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Flame temperature Summary Adiabatic_flame_temperature In the study of combustion, the adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature reached by a flame under ideal conditions. It is an upper bound of the temperature that is reached in actual processes. There are two types adiabatic flame temperature: constant volume and constant pressure, depending on how the process is completed. The constant volume adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any work, heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy. Its temperature is higher than in the constant pressure process because no energy is utilized to change the volume of the system (i.e., generate work).
Transcription regulation Regulation of transcription in cancer Eukaryotic_transcription > Regulation of transcription in cancer In vertebrates, the majority of gene promoters contain a CpG island with numerous CpG sites. When many of a gene's promoter CpG sites are methylated the gene becomes silenced. Colorectal cancers typically have 3 to 6 driver mutations and 33 to 66 hitchhiker or passenger mutations.
Quantum Cryptography Quantum coin flipping Quantum_Cryptography > Applications > Mistrustful quantum cryptography > Quantum coin flipping Unlike quantum key distribution, quantum coin flipping is a protocol that is used between two participants who do not trust each other. The participants communicate via a quantum channel and exchange information through the transmission of qubits. But because Alice and Bob do not trust each other, each expects the other to cheat.
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy Types Progressive_Supranuclear_Palsy > Diagnosis > Types Based on the pathological findings in confirmed cases of PSP, it is divided into the following categories: classical Richardson syndrome (PSP-RS) PSP-parkinsonism (PSP-P) and PSP-pure akinesia with gait freezing (PSP-PAGF) frontal PSP, PSP-corticobasal syndrome (PSP-CBS), PSP-behavioural variant of frontotemporal dementia (PSP-bvFTD) and PSP-progressive non-fluent aphasia (PSP-PNFA) PSP-C PSP induced by AnnonaceaeRichardson syndrome is characterized by the typical features of PSP. In PSP-P features of Parkinson’s Disease overlap with the clinical presentation of PSP and follows a more benign course. In both PSP-P and PSP- PAGF distribution of abnormal tau is relatively restricted to the brain stem.
Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry Stable isotope paleoaltimetry Hydrogen_isotope_biogeochemistry > Applications > Paleo-reconstruction > Stable isotope paleoaltimetry Lab experiments with clay minerals have shown that the hydrogen and oxygen isotope compositions are relatively resistant to alteration at moderate temperature (<100 °C), and can preserve the original meteoric water signal. One important effect of mountain ranges on rainfall stable isotopes is the rain shadow effect, in which an isotopic depletion happens in precipitation on the leeward side compared to the windward side. A change in the difference in isotopic composition of precipitation on the two sides of a mountain can be used to infer the magnitude of the rain shadow effect.
Prokaryotic small ribosomal subunit Structure 30S_ribosomal_subunit > Structure The small ribosomal subunit is made up of 16S rRNA and 19 full proteins. There is also one polypeptide chain that consists of 26 amino acids. Conventionally, the rRNA is labeled with "H#" to indicate the helix number in high resolution images. Proteins are labelled "S#" to indicate the different peptides involved in rRNA stabilization. S11 and H45 are located near the Shine-Dalgarno binding site, which is also near the IF-3 binding site. Proteins S3, S4, S5, and S12, along with H18, are located near the channel where mRNA is present in the 30S subunit.
Time lens Comparison with time lens imaging Time-stretch_analog-to-digital_converter > Comparison with time lens imaging Owing to the mathematical equivalence between paraxial diffraction and temporal dispersion, an optical waveform can be temporally imaged by a three-step process of dispersing it in time, subjecting it to a phase shift that is quadratic in time (the time lens itself), and dispersing it again. Theoretically, a focused aberration-free image is obtained under a specific condition when the two dispersive elements and the phase shift satisfy the temporal equivalent of the classic lens equation. Alternatively, the time lens can be used without the second dispersive element to transfer the waveform's temporal profile to the spectral domain, analogous to the property that an ordinary lens produces the spatial Fourier transform of an object at its focal points.In contrast to the time-lens approach, PTS is not based on the space-time duality – there is no lens equation that needs to be satisfied to obtain an error-free slowed-down version of the input waveform.
Modes of convergence (annotated index) ...from a set (S) to a normed space (N) Modes_of_convergence_(annotated_index) > A series of functions Σgk from a set (S) to a TAG (G) > ...from a set (S) to a normed space (N) Generally, replacing "convergence" by "absolute-convergence" means one is referring to convergence of the series of nonnegative functions Σ | g k | {\displaystyle \Sigma |g_{k}|} in place of Σ g k {\displaystyle \Sigma g_{k}} . Pointwise absolute-convergence (pointwise convergence of Σ | g k | {\displaystyle \Sigma |g_{k}|} ) Uniform absolute-convergence (uniform convergence of Σ | g k | {\displaystyle \Sigma |g_{k}|} ) Normal convergence (convergence of the series of uniform norms Σ | | g k | | u {\displaystyle \Sigma ||g_{k}||_{u}} )Implications are cases of earlier ones, except: - Normal convergence ⇒ {\displaystyle \Rightarrow } uniform absolute-convergence
Aerobic capacity Expression VO2_max > Expression V̇O2 max is expressed either as an absolute rate in (for example) litres of oxygen per minute (L/min) or as a relative rate in (for example) millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of the body mass per minute (e.g., mL/(kg·min)). The latter expression is often used to compare the performance of endurance sports athletes. However, V̇O2 max generally does not vary linearly with body mass, either among individuals within a species or among species, so comparisons of the performance capacities of individuals or species that differ in body size must be done with appropriate statistical procedures, such as analysis of covariance.
Lupitidine Summary Lupitidine Lupitidine (INN; lupitidine hydrochloride (USAN); development code SKF-93479) is a long-acting H2 receptor antagonist developed by Smith, Kline & French and described as an antiulcerogenic that was never marketed. It was shown to inhibit nocturnal gastric acid secretion and, in experiments on rodents, produced diffuse neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia and an increase in multifocal glandular hyperplasia due to hypergastrinemia resulting from the pharmacological suppression of gastric acid secretion. == References ==
Programmed input–output Summary Programmed_input–output Programmed input–output (also programmable input/output, programmed input/output, programmed I/O, PIO) is a method of data transmission, via input/output (I/O), between a central processing unit (CPU) and a peripheral device, such as a Parallel ATA storage device. Each data item transfer is initiated by an instruction in the program, involving the CPU for every transaction. In contrast, in direct memory access (DMA) operations, the CPU is uninvolved in the data transfer. The term can refer to either memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) or port-mapped I/O (PMIO).
Efferent arterioles Regulation of glomerular filtration rate Efferent_arterioles > Regulation of glomerular filtration rate When angiotensin II levels are increased due to activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, most of the arteries in the body experience vasoconstriction, in order to maintain adequate blood pressure. However, this reduces blood flow to the kidneys. To compensate, the efferent arterioles constrict to a greater degree than the other arteries, in response to increased levels of angiotensin II.
List of PPAD-complete problems Fixed-point theorems List_of_PPAD-complete_problems > Fixed-point theorems Sperner's lemma Brouwer fixed-point theorem Kakutani fixed-point theorem
Undersea communications cable Bandwidth problems Submarine_communications_cable > Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables > Bandwidth problems In 1831, Faraday described this effect in what is now referred to as Faraday's law of induction. As the two charges attract each other, the exciting charge is retarded. The core acts as a capacitor distributed along the length of the cable which, coupled with the resistance and inductance of the cable, limits the speed at which a signal travels through the conductor of the cable.
C7H16FO2P Summary C7H16FO2P The molecular formula C7H16FO2P (molar mass: 182.17 g/mol, exact mass: 182.0872 u) may refer to: GH (also known as EA-1211) Soman, or GD
Elementary symmetric polynomial Properties Elementary_symmetric_polynomials > Properties The set of elementary symmetric polynomials in n variables generates the ring of symmetric polynomials in n variables. More specifically, the ring of symmetric polynomials with integer coefficients equals the integral polynomial ring ℤ. (See below for a more general statement and proof.) This fact is one of the foundations of invariant theory. For another system of symmetric polynomials with the same property see Complete homogeneous symmetric polynomials, and for a system with a similar, but slightly weaker, property see Power sum symmetric polynomial.
Work hardened Theory Work_hardened > Theory Before work hardening, the lattice of the material exhibits a regular, nearly defect-free pattern (almost no dislocations). The defect-free lattice can be created or restored at any time by annealing. As the material is work hardened it becomes increasingly saturated with new dislocations, and more dislocations are prevented from nucleating (a resistance to dislocation-formation develops). This resistance to dislocation-formation manifests itself as a resistance to plastic deformation; hence, the observed strengthening.
Hamiltonian Monte Carlo Summary Hybrid_Monte_Carlo The Hamiltonian Monte Carlo algorithm (originally known as hybrid Monte Carlo) is a Markov chain Monte Carlo method for obtaining a sequence of random samples which converge to being distributed according to a target probability distribution for which direct sampling is difficult. This sequence can be used to estimate integrals with respect to the target distribution (expected values). Hamiltonian Monte Carlo corresponds to an instance of the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm, with a Hamiltonian dynamics evolution simulated using a time-reversible and volume-preserving numerical integrator (typically the leapfrog integrator) to propose a move to a new point in the state space. Compared to using a Gaussian random walk proposal distribution in the Metropolis–Hastings algorithm, Hamiltonian Monte Carlo reduces the correlation between successive sampled states by proposing moves to distant states which maintain a high probability of acceptance due to the approximate energy conserving properties of the simulated Hamiltonian dynamic when using a symplectic integrator.
Superficial vein thrombosis Surgery Superficial_vein_thrombosis > Treatment > Surgery Surgical interventions are used for both symptomatic relief of the SVT as well as for preventing the development of more serious complications (e.g. pulmonary embolism). Surgical interventions include ligation of the saphenofemoral junction, ligation and stripping of the affected veins, and local thrombectomy. Because of the risk of symptomatic pulmonary embolism with surgery itself, surgical interventions are not recommended for the treatment of lower limb SVTs by the 2012 American College of Chest Physicians guidelines and the 2012 British Committee for Standards in Haematology guidelines. The use of surgery for the treatment of SVT is controversial.
HIV transmission Virology Acquired_Immunodeficiency_Syndrome > Virology The hybrid spreading mechanisms of HIV contribute to the virus' ongoing replication against antiretroviral therapies.Two types of HIV have been characterized: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the virus that was originally discovered (and initially referred to also as LAV or HTLV-III). It is more virulent, more infective, and is the cause of the majority of HIV infections globally. The lower infectivity of HIV-2 as compared with HIV-1 implies that fewer people exposed to HIV-2 will be infected per exposure. Because of its relatively poor capacity for transmission, HIV-2 is largely confined to West Africa.
Chemical element Description Naturally_occurring_element > Description The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium. Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.
Circular motion Formulas Radial_motion > Uniform circular motion > Formulas The circumference of the orbit is 2π (~6.283) metres. The period of the motion is 2π seconds per turn. The frequency is (2π)−1 hertz.
Crowd simulation History Crowd_simulation > History He had simulated flocks of birds alongside schools of fish for the purpose of studying group intuition and movement. All agents within these simulations were given direct access to the respective positions and velocities of their surrounding agents.
Thought Thought experiments Thought > Related concepts and theories > Thought experiments Thought experiments involve thinking about imaginary situations, often with the aim of investigating the possible consequences of a change to the actual sequence of events. It is a controversial issue to what extent thought experiments should be understood as actual experiments. They are experiments in the sense that a certain situation is set up and one tries to learn from this situation by understanding what follows from it. They differ from regular experiments in that imagination is used to set up the situation and counterfactual reasoning is employed to evaluate what follows from it, instead of setting it up physically and observing the consequences through perception.
NcRNA therapy Ribosomal RNA NcRNA_therapy > RNA Classification > Small non-coding RNA > Ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) includes non-coding RNAs that play essential roles in rRNA regulation. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) takes part in protein synthesis. Occasional RNA molecules act catalytically, as RNA enzymes (ribozymes) or take part in protein export. The most important ribozyme is the major rRNA of the large subunit of the ribosome (28s rRNA in eukaryotes). It is now accepted that 28S rRNA catalyzes the critical step in polypeptide synthesis in addition to playing a major structural role.
Fit and flare History Fit_and_flare > History The origins of the fit and flare dress can be traced to the 1930s with the move away from the drop-waist silhouette of the 1920s. The fit and flare silhouette is linked to Christian Dior's "New LooK" of a cinched waist and full skirt that became popular in the post-war decades. Fit and flare dresses allowed women to show off the hourglass figure that was in vogue in the era. The flattering nature of the silhouette has ensured its popularity into the present day. == References ==
Conceptual model Considering affected variables Conceptual_model > Modelling techniques > Technique evaluation and selection > Considering affected variables What content will the conceptual model represent? How will the conceptual model be presented? Who will be using or participating in the conceptual model?
Solar powered radio Summary Solar-powered_radio A solar powered radio is a portable radio receiver powered by photovoltaic panels. It is primarily used in remote areas where access to power sources is limited.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) Other uses Poly(methyl_methacrylate) > Applications > Other uses In semiconductor research and industry, PMMA aids as a resist in the electron beam lithography process. A solution consisting of the polymer in a solvent is used to spin coat silicon and other semiconducting and semi-insulating wafers with a thin film. Patterns on this can be made by an electron beam (using an electron microscope), deep UV light (shorter wavelength than the standard photolithography process), or X-rays.
Ultrasonic drug delivery Apoptosis Ultrasonic_drug_delivery > Mechanism of Action > Apoptosis Low intensity ultrasound has been shown within past literature to induce apoptotic effects within surrounding cells. It has been found that it is not the initial ROS that causes apoptosis within the cells, but the free radicals within the mitochondria. In a study by Honda et al., it was determined that the mitochondria-caspase pathway is responsible for apoptosis through the increase of intracellular calcium.
MRNA translation Basic mechanisms Peptide_chain_elongation,_translational > Basic mechanisms When an aminoacyl-tRNA initially binds to its corresponding codon on the mRNA, it is in the A site. Then, a peptide bond forms between the amino acid of the tRNA in the A site and the amino acid of the charged tRNA in the P/E site. The growing polypeptide chain is transferred to the tRNA in the A site.
Macrophage activation HIV infection Macrophage > Clinical significance > HIV infection Macrophages also play a role in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Like T cells, macrophages can be infected with HIV, and even become a reservoir of ongoing virus replication throughout the body. HIV can enter the macrophage through binding of gp120 to CD4 and second membrane receptor, CCR5 (a chemokine receptor). Both circulating monocytes and macrophages serve as a reservoir for the virus. Macrophages are better able to resist infection by HIV-1 than CD4+ T cells, although susceptibility to HIV infection differs among macrophage subtypes.
Endomorphism algebra Summary Endomorphism_ring In mathematics, the endomorphisms of an abelian group X form a ring. This ring is called the endomorphism ring of X, denoted by End(X); the set of all homomorphisms of X into itself. Addition of endomorphisms arises naturally in a pointwise manner and multiplication via endomorphism composition.
Respiratory rhythm Respiratory rhythm Ventral_respiratory_group > Respiratory rhythm Exhalation is passive and relies on the elastic recoil of the lungs. When the metabolic need for oxygen increases, inspiration becomes more forceful and the neurons in the ventral group are activated to bring about forceful exhalation. Shortness of breath is termed dyspnea – the opposite of eupnea.
Global optimization Branch and bound methods Global_optimization > Deterministic methods > Branch and bound methods Branch and bound (BB or B&B) is an algorithm design paradigm for discrete and combinatorial optimization problems. A branch-and-bound algorithm consists of a systematic enumeration of candidate solutions by means of state space search: the set of candidate solutions is thought of as forming a rooted tree with the full set at the root. The algorithm explores branches of this tree, which represent subsets of the solution set. Before enumerating the candidate solutions of a branch, the branch is checked against upper and lower estimated bounds on the optimal solution, and is discarded if it cannot produce a better solution than the best one found so far by the algorithm.
Phase converter Summary Phase_converter A phase converter is a device that converts electric power provided as single phase to multiple phase or vice versa. The majority of phase converters are used to produce three-phase electric power from a single-phase source, thus allowing the operation of three-phase equipment at a site that only has single-phase electrical service. Phase converters are used where three-phase service is not available from the utility provider or is too costly to install. A utility provider will generally charge a higher fee for a three-phase service because of the extra equipment, including transformers, metering, and distribution wire required to complete a functional installation.
Coal trestle Summary Coal_trestle A trestle bridge is a bridge composed of a number of short spans supported by closely spaced frames. A trestle (sometimes tressel) is a rigid frame used as a support, historically a tripod used to support a stool or a pair of isosceles triangles joined at their apices by a plank or beam such as the support structure for a trestle table. Each supporting frame is a bent. A trestle differs from a viaduct in that viaducts have towers that support much longer spans and typically have a higher elevation.Timber and iron trestles (i.e. bridges) were extensively used in the 19th century, the former making up from 1 to 3 percent of the total length of the average railroad.
Host-pathogen interactions Transmission methods Host-pathogen_interface > Pathogenicity > Transmission methods Within the host, pathogens can do a variety of things to cause disease and trigger the immune response. Microbes and fungi cause symptoms due to their high rate of reproduction and tissue invasion. This causes an immune response, resulting in common symptoms as phagocytes break down the bacteria within the host.
Aeroderivative gas turbine engine Advantages and disadvantages Gas-turbine_engine > Advantages and disadvantages The following are advantages and disadvantages of gas-turbine engines:Advantages include: Very high power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines. Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating. Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher reliability/availability over its service life.
Volume element Area element of a surface Area_element > Volume element of manifolds > Area element of a surface Thus a volume element is an expression of the form f ( u 1 , u 2 ) d u 1 d u 2 {\displaystyle f(u_{1},u_{2})\,\mathrm {d} u_{1}\,\mathrm {d} u_{2}} that allows one to compute the area of a set B lying on the surface by computing the integral Area ⁡ ( B ) = ∫ B f ( u 1 , u 2 ) d u 1 d u 2 . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Area} (B)=\int _{B}f(u_{1},u_{2})\,\mathrm {d} u_{1}\,\mathrm {d} u_{2}.} Here we will find the volume element on the surface that defines area in the usual sense.
Drug-resistant tuberculosis Drug-induced hepatitis Antitubercular_agents > Adverse effects > Drug-induced hepatitis Isolated elevations in bilirubin can be safely ignored. Elevations in liver transaminases (ALT and AST) are common in the first three weeks of treatment. If the patient is asymptomatic and the elevation is not excessive then no action need be taken; some experts suggest a cut-off of four times the upper limit of normal, but there is no evidence to support this particular number over and above any other number.
Peptostreptococcus Upper respiratory tract and dental infections Peptostreptococcus > Infections > Infection types > Upper respiratory tract and dental infections When the risk of anaerobic infection is high, as with intra-abdominal and post-surgical infections, proper antimicrobial prophylaxis may reduce the risk 90% of the time, other organisms were mixed in with the anaerobic gram-positive cocci and microaerophilic streptococci. This includes streptococcus species, and staphylococcus aureus. Peptostreptococcus micros has a moderate association with periodontal disease.
Drug interactions Underlying factors Drug_interactions > Underlying factors Drug dependent factors:Narrow therapeutic index: Where the difference between the effective dose and the toxic dose is small. The drug digoxin is an example of this type of drug. Steep dose-response curve: Small changes in the dosage of a drug produce large changes in the drug's concentration in the patient's blood plasma. Saturable hepatic metabolism: In addition to dose effects the capacity to metabolize the drug is greatly decreased
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Fourier-transform spectroscopy Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance > NMR spectroscopy > Fourier-transform spectroscopy The restricted range of the NMR frequencies made it relatively easy to use short (1 - 100 microsecond) radio frequency pulses to excite the entire NMR spectrum. Applying such a pulse to a set of nuclear spins simultaneously excites all the single-quantum NMR transitions. In terms of the net magnetization vector, this corresponds to tilting the magnetization vector away from its equilibrium position (aligned along the external magnetic field).
HIV infection Acute infection HIV_transmission > Signs and symptoms > Acute infection The initial period following the contraction of HIV is called acute HIV, primary HIV or acute retroviral syndrome. Many individuals develop an influenza-like illness or a mononucleosis-like illness 2–4 weeks after exposure while others have no significant symptoms. Symptoms occur in 40–90% of cases and most commonly include fever, large tender lymph nodes, throat inflammation, a rash, headache, tiredness, and/or sores of the mouth and genitals.
Quantum Neural Network Quantum perceptrons Quantum_Neural_Network > Examples > Quantum perceptrons A lot of proposals attempt to find a quantum equivalent for the perceptron unit from which neural nets are constructed. A problem is that nonlinear activation functions do not immediately correspond to the mathematical structure of quantum theory, since a quantum evolution is described by linear operations and leads to probabilistic observation. Ideas to imitate the perceptron activation function with a quantum mechanical formalism reach from special measurements to postulating non-linear quantum operators (a mathematical framework that is disputed). A direct implementation of the activation function using the circuit-based model of quantum computation has recently been proposed by Schuld, Sinayskiy and Petruccione based on the quantum phase estimation algorithm.
Granule cell layer Summary Cerebellar_cortex These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion. Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement, the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells. This complex neural organization gives rise to a massive signal-processing capability, but almost all of the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum.In addition to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is necessary for several types of motor learning, most notably learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships.
Physical interaction Strong interaction Fundamental_interactions > The interactions > Strong interaction The strong interaction, or strong nuclear force, is the most complicated interaction, mainly because of the way it varies with distance. The nuclear force is powerfully attractive between nucleons at distances of about 1 femtometre (fm, or 10−15 metres), but it rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm. At distances less than 0.7 fm, the nuclear force becomes repulsive. This repulsive component is responsible for the physical size of nuclei, since the nucleons can come no closer than the force allows.
Condorcet methods Two-method systems Condorcet_method > Two-method systems One family of Condorcet methods consists of systems that first conduct a series of pairwise comparisons and then, if there is no Condorcet winner, fall back to an entirely different, non-Condorcet method to determine a winner. The simplest such fall-back methods involve entirely disregarding the results of the pairwise comparisons. For example, the Black method chooses the Condorcet winner if it exists, but uses the Borda count instead if there is a cycle (the method is named for Duncan Black). A more sophisticated two-stage process is, in the event of a cycle, to use a separate voting system to find the winner but to restrict this second stage to a certain subset of candidates found by scrutinizing the results of the pairwise comparisons.
Category of commutative rings Other properties Category_of_commutative_rings > Properties > Other properties The only injective object in Ring up to isomorphism is the zero ring (i.e. the terminal object). Lacking zero morphisms, the category of rings cannot be a preadditive category. (However, every ring—considered as a category with a single object—is a preadditive category). The category of rings is a symmetric monoidal category with the tensor product of rings ⊗Z as the monoidal product and the ring of integers Z as the unit object. It follows from the Eckmann–Hilton theorem, that a monoid in Ring is a commutative ring. The action of a monoid (= commutative ring) R on an object (= ring) A of Ring is an R-algebra.
Continuous-variable quantum information Summary Continuous-variable_quantum_information Continuous-variable (CV) quantum information is the area of quantum information science that makes use of physical observables, like the strength of an electromagnetic field, whose numerical values belong to continuous intervals. One primary application is quantum computing. In a sense, continuous-variable quantum computation is "analog", while quantum computation using qubits is "digital." In more technical terms, the former makes use of Hilbert spaces that are infinite-dimensional, while the Hilbert spaces for systems comprising collections of qubits are finite-dimensional. One motivation for studying continuous-variable quantum computation is to understand what resources are necessary to make quantum computers more powerful than classical ones.
Vinblastine sulfate Summary Vinblastine_sulfate Vinblastine (VBL), sold under the brand name Velban among others, is a chemotherapy medication, typically used with other medications, to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer, melanoma, and testicular cancer. It is given by injection into a vein.Most people experience some side effects. Commonly it causes a change in sensation, constipation, weakness, loss of appetite, and headaches.
PTE technique Summary PTE_technique As far as now, Frequency domain PTE technique is in its preliminary stage for the thermal characterization of materials. Advances were done in liquid thermoelectrics as well on PTE. == References ==
Statistical significance test Definition of terms Hypothesis_Testing > Definition of terms This was variously considered common sense, a pragmatic heuristic for identifying meaningful experimental results, a convention establishing a threshold of statistical evidence or a method for drawing conclusions from data. The statistical hypothesis test added mathematical rigor and philosophical consistency to the concept by making the alternative hypothesis explicit. The term is loosely used for the modern version which is now part of statistical hypothesis testing.
Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy Development Leibniz–Newton_calculus_controversy > Development Considering Leibniz's intellectual prowess, as demonstrated by his other accomplishments, he had more than the requisite ability to invent the calculus. What he is alleged to have received was a number of suggestions rather than an account of calculus; it is possible, since he did not publish his results of 1677 until 1684 and since differential notation was his invention, that Leibniz minimized, 30 years later, any benefit he might have enjoyed from reading Newton's manuscript. Moreover, he may have seen the question of who originated the calculus as immaterial when set against the expressive power of his notation.
Screw (simple machine) Summary Screw_(simple_machine) The smaller the pitch (the distance between the screw's threads), the greater the mechanical advantage (the ratio of output to input force). Screws are widely used in threaded fasteners to hold objects together, and in devices such as screw tops for containers, vises, screw jacks and screw presses. Other mechanisms that use the same principle, also called screws, do not necessarily have a shaft or threads. For example, a corkscrew is a helix-shaped rod with a sharp point, and an Archimedes' screw is a water pump that uses a rotating helical chamber to move water uphill. The common principle of all screws is that a rotating helix can cause linear motion.
Follicular lumen Thyroid hormones Follicular_lumen > Function > Thyroid hormones They increase the absorption in the gut, generation, uptake by cells, and breakdown of glucose. They stimulate the breakdown of fats, and increase the number of free fatty acids. Despite increasing free fatty acids, thyroid hormones decrease cholesterol levels, perhaps by increasing the rate of secretion of cholesterol in bile.
Newton’s third law Nonlinear dynamics Newton's_Second_Law > Chaos and unpredictability > Nonlinear dynamics Newton's laws of motion allow the possibility of chaos. That is, qualitatively speaking, physical systems obeying Newton's laws can exhibit sensitive dependence upon their initial conditions: a slight change of the position or velocity of one part of a system can lead to the whole system behaving in a radically different way within a short time. Noteworthy examples include the three-body problem, the double pendulum, dynamical billiards, and the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem.
Circular prime Summary Circular_prime A circular prime is a prime number with the property that the number generated at each intermediate step when cyclically permuting its (base 10) digits will be prime. For example, 1193 is a circular prime, since 1931, 9311 and 3119 all are also prime. A circular prime with at least two digits can only consist of combinations of the digits 1, 3, 7 or 9, because having 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 as the last digit makes the number divisible by 2, and having 0 or 5 as the last digit makes it divisible by 5. The complete listing of the smallest representative prime from all known cycles of circular primes (The single-digit primes and repunits are the only members of their respective cycles) is 2, 3, 5, 7, R2, 13, 17, 37, 79, 113, 197, 199, 337, 1193, 3779, 11939, 19937, 193939, 199933, R19, R23, R317, R1031, R49081, R86453, R109297, R270343, R5794777 and R8177207, where Rn is a repunit prime with n digits. There are no other circular primes up to 1023. A type of prime related to the circular primes are the permutable primes, which are a subset of the circular primes (every permutable prime is also a circular prime, but not necessarily vice versa).
Global variables PHP Global_variables > By language > PHP PHP has a global keyword and a number of unusual ways of using global variables. Variables declared outside functions have file scope (which is for most purposes the widest scope). However, they are not accessible inside functions unless imported with the global keyword (i.e., the keyword accesses global variables, it does not declare them). However, some predefined variables, known as superglobals are always accessible.
Minnesota Starvation Experiment Results Minnesota_Starvation_Experiment > Results : 123–124 The participants reported a decline in concentration, comprehension and judgment capabilities, although the standardized tests administered showed no actual signs of diminished capacity. There were marked declines in physiological processes indicative of decreases in each subject's basal metabolic rate (the energy required by the body in a state of rest), reflected in reduced body temperature, respiration and heart rate. Some of the subjects exhibited edema in their extremities, presumably due to decreased levels of plasma proteins given that the body's ability to construct key proteins like albumin is based on available energy sources.
Human immune system Tumor immunology Human_immune_system > Manipulation in medicine > Tumor immunology This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal. NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors. Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system.Some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers.
Names of large numbers Origins of the "standard dictionary numbers" Names_of_large_numbers > Origins of the "standard dictionary numbers" The words bymillion and trimillion were first recorded in 1475 in a manuscript of Jehan Adam. Subsequently, Nicolas Chuquet wrote a book Triparty en la science des nombres which was not published during Chuquet's lifetime. However, most of it was copied by Estienne de La Roche for a portion of his 1520 book, L'arismetique. Chuquet's book contains a passage in which he shows a large number marked off into groups of six digits, with the comment: Ou qui veult le premier point peult signiffier million Le second point byllion Le tiers point tryllion Le quart quadrillion Le cinqe quyllion Le sixe sixlion Le sept.e septyllion Le huyte ottyllion Le neufe nonyllion et ainsi des ault's se plus oultre on vouloit preceder (Or if you prefer the first mark can signify million, the second mark byllion, the third mark tryllion, the fourth quadrillion, the fifth quyillion, the sixth sixlion, the seventh septyllion, the eighth ottyllion, the ninth nonyllion and so on with others as far as you wish to go). Adam and Chuquet used the long scale of powers of a million; that is, Adam's bymillion (Chuquet's byllion) denoted 1012, and Adam's trimillion (Chuquet's tryllion) denoted 1018.
Attribute hierarchy method How are cognitive models created and validated? Attribute_hierarchy_method > Cognitive model development > How are cognitive models created and validated? One method is the use of a task analysis of representative test items from a subject domain. A task analysis represents a hypothesized cognitive model of task performance, where the likely knowledge and processes used to solve the test item are specified. A second method involves having examinees think aloud as they solve test items to identify the actual knowledge, processes, and strategies elicited by the task,.
Spin lattice Migdal–Kadanoff renormalization Ising_spin > Four dimensions and above > Low dimensions – block spins > Migdal–Kadanoff renormalization The simplest approximation is to keep only the usual J term, and discard everything else. This will generate a flow in J, analogous to the flow in t at the fixed point of λ in the ε expansion. To find the change in J, consider the four neighbors of an odd site.
Gastric ulcer Modified Johnson Peptic_ulcers > Diagnosis > Classification > Modified Johnson Type III: In the pyloric channel within 3 cm of pylorus. Associated with acid oversecretion.
Feature hashing Learned feature hashing Feature_hashing > Algorithms > Extensions and variations > Learned feature hashing Feature hashing generally suffers from hash collision, which means that there exist pairs of different tokens with the same hash: t ≠ t ′ , ϕ ( t ) = ϕ ( t ′ ) = v {\displaystyle t\neq t',\phi (t)=\phi (t')=v} . A machine learning model trained on feature-hashed words would then have difficulty distinguishing t {\displaystyle t} and t ′ {\displaystyle t'} , essentially because v {\displaystyle v} is polysemic. If t ′ {\displaystyle t'} is rare, then performance degradation is small, as the model could always just ignore the rare case, and pretend all v {\displaystyle v} means t {\displaystyle t} . However, if both are common, then the degradation can be serious. To handle this, one can train supervised hashing functions that avoids mapping common tokens to the same feature vectors.
Quantum limit Summary Standard_quantum_limit At the same time, quantum mechanics prescribes that readout observable of the Meter should have an inherent uncertainty, δ O ^ {\displaystyle \delta {\hat {\mathcal {O}}}} , additive to and independent of the value of the measured quantity x ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {x}}} . This one is known as measurement imprecision or measurement noise. Because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, this imprecision cannot be arbitrary and is linked to the back-action perturbation by the uncertainty relation: Δ O Δ F ⩾ ℏ / 2 , {\displaystyle \Delta {\mathcal {O}}\Delta {\mathcal {F}}\geqslant \hbar /2\,,} where Δ a = ⟨ a ^ 2 ⟩ − ⟨ a ^ ⟩ 2 {\displaystyle \Delta a={\sqrt {\langle {\hat {a}}^{2}\rangle -\langle {\hat {a}}\rangle ^{2}}}} is a standard deviation of observable a {\displaystyle a} and ⟨ a ^ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle {\hat {a}}\rangle } stands for expectation value of a {\displaystyle a} in whatever quantum state the system is.
Bismuth antimonide Semiconductor Bismuth_antimonide > Properties > Semiconductor Electron mobility is one important parameter describing semiconductors because it describes the rate at which electrons can travel through the semiconductor. At 40 K, electron mobility ranged from 4.9×105 cm2/V·s at an antimony concentration of 0 to 2.4×105 cm2/V·s at an antimony concentration of 7.2%. This is much greater than the electron mobility of other common semiconductors like silicon, which is 1400 cm2/V·s at room temperature.Another important parameter of Bi1−xSbx is the effective electron mass (EEM), a measure of the ratio of the acceleration of an electron to the force applied to an electron.
Principal moments of inertia Introduction Moment_of_inertia_tensor > Introduction When a body is free to rotate around an axis, torque must be applied to change its angular momentum. The amount of torque needed to cause any given angular acceleration (the rate of change in angular velocity) is proportional to the moment of inertia of the body. Moments of inertia may be expressed in units of kilogram metre squared (kg·m2) in SI units and pound-foot-second squared (lbf·ft·s2) in imperial or US units. The moment of inertia plays the role in rotational kinetics that mass (inertia) plays in linear kinetics—both characterize the resistance of a body to changes in its motion.
Histogram matching Algorithm Histogram_specification > Algorithm Given two images, the reference and the target images, we compute their histograms. Following, we calculate the cumulative distribution functions of the two images' histograms – F 1 ( ) {\displaystyle F_{1}()\,} for the reference image and F 2 ( ) {\displaystyle F_{2}()\,} for the target image. Then for each gray level G 1 ∈ {\displaystyle G_{1}\in } , we find the gray level G 2 {\displaystyle G_{2}\,} for which F 1 ( G 1 ) = F 2 ( G 2 ) {\displaystyle F_{1}(G_{1})=F_{2}(G_{2})\,} , and this is the result of histogram matching function: M ( G 1 ) = G 2 {\displaystyle M(G_{1})=G_{2}\,} . Finally, we apply the function M ( ) {\displaystyle M()} on each pixel of the reference image.
Factorial function Summary Factorial Legendre's formula describes the exponents of the prime numbers in a prime factorization of the factorials, and can be used to count the trailing zeros of the factorials. Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler interpolated the factorial function to a continuous function of complex numbers, except at the negative integers, the (offset) gamma function. Many other notable functions and number sequences are closely related to the factorials, including the binomial coefficients, double factorials, falling factorials, primorials, and subfactorials. Implementations of the factorial function are commonly used as an example of different computer programming styles, and are included in scientific calculators and scientific computing software libraries. Although directly computing large factorials using the product formula or recurrence is not efficient, faster algorithms are known, matching to within a constant factor the time for fast multiplication algorithms for numbers with the same number of digits.
Industrial Revolution Causes Industrial_Revolution > Causes Marketing professor Ronald Fullerton suggested that innovative marketing techniques, business practices, and competition also influenced changes in the manufacturing industry.Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates. He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.
Lady tasting tea Summary Lady_tasting_tea In the design of experiments in statistics, the lady tasting tea is a randomized experiment devised by Ronald Fisher and reported in his book The Design of Experiments (1935). The experiment is the original exposition of Fisher's notion of a null hypothesis, which is "never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation".The example is loosely based on an event in Fisher's life. The woman in question, phycologist Muriel Bristol, claimed to be able to tell whether the tea or the milk was added first to a cup. Her future husband, William Roach, suggested that Fisher give her eight cups, four of each variety, in random order.
Behavioral genetics Animal studies Behavioural_genetics > Methods > Animal studies A range of methods in these designs are covered on those pages. Behavioural geneticists using model organisms employ a range of molecular techniques to alter, insert, or delete genes. These techniques include knockouts, floxing, gene knockdown, or genome editing using methods like CRISPR-Cas9.
Claude Chevalley Selected bibliography Claude_Chevalley > Selected bibliography "Classification des groupes de Lie algébriques", Séminaire Chevalley, Secrétariat Math., 11 rue P. Curie, Paris; revised edition by P.Cartier, Springer-Verlag, 2005. 1958. Fondements de la géométrie algébrique, Secrétariat Math., 11 rue P. Curie, Paris.
Bayesian inference in phylogeny LOCAL algorithm of Larget and Simon Bayesian_inference_in_phylogeny > Bayesian inference of phylogeny background and bases > LOCAL algorithm of Larget and Simon The LOCAL algorithms offers a computational advantage over previous methods and demonstrates that a Bayesian approach is able to assess uncertainty computationally practical in larger trees. The LOCAL algorithm is an improvement of the GLOBAL algorithm presented in Mau, Newton and Larget (1999) in which all branch lengths are changed in every cycle. The LOCAL algorithms modifies the tree by selecting an internal branch of the tree at random. The nodes at the ends of this branch are each connected to two other branches.
Partial regression plot Properties Partial_regression_plot > Properties It is easy to see many kinds of failures of the model or violations of the underlying assumptions (nonlinearity, heteroscedasticity, unusual patterns). .Partial regression plots are related to, but distinct from, partial residual plots. Partial regression plots are most commonly used to identify data points with high leverage and influential data points that might not have high leverage.
Transmission of COVID-19 Medical procedures designated as aerosol-generating procedures Transmission_of_COVID-19 > Dominant mode of transmission: airborne/aerosol > Medical procedures designated as aerosol-generating procedures There is concern that some medical procedures that affect the mouth and lungs can also generate aerosols, and that this may increase the infection risk. Some medical procedures have been designated as aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs), but this been done without measuring the aerosols these procedures produce. The aerosols generated by some AGPs have been measured and found to be less than the aerosols produced by breathing. Less virus (strictly speaking, viral RNA) has been found in the air near intensive care unit (ICUs) with COVID-19 patients than near rooms with COVID-19 patients that are not ICUs.
Molecular physics Current Research Molecular_Science > Experiments > Current Research Within atomic, molecular, and optical physics, there are numerous studies using molecules to verify fundamental constants and probe for physics beyond the Standard Model. Certain molecular structures are predicted to be sensitive to new physics phenomena, such as parity and time-reversal violation. Molecules are also considered a potential future platform for trapped ion quantum computing, as their more complex energy level structure could facilitate higher efficiency encoding of quantum information than individual atoms. From a chemical physics perspective, intramolecular vibrational energy redistribution experiments use vibrational spectra to determine how energy is redistributed between different quantum states of a vibrationally excited molecule.
Visual variable Size Visual_variable > Core visual variables > Size The size of a symbol is how much space it occupies. This commonly refers to the area of point symbols, and the thickness of line symbols. Size differences are relatively easy to recognize, making it a useful variable to convey information, such as a quantitative amount of something, or relative importance. Studies have shown that humans are better at judging relative differences in linear distance (e.g. one road being twice as thick as another) than relative differences in area (e.g., one circle having twice the area of another).
Magnifying Transmitter Related patents Tesla_coils > Related patents Tesla's patents "Electrical Transformer Or Induction Device". U.S. Patent No. 433,702, August 5, 1890 "Means for Generating Electric Currents", U.S. Patent No. 514,168, February 6, 1894 "Electrical Transformer", Patent No. 593,138, November 2, 1897 "Method Of Utilizing Radiant Energy", Patent No. 685,958 November 5, 1901 "Method of Signaling", U.S.
Intermittent Explosive Disorder Differential diagnosis Intermittent_Explosive_Disorder > Diagnosis (Intermittent Explosive Disorder) > Differential diagnosis Many psychiatric disorders and some substance use disorders are associated with increased aggression and are frequently comorbid with IED, often making differential diagnosis difficult. Individuals with IED are, on average, four times more likely to develop depression or anxiety disorders, and three times more likely to develop substance use disorders.Bipolar disorder has been linked to increased agitation and aggressive behavior in some individuals, but for these individuals, aggressiveness is limited to manic and/or depressive episodes, whereas individuals with IED experience aggressive behavior even during periods with a neutral or positive mood.In one clinical study, the two disorders co-occurred 60% of the time. Patients report manic-like symptoms occurring just before outbursts and continuing throughout.
Usability Inspection methods User_friendliness > Evaluation methods > Inspection methods These usability evaluation methods involve observation of users by an experimenter, or the testing and evaluation of a program by an expert reviewer. They provide more quantitative data as tasks can be timed and recorded.
Relative pressure Units Fluid_pressure > Definition > Units The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N/m2, or kg·m−1·s−2). This name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per square metre. Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square inch (lbf/in2) and bar, are also in common use. The CGS unit of pressure is the barye (Ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2, or 0.1 Pa.
Slide Rule Other operations Cylindrical_slide_rule > Operation > Other operations In addition to the logarithmic scales, some slide rules have other mathematical functions encoded on other auxiliary scales. The most popular are trigonometric, usually sine and tangent, common logarithm (log10) (for taking the log of a value on a multiplier scale), natural logarithm (ln) and exponential (ex) scales. Some rules include a Pythagorean ("P") scale to solve triangles. Others feature scales for calculating hyperbolic functions. On linear rules, the scales and their labeling are highly standardized, with variation usually occurring only in terms of which scales are included and in what order: The Binary Slide Rule manufactured by Gilson in 1931 performed an addition and subtraction function limited to fractions.
Recursion theory Relative computability and the Turing degrees Computability_theory_(computation) > Areas of research > Relative computability and the Turing degrees If a set A is Turing reducible to a set B and B is Turing reducible to A then the sets are said to have the same Turing degree (also called degree of unsolvability). The Turing degree of a set gives a precise measure of how uncomputable the set is.
Confirmation bias Hypothesis testing (positive test strategy) explanation (Klayman and Ha) Disconfirmation_bias > Discovery > Hypothesis testing (positive test strategy) explanation (Klayman and Ha) Participants had much more success with this version of the experiment. In light of this and other critiques, the focus of research moved away from confirmation versus falsification of an hypothesis, to examining whether people test hypotheses in an informative way, or an uninformative but positive way. The search for "true" confirmation bias led psychologists to look at a wider range of effects in how people process information.
Intention tremor Mechanism Intention_tremor > Mechanism This leads to an inability to process fine motor movements in the individual and the development of intention tremors. In MS, damage occurs due to demyelination and neuron death, which again produce cerebellar lesions and an inability for those neurons to transmit signals. Because of this tight association with damage to the cerebellum, intention tremors are often referred to as cerebellar tremors.Intention tremors can also be caused as a result of damage to the brainstem or thalamus. Both of these structures are involved in the transmission of information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex, and between the cerebellum and the spinal cord, and then on to the motor neurons. When these become damaged, the relay system between the cerebellum and the muscle upon which it is trying to act is compromised, resulting in the development of a tremor.
Event chain methodology Event chains Event_chain_methodology > Principles > Event chains Events can be correlated with each other without one triggering another one. In this case if one risk has occurred, another one will occur and vice versa. One event assigned in one activity can execute another activity or group of activities.
Artificial chemistry Important contributors Artificial_chemistry > Important contributors Their 2001 paper 'Artificial Chemistries - A Review' became a standard in the field. Jens Ziegler, as part of his PhD thesis, proved that an artificial chemistry could be used to control a small Khepera robot . Among other models, Peter Dittrich developed the Seceder model which is able to explain group formation in society through some simple rules. Since then he became a professor in Jena where he investigates artificial chemistries as a way to define a general theory of constructive dynamical systems.
AC resistance Impedance and admittance Electrical_Conductance > AC circuits > Impedance and admittance When an alternating current flows through a circuit, the relation between current and voltage across a circuit element is characterized not only by the ratio of their magnitudes, but also the difference in their phases. For example, in an ideal resistor, the moment when the voltage reaches its maximum, the current also reaches its maximum (current and voltage are oscillating in phase). But for a capacitor or inductor, the maximum current flow occurs as the voltage passes through zero and vice versa (current and voltage are oscillating 90° out of phase, see image below). Complex numbers are used to keep track of both the phase and magnitude of current and voltage: where: t is time; u(t) and i(t) are the voltage and current as a function of time, respectively; U0 and I0 indicate the amplitude of the voltage and current, respectively; ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the angular frequency of the AC current; φ {\displaystyle \varphi } is the displacement angle; U and I are the complex-valued voltage and current, respectively; Z and Y are the complex impedance and admittance, respectively; R e {\displaystyle {\mathcal {R_{e}}}} indicates the real part of a complex number; and j ≡ − 1 {\displaystyle j\equiv {\sqrt {-1\ }}} is the imaginary unit.The impedance and admittance may be expressed as complex numbers that can be broken into real and imaginary parts: where R is resistance, G is conductance, X is reactance, and B is susceptance.
Flocking behavior Other sources Flocking_behavior > Other sources doi:10.1137/060673254. S2CID 14655317. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
Symmetry in mathematics Symmetry in matrices Mathematical_symmetry > Symmetry in linear algebra > Symmetry in matrices The corresponding object for a complex inner product space is a Hermitian matrix with complex-valued entries, which is equal to its conjugate transpose. Therefore, in linear algebra over the complex numbers, it is often assumed that a symmetric matrix refers to one which has real-valued entries. Symmetric matrices appear naturally in a variety of applications, and typical numerical linear algebra software makes special accommodations for them.
Robust Bayes analysis Sensitivity analysis Robust_Bayes_analysis > Sensitivity analysis In a robust Bayes approach, a standard Bayesian analysis is applied to all possible combinations of prior distributions and likelihood functions selected from classes of priors and likelihoods considered empirically plausible by the analyst. In this approach, a class of priors and a class of likelihoods together imply a class of posteriors by pairwise combination through Bayes' rule. Robust Bayes also uses a similar strategy to combine a class of probability models with a class of utility functions to infer a class of decisions, any of which might be the answer given the uncertainty about best probability model and utility function.
CRISPR RNA Type-IV CRISPR_RNA > Function > Type-IV Type-IV CRISPR systems do not have an effector nuclease and are associated with plasmids and prophages. A Cas6-like enzyme is associated with the maturation of the crRNA. Not all type-IV systems have a CRISPR locus and therefore do not have crRNA.
Critical period hypothesis Hurford’s model Critical_period_hypothesis > Evolutionary explanations > Hurford’s model In order to provide evidence for the evolutionary functionality of the critical period in language acquisition, Hurford (1991) generated a computer simulation of plausible conditions of evolving generations, based on three central assumptions: Language is an evolutionary adaptation that is naturally selected for. Any given individual's language can be quantified or measured. Various aspects of maturation and development are under genetic control, which determines the timing for critical periods for certain capacities (i.e. polygenic inheritance).According to Hurford's evolutionary model, language acquisition is an adaptation that has survival value for humans, and that knowing a language correlates positively with an individual's reproductive advantage.
Temperature coefficient of reactivity Summary Fuel_temperature_coefficient_of_reactivity Fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity is the change in reactivity of the nuclear fuel per degree change in the fuel temperature. The coefficient quantifies the amount of neutrons that the nuclear fuel (such as uranium-238) absorbs from the fission process as the fuel temperature increases. It is a measure of the stability of the reactor operations. This coefficient is also known as the Doppler coefficient due to the contribution of Doppler broadening, which is the dominant effect in thermal systems.
Cellular waste product Summary Cellular_waste_product Cellular waste products are formed as a by-product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of ATP. One example of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. Each pathway generates different waste products.
History of electromagnetic theory Lorentz and Poincaré History_of_electromagnetic_theory > 20th century > Lorentz and Poincaré Therefore, Lorentz's theorem is seen by modern historians as being a mathematical transformation from a "real" system resting in the aether into a "fictitious" system in motion. Continuing the work of Lorentz, Henri Poincaré between 1895 and 1905 formulated on many occasions the principle of relativity and tried to harmonize it with electrodynamics. He declared simultaneity only a convenient convention which depends on the speed of light, whereby the constancy of the speed of light would be a useful postulate for making the laws of nature as simple as possible.