Split (1)

train · 253k rows

page_content stringlengths 51 3.15k
Photographic filter Diffusion Photographic_filter > Uses > Diffusion The two primary approaches are to use some form of grid or netting in the filter, or to use something which is transparent but not optically sharp. Both effects can be achieved in software, which can in principle provide a very precise degree of control of the level of effect, however the "look" may be noticeably different. If there is too much contrast in a scene, the dynamic range of the digital image sensor or film may be exceeded, which post-processing cannot compensate for, so contrast reduction at the time of image capture may be called for.
Plant Simulation Description Plant_Simulation > Description Plant Simulation is a Material flow simulation Software (Discrete Event Simulation; DES Software). Using simulation, complex and dynamic enterprise workflows are evaluated to arrive at mathematically safeguarded entrepreneurial decisions. The Computer model allows the user to execute experiments and run through 'what if scenarios' without either having to experiment with the real production environment or when applied within the planning phase, long before the real system exists.
Meconium aspiration syndrome Glucocorticoids Meconium_aspiration_syndrome > Treatment > Antiinflammatories > Glucocorticoids Glucocorticoids have a strong anti-inflammatory activity and works to reduce the migration and activation of neutrophils, eosinophils, mononuclear cells, and other cells. They reduce the migration of neutrophils into the lungs ergo, decreasing their adherence to the endothelium. Thus, there is a reduction in the action of mediators released from these cells and therefore, a reduced inflammatory response.Glucocorticoids also possess a genomic mechanism of action in which, once bound to a glucocorticoid receptor, the activated complex moves into the nucleus and inhibits transcription of mRNA. Ultimately, effecting whether various proteins get produced or not.
Entropy (statistical thermodynamics) Counting of microstates Gibbs_entropy_formula > Counting of microstates The quantum state of a system can be expressed as a superposition of "basis" states, which can be chosen to be energy eigenstates (i.e. eigenstates of the quantum Hamiltonian). Usually, the quantum states are discrete, even though there may be an infinite number of them. For a system with some specified energy E, one takes Ω to be the number of energy eigenstates within a macroscopically small energy range between E and E + δE.
Histopathologic architecture Interpretation Histopathology > Interpretation This is done using either the bread loafing or CCPDMA method of processing. Microscopic visual artifacts can potentially cause misdiagnosis of samples. Following are examples of general features of suspicious findings that can be appreciated from low to high magnification on histopathology:
Menstrual migraine Warning symptoms Menstrual_migraine > Signs and symptoms > Warning symptoms Warning symptoms also called prodrome symptoms often happen before a migraine attack. Sleepiness Fatigue Depression (feeling sad), euphoria (feeling very happy) or irritability Restlessness Excessive (too much) yawning Food cravings especially for sweet or salty foods or loss of appetite Increased thirst Diarrhea Nausea Bloating: the body retains (keeps) too much water Neck stiffness Talkativeness (talking too much) Feeling light-headed Uterine pain and cramping
The Entropy Effect Plot summary The_Entropy_Effect > Plot summary The Enterprise is making a study of a naked singularity when it is diverted to mining colony Aleph Prime with instructions to ferry a single criminal to a rehabilitation colony in the same solar system. The criminal turns out to be a theoretical physicist, Dr. Georges Mordreaux, convicted of murder and unethical research on self-aware beings. Spock disbelieves that Mordreaux could be capable of the crime.
John Pople Ab initio electronic structure theory John_Pople > Research > Ab initio electronic structure theory Pople pioneered the development of more sophisticated computational methods, called ab initio quantum chemistry methods, that use basis sets of either Slater type orbitals or Gaussian orbitals to model the wave function. While in the early days these calculations were extremely expensive to perform, the advent of high speed microprocessors has made them much more feasible today. He was instrumental in the development of one of the most widely used computational chemistry packages, the Gaussian suite of programs, including coauthorship of the first version, Gaussian 70. One of his most important original contributions is the concept of a model chemistry whereby a method is rigorously evaluated across a range of molecules.
Sverdrup Examples Sverdrup > Examples The water transport in the Gulf Stream gradually increases from 30 Sv in the Florida Current to a maximum of 150 Sv south of Newfoundland at 55° W longitude.The Antarctic Circumpolar Current, at approximately 125 Sv, is the largest ocean current.The entire global input of fresh water from rivers to the ocean is approximately 1.2 Sv. == References ==
Scott continuous Examples Scott_topology > Examples The open sets in a given topological space when ordered by inclusion form a lattice on which the Scott topology can be defined. A subset X of a topological space T is compact with respect to the topology on T (in the sense that every open cover of X contains a finite subcover of X) if and only if the set of open neighbourhoods of X is open with respect to the Scott topology.For CPO, the cartesian closed category of dcpo's, two particularly notable examples of Scott-continuous functions are curry and apply.Nuel Belnap used Scott continuity to extend logical connectives to a four-valued logic.
Frequent subtree mining Scope-list representation Frequent_subtree_mining > TreeMiner > Algorithm > Scope-list representation TreeMiner performs depth first candidate generation using scope-list representation of sub-trees to facilitate faster support counting. A k-sub-tree S can be representation by a triplet (t,m,s) where t is the tree id the sub-tree comes from, m is the prefix match label, and s the scope of the last node in S. Depending on how S occurs in different trees across the database, S can have different scope-list representation. TreeMiner defines scope-list join that performs class extension on scope-list representation of sub-trees. Two elements (x,i) and (y,j) can be joined if there exists two sub-trees ( t x , m x , s x ) {\displaystyle (t_{x},m_{x},s_{x})} and ( t y , m y , s y ) {\displaystyle (t_{y},m_{y},s_{y})} that satisfy either of the following conditions. In-scope test: t x = t y , m x = m y , s y ⊂ s x {\displaystyle t_{x}=t_{y},m_{x}=m_{y},s_{y}\subset s_{x}} , which corresponds to the case when i = j {\displaystyle i=j} . Out-scope test: t x = t y , m x = m y , s y > s x {\displaystyle t_{x}=t_{y},m_{x}=m_{y},s_{y}>s_{x}} , which correspond to the case when i > j {\displaystyle i>j} .By keeping track of distinct tree ids used in the scope-list tests, the support of sub-trees can be calculated efficiently.
Feedforward Control Overview Feed-forward_control > Overview A sensor monitors that pressure so that the valve only opens enough to cause the correct pressure to reach the wheel turning mechanism. This is feed-forward control where the output of the system, the change in direction of travel of the vehicle, plays no part in the system. See Model predictive control.
Triple reuptake inhibitor Dopaminergic Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor > Role of monoamine neurotransmitters > Dopaminergic For some reason, there have been numerous reports of users taking this drug in conjunction with β-phenethylamine. Taking psychostimulants for the alleviation of depression is well proven strategy, although in a clinical setting the use of such drugs is usually prohibited because of their strong addiction propensity. When users withdraw from psychostimulant drugs of abuse (in particular, amphetamine), they experience symptoms of depression.
Visual impairments General functioning Vision_impairment > Health effects > General functioning Thus, measuring an individual's general functioning depends on one's situational and contextual factors, as well as access to treatment.The American Medical Association has estimated that the loss of one eye equals 25% impairment of the visual system and 24% impairment of the whole person; total loss of vision in both eyes is considered to be 100% visual impairment and 85% impairment of the whole person.Some people who fall into this category can use their considerable residual vision – their remaining sight – to complete daily tasks without relying on alternative methods. The role of a low vision specialist (optometrist or ophthalmologist) is to maximize the functional level of a patient's vision by optical or non-optical means. Primarily, this is by use of magnification in the form of telescopic systems for distance vision and optical or electronic magnification for near tasks.
Mass balance Introduction Mass_balance > Introduction : 59–62 In the absence of a nuclear reaction the number of atoms flowing in and out must remain the same, even in the presence of a chemical reaction. For a balance to be formed, the boundaries of the system must be clearly defined. Mass balances can be taken over physical systems at multiple scales. Mass balances can be simplified with the assumption of steady state, in which the accumulation term is zero.
Adaptor hypothesis Development Adaptor_hypothesis > Development The relationship between DNA and RNA for protein synthesis was first hypothesised by French biologist André Boivin and Roger Vendrely in 1947. They wrote in Experientia (later renamed Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences): "Through catalytic actions the macromolecular desoxyribonucleic acids govern the building of macromolecular ribonucleic acids, and, in turn, these control the production of cytoplasmic enzymes. In truth, the enzymic equipment results simultaneously from the effect of ribonucleic acids (catalytic action) and from the effect of substrates (mass action).
Bell's palsy Differential diagnosis Bell_palsy > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis A person with a stroke will usually have some wrinkling of their forehead.In areas where Lyme disease is common, it accounts for about 25% of cases of facial palsy. In the U.S., Lyme is most common in the New England and Mid-Atlantic states and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The first sign of about 80% of Lyme infections, typically one or two weeks after a tick bite, is usually an expanding rash that may be accompanied by headaches, body aches, fatigue, or fever.
Multi-agent pathfinding Types of Collisions Multi-agent_pathfinding > Problem Formalization > Types of Collisions Following conflict: a following conflict happens when at a certain time step an agent occupies a location that was occupied by another agent in the previous time step. Mathematically, a following conflict is described as π i = π j {\displaystyle \pi _{i}=\pi _{j}} . Cycle conflict: a cycle conflict happens whenever a set of agents (at least three) move as if they are spinning in a cycle.
Cache Hierarchy Average access time (AAT) Cache_Hierarchy > Multi-level cache > Average access time (AAT) Caches, being small in size, may result in frequent misses – when a search of the cache does not provide the sought-after information – resulting in a call to main memory to fetch data. Hence, the AAT is affected by the miss rate of each structure from which it searches for the data. AAT = hit time + ( ( miss rate ) × ( miss penalty ) ) {\displaystyle {\text{AAT}}={\text{hit time}}+(({\text{miss rate}})\times ({\text{miss penalty}}))} AAT for main memory is given by Hit time main memory. AAT for caches can be given by Hit timecache + (Miss ratecache × Miss Penaltytime taken to go to main memory after missing cache).The hit time for caches is less than the hit time for the main memory, so the AAT for data retrieval is significantly lower when accessing data through the cache rather than main memory.
Theoretical incommensurability Summary Theoretical_incommensurability Commensurability is a concept in the philosophy of science whereby scientific theories are said to be "commensurable" if scientists can discuss the theories using a shared nomenclature that allows direct comparison of them to determine which one is more valid or useful. On the other hand, theories are incommensurable if they are embedded in starkly contrasting conceptual frameworks whose languages do not overlap sufficiently to permit scientists to directly compare the theories or to cite empirical evidence favoring one theory over the other. Discussed by Ludwik Fleck in the 1930s, and popularized by Thomas Kuhn in the 1960s, the problem of incommensurability results in scientists talking past each other, as it were, while comparison of theories is muddled by confusions about terms, contexts and consequences.
Immunogenetics Summary Immunogenetics Immunogenetics or immungenetics is the branch of Medical Immunology and Medical Genetics that explores the relationship between the immune system and genetics. Autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are complex genetic traits which result from defects in the immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approaches. Alternatively, genetic variations can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease.
Gravitational attraction Summary Gravitational_pull However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes gravity as a force causing any two bodies to be attracted toward each other, with magnitude proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Current models of particle physics imply that the earliest instance of gravity in the universe, possibly in the form of quantum gravity, supergravity or a gravitational singularity, along with ordinary space and time, developed during the Planck epoch (up to 10−43 seconds after the birth of the universe), possibly from a primeval state, such as a false vacuum, quantum vacuum or virtual particle, in a currently unknown manner. Scientists are currently working to develop a theory of gravity consistent with quantum mechanics, a quantum gravity theory, which would allow gravity to be united in a common mathematical framework (a theory of everything) with the other three fundamental interactions of physics.
C11H14N2O2 Summary C11H14N2O2 The molecular formula C11H14N2O2 (molar mass: 206.241 g/mol) may refer to: Pheneturide Phenylethylmalonamide
DLA0817g Summary DLA0817g Its rotational speed, approximately 272 km/s (610,000 mph), is also comparable to that of a mature galaxy like our Milky Way galaxy. It is nicknamed the Wolfe Galaxy or the Wolfe Disc in honor of Arthur M. Wolfe, an American astrophysicist, one of the discoverers of the Sachs-Wolfe effect. == References ==
Data quality Overview Data_quality > Overview There are a number of theoretical frameworks for understanding data quality. A systems-theoretical approach influenced by American pragmatism expands the definition of data quality to include information quality, and emphasizes the inclusiveness of the fundamental dimensions of accuracy and precision on the basis of the theory of science (Ivanov, 1972). One framework, dubbed "Zero Defect Data" (Hansen, 1991) adapts the principles of statistical process control to data quality. Another framework seeks to integrate the product perspective (conformance to specifications) and the service perspective (meeting consumers' expectations) (Kahn et al. 2002).
Execution model Parallel Execution Models Execution_model > Parallel Execution Models A synchronization construct has the effect of establishing an ordering between activities in one timeline relative to activities in another timeline. For example, a common synchronization construct is the lock. Consider one timeline.
Bio-inspired computing History Biologically-inspired_computing > History Early Ideas The ideas behind biological computing trace back to 1936 and the first description of an abstract computer, which is now known as a Turing machine. Turing firstly described the abstract construct using a biological specimen. Turing imagined a mathematician that has three important attributes. He always has a pencil with an eraser, an unlimited number of papers and a working set of eyes.
Matrix (protocol) History Matrix_(protocol) > History Work on the application based on Riot and Matrix protocol—called Tchap after French scientists Claude Chappe—had started in early 2018, and the program was open-sourced and released on iOS and Android in April 2019.In October 2018, a Community Interest Company called "The Matrix.org Foundation C.I.C." was incorporated, to serve as a neutral legal entity for further development of the standard.In February 2019, the KDE community announced plans to adopt Matrix for its internal communications needs, as a decentralized alternative to other instant messaging servers like Telegram, Slack, and Discord, and operate its own server instance.In April 2019, Matrix.org suffered a security breach in which the production servers were compromised. This breach was not an issue with the Matrix protocol and did not directly affect home servers other than matrix.org.
Relativistic quantum mechanics Relativistic quantum mechanics and field theory Relativistic_quantum_mechanics > Further reading > Relativistic quantum mechanics and field theory Weinberg, S. (2000). The Quantum Theory of Fields.
Recamán's sequence Definition Recamán's_sequence > Definition Recamán's sequence a 0 , a 1 , a 2 … {\displaystyle a_{0},a_{1},a_{2}\dots } is defined as: a n = { 0 if n = 0 a n − 1 − n if a n − 1 − n > 0 and is not already in the sequence a n − 1 + n otherwise {\displaystyle a_{n}={\begin{cases}0&&{\text{if }}n=0\\a_{n-1}-n&&{\text{if }}a_{n-1}-n>0{\text{ and is not already in the sequence}}\\a_{n-1}+n&&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}} The first terms of the sequence are: 0, 1, 3, 6, 2, 7, 13, 20, 12, 21, 11, 22, 10, 23, 9, 24, 8, 25, 43, 62, 42, 63, 41, 18, 42, 17, 43, 16, 44, 15, 45, 14, 46, 79, 113, 78, 114, 77, 39, 78, 38, 79, 37, 80, 36, 81, 35, 82, 34, 83, 33, 84, 32, 85, 31, 86, 30, 87, 29, 88, 28, 89, 27, 90, 26, 91, 157, 224, 156, 225, 155, ...
Mechanism design Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem Mechanism_design_theory > Highlighted results > Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem Gibbard (1973) and Satterthwaite (1975) give an impossibility result similar in spirit to Arrow's impossibility theorem. For a very general class of games, only "dictatorial" social choice functions can be implemented. A social choice function f() is dictatorial if one agent always receives his most-favored goods allocation, for f ( Θ ) , ∃ i ∈ I such that u i ( x , θ i ) ≥ u i ( x ′ , θ i ) ∀ x ′ ∈ X {\displaystyle {\text{for }}f(\Theta ){\text{, }}\exists i\in I{\text{ such that }}u_{i}(x,\theta _{i})\geq u_{i}(x',\theta _{i})\ \forall x'\in X} The theorem states that under general conditions any truthfully implementable social choice function must be dictatorial if, X is finite and contains at least three elements Preferences are rational f ( Θ ) = X {\displaystyle f(\Theta )=X}
DRAM data remanence Causes Data_purging > Causes In some systems, enough filesystem metadata are also left behind to enable easy undeletion by commonly available utility software. Even when undelete has become impossible, the data, until it has been overwritten, can be read by software that reads disk sectors directly. Computer forensics often employs such software.
Domain (mathematical analysis) Conventions Domain_(mathematical_analysis) > Conventions One common convention is to define a domain as a connected open set but a region as the union of a domain with none, some, or all of its limit points. A closed region or closed domain is the union of a domain and all of its limit points. Various degrees of smoothness of the boundary of the domain are required for various properties of functions defined on the domain to hold, such as integral theorems (Green's theorem, Stokes theorem), properties of Sobolev spaces, and to define measures on the boundary and spaces of traces (generalized functions defined on the boundary). Commonly considered types of domains are domains with continuous boundary, Lipschitz boundary, C1 boundary, and so forth.
Dispersion (optics) Group-velocity dispersion Dispersion_(optics) > Group-velocity dispersion Beyond simply describing a change in the phase velocity over wavelength, a more serious consequence of dispersion in many applications is termed group-velocity dispersion (GVD). While phase velocity v is defined as v = c/n, this describes only one frequency component. When different frequency components are combined, as when considering a signal or a pulse, one is often more interested in the group velocity, which describes the speed at which a pulse or information superimposed on a wave (modulation) propagates. In the accompanying animation, it can be seen that the wave itself (orange-brown) travels at a phase velocity much faster than the speed of the envelope (black), which corresponds to the group velocity.
Bayesian Inference Interpretation of factor Bayesian_analyses > Mathematical properties > Interpretation of factor P ( E ∣ M ) P ( E ) > 1 ⇒ P ( E ∣ M ) > P ( E ) {\textstyle {\frac {P(E\mid M)}{P(E)}}>1\Rightarrow P(E\mid M)>P(E)} . That is, if the model were true, the evidence would be more likely than is predicted by the current state of belief. The reverse applies for a decrease in belief. If the belief does not change, P ( E ∣ M ) P ( E ) = 1 ⇒ P ( E ∣ M ) = P ( E ) {\textstyle {\frac {P(E\mid M)}{P(E)}}=1\Rightarrow P(E\mid M)=P(E)} . That is, the evidence is independent of the model. If the model were true, the evidence would be exactly as likely as predicted by the current state of belief.
Outer space Earth orbit Boundary_to_space > Earth orbit The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11,200 m/s (40,300 km/h; 25,100 mph).
Combinatorial search Examples Combinatorial_search > Examples Common algorithms for solving combinatorial search problems include: A* search algorithm Alpha–beta pruning Branch-and-bound Minimax
Loedel diagram Time dilation Minkowski_diagram > Relativistic phenomena in diagrams > Time dilation A second observer, having moved together with the clock from O to B, will argue that the black axis clock has only reached C and therefore runs slower. The reason for these apparently paradoxical statements is the different determination of the events happening synchronously at different locations. Due to the principle of relativity, the question of who is right has no answer and does not make sense.
Fatou's lemma Summary Fatou's_lemma In mathematics, Fatou's lemma establishes an inequality relating the Lebesgue integral of the limit inferior of a sequence of functions to the limit inferior of integrals of these functions. The lemma is named after Pierre Fatou. Fatou's lemma can be used to prove the Fatou–Lebesgue theorem and Lebesgue's dominated convergence theorem.
Moisture stress Summary Moisture_stress They all affect gene expression that increases the plants water stress tolerance.The effects of moisture stress on photosynthesis can depend as much on the velocity and degree of photosynthetic recovery, as it depends on the degree and velocity of photosynthesis decline during water depletion. Plants that are subjected to mild stress can recover in 1–2 days however, plants subjected to severe water stress will only recover 40-60% of its maximum photosynthetic rates the day after re watering and may never reach maximum photosynthetic rates. The recovery from moisture stress starts with an increase in water content in leaves reopening the stomata then the synthesis of photosynthetic proteins.
Feng Zhang Research Feng_Zhang > Research Zhang's group compared their RNA expression approach with a design based on the Doudna / Charpentier chimeric RNA for use in human cells and established features of the guide necessary for Cas9 to function effectively in mammalian cells which are dispensable in biochemical assays. Zhang, Doudna, and other colleagues from Harvard founded Editas Medicine in September 2013 to develop and commercialize CRISPR-based therapies.Zhang discovered Cas13 with Harvard colleague Eugene Koonin using computational biology methods. In 2016, Zhang cofounded Arbor Biotechnologies to develop Cas13 for therapeutic use.His lab has also developed a sensitive diagnostic nucleic acid detection protocol that is based on CRISPR termed SHERLOCK (Specific High sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter UnLOCKing) that is able to detect and distinguish strains of viruses and bacteria present in as low as attomolar (10−18 M) concentration. Zhang cofounded Sherlock Biosciences in 2018 to further develop this diagnostic technology.Also in 2018, Zhang cofounded Beam Therapeutics with Editas cofounder and Harvard colleague David R. Liu to further advance Liu's work on base editing and prime editing.He has an h-index of 109 according to Google Scholar.
Avoided crossing Quantum resonance Avoided_crossing > In two-state systems > Quantum resonance The immediate impact of avoided level crossing in a degenerate two state system is the emergence of a lowered energy eigenstate. The effective lowering of energy always correspond to increasing stability. (see: Energy minimization) Bond resonance in organic molecules exemplifies the occurrence of such avoided crossings. To describe these cases we may note that the non-diagonal elements in an erstwhile diagonalised Hamiltonian not only modify the energy eigenvalues but also superpose the old eigenstates into the new ones.
Non-conventional trademark Sieckmann Non-conventional_trademark > Decisions on non-conventional trademarks > Sieckmann In Dr. Ralf Sieckmann vs Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt (case C-273/00), a judgement of the European Court of Justice issued on December 12, 2002, the ECJ held in relation to trademarks in the European Community that: Article 2 of Council Directive 89/104/EEC (of 21 December 1988 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trade marks) must be interpreted as meaning that a trade mark may consist of a sign which is not in itself capable of being perceived visually, provided that it can be represented graphically, particularly by means of images, lines or characters, and that the representation is clear, precise, self-contained, easily accessible, intelligible, durable and objective. In respect of an olfactory sign, the requirements of graphic representability are not satisfied by a chemical formula, by a description in written words, by the deposit of an odour sample or by a combination of those elements.
Biotic Ligand Model History Biotic_Ligand_Model > History The original FIAM did not address other roles that ligands play besides complexing metals and how these other roles could affect the biological response of an organism.Around the same time that the free ion activity model was proposed, the gill surface interaction model (GSIM) was introduced by Pagenkopf in 1983. The model was put into use in order to evaluate toxicity test results of metals as well as metals in mixtures.Pagennkopf outlined that the compilation of previous studies on metals necessitated further examination of how metal toxicity changes as a function of pH, hardness and complexation capacity for the toxicity of metals to fishes.In the gill surface interaction model both metal hardness and complexation are included. Pagenkopf lays out several major concepts that are the basis of the GSIM.
Vector autoregression Structural VAR Vector_autoregression > Structural vs. reduced form > Structural VAR Two features of the structural form make it the preferred candidate to represent the underlying relations: 1. Error terms are not correlated. The structural, economic shocks which drive the dynamics of the economic variables are assumed to be independent, which implies zero correlation between error terms as a desired property.
Genetic informatics Gene function prediction Bioinformatics > Sequence analysis > Genome annotation > Gene function prediction While genome annotation is primarily based on sequence similarity (and thus homology), other properties of sequences can be used to predict the function of genes. In fact, most gene function prediction methods focus on protein sequences as they are more informative and more feature-rich. For instance, the distribution of hydrophobic amino acids predicts transmembrane segments in proteins. However, protein function prediction can also use external information such as gene (or protein) expression data, protein structure, or protein-protein interactions.
Glossary of engineering: A–L E Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > E Electrical current is generated by the flow of negatively charged electrons, positively charged holes, and positive or negative ions in some cases. Electrical impedanceIs the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current when a voltage is applied. The term complex impedance may be used interchangeably.
Geophysical surveying Geophysical signal detection Geophysical_surveying > Geophysical signal detection To measure the changes in magnetic field the magnetometer is used. There are two types of magnetometers, one that measures only vertical component of the magnetic field and the other measures total magnetic field. With the help of these meters, either the gravity values at different locations are measured or the values of Earth's magnetic field are measured.
Complex exponential function Complex plane Complex_exponential_function > Complex plane Moreover, going from t = 0 {\displaystyle t=0} to t = t 0 {\displaystyle t=t_{0}} , the curve defined by γ ( t ) = exp ⁡ ( i t ) {\displaystyle \gamma (t)=\exp(it)} traces a segment of the unit circle of length starting from z = 1 in the complex plane and going counterclockwise. Based on these observations and the fact that the measure of an angle in radians is the arc length on the unit circle subtended by the angle, it is easy to see that, restricted to real arguments, the sine and cosine functions as defined above coincide with the sine and cosine functions as introduced in elementary mathematics via geometric notions. The complex exponential function is periodic with period 2πi and exp ⁡ ( z + 2 π i k ) = exp ⁡ z {\displaystyle \exp(z+2\pi ik)=\exp z} holds for all z ∈ C , k ∈ Z {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} ,k\in \mathbb {Z} } .
Structured Design Approach Structured_Analysis > Structured analysis topics > Approach De Marco's approach consists of the following objects (see figure): Context diagram Data flow diagram Process specifications Data dictionaryHereby the data flow diagrams (DFDs) are directed graphs. The arcs represent data, and the nodes (circles or bubbles) represent processes that transform the data. A process can be further decomposed to a more detailed DFD which shows the subprocesses and data flows within it.
Looping (education) Summary Looping_(education) Looping in education is the practice of moving groups of children up from one grade to the next with the same teacher. This system, which is also called multiyear grouping, lasts from two to five years and, as the class moves on, the teacher loops back to pick another group of children. This practice is particularly prevalent in Europe and Asia.
Posterior cingulate cortex Alzheimer's disease Posterior_cingulate > Disorders > Alzheimer's disease In Alzheimer's disease, metabolic abnormality is linked to amyloid deposition and brain atrophy with a spatial distribution that resembles the nodes of the default mode network. In early Alzheimer's, functional connectivity within the DMN is reduced, affecting the connection between the PCC and the hippocampus, and these altered patterns can reflect ApoE genetic status (a risk factor associated with the disease). It has been found that neurodegenerative diseases spread 'prion-like' through the brain.
Universal usability Electronic curb-cuts Universal_usability > Electronic curb-cuts The analogy "curb-cut" has been used by advocates of universal usability to explain how ICT products designed for disabled users can be beneficial to all users. Sidewalk curb-cuts are added to accommodate wheelchair users, but the benefits extend to baby carriage pushers, delivery service workers, bicyclists, and travelers with roller bags. In the context of ICT design and development, universal usability is often tied to meeting the needs of people with disabilities. The adaptability needed for users with physical, visual, auditory, or cognitive disabilities is likely to benefit users with differing preferences, tasks, hardware, etc. Hence, electronic curb-cuts – system functions that are designed for people with disabilities – may be usable by everyone in various usage situations. It might be expensive to transform an existing system to meet universal usability standards, but the extra cost of integrating electronic curb-cuts into a new system can be minimalized.
Analog signals Noise Analog_communication > Noise In contrast, although converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems, once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, or processed without introducing significant additional noise or distortion. Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems, degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well.
C3 photosynthesis Summary C3_plant C3 carbon fixation is the most common of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, the other two being C4 and CAM. This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction: CO2 + H2O + RuBP → (2) 3-phosphoglycerateThis reaction was first discovered by Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson and James Bassham in 1950. C3 carbon fixation occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle. (In C4 and CAM plants, carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air.)
Continuous linear functional Characterizing continuous linear functionals Continuous_functional > Continuous linear functionals > Characterizing continuous linear functionals For some real r , {\displaystyle r,} the half-space { x ∈ X: f ( x ) ≤ r } {\displaystyle \{x\in X:f(x)\leq r\}} is closed. For any real r , {\displaystyle r,} the half-space { x ∈ X: f ( x ) ≤ r } {\displaystyle \{x\in X:f(x)\leq r\}} is closed. If X {\displaystyle X} is complex then either all three of f , {\displaystyle f,} Re ⁡ f , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} f,} and Im ⁡ f {\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} f} are continuous (respectively, bounded), or else all three are discontinuous (respectively, unbounded).
Genus of a curve Biology Genus_of_a_curve > Biology Genus can be also calculated for the graph spanned by the net of chemical interactions in nucleic acids or proteins. In particular, one may study the growth of the genus along the chain. Such a function (called the genus trace) shows the topological complexity and domain structure of biomolecules.
Acid ionization constant Polyprotic acids Acid_dissociation_constant > Polyprotic acids The species distribution diagram shows that the concentrations of the two ions are maximum at pH 5.5 and 10. When the difference between successive pK values is less than about four there is overlap between the pH range of existence of the species in equilibrium. The smaller the difference, the more the overlap.
Infrared and thermal testing Pipeline testing Infrared_and_thermal_testing > Sample applications > Pipeline testing Of the three methods of energy transfer, radiation is the method that has the most profound effect upon the ability of the surface to transfer energy. The ability of a material to radiate energy is measured by the emissivity of the material. This is defined as the ability of the material to release energy as compared to a perfect blackbody radiator.
İbrahim Kavrakoğlu Work İbrahim_Kavrakoğlu > Work Dr. Kavrakoglu's research has covered mechanical engineering (thermodynamics, acoustics and fluid mechanics); operations research (mathematical modeling, decision support systems); economics (macroeconomic simulation, econometrics) and business (strategy and finance.)
Systemic autoimmune diseases Treatment Autoimmune_conditions > Treatment Treatment depends on the type and severity of the condition. The majority of the autoimmune diseases are chronic and there is no definitive cure, but symptoms can be alleviated and controlled with treatment. Standard treatment methods include: Vitamin or hormone supplements for what the body is lacking due to the disease (insulin, vitamin B12, thyroid hormone, etc.) Blood transfusions if the disease is blood related Physical therapy if the disease impacts bones, joints, or musclesTraditional treatment options include immunosuppressant drugs to reduce the immune response against the body's own tissues, such as: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce inflammation Glucocorticoids to reduce inflammation Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) to decrease the damaging tissue and organ effects of the inflammatory autoimmune responseBecause immunosuppressants weaken the overall immune response, relief of symptoms must be balanced with preserving the patient's ability to combat infections, which could potentially be life-threatening.Non-traditional treatments are being researched, developed, and used, especially when traditional treatments fail. These methods aim to either block the activation of pathogenic cells in the body, or alter the pathway that suppresses these cells naturally. These treatments aim to be less toxic to the patient and have more specific targets. Such options include: Monoclonal antibodies that can be used to block pro-inflammatory cytokines Antigen-specific immunotherapy which allows immune cells to specifically target the abnormal cells that cause autoimmune disease Co-stimulatory blockade that works to block the pathway that leads to the autoimmune response Regulatory T cell therapy that utilizes this special type of T cell to suppress the autoimmune response Thymoquinone, a compound found the flower Nigella sativa, has been studied for potential in treating several autoimmune diseases due to its effects on inflammation.
Glossary of calculus D Glossary_of_calculus > D However, not all functions are continuous. If a function is not continuous at a point in its domain, one says that it has a discontinuity there. The set of all points of discontinuity of a function may be a discrete set, a dense set, or even the entire domain of the function.
Probability logic Logical background Probability_logic > Logical background There are numerous proposals for probabilistic logics. Very roughly, they can be categorized into two different classes: those logics that attempt to make a probabilistic extension to logical entailment, such as Markov logic networks, and those that attempt to address the problems of uncertainty and lack of evidence (evidentiary logics). That the concept of probability can have different meanings may be understood by noting that, despite the mathematization of probability in the Enlightenment, mathematical probability theory remains, to this very day, entirely unused in criminal courtrooms, when evaluating the "probability" of the guilt of a suspected criminal.More precisely, in evidentiary logic, there is a need to distinguish the objective truth of a statement from our decision about the truth of that statement, which in turn must be distinguished from our confidence in its truth: thus, a suspect's real guilt is not necessarily the same as the judge's decision on guilt, which in turn is not the same as assigning a numerical probability to the commission of the crime, and deciding whether it is above a numerical threshold of guilt. The verdict on a single suspect may be guilty or not guilty with some uncertainty, just as the flipping of a coin may be predicted as heads or tails with some uncertainty.
Immunoglobulin M Regulation of the immune response Immunoglobulin_M > Function > Regulation of the immune response Specific immunoglobulins that are injected into animals together with their antigen can influence the antibody response to this same antigen. Endogenous antibodies produced after a primary immunization can also affect the antibody response to a booster immunization, suggesting that similar effects occur during physiological conditions. The ”regulatory” effects can be either positive or negative. That is, depending on the type of antigen and the isotype of the antibody, the effect can be suppression or enhancement of the antibody response.
Schwartz kernel theorem Integral kernels Schwartz_kernel_theorem > Integral kernels The traditional kernel functions K ( x , y ) {\displaystyle K(x,y)} of two variables of the theory of integral operators having been expanded in scope to include their generalized function analogues, which are allowed to be more singular in a serious way, a large class of operators from D {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}} to its dual space D ′ {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}'} of distributions can be constructed. The point of the theorem is to assert that the extended class of operators can be characterised abstractly, as containing all operators subject to a minimum continuity condition. A bilinear form on D {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}} arises by pairing the image distribution with a test function. A simple example is that the natural embedding of the test function space D {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}} into D ′ {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}'} - sending every test function f {\displaystyle f} into the corresponding distribution {\displaystyle } - corresponds to the delta distribution δ ( x − y ) {\displaystyle \delta (x-y)} concentrated at the diagonal of the underlined Euclidean space, in terms of the Dirac delta function δ {\displaystyle \delta } .
Digital signatures Using digital signatures only with trusted applications Digital_signatures > Additional security precautions > Using digital signatures only with trusted applications One of the main differences between a digital signature and a written signature is that the user does not "see" what they sign. The user application presents a hash code to be signed by the digital signing algorithm using the private key. An attacker who gains control of the user's PC can possibly replace the user application with a foreign substitute, in effect replacing the user's own communications with those of the attacker. This could allow a malicious application to trick a user into signing any document by displaying the user's original on-screen, but presenting the attacker's own documents to the signing application.
Scientific theory From philosophers of science Scientific_theories > Descriptions > From philosophers of science Karl Popper described the characteristics of a scientific theory as follows: It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory. Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things to happen. The more a theory forbids, the better it is.
UV radiation Solar ultraviolet UV_protection > Solar ultraviolet Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars (such as O- and B-type) emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m2 in vacuum.The atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, when the Sun is highest in the sky (at zenith), with absorption increasing at shorter UV wavelengths.
Sagan effect Truth Sagan_effect > Science > Truth Recently a prominent scientist claimed the scientific method was to avoid fooling oneself into thinking something is true that is not, and vice versa. "In fact, writes Oreskes, the methods of science have varied between disciplines and across time. "Many scientific practices, particularly statistical tests of significance, have been developed with the idea of avoiding wishful thinking and self-deception, but that hardly constitutes 'the scientific method.
Latent tuberculosis Interpretation Latent_tuberculosis > Diagnosis > Tuberculin skin testing > Interpretation Having regular TSTs boosts the immunological response in those people who have previously had BCG, so these people will falsely appear to be tuberculin conversions. This may lead to treating more people than necessary, with the possible risk of those patients developing adverse drug reactions.
Cancer therapy Systemic symptoms Cancer_medication > Signs and symptoms > Systemic symptoms Systemic symptoms may occur due to the body's response to the cancer. This may include fatigue, unintentional weight loss, or skin changes. Some cancers can cause a systemic inflammatory state that leads to ongoing muscle loss and weakness, known as cachexia.Some cancers, such as Hodgkin's disease, leukemias, and liver or kidney cancers, can cause a persistent fever.Some systemic symptoms of cancer are caused by hormones or other molecules produced by the tumor, known as paraneoplastic syndromes. Common paraneoplastic syndromes include hypercalcemia, which can cause altered mental state, constipation and dehydration, or hyponatremia, which can also cause altered mental status, vomiting, headaches, or seizures.
Interactive visual analysis Basics Interactive_visual_analysis > Basics The objective of Interactive Visual Analysis is to discover information in data which is not readily apparent. The goal is to move from the data itself to the information contained in the data, ultimately uncovering knowledge which was not apparent from looking at the raw numbers. The most basic form of IVA is to use coordinated multiple views displaying different columns of our dataset.
Nonmanual feature Lexical Nonmanual_feature > Types > Lexical Without these features the sign would be interpreted as LATE. Mouthings can also be contrastive, as in the manually identical signs for DOCTOR and BATTERY in Sign Language of the Netherlands.In some languages, there are a small amount of words that are formed entirely by nonmanual features. For example, in Polish Sign Language, a sign is used to express that the user wishes to self-correct or rephrase an utterance, perhaps best translated as I MEAN.
Polyvinylidene difluoride Applications C2H2F > Applications PVDF is a thermoplastic that expresses versatility for applications similar to other thermoplastics, particularly fluoropolymers. PVDF resin is heated and handled for use in extrusion and injection molding to produce PVDF pipes, sheets, coatings, films, and molded PVDF products, such as bulk containers. Common industry applications for PVDF thermoplastics include: chemical processing, electricity, batteries and electronic components, construction and architecture, healthcare and pharmaceutics, biomedical research, ultra-pure applications, nuclear waste handling, petrochemical, oil and gas, food, beverage processing, water, wastewater management.
Radioisotopic Thermoelectric Generator Summary Radioisotope_Thermoelectric_Generator A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG, RITEG), sometimes referred to as a radioisotope power system (RPS), is a type of nuclear battery that uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the decay of a suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. This type of generator has no moving parts. Because they don't need solar energy, RTGs are ideal for remote and harsh environments for extended periods of time, and because they have no moving parts, there is no risk of parts wearing out or malfunctioning.
Richardson extrapolation Example of Richardson extrapolation Richardson_extrapolation > Example of Richardson extrapolation Suppose that we wish to approximate A ∗ {\displaystyle A^{*}} , and we have a method A ( h ) {\displaystyle A(h)} that depends on a small parameter h {\displaystyle h} in such a way that Let us define a new functionwhere h {\displaystyle h} and h t {\displaystyle {\frac {h}{t}}} are two distinct step sizes. Then R ( h , t ) {\displaystyle R(h,t)} is called the Richardson extrapolation of A(h), and has a higher-order error estimate O ( h n + 1 ) {\displaystyle O(h^{n+1})} compared to A ( h ) {\displaystyle A(h)} . Very often, it is much easier to obtain a given precision by using R(h) rather than A(h′) with a much smaller h′. Where A(h′) can cause problems due to limited precision (rounding errors) and/or due to the increasing number of calculations needed (see examples below).
Tachyonic antitelephone Paradoxes Tachyonic_antitelephone > Paradoxes Benford et al. wrote about such paradoxes in general, offering a scenario in which two parties are able to send a message two hours into the past: The paradoxes of backward-in-time communication are well known. Suppose A and B enter into the following agreement: A will send a message at three o'clock if and only if he does not receive one at one o'clock. B sends a message to reach A at one o'clock immediately on receiving one from A at three o'clock.
Combination meal Summary Combination_meal A combination meal, often referred as a combo-meal, is a type of meal that typically includes food items and a beverage. They are a common menu item at fast food restaurants, and other restaurants also purvey them. Combination meals may be priced lower compared to ordering items separately, but this is not always the case. A combination meal is also a meal in which the consumer orders items à la carte to create their own meal combination. The casada is a common type of lunch combination meal in Costa Rica and Panama.
Masking (Electronic Health Record) Data Perturbation Masking_(Electronic_Health_Record) > EHR Data Masking Techniques > Data Perturbation In data perturbation alterations are made to either input databases or the query results returned. Data perturbation involves preserving aggregate trends in the original data while removing and modifying the actual data. For example, clinical data can be swapped between EHR's, preserving the existing values in a field but eliminating the specific mapping between fields of a record. Random “noise” can also be added the data, maintaining the statistical properties of a field while randomly altering exact values within a particular EHR. Data perturbation has been hailed as one of the most effective data protection techniques, whilst being relatively simple to implement.
Glossary of engineering: M–Z P Glossary_of_engineering:_M–Z > P In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i.e., a small positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak.
Vector theory Definition and basic properties Complex_vector_space > Definition and basic properties In this article, vectors are represented in boldface to distinguish them from scalars.A vector space over a field F is a non-empty set V together with two binary operations that satisfy the eight axioms listed below. In this context, the elements of V are commonly called vectors, and the elements of F are called scalars. The first operation, called vector addition or simply addition assigns to any two vectors v and w in V a third vector in V which is commonly written as v + w, and called the sum of these two vectors. The second operation, called scalar multiplication，assigns to any scalar a in F and any vector v in V another vector in V, which is denoted av.To have a vector space, the eight following axioms must be satisfied for every u, v and w in V, and a and b in F. When the scalar field is the real numbers the vector space is called a real vector space.
Analog automata Variant definitions of automata Theory_of_automata > Variant definitions of automata Rather, acceptance of the word is decided by looking at the infinite sequence of visited states during the run. Probabilistic acceptance: An automaton need not strictly accept or reject an input. It may accept the input with some probability between zero and one.
Complex number field Signal analysis Complex_field > Applications > In applied mathematics > Signal analysis Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals. For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities. For a sine wave of a given frequency, the absolute value \|z\| of the corresponding z is the amplitude and the argument arg z is the phase. If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as complex-valued functions of the form and where ω represents the angular frequency and the complex number A encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above. This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which use digital versions of Fourier analysis (and wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images, and video signals. Another example, relevant to the two side bands of amplitude modulation of AM radio, is:
Models of communication Summary Models_of_communication They hold that meaning is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and constructionist models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and experience reality. Interpersonal models describe communicative exchanges with other people.
Darcy friction factor formulae Flow regime Darcy_friction_factor_formulae > Flow regime Which friction factor formula may be applicable depends upon the type of flow that exists: Laminar flow Transition between laminar and turbulent flow Fully turbulent flow in smooth conduits Fully turbulent flow in rough conduits Free surface flow.
Algorithmic Geometry Summary Algorithmic_Geometry Algorithmic Geometry is a textbook on computational geometry. It was originally written in the French language by Jean-Daniel Boissonnat and Mariette Yvinec, and published as Géometrie algorithmique by Edusciences in 1995. It was translated into English by Hervé Brönnimann, with improvements to some proofs and additional exercises, and published by the Cambridge University Press in 1998.
Chain reaction (chemistry) Summary Chain_reaction_(chemistry) A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events. Chain reactions are one way that systems which are not in thermodynamic equilibrium can release energy or increase entropy in order to reach a state of higher entropy. For example, a system may not be able to reach a lower energy state by releasing energy into the environment, because it is hindered or prevented in some way from taking the path that will result in the energy release.
Fermionic fields Dirac fields Fermionic_field > Dirac fields As we know from elementary quantum mechanics two simultaneously commuting observables can be measured simultaneously. We have therefore correctly implemented Lorentz invariance for the Dirac field, and preserved causality. More complicated field theories involving interactions (such as Yukawa theory, or quantum electrodynamics) can be analyzed too, by various perturbative and non-perturbative methods. Dirac fields are an important ingredient of the Standard Model.
Hopf lemma Summary Hopf_lemma In mathematics, the Hopf lemma, named after Eberhard Hopf, states that if a continuous real-valued function in a domain in Euclidean space with sufficiently smooth boundary is harmonic in the interior and the value of the function at a point on the boundary is greater than the values at nearby points inside the domain, then the derivative of the function in the direction of the outward pointing normal is strictly positive. The lemma is an important tool in the proof of the maximum principle and in the theory of partial differential equations. The Hopf lemma has been generalized to describe the behavior of the solution to an elliptic problem as it approaches a point on the boundary where its maximum is attained.
Off-target genome editing Gene therapy Off-target_effects_of_genome_editing > Significance > Gene therapy In order for gene editing technologies to make the leap towards safe and widespread use in the clinic, the rate of off-target modification needs to be rendered obsolete. The safety of gene therapy treatment is of utmost concern, especially during clinical trials when off-target modifications can block the further development of a candidate product. Perhaps the most well-known example of modern gene therapy is CAR-T therapy, which is used for the treatment of B-cell lymphoma. To limit the rate of off-target cleavage, the therapy uses a highly specific and finely tuned TALEN, which has proven to have little-to-no background off-target interaction.
Magnetic bead Cancer therapy Magnetic_bead > Potential applications > Cancer therapy The most prevalent construct is the "Magnetoliposome", which is a liposome with magnetic nanoparticles typically embedded in the lipid bilayer. Under an alternating magnetic field, the magnetic nanoparticles are heated, and this heat permeabilizes the membrane. This causes release of the loaded drug. This treatment option has a lot of potential as the combination of hyperthermia and drug release is likely to treat tumors better than either option alone, but it is still under development.
Heat radiation Interchange of energy Thermal_Radiation > Interchange of energy Otherwise, body temperature is maintained from generated heat through internal metabolism. Human skin has an emissivity of very close to 1.0.
Unsupervised learning Specific Networks Unsupervised_learning > Neural networks > Specific Networks Sigmoid Belief Net Introduced by Radford Neal in 1992, this network applies ideas from probabilistic graphical models to neural networks. A key difference is that nodes in graphical models have pre-assigned meanings, whereas Belief Net neurons' features are determined after training. The network is a sparsely connected directed acyclic graph composed of binary stochastic neurons.
Gene-environment interplay Exercise Gene-environment_interplay > Environmental factors > Exercise Physical activity increases telomerase activity and induces epigenetic modifications of specific genes. For example, it has been shown to increase methylation of the ASC gene, which generally decreases with age, reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This suppression can help prevent the development of chronic inflammation and associated age-related diseases due to excess inflammatory cytokines. However, these epigenetic modifications depend on the intensity and type of exercise and are reversible with the cessation of physical activity.
Mildly context-sensitive grammar formalism Cross-serial dependencies Mildly_context-sensitive_language > Characterization > Cross-serial dependencies The term cross-serial dependencies refers to certain characteristic word ordering patterns, in particular to the verb–argument patterns observed in subordinate clauses in Dutch and Swiss German. These are the very patterns that can be used to argue against the context-freeness of natural language; thus requiring mildly context-sensitive grammars to model cross-serial dependencies means that these grammars must be more powerful than context-free grammars. Kallmeyer identifies the ability to model cross-serial dependencies with the ability to generate the copy language C O P Y = { w w ∣ w ∈ { a , b } ∗ } {\displaystyle {\mathit {COPY}}=\{\,ww\mid w\in \{a,b\}^{*}\,\}} and its generalizations to two or more copies of w, up to some bound. These languages are not context-free, which can be shown using the pumping lemma.
Attention (machine learning) A language translation example Attention_(machine_learning) > A language translation example To build a machine that translates English to French, an attention unit is grafted to the basic Encoder-Decoder (diagram below). In the simplest case, the attention unit consists of dot products of the recurrent encoder states and does not need training. In practice, the attention unit consists of 3 trained, fully-connected neural network layers called query, key, and value. Viewed as a matrix, the attention weights show how the network adjusts its focus according to context.
Advanced eXtensible Interface Handshake Advanced_eXtensible_Interface > Handshake AXI defines a basic handshake mechanism, composed by an xVALID and xREADY signal. The xVALID signal is driven by the source to inform the destination entity that the payload on the channel is valid and can be read from that clock cycle onwards. Similarly, the xREADY signal is driven by the receiving entity to notify that it is prepared to receive data. When both the xVALID and xREADY signals are high in the same clock cycle, the data payload is considered "transferred" and the source can either provide a new data payload, by keeping high xVALID, or terminate the transmission, by de-asserting xVALID.
Inception score Definition Inception_score > Definition Pseudocode:INPUT discriminator p d i s {\displaystyle p_{dis}} . INPUT generator g {\displaystyle g} . Sample images x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} from generator.
Distribution learning theory Learning Sums of Independent Integer Random Variables Distribution_learning_theory > Learning sums of random variables > Learning Sums of Independent Integer Random Variables The sample complexity of this algorithm is poly ( k / ϵ ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\text{poly}}(k/\epsilon )} and the running time is also poly ( k / ϵ ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\text{poly}}(k/\epsilon )} . Another part is that the sample and the time complexity does not depend on n {\displaystyle \textstyle n} . Its possible to conclude this independence for the previous section if we set k = 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle k=2} .
Fresnel lens Summary Second_order_Fresnel_lens A Fresnel lens ( FRAY-nel, -⁠nəl; FREN-el, -⁠əl; or fray-NEL) is a type of composite compact lens which reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) form of the lens was first proposed by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and independently reinvented by the French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) for use in lighthouses. The catadioptric form of the lens, entirely invented by Fresnel, has outer prismatic elements that use total internal reflection as well as refraction to capture more oblique light from the light source and add it to the beam, making it more visible at greater distances.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.