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Coronavirus Replicase-transcriptase Coronavirus > Microbiology > Replication cycle > Replicase-transcriptase A number of the nonstructural proteins coalesce to form a multi-protein replicase-transcriptase complex (RTC). The main replicase-transcriptase protein is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). It is directly involved in the replication and transcription of RNA from an RNA strand. The other nonstructural proteins in the complex assist in the replication and transcription process.
Atomic structure Shape and size Ancient_atom > Properties > Shape and size Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite-type compounds. Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope, although individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width.
Drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Summary Pneumococcal_infection A pneumococcal infection is an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, which is also called the pneumococcus. S. pneumoniae is a common member of the bacterial flora colonizing the nose and throat of 5–10% of healthy adults and 20–40% of healthy children. However, it is also a cause of significant disease, being a leading cause of pneumonia, bacterial meningitis, and sepsis. The World Health Organization estimates that in 2005 pneumococcal infections were responsible for the death of 1.6 million children worldwide.
PH scale p[H] PH > Definition > p[H] One common method is to titrate a solution of known concentration of a strong acid with a solution of known concentration of strong base in the presence of a relatively high concentration of background electrolyte. By knowing the concentrations of the acid and base, the concentration of hydrogen ions can be calculated and the measured potential can be correlated with concentrations. The calibration is usually carried out using a Gran plot.
IBM High Level Assembler General characteristics IBM_High_Level_Assembler > General characteristics As it is an assembly language, BAL uses the native instruction sets of IBM mainframe architectures, including System/360, System/370, System/370-XA, ESA/370, ESA/390, and z/Architecture. The simplicity of machine instructions means that the source code of a program written in assembler will usually be much longer than an equivalent program in, say, COBOL or Fortran. In the past, the speed of hand-coded assembler programs was often felt to make up for this drawback, but with the advent of optimizing compilers, C for the mainframe, and other advances, assembler has lost much of its appeal. IBM continues to upgrade the assembler, however, and it is still used when the need for speed or very fine control is paramount.
Deaf rights movement Public accommodations Deaf_rights_movement > Public accommodations There was another bill passed to help solve this problem called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The IDEA was made to "ensure that all children with disabilities have access to a free, appropriate, public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their needs and prepare them for employment and independent living. To ensure that the rights of children with disabilities and their parents are protected.
Pythagorean school Vegetarianism Pythagorean_doctrine > Philosophy > Vegetarianism Some Medieval authors refer to a "Pythagorean diet", entailing the abstention from eating meat, beans or fish. Pythagoreans believed that a vegetarian diet fostered a healthy body and enhanced the search for Arete. The purpose of vegetarianism in Pythagoreanism was not self-denial; instead, it was regarded as conductive to the best in a human being. Pythagoreans advanced a grounded theory on the treatment of animals.
Nonstandard calculus Applications Non-standard_calculus > Applications One immediate application is an extension of the standard definitions of differentiation and integration to internal functions on intervals of hyperreal numbers. An internal hyperreal-valued function f on is S-differentiable at x, provided Δ h f = st ⁡ f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) h {\displaystyle \Delta _{h}f=\operatorname {st} {\frac {f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}}} exists and is independent of the infinitesimal h. The value is the S derivative at x. Theorem: Suppose f is S-differentiable at every point of where b − a is a bounded hyperreal. Suppose furthermore that | f ′ ( x ) | ≤ M a ≤ x ≤ b . {\displaystyle |f'(x)|\leq M\quad a\leq x\leq b.}
Causal relationship Ontology Causal_relationships > Concept > Metaphysics > Ontology An example is 'his tripping over the step was the cause, and his breaking his ankle the effect'. Another view is that causes and effects are 'states of affairs', with the exact natures of those entities being less restrictively defined than in process philosophy.Another viewpoint on the question is the more classical one, that a cause and its effect can be of different kinds of entity. For example, in Aristotle's efficient causal explanation, an action can be a cause while an enduring object is its effect. For example, the generative actions of his parents can be regarded as the efficient cause, with Socrates being the effect, Socrates being regarded as an enduring object, in philosophical tradition called a 'substance', as distinct from an action.
Nutritional immunology Cancer Nutritional_immunology > The Role of Nutrition on the Prevention and Management of Diseases > Cancer Cancer is a disease with multifactorial causes. Cigarette smoking, physical activity, viruses, and diet play a role in the development of cancer. Poor diet has been linked to the development of cancer, while a healthy diet has been shown to have positive effects on preventing and treating cancer. Cruciferous vegetables contain chemicals called Isothiocyanates (ITC's).
Pull-down assay Steps RNA_immunoprecipitation > Protocol > Steps Lyse cells and prepare sample for immunoprecipitation. Pre-clear the sample by passing the sample over beads alone or bound to an irrelevant antibody to soak up any proteins that non-specifically bind to the IP components. Incubate solution with antibody against the protein of interest. Antibody can be attached to solid support before this step (direct method) or after this step (indirect method).
Basal animal metabolic rate Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise Basal_metabolism > Biochemistry > Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise Muscle contributes to the fat-free mass of an individual and therefore effective results from anaerobic exercise will increase BMR. However, the actual effect on BMR is controversial and difficult to enumerate. Various studies suggest that the resting metabolic rate of trained muscle is around 55 kJ/kg per day. Even a substantial increase in muscle mass, say 5 kg, would make only a minor impact on BMR.
Hessian strength feature measures Scale-space interest points based on the Lindeberg Hessian feature strength measures Corner_detection > Scale-space interest points based on the Lindeberg Hessian feature strength measures When combined with scale linking and complementary thresholding on D 1 , n o r m L > 0 {\displaystyle D_{1,\mathrm {norm} }L>0} , the signed Hessian feature strength measure D ~ 2 , n o r m L {\displaystyle {\tilde {D}}_{2,\mathrm {norm} }L} did additionally allow for better performance than the Laplacian of the Gaussian ∇ n o r m 2 L {\displaystyle \nabla _{\mathrm {norm} }^{2}L} . Furthermore, it was shown that all these differential scale-space interest point detectors defined from the Hessian matrix allow for the detection of a larger number of interest points and better matching performance compared to the Harris and Shi-and-Tomasi operators defined from the structure tensor (second-moment matrix). A theoretical analysis of the scale selection properties of these four Hessian feature strength measures and other differential entities for detecting scale-space interest points, including the Laplacian of the Gaussian and the determinant of the Hessian, is given in Lindeberg (2013) and an analysis of their affine transformation properties as well as experimental properties in Lindeberg (2015).
Process Hazard Analysis Summary Process_Hazard_Analysis The selection of the methodology to be used depends on a number of factors, including the complexity of the process, the length of time a process has been in operation and if a PHA has been conducted on the process before, and if the process is unique, or industrially common. Quantitative methods for risk assessment, such as layer of protection analysis (LOPA) or fault tree analysis (FTA) may be used after a PHA, if the PHA team could not reach a risk decision for a given scenario. In the United States, the use of PHAs is mandated as one of the elements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)' process safety management regulation for the identification of risks involved in the design, operation, and modification of processes that handle highly hazardous chemicals.
Simulation of production systems Virtual simulation input hardware Simulation_of_production_systems > Virtual simulation > Virtual simulation input hardware There is a wide variety of input hardware available to accept user input for virtual simulations. The following list briefly describes several of them: Body tracking: The motion capture method is often used to record the user's movements and translate the captured data into inputs for the virtual simulation. For example, if a user physically turns their head, the motion would be captured by the simulation hardware in some way and translated to a corresponding shift in view within the simulation. Capture suits and/or gloves may be used to capture movements of users body parts.
Cardiovascular medicine Cardiac examination Cardiovascular_medicine > The heart > Cardiac examination The cardiac examination (also called the "precordial exam"), is performed as part of a physical examination, or when a patient presents with chest pain suggestive of a cardiovascular pathology. It would typically be modified depending on the indication and integrated with other examinations especially the respiratory examination.Like all medical examinations, the cardiac examination follows the standard structure of inspection, palpation and auscultation.
Reticular dysgenesis Summary Reticular_dysgenesis As a result, hematopoietic stem cells will not be able to differentiate or proliferate.The immune system consists of specialized cells that work together to fight off bacteria, fungi and viruses. These cells include T lymphocytes (T cells), that primarily mediate the immune system, B lymphocytes (B cells) and Natural Killer cells. Patients with RD have a genetic defect that affects the T cells and at least one other type of immune cell.
1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid In glycolysis 1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric_acid > Biological structure and role > In glycolysis This role is performed by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. During the reaction phosphoglycerate kinase undergoes a substrate induced conformational change similar to another metabolic enzyme called hexokinase. Because two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are formed during glycolysis from one molecule of glucose, 1,3BPG can be said to responsible for two of the ten molecules of ATP produced during the entire process.
Spectral submanifold Existence Spectral_submanifold > Definition > Existence The spectral submanifold tangent to E {\displaystyle E} at the origin is guaranteed to exist provided that certain non-resonance conditions are satisfied by the eigenvalues λ i E {\displaystyle \lambda _{i}^{E}} in the spectrum of E {\displaystyle E} . In particular, there can be no linear combination of λ i E {\displaystyle \lambda _{i}^{E}} equal to one of the eigenvalues of A {\displaystyle A} outside of the spectral subspace. If there is such an outer resonance, one can include the resonant mode into E {\displaystyle E} and extend the analysis to a higher-dimensional SSM pertaining to the extended spectral subspace.
Mineral springs Deposits Mineral_springs > Deposits Types of sedimentary rock – usually limestone (calcium carbonate) – are sometimes formed by the evaporation, or rapid precipitation, of minerals from spring water as it emerges, especially at the mouths of hot mineral springs. In cold mineral springs, the rapid precipitation of minerals results from the reduction of acidity when the CO2 gas bubbles out. (These mineral deposits can also be found in dried lakebeds.)
Factorial function Applications Factorial > Applications Moreover, factorials naturally appear in formulae from quantum and statistical physics, where one often considers all the possible permutations of a set of particles. In statistical mechanics, calculations of entropy such as Boltzmann's entropy formula or the Sackur–Tetrode equation must correct the count of microstates by dividing by the factorials of the numbers of each type of indistinguishable particle to avoid the Gibbs paradox. Quantum physics provides the underlying reason for why these corrections are necessary.
Human reproduction Female reproductive system Human_reproduction > Anatomy > Female reproductive system They are mostly fixed in location within the ovary until their transit to the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later zygote and embryo. Over a regular interval known as the menstrual cycle, in response to hormonal signals, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum which is released and sent down the fallopian tube. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation.
Guldinus theorem The first theorem Guldinus_theorem > The first theorem The first theorem states that the surface area A of a surface of revolution generated by rotating a plane curve C about an axis external to C and on the same plane is equal to the product of the arc length s of C and the distance d traveled by the geometric centroid of C: For example, the surface area of the torus with minor radius r and major radius R is
Rothenberg propriety Diatonic scale theory Rothenberg_propriety > Diatonic scale theory Balzano introduced the idea of attempting to characterize the diatonic scale in terms of propriety. There are no strictly proper seven-note scales in 12 equal temperament; however, there are five proper scales, one of which is the diatonic scale. Here transposition and modes are not counted separately, so that diatonic scale encompasses both the major diatonic scale and the natural minor scale beginning with any pitch. Each of these scales, if spelled correctly, has a version in any meantone tuning, and when the fifth is flatter than 700 cents, they all become strictly proper.
Contrastive learning Summary Contrastive_learning Second, the actual task is performed with supervised or unsupervised learning. Other auxiliary tasks involve pattern completion from masked input patterns (silent pauses in speech or image portions masked in black). Self-supervised learning has produced promising results in recent years and has found practical application in audio processing and is being used by Facebook and others for speech recognition.
Microbolometer Temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) Microbolometer > Detecting material properties > Temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) The material used in the detector must demonstrate large changes in resistance as a result of minute changes in temperature. As the material is heated, due to the incoming infrared radiation, the resistance of the material decreases. This is related to the material's temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) specifically its negative temperature coefficient. Industry currently manufactures microbolometers that contain materials with TCRs near −2%/K. Although many materials exist that have far higher TCRs, there are several other factors that need to be taken into consideration when producing optimized microbolometers.
Industrial applications of nanotechnology Steel Industrial_applications_of_nanotechnology > Construction > Steel Current steel designs are based on the reduction in the allowable stress, service life or regular inspection regime. This has a significant impact on the life-cycle costs of structures and limits the effective use of resources. Stress risers are responsible for initiating cracks from which fatigue failure results.
Poisson hidden Markov model Structural architecture Hidden_Markov_Model > Structural architecture The arrows in the diagram (often called a trellis diagram) denote conditional dependencies. From the diagram, it is clear that the conditional probability distribution of the hidden variable x(t) at time t, given the values of the hidden variable x at all times, depends only on the value of the hidden variable x(t − 1); the values at time t − 2 and before have no influence. This is called the Markov property.
Solution architecture Coverage Solution_architecture > Coverage According to Forrester Research, Solution Architecture is one of the key components by which Enterprise Architecture delivers value to the organization. It entails artifacts such as a solution business context, a solution vision and requirements, solution options (e.g. through RFIs, RFPs or prototype development) and an agreed optimal solution with build and implementation plans ("road-map").Since The Open Group does not recognize a unique Solution Architect role, a relevant link for these mentioned artifacts can be to the Business and Systems Analyst roles. It is also worth noting that The Open Group's definition of Solution Architecture is broader than Forrester's (see aforementioned definition). According to a 2013 paper published by the Federation of Enterprise Architecture Professional Organizations, solution architecture includes business architecture, information architecture, application architecture, and technology architecture operating at a tactical level and focusing on the scope and span of a selected business problem. In contrast, enterprise architecture, which also includes the aforementioned four types of architecture, operates at the strategic level and its scope and span is the enterprise rather than a specific business problem.
Business suit Sleeves Lounge_suit > Composition > Jacket > Sleeves Certainty in fitting sleeve length must be achieved, as once working button holes are cut, the sleeve length essentially cannot be altered further. A cuffed sleeve has an extra length of fabric folded back over the arm, or just some piping or stitching above the buttons to allude to the edge of a cuff. This was popular in the Edwardian era, as a feature of formalwear such as frock coats carried over to informalwear, but is now rare.
Tobacco abuse Chemical carcinogens Smoker's_Paradox > Mechanism > Chemical carcinogens In order to make the PAH more soluble in water, the liver creates an enzyme called Cytochrome P450 which adds an additional oxygen to the PAH, turning it into a mutagenic epoxides, which is more soluble, but also more reactive. The first PAH to be identified as a carcinogen in tobacco smoke was benzopyrene, which been shown to toxicate into a diol epoxide and then permanently attach to nuclear DNA, which may either kill the cell or cause a genetic mutation. The DNA contains the information on how the cell function; in practice, it contains the recipes for protein synthesis.
Circuit topology (electrical) Trees and links Circuit_topology_(electrical) > Graph theory > Trees and links A tree is a graph in which all the nodes are connected, either directly or indirectly, by branches, but without forming any closed loops. Since there are no closed loops, there are no currents in a tree. In network analysis, we are interested in spanning trees, that is, trees that connect every node present in the graph of the network. In this article, spanning tree is meant by an unqualified tree unless otherwise stated.
Causal graphs Summary Causal_graph In statistics, econometrics, epidemiology, genetics and related disciplines, causal graphs (also known as path diagrams, causal Bayesian networks or DAGs) are probabilistic graphical models used to encode assumptions about the data-generating process. Causal graphs can be used for communication and for inference. They are complementary to other forms of causal reasoning, for instance using causal equality notation. As communication devices, the graphs provide formal and transparent representation of the causal assumptions that researchers may wish to convey and defend.
JIT spraying Summary JIT_spraying JIT spraying is a class of computer security exploit that circumvents the protection of address space layout randomization and data execution prevention by exploiting the behavior of just-in-time compilation. It has been used to exploit the PDF format and Adobe Flash.A just-in-time compiler (JIT) by definition produces code as its data. Since the purpose is to produce executable data, a JIT compiler is one of the few types of programs that cannot be run in a no-executable-data environment. Because of this, JIT compilers are normally exempt from data execution prevention.
Collision Types of collisions Collision_of_bodies > Types of collisions In this case, coefficient of restitution is not equal to one.In any type of collision there is a phase when for a moment colliding bodies have the same velocity along the line of impact. Then the kinetic energy of bodies reduces to its minimum during this phase and may be called a maximum deformation phase for which momentarily the coefficient of restitution becomes one. Collisions in ideal gases approach perfectly elastic collisions, as do scattering interactions of sub-atomic particles which are deflected by the electromagnetic force.
Essential supremum Examples Ess_sup > Examples On the real line consider the Lebesgue measure and its corresponding 𝜎-algebra Σ . {\displaystyle \Sigma .} Define a function f {\displaystyle f} by the formula The supremum of this function (largest value) is 5, and the infimum (smallest value) is −4. However, the function takes these values only on the sets { 1 } {\displaystyle \{1\}} and { − 1 } , {\displaystyle \{-1\},} respectively, which are of measure zero.
Inverted pendulum Stationary pivot point Inverted_pendulum > Equations of motion > Stationary pivot point Tall pendulums fall more slowly than short ones. Derivation using torque and moment of inertia: The pendulum is assumed to consist of a point mass, of mass m {\displaystyle m} , affixed to the end of a massless rigid rod, of length ℓ {\displaystyle \ell } , attached to a pivot point at the end opposite the point mass.
Infrared signature Apparent temperature difference Infrared_signature > Apparent temperature difference The apparent temperature difference method of defining infrared signature gives the physical temperature difference (e.g. in kelvins) between the object of interest and the immediate background if the recorded radiance values had been measured from perfect blackbody sources. Problems with this method include differences in radiance across the object or the immediate background and the finite size of the detector's pixels. The value is a complex function of range, time, aspect, etc.
Power electronic Current source inverters Industrial_electronics > DC/AC converters (inverters) > Current source inverters Current source inverters convert DC current into an AC current waveform. In applications requiring sinusoidal AC waveforms, magnitude, frequency, and phase should all be controlled. CSIs have high changes in current over time, so capacitors are commonly employed on the AC side, while inductors are commonly employed on the DC side. Due to the absence of freewheeling diodes, the power circuit is reduced in size and weight, and tends to be more reliable than VSIs.
Paul Milgrom Learning in games Paul_Milgrom > Academic career > Game theory > Learning in games By contrast, {xn(t)}, is consistent with sophisticated learning if the player eventually chooses only nearly best-replies to their probabilistic forecast of the choices of other players, where the support of that probability distribution may include not only past plays but also strategies that the players might choose if they themselves were adaptive or sophisticated learners. Thus, a sequence consistent with adaptive learning is also consistent with sophisticated learning. Sophisticated learning allows players to make use of payoff information that is used in equilibrium analysis but does not impose the fulfilled expectations requirement of equilibrium analysis.
Tangent lines to circles Problem of Apollonius Tangent_lines_to_two_circles > Problem of Apollonius An inversion in their tangent point with respect to a circle of appropriate radius transforms the two touching given circles into two parallel lines, and the third given circle into another circle. Thus, the solutions may be found by sliding a circle of constant radius between two parallel lines until it contacts the transformed third circle. Re-inversion produces the corresponding solutions to the original problem.
Exponential search Alternatives Exponential_search > Alternatives The asymptotic runtime does not change for the variations, running in O(log i) time, as with the original exponential search algorithm. Also, a data structure with a tight version of the dynamic finger property can be given when the above result of the k-nested binary search is used on a sorted array. Using this, the number of comparisons done during a search is log (d) + log log (d) + ... + O(log *d), where d is the difference in rank between the last element that was accessed and the current element being accessed.
Telomerization (dimerization) Literature Telomerization_(dimerization) > Literature P. Fischer: process concepts for the transition-telomerization of isoprene with water or methanol. Shaker Verlag, 2002, 176 pages, ISBN 3-8322-0414-8, ISBN 978-3-8322-0414-3 Arno Behr, Marc Becker, Thomas Beckmann, Leif Johnen, Julia Leschinski, Sebastian Reyer: Telomerization: Advances and Applications of a Versatile Reaction. In: Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 48, 2009, p.
Currency risk Measuring risk Foreign_exchange_risk > Measuring risk A higher standard deviation would signal a greater currency risk. Because of its uniform treatment of deviations and for the automatically squaring of deviation values, economists have criticized the accuracy of standard deviation as a risk indicator. Alternatives such as average absolute deviation and semivariance have been advanced for measuring financial risk.
Higgs Discovery Summary Higgs_Discovery Higgs Discovery: The Power of Empty Space is a short non-fiction book by Lisa Randall, in which she concentrates on the ideas discussed in her two previous books. Higgs Discovery was initially published on September 24, 2013 by Ecco Press.
Knowledge based engineering Knowledge-based vs. procedural programming Knowledge-based_engineering > Languages for KBE > Knowledge-based vs. procedural programming A fundamental trade-off identified with knowledge representation in artificial intelligence is between expressive power and computability. As Levesque demonstrated in his classic paper on the topic, the more powerful a knowledge-representation formalism one designs, the closer the formalism will come to the expressive power of first order logic. As Levesque also demonstrated, the closer a language is to First Order Logic, the more probable that it will allow expressions that are undecidable or require exponential processing power to complete. In the implementation of KBE systems, this trade off is reflected in the choice to use powerful knowledge-based environments or more conventional procedural and object-oriented programming environments.
Cortex (anatomy) Cerebral cortex Cortex_(anatomy) > Cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex is typically described as comprising three parts: the sensory, motor, and association areas. These sensory areas receive and process information from the senses. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, the primary auditory cortex, and primary somatosensory cortex. The cerebellar cortex is the thin gray surface layer of the cerebellum, consisting of an outer molecular layer or stratum moleculare, a single layer of Purkinje cells (the ganglionic layer), and an inner granular layer or stratum granulosum.
AstraZeneca Side-effects AstraZeneca > Vaxzevria, AstraZeneca's COVID-19 pandemic response > Side-effects By the time of the EMA's decision in September 2021, Guillain-Barré syndrome was unlikely to have occurred, with only 833 cases of GBS reported in 8 months following the administration of 592 million doses of the vaccine. In December 2021, the scientists from Arizona State University and Cardiff University identified “the trigger” behind blood clots. Professor Alan Parker said: “Our data confirms PF4 can bind to adenoviruses, an important step in unravelling the mechanism underlying VITT. Establishing a mechanism could help to prevent and treat this disorder.”
Intraplate volcanism Geophysical anomalies Intraplate_volcanism > Mechanisms > Plume model > Evidence for the theory > Geophysical anomalies The plume hypothesis has been tested by looking for the geophysical anomalies predicted to be associated with them. These include thermal, seismic, and elevation anomalies. Thermal anomalies are inherent in the term "hotspot". They can be measured in numerous different ways, including surface heat flow, petrology, and seismology.
Particle theory of light Duality with other properties Three_wave_hypothesis > Duality with other properties Normally angular momentum is considered to be a particle-like property, for instance a spinning top. However, light waves can have angular momentum when they form a vortex, as illustrated in the Figure. Electrons waves with angular momentum have also been produced, with up to a thousand angular momentum quanta. These matter waves will diffract and interfere, while simultaneously having particle-like angular momentum so they will interact with magnetic fields, similar to a current loop.
Polymer concrete Uses Polymer_concrete > Uses Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete. The adhesive properties of polymer concrete allow repair of both polymer and conventional cement-based concretes. The corrosion resistance and low permeability of polymer concrete allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids or corrosive chemicals.
Carl Zeiss Collaboration with Ernst Abbe Carl_Zeiss > Collaboration with Ernst Abbe This was accomplished with some resistance from Löber and the other employees who preferred to remain with their traditional methods. The plan was to measure every individual property of each lens element before an objective was constructed to allow precise reproduction of the optical system. The D objective, for example contained 5 lenses.
Pathwidth Approximation algorithms Path_decomposition > Computing path-decompositions > Approximation algorithms It is NP-hard to approximate the pathwidth of a graph to within an additive constant. The best known approximation ratio of a polynomial time approximation algorithm for pathwidth is O((log n)3/2). For earlier approximation algorithms for pathwidth, see Bodlaender et al. (1992) and Guha (2000). For approximations on restricted classes of graphs, see Kloks & Bodlaender (1992).
Ligand-binding domain Ligands Nuclear_receptors > Ligands Ligands that bind to and activate nuclear receptors include lipophilic substances such as endogenous hormones, vitamins A and D, and xenobiotic hormones. Because the expression of a large number of genes is regulated by nuclear receptors, ligands that activate these receptors can have profound effects on the organism. Many of these regulated genes are associated with various diseases, which explains why the molecular targets of approximately 13% of U.S.
Complex carbohydrates Use in living organisms Carbohydrate_digestion > Monosaccharides > Use in living organisms Galactose, a component of milk sugar lactose, is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and in glycoproteins in many tissues. Mannose occurs in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Fructose, or fruit sugar, is found in many plants and humans, it is metabolized in the liver, absorbed directly into the intestines during digestion, and found in semen. Trehalose, a major sugar of insects, is rapidly hydrolyzed into two glucose molecules to support continuous flight.
Bohrium Summary Bohrium In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 7 elements as the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7. The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements.
Phosphoribosylanthranilate isomerase Structure Phosphoribosylanthranilate_isomerase > Structure Depending on the microorganism PRAI's structure can vary between a mono-functional enzyme (monomeric and labile) or a stable bi-functional dimeric enzyme. Within Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas putida, and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus the enzyme is monmeric. In contrast, in hyperthermophile Thermotoga maritima, Escherichia coli (Fig. 5), Salmonella typhimurium, and Aerobacter aerogenes, and Serratia marcescens, it is a bi-functional enzyme with indoleglycerol phosphate synthase as the paired enzyme. The crystal structure has been characterized for a variety of the above listed microorganisms.
Sequence analysis of synthetic polymers Example: Copolymer of PET and PEN Sequence_analysis_of_synthetic_polymers > NMR-based sequencing > Example: Copolymer of PET and PEN In addition to 1H NMR spectroscopy, also 13C NMR spectroscopy is a common method for the sequencing shown above, which is characterized in particular by a very narrow resonance width. Deconvolution and assignment of these triad-based resonances allows a quantitative determination of the degree of randomness and the average block length via integration of the distinguishable resonances. In a 1:1 mixture of two linear two-component 1:1 polycondensates (A1B1)n and (A2B2)n (with molecular weight high enough to neglected chain-ends), the following two equations are valid: = , wherein (i = 1,2) (1) = (2) Equation 1 states that the molar ratio of all four repeat units is identical and equation 2 states that both types of copolymer are of identical concentration.
HMGA2 Relationship with cancer HMGA2 > Clinical significance > Relationship with cancer However, many cancers are found with normal levels of let-7 that are also HMGA2 high. Many of these cancers express the normal HMGA2 protein, but the mature mRNA transcript is truncated, missing a portion of the 3'UTR that contains the critical let-7 complementary regions. Without these, let-7 is unable to bind to HMGA2 mRNA, and, thus, is unable to repress it. The truncated mRNAs may arise from a chromosomal translocation that results in loss of a portion of the HMGA2 gene.
Iñupiaq numerals Summary Iñupiaq_numerals The Iñupiaq language has a vigesimal (base-20) numeral system. Numerals are built from a small number of root words and a number of compounding suffixes. The following list are the various numerals of the language, omitting only the higher derivatives ending in the suffix -utaiḷaq, which subtracts one from the value of the stem. (See Iñupiaq language#Numerals.)
Stability theory Summary Stability_theory Various criteria have been developed to prove stability or instability of an orbit. Under favorable circumstances, the question may be reduced to a well-studied problem involving eigenvalues of matrices. A more general method involves Lyapunov functions. In practice, any one of a number of different stability criteria are applied.
History of CAD software 2000s History_of_CAD_software > 2000s Availability of free and open-source CAD software and high costs of advanced and 3D CAD software may restrain the growth of the CAD software market. Free and open-source CAD software packages include BRL-CAD developed for the US Army, LibreCAD, FreeCAD, and others.
Rounded rectangle Mathematical properties Superellipse > Mathematical properties Equivalently, letting t {\displaystyle t} range over 0 ≤ t < 2 π , {\displaystyle 0\leq t<2\pi ,} where the sign function is Here t {\displaystyle t} is not the angle between the positive horizontal axis and the ray from the origin to the point, since the tangent of this angle equals y/x while in the parametric expressions y x = b a ( tan ⁡ t ) 2 / n ≠ tan ⁡ t . {\textstyle {\frac {y}{x}}={\frac {b}{a}}(\tan t)^{2/n}\neq \tan t.} The area inside the superellipse can be expressed in terms of the gamma function as or in terms of the beta function as A r e a = 4 a b n B ( 1 n , 1 n + 1 ) .
Lesson plan Assignments Lesson_plan > Main classes of symbiotic relationships > Delivery of Lesson Plans > Assignments There are also experts who cite the importance of teaching learners about assignment planning. This is said to facilitate the students' engagement and interest in their assignment. Some strategies include brainstorming about the assignment process and the creation of a learning environment wherein students feel engaged and willing to reflect on their prior learning and to discuss specific or new topics.There are several assignment types so the instructor must decide whether class assignments are whole-class, small groups, workshops, independent work, peer learning, or contractual: Whole-class—the teacher lectures to the class as a whole and has the class collectively participate in classroom discussions.
Wash load Summary Wash_load Wash load is similar to a suspended load, but wash load sediment never interacts with the bed load. All of the sediment in the wash load stays suspended in the water throughout the channel (this concept has been debated). Wash load refers to a river's ability to move sediment through a channel. Hans Albert Einstein described wash load as "if the sediment is added to the upstream end of a concrete channel and the channel is swept clean, and the sediment has not left any trace in the channel".The sediments in the wash load are generally smaller than .0625 mm. What determines the wash load is the relationship between the size of the bed load and the size of the particles that never settle in the "fine sediment load" or wash load.
Iodate Acid-base Iodate > Reactions > Acid-base Iodate is unusual in that it forms a strong hydrogen bond with its parent acid: IO−3 + HIO3 → H(IO3)−2The anion H(IO3)−2 is referred to as biiodate.
Bloodstream infections Treatment Bloodstream_infections > Treatment The presence of bacteria in the blood almost always requires treatment with antibiotics. This is because there are high mortality rates from progression to sepsis if antibiotics are delayed.The treatment of bacteremia should begin with empiric antibiotic coverage. Any patient presenting with signs or symptoms of bacteremia or a positive blood culture should be started on intravenous antibiotics.
Kinetochore Spindle checkpoint activation Kinetochore > Function > Spindle checkpoint activation The spindle checkpoint, or SAC (for spindle assembly checkpoint), also known as the mitotic checkpoint, is a cellular mechanism responsible for detection of: correct assembly of the mitotic spindle; attachment of all chromosomes to the mitotic spindle in a bipolar manner; congression of all chromosomes at the metaphase plate.When just one chromosome (for any reason) remains lagging during congression, the spindle checkpoint machinery generates a delay in cell cycle progression: the cell is arrested, allowing time for repair mechanisms to solve the detected problem. After some time, if the problem has not been solved, the cell will be targeted for apoptosis (programmed cell death), a safety mechanism to avoid the generation of aneuploidy, a situation which generally has dramatic consequences for the organism. Whereas structural centromeric proteins (such as CENP-B), remain stably localized throughout mitosis (including during telophase), the spindle checkpoint components are assembled on the kinetochore in high concentrations in the absence of microtubules, and their concentrations decrease as the number of microtubules attached to the kinetochore increases.At metaphase, CENP-E, Bub3 and Bub1 levels decreases 3 to 4 fold as compared to the levels at unattached kinetochores, whereas the levels of dynein/dynactin, Mad1, Mad2 and BubR1 decrease >10-100 fold. Thus at metaphase, when all chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate, all checkpoint proteins are released from the kinetochore.
Rolling Applications Rolling > Applications Made of metal, the rolling elements are usually encased between two rings that can rotate independently of each other. In most mechanisms, the inner ring is attached to a stationary shaft (or axle). Thus, while the inner ring is stationary, the outer ring is free to move with very little friction.
Electric power production Turbines Electrical_generation > Generating equipment > Turbines About 41% of all electricity is generated this way. Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam. Less than 15% of electricity is generated this way.
Interior design psychology The perception of space Interior_design_psychology > The perception of space Power- the energy requirements to adapt to a space 3. Activity- links to the noise within a space and the worker's relationship and satisfaction with job and task In "Effects of the self-schema on perception of space at work" by Gustave Nicolas Fischer, Cyril Tarquinio, Jacqueline C. Vischer, the study conducted linking design and psychology in the workplace. In this study, they proposed a theoretical model linking environmental perception, work satisfaction and sense of self in a feedback loop.
Charge conservation Connection to gauge invariance Conservation_of_electric_charge > Connection to gauge invariance Charge conservation can also be understood as a consequence of symmetry through Noether's theorem, a central result in theoretical physics that asserts that each conservation law is associated with a symmetry of the underlying physics. The symmetry that is associated with charge conservation is the global gauge invariance of the electromagnetic field. This is related to the fact that the electric and magnetic fields are not changed by different choices of the value representing the zero point of electrostatic potential ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } . However the full symmetry is more complicated, and also involves the vector potential A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } .
G-delta set Basic properties Gδ_set > Properties > Basic properties The complement of a Gδ set is an Fσ set, and vice versa. The intersection of countably many Gδ sets is a Gδ set. The union of finitely many Gδ sets is a Gδ set. A countable union of Gδ sets (which would be called a Gδσ set) is not a Gδ set in general. For example, the rational numbers Q {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } do not form a Gδ set in R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } . In a topological space, the zero set of every real valued continuous function f {\displaystyle f} is a (closed) Gδ set, since f − 1 ( 0 ) {\displaystyle f^{-1}(0)} is the intersection of the open sets { x ∈ X: − 1 / n < f ( x ) < 1 / n } {\displaystyle \{x\in X:-1/n
Machine learning Statistics Machine_learning > History and relationships to other fields > Statistics Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinct in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns. According to Michael I. Jordan, the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics. He also suggested the term data science as a placeholder to call the overall field.Conventional statistical analyses require the a priori selection of a model most suitable for the study data set. In addition, only significant or theoretically relevant variables based on previous experience are included for analysis.
Vibration isolation How passive isolation works Vibration_isolation > Passive isolation > How passive isolation works Passive isolation operates in both directions, isolating the payload from vibrations originating in the support, and also isolating the support from vibrations originating in the payload. Large machines such as washers, pumps, and generators, which would cause vibrations in the building or room, are often isolated from the floor. However, there are a multitude of sources of vibration in buildings, and it is often not possible to isolate each source.
Radial line Cylindrical harmonics Cylindrical_polar_coordinates > Cylindrical harmonics The solutions to the Laplace equation in a system with cylindrical symmetry are called cylindrical harmonics.
Inclusive education Summary Inclusion_(education) Inclusion in education refers to all students being able to access and gain equal opportunities to education and learning. It arose in the context of special education with an individualized education program or 504 plan, and is built on the notion that it is more effective for students with special needs to have the said mixed experience for them to be more successful in social interactions leading to further success in life. The philosophy behind the implementation of the inclusion model does not prioritize, but still provides for the utilization of special classrooms and special schools for the education of students with disabilities. Inclusive education models are brought into force by educational administrators with the intention of moving away from seclusion models of special education to the fullest extent practical, the idea being that it is to the social benefit of general education students and special education students alike, with the more able students serving as peer models and those less able serving as motivation for general education students to learn empathy.
High-Energy Physics Theory High_energy_particles > Theory This work probes the limits of the Standard Model and therefore expands scientific understanding of nature's building blocks. Those efforts are made challenging by the difficulty of calculating high precision quantities in quantum chromodynamics. Some theorists working in this area use the tools of perturbative quantum field theory and effective field theory, referring to themselves as phenomenologists.
Arithmetic underflow Handling of underflow Arithmetic_underflow > Handling of underflow The occurrence of an underflow may set a ("sticky") status bit, raise an exception, at the hardware level generate an interrupt, or may cause some combination of these effects. As specified in IEEE 754, the underflow condition is only signaled if there is also a loss of precision. Typically this is determined as the final result being inexact. However, if the user is trapping on underflow, this may happen regardless of consideration for loss of precision. The default handling in IEEE 754 for underflow (as well as other exceptions) is to record as a floating point status that underflow has occurred. This is specified for the application-programming level, but often also interpreted as how to handle it at the hardware level.
Fractal flame Algorithm Flame_fractals > Algorithm The algorithm consists of two steps: creating a histogram and then rendering the histogram.
Game accessibility Accessible game categories Game_accessibility > Accessible game categories Universally Accessible games are games that offer multiple interfaces to support different impairments. An overview of universally accessible games can be found here.These games are not only great examples of accessible games, but also drive innovation in game design. In recent years, game accessibility has been actively researched, for example in student projects .
Rock cycle Subduction zones Rock_cycle > Forces that drive the rock cycle > Plate tectonics > Subduction zones The new basaltic oceanic crust eventually meets a subduction zone as it moves away from the spreading ridge. As this crust is pulled back into the mantle, the increasing pressure and temperature conditions cause a restructuring of the mineralogy of the rock, this metamorphism alters the rock to form eclogite. As the slab of basaltic crust and some included sediments are dragged deeper, water and other more volatile materials are driven off and rise into the overlying wedge of rock above the subduction zone, which is at a lower pressure. The lower pressure, high temperature, and now volatile rich material in this wedge melts and the resulting buoyant magma rises through the overlying rock to produce island arc or continental margin volcanism.
External respiration Summary Respiration_(physiology) In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the removal of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction that's to the environment.The physiological definition of respiration differs from the biochemical definition, which refers to a metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP and NADPH) by oxidizing nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the diffusion and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment. Gas exchanges in the lung occurs by ventilation and perfusion. Ventilation refers to the in and out movement of air of the lungs and perfusion is the circulation of blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry Kerogens and coals Hydrogen_isotope_biogeochemistry > Applications > Fossil fuels > Kerogens and coals Smith et al. studied H isotopes of coal samples from Antarctica and Australia. They found a strong negative correlation between δD and inferred paleolatitude. For coal samples originating from near equatorial regions, δD is around −50‰, while for those originating from polar regions, δD is around −150‰.
CD4(+) T cell Th1/Th2 model CD4+_T_lymphocytes > Determination of the effector T cell response > Th1/Th2 model Th1 overactivation against autoantigens will cause Type IV or delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction. Tuberculin reaction and Type 1 diabetes belong to this category of autoimmunity.Th2 helper cells lead to a humoral immune response, typically against extracellular parasites such as helminths. They are triggered by the polarising cytokines IL-4 and IL-2, and their effector cytokines are IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13 and IL-25.
Evolvable hardware Introduction Evolvable_hardware > Introduction At a lower level of abstraction are the field-programmable transistor arrays that can implement either digital or analog designs. The concept was pioneered by Adrian Thompson at the University of Sussex, England, who in 1996 used an FPGA to evolve a tone discriminator that used fewer than 40 programmable logic gates, and had no clock signal. This is a remarkably small design for such a device, and relied on exploiting peculiarities of the hardware that engineers normally avoid. For example, one group of gates has no logical connection to the rest of the circuit, yet is crucial to its function.
Hamilton's optico-mechanical analogy Summary Hamilton's_optico-mechanical_analogy Later in the body of his paper he says: Unfortunately this powerful and momentous conception of Hamilton is deprived, in most modern reproductions, of its beautiful raiment as a superfluous accessory, in favour of a more colourless representation of the analytical correspondence. Quantitative and formal analysis based on the analogy use the Hamilton–Jacobi equation; conversely the analogy provides an alternative and more accessible path for introducing the Hamilton–Jacobi equation approach to mechanics. The orthogonality of mechanical trajectories characteristic of geometrical optics to the optical wavefronts characteristic of a full wave equation, resulting from the variational principle, leads to the corresponding differential equations.
Mitochondrial DNA Neurodegenerative diseases Mitochondrial_genes > Mutations and disease > Neurodegenerative diseases Increased mtDNA damage is a feature of several neurodegenerative diseases. The brains of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease have elevated levels of oxidative DNA damage in both nuclear DNA and mtDNA, but the mtDNA has approximately 10-fold higher levels than nuclear DNA. It has been proposed that aged mitochondria is the critical factor in the origin of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease. Analysis of the brains of AD patients suggested an impaired function of the DNA repair pathway, which would cause reduce the overall quality of mtDNA.In Huntington’s disease, mutant huntingtin protein causes mitochondrial dysfunction involving inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport, higher levels of reactive oxygen species and increased oxidative stress.
Torque limiter Disconnect types Torque_limiter > Disconnect types Disconnect types will uncouple the drive, with little or no residual torque making its way to the load. They may reset automatically or manually
Barnette's conjecture Partial results Barnette's_conjecture > Partial results Although the truth of Barnette's conjecture remains unknown, computational experiments have shown that there is no counterexample with fewer than 86 vertices.If Barnette's conjecture turns out to be false, then it can be shown to be NP-complete to test whether a bipartite cubic polyhedron is Hamiltonian. If a planar graph is bipartite and cubic but only of connectivity 2, then it may be non-Hamiltonian, and it is NP-complete to test Hamiltonicity for these graphs. Another result was obtained by Alt et al. (2016): if the dual graph can be vertex-colored with colors blue, red and green such that every red-green cycle contains a vertex of degree 4, then the primal graph is Hamiltonian.
Glossary of genetics (M–Z) M Glossary_of_genetics_(M–Z) > M The process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed, resulting in a mutation. Mutagenesis may occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to a mutagen. 2.
Mode control panel Summary Mode_control_panel The MCP is actually independent of the autopilot—it simply sets the mode in which the autopilot operates, but the autopilot itself (e.g., an AFDS) is a separate aircraft system. The MCP often interacts with both the AFDS or autopilot and the FMC(s). MCPs are usually found in advanced aircraft intended for commercial use, especially jet airliners. They are often mounted on the glare shield, a small panel that overhangs the main instrument panel of the aircraft and also functions as a shield against outside glare.
Transcranial Doppler How it works Transcranial_Doppler > How it works The echoes are analysed and converted into velocities that are displayed on the unit's computer monitor. In fact, because the probe is pulsed at a rate of up to 10 kHz, the frequency information is discarded from each pulse and reconstructed from phase changes from one pulse to the next.
Hartford shock absorber Adjustable damping André_Hartford > Adjustable damping This was a feature only used on luxury cars, often larger cars that might need to set their suspension for varying numbers of passengers. Stiffness could be increased between "town" and a stiffer setting for the faster open road. These dampers were best known under the Telecontrol brand name.
Keychain Access Security Keychain_Access > Security Keychain is distributed with both iOS and macOS. The iOS version is simpler because applications that run on mobile devices typically need only very basic Keychain features. For example, features such as ACLs (Access Control Lists) and sharing Keychain items between different apps are not present. Thus, iOS Keychain items are only accessible to the app that created them.
Nifurtimox Side effects Nifurtimox > Side effects Side effects occur following chronic administration, particularly in elderly people. Major toxicities include immediate hypersensitivity such as anaphylaxis and delayed hypersensitivity reaction involving icterus and dermatitis. Central nervous system disturbances and peripheral neuropathy may also occur.Most common side effects anorexia weight loss nausea vomiting headache dizziness amnesiaLess common effects rash depression anxiety confusion fever sore throat chills seizures impotence tremors muscle weakness numbness of hands or feet
Glucose uptake Facilitated diffusion Glucose_uptake > Facilitated diffusion GLUT2 in contrast has a high Km value (15-20mM) and therefore a low affinity for glucose. They are located in the plasma membranes of hepatocytes and pancreatic beta cells (in mice, but GLUT1 in human beta cells; see Reference 1). The high Km of GLUT2 allows for glucose sensing; rate of glucose entry is proportional to blood glucose levels.
Tabulation hashing Universality Tabulation_hashing > Universality For any two keys x and y, x is equally likely to be mapped to any hash value as before, and there is at least one position i where xi ≠ yi; the table value T is used in the calculation of h(y) but not in the calculation of h(x), so even after the value of h(x) has been determined, h(y) is equally likely to be any valid hash value. Similarly, for any three keys x, y, and z, at least one of the three keys has a position i where its value zi differs from the other two, so that even after the values of h(x) and h(y) are determined, h(z) is equally likely to be any valid hash value.However, this reasoning breaks down for four keys because there are sets of keys w, x, y, and z where none of the four has a byte value that it does not share with at least one of the other keys. For instance, if the keys have two bytes each, and w, x, y, and z are the four keys that have either zero or one as their byte values, then each byte value in each position is shared by exactly two of the four keys. For these four keys, the hash values computed by tabulation hashing will always satisfy the equation h(w) ⊕ h(x) ⊕ h(y) ⊕ h(z) = 0, whereas for a 4-independent hashing scheme the same equation would only be satisfied with probability 1/m. Therefore, tabulation hashing is not 4-independent.
Photochlorination Reactions Photochlorination > Reactions Photochlorinations are usually effected in the liquid phase, usually employing chemically inert solvents.
Epigenetics of autoimmune disorders Systemic autoimmune diseases Epigenetics_of_autoimmune_disorders > Systemic autoimmune diseases Systemic autoimmune diseases are those that effect multiple organ systems rather than targeting a single type of tissue or organ system.