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Post-traumatic stress disorder Neuroendocrinology Post-traumatic_stress_disorder > Pathophysiology > Neuroendocrinology Dopamine levels in a person with PTSD can contribute to symptoms: low levels can contribute to anhedonia, apathy, impaired attention, and motor deficits; high levels can contribute to psychosis, agitation, and restlessness.Several studies described elevated concentrations of the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine in PTSD. This kind of type 2 allostatic adaptation may contribute to increased sensitivity to catecholamines and other stress mediators. Hyperresponsiveness in the norepinephrine system can also be caused by continued exposure to high stress.
Multi-particle collision dynamics Method of simulation Multi-particle_collision_dynamics > Method of simulation In three dimensions, the rotation is performed by an angle α {\displaystyle \alpha } around a random rotation axis. The same rotation is applied for all particles within a given collision cell, but the direction (axis) of rotation is statistically independent both between all cells and for a given cell in time. If the structure of the collision grid defined by the positions of the collision cells is fixed, Galilean invariance is violated. It is restored with the introduction of a random shift of the collision grid.Explicit expressions for the diffusion coefficient and viscosity derived based on Green-Kubo relations are in excellent agreement with simulations.
Data quality Dimensions of data quality Data_quality > Dimensions of data quality Drilling down further, those expectations, specifications, and requirements are stated in terms of characteristics or dimensions of the data, such as: accessibility or availability accuracy or correctness comparability completeness or comprehensiveness consistency, coherence, or clarity credibility, reliability, or reputation flexibility plausibility relevance, pertinence, or usefulness timeliness or latency uniqueness validity or reasonablenessA systematic scoping review of the literature suggests that data quality dimensions and methods with real world data are not consistent in the literature, and as a result quality assessments are challenging due to the complex and heterogeneous nature of these data.
Inversely correlated Examples Proportionality_factor > Direct proportionality > Examples If an object travels at a constant speed, then the distance traveled is directly proportional to the time spent traveling, with the speed being the constant of proportionality. The circumference of a circle is directly proportional to its diameter, with the constant of proportionality equal to π. On a map of a sufficiently small geographical area, drawn to scale distances, the distance between any two points on the map is directly proportional to the beeline distance between the two locations represented by those points; the constant of proportionality is the scale of the map. The force, acting on a small object with small mass by a nearby large extended mass due to gravity, is directly proportional to the object's mass; the constant of proportionality between the force and the mass is known as gravitational acceleration. The net force acting on an object is proportional to the acceleration of that object with respect to an inertial frame of reference. The constant of proportionality in this, Newton's second law, is the classical mass of the object.
Bayesian model reduction Neurobiology Bayesian_model_reduction > Applications > Neurobiology Bayesian model reduction has been used to explain functions of the brain. By analogy to its use in eliminating redundant parameters from models of experimental data, it has been proposed that the brain eliminates redundant parameters of internal models of the world while offline (e.g. during sleep).
Blood pressure regulation Hemodynamics Systolic_blood_pressure > Physiology > Hemodynamics In the short-term, the greater the blood volume, the higher the cardiac output. This has been proposed as an explanation of the relationship between high dietary salt intake and increased blood pressure; however, responses to increased dietary sodium intake vary between individuals and are highly dependent on autonomic nervous system responses and the renin–angiotensin system, changes in plasma osmolarity may also be important.
Finitely generated ring Examples Finitely_generated_ring > Examples If E/F is a finite field extension then it follows from the definitions that E is a finitely generated algebra over F. Conversely, if E/F is a field extension and E is a finitely generated algebra over F then the field extension is finite. This is called Zariski's lemma. See also integral extension. If G is a finitely generated group then the group algebra KG is a finitely generated algebra over K.
Veronika Hubeny Selected works Veronika_Hubeny > Selected works Hubeny, Veronika E. (2011). "The fluid/gravity correspondence: a new perspective on the membrane paradigm".
Pattern Recognition Summary Pattern_detection Pattern recognition systems are commonly trained from labeled "training" data. When no labeled data are available, other algorithms can be used to discover previously unknown patterns.
Climate change feedback Summary Climate_change_feedback Climate change feedbacks are effects of global warming that amplify or diminish the effect of forces that initially cause the warming. Positive feedbacks enhance global warming while negative feedbacks weaken it. : 2233 Feedbacks are important in the understanding of climate change because they play an important part in determining the sensitivity of the climate to warming forces. Climate forcings and feedbacks together determine how much and how fast the climate changes.
Signature Function and types Signatory_state > Function and types This kind of flourish is also known as a paraph, a French term meaning flourish, initial or signature. The paraph is used in graphology analyses.
Parkinson's disease Surgery Parkinsonian_tremor > Management > Surgery DBS involves the implantation of a medical device called a neurostimulator, which sends electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain. DBS is recommended for people who have PD with motor fluctuations and tremor inadequately controlled by medication, or to those who are intolerant to medication lacking severe neuropsychiatric problems. Other less common surgical therapies involve intentional formation of lesions to suppress overactivity of specific subcortical areas.
Tree shaping Structure Tree_shaping > Structure Once the trees are of age to be able to take on load-bearing weight they are tested for stability and strength by a structural engineer. Once this is approved the supporting framework is removed. Projects are limited to the trees' weight loading ability and growth. This is being studied and the load capacity will be proved by testing on prototypes.
Information centre hypothesis Theory Information_centre_hypothesis > Theory The information centre hypothesis was first described by Peter Ward and Amotz Zahavi in 1973. They theorized that communal roosts evolved and were maintained as a result of the advantage obtained by unsuccessful individuals in locating food resources from information provided by successful individuals. The information centre hypothesis requires that two conditions be met; first, that successful individuals return to the communal roost after feeding, and second, birds without the knowledge of the food source must recognize these individuals as successful and then follow them back to the food source. In their primary work, Ward and Zahavi studied red-billed quelea and cattle egret birds, noting that individuals who were unsuccessful in the morning would return to the communal roost and follow other birds away from the roost in the afternoon.Mock et al. (1988) provide seven requirements which must be fulfilled in a species for the information centre hypothesis to be supported.
Small nucleolar RNA Me28S-U3344 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_Me28S-U3344 In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA Me28S-Um3344 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the modification of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). This type of modifying RNA is usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA.
Chemical Thermodynamics Chemical affinity Chemical_energetics > Chemical reactions > Chemical affinity It is a purely local criterion and must hold regardless of any such constraints. Of course, it could have been obtained by taking partial derivatives of any of the other fundamental state functions, but nonetheless is a general criterion for (−T times) the entropy production from that spontaneous process; or at least any part of it that is not captured as external work. (See Constraints below.)
Megavitamin-B6 syndrome Potential mechanisms Megavitamin-B6_syndrome > Cause > Potential mechanisms The dorsal root ganglia, however, are located outside of the blood-brain barrier making them more susceptible.Pyridoxine is converted to pyridoxal phosphate via two enzymes, pyridoxal kinase and pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase. High levels of pyridoxine can inhibit these enzymes. As pyridoxal phosphate is the active form of vitamin B6 this saturation of pyridoxine could mimic a deficiency of vitamin B6.
PCI-X Technical description PCI-X > Technical description The initiator must deassert FRAME# two cycles before the end of the transaction. The initiator may not insert wait states. The target may, but only before any data is transferred, and wait states for writes are limited to multiples of 2 clock cycles.
Computational Chemistry Monte Carlo Computational_Chemistry > Methods > Monte Carlo Monte Carlo (MC) generates configurations of a system by making random changes to the positions of its particles, together with their orientations and conformations where appropriate. It is a random sampling method, which makes use of the so-called importance sampling. Importance sampling methods are able to generate low energy states, as this enables properties to be calculated accurately. The potential energy of each configuration of the system can be calculated, together with the values of other properties, from the positions of the atoms.
Sphere inversion Examples in two dimensions Inversion_in_a_sphere > Inversion in a circle > Examples in two dimensions Inversion of a line is a circle containing the center of inversion; or it is the line itself if it contains the center Inversion of a circle is another circle; or it is a line if the original circle contains the center Inversion of a parabola is a cardioid Inversion of hyperbola is a lemniscate of Bernoulli
PottersWheel Model creation PottersWheel > Seven modeling phases > Model creation Model import and export is supported for SBML. Custom import-templates may be used to import custom model structures. Rule-based modeling is also supported, where a pattern represents a set of automatically generated reactions. Example for a simple model definition file for a reaction network A → B → C → A with observed species A and C:
28 (number) In other fields 28_(number) > In other fields Twenty-eight is: An abbreviation for such years as 1928 and 2028. The number of Hebrew letters in Genesis 1:1, the first verse of the Bible. The number of wheels on a Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. In the code for international direct dial phone calls, +28 is unassigned.
Periodic table of elements Overview Periodic_Table > Overview Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).
Finite volume Example Finite_volume_method > Example Now, since in one dimension f x ≜ ∇ ⋅ f {\displaystyle f_{x}\triangleq \nabla \cdot f} , we can apply the divergence theorem, i.e. ∮ v ∇ ⋅ f d v = ∮ S f d S {\displaystyle \oint _{v}\nabla \cdot fdv=\oint _{S}f\,dS} , and substitute for the volume integral of the divergence with the values of f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} evaluated at the cell surface (edges x i − 1 2 {\displaystyle x_{i-{\frac {1}{2}}}} and x i + 1 2 {\displaystyle x_{i+{\frac {1}{2}}}} ) of the finite volume as follows: where f i ± 1 2 = f ( x i ± 1 2 , t ) {\displaystyle f_{i\pm {\frac {1}{2}}}=f\left(x_{i\pm {\frac {1}{2}}},t\right)} . We can therefore derive a semi-discrete numerical scheme for the above problem with cell centers indexed as i {\displaystyle i} , and with cell edge fluxes indexed as i ± 1 2 {\displaystyle i\pm {\frac {1}{2}}} , by differentiating (6) with respect to time to obtain: where values for the edge fluxes, f i ± 1 2 {\displaystyle f_{i\pm {\frac {1}{2}}}} , can be reconstructed by interpolation or extrapolation of the cell averages. Equation (7) is exact for the volume averages; i.e., no approximations have been made during its derivation. This method can also be applied to a 2D situation by considering the north and south faces along with the east and west faces around a node.
Common Criteria Key concepts Common_Criteria > Key concepts Common Criteria evaluations are performed on computer security products and systems. Target of Evaluation (TOE) – the product or system that is the subject of the evaluation. The evaluation serves to validate claims made about the target. To be of practical use, the evaluation must verify the target's security features.
Quadratic integer ring Quadratic integer rings Quadratic_integer_ring > Quadratic integer rings {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {D}}\,).} The ring Z consists of all roots of all equations x2 + Bx + C = 0 whose discriminant B2 − 4C is the product of D by the square of an integer.
Centromere Summary Centromere The signal for formation of a regional centromere appears to be epigenetic. Most organisms, ranging from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe to humans, have regional centromeres. Regarding mitotic chromosome structure, centromeres represent a constricted region of the chromosome (often referred to as the primary constriction) where two identical sister chromatids are most closely in contact. When cells enter mitosis, the sister chromatids (the two copies of each chromosomal DNA molecule resulting from DNA replication in chromatin form) are linked along their length by the action of the cohesin complex. It is now believed that this complex is mostly released from chromosome arms during prophase, so that by the time the chromosomes line up at the mid-plane of the mitotic spindle (also known as the metaphase plate), the last place where they are linked with one another is in the chromatin in and around the centromere.
Freshwater phytoplankton Spring Bloom Freshwater_phytoplankton > Spring Bloom The factor that promotes the occurring of spring bloom are light availability, phytoplankton physiology, nutrients, temperature, grazing, virus lysis. Phytoplankton begins to emerge when the sun begins to heat the surface of the water, creating a layered layer of warmer, less dense water that traps phytoplankton near the surface, where they are exposed to sunlight. Fresh water also has a positive effect on the growth of phytoplankton, since it is less dense, creates a layered water column and carries nutrients necessary for phytoplankton to carry out processes (photosynthesis). Collapse can be caused by nutrient depletion, vertical mixing when nutrients are at the bottom, resulting in less bloom. Also due to the high grazing pressure of zooplankton and decrease in illumination.
Do while loop Summary Do_while_loop A while loop sets the truth of a statement as a necessary condition for the code's execution. A do-while loop provides for the action's ongoing execution until the condition is no longer true.
H3K36me Epigenetic implications H3K36me > Epigenetic implications Different developmental stages were profiled in Drosophila as well, an emphasis was placed on histone modification relevance. A look into the data obtained led to the definition of chromatin states based on histone modifications. Certain modifications were mapped and enrichment was seen to localize in certain genomic regions.
Dynamical pictures Background Dynamical_pictures > Schrödinger picture > Background In elementary quantum mechanics, the state of a quantum-mechanical system is represented by a complex-valued wavefunction ψ(x, t). More abstractly, the state may be represented as a state vector, or ket, |ψ⟩. This ket is an element of a Hilbert space, a vector space containing all possible states of the system. A quantum-mechanical operator is a function which takes a ket |ψ⟩ and returns some other ket |ψ′⟩.
Graphics calculator Programming Graphic_calculators > Programming Some manufacturers do not document and even mildly discourage the assembly language programming of their machines because they must be programmed in this way by putting together the program on the PC and then forcing it into the calculator by various improvised methods. Other on-board programming languages include purpose-made languages, variants of Eiffel, Forth, and Lisp, and Command Script facilities which are similar in function to batch/shell programming and other glue languages on computers but generally not as full featured. Ports of other languages like BBC BASIC and development of on-board interpreters for Fortran, REXX, AWK, Perl, Unix shells (e.g., bash, zsh), other shells (DOS/Windows 9x, OS/2, and Windows NT family shells as well as the related 4DOS, 4NT and 4OS2 as well as DCL), COBOL, C, Python, Tcl, Pascal, Delphi, ALGOL, and other languages are at various levels of development.
Object-Oriented Turing Object-Oriented Turing Object-Oriented_Turing > Object-Oriented Turing Object-Oriented Turing is an extension of the Turing programming language and a replacement for Turing Plus created by Ric Holt of the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1991. It is imperative, object-oriented, and concurrent. It has modules, classes, single inheritance, processes, exception handling, and optional machine-dependent programming. There is an integrated development environment under the X Window System and a demo version. Versions exist for Sun-4, MIPS, RS-6000, NeXTSTEP, Windows 95 and others.
History of electromagnetic theory Electroweak theory History_of_electromagnetic_theory > 20th century > Electroweak theory The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashow's discovery, in 1960, of a way to combine the electromagnetic and weak interactions. In 1967, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's electroweak theory, giving it its modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions – i.e. the quarks and leptons.
Exact renormalization group equation Historical references Renormalization_group_flow > References > Historical references Phys. 46 (4): 597. Bibcode:1974RvMP...46..597F. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.46.597.
Dynamic causal modeling Validation Dynamic_causal_modeling > Validation For example, DCM has been compared with Structural Equation Modelling and other neurobiological computational models. Predictive validity assesses the ability to predict known or expected effects. This has included testing against iEEG / EEG / stimulation and against known pharmacological treatments.
Non-measurable subset Consistent definitions of measure and probability Non-measurable_subset > Consistent definitions of measure and probability The fundamental assumption is that a countably infinite sequence of disjoint sets satisfies the sum formula, a property called σ-additivity. In 1970, Solovay demonstrated that the existence of a non-measurable set for the Lebesgue measure is not provable within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory in the absence of an additional axiom (such as the axiom of choice), by showing that (assuming the consistency of an inaccessible cardinal) there is a model of ZF, called Solovay's model, in which countable choice holds, every set is Lebesgue measurable and in which the full axiom of choice fails.The axiom of choice is equivalent to a fundamental result of point-set topology, Tychonoff's theorem, and also to the conjunction of two fundamental results of functional analysis, the Banach–Alaoglu theorem and the Krein–Milman theorem. It also affects the study of infinite groups to a large extent, as well as ring and order theory (see Boolean prime ideal theorem). However, the axioms of determinacy and dependent choice together are sufficient for most geometric measure theory, potential theory, Fourier series and Fourier transforms, while making all subsets of the real line Lebesgue-measurable.
K vitamin Function in animals Vitamin_K > Biochemistry > Function in animals The presence of two −COOH (carboxylic acid) groups on the same carbon in the gamma-carboxyglutamate residue allows it to chelate calcium ions. The binding of calcium ions in this way very often triggers the function or binding of Gla-protein enzymes, such as the so-called vitamin K–dependent clotting factors discussed below.Within the cell, vitamin K participates in a cyclic process. The vitamin undergoes electron reduction to a reduced form called vitamin K hydroquinone (quinol), catalyzed by the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKOR).
Cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme Regulation Cholesterol_side-chain_cleavage_enzyme > Regulation With prolonged (chronic) stimulation, it is thought that cholesterol supply becomes no longer an issue and that the capacity of the system to make steroid (i.e., level of P450scc in the mitochondria) is now more important. Corticotropin (ACTH) is a hormone that is released from the anterior pituitary in response to stress situations. A study of the steroidogenic capacity of the adrenal cortex in infants with acute respiratory disease demonstrated that indeed during disease state there is a specific increase in the steroidogenic capacity for the synthesis of the glucocorticoid cortisol but not for the mineralocorticoid aldosterone or androgen DHEAS that are secreted from other zones of the adrenal cortex.
COVID-19 vaccine clinical research Effectiveness COVID-19_vaccine_clinical_research > Efficacy > Effectiveness Evidence from vaccine use during the pandemic shows vaccination can reduce infection and is most effective at preventing severe COVID-19 symptoms and death, but is less good at preventing mild COVID-19. Efficacy wanes over time but can be maintained with boosters. In 2021, the CDC reported that unvaccinated people were 10 times more likely to be hospitalized and 11 times more likely to die than fully vaccinated people.The CDC reported that vaccine effectiveness fell from 91% against Alpha to 66% against Delta. One expert stated that "those who are infected following vaccination are still not getting sick and not dying like was happening before vaccination."
Intelligent tutoring system Early electronic systems Intelligent_tutoring_system > History > Early electronic systems One of his most notable papers outlined a hypothetical test to assess the intelligence of a machine which came to be known as the Turing test. Essentially, the test would have a person communicate with two other agents, a human and a computer asking questions to both recipients. The computer passes the test if it can respond in such a way that the human posing the questions cannot differentiate between the other human and the computer.
Bernoulli Numbers Connection with Worpitzky numbers Seidel_triangle > Connections with combinatorial numbers > Connection with Worpitzky numbers The definition to proceed with was developed by Julius Worpitzky in 1883. Besides elementary arithmetic only the factorial function n! and the power function km is employed. The signless Worpitzky numbers are defined as W n , k = ∑ v = 0 k ( − 1 ) v + k ( v + 1 ) n k !
Seismic source Summary Seismic_source A seismic source is a device that generates controlled seismic energy used to perform both reflection and refraction seismic surveys. A seismic source can be simple, such as dynamite, or it can use more sophisticated technology, such as a specialized air gun. Seismic sources can provide single pulses or continuous sweeps of energy, generating seismic waves, which travel through a medium such as water or layers of rocks. Some of the waves then reflect and refract and are recorded by receivers, such as geophones or hydrophones.Seismic sources may be used to investigate shallow subsoil structure, for engineering site characterization, or to study deeper structures, either in the search for petroleum and mineral deposits, or to map subsurface faults or for other scientific investigations. The returning signals from the sources are detected by seismic sensors (geophones or hydrophones) in known locations relative to the position of the source. The recorded signals are then subjected to specialist processing and interpretation to yield comprehensible information about the subsurface.
Correspondence Analysis Inertia Correspondence_Analysis > Details > Inertia {\displaystyle \mathrm {I} =\sum _{i=1}^{n}\sum _{j=1}^{m}s_{ij}^{2}.} The amount of inertia covered by the i-th set of singular vectors is ι i {\displaystyle \iota _{i}} , the principal inertia.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Multi-dimensional NMR spectroscopy Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance > NMR spectroscopy > Multi-dimensional NMR spectroscopy In two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2D-NMR), there will be one systematically varied time period in the sequence of pulses, which will modulate the intensity or phase of the detected signals. In 3D-NMR, two time periods will be varied independently, and in 4D-NMR, three will be varied. There are many such experiments.
Audio processor Active noise control Sound_processing > Applications > Active noise control Active noise control is a technique designed to reduce unwanted sound. By creating a signal that is identical to the unwanted noise but with the opposite polarity, the two signals cancel out due to destructive interference.
Passive immunity Passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity Passive_immunization > Passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity The one exception to passive humoral immunity is the passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity, also called adoptive immunization which involves the transfer of mature circulating lymphocytes. It is rarely used in humans, and requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often difficult to find, and carries severe risks of graft-versus-host disease. This technique has been used in humans to treat certain diseases including some types of cancer and immunodeficiency. However, this specialized form of passive immunity is most often used in a laboratory setting in the field of immunology, to transfer immunity between "congenic", or deliberately inbred mouse strains which are histocompatible.
SORT (journal) Abstracting and indexing SORT_(journal) > Abstracting and indexing SORT is indexed in the Current Index to Statistics, Science Citation Index Expanded, and Journal Citation Reports.
Pathology Surgical pathology Pathology > General pathology > Anatomical pathology > Surgical pathology Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of a suspicious lesion, whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining the activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming the previous diagnosis.
Portable radio Bandpass filtering Portable_radio > How receivers work > Main functions of a receiver > Bandpass filtering Tuning: To select a particular station the radio is "tuned" to the frequency of the desired transmitter. The radio has a dial or digital display showing the frequency it is tuned to. Tuning is adjusting the frequency of the receiver's passband to the frequency of the desired radio transmitter. Turning the tuning knob changes the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. When the resonant frequency is equal to the radio transmitter's frequency the tuned circuit oscillates in sympathy, passing the signal on to the rest of the receiver.
Gamma-delta T-cell antigen receptor Human non-Vδ2+ T cells Gamma/delta_T_cells > Gene families in different species > Human forms > Human non-Vδ2+ T cells These receptors are expressed almost exclusively by natural killer (NK) cells and play a central role in triggering their activation, but it has been described that γδ T cells can express these receptors. These cells are named NKp46+/Vδ1 IELs. The major outcome of this study is the clinical relevance of this cells, which can be used a prognostic marker in the colorectal cancer (CRC), in order to follow-up its progression. Lower frequencies of NKp46+/Vδ1 IELs in healthy intestinal tissues surrounding the tumor mass, associate with a higher tumor progression and metastasis. It is acknowledged that this subset can control the metastasis, so the higher levels of this population, the less probabilities for the tumor to progress and proliferate to other tissues.
Direction-preserving function Summary Direction-preserving_function In discrete mathematics, a direction-preserving function (or mapping) is a function on a discrete space, such as the integer grid, that (informally) does not change too drastically between two adjacent points. It can be considered a discrete analogue of a continuous function. The concept was first defined by Iimura. Some variants of it were later defined by Yang, Chen and Deng, Herings, van-der-Laan, Talman and Yang, and others.
Group structure and the axiom of choice A group structure implies the axiom of choice Group_structure_and_the_axiom_of_choice > A group structure implies the axiom of choice In this section it is assumed that every set X can be endowed with a group structure (X, •). Let X be a set. Let ℵ(X) be the Hartogs number of X. This is the least cardinal number such that there is no injection from ℵ(X) into X. It exists without the assumption of the axiom of choice. Assume here for technical simplicity of proof that X has no ordinal.
Hypersensitive response Comparison to animal innate immunity Hypersensitive_response > Comparison to animal innate immunity It seems that in both plants and animals, the formation of the resistosome or the inflammasome, respectively, leads to cell death by forming pores in the membrane. It is inferred from protein structures that in plants the NLRs themselves are responsible for forming pores in the membrane, while in the case of the inflammasome, the pore-forming activity arises from gasdermin B which is cleaved by caspases as a result of the oligomerisation of the NLRs. Plant cells do not have caspases.
Compound lens Types of simple lenses Curved_lens > Construction of simple lenses > Types of simple lenses If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens. The beam, after passing through the lens, appears to emanate from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens. For a thin lens in air, the distance from this point to the lens is the focal length, though it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens.
Superhard material Definition and mechanics of hardness Superhard_material > Definition and mechanics of hardness Bulk moduli was the first major test of hardness and originally shown to be correlated with the molar volume (Vm) and cohesive energy (Ec) as B ~ Ec/Vm. Bulk modulus was believed to be a direct measure of a material's hardness but this no longer remains the dominant school of thought. For example, some alkali and noble metals (Pd, Ag) have anomalously high ratio of the bulk modulus to the Vickers or Brinell hardness.
Corporate entity Ownership and control Corporate_entity > Ownership and control A single committee known as a board of directors is the method favored in most common law countries. Under this model, the board of directors is composed of both executive and non-executive directors, the latter being meant to supervise the former's management of the company. A two-tiered committee structure with a supervisory board and a managing board is common in civil law countries.In countries with co-determination (such as in Germany), workers elect a fixed fraction of the corporation's board.
Stille reaction Kinetics Stille_reaction > Kinetics These can change the rate determining step, as well as the mechanism for the transmetalation step.Normally, ligands of intermediate donicity, such as phosphines, are utilized. Rate enhancements can be seen when moderately electron-poor ligands, such as tri-2-furylphosphine or triphenylarsenine are used. Likewise, ligands of high donor number can slow down or inhibit coupling reactions.These observations imply that normally, the rate-determining step for the Stille reaction is transmetalation.
Length contraction Basis in relativity Lorentz–FitzGerald_contraction_hypothesis > Basis in relativity An observer at rest observing an object travelling very close to the speed of light would observe the length of the object in the direction of motion as very near zero. Then, at a speed of 13400000 m/s (30 million mph, 0.0447c) contracted length is 99.9% of the length at rest; at a speed of 42300000 m/s (95 million mph, 0.141c), the length is still 99%. As the magnitude of the velocity approaches the speed of light, the effect becomes prominent.
Compiler construction Front end Compiler_theory > Compiler construction > Three-stage compiler structure > Front end Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases: lexical analysis (also known as lexing or scanning), syntax analysis (also known as scanning or parsing), and semantic analysis. Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually context-free grammars, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase.
Neurological fatigue Diagnosis Neurological_fatigue > Diagnosis One study concluded about 50% of people who have fatigue receive a diagnosis that could explain the fatigue after a year with the condition. In those people who have a possible diagnosis, musculoskeletal (19.4%) and psychological problems (16.5%) are the most common. Definitive physical conditions were only found in 8.2% of cases.If a person with fatigue decides to seek medical advice, the overall goal is to identify and rule out any treatable conditions. This is done by considering the person's medical history, any other symptoms that are present, and evaluating of the qualities of the fatigue itself.
Fold (geology) Summary Fold_(geology) Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. Folds form under varied conditions of stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.
Uncomputable function Definition Uncomputable_function > Definition As counterparts to this informal description, there exist multiple formal, mathematical definitions. The class of computable functions can be defined in many equivalent models of computation, including Turing machines μ-recursive functions Lambda calculus Post machines (Post–Turing machines and tag machines). Register machinesAlthough these models use different representations for the functions, their inputs, and their outputs, translations exist between any two models, and so every model describes essentially the same class of functions, giving rise to the opinion that formal computability is both natural and not too narrow.
Thermodynamic free energy Meaning of "free" Thermodynamic_free_energy > Meaning of "free" The basic definition of "energy" is a measure of a body's (in thermodynamics, the system's) ability to cause change. For example, when a person pushes a heavy box a few metres forward, that person exerts mechanical energy, also known as work, on the box over a distance of a few meters forward. The mathematical definition of this form of energy is the product of the force exerted on the object and the distance by which the box moved (Work = Force × Distance). Because the person changed the stationary position of the box, that person exerted energy on that box.
Group emotion Norms Group_emotion > Top down approach > Norms Another aspect of the group as a whole perspective sees the normative forces a group has on its members' emotional behavior such as norms for the amount of feelings' expression and even which emotions it is best to feel. The group's norms control which emotions would (or at least should) be displayed at a specific situation according to the group's best interest and goals. The norms help differentiate felt emotions, what the individuals actually feel, from expressed emotions, what they display in the current situation. This perspective has practical implications as shown by researchers. Thus, according to this angle the group causes the emotions to be moderated and controlled.
International Epidemiological Association Aims International_Epidemiological_Association > Aims The objectives of the IEA are to: Promote the use of epidemiology and its application to the solution of health problems. Encourage the development of epidemiological methods and improvement in these methods. Promote the communication of epidemiological methods and findings amongst epidemiologists throughout the world as well as amongst all others concerned with health. Co-operate with both national and international organisations which are concerned with the promotion of health in the application of epidemiological methods in the solution of problems.
Lens shade Summary Lens_shade In photography, a lens hood or lens shade is a device used on the front end of a lens to block the Sun or other light source(s) to prevent glare and lens flare. Lens hoods may also be used to protect the lens from scratches and the elements without having to put on a lens cover. The geometry of a lens hood is dependent on three parameters: the focal length of the lens, the size of the front lens element and the dimensions of the image sensor or film in the camera.
Theoretical framework Definitions from scientific organizations Theoretical_framework > Scientific > Definitions from scientific organizations From the American Association for the Advancement of Science: A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world.
João Arménio Correia Martins List of publications João_Arménio_Correia_Martins > List of publications Oden), Nonlinear Analysis, Theory, Methods and Applications, 11, pp. 407 – 428, 1987, with corrigendum in vol. 12, p.
Histone methyltransferase Role in gene regulation Histone-lysine_N-methyltransferase > Role in gene regulation Histone methylation plays an important role in epigenetic gene regulation. Methylated histones can either repress or activate transcription as different experimental findings suggest, depending on the site of methylation. For example, it is likely that the methylation of lysine 9 on histone H3 (H3K9me3) in the promoter region of genes prevents excessive expression of these genes and, therefore, delays cell cycle transition and/or proliferation.
Erlang (programming language) Concurrency and distribution orientation Erlang_(programming_language) > Concurrency and distribution orientation The code example below shows the built-in support for distributed processes: As the example shows, processes may be created on remote nodes, and communication with them is transparent in the sense that communication with remote processes works exactly as communication with local processes. Concurrency supports the primary method of error-handling in Erlang. When a process crashes, it neatly exits and sends a message to the controlling process which can then take action, such as starting a new process that takes over the old process's task.
Nested word Visibly pushdown automaton Nested_word > Automata > Visibly pushdown automaton Nested word automata are an automaton model accepting nested words. There is an equivalent automaton model operating on (ordinary) words. Namely, the notion of a deterministic visibly pushdown automaton is a restriction of the notion of a deterministic pushdown automaton. Following Alur and Madhusudan, a deterministic visibly pushdown automaton is formally defined as a 6-tuple M = ( Q , Σ ^ , Γ , δ , q 0 , F ) {\displaystyle M=(Q,{\hat {\Sigma }},\Gamma ,\delta ,q_{0},F)} where Q {\displaystyle Q} is a finite set of states, Σ ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\Sigma }}} is the input alphabet, which – in contrast to that of ordinary pushdown automata – is partitioned into three sets Σ c {\displaystyle \Sigma _{\text{c}}} , Σ r {\displaystyle \Sigma _{\text{r}}} , and Σ int {\displaystyle \Sigma _{\text{int}}} .
Autoantigen Immunological tolerance Autoimmunity > Immunological tolerance Pioneering work by Noel Rose and Ernst Witebsky in New York, and Roitt and Doniach at University College London provided clear evidence that, at least in terms of antibody-producing B cells (B lymphocytes), diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and thyrotoxicosis are associated with loss of immunological tolerance, which is the ability of an individual to ignore "self", while reacting to "non-self". This breakage leads to the immune system mounting an effective and specific immune response against self antigens. The exact genesis of immunological tolerance is still elusive, but several theories have been proposed since the mid-twentieth century to explain its origin.Three hypotheses have gained widespread attention among immunologists: Clonal deletion theory, proposed by Burnet, according to which self-reactive lymphoid cells are destroyed during the development of the immune system in an individual. For their work Frank M. Burnet and Peter B. Medawar were awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance".
Alternative periodic tables Spatial Types_of_periodic_tables > Typology > Spatial Striking a balance between comprehensive information and clarity can be a significant challenge.Lack of standardization: Periodic tables of three or more dimensions are not as standardized or widely recognized as traditional two-dimensional tables. This lack of standardization can create confusion and inconsistency across different representations. It can also make it more difficult to compare and communicate information between different periodic table formats.Some other notable spatial periodic tables include:
Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Classification Crescentic_glomerulonephritis > Diagnosis > Classification RPGN can be classified into three types, based upon the immunofluorescence patterns:
Suppression capacitor Electronic circuits Power_capacitor > Applications > Electronic circuits Because of their high pulse surge capabilities, PP capacitors are suitable for use in applications where high-current pulses are needed, such as in time-domain reflectometer (TDR) cable fault locators, in welding machines, defibrillators, in high-power pulsed lasers, or to generate high-energy light or X-ray flashes. In addition, polypropylene film capacitors are used in many AC applications such as phase shifters for PFC in fluorescent lamps, or as a motor-run capacitors. For simple higher-frequency filter circuits, or in voltage regulator or voltage doubler circuits, low-cost metallized polyester film capacitors provide long-term stability, and can replace more-expensive tantalum capacitors.
Lippmann-Schwinger equation A contour integral Lippmann-Schwinger_equation > Interpretation as in and out states > A contour integral This integral may be evaluated by defining the wave function over the complex E plane and closing the E contour using a semicircle on which the wavefunctions vanish. The integral over the closed contour may then be evaluated, using the Cauchy integral theorem, as a sum of the residues at the various poles. We will now argue that the residues of ψ ( ± ) {\displaystyle \psi ^{(\pm )}} approach those of ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } at time t → ∓ ∞ {\displaystyle t\to \mp \infty } and so the corresponding wavepackets are equal at temporal infinity. In fact, for very positive times t the e − i E t {\displaystyle e^{-iEt}} factor in a Schrödinger picture state forces one to close the contour on the lower half-plane.
CAPE-OPEN Interface Standard Purpose CAPE-OPEN_Interface_Standard > Purpose Operating companies in the process industries typically make a significant financial investment in commercial simulation technologies. However, all simulation tools have strengths and weaknesses. Typically, these reflect a focus on the particular process industry for which the simulation package was originally developed.
Regulation of gene expression Epigenetic gene regulation Regulatory_circuit > Epigenetic gene regulation Epigenetics refers to the modification of genes that is not changing the DNA or RNA sequence. Epigenetic modifications are also a key factor in influencing gene expression. They occur on genomic DNA and histones and their chemical modifications regulate gene expression in a more efficient manner. There are several modifications of DNA (usually methylation) and more than 100 modifications of RNA in mammalian cells.” Those modifications result in altered protein binding to DNA and a change in RNA stability and translation efficiency.
Fining agent Actions Fining_agent > Actions Their particles each have an electric charge which is attracted to the oppositely charged particles of the colloidal dispersion that they are breaking. The result is that the two substances become bound as a stable complex; their net charge becoming neutral. Thus the agglomeration of a semi-solid follows, which may be separated from the beverage either as a floating or settled mass.
Thoracic aorta injury Summary Thoracic_aorta_injury It is difficult to determine if a patient has a thoracic injury just by their symptoms, but through imaging and a physical exam the extent of injury can be determined. All patients with a thoracic aortic injury need to be treated either surgically with endovascular repair or open surgical repair or with medicine to keep their blood pressure and heart rate in the appropriate range. However, most patients that have a thoracic aortic injury do not live for 24 hours.
Physical objects Summary Concrete_object The common conception of physical objects includes that they have extension in the physical world, although there do exist theories of quantum physics and cosmology which arguably challenge this. In modern physics, "extension" is understood in terms of the spacetime: roughly speaking, it means that for a given moment of time the body has some location in the space (although not necessarily amounting to the abstraction of a point in space and time. A physical body as a whole is assumed to have such quantitative properties as mass, momentum, electric charge, other conserved quantities, and possibly other quantities. An object with known composition and described in an adequate physical theory is an example of physical system.
Superseded scientific theory Physics Superseded_scientific_theory > Discarded theories > Physics Democritus also held that between atoms, an empty space of a different nature than atoms allowed atoms to move. This view on space and matter persisted until Einstein described spacetime as being relative and connected to matter. John Dalton's model of the atom, which held that atoms are indivisible and indestructible (superseded by nuclear physics) and that all atoms of a given element are identical in mass (superseded by discovery of atomic isotopes). Plum pudding model of the atom—assuming the protons and electrons were mixed together in a single mass Rutherford model of the atom with an impenetrable nucleus orbited by electrons Bohr model with quantized orbits Electron cloud model following the development of quantum mechanics in 1925 and the eventual atomic orbital models derived from the quantum mechanical solution to the hydrogen atom
Parry People Movers Technology Parry_People_Movers > Technology The flywheel is driven by an internal combustion engine or an electric motor. The flywheel is connected to the rail wheels via a hydrostatic variable transmission system. The wheels are driven without conversion into electricity as many other railcars utilising flywheel energy storage do.
Vibrational energy Summary Vibrational_energy In physics, sound energy is a form of energy that can be heard by living things. Only those waves that have a frequency of 16 Hz to 20 kHz are audible to humans. However, this range is an average and will slightly change from individual to individual. Sound waves that have frequencies below 16 Hz are called infrasonic and those above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic.
Controlled Lab Reactor Summary Controlled_Lab_Reactor In chemistry, a Controlled Lab Reactor or CLR is any reaction system where there is an element of automated control. Generally these devices refers to a jacketed glass vessel where a circulating chiller unit pumps a thermal control fluid through the jacket to accurately control the temperature of the vessel contents. Additional to this, it is common to have a series of sensors (temperature, pH, pressure) measuring and recording parameters about the reactor contents. It is additionally possible to control pumps to act on the reactor.
Maxwell's demon Summary Maxwell's_demon Maxwell's demon is a thought experiment that would hypothetically violate the second law of thermodynamics. It was proposed by the physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1867. In his first letter, Maxwell referred to the entity as a "finite being" or a "being who can play a game of skill with the molecules". Lord Kelvin would later call it a "demon".In the thought experiment, a demon controls a small massless door between two chambers of gas.
Premature aging Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome Premature_aging > Defects in Lamin A/C > Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome Other features include skeletal alterations (osteolysis, osteoporosis), amyotrophy (wasting of muscle), lipodystrophy and skin atrophy (loss of subcutaneous tissue and fat) with sclerodermatous focal lesions, severe atherosclerosis and prominent scalp veins. However, the level of cognitive function, motor skills, and risk of developing cancer is not affected significantly.HGPS is caused by sporadic mutations (not inherited from parent) in the LMNA gene, which encodes for lamin A. Specifically, most HGPS are caused by a dominant, de novo, point mutation p.G608G (GGC > GGT). This mutation causes a splice site within exon 11 of the pre-mRNA to come into action, leading to the last 150 base pairs of that exon, and consequently, the 50 amino acids near the C-terminus, being deleted.
Infant death Differences in measurement Infant_death > Differences in measurement IMR is an effective resource for health departments making decisions on medical resource allocation, and also formulates global health strategies and helps evaluate their success. The use of IMR helps solve the inadequacies of other vital statistic systems for global health as most neglect infant mortality rates among the poor. There remains a certain amount of unrecorded infant death in rural area as they either do not have the concept of reporting early infant death, or they do not know about the importance of the IMR.
Magnetic Anomaly Measurement Magnetic_Anomaly > Measurement : 75 It measures the component along a particular axis of the sensor, so it needs to be oriented. On land, it is often oriented vertically, while in aircraft, ships and satellites it is usually oriented so the axis is in the direction of the field. It measures the magnetic field continuously, but drifts over time.
Body contouring Types Bariatric_surgery > Types Bariatric procedures can be grouped in three main categories: blocking (reduce the absorption of nutrients), restricting (decrease the size of the gut and therefore the amount of food that can pass through), and mixed which are understood to work by altering gut hormone levels responsible for hunger and satiety. However, this distinction might be less clear-cut than it may seem. For instance, while sleeve gastrectomy (discussed below) was initially thought to work simply by reducing the size of the stomach, research has begun to elucidate changes in gut hormone signaling as well. The two most frequently performed procedures are sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (also galled gastric bypass), with sleeve gastrectomy accounting for more than half of all procedures since 2014.
Structural fracture mechanics Summary Structural_fracture_mechanics Structural fracture mechanics is the field of structural engineering concerned with the study of load-carrying structures that includes one or several failed or damaged components. It uses methods of analytical solid mechanics, structural engineering, safety engineering, probability theory, and catastrophe theory to calculate the load and stress in the structural components and analyze the safety of a damaged structure. There is a direct analogy between fracture mechanics of solid and structural fracture mechanics: There are different causes of the first component failure: mechanical overload, fatigue (material), unpredicted scenario, etc. “human intervention” like unprofessional behavior or a terrorist attack.There are two typical scenarios: A localized failure does NOT cause immediate collapse of the entire structure. The entire structure fails immediately after one of its components fails.If the structure does not collapse immediately there is a limited period of time until the catastrophic structural failure of the entire structure.
Influenza A segment 7 splice site Overview Influenza_A_segment_7_splice_site > Overview The 3' splice site region used to produce M2 was experimentally probed with structure-sensitive chemicals and enzymes and was found to adopt both the hairpin and pseudoknot conformations in solution. Each conformation places important splicing regulatory sites in different structural environments, which has implications for the modulation of splicing of the segment 7 transcript. For example, the splice site, polypyrimidine tract, branch point, and ASF/SF2 exonic enhancer binding sites are expected to be more accessible in the hairpin conformation and less accessible in the pseudoknot (Figure 1). By shifting the equilibrium between the pseudoknot and hairpin it may be possible to reduce or enhance M2 splicing, respectively.
Covariant classical field theory Summary Covariant_classical_field_theory In mathematical physics, covariant classical field theory represents classical fields by sections of fiber bundles, and their dynamics is phrased in the context of a finite-dimensional space of fields. Nowadays, it is well known that jet bundles and the variational bicomplex are the correct domain for such a description. The Hamiltonian variant of covariant classical field theory is the covariant Hamiltonian field theory where momenta correspond to derivatives of field variables with respect to all world coordinates. Non-autonomous mechanics is formulated as covariant classical field theory on fiber bundles over the time axis ℝ.
Transcription factors, general Transcription preinitiation complex assembly General_transcription_factors > Function and mechanism > In archaea and eukaryotes > Transcription preinitiation complex assembly TFIIA/B/E/H leave once RNA elongation begins. TFIID will stay until elongation is finished. Subunits within TFIIH that have ATPase and helicase activity create negative superhelical tension in the DNA. This negative superhelical tension causes approximately one turn of DNA to unwind and form the transcription bubble. The template strand of the transcription bubble engages with the RNA polymerase II active site, then RNA synthesis starts.
Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar Persistent scatterer InSAR Interferometric_synthetic-aperture_radar > Technique > Persistent scatterer InSAR Persistent or permanent scatterer techniques are a relatively recent development from conventional InSAR, and rely on studying pixels which remain coherent over a sequence of interferograms. In 1999, researchers at Politecnico di Milano, Italy, developed a new multi-image approach in which one searches the stack of images for objects on the ground providing consistent and stable radar reflections back to the satellite. These objects could be the size of a pixel or, more commonly, sub-pixel sized, and are present in every image in the stack. That specific implementation is patented.
Superradiance Rotational superradiance Superradiance > Rotational superradiance In classical physics, the motion or rotation of a body in a particulate medium will normally be expected to result in momentum and energy being transferred to the surrounding particles, and there is then an increased statistical likelihood of particles being discovered following trajectories that imply removal of momentum from the body. In quantum mechanics, this principle is extended to the case of bodies moving, accelerating or rotating in a vacuum – in the quantum case, quantum fluctuations with appropriate vectors are said to be stretched and distorted and provided with energy and momentum by the nearby body's motion, with this selective amplification generating real physical radiation around the body.Where a classical description of a rotating isolated weightless sphere in a vacuum will tend to say that the sphere will continue to rotate indefinitely, due to the lack of frictional effects or any other form of obvious coupling with its smooth empty environment, under quantum mechanics the surrounding region of vacuum is not entirely smooth, and the sphere's field can couple with quantum fluctuations and accelerate them to produce real radiation. Hypothetical virtual wavefronts with appropriate paths around the body are stimulated and amplified into real physical wavefronts by the coupling process.
Differential Equations Ordinary differential equations Separable_ordinary_differential_equation > Types > Ordinary differential equations Their theory is well developed, and in many cases one may express their solutions in terms of integrals. Most ODEs that are encountered in physics are linear. Therefore, most special functions may be defined as solutions of linear differential equations (see Holonomic function). As, in general, the solutions of a differential equation cannot be expressed by a closed-form expression, numerical methods are commonly used for solving differential equations on a computer.
Ecological fallacy Individual and aggregate correlations Ecological_fallacy > Examples > Individual and aggregate correlations Aggregate-level correlation will differ from individual-level correlation if voting preferences are affected by the total wealth of the state even after controlling for individual wealth. It could be that the true driving factor in voting preference is self-perceived relative wealth; perhaps those who see themselves as better off than their neighbours are more likely to vote Republican. In this case, an individual would be more likely to vote Republican if she became wealthier, but she would be more likely to vote for a Democrat if her neighbor's wealth increased (resulting in a wealthier state).
Group cohomology Change of group Crossed_homomorphism > Properties > Change of group The Hochschild–Serre spectral sequence relates the cohomology of a normal subgroup N of G and the quotient G/N to the cohomology of the group G (for (pro-)finite groups G). From it, one gets the inflation-restriction exact sequence.