselfish motives",
"lack of magnanimity is the cause of most serious illnesses",
"magnanimous behavior can be regulated by the presence or absence of certain chemicals in the brain",
"magnanimity is beneficial to one's own interests",
"the number of white blood cells will increase radically if behavior is consistently magnanimous"
]
| 3 | The statements above, if true, support the view that |
The high cost of production is severely limiting which operas are available to the public. These costs necessitate reliance on large corporate sponsors, who in return demand that only the most famous operas be produced. Determining which operas will be produced should rest only with ticket purchasers at the box office, not with large corporate sponsors. If we reduce production budgets so that operas can be supported exclusively by box-office receipts and donations from individuals, then the public will be able to see less famous operas. | 199112_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"A few opera ticket purchasers go to the opera for the sake of going to the opera, not to see specific operatic productions.",
"The reduction of opera production budgets would not reduce the desire of large corporate sponsors to support operas.",
"Without the support of large corporate sponsors, opera companies could not afford to produce any but the most famous of operas.",
"Large corporate sponsors will stop supporting opera productions if they are denied control over which operas will be produced.",
"The combination of individual donations and box-office receipts cannot match the amounts of money obtained through sponsorship by large corporations."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, would weaken the argument? |
When machines are invented and technologies are developed, they alter the range of choices open to us. The clock, for example, made possible the synchronization of human affairs, which resulted in an increase in productivity. At the same time that the clock opened up some avenues, it closed others. It has become harder and harder to live except by the clock, so that now people have no choice in the matter at all. | 199112_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"New machines and technologies can enslave as well as liberate us.",
"People should make a concerted effort to free themselves from the clock.",
"Some new machines and technologies bring no improvement to our lives.",
"The increase in productivity was not worth our dependence on the clock.",
"Most new machines and technologies make our lives more synchronized and productive."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the example presented in the passage? |
To become an expert on a musical instrument, a person must practice. If people practice a musical instrument for three hours each day, they will eventually become experts on that instrument. Therefore, if a person is an expert on a musical instrument, that person must have practiced for at least three hours each day. | 199112_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"The conclusion fails to take into account that people who practice for three hours every day might not yet have reached a degree of proficiency that everyone would consider expert.",
"The conclusion fails to take into account that practicing for less than three hours each day may be enough for some people to become experts.",
"The conclusion fails to take into account that if a person has not practiced for at least three hours a day, the person has not become an expert.",
"The conclusion fails to take into account that three consecutive hours of daily practice is not recommended by all music teachers.",
"The conclusion fails to take into account that few people have the spare time necessary to devote three hours daily to practice."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning above? |
On the basis of incontestable proof that car safety seats will greatly reduce the number of serious injuries sustained by children in car accidents, laws have been passed mandating the use of these seats. Unexpectedly, it has since been found that a large number of children who are riding in safety seats continue to receive serious injuries that safety seats were specifically designed to avoid, and in the prevention of which they in fact have proven to be effective. | 199112_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Many parents are defying the law by not using safety seats for their children.",
"Children are more likely to make automobile trips now than they were before the introduction of the safety seat.",
"The high cost of child safety seats has caused many parents to delay purchasing them.",
"The car safety seat was not designed to prevent all types of injuries, so it is not surprising that some injuries are sustained.",
"The protection afforded by child safety seats depends on their being used properly, which many parents fail to do."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, could by itself adequately explain the unexpected finding reported in the passage? |
An easy willingness to tell funny stories or jokes about oneself is the surest mark of supreme self-confidence. This willingness, often not acquired until late in life, is even more revealing than is good-natured acquiescence in having others poke fun at one. | 199112_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"A person who lacks self-confidence will enjoy neither telling nor hearing funny stories about himself or herself.",
"People with high self-confidence do not tell funny stories or jokes about others.",
"Highly self-confident people tell funny stories and jokes in order to let their audience know that they are self-confident.",
"Most people would rather tell a funny story or a joke than listen to one being told.",
"Telling funny stories or jokes about people in their presence is a way of expressing one's respect for them."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following inferences is most supported by the statements above? |
Nature constantly adjusts the atmospheric carbon level. An increase in the level causes the atmosphere to hold more heat, which causes more water to evaporate from the oceans, which causes increased rain. Rain washes some carbon from the air into the oceans, where it eventually becomes part of the seabed. A decrease in atmospheric carbon causes the atmosphere to hold less heat, which causes decreased evaporation from the oceans, which causes less rain, and thus less carbon is washed into the oceans. Yet some environmentalists worry that burning fossil fuels may raise atmospheric carbon to a dangerous level. It is true that a sustained increase would threaten human life. But the environmentalists should relax— nature will continually adjust the carbon level. | 199112_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"A decrease in the level of atmospheric heat causes a decrease in the amount of carbon that rain washes into the oceans from the air.",
"An increase in the level of carbon in the atmosphere causes increased evaporation of ocean water.",
"An increase in the level of atmospheric heat causes increased rainfall.",
"A decrease in the level of carbon in the atmosphere causes decreased evaporation of ocean water.",
"A decrease in the level of atmospheric heat causes a decrease in the level of carbon in the atmosphere."
]
| 4 | Each of the following can be inferred from the information in the passage EXCEPT: |
Nature constantly adjusts the atmospheric carbon level. An increase in the level causes the atmosphere to hold more heat, which causes more water to evaporate from the oceans, which causes increased rain. Rain washes some carbon from the air into the oceans, where it eventually becomes part of the seabed. A decrease in atmospheric carbon causes the atmosphere to hold less heat, which causes decreased evaporation from the oceans, which causes less rain, and thus less carbon is washed into the oceans. Yet some environmentalists worry that burning fossil fuels may raise atmospheric carbon to a dangerous level. It is true that a sustained increase would threaten human life. But the environmentalists should relax— nature will continually adjust the carbon level. | 199112_4-LR2_10_11 | [
"Plant life cannot survive without atmospheric carbon.",
"It is not clear that breathing excess carbon in the atmosphere will have a negative effect on human life.",
"Carbon is part of the chemical \"blanket\" that keeps the Earth warm enough to sustain human life.",
"Breathing by animals releases almost 30 times as much carbon as does the burning of fossil fuels.",
"The natural adjustment process, which occurs over millions of years, allows wide fluctuations in the carbon level in the short term."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the passage? |
The more television children watch, the less competent they are in mathematical knowledge. More than a third of children in the United States watch television for more than five hours a day; in South Korea the figure is only 7 percent. But whereas less than 15 percent of children in the United States understand advanced measurement and geometric concepts, 40 percent of South Korean children are competent in these areas. Therefore, if United States children are to do well in mathematics, they must watch less television. | 199112_4-LR2_11_12 | [
"Children in the United States are less interested in advanced measurement and geometric concepts than are South Korean children.",
"South Korean children are more disciplined about doing schoolwork than are children in the United States.",
"Children who want to do well in advanced measurement and geometry will watch less television.",
"A child's ability in advanced measurement and geometry increases if he or she watches less than one hour of television a day.",
"The instruction in advanced measurement and geometric concepts available to children in the United States is not substantially worse than that available to South Korean children."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends? |
The only way that bookstores can profitably sell books at below-market prices is to get the books at a discount from publishers. Unless bookstores generate a high sales volume, however, they cannot get discounts from publishers. To generate such volume, bookstores must either cater to mass tastes or have exclusive access to a large specialized market, such as medical textbooks, or both. | 199112_4-LR2_12_13 | [
"If a bookstore receives discounts from publishers, it will profitably sell books at below-market prices.",
"A bookstore that caters to mass tastes or has exclusive access to a large specialized market will have a high sales volume.",
"A bookstore that profitably sells books at below-market prices gets discounts from publishers.",
"A bookstore that does not sell books at below-market prices does not get discounts from publishers.",
"A bookstore that not only caters to mass tastes but also has exclusive access to a large specialized market cannot profitably sell books at below-market prices."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
The only way that bookstores can profitably sell books at below-market prices is to get the books at a discount from publishers. Unless bookstores generate a high sales volume, however, they cannot get discounts from publishers. To generate such volume, bookstores must either cater to mass tastes or have exclusive access to a large specialized market, such as medical textbooks, or both. | 199112_4-LR2_12_14 | [
"The bookstore profitably sells some of its books at below-market prices.",
"The bookstore does not profitably sell any of its books at below-market prices.",
"Either the bookstore has exclusive access to a large specialized market or else it does not get a discount from any publishers.",
"The bookstore does not have exclusive access to a large specialized market but profitably sells some of its books at below-market prices.",
"The bookstore does not have exclusive access to a large specialized market, nor does it get a discount from any publishers."
]
| 3 | If all the statements in the passage are true and if it is also true that a bookstore does not cater to mass tastes, which one of the following CANNOT be true? |
Extinction is the way of nature. Scientists estimate that over half of the species that have ever come into existence on this planet were already extinct before humans developed even the most primitive of tools. This constant natural process of species emergence and extinction, however, is ignored by those who wish to trace the blame for more recent extinctions to humanity's use of technology, with its consequent effects on the environment. These people must be made to understand that the species that have become extinct in modern times would have become extinct by now even if humans had never acquired technology. | 199112_4-LR2_13_15 | [
"The author mistakenly assumes that technology has not caused any harm to the environment.",
"The author ignores the fact that some species that are not yet extinct are in danger of extinction.",
"The author fails to consider that there are probably species in existence that have not yet been identified and studied by scientists.",
"The author cites scientists who support the theory that over half of all species that ever existed have become extinct, but fails to mention any scientists who do not support that theory.",
"The author provides no specific evidence that the species that have become extinct in modern times are the same species that would have become extinct in the absence of human technology."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following identifies a reasoning error in the passage? |
The public is aware of the possibility of biases in the mass media and distrusts the media as too powerful. The body of information against which the public evaluates the plausibility of each new media report comes, however, from what the public has heard of through the mass media. | 199112_4-LR2_14_16 | [
"If there is a pervasive bias in the presentation of news by the mass media, it would be hard for the public to discern that bias.",
"The mass media tailor their reports to conform to a specific political agenda.",
"The biases that news media impose on reporting tend not to be conscious distortions but rather part of a sense they share about what is interesting and believable.",
"News reporters and their public hold largely the same views about what is most important in society, because news reporters come out of that society.",
"When a news event occurs that contradicts a stereotype formerly incorporated into reporting by the mass media, the public is predisposed to believe reports of the event."
]
| 0 | If the view above is correct, it provides a reason for accepting which one of the following conclusions? |
In a bureaucracy, all decisions are arrived at by a process that involves many people. There is no one person who has the authority to decide whether a project will proceed or not. As a consequence, in bureaucracies, risky projects are never undertaken. | 199112_4-LR2_15_17 | [
"All projects in a bureaucracy require risk.",
"Decisive individuals choose not to work in a bureaucracy.",
"An individual who has decision-making power will take risks.",
"The only risky projects undertaken are those for which a single individual has decision-making power.",
"People sometimes take risks as individuals that they would not take as part of a group."
]
| 3 | The conclusion follows logically from the premises if which one of the following is assumed? |
"Physicalists" expect that ultimately all mental functions will be explainable in neurobiological terms. Achieving this goal requires knowledge of neurons and their basic functions, a knowledge of how neurons interact, and a delineation of the psychological faculties to be explained. At present, there is a substantial amount of fundamental knowledge about the basic functions of neurons, and the scope and character of such psychological capacities as visual perception and memory are well understood. Thus, as the physicalists claim, mental functions are bound to receive explanations in neurobiological terms in the near future. | 199112_4-LR2_16_18 | [
"The conclusion contradicts the claim of the physicalists.",
"The passage fails to describe exactly what is currently known about the basic functions of neurons.",
"The word \"neurobiological\" is used as though it had the same meaning as the word \"mental.\"",
"The argument does not indicate whether it would be useful to explain mental functions in neurobiological terms.",
"The passage does not indicate that any knowledge has been achieved about how neurons interact."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following indicates an error in the reasoning in the passage? |
Because a large disparity in pay between the public and private sectors has developed in recent years, many experienced and extremely capable government administrators have quit their posts and taken positions in private-sector management. Government will be able to recapture these capable administrators by raising salaries to a level comparable to those of the private sector. In that way, the functioning of public agencies will be improved. | 199112_4-LR2_17_19 | [
"Experience gained from private-sector management will be very valuable in government administration.",
"The most important factor determining how well government agencies function is the amount of experience the administrators have.",
"Unless government action is taken, the disparity in pay between government administration and private-sector management will continue to increase.",
"People who moved from jobs in government administration to private-sector management would choose to change careers again.",
"If the disparity in pay between government administration and private-sector management increases, administrators will move to the public sector in large numbers."
]
| 3 | The position taken above presupposes which one of the following? |
Politician: Homelessness is a serious social problem, but further government spending to provide low-income housing is not the cure for homelessness. The most cursory glance at the real-estate section of any major newspaper is enough to show that there is no lack of housing units available to rent. So the frequent claim that people are homeless because of a lack of available housing is wrong. | 199112_4-LR2_18_20 | [
"It suggests an alternative perspective to the one adopted in the argument.",
"It sets out a problem the argument is designed to resolve.",
"It is compatible either with accepting the conclusion or with denying it.",
"It summarizes a position the argument as a whole is directed toward discrediting.",
"It is required in order to establish the conclusion."
]
| 2 | That homelessness is a serious social problem figures in the argument in which one of the following ways? |
Leona: If the average consumption of eggs in the United States were cut in half, an estimated 5,000 lives might be saved each year. Thomas: How can that be? That would mean that if people adopt this single change in diet for ten years, the population ten years from now will be greater by 50,000 people than it otherwise would have been. | 199112_4-LR2_19_21 | [
"It is possible for the population to grow by 5,000 people for every year if the base year chosen for purposes of comparison is one with unusually low population growth.",
"It is accurate to say that 5,000 lives have been saved as long as 5,000 people who would have died in a given year as a result of not changing their diet, did not do so—even if they died for some other reason.",
"If egg consumption were reduced by more than half, the estimated number of lives saved each year could be even more than 5,000.",
"The actual rate of population growth depends not only on the birth rate, but also on changes in life expectancy.",
"For the average consumption of eggs to be cut by half, many individual consumers would have to cut their own consumption by much more than half."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is a statement that Leona could offer Thomas to clarify her own claim and to address the point he has made? |
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the introduction of new therapeutic agents into the marketplace. Consequently, it plays a critical role in improving health care in the United States. While it is those in the academic and government research communities who engage in the long process of initial discovery and clinical testing of new therapeutic agents, it is the FDA's role and responsibility to facilitate the transfer of new discoveries from the laboratory to the marketplace. Only after the transfer can important new therapies help patients. | 199112_4-LR2_20_22 | [
"The FDA is responsible for ensuring that any therapeutic agent that is marketed is then regulated.",
"Before new therapeutic agents reach the marketplace they do not help patients.",
"The research community is responsible for the excessively long testing period for new drugs, not the FDA.",
"The FDA should work more closely with researchers to ensure that the quality of therapeutic agents is maintained.",
"If a new medical discovery has been transferred from the laboratory to the marketplace, it will help patients."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage? |
In a new police program, automobile owners in some neighborhoods whose cars are not normally driven between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. can display a special decal in the cars' windows and authorize police to stop the cars during those hours to check the drivers' licenses. The theft rate for cars bearing such decals is much lower than had been usual for cars in those neighborhoods. | 199112_4-LR2_21_23 | [
"Are owners who are cautious enough to join the program taking other special measures to protect their cars against theft?",
"In how many neighborhoods is the police program operating?",
"Are cars in neighborhoods that are actively participating in the program sometimes stolen during daylight hours?",
"Will owners who have placed decals on their cars' windows but who find it necessary to drive between 1 A.M. and 5 A.M. be harassed by police?",
"Are the neighborhoods in which the program has been put into effect a representative cross section of neighborhoods with respect to the types of automobiles owned by residents?"
]
| 0 | If it is concluded from the statements above that automobile theft has been reduced by the program, which one of the following would it be most important to answer in evaluating that conclusion? |
It has been claimed that an action is morally good only if it benefits another person and was performed with that intention; whereas an action that harms another person is morally bad either if such harm was intended or if reasonable forethought would have shown that the action was likely to cause harm. | 199112_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"Pamela wrote a letter attempting to cause trouble between Edward and his friend; this action of Pamela's was morally bad, even though the letter, in fact, had an effect directly opposite from the one intended.",
"In order to secure a promotion, Jeffrey devoted his own time to resolving a backlog of medical benefits claims; Jeffrey's action was morally good since it alone enabled Sara's claim to be processed in time for her to receive much-needed treatment.",
"Intending to help her elderly neighbor by clearing his walkway after a snowstorm, Teresa inadvertently left ice on his steps; because of this exposed ice, her neighbor had a bad fall, thus showing that morally good actions can have bad consequences.",
"Marilees, asked by a homeless man for food, gave the man her own sandwich; however, because the man tried to talk while he was eating the sandwich, it caused him to choke, and thus Marilees unintentionally performed a morally bad action.",
"Jonathan agreed to watch his three-year-old niece while she played but, becoming engrossed in conversation, did not see her run into the street where she was hit by a bicycle; even though he intended no harm, Jonathan's action was morally bad."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the principle cited above? |
Rita: The original purpose of government farm-subsidy programs was to provide income stability for small family farmers, but most farm-subsidy money goes to a few farmers with large holdings. Payments to farmers whose income, before subsidies, is greater than $100,000 a year should be stopped. Thomas: It would be impossible to administer such a cutoff point. Subsidies are needed during the planting and growing season, but farmers do not know their income for a given calendar year until tax returns are calculated and submitted the following April. | 199202_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"It has become difficult for small farmers to obtain bank loans to be repaid later by money from subsidies.",
"Having such a cutoff point would cause some farmers whose income would otherwise exceed $100,000 to reduce their plantings.",
"The income of a farmer varies because weather and market prices are not stable from year to year.",
"If subsidy payments to large farmers were eliminated, the financial condition of the government would improve.",
"Subsidy cutoffs can be determined on the basis of income for the preceding year."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest counter Rita can make to Thomas' objection? |
Modern physicians often employ laboratory tests, in addition to physical examinations, in order to diagnose diseases accurately. Insurance company regulations that deny coverage for certain laboratory tests therefore decrease the quality of medical care provided to patients. | 199202_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"Physical examinations and the uncovered laboratory tests together provide a more accurate diagnosis of many diseases than do physical examinations alone.",
"Many physicians generally oppose insurance company regulations that, in order to reduce costs, limit the use of laboratory tests.",
"Many patients who might benefit from the uncovered laboratory tests do not have any form of health insurance.",
"There are some illnesses that experienced physicians can diagnose accurately from physical examination alone.",
"Laboratory tests are more costly to perform than are physical examinations."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above? |
Oil analysts predict that if the price of oil falls by half, the consumer's purchase price for gasoline made from this oil will also fall by half. | 199202_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Improved automobile technology and new kinds of fuel for cars have enabled some drivers to use less gasoline.",
"Gasoline manufacturers will not expand their profit margins.",
"There are many different gasoline companies that compete with each other to provide the most attractive price to consumers.",
"Studies in several countries show that the amount of gasoline purchased by consumers initially rises after the price of gasoline has fallen.",
"Refining costs, distribution costs, and taxes, none of which varies significantly with oil prices, constitute a large portion of the price of gasoline."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would cast the most serious doubt on the prediction made by the oil analysts? |
A survey was recently conducted among ferry passengers on the North Sea. Among the results was this: more of those who had taken anti-seasickness medication before their trip reported symptoms of seasickness than those who had not taken such medication. It is clear, then, that despite claims by drug companies that clinical tests show the contrary, people would be better off not taking anti-seasickness medications. | 199202_1-LR1_4_4 | [
"Given rough enough weather, most ferry passengers will have some symptoms of seasickness.",
"The clinical tests reported by the drug companies were conducted by the drug companies' staffs.",
"People who do not take anti-seasickness medication are just as likely to respond to a survey on seasickness as people who do.",
"The seasickness symptoms of the people who took anti-seasickness medication would have been more severe had they not taken the medication.",
"People who have spent money on anti-seasickness medication are less likely to admit symptoms of seasickness than those who have not."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the conclusion above? |
Economic considerations color every aspect of international dealings, and nations are just like individuals in that the lender sets the terms of its dealings with the borrower. That is why a nation that owes money to another nation cannot be a world leader. | 199202_1-LR1_5_5 | [
"A nation that does not lend to any other nation cannot be a world leader.",
"A nation that can set the terms of its dealings with other nations is certain to be a world leader.",
"A nation that has the terms of its dealings with another nation set by that nation cannot be a world leader.",
"A nation that is a world leader can borrow from another nation as long as that other nation does not set the terms of the dealings between the two nations.",
"A nation that has no dealings with any other nation cannot be a world leader."
]
| 2 | The reasoning in the passage assumes which one of the following? |
Rotelle: You are too old to address effectively the difficult issues facing the country, such as nuclear power, poverty, and pollution. Sims: I don't want to make age an issue in this campaign, so I will not comment on your youth and inexperience. | 199202_1-LR1_6_6 | [
"demonstrates that Rotelle's claim is incorrect",
"avoids mentioning the issue of age",
"proposes a way to decide which issues are important",
"shows that Rotelle's statement is self-contradictory",
"fails to respond directly to Rotelle's claim"
]
| 4 | Sims does which one of the following? |
Rotelle: You are too old to address effectively the difficult issues facing the country, such as nuclear power, poverty, and pollution. Sims: I don't want to make age an issue in this campaign, so I will not comment on your youth and inexperience. | 199202_1-LR1_6_7 | [
"Many old people cannot effectively address the difficult issues facing the country.",
"Those at least as old as Sims are the only people who cannot effectively address the difficult issues facing the country.",
"Some young people can effectively address the difficult issues facing the country.",
"If anyone can effectively address the difficult issues facing the country, that person must be younger than Sims.",
"Addressing the difficult issues facing the country requires an understanding of young people's points of view."
]
| 3 | Rotelle is committed to which one of the following? |
Political theorist: The chief foundations of all governments are the legal system and the police force; and as there cannot be a good legal system where the police are not well paid, it follows that where the police are well paid there will be a good legal system. | 199202_1-LR1_7_8 | [
"many governments with bad legal systems have poorly paid police forces",
"bad governments with good legal systems must have poorly paid police forces",
"a well-paid police force cannot be effective without a good legal system",
"a well-paid police force is sufficient to guarantee a good legal system",
"some bad governments have good legal systems"
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the argument is not sound because it fails to establish that |
Court records from medieval France show that in the years 1300 to 1400 the number of people arrested in the French realm for "violent interpersonal crimes" (not committed in wars) increased by 30 percent over the number of people arrested for such crimes in the years 1200 to 1300. If the increase was not the result of false arrests, therefore, medieval France had a higher level of documented interpersonal violence in the years 1300 to 1400 than in the years 1200 to 1300. | 199202_1-LR1_8_9 | [
"In the years 1300 to 1400 the French government's category of violent crimes included an increasing variety of interpersonal crimes that are actually nonviolent.",
"Historical accounts by monastic chroniclers in the years 1300 to 1400 are filled with descriptions of violent attacks committed by people living in the French realm.",
"The number of individual agreements between two people in which they swore oaths not to attack each other increased substantially after 1300.",
"When English armies tried to conquer parts of France in the mid- to late 1300s, violence in the northern province of Normandy and the southwestern province of Gascony increased.",
"The population of medieval France increased substantially during the first five decades of the 1300s, until the deadly bubonic plague decimated the population of France after 1348."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following statements, if true, most seriously weakens the argument? |
Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of bean plants or other legumes produce fixed nitrogen, which is one of the essential plant nutrients and which for nonlegume crops, such as wheat, normally must be supplied by applications of nitrogen-based fertilizer. So if biotechnology succeeds in producing wheat strains whose roots will play host to Rhizobium bacteria, the need for artificial fertilizers will be reduced. | 199202_1-LR1_9_10 | [
"Biotechnology should be directed toward producing plants that do not require artificial fertilizer.",
"Fixed nitrogen is currently the only soil nutrient that must be supplied by artificial fertilizer for growing wheat crops.",
"There are no naturally occurring strains of wheat or other grasses that have Rhizobium bacteria living in their roots.",
"Legumes are currently the only crops that produce their own supply of fixed nitrogen.",
"Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of wheat would produce fixed nitrogen."
]
| 4 | The argument above makes which one of the following assumptions? |
Current legislation that requires designated sections for smokers and nonsmokers on the premises of privately owned businesses is an intrusion into the private sector that cannot be justified. The fact that studies indicate that nonsmokers might be harmed by inhaling the smoke from others' cigarettes is not the main issue. Rather, the main issue concerns the government's violation of the right of private businesses to determine their own policies and rules. | 199202_1-LR1_10_11 | [
"Government intrusion into the policies and rules of private businesses is justified only when individuals might be harmed.",
"The right of individuals to breathe safe air supersedes the right of businesses to be free from government intrusion.",
"The right of businesses to self-determination overrides whatever right or duty the government may have to protect the individual.",
"It is the duty of private businesses to protect employees from harm in the workplace.",
"Where the rights of businesses and the duty of government conflict, the main issue is finding a successful compromise."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is a principle that, if accepted, could enable the conclusion to be properly drawn? |
Leachate is a solution, frequently highly contaminated, that develops when water permeates a landfill site. If and only if the landfill's capacity to hold liquids is exceeded does the leachate escape into the environment, generally in unpredictable quantities. A method must be found for disposing of leachate. Most landfill leachate is sent directly to sewage treatment plants, but not all sewage plants are capable of handling the highly contaminated water. | 199202_1-LR1_11_12 | [
"The ability to predict the volume of escaping landfill leachate would help solve the disposal problem.",
"If any water permeates a landfill, leachate will escape into the environment.",
"No sewage treatment plants are capable of handling leachate.",
"Some landfill leachate is sent to sewage treatment plants that are incapable of handling it.",
"If leachate does not escape from a landfill into the environment, then the landfill's capacity to hold liquids has not been exceeded."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following can be inferred from the passage? |
The soaring prices of scholarly and scientific journals have forced academic libraries used only by academic researchers to drastically reduce their list of subscriptions. Some have suggested that in each academic discipline subscription decisions should be determined solely by a journal's usefulness in that discipline, measured by the frequency with which it is cited in published writings by researchers in the discipline. | 199202_1-LR1_12_13 | [
"The nonacademic readership of a scholarly or scientific journal can be accurately gauged by the number of times articles appearing in it are cited in daily newspapers and popular magazines.",
"The average length of a journal article in some sciences, such as physics, is less than half the average length of a journal article in some other academic disciplines, such as history.",
"The increasingly expensive scholarly journals are less and less likely to be available to the general public from nonacademic public libraries.",
"Researchers often will not cite a journal article that has influenced their work if they think that the journal in which it appears is not highly regarded by the leading researchers in the mainstream of the discipline.",
"In some academic disciplines, controversies which begin in the pages of one journal spill over into articles in other journals that are widely read by researchers in the discipline."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously calls into question the suggestion described above? |
The average level of fat in the blood of people suffering from acute cases of disease W is lower than the average level for the population as a whole. Nevertheless, most doctors believe that reducing blood-fat levels is an effective way of preventing acute W. | 199202_1-LR1_13_14 | [
"The blood level of fat for patients who have been cured of W is on average the same as that for the population at large.",
"Several of the symptoms characteristic of acute W have been produced in laboratory animals fed large doses of a synthetic fat substitute, though acute W itself has not been produced in this way.",
"The progression from latent to acute W can occur only when the agent that causes acute W absorbs large quantities of fat from the patient's blood.",
"The levels of fat in the blood of patients who have disease W respond abnormally slowly to changes in dietary intake of fat.",
"High levels of fat in the blood are indicative of several diseases that are just as serious as W."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following, if true, does most to justify this apparently paradoxical belief? |
Baking for winter holidays is a tradition that may have a sound medical basis. In midwinter, when days are short, many people suffer from a specific type of seasonal depression caused by lack of sunlight. Carbohydrates, both sugars and starches, boost the brain's levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that improves the mood. In this respect, carbohydrates act on the brain in the same way as some antidepressants. Thus, eating holiday cookies may provide an effective form of self-prescribed medication. | 199202_1-LR1_14_15 | [
"Seasonal depression is one of the most easily treated forms of depression.",
"Lack of sunlight lowers the level of serotonin in the brain.",
"People are more likely to be depressed in midwinter than at other times of the year.",
"Some antidepressants act by changing the brain's level of serotonin.",
"Raising the level of neurotransmitters in the brain effectively relieves depression."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage? |
The current proposal to give college students a broader choice in planning their own courses of study should be abandoned. The students who are supporting the proposal will never be satisfied, no matter what requirements are established. Some of these students have reached their third year without declaring a major. One first-year student has failed to complete four required courses. Several others have indicated a serious indifference to grades and intellectual achievement. | 199202_1-LR1_15_16 | [
"avoids the issue by focusing on supporters of the proposal",
"argues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating the premises",
"fails to define the critical term \"satisfied\"",
"distorts the proposal advocated by opponents",
"uses the term \"student\" equivocally"
]
| 0 | A flaw in the argument is that it does which one of the following? |
The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is certainly imprecise, because we are not sure how different from us something might be and still count as "intelligent life." Yet we cannot just decide to define "intelligent life" in some more precise way since it is likely that we will find and recognize intelligent life elsewhere in the universe only if we leave our definitions open to new, unimagined possibilities. | 199202_1-LR1_16_17 | [
"The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is one that will never correctly be answered.",
"Whether or not there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, our understanding of intelligent life is limited.",
"The question about the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe must be made more precise if we hope to answer it correctly.",
"The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is so imprecise as to be meaningless.",
"The question whether there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe is one we should not spend our time trying to answer."
]
| 2 | The argument can most reasonably be interpreted as an objection to which one of the following claims? |
The question whether intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe is certainly imprecise, because we are not sure how different from us something might be and still count as "intelligent life." Yet we cannot just decide to define "intelligent life" in some more precise way since it is likely that we will find and recognize intelligent life elsewhere in the universe only if we leave our definitions open to new, unimagined possibilities. | 199202_1-LR1_16_18 | [
"showing the claim to be irrelevant to the issue at hand",
"citing examples that fail to fit a proposed definition of \"intelligent life\"",
"claiming that \"intelligent life\" cannot be adequately defined",
"arguing that the claim, if acted on, would be counterproductive",
"maintaining that the claim is not supported by the available evidence"
]
| 3 | The passage, if seen as an objection to an antecedent claim, challenges that claim by |
The efficiency of microwave ovens in destroying the harmful bacteria frequently found in common foods is diminished by the presence of salt in the food being cooked. When heated in a microwave oven, the interior of unsalted food reaches temperatures high enough to kill bacteria that cause food poisoning, but the interior of salted food does not. Scientists theorize that salt effectively blocks the microwaves from heating the interior. | 199202_1-LR1_17_19 | [
"The kinds of bacteria that cause food poisoning are more likely to be found on the exterior of food than in the interior of food.",
"The incidence of serious food poisoning would be significantly reduced if microwave ovens were not used by consumers to cook or reheat food.",
"The addition of salt to food that has been cooked or reheated in a microwave oven can increase the danger of food poisoning.",
"The danger of food poisoning can be lessened if salt is not used to prepare foods that are to be cooked in a microwave oven.",
"Salt is the primary cause of food poisoning resulting from food that is heated in microwave ovens."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following conclusions is most supported by the information above? |
Pamela: Business has an interest in enabling employees to care for children, because those children will be the customers, employees, and managers of the future. Therefore, businesses should adopt policies, such as day-care benefits, that facilitate parenting. Lee: No individual company, though, will be patronized, staffed, and managed only by its own employees' children, so it would not be to a company's advantage to provide such benefits to employees when other companies do not. | 199202_1-LR1_18_20 | [
"New roads will not serve to relieve this area's traffic congestion, because new roads would encourage new construction and generate additional traffic. Objection: Failure to build new roads would mean that traffic congestion would strangle the area even earlier.",
"Humanity needs clean air to breathe, so each person should make an effort to avoid polluting the air. Objection: The air one person breathes is affected mainly by pollution caused by others, so it makes no sense to act alone to curb air pollution.",
"Advertised discounts on products draw customers' attention to the products, so advertised discounts benefit sales. Objection: Customers already planning to purchase a product accelerate buying to take advantage of advertised discounts, and thus subsequent sales suffer.",
"If people always told lies, then no one would know what the truth was, so people should always tell the truth. Objection: If people always told lies, then everyone would know that the truth was the opposite of what was said.",
"Human social institutions have always changed, so even if we do not know what those changes will be, we do know that the social institutions of the future will differ from those of the past. Objection:The existence of change in the past does not ensure that there will always be change in the future."
]
| 1 | In which one of the following pairs consisting of argument and objection does the objection function most similarly to the way Lee's objection functions in relation to Pamela's argument? |
Pedro: Unlike cloth diapers, disposable diapers are a threat to the environment. Sixteen billion disposable diapers are discarded annually, filling up landfills at an alarming rate. So people must stop buying disposable diapers and use cloth diapers. Maria: But you forget that cloth diapers must be washed in hot water, which requires energy. Moreover, the resulting wastewater pollutes our rivers. When families use diaper services, diapers must be delivered by fuel-burning trucks that pollute the air and add to traffic congestion. | 199202_1-LR1_19_21 | [
"claiming that Pedro overstates the negative evidence about disposable diapers in the course of his argument in favor of cloth diapers",
"indicating that Pedro draws a hasty conclusion, based on inadequate evidence about cloth diapers",
"pointing out that there is an ambiguous use of the word \"disposable\" in Pedro's argument",
"demonstrating that cloth diapers are a far more serious threat to the environment than disposable diapers are",
"suggesting that the economic advantages of cloth diapers outweigh whatever environmental damage they may cause"
]
| 1 | Maria objects to Pedro's argument by |
In an experiment, two-year-old boys and their fathers made pie dough together using rolling pins and other utensils. Each father-son pair used a rolling pin that was distinctively different from those used by the other father-son pairs, and each father repeated the phrase "rolling pin" each time his son used it. But when the children were asked to identify all of the rolling pins among a group of kitchen utensils that included several rolling pins, each child picked only the one that he had used. | 199202_1-LR1_20_22 | [
"The children did not grasp the function of a rolling pin.",
"No two children understood the name \"rolling pin\" to apply to the same object.",
"The children understood that all rolling pins have the same general shape.",
"Each child was able to identify correctly only the utensils that he had used.",
"The children were not able to distinguish the rolling pins they used from other rolling pins."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following inferences is most supported by the information above? |
When 100 people who have not used cocaine are tested for cocaine use, on average only 5 will test positive. By contrast, of every 100 people who have used cocaine 99 will test positive. Thus, when a randomly chosen group of people is tested for cocaine use, the vast majority of those who test positive will be people who have used cocaine. | 199202_1-LR1_21_23 | [
"attempts to infer a value judgment from purely factual premises",
"attributes to every member of the population the properties of the average member of the population",
"fails to take into account what proportion of the population have used cocaine",
"ignores the fact that some cocaine users do not test positive",
"advocates testing people for cocaine use when there is no reason to suspect that they have used cocaine"
]
| 2 | A reasoning error in the argument is that the argument |
If a society encourages freedom of thought and expression, then, during the time when it does so, creativity will flourish in that society. In the United States creativity flourished during the eighteenth century. It is clear, therefore, that freedom of thought was encouraged in the United States during eighteenth century. | 199202_1-LR1_22_24 | [
"According to the airline industry, airfares have to rise if air travel is to be made safer; since airfares were just raised, we can rest assured that air travel will therefore become safer.",
"We can conclude that the Hillside police department has improved its efficiency, because crime rates are down in Hillside, and it is an established fact that crime rates go down when police departments increase their efficiency.",
"People who are really interested in the preservation of wildlife obviously do not go hunting for big game; since Gerda has never gone hunting for big game and intends never to do so, it is clear that she is really interested in the preservation of wildlife.",
"If the contents of a bottle are safe to drink, the bottle will not be marked \"poison,\" so, since the bottle is not marked \"poison,\" its contents will be safe to drink.",
"None of the so-called Western democracies is really democratic, because, for a country to be democratic, the opinion of each of its citizens must have a meaningful effect on government, and in none of these countries does each citizen's opinion have such an effect."
]
| 4 | An error of reasoning of the same kind as one contained in the passage is present in each of EXCEPT: |
With the passage of the new tax reform laws, the annual tax burden on low-income taxpayers will be reduced, on average, by anywhere from $100 to $300. Clearly, tax reform is in the interest of low-income taxpayers. | 199202_4-LR2_1_1 | [
"Tax reform, by simplifying the tax code, will save many people the expense of having an accountant do their taxes.",
"Tax reform, by eliminating tax incentives to build rental housing, will push up rents an average of about $40 per month for low-income taxpayers.",
"Low-income taxpayers have consistently voted for those political candidates who are strong advocates of tax reform.",
"The new tax reform laws will permit low- and middle-income taxpayers to deduct child-care expenses from their taxes.",
"Under the new tax reform laws, many low-income taxpayers who now pay taxes will no longer be required to do so."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the conclusion above? |
If we are to expand the exploration of our solar system, our next manned flight should be to Phobos, one of Mars's moons, rather than to Mars itself. The flight times to each are the same, but the Phobos expedition would require less than half the fuel load of a Mars expedition and would, therefore, be much less costly. So, it is clear that Phobos should be our next step in space exploration. | 199202_4-LR2_2_2 | [
"More equipment would be required to explore Phobos than to explore Mars.",
"Smaller spaceships require less fuel than larger spaceships.",
"Information learned during the trip to Phobos can be used during a subsequent trip to Mars.",
"The shortest distance between Phobos and Mars is less than half the shortest distance between Earth and Mars.",
"Lift-off for the return trip from Phobos requires much less fuel than that from Mars because of Phobos' weaker gravitational pull."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain the difference in fuel requirements? |
Scientific research that involves international collaboration has produced papers of greater influence, as measured by the number of times a paper is cited in subsequent papers, than has research without any collaboration. Papers that result from international collaboration are cited an average of seven times, whereas papers with single authors are cited only three times on average. This difference shows that research projects conducted by international research teams are of greater importance than those conducted by single researchers. | 199202_4-LR2_3_3 | [
"Prolific writers can inflate the number of citations they receive by citing themselves in subsequent papers.",
"It is possible to ascertain whether or not a paper is the product of international collaboration by determining the number of citations it has received.",
"The number of citations a paper receives is a measure of the importance of the research it reports.",
"The collaborative efforts of scientists who are citizens of the same country do not produce papers that are as important as papers that are produced by international collaboration.",
"International research teams tend to be more generously funded than are single researchers."
]
| 2 | Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends? |
It is more desirable to have some form of socialized medicine than a system of medical care relying on the private sector. Socialized medicine is more broadly accessible than is a private-sector system. In addition, since countries with socialized medicine have a lower infant mortality rate than do countries with a system relying entirely on the private sector, socialized medicine seems to be technologically superior. | 199202_4-LR2_4_4 | [
"The lower infant mortality rate might be due to the system's allowing greater access to medical care.",
"There is no necessary connection between the economic system of socialism and technological achievement.",
"Infant mortality is a reliable indicator of the quality of medical care for children.",
"No list is presented of the countries whose infant mortality statistics are summarized under the two categories, \"socialized\" and \"private-sector.\"",
"The argument presupposes the desirability of socialized medicine, which is what the argument seeks to establish."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following best indicates a flaw in the argument about the technological superiority of socialized medicine? |
Most parents who are generous are good parents, but some self-centered parents are also good parents. Yet all good parents share one characteristic: they are good listeners. | 199202_4-LR2_5_5 | [
"All parents who are good listeners are good parents.",
"Some parents who are good listeners are not good parents.",
"Most parents who are good listeners are generous.",
"Some parents who are good listeners are self-centered.",
"Fewer self-centered parents than generous parents are good listeners."
]
| 3 | If all of the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true? |
Lourdes: Dietary fiber is an important part of a healthful diet. Experts recommend that adults consume 20 to 35 grams of fiber a day. Kyra: But a daily intake of fiber that is significantly above that recommended level interferes with mineral absorption, especially the absorption of calcium. The public should be told to cut back on fiber intake. | 199202_4-LR2_6_6 | [
"Among adults, the average consumption of dietary fiber is at present approximately 10 grams a day.",
"The more a food is processed, the more the fiber is broken down and the lower the fiber content.",
"Many foodstuffs that are excellent sources of fiber are economical and readily available.",
"Adequate calcium intake helps prevent the decrease in bone mass known as osteoporosis.",
"Many foodstuffs that are excellent sources of fiber are popular with consumers."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines Kyra's recommendation? |
A certain retailer promotes merchandise by using the following policy: At all times there is either a "manager's sale" or a "holiday sale" or both going on. All sales are run for exactly one calendar month. In any given month, if a manager wishes to clear out a particular line of merchandise, then a manager's sale is declared. If a holiday falls within the calendar month and there is excess merchandise in the warehouse, then a holiday sale is declared. However, there is no holiday that falls within the month of August and, in that month, the warehouse never contains excess merchandise. | 199202_4-LR2_7_7 | [
"If a holiday falls within a given month and there is no extra merchandise in the warehouse that month, then a holiday sale is declared.",
"If a holiday sale is not being run, then it is the month of August.",
"If a manager's sale is being run in some month, then there is no excess merchandise in the warehouse in that month.",
"If there is not a manager's sale being run in some month, then there is a holiday sale being run in that month.",
"If there is no excess merchandise in the warehouse, then it is the month of August."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following can be concluded from the passage? |
Prominent business executives often play active roles in United States presidential campaigns as fund-raisers or backroom strategists, but few actually seek to become president themselves. Throughout history the great majority of those who have sought to become president have been lawyers, military leaders, or full-time politicians. This is understandable, for the personality and skills that make for success in business do not make for success in politics. Business is largely hierarchical, whereas politics is coordinative. As a result, business executives tend to be uncomfortable with compromises and power-sharing, which are inherent in politics. | 199202_4-LR2_8_8 | [
"Many of the most active presidential fund-raisers and backroom strategists are themselves politicians.",
"Military leaders are generally no more comfortable with compromises and power-sharing than are business executives.",
"Some of the skills needed to become a successful lawyer are different from some of those needed to become a successful military leader.",
"Some former presidents have engaged in business ventures after leaving office.",
"Some hierarchically structured companies have been major financial supporters of candidates for president."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the proposed explanation of why business executives do not run for president? |
A scientific theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations in terms of a model that is simple enough to contain only a few elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations. For example, Aristotle's cosmological theory, which claimed that everything was made out of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water—satisfied the first requirement, but it did not make any definite predictions. Thus, Aristotle's cosmological theory was not a good theory. | 199202_4-LR2_9_9 | [
"Prediction about the results of future observations must be made by any good scientific theory.",
"Observation of physical phenomena was not a major concern in Aristotle's cosmological theory.",
"Four elements can be the basis of a scientific model that is simple enough to meet the simplicity criterion of a good theory.",
"A scientific model that contains many elements is not a good theory.",
"Aristotle's cosmological theory described a large class of observations in terms of only four elements."
]
| 1 | If all the statements in the passage are true, each of the following must also be true EXCEPT: |
Millions of irreplaceable exhibits in natural history museums are currently allowed to decay. Yet without analyses of eggs from museums, the studies linking pesticides with the decline of birds of prey would have been impossible. Therefore, funds must be raised to preserve at least those exhibits that will be most valuable to science in the future. | 199202_4-LR2_10_10 | [
"if a museum exhibit is irreplaceable, its preservation is of an importance that overrides economic considerations",
"the scientific analysis of museum exhibits can be performed in a nondestructive way",
"eggs of extinct species should be analyzed to increase knowledge of genetic relationships among species",
"it can be known at this time what data will be of most use to scientific investigators in the future",
"the decay of organic material in natural history exhibits is natural and cannot be prevented"
]
| 3 | The argument presupposes that |
Compared to nonprofit hospitals of the same size, investor-owned hospitals require less public investment in the form of tax breaks, use fewer employees, and have higher occupancy levels. It can therefore be concluded that investor-owned hospitals are a better way of delivering medical care than are nonprofit hospitals. | 199202_4-LR2_11_11 | [
"Nonprofit hospitals charge more per bed than do investor-owned hospitals.",
"Patients in nonprofit hospitals recover more quickly than do patients with comparable illnesses in investor-owned hospitals.",
"Nonprofit hospitals do more fundraising than do investor-owned hospitals.",
"Doctors at nonprofit hospitals earn higher salaries than do similarly-qualified doctors at investor-owned hospitals.",
"Nonprofit hospitals receive more donations than do investor-owned hospitals."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the conclusion drawn above? |
The ancient Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, who had a profound effect during his lifetime on Egyptian art and religion, was well loved and highly respected by his subjects. We know this from the fierce loyalty shown to him by his palace guards, as documented in reports written during Akhenaten's reign. | 199202_4-LR2_12_12 | [
"introduce information that actually contradicts the conclusion",
"rely on evidence that in principle would be impossible to challenge",
"make a generalization based on a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative",
"depend on the ambiguity of the term \"ancient\"",
"apply present-day standards in an inappropriate way to ancient times"
]
| 2 | A questionable technique used in the argument is to |
Physician: The patient is suffering either from disease X or else from disease Y, but there is no available test for distinguishing X from Y. Therefore, since there is an effective treatment for Y but no treatment for X, we must act on the assumption that the patient has a case of Y. | 199202_4-LR2_13_13 | [
"In treating a patient who has one or the other of two diseases, it is more important to treat the diseases than to determine which of the two diseases the patient has.",
"If circumstances beyond a decision maker's control will affect the outcome of the decision maker's actions, the decision maker must assume that circumstances are unfavorable.",
"When the soundness of a strategy depends on the truth of a certain assumption, the first step in putting the strategy into effect must be to test the truth of this assumption.",
"When success is possible only if a circumstance beyond one's control is favorable, then one's strategy must be based on the assumption that this circumstance is in fact favorable.",
"When only one strategy carries the possibility of success, circumstances must as much as possible be changed to fit this strategy."
]
| 3 | The physician's reasoning could be based on which one of the following principles? |
Consumer advocate: Tropical oils are high in saturated fats, which increase the risk of heart disease. Fortunately, in most prepared food tropical oils can be replaced by healthier alternatives without noticeably affecting taste. Therefore, intensive publicity about the disadvantage of tropical oils will be likely to result in dietary changes that will diminish many people's risk of developing heart disease. Nutritionist: The major sources of saturated fat in the average North American diet are meat, poultry, and dairy products, not tropical oils. Thus, focusing attention on the health hazards of tropical oils would be counterproductive, because it would encourage people to believe that more substantial dietary changes are unnecessary. | 199202_4-LR2_14_14 | [
"whether a diet that regularly includes large quantities of tropical oil can increase the risk of heart disease",
"whether intensive publicity campaigns can be effective as a means of changing people's eating habits",
"whether more people in North America would benefit from reducing the amount of meat they consume than would benefit from eliminating tropical oils from their diets",
"whether some people's diets could be made significantly healthier if they replaced all tropical oils with vegetable oils that are significantly lower in saturated fat",
"whether conducting a publicity campaign that, by focusing on the health hazards of tropical oils, persuades people to replace such oils with healthier alternatives is a good public-health strategy"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a point at issue between the nutritionist and the consumer advocate? |
People who take what others regard as a ridiculous position should not bother to say, "I mean every word!" For either their position truly is ridiculous, in which case insisting that they are serious about it only exposes them to deeper embarrassment, or else their position has merit, in which case they should meet disbelief with rational argument rather than with assurances of their sincerity. | 199202_4-LR2_15_15 | [
"A practice that has been denounced as a poor practice should not be defended on the grounds that \"this is how we have always done it.\" If the practice is a poor one, so much the worse that it has been extensively used; if it is not a poor one, there must be a better reason for engaging in it than inertia.",
"People who are asked why they eat some of the unusual foods they eat should not answer, \"because that is what I like.\" This sort of answer will sound either naive or evasive and thus will satisfy no one.",
"People whose taste in clothes is being criticized should not reply, \"Every penny I spent on these clothes I earned honestly.\" For the issue raised by the critics is not how the money was come by but rather whether it was spent wisely.",
"Scholars who champion unpopular new theories should not assume that the widespread rejection of their ideas shows that they \"must be on the right track.\" The truth is that few theories of any consequence are either wholly right or wholly wrong and thus there is no substitute for patient work in ascertaining which parts are right.",
"People who set themselves goals that others denounce as overly ambitious do little to silence their critics if they say, \"I can accomplish this if anyone can.\" Rather, those people should either admit that their critics are right or not dignify the criticism with any reply."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above? |
Concetta: Franchot was a great writer because she was ahead of her time in understanding that industrialization was taking an unconscionable toll on the family structure of the working class. Alicia: Franchot was not a great writer. The mark of a great writer is the ability to move people with the power of the written word, not the ability to be among the first to grasp a social issue. Besides, the social consequences of industrialization were widely understood in Franchot's day. | 199202_4-LR2_16_16 | [
"accepts Concetta's criterion and then adds evidence to Concetta's case",
"discredits Concetta's evidence and then generalizes from new evidence",
"rejects Concetta's criterion and then disputes a specific claim",
"disputes Concetta's conclusion and then presents facts in support of an alternative criterion",
"attacks one of Concetta's claims and then criticizes the structure of her argument"
]
| 2 | In her disagreement with Concetta, Alicia does which one of the followings? |
Zeida: Dr. Ladlow, a research psychologist, has convincingly demonstrated that his theory about the determinants of rat behavior generates consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze. On the basis of this evidence, Dr. Ladlow has claimed that his theory is irrefutably correct. Anson: Then Dr. Ladlow is not a responsible psychologist. Dr. Ladlow's evidence does not conclusively prove that his theory is correct. Responsible psychologists always accept the possibility that new evidence will show that their theories are incorrect. | 199202_4-LR2_17_17 | [
"Dr. Ladlow's evidence that his theory generates consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze is inaccurate.",
"Psychologists who can derive consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze from their theories cannot responsibly conclude that those theories cannot be disproved.",
"No matter how responsible psychologists are, they can never develop correct theoretical explanations.",
"Responsible psychologists do not make predictions about how rats will perform in a maze.",
"Psychologists who accept the possibility that new evidence will show that their theories are incorrect are responsible psychologists."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following can be properly inferred from Anson's argument? |
Zeida: Dr. Ladlow, a research psychologist, has convincingly demonstrated that his theory about the determinants of rat behavior generates consistently accurate predictions about how rats will perform in a maze. On the basis of this evidence, Dr. Ladlow has claimed that his theory is irrefutably correct. Anson: Then Dr. Ladlow is not a responsible psychologist. Dr. Ladlow's evidence does not conclusively prove that his theory is correct. Responsible psychologists always accept the possibility that new evidence will show that their theories are incorrect. | 199202_4-LR2_17_18 | [
"an attack on Dr. Ladlow's character",
"the application of a general principle",
"the use of an ambiguous term",
"the discrediting of facts",
"the rejection of a theoretical explanation"
]
| 1 | Anson bases his conclusion about Dr. Ladlow on which one of the following? |
Smith: Meat in the diet is healthy, despite what some people say. After all, most doctors do eat meat, and who knows more about health than doctors do? | 199202_4-LR2_18_19 | [
"attacking the opponents' motives instead of their argument",
"generalizing on the basis of a sample consisting of atypical cases",
"assuming at the outset what the argument claims to establish through reasoning",
"appealing to authority, even when different authorities give conflicting advice about an issue",
"taking for granted that experts do not act counter to what, according to their expertise, is in their best interest"
]
| 4 | Which one of the following is a flaw in Smith's reasoning? |
The rise in the prosperity of England subsequent to 1840 can be attributed to the adoption of the policy of free trade, since economic conditions improved only when that policy had been implemented. | 199202_4-LR2_19_20 | [
"An exhaustive search of the marshes last year revealed no sign of marsh hawks, so it can be assumed that a similar search this year would reveal equally little sign of that kind of bird.",
"Building a circular bypass road around Plainfield probably helped the flow of local traffic in the town center, since a circular bypass road generally cuts a city's through traffic markedly.",
"Before the banks raised their interest rates, people on average incomes could almost afford a mortgage for an amount twice their salary, hence the rate increase has now put mortgages beyond their reach.",
"Since the improvement in the company's profitability began to occur after the vice president's new morale-building program was put in place, that program can be credited with the improved result.",
"The extinction of the dinosaurs was brought about by an asteroid colliding with Earth, so their extinction could not have come before the collision."
]
| 3 | The reasoning in the above argument most closely parallels that in which one of the following? |
During construction of the Quebec Bridge in 1907, the bridge's designer, Theodore Cooper, received word that the suspended span being built out from the bridge's cantilever was deflecting downward by a fraction of an inch. Before he could telegraph to freeze the project, the whole cantilever arm broke off and plunged, along with seven dozen workers, into the St. Lawrence River. It was the worst bridge construction disaster in history. As a direct result of the inquiry that followed, the engineering "rules of thumb" by which thousands of bridges had been built went down with the Quebec Bridge. Twentieth-century bridge engineers would thereafter depend on far more rigorous applications of mathematical analysis. | 199202_4-LR2_20_21 | [
"Bridges built before about 1907 were built without thorough mathematical analysis and, therefore, were unsafe for the public to use.",
"Cooper's absence from the Quebec Bridge construction site resulted in the breaking off of the cantilever.",
"Nineteenth-century bridge engineers relied on their rules of thumb because analytical methods were inadequate to solve their design problems.",
"Only a more rigorous application of mathematical analysis to the design of the Quebec Bridge could have prevented its collapse.",
"Prior to 1907 the mathematical analysis incorporated in engineering rules of thumb was insufficient to completely assure the safety of bridges under construction."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following statements can be properly inferred from the passage? |
Most children find it very difficult to explain exactly what the words they use mean when those words do not refer to things that can be seen or touched. Yet, since children are able to use these words to convey the feelings and emotions they are obviously experiencing, understanding what a word means clearly does not depend on being able to explain it. | 199202_4-LR2_21_22 | [
"The fact that a task is very difficult for most people does not mean that no one can do it.",
"Anyone who can provide an exact explanation of a word has a clear understanding of what that word means.",
"Words that refer to emotions invariably have less narrowly circumscribed conventional meanings than do words that refer to physical objects.",
"When someone appropriately uses a word to convey something that he or she is experiencing, that person understands what that word means.",
"Words can be explained satisfactorily only when they refer to things that can be seen or touched."
]
| 3 | Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would provide the most justification for the conclusion? |
The brains of identical twins are genetically identical. When only one of a pair of identical twins is a schizophrenic, certain areas of the affected twin's brain are smaller than corresponding areas in the brain of the unaffected twin. No such differences are found when neither twin is schizophrenic. Therefore, this discovery provides definitive evidence that schizophrenia is caused by damage to the physical structure of the brain. | 199202_4-LR2_22_23 | [
"The brain of a person suffering from schizophrenia is smaller than the brain of anyone not suffering from schizophrenia.",
"The relative smallness of certain parts of the brains of schizophrenics is not the result of schizophrenia or of medications used in its treatment.",
"The brain of a person with an identical twin is no smaller, on average, than the brain of a person who is not a twin.",
"When a pair of identical twins both suffer from schizophrenia, their brains are the same size.",
"People who have an identical twin are no more likely to suffer from schizophrenia than those who do not."
]
| 1 | Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument? |
The brains of identical twins are genetically identical. When only one of a pair of identical twins is a schizophrenic, certain areas of the affected twin's brain are smaller than corresponding areas in the brain of the unaffected twin. No such differences are found when neither twin is schizophrenic. Therefore, this discovery provides definitive evidence that schizophrenia is caused by damage to the physical structure of the brain. | 199202_4-LR2_22_24 | [
"People who lack a genetic susceptibility for the disease will not develop schizophrenia.",
"Medications can control most of the symptoms of schizophrenia in most patients but will never be able to cure it.",
"The brains of schizophrenics share many of the characteristics found in those of people without the disorder.",
"It will eventually be possible to determine whether or not someone will develop schizophrenia on the basis of genetic information alone.",
"Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia are the result of childhood viral infections that inhibit the development of brain cells."
]
| 3 | If the statements on which the conclusion above is based are all true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: |
Sixty adults were asked to keep a diary of their meals, including what they consumed, when, and in the company of how many people. It was found that at meals with which they drank alcoholic beverages, they consumed about 175 calories more from nonalcoholic sources than they did at meals with which they did not drink alcoholic beverages. | 199202_4-LR2_23_25 | [
"Diners spent a much longer time at meals served with alcohol than they did at those served without alcohol.",
"The meals eaten later in the day tended to be larger than those eaten earlier in the day, and later meals were more likely to include alcohol.",
"People eat more when there are more people present at the meal, and more people tended to be present at meals served with alcohol than at meals served without alcohol.",
"The meals that were most carefully prepared and most attractively served tended to be those at which alcoholic beverages were consumed.",
"At meals that included alcohol, relatively more of the total calories consumed came from carbohydrates and relatively fewer of them came from fats and proteins."
]
| 4 | Each of the following, if true, contributes to an explanation of the difference in caloric intake EXCEPT: |
Something must be done to ease traffic congestion. In traditional small towns, people used to work and shop in the same town in which they lived; but now that stores and workplaces are located far away from residential areas, people cannot avoid traveling long distances each day. Traffic congestion is so heavy on all roads that, even on major highways where the maximum speed limit is 55 miles per hour, the actual speed averages only 35 miles per hour. | 199206_1-LR1_1_1 | [
"The maximum speed limit on major highways should be increased.",
"People who now travel on major highways should be encouraged to travel on secondary roads instead.",
"Residents of the remaining traditional small towns should be encouraged to move to the suburbs.",
"Drivers who travel well below the maximum speed limit on major highways should be fined.",
"New businesses should be encouraged to locate closer to where their workers would live."
]
| 4 | Which one of the following proposals is most supported by the statements above? |
College professor: College students do not write nearly as well as they used to. Almost all of the papers that my students have done for me this year have been poorly written and ungrammatical. | 199206_1-LR1_2_2 | [
"It requires confirmation that the change in the professor's students is representative of a change among college students in general.",
"It offers no proof to the effect that the professor is an accurate judge of writing ability.",
"It does not take into account the possibility that the professor is a poor teacher.",
"It fails to present contrary evidence.",
"It fails to define its terms sufficiently."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following is the most serious weakness in the argument made by the professor? |
Mayor of Plainsville: In order to help the economy of Plainsville, I am using some of our tax revenues to help bring a major highway through the town and thereby attract new business to Plainsville. Citizens' group: You must have interests other than our economy in mind. If you were really interested in helping our economy, you would instead allocate the revenues to building a new business park, since it would bring in twice the business that your highway would. | 199206_1-LR1_3_3 | [
"Plainsville presently has no major highways running through it.",
"The mayor accepts that a new business park would bring in more new business than would the new highway.",
"The new highway would have no benefits for Plainsville other than attracting new business.",
"The mayor is required to get approval for all tax revenue allocation plans from the city council.",
"Plainsville's economy will not be helped unless a new business park of the sort envisioned by the citizens' group is built."
]
| 1 | The argument by the citizens' group relies on which one of the following assumptions? |
Mayor of Plainsville: In order to help the economy of Plainsville, I am using some of our tax revenues to help bring a major highway through the town and thereby attract new business to Plainsville. Citizens' group: You must have interests other than our economy in mind. If you were really interested in helping our economy, you would instead allocate the revenues to building a new business park, since it would bring in twice the business that your highway would. | 199206_1-LR1_3_4 | [
"Anyone really pursuing a cause will choose the means that that person believes will advance the cause the farthest.",
"Any goal that includes helping the economy of a community will require public revenues in order to be achieved.",
"Anyone planning to use resources collected from a group must consult the members of the group before using the resources.",
"Any cause worth committing oneself to must include specific goals toward which one can work.",
"Any cause not pursued by public officials, if it is to be pursued at all, must be pursued by members of the community."
]
| 0 | Which one of the following principles, if accepted, would most help the citizens' group to justify drawing its conclusion that the mayor has in mind interests other than Plainsville's economy? |
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