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Advanced National Seismic System Products and services Advanced_National_Seismic_System > Products and services The ANSS provides a range of products and services: Immediate notification of earthquakes to government and emergency managers. Earthquake Notification Service (ENS): customized notifications via e-mail and text messages. ShakeMap: a map of the anticipated severity and extent of ground shaking, based on the measured strength of ground shaking and known characteristics of the affected locality. ShakeCast: automated delivery of ShakeMaps customized for critical infrastructure, providing an estimate of shaking experienced.
Automatic and controlled processes Controlled processes Automatic_and_controlled_processes > Characteristics > Controlled processes One definition of a controlled process is an intentionally-initiated sequence of cognitive activities. In other words, when attention is required for a task, we are consciously aware and in control. Controlled processes require us to think about situations, evaluate and make decisions. An example would be reading this article.
Training Simulation Development Training_Simulation > Development The concept of training employees to have a wider perspective on their position within the workplace has been around for hundreds of years, but it is only relatively recently that the idea of creating a simulated environment for trainees to test their abilities and skills has been developed. The first commercially available training simulation was in 1956, and was called The Top Management Decision Game, and was created by the American Management Association. Since then, the market has expanded hugely, with thousands of simulations available based upon hundreds of different industries. Initially simple with just a few choices to make, some simulations have become extremely complex with many different interlinking decisions.
Coot (software) Validation tools Coot_(software) > Features > Validation tools In macromolecular crystallography, the observed data is often weak and the observation-to-parameter ratio near 1. As a result, it is possible to build an incorrect atomic model into the electron density in some cases. To avoid this, careful validation is required. Coot provides a range of validation tools, listed below.
Cell reproduction Sexual reproduction Cell_reproduction > Cell division > Sexual reproduction Though cell reproduction that uses mitosis can reproduce eukaryotic cells, eukaryotes bother with the more complicated process of meiosis because sexual reproduction such as meiosis confers a selective advantage. Notice that when meiosis starts, the two copies of sister chromatids number 2 are adjacent to each other. During this time, there can be genetic recombination events. Information from the chromosome 2 DNA gained from one parent (red) will transfer over to the chromosome 2 DNA molecule that was received from the other parent (green).
List comprehensions C++ List_comprehensions > Similar constructs > C++ Usage example: This implementation provides head/tail slicing using classes and operator overloading, and the \| operator for filtering lists (using functions). Usage example: Language for Embedded Query and Traversal (LEESA) is an embedded DSL in C++ that implements X-Path-like queries using operator overloading. The queries are executed on richly typed xml trees obtained using xml-to-c++ binding from an XSD.
Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime Electric current Maxwell's_equations_in_curved_spacetime > Electric current If magnetization–polarization is used, then this just gives the free portion of the current J free μ = ∂ ν D μ ν . {\displaystyle J_{\text{free}}^{\mu }=\partial _{\nu }{\mathcal {D}}^{\mu \nu }.} This incorporates Ampere's law and Gauss's law.
Inertial Force Summary Fictitious_forces It defines an inertial force as the negative of the product of mass times acceleration, just for the sake of easier calculations. (A d'Alembert force is not to be confused with a contact force arising from the physical interaction between two objects, which is the subject of Newton's third law – 'action is reaction'.
Newton's theorem of revolving orbits Closed orbits and inverse-cube central forces Newton's_theorem_of_revolving_orbits > Closed orbits and inverse-cube central forces Two types of central forces—those that increase linearly with distance, F = Cr, such as Hooke's law, and inverse-square forces, F = C/r2, such as Newton's law of universal gravitation and Coulomb's law—have a very unusual property. A particle moving under either type of force always returns to its starting place with its initial velocity, provided that it lacks sufficient energy to move out to infinity. In other words, the path of a bound particle is always closed and its motion repeats indefinitely, no matter what its initial position or velocity. As shown by Bertrand's theorem, this property is not true for other types of forces; in general, a particle will not return to its starting point with the same velocity.
Structured prediction Structured perceptron Structured_prediction > Techniques > Structured perceptron One of the easiest ways to understand algorithms for general structured prediction is the structured perceptron of Collins. This algorithm combines the perceptron algorithm for learning linear classifiers with an inference algorithm (classically the Viterbi algorithm when used on sequence data) and can be described abstractly as follows. First define a "joint feature function" Φ(x, y) that maps a training sample x and a candidate prediction y to a vector of length n (x and y may have any structure; n is problem-dependent, but must be fixed for each model). Let GEN be a function that generates candidate predictions. Then: Let w {\displaystyle w} be a weight vector of length nFor a pre-determined number of iterations:For each sample x {\displaystyle x} in the training set with true output t {\displaystyle t} :Make a prediction y ^ = a r g m a x { y ∈ G E N ( x ) } ( w T ϕ ( x , y ) ) {\displaystyle {\hat {y}}={\operatorname {arg\,max} }\,\{{y}\in {GEN}({x})\}\,({w}^{T}\,\phi ({x},{y}))} Update w {\displaystyle w} , from y ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {y}}} to t {\displaystyle t}: w = w + c ( − ϕ ( x , y ^ ) + ϕ ( x , t ) ) {\displaystyle {w}={w}+{c}(-\phi ({x},{\hat {y}})+\phi ({x},{t}))} , c {\displaystyle c} is learning rateIn practice, finding the argmax over G E N ( x ) {\displaystyle {GEN}({x})} will be done using an algorithm such as Viterbi or an algorithm such as max-sum, rather than an exhaustive search through an exponentially large set of candidates. The idea of learning is similar to multiclass perceptron.
Nuclear grade Summary Grading_(tumors) Pathology grading systems classify the microscopic cell appearance abnormality and deviations in their rate of growth with the goal of predicting developments at tissue level (see also the 4 major histological changes in dysplasia). Cancer is a disorder of cell life cycle alteration that leads (non-trivially) to excessive cell proliferation rates, typically longer cell lifespans and poor differentiation. The grade score (numerical: G1 up to G4) increases with the lack of cellular differentiation - it reflects how much the tumor cells differ from the cells of the normal tissue they have originated from (see 'Categories' below).
Microswimmer Natural microswimmers Microswimmer > Natural microswimmers The mechanism these protein motors use to convert chemical energy into movement depends on ATP hydrolysis, which leads to a conformation modification in the globular motor domain, leading to directed motion.Bacteria can be roughly divided into two fundamentally different groups, gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, distinguished by the architecture of their cell envelope. In each case the cell envelope is a complex multi-layered structure that protects the cell from its environment. In gram-positive bacteria, the cytoplasmic membrane is only surrounded by a thick cell wall of peptidoglycan.
Heat radiator Overview Thermal_emission > Overview Whenever EM radiation is emitted and then absorbed, heat is transferred. This principle is used in microwave ovens, laser cutting, and RF hair removal. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated in a tiny spot by using reflecting mirrors, which concentrating solar power takes advantage of.
Countercurrent flow Countercurrent multiplication loop Counter-current_flow > Countercurrent exchange in biological systems > Countercurrent multiplication loop A countercurrent multiplication loop is a system where fluid flows in a loop so that the entrance and exit are at similar low concentration of a dissolved substance but at the far end of the loop there is a high concentration of that substance. A buffer liquid between the incoming and outgoing tubes receives the concentrated substance. The incoming and outgoing tubes do not touch each other. The system allows the buildup of a high concentration gradually, by allowing a natural buildup of concentration towards the tip inside the in-going tube, (for example using osmosis of water out of the input pipe and into the buffer fluid), and the use of many active transport pumps each pumping only against a very small gradient, during the exit from the loop, returning the concentration inside the output pipe to its original concentration.
Brushless motors Radio-controlled cars Brushless_electric_motor > Applications > Radio-controlled cars Their popularity has also risen in the radio-controlled (RC) car area. Brushless motors have been legal in North American RC car racing in accordance with Radio Operated Auto Racing (ROAR) since 2006. These motors provide a great amount of power to RC racers and, if paired with appropriate gearing and high-discharge lithium polymer (Li-Po) or lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries, these cars can achieve speeds over 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph).Brushless motors are capable of producing more torque and have a faster peak rotational speed compared to nitro- or gasoline-powered engines. Nitro engines peak at around 46,800 r/min and 2.2 kilowatts (3.0 hp), while a smaller brushless motor can reach 50,000 r/min and 3.7 kilowatts (5.0 hp). Larger brushless RC motors can reach upwards of 10 kilowatts (13 hp) and 28,000 r/min to power one-fifth-scale models.
The Domino Principle Development The_Domino_Principle > Production > Development Kramer said the novel "is not only an exciting adventure but also stresses that such things could happen here. "In March 1976 Kramer announced he had signed a two picture deal with Lew Grade to make the film, the first of which was to be The Domino Principle with Gene Hackman and Candice Bergen, and the second of which was to be The Sheikhs of Araby, a comedy with Sid Caesar and Don Rickles. (That film would ultimately never be made.) Kramer said he never identified who hired the assassin or their target because "that is not the point of the picture. The point I tried to make is that there are powerful, undetected forces that affect our destiny without even us suspecting they exist."
Kagi chart Summary Kagi_chart The Kagi chart (Japanese: かぎ足, romanized: kagiashi) is a chart used for tracking price movements and to make decisions on purchasing stock. It differs from traditional stock charts such as the Candlestick chart by being mostly independent of time. This feature aids in producing a chart that reduces random noise.
Climate change feedback Rainforest drying Climate_change_feedback > Positive feedbacks > Carbon cycle positive feedbacks > Rainforest drying Rainforests, most notably tropical rainforests, are particularly vulnerable to global warming. There are a number of effects which may occur, but two are particularly concerning. Firstly, the drier vegetation may cause total collapse of the rainforest ecosystem. For example, the Amazon rainforest would tend to be replaced by caatinga ecosystems. Further, even tropical rainforests ecosystems which do not collapse entirely may lose significant proportions of their stored carbon as a result of drying, due to changes in vegetation.
Dog trainer Operant conditioning Dog_trainer > How dogs learn > Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a form of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences. Two complementary motivations drive instrumental learning: the maximization of positive outcomes and minimization of aversive ones. There are two ways in which behavior is reinforced or strengthened: positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is strengthened by producing some desirable consequence; negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is strengthened by avoiding some undesirable consequence. There are two ways in which behavior is decreased or weakened: negative punishment occurs when a behavior is weakened by not producing a reinforcing consequence; and positive punishment occurs when a behavior is weakened by producing a consequence that is a disincentive.
SHA-1 Cryptanalysis and validation SHA-1 > Cryptanalysis and validation In the case of document signing, an attacker could not simply fake a signature from an existing document: The attacker would have to produce a pair of documents, one innocuous and one damaging, and get the private key holder to sign the innocuous document. There are practical circumstances in which this is possible; until the end of 2008, it was possible to create forged SSL certificates using an MD5 collision.Due to the block and iterative structure of the algorithms and the absence of additional final steps, all SHA functions (except SHA-3) are vulnerable to length-extension and partial-message collision attacks. These attacks allow an attacker to forge a message signed only by a keyed hash – SHA(message \|\| key) or SHA(key \|\| message) – by extending the message and recalculating the hash without knowing the key. A simple improvement to prevent these attacks is to hash twice: SHAd(message) = SHA(SHA(0b \|\| message)) (the length of 0b, zero block, is equal to the block size of the hash function).
Linear Regression Summary Regression_intercept In statistics, linear regression is a linear approach for modelling the relationship between a scalar response and one or more explanatory variables (also known as dependent and independent variables). The case of one explanatory variable is called simple linear regression; for more than one, the process is called multiple linear regression. This term is distinct from multivariate linear regression, where multiple correlated dependent variables are predicted, rather than a single scalar variable.In linear regression, the relationships are modeled using linear predictor functions whose unknown model parameters are estimated from the data. Such models are called linear models.
Water substance Acid-base reactions Water_substance > Reactions > Acid-base reactions Water is amphoteric: it has the ability to act as either an acid or a base in chemical reactions. According to the Brønsted-Lowry definition, an acid is a proton (H+) donor and a base is a proton acceptor. When reacting with a stronger acid, water acts as a base; when reacting with a stronger base, it acts as an acid. For instance, water receives an H+ ion from HCl when hydrochloric acid is formed: HCl(acid) + H2O(base) ⇌ H3O+ + Cl−In the reaction with ammonia, NH3, water donates a H+ ion, and is thus acting as an acid: NH3(base) + H2O(acid) ⇌ NH+4 + OH−Because the oxygen atom in water has two lone pairs, water often acts as a Lewis base, or electron-pair donor, in reactions with Lewis acids, although it can also react with Lewis bases, forming hydrogen bonds between the electron pair donors and the hydrogen atoms of water. HSAB theory describes water as both a weak hard acid and a weak hard base, meaning that it reacts preferentially with other hard species: H+(Lewis acid) + H2O(Lewis base) → H3O+Fe3+(Lewis acid) + H2O(Lewis base) → Fe(H2O)3+6Cl−(Lewis base) + H2O(Lewis acid) → Cl(H2O)−6When a salt of a weak acid or of a weak base is dissolved in water, water can partially hydrolyze the salt, producing the corresponding base or acid, which gives aqueous solutions of soap and baking soda their basic pH: Na2CO3 + H2O ⇌ NaOH + NaHCO3
Newtonian series Higher-order differences Finite_difference_equation > Higher-order differences The integral representation for these types of series is interesting, because the integral can often be evaluated using asymptotic expansion or saddle-point techniques; by contrast, the forward difference series can be extremely hard to evaluate numerically, because the binomial coefficients grow rapidly for large n. The relationship of these higher-order differences with the respective derivatives is straightforward, d n f d x n ( x ) = Δ h n ( x ) h n + O ( h ) = ∇ h n ( x ) h n + O ( h ) = δ h n ( x ) h n + O ( h 2 ) . {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{n}f}{dx^{n}}}(x)={\frac {\Delta _{h}^{n}(x)}{h^{n}}}+O(h)={\frac {\nabla _{h}^{n}(x)}{h^{n}}}+O(h)={\frac {\delta _{h}^{n}(x)}{h^{n}}}+O\left(h^{2}\right).} Higher-order differences can also be used to construct better approximations.
Correlation (projective geometry) In higher dimensions Correlation_(projective_geometry) > In higher dimensions In general n-dimensional projective space, a correlation takes a point to a hyperplane. This context was described by Paul Yale: A correlation of the projective space P(V) is an inclusion-reversing permutation of the proper subspaces of P(V).He proves a theorem stating that a correlation φ interchanges joins and intersections, and for any projective subspace W of P(V), the dimension of the image of W under φ is (n − 1) − dim W, where n is the dimension of the vector space V used to produce the projective space P(V).
Orbital hybridisation Resonance Sp2_bond > Hybridisation of hypervalent molecules > Resonance In light of computational chemistry, a better treatment would be to invoke sigma bond resonance in addition to hybridisation, which implies that each resonance structure has its own hybridisation scheme. All resonance structures must obey the octet rule.
Bernoulli (crater) Summary Bernoulli_(crater) There is a sunken depression along part of the southern wall, forming an outward triangular bulge in the rim. The rim is highest along the eastern side, climbing to 4 km. At the midpoint of the crater floor is a central peak formation.
Synthetic gene Site-specific recombination Synthetic_gene > DNA assembly > Site-specific recombination A destination clone is produced, with the fragment of interest successfully inserted. The lethal gene is inserted into the original vector, and bacteria transformed with this plasmid will die.
Coeliac disease Summary Celiac_sprue Upon exposure to gluten, an abnormal immune response may lead to the production of several different autoantibodies that can affect a number of different organs. In the small bowel, this causes an inflammatory reaction and may produce shortening of the villi lining the small intestine (villous atrophy). This affects the absorption of nutrients, frequently leading to anaemia.Diagnosis is typically made by a combination of blood antibody tests and intestinal biopsies, helped by specific genetic testing.
Relationship between string theory and quantum field theory From quantum field theory to string theory Relationship_between_string_theory_and_quantum_field_theory > From quantum field theory to string theory If we look at the worldsheet, the photon will look like a long strip which stretches along the time direction with an angle towards the z-direction (because it is moving along the z-direction as time goes by); its short dimension is therefore in the x-y plane. The short dimension of this strip is precisely the direction of the photon (its polarization) in a certain moment in time. Thus the photon cannot point towards the z or t directions, and its polarization must be transverse.Note: formally, gauge symmetries in string theory are (at least in most cases) a result of the existence of a global symmetry together with the profound gauge symmetry of string theory, which is the symmetry of the worldsheet under a local change of coordinates and scales.Renormalization: in particle physics the behaviour of particles in the smallest scales is largely unknown.
Chemoreceptor trigger zone The vomiting center of the brain Chemoreceptor_trigger_zone > The vomiting center of the brain This integrates the emetic response. This is the area in which "a final decision is made" about whether to evoke an emetic response. This decision is based heavily on the information which the CTZ relays to the rest of the vomiting center, but also the chemoreceptors in the GI tract, the information sent to the vomiting center by the vestibular system, and higher order centers located in the cortex. The vomiting center is not a discrete or specific place in the brain, but rather an area consisting of many nuclei, axons, and receptors that together cause the physical changes necessary to induce vomiting. Also, emesis can occur by direct neural stimulation of the vomiting center.
Environmental Science 20th century Environmental_sciences > History > Beginnings of environmental science > 20th century In response to landfills and toxic waste often disposed of near their homes, the official Environmental Justice Movement was started by a Black community in North Carolina in 1982. Two years later, the toxic methyl isocyanate gas was released to the public from a power plant disaster in Bhopal, India, harming hundreds of thousands of people living near the disaster site, the effects of which are still felt today. In a groundbreaking discovery in 1985, a British team of researchers studying Antarctica found evidence of a hole in the ozone layer, inspiring global agreements banning the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were previously used in nearly all aerosols and refrigerants.
Euler–Bernoulli beam equation Static beam equation Euler–Bernoulli_beam_theory > Static beam equation If the loading intensity q {\displaystyle q} is taken positive in the positive z {\displaystyle z} direction, then d Q = − q d x {\displaystyle dQ=-qdx} is necessary for force equilibrium. Successive derivatives of the deflection w {\displaystyle w} have important physical meanings: d w / d x {\displaystyle dw/dx} is the slope of the beam, which is the anti-clockwise angle of rotation about the y {\displaystyle y} -axis in the limit of small displacements; M = − E I d 2 w d x 2 {\displaystyle M=-EI{\frac {d^{2}w}{dx^{2}}}} is the bending moment in the beam; and Q = − d d x ( E I d 2 w d x 2 ) {\displaystyle Q=-{\frac {d}{dx}}\left(EI{\frac {d^{2}w}{dx^{2}}}\right)} is the shear force in the beam. The stresses in a beam can be calculated from the above expressions after the deflection due to a given load has been determined.
Abnormal Psychology DSM-5 Abnormal_Psychology > Classification > DSM-5 These sections include I, II, and III. Section I includes the introduction, use, and basics of the DSM-5. Section II includes diagnostic criteria and codes. Section III includes emerging measures and models.
Function object In C# Function_object > In C# In C#, function objects are declared via delegates. A delegate can be declared using a named method or a lambda expression. Here is an example using a named method. Here is an example using a lambda expression.
Content marketing Brand health metrics Content_marketing > Common metrics > Brand health metrics Outside the digital world, SOV stands for the space and frequency a brand advertisement is placed on traditional media. Sentiment is when the brand has positive, negative or neutral feedback. Brand Influence refers to the number of times a post, comment or tweet is shared on different platforms.
Introduction to evolution Natural selection Introduction_to_evolution > Natural selection Through his studies, he formulated the idea that each species had developed from ancestors with similar features. In 1838, he described how a process he called natural selection would make this happen.The size of a population depends on how much and how many resources are able to support it.
Database tuning Summary Database_tuning Database tuning describes a group of activities used to optimize and homogenize the performance of a database. It usually overlaps with query tuning, but refers to design of the database files, selection of the database management system (DBMS) application, and configuration of the database's environment (operating system, CPU, etc.). Database tuning aims to maximize use of system resources to perform work as efficiently and rapidly as possible. Most systems are designed to manage their use of system resources, but there is still much room to improve their efficiency by customizing their settings and configuration for the database and the DBMS.
Moisture retention Photoionization Multiphoton_ionization > Photoionization Photons with energies less than the electron binding energy may be absorbed or scattered but will not photoionize the atom or ion.For example, to ionize hydrogen, photons need an energy greater than 13.6 electronvolts (the Rydberg energy), which corresponds to a wavelength of 91.2 nm. For photons with greater energy than this, the energy of the emitted photoelectron is given by: m v 2 2 = h ν − 13.6 e V {\displaystyle {mv^{2} \over 2}=h\nu -13.6eV} where h is the Planck constant and ν is the frequency of the photon. This formula defines the photoelectric effect.
Equicontinuous linear maps Equicontinuity and uniform convergence Equicontinuity > Equicontinuity and uniform convergence For example, if the sequence consists of differentiable functions or functions with some regularity (e.g., the functions are solutions of a differential equation), then the mean value theorem or some other kinds of estimates can be used to show the sequence is equicontinuous. It then follows that the limit of the sequence is continuous on every compact subset of G; thus, continuous on G. A similar argument can be made when the functions are holomorphic. One can use, for instance, Cauchy's estimate to show the equicontinuity (on a compact subset) and conclude that the limit is holomorphic. Note that the equicontinuity is essential here. For example, ƒn(x) = arctan n x converges to a multiple of the discontinuous sign function.
Turing completeness Non-Turing-complete languages Computationally_universal > Non-Turing-complete languages Many computational languages exist that are not Turing-complete. One such example is the set of regular languages, which are generated by regular expressions and which are recognized by finite automata. A more powerful but still not Turing-complete extension of finite automata is the category of pushdown automata and context-free grammars, which are commonly used to generate parse trees in an initial stage of program compiling. Further examples include some of the early versions of the pixel shader languages embedded in Direct3D and OpenGL extensions.In total functional programming languages, such as Charity and Epigram, all functions are total and must terminate.
Classifier constructions in sign languages Brain structures Classifier_constructions_in_sign_languages > Brain structures Namely, they cannot encode external spatial relations and use them while signing.In order to use certain classifier constructions, the signer must be able to visualize the entity and its shape, orientation and location. It has been shown that deaf signers are better at generating spatial mental images than hearing non-signers. The spatial memory span of deaf signers is also superior. This is linked to their use of sign language, rather than being deaf. This suggests that using sign language might change the way the brain organizes non-linguistic information.
Turing machine examples Turing's very first example Turing_machine_examples > Turing's very first example Instruction "b" has three different symbol possibilities {None, 0, 1}. Each possibility is followed by a sequence of actions until we arrive at the rightmost column, where the final m-configuration is "b": As observed by a number of commentators including Turing (1937) himself, (e.g., Post (1936), Post (1947), Kleene (1952), Wang (1954)) the Turing instructions are not atomic — further simplifications of the model can be made without reducing its computational power; see more at Post–Turing machine.
Parity-time symmetry History Non-Hermitian_quantum_mechanics > History In 2007, the physicist Demetrios Christodoulides and his collaborators further studied the implications of PT symmetry in optics. The coming years saw the first experimental demonstrations of PT symmetry in passive and active systems.
Solar water heaters Tank Solar_hot_water_panel > Components > Tank The simplest collector is a water-filled metal tank in a sunny place. The sun heats the tank. This was how the first systems worked. This setup would be inefficient due to the equilibrium effect: as soon as heating of the tank and water begins, the heat gained is lost to the environment and this continues until the water in the tank reaches ambient temperature.
Path Computation Elements PCE extensions Path_Computation_Elements > PCE extensions There are several PCE extensions to achieve different goals. For example: Interdomain PCE discovering extensions
Nuclear power generation Debate Nuclear_power_generation > Debate In general, they find it to be, too dangerous, too expensive, to take too long for deployment, to be an obstacle to achieving a transition towards sustainability and carbon-neutrality, effectively being a distracting competition for resources (i.e. human, financial, time, infrastructure and expertise) for the deployment and development of alternative, sustainable, energy system technologies (such as for wind, ocean and solar – including e.g. floating solar – as well as ways to manage their intermittency other than nuclear baseload generation such as dispatchable generation, renewables-diversification, super grids, flexible energy demand and supply regulating smart grids and energy storage technologies).Nevertheless, there is ongoing research and debate over costs of new nuclear, especially in regions where i.a. seasonal energy storage is difficult to provide and which aim to phase out fossil fuels in favor of low carbon power faster than the global average. Some find that financial transition costs for a 100% renewables-based European energy system that has completely phased out nuclear energy could be more costly by 2050 based on current technologies (i.e. not considering potential advances in e.g. green hydrogen, transmission and flexibility capacities, ways to reduce energy needs, geothermal energy and fusion energy) when the grid only extends across Europe. Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate.
Apache CouchDB Data manipulation: documents and views Apache_CouchDB > Data manipulation: documents and views CouchDB manages a collection of JSON documents. The documents are organised via views. Views are defined with aggregate functions and filters are computed in parallel, much like MapReduce. Views are generally stored in the database and their indexes are updated continuously. CouchDB supports a view system using external socket servers and a JSON-based protocol. As a consequence, view servers have been developed in a variety of languages (JavaScript is the default, but there are also PHP, Ruby, Python and Erlang).
Relative Humidity Global climate Absolute_humidity > Effects > Global climate Humidity affects the energy budget and thereby influences temperatures in two major ways. First, water vapor in the atmosphere contains "latent" energy. During transpiration or evaporation, this latent heat is removed from surface liquid, cooling the earth's surface. This is the biggest non-radiative cooling effect at the surface.
State machine replication Conflict Resolution State_machine_replication > Appendix: Extensions > Leader Election (for Paxos) > Conflict Resolution In general, a leader is necessary only when there is disagreement about which operation to perform, and if those operations conflict in some way (for instance, if they do not commute).When conflicting operations are proposed, the leader acts as the single authority to set the record straight, defining an order for the operations, allowing the system to make progress. With Paxos, multiple replicas may believe they are leaders at the same time. This property makes Leader Election for Paxos very simple, and any algorithm which guarantees an 'eventual leader' will work.
Impossibility proof Incompleteness of axiomatic systems: Gödel's proof Proof_of_impossibility > Incompleteness of axiomatic systems: Gödel's proof In fact, Nagel and Newman required a 67-page introduction to their exposition of the proof. But if the reader feels strong enough to tackle the paper, Martin Davis observes that "This remarkable paper is not only an intellectual landmark but is written with a clarity and vigor that makes it a pleasure to read" (Davis in Undecidable, p. 4).
Computer communications Views of networks Computer_networking > Views of networks Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol.
Quantum laws Overview and fundamental concepts Quantum_mechanical > Overview and fundamental concepts Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy.A fundamental feature of the theory is that it usually cannot predict with certainty what will happen, but only give probabilities. Mathematically, a probability is found by taking the square of the absolute value of a complex number, known as a probability amplitude. This is known as the Born rule, named after physicist Max Born.
Central nucleus of the amygdala Research Central_nucleus_of_the_amygdala > Research "psychological stressor induced an increase in both CRH mRNA levels and CRH content in the CEA. Exposure to the psychological stressor also caused a significant increase in CRH mRNA levels with a trend for an increase in CRH content in the dorsolateral subdivision of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) which is anatomically associated with the CEA." "oxytocin in the CeA exerts a facilitatory role in the maintenance of hydroelectrolyte balance" "the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and its connections with the nigral dopamine system have been reported to modulate cognitive processes dependent substantially on attentional allocation. CeA dopamine function is involved in modulation of disengagement behavior."
"grill" method Top sheet "grill"_method > Grill > Top sheet The reference does not describe what techniques were used. Rejewski did state that the grill method required unsteckered pairs of letters.Permutation A has the exchanges (ap)(bt)(ck).... If we assume the exchange (ap) is unsteckered, that implies Q exchanges (fl). The other five permutations B C D E F can be quickly checked for an unsteckered pair that is consistent with Q interchanging (fl) — essentially checking column F for other rows with l without computing the entire table.
Convolutional layer Dropout Deep_convolutional_neural_network > Regularization methods > Empirical > Dropout However, we can find an approximation by using the full network with each node's output weighted by a factor of p {\displaystyle p} , so the expected value of the output of any node is the same as in the training stages. This is the biggest contribution of the dropout method: although it effectively generates 2 n {\displaystyle 2^{n}} neural nets, and as such allows for model combination, at test time only a single network needs to be tested. By avoiding training all nodes on all training data, dropout decreases overfitting.
Language development Syntactic development Language_development > Aspects > Syntactic development 347). This stage is characterized by production of complex structures as children begin to form phrases consisting of a subject and a complement in addition to use of modifiers and composition of full sentences. Children use mostly content words and their sentences lack function words.
Environmental Microbiology Roles Microbial_Ecology > Roles Microorganisms are the backbone of all ecosystems, but even more so in the zones where photosynthesis is unable to take place because of the absence of light. In such zones, chemosynthetic microbes provide energy and carbon to the other organisms. These chemotrophic organisms can also function in environments lacking oxygen by using other electron acceptors for their respiration. Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste products.
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution Summary Nucleophilic_aromatic_substitution A nucleophilic aromatic substitution is a substitution reaction in organic chemistry in which the nucleophile displaces a good leaving group, such as a halide, on an aromatic ring. Aromatic rings are usually nucleophilic, but some aromatic compounds do undergo nucleophilic substitution. Just as normally nucleophilic alkenes can be made to undergo conjugate substitution if they carry electron-withdrawing substituents, so normally nucleophilic aromatic rings also become electrophilic if they have the right substituents.This reaction differs from a common SN2 reaction, because it happens at a trigonal carbon atom (sp2 hybridization).
Repressor proteins Function Gene_repression > Function This contrasts prokaryotic repressors which can also alter DNA or RNA structure. Within the eukaryotic genome are regions of DNA known as silencers. These are DNA sequences that bind to repressors to partially or fully repress a gene.
Social peer-to-peer processes Summary Social_peer-to-peer_processes Social peer-to-peer processes are interactions with a peer-to-peer dynamic. These peers can be humans or computers. Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a term that originated from the popular concept of the P2P distributed computer application architecture which partitions tasks or workloads between peers.
Operational definition In computing Operational_definition > Application > In computing Some knowledge-based engineering projects experienced similarly that there is a trade-off between trying to teach programming to a domain expert versus getting a programmer to understand the intricacies of a domain. That, of course, depends upon the domain. In short, any team member has to decide which side of the coin to spend one's time.
Osmotic controlled-release oral delivery system Single-layer Osmotic-controlled_release_oral_delivery_system > Oral osmotic release systems > Single-layer Unlike the EOP, the CPOP had no pre-formed hole in the outer shell for the drug to be expelled out of. Instead, the CPOP's semipermeable membrane was designed to form numerous small pores upon contact with water through which the drug would be expelled via osmotic pressure. The pores were formed via the use of a pH insensitive leachable or dissolvable additive such as sorbitol.
Computable function Higher recursion theory Uncomputable_function > Extensions of computability > Higher recursion theory Hyperarithmetical theory studies those sets that can be computed from a computable ordinal number of iterates of the Turing jump of the empty set. This is equivalent to sets defined by both a universal and existential formula in the language of second order arithmetic and to some models of Hypercomputation. Even more general recursion theories have been studied, such as E-recursion theory in which any set can be used as an argument to an E-recursive function.
Phase-out of hydrochlorofluorocarbons Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan Phase-out_of_hydrochlorofluorocarbons > Terms and purposes > Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan The stated purpose of the treaty is that the signatory states Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge Acknowledging that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries shall accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including: There was a faster phase-out of halon-1211, -2402, -1301, There was a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc.) and some chemicals were given individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less damaging HCFCs only began in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved by 2030. There were a few exceptions for "essential uses" where no acceptable substitutes were initially found (for example, in the past metered dose inhalers commonly used to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were exempt) or Halon fire suppression systems used in submarines and aircraft (but not in general industry).
Thymidylate synthetase Using TS as a drug target Thymidylate_synthase > Using TS as a drug target Several cell-cycle dependent kinases and transcription factors influence TS levels in the cell cycle that increase its activity during the S phase but decrease its activity while cells are no longer proliferating. In an auto-regulatory manner, TS not only controls its own translation but that of other proteins such as p53 that through mutation is the root of much tumor growth. Through its translation, TS has a varying expression in cancer cells and tumors, which leads to early cell death.
Lens nucleus Nourishment Lens_(vertebrate_anatomy) > Function > Nourishment As mature lens fibers do not have mitochondria, approximately 80% of the glucose is metabolized via anaerobic metabolism. The remaining fraction of glucose is shunted primarily down the pentose phosphate pathway. The lack of aerobic respiration means that the lens consumes very little oxygen.
RKKY interaction Summary RKKY_interaction (The role of the hyperfine interaction is not important, and can be replaced equally well with the exchange interaction.) The simplest treatment assumes a Bloch wavefunction basis and is therefore only applies to crystalline systems; the resulting correlation energy, computed with perturbation theory, takes the following form: where H represents the Hamiltonian, Rij is the distance between the nuclei i and j, Ii is the nuclear spin of atom i, Δkmkm is a matrix element that represents the strength of the hyperfine interaction, m* is the effective mass of the electrons in the crystal, and km is the Fermi momentum. Tadao Kasuya from Nagoya University later proposed that a similar indirect exchange coupling could occur with localized inner d-electron spins instead of nuclei.
RNA Automation Technology RNA_Automation > Company history > Technology RNA supplies a range of vibratory http://www.rna-uk.com/, centrifugal feeders, linear and conveyor feed systems, and hopper elevator systems in different formats. RNA bowl tops and drive units are designed to work in harmony alongside each other and handle components from all areas of industry, providing the widest possible range of shapes and sizes made of any kind of material that can be catered for. In association with Hoppmann Corporation, RNA offers a full range of tooled centrifugal feeders. The centrifugal feeder systems can be interfaced and supplied as a complete packaging line with further production transportation via downstream conveyor systems to subsequent packaging operations such as capping, labelling, flow wrapping, and cartoning machines.
Principle of comprehension Set-theoretic responses Russel's_paradox > Set-theoretic responses From the principle of explosion of classical logic, any proposition can be proved from a contradiction. Therefore, the presence of contradictions like Russell's paradox in an axiomatic set theory is disastrous; since if any formula can be proven true it destroys the conventional meaning of truth and falsity. Further, since set theory was seen as the basis for an axiomatic development of all other branches of mathematics, Russell's paradox threatened the foundations of mathematics as a whole. This motivated a great deal of research around the turn of the 20th century to develop a consistent (contradiction-free) set theory.
Multidimensional discrete convolution Problem statement and basics Multidimensional_discrete_convolution > Definition > Problem statement and basics . . , n M ) ∗ ⋯ M ∗ h ( n 1 , n 2 , .
Descriptive knowledge Learning Declarative_knowledge > Learning For declarative knowledge to be useful, it is often advantageous if it is embedded in a meaningful structure. For example, learning about new concepts and ideas involves developing an understanding of how they are related to each other and to what is already known.According to Ellen Gagné, learning declarative knowledge happens in four steps. In the first step, the learner comes into contact with the material to be learned and apprehends it.
Markov Process Subshift of finite type Equilibrium_distribution > Special types of Markov chains > Subshift of finite type When the Markov matrix is replaced by the adjacency matrix of a finite graph, the resulting shift is termed a topological Markov chain or a subshift of finite type. A Markov matrix that is compatible with the adjacency matrix can then provide a measure on the subshift. Many chaotic dynamical systems are isomorphic to topological Markov chains; examples include diffeomorphisms of closed manifolds, the Prouhet–Thue–Morse system, the Chacon system, sofic systems, context-free systems and block-coding systems.
Overdispersion Normal distribution Overdispersion > Examples > Normal distribution If one performs a meta-analysis of repeated surveys of a fixed population (say with a given sample size, so margin of error is the same), one expects the results to fall on normal distribution with standard deviation equal to the margin of error. However, in the presence of study heterogeneity where studies have different sampling bias, the distribution is instead a compound distribution and will be overdistributed relative to the predicted distribution. For example, given repeated opinion polls all with a margin of error of 3%, if they are conducted by different polling organizations, one expects the results to have standard deviation greater than 3%, due to pollster bias from different methodologies.
Hydrostatic load Summary Hydrostatic_equation Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body".It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion. Hydrostatics is a subcategory of fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids, both compressible or incompressible, at rest. Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing, transporting and using fluids. It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in understanding plate tectonics and the anomalies of the Earth's gravitational field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure), and many other fields. Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of still water is always level and horizontal whatever the shape of its container.
Natural check Half-life of geometric populations Population_dynamics > Geometric populations > Half-life of geometric populations The half-life of a population is the time taken for the population to decline to half its size. We can calculate the half-life of a geometric population using the equation: Nt = λt N0 by exploiting our knowledge of the fact that the population (N) is half its size (0.5N) after a half-life. where t1/2 is the half-life. The half-life can be calculated by taking logarithms (see above).
De Moivre's formula Failure for non-integer powers, and generalization De_Moivre's_formula > Failure for non-integer powers, and generalization More generally, if z and w are complex numbers, then ( cos ⁡ z + i sin ⁡ z ) w {\displaystyle \left(\cos z+i\sin z\right)^{w}} is multi-valued while cos ⁡ w z + i sin ⁡ w z {\displaystyle \cos wz+i\sin wz} is not. However, it is always the case that cos ⁡ w z + i sin ⁡ w z {\displaystyle \cos wz+i\sin wz} is one of the values of ( cos ⁡ z + i sin ⁡ z ) w . {\displaystyle \left(\cos z+i\sin z\right)^{w}.}
C13H16ClNO Summary C13H16ClNO The molecular formula C13H16ClNO (molar mass: 237.72 g/mol, exact mass: 237.0920 u) may refer to: Ketamine Arketamine, or (R)-(−)-ketamine Esketamine, also known as (S)-ketamine or S(+)-ketamine
Interleukin 19 Neuroprotection Interleukin_19 > Function > Neuroprotection The resident glial cells of the central nervous system participate in the initiation and regulation of neuroinflammation. Glial cells such as microglia and astrocytes secrete proinflammatory cytokines in response to foreign antigens and immunosuppressive cytokines to resolve inflammation at the recovery phase of the immune response. Within the brain, IL-19 is secreted by astrocytes in a delayed fashion. The IL-19 ligand interacts with cells expressing IL-20 receptors such as microglia and initiate a signaling cascade that regulates cytokine secretion. IL-19 signaling acts as secondary neuroprotective pathway that limits the inflammatory response and protect the brain from CNS insults.
Electron Conductivity Electron > Characteristics > Conductivity However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain. Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero, behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles: spinons, orbitons and holons. The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge.
John Lennard-Jones Career John_Lennard-Jones > Career Hall, A. Hurley, and J. Pople. Atoms of a noble gas interact via a potential in which an attracting van der Waals force balances a repelling force which results from overlapping electron orbits. A well known approximation to this potential is the so-called Lennard-Jones potential, a description of the potential energy as a function of the separation of the atoms.
Shear force Force required to shear steel Shear_forces > Force required to shear steel Bolts are correctly torqued to maintain the friction. The shear force only becomes relevant when the bolts are not torqued. A bolt with property class 12.9 has a tensile strength of 1200 MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2) or 1.2 kN/mm2 and the yield strength is 0.90 times tensile strength, 1080 MPa in this case. A bolt with property class 4.6 has a tensile strength of 400 MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2) or 0.4 kN/mm2 and yield strength is 0.60 times tensile strength, 240 MPa in this case.
Furry's theorem Theory Furry's_theorem > Theory Quantum electrodynamics has a number of symmetries, one of them being the discrete symmetry of charge conjugation. This acts on fields through a unitary charge conjugation operator C {\displaystyle C} which anticommutes with the photon field A μ ( x ) {\displaystyle A_{\mu }(x)} as C A μ ( x ) C † = − A μ ( x ) {\displaystyle CA^{\mu }(x)C^{\dagger }=-A^{\mu }(x)} , while leaving the vacuum state invariant C \| Ω ⟩ = \| Ω ⟩ {\displaystyle C\|\Omega \rangle =\|\Omega \rangle } . Considering the simplest case of the correlation function of a single photon operator gives ⟨ Ω \| A μ ( x ) \| Ω ⟩ = ⟨ Ω \| C † C A μ ( x ) C † C \| Ω ⟩ = − ⟨ Ω \| A μ ( x ) \| Ω ⟩ , {\displaystyle \langle \Omega \|A^{\mu }(x)\|\Omega \rangle =\langle \Omega \|C^{\dagger }CA^{\mu }(x)C^{\dagger }C\|\Omega \rangle =-\langle \Omega \|A^{\mu }(x)\|\Omega \rangle ,} so this correlation function must vanish. For n {\displaystyle n} photon operators, this argument shows that under charge conjugation this picks up a factor of ( − 1 ) n {\displaystyle (-1)^{n}} and thus vanishes when n {\displaystyle n} is odd.
MATH domain Summary MATH_domain They promote cell survival by the activation of downstream protein kinases and, ultimately, transcription factors of the NF-κB and AP-1 family. The TRAF proteins are composed of 3 structural domains: a RING finger in the N-terminal part of the protein, one to seven TRAF zinc fingers in the middle and the MATH domain in the C-terminal part. The MATH domain is necessary and sufficient for self-association and receptor interaction.
Renal vein thrombosis Hypercoagulability Renal_vein_thrombosis > Mechanism > Hypercoagulability Hypercoagulability is an abnormality of the blood that increases the risk of the formation blood clots. Nephrotic syndrome patients have a higher risk of RVT development due to hypercoagulability caused by proteinuria. The increased loss of proteins in the urine caused by nephrotic syndrome results in lower osmotic pressure. Reduced osmotic pressure will trigger the liver to produce more proteins like fibrinogen and beta-thromboglobulin, which promote blood clotting.
Fish physiology Thermoregulation Fish_physiology > Thermoregulation The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to bluefin tuna and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C (36 °F) above ambient water temperatures. See also gigantothermy. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased muscle strength, higher rates of central nervous system processing, and higher rates of digestion.In some fish, a rete mirabile allows for an increase in muscle temperature in regions where this network of vein and arteries is found.
Manual memory management Performance Dynamic_allocation > Performance Manual management has a number of documented performance disadvantages: Calls to delete and such incur an overhead each time they are made, this overhead can be amortized in garbage collection cycles. This is especially true of multithreaded applications, where delete calls must be synchronized. The allocation routine may be more complicated, and slower.
Positive-definite matrix Quadratic forms Positive-definite_matrix > Quadratic forms The (purely) quadratic form associated with a real n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix M {\displaystyle M} is the function Q: R n → R {\displaystyle Q:\mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {R} } such that Q ( x ) = x T M x {\displaystyle Q(x)=x^{\textsf {T}}Mx} for all x {\displaystyle x} . M {\displaystyle M} can be assumed symmetric by replacing it with 1 2 ( M + M T ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\left(M+M^{\textsf {T}}\right)} . A symmetric matrix M {\displaystyle M} is positive definite if and only if its quadratic form is a strictly convex function. More generally, any quadratic function from R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} to R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } can be written as x T M x + x T b + c {\displaystyle x^{\textsf {T}}Mx+x^{\textsf {T}}b+c} where M {\displaystyle M} is a symmetric n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix, b {\displaystyle b} is a real n {\displaystyle n} -vector, and c {\displaystyle c} a real constant.
Bloch wave Summary Bloch_theorem In condensed matter physics, Bloch's theorem states that solutions to the Schrödinger equation in a periodic potential can be expressed as plane waves modulated by periodic functions. The theorem is named after the physicist Felix Bloch, who discovered the theorem in 1929. Mathematically, they are written where r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } is position, ψ {\displaystyle \psi } is the wave function, u {\displaystyle u} is a periodic function with the same periodicity as the crystal, the wave vector k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } is the crystal momentum vector, e {\displaystyle e} is Euler's number, and i {\displaystyle i} is the imaginary unit. Functions of this form are known as Bloch functions or Bloch states, and serve as a suitable basis for the wave functions or states of electrons in crystalline solids.
Communication protocols Taxonomies Communications_protocol > Taxonomies Classification schemes for protocols usually focus on the domain of use and function. As an example of domain of use, connection-oriented protocols and connectionless protocols are used on connection-oriented networks and connectionless networks respectively. An example of function is a tunneling protocol, which is used to encapsulate packets in a high-level protocol so that the packets can be passed across a transport system using the high-level protocol.
Animal domestication Summary Animal_domestication The domestication of animals is the mutual relationship between non-human animals and the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction.Charles Darwin recognized a small number of traits that made domesticated species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding (i.e. artificial selection) in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also a genetic difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations.
Referring expression generation Full Brevity Referring_expression_generation > Basic algorithms > Full Brevity The Full Brevity algorithm always finds a minimal distinguishing description meaning there is no shorter distinguishing description in regard to properties used. Therefore, it iterates over n = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , . .
Intracellular membrane Functions of the smooth ER Intracellular_membranes > Components of the system > Endoplasmic reticulum > Functions of the smooth ER This is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and then an enzyme of the liver cell's smooth ER removes the phosphate from the glucose, so that it can then leave the cell.Enzymes of the smooth ER can also help detoxify drugs and poisons. Detoxification usually involves the addition of a hydroxyl group to a drug, making the drug more soluble and thus easier to purge from the body. One extensively studied detoxification reaction is carried out by the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes, which catalyze oxidation reactions on water-insoluble drugs or metabolites that would otherwise accumulate to toxic levels in cell membrane.In muscle cells, a specialized smooth ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum) forms a membranous compartment (cisternal space) into which calcium ions are pumped. When a muscle cell becomes stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium goes back across this membrane into the cytosol and generates the contraction of the muscle cell.
Social identity model of deindividuation effects Development Social_identity_model_of_deindividuation_effects_(SIDE) > Development SIDE thus assumed that effects in the crowd and in online environments showed some similar properties. The first comprehensive statement of SIDE was by Reicher, Spears, and Postmes. According to SIDE, a social identity approach can account for many of the effects observed in deindividuation research and in crowd psychology, as well as in computer-mediated communication.
Blunt-force trauma Diagnosis Blunt-force_injuries > Diagnosis This is sometimes described as the "A, B, C's"—Airway, Breathing, and Circulation—and is the first step in any resuscitation or triage. Then, the history of the accident or injury is amplified with any medical, dietary (timing of last oral intake) and history, from whatever sources such as family, friends, previous treating physicians that might be available. This method is sometimes given the mnemonic "SAMPLE".
Object-oriented analysis and design Summary Object-oriented_analysis_and_design Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) is a technical approach for analyzing and designing an application, system, or business by applying object-oriented programming, as well as using visual modeling throughout the software development process to guide stakeholder communication and product quality. OOAD in modern software engineering is typically conducted in an iterative and incremental way. The outputs of OOAD activities are analysis models (for OOA) and design models (for OOD) respectively. The intention is for these to be continuously refined and evolved, driven by key factors like risks and business value.
Unix File System Implementations Unix_File_System > Implementations Solaris UFS also has extensions for large files and large disks and other features. In 4.4BSD and BSD Unix systems derived from it, such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFlyBSD, the implementation of UFS1 and UFS2 is split into two layers: an upper layer that provides the directory structure and supports metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) in the inode structure, and lower layers that provide data containers implemented as inodes. This was done to support both the traditional FFS and the LFS log-structured file system with shared code for common functions.
Geometric space Metrics and measures Geometric_object > Main concepts > Length, area, and volume > Metrics and measures The concept of length or distance can be generalized, leading to the idea of metrics. For instance, the Euclidean metric measures the distance between points in the Euclidean plane, while the hyperbolic metric measures the distance in the hyperbolic plane. Other important examples of metrics include the Lorentz metric of special relativity and the semi-Riemannian metrics of general relativity.In a different direction, the concepts of length, area and volume are extended by measure theory, which studies methods of assigning a size or measure to sets, where the measures follow rules similar to those of classical area and volume.
Area (geometry) Non-planar surface area Area_(geometry) > Area formulas > Non-planar surface area The formula for the surface area of a sphere was first obtained by Archimedes in his work On the Sphere and Cylinder. The formula is: A = 4πr2 (sphere),where r is the radius of the sphere. As with the formula for the area of a circle, any derivation of this formula inherently uses methods similar to calculus.
Hydrogen embrittlement Steels Hydrogen_embrittlement > Material susceptibility > Steels They may also experience long-term failures anytime from weeks to decades after being placed in service due to accumulation of hydrogen over time from cathodic protection and other sources. Numerous failures have been reported in the hardness range from HRC 32-36 and more above; therefore, parts in this range should be checked during quality control to ensure they are not susceptible. Testing the fracture toughness of hydrogen-charged, embrittled specimens is complicated by the need to keep charged specimens very cold, in liquid nitrogen, to prevent the hydrogen diffusing away.
Extant taxon Summary Extant_taxon We do recognize the unbalanced and parochial nature of this dichotomous division. Neontological evolutionary biology has a temporal perspective between 100 and 1000 years. Neontology's fundamental basis relies on models of natural selection as well as speciation.

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