Split (1)

train · 253k rows

page_content stringlengths 51 3.15k
Transcript variants Disease Alternative_splicing > Disease Three DNMT genes encode enzymes that add methyl groups to DNA, a modification that often has regulatory effects. Several abnormally spliced DNMT3B mRNAs are found in tumors and cancer cell lines.
Discriminative model Logistic regression (LR) Discriminative_model > Typical discriminative modelling approaches > Logistic regression (LR) Since the 0-1 loss function is a commonly used one in the decision theory, the conditional probability distribution P ( y \| x ; w ) {\displaystyle P(y\|x;w)} , where w {\displaystyle w} is a parameter vector for optimizing the training data, could be reconsidered as following for the logistics regression model: P ( y \| x ; w ) = 1 Z ( x ; w ) exp ⁡ ( w T ϕ ( x , y ) ) {\displaystyle P(y\|x;w)={\frac {1}{Z(x;w)}}\exp(w^{T}\phi (x,y))} , with Z ( x ; w ) = ∑ y exp ⁡ ( w T ϕ ( x , y ) ) {\displaystyle Z(x;w)=\textstyle \sum _{y}\displaystyle \exp(w^{T}\phi (x,y))} The equation above represents logistic regression. Notice that a major distinction between models is their way of introducing posterior probability. Posterior probability is inferred from the parametric model. We then can maximize the parameter by following equation: L ( w ) = ∑ i log ⁡ p ( y i \| x i ; w ) {\displaystyle L(w)=\textstyle \sum _{i}\displaystyle \log p(y^{i}\|x^{i};w)} It could also be replaced by the log-loss equation below: l log ( x i , y i , c ( x i ; w ) ) = − log ⁡ p ( y i \| x i ; w ) = log ⁡ Z ( x i ; w ) − w T ϕ ( x i , y i ) {\displaystyle l^{\log }(x^{i},y^{i},c(x^{i};w))=-\log p(y^{i}\|x^{i};w)=\log Z(x^{i};w)-w^{T}\phi (x^{i},y^{i})} Since the log-loss is differentiable, a gradient-based method can be used to optimize the model.
Data plot Types of plots Data_plot > Types of plots It graphically depicts the ratios of the three variables as positions in an equilateral triangle. It is used in petrology, mineralogy, metallurgy, and other physical sciences to show the compositions of systems composed of three species. In population genetics, it is often called a de Finetti diagram.
Mean anomaly Summary Mean_anomaly In celestial mechanics, the mean anomaly is the fraction of an elliptical orbit's period that has elapsed since the orbiting body passed periapsis, expressed as an angle which can be used in calculating the position of that body in the classical two-body problem. It is the angular distance from the pericenter which a fictitious body would have if it moved in a circular orbit, with constant speed, in the same orbital period as the actual body in its elliptical orbit.
Hessian determinant Summary Hessian_determinant In mathematics, the Hessian matrix, Hessian or (less commonly) Hesse matrix is a square matrix of second-order partial derivatives of a scalar-valued function, or scalar field. It describes the local curvature of a function of many variables. The Hessian matrix was developed in the 19th century by the German mathematician Ludwig Otto Hesse and later named after him. Hesse originally used the term "functional determinants".
Directional running Crossing loops Double-track_railway > Operation > Crossing loops Most crossing loops are not regarded as double-track even though they consist of multiple tracks. If the crossing loop is long enough to hold several trains, and to allow opposing trains to cross without slowing down or stopping, then that may be regarded as double-track. A more modern British term for such a layout is an extended loop.
Right versor Cartesian coordinates Direction_vector > Orthogonal coordinates > Cartesian coordinates Unit vectors may be used to represent the axes of a Cartesian coordinate system. For instance, the standard unit vectors in the direction of the x, y, and z axes of a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system are i ^ = , j ^ = , k ^ = {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {i}} ={\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\\0\end{bmatrix}},\,\,\mathbf {\hat {j}} ={\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{bmatrix}},\,\,\mathbf {\hat {k}} ={\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\1\end{bmatrix}}} They form a set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors, typically referred to as a standard basis in linear algebra. They are often denoted using common vector notation (e.g., i or ı → {\displaystyle {\vec {\imath }}} ) rather than standard unit vector notation (e.g., ı ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {\imath }} } ). In most contexts it can be assumed that i, j, and k, (or ı → , {\displaystyle {\vec {\imath }},} ȷ → , {\displaystyle {\vec {\jmath }},} and k → {\displaystyle {\vec {k}}} ) are versors of a 3-D Cartesian coordinate system.
C10Mn2O10 Mn-Mn bond cleavage reactions Dimanganese_decacarbonyl > Reactivity > Mn-Mn bond cleavage reactions The Mn-Mn bond is sensitive to both oxidation and reduction, producing two equivalents of the corresponding Mn(I) and Mn(-I) species, respectively. Both of the potential resultant species can be derived further. Redox neutral cleavage is possible both thermally and photochemically, producing two equivalents of the Mn(0) radical. Examples of each are given below.
Reciprocating Chemical Muscle Benefits Reciprocating_Chemical_Muscle > Benefits Particular benefits of the RCM are: It requires no ignition source (thereby allowing it to work in explosive atmospheres). It is independent of external oxidant (thereby allowing it to operate under water or in oxygen-free environments such as the lower atmosphere of the planet Mars). It thermoelectrically generates electrical energy from its own exothermic metabolism. It converts chemical potential energy directly into kinetic energy with greater energy density than batteries.
Ecomechatronics Description Ecomechatronics > Description Performance quantifies how well a machine executes its function and is typically related to productivity, precision and availability. User comfort is related to the exposure of operators and the environment to noise & vibrations due to machine operation. Since energy efficiency, performance and noise & vibrations are coupled in a machine they need to be addressed in an integrated way in the design phase. Example of the interrelation between the 3 key areas: with increasing machine speed typically the machine’s productivity increases, but energy consumption will increase as well and machine vibrations may grow such that machine accuracy (e.g. positioning accuracy) and availability (due to downtime and maintenance) decrease. Ecomechatronical design deals with the trade-off between these key areas.
Atoms in molecules Summary Hydrogen-hydrogen_bond QTAIM rests on the fact that the dominant topological property of the vast majority of electron density distributions is the presence of strong maxima that occur exclusively at the nuclei, certain pairs of which are linked together by ridges of electron density. In terms of an electron density distribution's gradient vector field, this corresponds to a complete, non-overlapping partitioning of a molecule into three-dimensional basins (atoms) that are linked together by shared two-dimensional separatrices (interatomic surfaces).
Virotherapy Challenges and future prospective Virotherapy > Viral gene therapy > Challenges and future prospective Currently, there are still many challenges of viral gene therapy. Immune responses to viral gene therapies pose a challenge to successful treatment. However, responses to viral vectors at immune privileged sites such as the eye may be reduced compared to other sites of the body. As with other forms of virotherapy, prevention of off-target genome editing is a concern. In addition to viral gene editing, other genome editing technologies such as CRISPR gene editing have been shown to be more precise with more control over the delivery of genes. As genome editing become a reality, it is also necessary to consider the ethical implications of the technology.
Lebesgue integration Alternative formulations Lebesgue_integration > Alternative formulations Hence ∫ has a unique extension to all of L1. This integral is precisely the Lebesgue integral. More generally, when the measure space on which the functions are defined is also a locally compact topological space (as is the case with the real numbers R), measures compatible with the topology in a suitable sense (Radon measures, of which the Lebesgue measure is an example) an integral with respect to them can be defined in the same manner, starting from the integrals of continuous functions with compact support.
Armitage–Doll multistage model of carcinogenesis History Armitage–Doll_multistage_model_of_carcinogenesis > History This was some of the earliest strong evidence that cancer was the result of an accumulation of mutations. With their 1954 paper, Armitage and Doll began a line of research that led to Knudson's two-hit hypothesis and thus the discovery of tumour suppressor genes.
Inclusion (disability rights) Inclusion in the U.S. Inclusion_(disability_rights) > Inclusion in the U.S. The ADA guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in several areas: Employment; Public accommodations (such as restaurants, hotels, libraries, private schools, etc.); Transportation; State and local government services; Telecommunications (such as telephones, televisions, and computers). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which was published in 2010, touches on disability inclusion in that it designates disability status as a demographic category and mandates data collection to assess health disparities.While laws have been created to ensure physical access, such as mandatory wheelchair ramps, the disabled community still does not have a high rate of participation in cultural activities.
Micro-alloy diffused transistor Summary Alloy-junction_transistor The collector junction pellet would be about 50 mils (thousandths of an inch) in diameter, and the emitter pellet about 20 mils. The base region would be on the order of 1 mil (0.001 inches, 25 μm) thick. There were several types of improved alloy-junction transistors developed over the years that they were manufactured. All types of alloy-junction transistors became obsolete in the early 1960s, with the introduction of the planar transistor which could be mass-produced easily while alloy-junction transistors had to be made individually. The first germanium planar transistors had much worse characteristics than alloy-junction germanium transistors of the period, but they cost much less, and the characteristics of planar transistors improved very rapidly, quickly exceeding those of all earlier germanium transistors.
Quantity equation Other fields of physics and chemistry Quantity_equation > Properties > Other fields of physics and chemistry Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry, the amount of substance (the number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ 6.02×1023 mol−1) is also defined as a base dimension, N. In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector potential. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and necessary features.
Groupoid algebra Properties Groupoid_algebra > Properties When a groupoid has a finite number of objects and a finite number of morphisms, the groupoid algebra is a direct sum of tensor products of group algebras and matrix algebras.
Lunar arithmetic Prime numbers Lunar_arithmetic > Prime numbers In the usual arithmetic, a prime number is defined as a number p {\displaystyle p} whose only possible factorisation is 1 × p {\displaystyle 1\times p} . Analogously, in the lunar arithmetic, a prime number is defined as a number m {\displaystyle m} whose only factorisation is 9 × n {\displaystyle 9\times n} where 9 is the multiplicative identity which corresponds to 1 in usual arithmetic. Accordingly, the following are the first few prime numbers in lunar arithmetic: 19 , 29 , 39 , 49 , 59 , 69 , 79 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 109 , 209 , 219 , {\displaystyle 19,29,39,49,59,69,79,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,109,209,219,} 309 , 319 , 329 , 409 , 419 , 429 , 439 , 509 , 519 , 529 , 539 , 549 , 609 , 619 , 629 , 639 , … {\displaystyle 309,319,329,409,419,429,439,509,519,529,539,549,609,619,629,639,\dots } Every number of the form 10 … ( n zeros ) … 09 {\displaystyle 10\ldots (n{\text{ zeros}})\ldots 09} , where n {\displaystyle n} is arbitrary, is a prime in lunar arithmetic. Since n {\displaystyle n} is arbitrary this shows that there are an infinite number of primes in lunar arithmetic.
Liver insufficiency Liver diseases Liver_dysfunction > Liver diseases There are more than a hundred different liver diseases. Some of the most common are: Fascioliasis, a parasitic infection of liver caused by a liver fluke of the genus Fasciola, mostly Fasciola hepatica. Hepatitis, inflammation of the liver, is caused by various viruses (viral hepatitis) also by some liver toxins (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis), autoimmunity (autoimmune hepatitis) or hereditary conditions. Alcoholic liver disease is a hepatic manifestation of alcohol overconsumption, including fatty liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis.
Ralph Bagnold List of publications Ralph_Bagnold > List of publications Bagnold, R.A. 1974. Fluid forces on a body in shear-flow: Experimental use of 'stationary flow'.
Product lining Summary Product_lining In comparison to product bundling, which is a strategy of offering more than one product for promotion as one combined item to create differentiation and greater value, product lining consists of selling different related products individually. The products in the product line can come in various sizes, colours, qualities or prices. For instance, the variety of coffees that are offered at a café is one of its product lines and it could consist of flat white, cappuccinos, short black, lattes, mochas, etc. Alternatively, product line of juices and pastries can also be found at a café. The benefits from having a successful product line is the brand identification from customers which result in customer loyalty and multiple purchases. It increases the likelihood of customers purchasing new products from the company that have just been added into the product line due to the previous satisfying purchases.
Component (graph theory) Algorithms Connected_component_(graph_theory) > Algorithms Identifying the connected components of this graph allows additional processing to find more structure in those parts of the image or identify what kind of object is depicted. Researchers have developed component-finding algorithms specialized for this type of graph, allowing it to be processed in pixel order rather than in the more scattered order that would be generated by breadth-first or depth-first searching. This can be useful in situations where sequential access to the pixels is more efficient than random access, either because the image is represented in a hierarchical way that does not permit fast random access or because sequential access produces better memory access patterns.There are also efficient algorithms to dynamically track the components of a graph as vertices and edges are added, by using a disjoint-set data structure to keep track of the partition of the vertices into equivalence classes, replacing any two classes by their union when an edge connecting them is added.
Information Retrieval Overview Retrieval_of_information > Overview Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevance. An object is an entity that is represented by information in a content collection or database. User queries are matched against the database information.
Complex Hilbert space Weakly-convergent sequences Hilbert_space_dimension > Properties > Weakly-convergent sequences This fact may be used to prove minimization results for continuous convex functionals, in the same way that the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem is used for continuous functions on Rd. Among several variants, one simple statement is as follows: If f: H → R is a convex continuous function such that f(x) tends to +∞ when ‖x‖ tends to ∞, then f admits a minimum at some point x0 ∈ H.This fact (and its various generalizations) are fundamental for direct methods in the calculus of variations. Minimization results for convex functionals are also a direct consequence of the slightly more abstract fact that closed bounded convex subsets in a Hilbert space H are weakly compact, since H is reflexive. The existence of weakly convergent subsequences is a special case of the Eberlein–Šmulian theorem.
Sexagesimal cycle Overview Sexagesimal_cycle > Overview This pattern continues until both cycles conclude simultaneously with guǐhài (癸亥), after which it begins again at jiǎzǐ. This termination at ten and twelve's least common multiple leaves half of the combinations—such as jiǎchǒu (甲丑)—unused; this is traditionally explained by reference to pairing the stems and branches according to their yin and yang properties. This combination of two sub-cycles to generate a larger cycle and its use to record time have parallels in other calendrical systems, notably the Akan calendar.
Precision at k Average precision Precision_at_k > Offline metrics > Average precision Precision and recall are single-value metrics based on the whole list of documents returned by the system. For systems that return a ranked sequence of documents, it is desirable to also consider the order in which the returned documents are presented. By computing a precision and recall at every position in the ranked sequence of documents, one can plot a precision-recall curve, plotting precision p ( r ) {\displaystyle p(r)} as a function of recall r {\displaystyle r} . Average precision computes the average value of p ( r ) {\displaystyle p(r)} over the interval from r = 0 {\displaystyle r=0} to r = 1 {\displaystyle r=1}: AveP = ∫ 0 1 p ( r ) d r {\displaystyle \operatorname {AveP} =\int _{0}^{1}p(r)dr} That is the area under the precision-recall curve.
DNA machine Summary DNA_machine They can be pulled shut by adding a fourth strand of DNA (D) "programmed" to stick to both of the dangling, unpaired sections of strands B and C. The closing of the tweezers was proven by tagging strand A at either end with light-emitting molecules that do not emit light when they are close together. To re-open the tweezers add a further strand (E) with the right sequence to pair up with strand D. Once paired up, they have no connection to the machine BAC, so float away. The DNA machine can be opened and closed repeatedly by cycling between strands D and E. These tweezers can be used for removing drugs from inside fullerenes as well as from a self assembled DNA tetrahedron. The state of the device can be determined by measuring the separation between donor and acceptor fluorophores using FRET. DNA walkers are another type of DNA machine.
Traffic collision reconstruction Summary Traffic_collision_reconstruction Traffic collision reconstruction is the process of investigating, analyzing, and drawing conclusions about the causes and events during a vehicle collision. Reconstructionists conduct collision analysis and reconstruction to identify the cause of a collision and contributing factors including the role of the driver(s), vehicle(s), roadway and general environment. Physics and engineering principles are the basis for these analyses and may involved the use of software for calculations and simulations. Collision reconstruction is sometimes used as the basis of expert witness testimony at trials.
Entropy: A New World View Contents Entropy:_A_New_World_View > Contents In the book the authors analyze the world's economic and social structures by using the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The first and second law of thermodynamics — the second of which is known as the law of entropy — both deal with energy. The authors argue that technological nations are wasting resources such as fossil fuels and minerals at an increasing rate, which if unchecked will lead to the destruction of civilization, which has happened before on a smaller scale to past societies.
Total Acid Number Summary Total_Acid_Number The meter reading (in millivolts) is plotted against the volume of titrant. The end point is taken at the distinct inflection of the resulting titration curve corresponding to the basic buffer solution. Color indicating titration: An appropriate pH color indicator e.g. phenolphthalein, is used.
Youth Without Youth (film) Plot Youth_Without_Youth_(film) > Plot His proximity to her is accelerating her age. Over the objections of both Veronica and the "Other", he leaves. Despairing, Dominic returns to the town where he taught as a professor.
Java Collections Vector class Collections_Framework > List interface > List implementations > AbstractList class > Vector class The Vector class has Stack as its direct subclass. This is an example of a violation of the composition over inheritance principle in the Java platform libraries, since in computer science, a vector is generally not a stack. Composition would have been more appropriate in this scenario.
Comparison of cryptography libraries Block ciphers Comparison_of_cryptography_libraries > Block ciphers Table compares implementations of block ciphers. Block ciphers are defined as being deterministic and operating on a set number of bits (termed a block) using a symmetric key. Each block cipher can be broken up into the possible key sizes and block cipher modes it can be run with.
Severe cutaneous adverse reactions Autoimmune Disorders Severe_cutaneous_adverse_reactions > Pathophysiology > Other factors > Autoimmune Disorders Individuals suffering autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus may have an increased incidence of developing SCARs. While the cause for this possible predilection has not been determined, the altered immune system and the excessive production of cytokines occurring in these disorders could be contributing factors.
BASIC-PLUS Variables, expressions and matrixes BASIC-PLUS > Syntax and features > Variables, expressions and matrixes Every variable name still had to begin with a letter. As in most versions of BASIC, the LET keyword, for variable assignment, was optional. It could set multiple variables to a single value, like LET A,B,C=10.The language supported three data types; floating-point numbers, integers, and strings.
Adaptive learning Summary Adaptive_learning Adaptive learning systems endeavor to transform the learner from passive receptor of information to collaborator in the educational process. Adaptive learning systems' primary application is in education, but another popular application is business training. They have been designed as desktop computer applications, web applications, and are now being introduced into overall curricula.
Full virtualization Summary Full_virtualization Examples include Adeos, Mac-on-Linux, Parallels Desktop for Mac, Parallels Workstation, VMware Workstation, VMware Server (formerly GSX Server), VirtualBox, Win4BSD, and Win4Lin Pro. VMware, for instance, employs a technique called binary translation to automatically modify x86 software on-the-fly to replace instructions that "pierce the virtual machine" with a different, virtual machine safe sequence of instructions; this technique provides the appearance of full virtualization.A key challenge for full virtualization is the interception and simulation of privileged operations, such as I/O instructions. The effects of every operation performed within a given virtual machine must be kept within that virtual machine – virtual operations cannot be allowed to alter the state of any other virtual machine, the control program, or the hardware.
Fashion Design Fashion designers Fashion_Design > Fashion designers They consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn, and they work within a wide range of materials, colors, patterns, and styles. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear falls within a narrow range of conventional styles, unusual garments are usually sought for special occasions such as evening wear or party dresses. Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture or bespoke tailoring. Today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and everyday wear, which are commonly known as ready to wear or fast fashion.
Cross product matrix Quaternions Vector_cross_product > Generalizations > Quaternions The cross product can also be described in terms of quaternions. In general, if a vector is represented as the quaternion a1i + a2j + a3k, the cross product of two vectors can be obtained by taking their product as quaternions and deleting the real part of the result. The real part will be the negative of the dot product of the two vectors.
Karyogamy Role in sexual reproduction Karyogamy > Role in sexual reproduction Gamete formation in single-celled haploid organisms such as yeast is called sporulation, resulting in many cellular changes that increase resistance to stress. Gamete formation in multicellular fungi occurs in the gametangia, an organ specialized for such a process, usually by meiosis. When opposite mating types meet, they are induced to leave the vegetative cycle and enter the mating cycle.
Matrix computation Summary Matrix_computation Numerical linear algebra aims to solve problems of continuous mathematics using finite precision computers, so its applications to the natural and social sciences are as vast as the applications of continuous mathematics. It is often a fundamental part of engineering and computational science problems, such as image and signal processing, telecommunication, computational finance, materials science simulations, structural biology, data mining, bioinformatics, and fluid dynamics. Matrix methods are particularly used in finite difference methods, finite element methods, and the modeling of differential equations.
Heterogeneous catalyst Solid-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Catalyzed Reactions Heterogeneous_catalyst > Solid-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Catalyzed Reactions Although the majority of heterogeneous catalysts are solids, there are a few variations which are of practical value. For two immiscible solutions (liquids), one carries the catalyst while the other carries the reactant. This set up is the basis of biphasic catalysis as implemented in the industrial production of butyraldehyde by the hydroformylation of propylene.
Fresnel number Application Fresnel_number > Application The Fresnel number is a useful concept in physical optics. The Fresnel number establishes a coarse criterion to define the near and far field approximations. Essentially, if Fresnel number is small – less than roughly 1 – the beam is said to be in the far field. If Fresnel number is larger than 1, the beam is said to be near field.
Atomic gases Macroscopic view of gases Gaseous_state > Macroscopic view of gases The high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. This advanced math, including statistics and multivariable calculus, makes possible the solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate. In this flight regime, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.
Cori cycle Process Cori_cycle > Process When oxygen supply is insufficient, typically during intense muscular activity, energy must be released through anaerobic metabolism. Lactic acid fermentation converts pyruvate to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase.
Competence factor Factors determining competence Competence_factor > Factors determining competence Streptococcus pneumoniae gains its competence through the inducer peptide competence-stimulating peptide (CSP). As a resident in the nasopharynx, S. pneumoniae's ability to uptake antibiotic-resistant plasmids can cause dangerous infections. S. pneumoniae excretes small soluble molecules called autoinducers that contain the ability to express genetic competence in other cells. Autoinducers are used as a type of quorum sensing, which will "sense" the population of cells in the surrounding area.Campylobacter jejuni is not competent until the exogenous genetic material is confirmed by the cell to be Campylobacter jejuni DNA. Similar circumstances also occur for Bacillus subtilis, and even then competence develops only in certain media.Pasteurellaceae and Neisseriaceae species tend to select for genes from close relatives.
Polynomial system solving What is solving? Polynomial_system_solving > What is solving? There are several ways to represent the solution in an algebraic closure, which are discussed below. All of them allow one to compute a numerical approximation of the solutions by solving one or several univariate equations. For this computation, it is preferable to use a representation that involves solving only one univariate polynomial per solution, because computing the roots of a polynomial which has approximate coefficients is a highly unstable problem.
Photometer Infrared light transmission photometry Photometer > Infrared light transmission photometry The infrared spectrum typically has very narrow absorption lines, which makes them unsuited for quantitative analysis but gives very detailed information about the molecules. The frequencies of the different modes of vibration varies with isotope, and therefore different isotopes give different peaks. This makes it possible also to study the isotopic composition of a sample with infrared spectrophotometry.
Fourierism Economics Fourierism > Doctrine > Economics Fourier believed that economic output was the product of three factors: labor, capital, and talent. Each of these, he argued, was important to production and needed to be compensated as such for the general prosperity of the organized association. The communal associations based upon Fourier's ideas were generally formed as joint stock companies, and their investor-members were compensated separately on the basis both of amount of capital invested and amount of labor performed, with labor time given a range of values based on both the necessity and difficulty of the work and the degree of talent and skill with which it was performed.
Spreading activation Algorithm Spreading_activation > Algorithm Once a node has fired it may not fire again, although variations of the basic algorithm permit repeated firings and loops through the graph. Nodes receiving a new activation value that exceeds the firing threshold F are marked for firing on the next spreading activation cycle. If activation originates from more than one node, a variation of the algorithm permits marker passing to distinguish the paths by which activation is spread over the graph The procedure terminates when either there are no more nodes to fire or in the case of marker passing from multiple origins, when a node is reached from more than one path. Variations of the algorithm that permit repeated node firings and activation loops in the graph, terminate after a steady activation state, with respect to some delta, is reached, or when a maximum number of iterations is exceeded.
Collision Billiards Collision > Examples of collisions that can be solved analytically > Billiards Conservation of energy for an elastic collision gives (1/2)m1\|u1\|2 = (1/2)m1\|V1\|2 + (1/2)m2\|V2\|2. Now consider the case m1 = m2: we obtain u1 = V1 + V2 and \|u1\|2 = \|V1\|2 + \|V2\|2. Taking the dot product of each side of the former equation with itself, \|u1\|2 = u1•u1 = \|V1\|2 + \|V2\|2 + 2V1•V2. Comparing this with the latter equation gives V1•V2 = 0, so they are perpendicular unless V1 is the zero vector (which occurs if and only if the collision is head-on).
Introduction to the Higgs field Higgs field Higgs_particle > Introduction > Higgs field To allow symmetry breaking, the Standard Model includes a field of the kind needed to "break" electroweak symmetry and give particles their correct mass. This field, which became known as the "Higgs Field", was hypothesized to exist throughout space, and to break some symmetry laws of the electroweak interaction, triggering the Higgs mechanism. It, therefore, would cause the W and Z gauge bosons of the weak force to be massive at all temperatures below an extremely high value.
Doppler optical coherence tomography Time Domain Doppler OCT Based on Spectrogram Method Doppler_optical_coherence_tomography > Time Domain Doppler OCT Based on Spectrogram Method Time domain Doppler OCT uses the spectrogram method to create the image. When the spectrum changes with time, it is defined as Spectrogram. The power spectrum represents the power of signal at certain frequencies, which can be used to calculate the spectrogram. The short-time fast Fourier transformation (STFFT) is used to calculate the power spectrum.
Sergio Focardi Studies on nickel-hydrogen exothermal systems Sergio_Focardi > Studies on nickel-hydrogen exothermal systems In the early 90s Sergio Focardi, together with physicists Roberto Habel and Francesco Piantelli, started to develop a nickel-hydrogen exothermal reactor. The results of their research were presented in 1994, and published on the peer-reviewed scientific journal Il Nuovo Cimento A.
Spherical top Linear molecules Rotational_modes > Structure of rotational spectra > Linear molecules {\displaystyle F\left(J\right)=BJ\left(J+1\right)\qquad J=0,1,2,...} where B {\displaystyle B} is the rotational constant of the molecule and is related to the moment of inertia of the molecule. In a linear molecule the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the molecular axis is unique, that is, I B = I C , I A = 0 {\displaystyle I_{B}=I_{C},I_{A}=0} , so B = h 8 π 2 c I B = h 8 π 2 c I C {\displaystyle B={h \over {8\pi ^{2}cI_{B}}}={h \over {8\pi ^{2}cI_{C}}}} For a diatomic molecule I = m 1 m 2 m 1 + m 2 d 2 {\displaystyle I={\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{m_{1}+m_{2}}}d^{2}} where m1 and m2 are the masses of the atoms and d is the distance between them. Selection rules dictate that during emission or absorption the rotational quantum number has to change by unity; i.e., Δ J = J ′ − J ′ ′ = ± 1 {\displaystyle \Delta J=J^{\prime }-J^{\prime \prime }=\pm 1} .
Haggis (programming language) Use within education Haggis_(programming_language) > Features and philosophy > Use within education It was designed to be both functional/sequential and object-oriented based in order to be simple and complex for National 5 / Higher students and Advanced Higher students simultaneously.Haggis was designed to allow pupils across Scotland to enhance the learning and understanding of computer programming through reading examples, and aid the step of converting from pseudocode to full programming. It was not created with the intention of asking pupils to write it in assessments but provide a uniform language in which to present code examples to students, ensuring that all pupils have a fair understanding and is not hindered by learning a different programming language different to the one exemplified in the assessment.
Gaussian orbitals Rationale Gaussian_orbitals > Rationale The use of Gaussian orbitals in electronic structure theory (instead of the more physical Slater-type orbitals) was first proposed by Boys in 1950. The principal reason for the use of Gaussian basis functions in molecular quantum chemical calculations is the 'Gaussian Product Theorem', which guarantees that the product of two GTOs centered on two different atoms is a finite sum of Gaussians centered on a point along the axis connecting them. In this manner, four-center integrals can be reduced to finite sums of two-center integrals, and in a next step to finite sums of one-center integrals. The speedup by 4-5 orders of magnitude compared to Slater orbitals outweighs the extra cost entailed by the larger number of basis functions generally required in a Gaussian calculation. For reasons of convenience, many quantum chemistry programs work in a basis of Cartesian Gaussians even when spherical Gaussians are requested, as integral evaluation is much easier in the cartesian basis, and the spherical functions can be simply expressed using the cartesian functions.
Artificial intelligence in government Potential benefits Artificial_intelligence_in_government > Potential benefits AI offers potential efficiencies and costs savings for the government. For example, Deloitte has estimated that automation could save US Government employees between 96.7 million to 1.2 billion hours a year, resulting in potential savings of between $3.3 billion to $41.1 billion a year. The Harvard Business Review has stated that while this may lead a government to reduce employee numbers, "Governments could instead choose to invest in the quality of its services. They can re-employ workers’ time towards more rewarding work that requires lateral thinking, empathy, and creativity — all things at which humans continue to outperform even the most sophisticated AI program."
System of units Imperial and US customary units System_of_units > Imperial and US customary units The troy ounce is the only unit of the system in current use; it is used for precious metals. Although the troy ounce is larger than its avoirdupois equivalent, the pound is smaller. The obsolete troy pound was divided into 12 ounces, rather than the 16 ounces per pound of the avoirdupois system. The apothecaries' system was traditionally used in pharmacology, but has now been replaced by the metric system; it shared the same pound and ounce as the troy system but with different further subdivisions.
Procedural learning History Procedural_learning > History For example, using a mirror reading task, amnesic patients showed performance at a normal rate, even though they are unable to remember some of the words that they were reading. In the 1980s much was discovered about the anatomy physiology of the mechanisms involved in procedural memory. The cerebellum, hippocampus, neostriatum, and basal ganglia were identified as being involved in memory acquisition tasks.
Lax–Friedrichs method Extensions to Nonlinear Problems Lax–Friedrichs_method > Extensions to Nonlinear Problems A nonlinear hyperbolic conservation law is defined through a flux function f {\displaystyle f}: In the case of f ( u ) = a u {\displaystyle f(u)=au} , we end up with a scalar linear problem. Note that in general, u {\displaystyle u} is a vector with m {\displaystyle m} equations in it. The generalization of the Lax-Friedrichs method to nonlinear systems takes the form This method is conservative and first order accurate, hence quite dissipative. It can, however be used as a building block for building high-order numerical schemes for solving hyperbolic partial differential equations, much like Euler time steps can be used as a building block for creating high-order numerical integrators for ordinary differential equations. We note that this method can be written in conservation form: where Without the extra terms u i n {\displaystyle u_{i}^{n}} and u i − 1 n {\displaystyle u_{i-1}^{n}} in the discrete flux, f ^ i − 1 / 2 n {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}_{i-1/2}^{n}} , one ends up with the FTCS scheme, which is well known to be unconditionally unstable for hyperbolic problems.
Surface protein Lipids Basolateral_membrane > Composition > Lipids Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex. Cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane. Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells.
Biomanufacturing Unit operations Biomanufacturing > Unit operations A partial listing of unit operations utilized during biomanufacturing includes the following: Blood plasma fractionation Cell culture Cell separation, such as filtration and centrifugation Fermentation Homogenization Column chromatography Ultrafiltration and/or diafiltration Clarification, such as filtration Formulation Filling vials or syringes for injectable medicines
Cohomology of groups History and relation to other fields Group_homology > History and relation to other fields 810). It is formally similar, using the corresponding definition of invariant for the action of a Lie algebra. It is much applied in representation theory, and is closely connected with the BRST quantization of theoretical physics.
Generalized anxiety disorder Other possible modalities discussed in literature for potential in treating GAD Generalized_anxiety_disorder > Treatment > Pharmacotherapy > Other possible modalities discussed in literature for potential in treating GAD Therapeutic massage: A single, small, possibly biased study revealed inconclusive results. Resistance and aerobic exercise: When compared to no treatment, a single, small, potentially unrepresentative trial suggested a trend toward GAD remission and reduction of worry. Chinese bloodletting: When added to paroxetine, a single, small, imprecise trial that lacked a sham procedure for comparison suggested efficacy at 4-weeks.
Neurochemistry History Neurochemistry > History In 1961, Walter Burkmayer injected L-DOPA into a patient with Parkinson's disease. Shortly after injection, the patient had a drastic reduction in tremors, and they were able to control their muscles in ways they hadn't been able to in a long time. The effect peaked within 2.5 hours and lasted approximately 24 hours.
Subquadratic time Summary Logarithmic_time Less common, and usually specified explicitly, is the average-case complexity, which is the average of the time taken on inputs of a given size (this makes sense because there are only a finite number of possible inputs of a given size). In both cases, the time complexity is generally expressed as a function of the size of the input. : 226 Since this function is generally difficult to compute exactly, and the running time for small inputs is usually not consequential, one commonly focuses on the behavior of the complexity when the input size increases—that is, the asymptotic behavior of the complexity.
Cross-validation (statistics) Repeated random sub-sampling validation Cross-validation_(statistics) > Types > Non-exhaustive cross-validation > Repeated random sub-sampling validation This method, also known as Monte Carlo cross-validation, creates multiple random splits of the dataset into training and validation data. For each such split, the model is fit to the training data, and predictive accuracy is assessed using the validation data. The results are then averaged over the splits. The advantage of this method (over k-fold cross validation) is that the proportion of the training/validation split is not dependent on the number of iterations (i.e., the number of partitions).
Chemical elements Summary Chemical_elements Almost all of the baryonic matter of the universe is composed of chemical elements (among rare exceptions are neutron stars). When different elements undergo chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged into new compounds held together by chemical bonds.
Tomonaga–Luttinger liquid Theory Luttinger_liquid > Theory Luttinger liquid theory describes low energy excitations in a 1D electron gas as bosons. Starting with the free electron Hamiltonian: is separated into left and right moving electrons and undergoes linearization with the approximation ϵ k ≈ ± v F ( k − k F ) {\displaystyle \epsilon _{k}\approx \pm v_{\rm {F}}(k-k_{\rm {F}})} over the range Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda }: Expressions for bosons in terms of fermions are used to represent the Hamiltonian as a product of two boson operators in a Bogoliubov transformation. The completed bosonization can then be used to predict spin-charge separation. Electron-electron interactions can be treated to calculate correlation functions.
EMU system of units Summary EMU_system_of_units For example, the CGS unit of force is the dyne, which is defined as 1 g⋅cm/s2, so the SI unit of force, the newton (1 kg⋅m/s2), is equal to 100000 dynes. On the other hand, in measurements of electromagnetic phenomena (involving units of charge, electric and magnetic fields, voltage, and so on), converting between CGS and SI is more subtle.
Tartaric Acid Racemic tartaric acid L-tartaric_acid > Production > Racemic tartaric acid Racemic tartaric acid can be prepared in a multistep reaction from maleic acid. In the first step, the maleic acid is epoxidized by hydrogen peroxide using potassium tungstate as a catalyst. HO2CC2H2CO2H + H2O2 → OC2H2(CO2H) 2In the next step, the epoxide is hydrolyzed. OC2H2(CO2H)2 + H2O → (HOCH)2(CO2H)2
Inorganic chemist Coordination compounds Inorganic_chemical_reaction > Descriptive inorganic chemistry > Coordination compounds Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to "lone pairs" of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl−, and CN−. In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The "metal" usually is a metal from the groups 3–13, as well as the trans-lanthanides and trans-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes.
Pillow Combination pillow Body_pillow > Types > Combination pillow A combination pillow is a pillow which is for those sleepers which are sleeping in a combination of positions and would like to use their pillow to hug or play.
Direct policy search Associative reinforcement learning Direct_policy_search > Comparison of reinforcement learning algorithms > Associative reinforcement learning Associative reinforcement learning tasks combine facets of stochastic learning automata tasks and supervised learning pattern classification tasks. In associative reinforcement learning tasks, the learning system interacts in a closed loop with its environment.
Electroshapable material Thermoformable products Electroshapable_material > Uses > Thermoformable products One of the limitations of these products using conventional thermoplastics is the equipment required for their implementation. Indeed, the heat energy required to raise the material to its melting point is generally provided by the use of an oven or a water bath. The electroshapable materials also make it possible to form product to the user anatomy.
Shock collar Schalke et al. study (2007) Shock_collar > Scientific studies > Schalke et al. study (2007) Salivary cortisol was measured, as this procedure is less likely to cause stress related rise in cortisol. From this the researchers concluded that the dogs who could clearly associate the shock with their action (i.e. touching the prey) and as a result were able to predict and control whether they received a shock, did not show considerable or persistent stress. The evidence of increased stress in the other groups was felt to support earlier findings that poor timing and/or inappropriate use of a shock collar puts the dog at high risk of severe and ongoing stress.
Galilean invariance Work, kinetic energy, and momentum Galilean_covariance > Work, kinetic energy, and momentum The total kinetic energy of an isolated system also depends on the inertial frame of reference: it is the sum of the total kinetic energy in a center-of-momentum frame and the kinetic energy the total mass would have if it were concentrated in the center of mass. Due to the conservation of momentum the latter does not change with time, so changes with time of the total kinetic energy do not depend on the inertial frame of reference. By contrast, while the momentum of an object also depends on the inertial frame of reference, its change due to a change in velocity does not.
Angle of refraction History Snell's_Law > History Ptolemy, in Alexandria, Egypt, had found a relationship regarding refraction angles, but it was inaccurate for angles that were not small. Ptolemy was confident he had found an accurate empirical law, partially as a result of slightly altering his data to fit theory (see: confirmation bias). The law was eventually named after Snell, although it was first discovered by the Persian scientist Ibn Sahl, at the Baghdad court in 984. In the manuscript On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, Sahl used the law to derive lens shapes that focus light with no geometric aberration.Alhazen, in his Book of Optics (1021), came close to rediscovering the law of refraction, but he did not take this step.The law was rediscovered by Thomas Harriot in 1602, who however did not publish his results although he had corresponded with Kepler on this very subject.
Secure communication Encryption Secure_communication > Tools used to obtain security > Encryption Encryption can be implemented in a way that requires the use of encryption, i.e. if encrypted communication is impossible then no traffic is sent, or opportunistically. Opportunistic encryption is a lower security method to generally increase the percentage of generic traffic which is encrypted. This is analogous to beginning every conversation with "Do you speak Navajo?"
Concept search Effective searching Concept_search > Effective searching Effective queries are expressed in a full-text, natural language style similar in style to the documents being searched. For example, using queries composed of excerpts from an introductory science textbook would not be as effective for concept searching if the dataset being searched is made up of advanced, college-level science texts. Substantial queries that better represent the overall concepts, styles, and language of the items for which the query is being conducted are generally more effective.As with all search strategies, experienced searchers generally refine their queries through multiple searches, starting with an initial seed query to obtain conceptually relevant results that can then be used to compose and/or refine additional queries for increasingly more relevant results.
Dual independent bus Description System_bus > Description The easiest way to implement symmetric multiprocessing was to plug in more than one CPU into the shared system bus, which was used through the 1980s. However, the shared bus quickly became the bottleneck and more sophisticated connection techniques were explored.Even in very simple systems, at various times the data bus is driven by the program memory, by RAM, and by I/O devices. To prevent bus contention on the data bus, at any one instant only one device drives the data bus.
Desalination by country Germany Desalination_by_country > Germany Fresh water on the island of Helgoland is supplied by two reverse osmosis desalination plants.
Programming language theory Run-time systems Programming_language_research > Sub-disciplines and related fields > Run-time systems Run-time systems refer to the development of programming language runtime environments and their components, including virtual machines, garbage collection, and foreign function interfaces.
Chronic viral hepatitis Genetic Chronic_viral_hepatitis > Causes > Genetic In hemochromatosis, excess amounts of iron accumulate in multiple body sites, including the liver, which can lead to cirrhosis. In Wilson's disease, excess amounts of copper accumulate in the liver and brain, causing cirrhosis and dementia.When the liver is involved, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency and Wilson's disease tend to present as hepatitis in the neonatal period or in childhood. Hemochromatosis typically presents in adulthood, with the onset of clinical disease usually after age 50.
Lens-based stabilization Sensor-shift Electronic_image_stabilization > Techniques > Optical image stabilization > Sensor-shift The sensor capturing the image can be moved in such a way as to counteract the motion of the camera, a technology often referred to as mechanical image stabilization. When the camera rotates, causing angular error, gyroscopes encode information to the actuator that moves the sensor. The sensor is moved to maintain the projection of the image onto the image plane, which is a function of the focal length of the lens being used.
Circuit-level gateway Summary Circuit-level_gateway A circuit-level gateway is a type of firewall. Circuit-level gateways work at the session layer of the OSI model, or as a "shim-layer" between the application layer and the transport layer of the TCP/IP stack. They monitor TCP handshaking between packets to determine whether a requested session is legitimate. Information passed to a remote computer through a circuit-level gateway appears to have originated from the gateway.
Value Line The "Value Line" defined Value_Line > The "Value Line" defined The "Value Line" was a line representing a multiple of cash flow that Bernhard would visually "fit" or superimpose over a price chart. This was a pioneering attempt to normalize the value of different companies. He soon began publishing his investment survey. Bernhard published The Evaluation of Common Stocks in 1959.
Reaction mixture Photochemical reactions Elementary_particle_reaction > Reaction types > Photochemical reactions In photochemical reactions, atoms and molecules absorb energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert it into an excited state. They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogen–oxygen reactions, radical polymerization, chain reactions and rearrangement reactions.Many important processes involve photochemistry.
Idler pulley Applications Idler-wheel > Idler gear > Applications The road wheels are a series of non-powered wheels between the drive sprocket and idler wheel that serve to support the weight of the vehicle (and thus aren't considered "idle", even though they are unpowered). In higher speed applications, such as tanks and other AFV's, these road wheels are typically given some sort of suspension system to ease the ride, increase controllability, and decrease wear and tear. Due to the complications in adding suspension systems to the idler wheel and, in particular, the drive sprocket, in such vehicles, the road wheels typically carry all of the weight of the vehicle.
Algorithmic problem By implementation Algorithmic_method > Classification > By implementation Total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider weights of items as well as their value. Quantum algorithm They run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually used for those algorithms which seem inherently quantum, or use some essential feature of Quantum computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement.
Connectionism The second wave Connectionism > The second wave The second wave begun in late 1980s, following the 1987 book about the Parallel Distributed Processing by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart et al., which has introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as "hidden layers" now) alongside input and output units and using sigmoid activation function instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. Their work has, in turn, built upon John Hopfield, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions. A lot of the research that led to the development of PDP was done in the 1970s, although the term "connectionism" was not used. The first deep learning MLP was published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa in 1965 in USSS (Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic), as the Group Method of Data Handling.
Vibration fatigue Vibration-fatigue methods Vibration_fatigue > Vibration-fatigue-life estimation > Vibration-fatigue methods Calculation of damage intensity is straightforward once the cycle amplitude distribution is known. This distribution can be obtained from a time-history simply by counting cycles. To obtain it from the PSD another approach must be taken. Various vibration-fatigue methods estimate damage intensity based on moments of the PSD, which characterize the statistical properties of the random process.
BRST charge Gauge bundles and the vertical ideal BRST_cohomology > Gauge bundles and the vertical ideal The Lie derivative on a manifold is a globally well-defined operation in a way that the partial derivative is not. The proper generalization of Clairaut's theorem to the non-trivial manifold structure of P is given by the Lie bracket of vector fields and the nilpotence of the exterior derivative. And we obtain an essential tool for computation: the generalized Stokes theorem, which allows us to integrate by parts and drop the surface term as long as the integrand drops off rapidly enough in directions where there is an open boundary. (This is not a trivial assumption, but can be dealt with by renormalization techniques such as dimensional regularization as long as the surface term can be made gauge invariant.)
Practical capacitors Dielectrics Types_of_capacitors > General characteristics > Dielectrics The most common dielectrics are: Ceramics Plastic films Oxide layer on metal (aluminum, tantalum, niobium) Natural materials like mica, glass, paper, air, SF6, vacuumAll of them store their electrical charge statically within an electric field between two (parallel) electrodes. Beneath this conventional capacitors a family of electrochemical capacitors called supercapacitors was developed. Supercapacitors do not have a conventional dielectric. They store their electrical charge statically in Helmholtz double-layers and faradaically at the surface of electrodes with static double-layer capacitance in a double-layer capacitor and with pseudocapacitance (faradaic charge transfer) in a pseudocapacitor or with both storage principles together in hybrid capacitors.The most important material parameters of the different dielectrics used and the approximate Helmholtz-layer thickness are given in the table below.
Quantum artificial intelligence Quantum sampling techniques Quantum_artificial_intelligence > Machine learning with quantum computers > Quantum sampling techniques The same device was later used to train a fully connected Boltzmann machine to generate, reconstruct, and classify down-scaled, low-resolution handwritten digits, among other synthetic datasets. In both cases, the models trained by quantum annealing had a similar or better performance in terms of quality.
Liver sinusoidal endothelial cell Atherosclerosis Liver_sinusoidal_endothelial_cell > Pathobiology > Atherosclerosis Chylomicrons produced by the intestinal epithelial cells from dietary lipids have diameter up to 1000 nm which prevents them from passing through the LSEC fenestrae. The size of circulating chylomicrons is gradually reduced to chylomicron remnants by lipoprotein lipase on endothelial cells of systemic capillaries. When the chylomicron remnants become small enough (30–80 nm), they pass through the LSEC fenestrations, leading to their metabolism in hepatocytes. Reduced porosity, as in liver cirrhosis, diabetes mellitus or old age may lead to prolonged postprandial lipoproteinemia and increased circulatory cholesterol levels, with increased risk for development of atherosclerosis.
Substrate-level phosphorylation Glycolysis Substrate-level_phosphorylation > Glycolysis The first substrate-level phosphorylation occurs after the conversion of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and Pi and NAD+ to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate via glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is then dephosphorylated via phosphoglycerate kinase, producing 3-phosphoglycerate and ATP through a substrate-level phosphorylation. The second substrate-level phosphorylation occurs by dephosphorylating phosphoenolpyruvate, catalyzed by pyruvate kinase, producing pyruvate and ATP. During the preparatory phase, each 6-carbon glucose molecule is broken into two 3-carbon molecules.
Yen's algorithm Example Yen's_algorithm > Algorithm > Example Dijkstra's algorithm is used to compute the spur path S 2 3 {\displaystyle {S^{2}}_{3}} , which is ( F ) − ( G ) − ( H ) {\displaystyle (F)-(G)-(H)} , with a cost of 8. A 2 3 = R 2 3 + S 2 3 = ( C ) − ( E ) − ( F ) − ( G ) − ( H ) {\displaystyle {A^{2}}_{3}={R^{2}}_{3}+{S^{2}}_{3}=(C)-(E)-(F)-(G)-(H)} is added to container B {\displaystyle B} as a potential k-shortest path.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.