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Riemann–Stieltjes Integral Generalized Riemann–Stieltjes integral Riemann–Stieltjes_Integral > Generalization > Generalized Riemann–Stieltjes integral A slight generalization is to consider in the above definition partitions P that refine another partition Pε, meaning that P arises from Pε by the addition of points, rather than from partitions with a finer mesh. Specifically, the generalized Riemann–Stieltjes integral of f with respect to g is a number A such that for every ε > 0 there exists a partition Pε such that for every partition P that refines Pε, | S ( P , f , g ) − A | < ε {\displaystyle |S(P,f,g)-A|<\varepsilon \,} for every choice of points ci in . This generalization exhibits the Riemann–Stieltjes integral as the Moore–Smith limit on the directed set of partitions of .A consequence is that with this definition, the integral ∫ a b f ( x ) d g ( x ) {\textstyle \int _{a}^{b}f(x)\,\mathrm {d} g(x)} can still be defined in cases where f and g have a point of discontinuity in common.
(CH3)2CHOH Summary (CH3)2CHOH They all have the formula C3H8O. It is used in the manufacture of a wide variety of industrial and household chemicals and is a common ingredient in products such as antiseptics, disinfectants, hand sanitizer and detergents. Well over one million tonnes is produced worldwide annually.
Ceiling fan Operation Ceiling_fans > Operation Vari-Lo. A pull-chain and variable-speed control are present. Such a fan has two speeds controlled by a pull-chain: high (full power, independent of the position of the variable-speed control), and "Vari-Lo" (speed determined by the position of the variable-speed control).
Phase-type distribution Special cases Phase-type_distribution > Special cases The following probability distributions are all considered special cases of a continuous phase-type distribution: Degenerate distribution, point mass at zero or the empty phase-type distribution – 0 phases. Exponential distribution – 1 phase. Erlang distribution – 2 or more identical phases in sequence. Deterministic distribution (or constant) – The limiting case of an Erlang distribution, as the number of phases become infinite, while the time in each state becomes zero.
Carbon-dioxide angiography Properties Carbon_dioxide_angiography > Properties More pressure is exerted to the gas, more its density increases, resulting in a decrease in gas volume and an increase in gas pressure. The effusion of the gas from the catheter orifice into a state of lower pressure, such as a blood vessel, leads to a sudden increase in the volume of the gas - the “explosive delivery” or “jet effect” - which could lead to an excessive stress in vessels walls. To avoid this, immediately prior to the injection of CO2, a flush is performed, injecting small amounts of CO2 to reduce gas compression and guarantee gas delivery at a steady flow rate.
Embryonic stem cells Tissue engineering Human_embryonic_stem_cells > Utilizations > Tissue engineering Embryonic stem cells is one of the sources that are being considered for the use of tissue engineering. The use of human embryonic stem cells have opened many new possibilities for tissue engineering, however, there are many hurdles that must be made before human embryonic stem cell can even be utilized. It is theorized that if embryonic stem cells can be altered to not evoke the immune response when implanted into the patient then this would be a revolutionary step in tissue engineering. Embryonic stem cells are not limited to tissue engineering.
Indiana Pi Bill Area of the circle Indiana_Pi_Bill > Mathematics > Area of the circle It is unknown what made Goodwin believe that his rule could be correct. Generally, figures with identical perimeters do not have an identical area (see isoperimetry). The typical demonstration of this fact is to compare a long, thin shape with a small, enclosed area (the area approaching zero as the width decreases) to one with the same perimeter that is approximately as tall as it is wide (the area approaching the square of the width), obviously of a much greater area.
Ankylosing spondylitis Pathophysiology Ankylosing_spondylitis > Pathophysiology Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a systemic rheumatic disease, meaning it affects the entire body. 1–2% of individuals with the HLA-B27 genotype develop the disease. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF α) and Interleukin 1 (IL-1) are also implicated in ankylosing spondylitis.
Chemical energetics Chemical reactions Chemical_Thermodynamics > Chemical reactions In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which create entropy in the universe unless they are at equilibrium or are maintained at a "running equilibrium" through "quasi-static" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work. Even for homogeneous "bulk" systems, the free-energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy. If the quantities { Ni }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes.
Perturbative quantum chromodynamics One-loop renormalization Perturbative_QCD > Renormalization > One-loop renormalization Showing that QCD is renormalizable at one-loop order requires the evaluation of loop integrals, which can be derived from Feynman rules and evaluated using dimensional regularization.
Climate change effects Food security Heat_waves_and_climate_change > Health, food security and water security > Food security Droughts result in crop failures and the loss of pasture for livestock. Loss and poor growth of livestock cause milk yield and meat production to decrease.
Normal equation Limitations Linear_least_squares > Properties > Limitations In these cases, the least squares estimate amplifies the measurement noise and may be grossly inaccurate. Various regularization techniques can be applied in such cases, the most common of which is called ridge regression. If further information about the parameters is known, for example, a range of possible values of β ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {\boldsymbol {\beta }}} } , then various techniques can be used to increase the stability of the solution.
Electron self-energy Characteristics Mass_renormalization > Characteristics In general, the on-the-mass-shell value of the self-energy operator in the momentum-energy representation is complex. In such cases, it is the real part of this self-energy that is identified with the physical self-energy (referred to above as particle's "self-energy"); the inverse of the imaginary part is a measure for the lifetime of the particle under investigation. For clarity, elementary excitations, or dressed particles (see quasi-particle), in interacting systems are distinct from stable particles in vacuum; their state functions consist of complicated superpositions of the eigenstates of the underlying many-particle system, which only momentarily, if at all, behave like those specific to isolated particles; the above-mentioned lifetime is the time over which a dressed particle behaves as if it were a single particle with well-defined momentum and energy.
Heat absorption Heat transfer in the human body Transferring_heat > Applications > Heat transfer in the human body Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat flow over the covered portion of the body. This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered.
Polycistronic operon Summary Polycistronic_operon In general, expression of prokaryotic operons leads to the generation of polycistronic mRNAs, while eukaryotic operons lead to monocistronic mRNAs. Operons are also found in viruses such as bacteriophages.
Digestive enzyme Small intestine Pancreatic_enzymes > Small intestine The following enzymes/hormones are produced in the duodenum: secretin: This is an endocrine hormone produced by the duodenal "S cells" in response to the acidity of the gastric chyme. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a unique peptide released by the duodenal "I cells" in response to chyme containing high fat or protein content. Unlike secretin, which is an endocrine hormone, CCK actually works via stimulation of a neuronal circuit, the end-result of which is stimulation of the acinar cells to release their content. CCK also increases gallbladder contraction, causing release of pre-stored bile into the cystic duct, and eventually into the common bile duct and via the ampulla of Vater into the second anatomic position of the duodenum.
Bisphenol S Neurobehavioral effects Bisphenol_S > Health effects > Neurobehavioral effects BPS has the potential to have an effect on a wide range of neurological functions. A recent study showed that exposure to BPS during pregnancy may disrupt thyroid hormone levels. These are important in foetal neurodevelopment and prenatal exposure to BPS has been linked to impaired psychomotor development in children. In a study using human embryonic stem cells, BPS was shown to cause a reduction in length of neurites in neuron-like cells. This disruption could lead to neurobehavioral problems such as ASD.The mechanism of the neurological impact of BPS is thought to be related to its oestrogenic effect which can interfere in the levels and action of thyroid hormone, which is essential for normal development of the nervous system; it regulates migration and differentiation of neural cells, synaptogenesis and myelination.
Cognitivism (psychology) Attention Cognitivism_(psychology) > Attention Attention is an active process which involves numerous outside stimuli. The attention of an organism at any point in time involves three concentric circles; beyond awareness, margin, and focus. Individuals have a mental capacity; there are only so many things someone can focus on at one time.
Production–possibility frontier Position Production–possibility_frontier > Position Conversely, a natural, military or ecological disaster might move the PPF to the left in response to a reduction in an economy's productive capability. Thus all points on or within the curve are part of the production set: combinations of goods that the economy could potentially produce. If the two production goods depicted are capital investment (to increase future production possibilities) and current consumption goods, the higher the investment this year, the more the PPF would shift out in following years. Shifts of the curve can represent how technological progress that favors production possibilities of one good, say guns, more than the other shifts the PPF outwards more along the favored good's axis, "biasing" production possibilities in that direction. Similarly, if one good makes more use of say capital and if capital grows faster than other factors, growth possibilities might be biased in favor of the capital-intensive good.Also a shift in the PPF could depict that there's an improvement in technology or good use of capital goods.
Intelligent agent Learning agents Intelligent_agent > Classes of intelligent agents > Russel and Norvig's classification > Learning agents Learning has the advantage that it allows the agents to initially operate in unknown environments and to become more competent than its initial knowledge alone might allow. The most important distinction is between the "learning element", which is responsible for making improvements, and the "performance element", which is responsible for selecting external actions. The learning element uses feedback from the "critic" on how the agent is doing and determines how the performance element, or "actor", should be modified to do better in the future.
Salt metathesis reaction Salt-free metathesis reaction Double-displacement_reaction > Types of reactions > Salt-free metathesis reaction In contrast to salt metathesis reactions, which are driven by the precipitation of solid salts, are salt-free reductions, which are driven by formation of silyl halides, Salt-free metathesis reactions proceed homogeneously.
Palmgren-Miner linear damage hypothesis Timeline of research history Fatigue_cracking > Timeline of research history 1837: Wilhelm Albert publishes the first article on fatigue. He devised a test machine for conveyor chains used in the Clausthal mines. 1839: Jean-Victor Poncelet describes metals as being 'tired' in his lectures at the military school at Metz. 1842: William John Macquorn Rankine recognises the importance of stress concentrations in his investigation of railroad axle failures.
Leibniz formula (determinant) Formal statement and proof Leibniz_formula_(determinant) > Formal statement and proof Theorem. There exists exactly one function F: M n ( K ) → K {\displaystyle F:M_{n}(\mathbb {K} )\rightarrow \mathbb {K} } which is alternating multilinear w.r.t. columns and such that F ( I ) = 1 {\displaystyle F(I)=1} . Proof.
Flying Wing Summary Flying_Wing This approach eventually led to the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. There has been continual interest in using it in the large transport roles for cargo or passengers. Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Armstrong Whitworth have undertaken design studies on flying wing airliners; however, no such airliners have yet been built. The flying wing concept is mostly suited to subsonic aircraft. No supersonic flying wing has ever been built.
Interactive visualization Scientific visualization Interactive_visualization > Applications > Scientific visualization As a subject in computer science, scientific visualization is the use of interactive, sensory representations, typically visual, of abstract data to reinforce cognition, hypothesis building, and reasoning. Scientific visualization is the transformation, selection, or representation of data from simulations or experiments, with an implicit or explicit geometric structure, to allow the exploration, analysis, and understanding of the data. Scientific visualization focuses and emphasizes the representation of higher order data using primarily graphics and animation techniques.
List of limits Functions of the form ag(x) List_of_limits > Exponential functions > Functions of the form ag(x) lim x → c e x = e c {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to c}e^{x}=e^{c}} , due to the continuity of e x {\displaystyle e^{x}} lim x → ∞ a x = { ∞ , a > 1 1 , a = 1 0 , 0 < a < 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }a^{x}={\begin{cases}\infty ,&a>1\\1,&a=1\\0,&0 1 1 , a = 1 ∞ , 0 < a < 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }a^{-x}={\begin{cases}0,&a>1\\1,&a=1\\\infty ,&0 0 0 , a = 0 does not exist , a < 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to \infty }{\sqrt{a}}=\lim _{x\to \infty }{a}^{1/x}={\begin{cases}1,&a>0\\0,&a=0\\{\text{does not exist}},&a<0\end{cases}}}
Davies–Meyer hash One-way Davies–Meyer_hash > One-way Second preimage-resistance: Given an input m 1 {\displaystyle m_{1}} whose output is h {\displaystyle h} , it should be infeasible to find another input m 2 {\displaystyle m_{2}} that has the same output h {\displaystyle h} , i.e. hash ⁡ ( m 1 ) = hash ⁡ ( m 2 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {hash} (m_{1})=\operatorname {hash} (m_{2})} . Collision-resistance: It should be hard to find any two different inputs that compress to the same output i.e. an attacker should not be able to find a pair of messages m 1 ≠ m 2 {\displaystyle m_{1}\neq m_{2}} such that hash ⁡ ( m 1 ) = hash ⁡ ( m 2 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {hash} (m_{1})=\operatorname {hash} (m_{2})} . Due to the birthday paradox (see also birthday attack) there is a 50% chance a collision can be found in time of about 2 n / 2 {\displaystyle 2^{n/2}} where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of bits in the hash function's output. An attack on the hash function thus should not be able to find a collision with less than about 2 n / 2 {\displaystyle 2^{n/2}} work.Ideally one would like the "infeasibility" in preimage-resistance and second preimage-resistance to mean a work of about 2 n {\displaystyle 2^{n}} where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of bits in the hash function's output. However, particularly for second preimage-resistance this is a difficult problem.
Automated synthesis Automating synthesis Fully_automated_synthesis > Automating synthesis An automated synthesis is very similar in procedure to performing a manual synthesis. The overseeing chemist decides on a target molecule then formulates the experimental plan, which is a sequential series of steps. Then, they collect the required equipment and execute the plan. The automated synthesis follows the same pathway, except that the computer devises and executes the experimental plan. However, human revision is usually still required to ensure the automated route is practical and there are no implicit steps or conditions missing from the proposed procedure.
Artificial intelligence in healthcare Summary Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare These processes can recognize patterns in behavior and create their own logic. To gain useful insights and predictions, machine learning models must be trained using extensive amounts of input data. AI algorithms behave differently from humans in two ways: (1) algorithms are literal: once a goal is set, the algorithm learns exclusively from the input data and can only understand what it has been programmed to do, (2) and some deep learning algorithms are black boxes; algorithms can predict with extreme precision, but offer little to no comprehensible explanation to the logic behind its decisions aside from the data and type of algorithm used.As widespread use of AI in healthcare is relatively new, research is ongoing into its application in various fields of medicine and industry. Additionally, greater consideration is being given to the unprecedented ethical concerns related to its practice such as data privacy, automation of jobs, and representation biases. Furthermore, new technologies brought about by AI in healthcare are often resisted by healthcare leaders, leading to slow and erratic adoption.
Ro-vibrational spectroscopy Method of combination differences Rotational–vibrational_spectroscopy > Overview > Method of combination differences The main term, 2 B ″ ( 2 J + 1 ) , {\displaystyle 2B''(2J+1),} comes from the difference in the energy of the J + 1 {\displaystyle J+1} rotational state, B ″ ( ( J + 1 ) ( J + 2 ) ) , {\displaystyle B''((J+1)(J+2)),} and that of the J − 1 {\displaystyle J-1} state, B ″ ( ( J − 1 ) J ) . {\displaystyle B''((J-1)J).}
Pocklington's algorithm Example 2 Pocklington's_algorithm > Examples > Example 2 Solve the congruence x 2 ≡ 10 ( mod 13 ) . {\displaystyle x^{2}\equiv 10{\pmod {13}}.} The modulus is 13. This is 13 = 8 ⋅ 1 + 5 {\displaystyle 13=8\cdot 1+5} , so m = 1 {\displaystyle m=1} .
SDS Tuberculosis Sanatorium Summary SDS_Tuberculosis_Sanatorium Specialised treatment of tuberculosis and its varied complications are dealt with medically and if be need surgically yet being very cost effective. It also functions as a chest injury and trauma care referral hospital. Undergraduate students in the MBBS and Respiratory therapy, course and post graduate students from the medicine, surgery and allied departments are posted on rotation basis for a definite period for gaining clinical and surgical experience in identifying, treating and following up pulmonary disease.
Flagellar motor Archaeal Bacterial_flagella > Types > Archaeal Similar to bacterial type IV pilins, the archaeal proteins (archaellins) are made with class 3 signal peptides and they are processed by a type IV prepilin peptidase-like enzyme. The archaellins are typically modified by the addition of N-linked glycans which are necessary for proper assembly or function.Discoveries in the 1990s revealed numerous detailed differences between the archaeal and bacterial flagella. These include: Bacterial flagella rotation is powered by the proton motive force – a flow of H+ ions or occasionally by the sodium-motive force – a flow of Na+ ions; archaeal flagella rotation is powered by ATP.
Shape analysis (software) Summary Shape_analysis_(software) In program analysis, shape analysis is a static code analysis technique that discovers and verifies properties of linked, dynamically allocated data structures in (usually imperative) computer programs. It is typically used at compile time to find software bugs or to verify high-level correctness properties of programs. In Java programs, it can be used to ensure that a sort method correctly sorts a list. For C programs, it might look for places where a block of memory is not properly freed.
Information security Laws and regulations Information_security_policies > Laws and regulations Department of Education. Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.
Group selectionism Implications in population biology Group_selection > Applications > Implications in population biology When resources are limited, group selection favors prides that work together to hunt. When prey is abundant, cooperation is no longer beneficial enough to outweigh the disadvantages of altruism, and hunting is no longer cooperative.Interactions between different species can also be affected by multilevel selection. Predator-prey relationships can also be affected.
Obstructive jaundice Prehepatic metabolism Obstructive_jaundice > Pathophysiology > Normal heme metabolism > Prehepatic metabolism The majority of this bilirubin comes from the breakdown of heme from expired red blood cells in the process just described. Roughly 20% comes from other heme sources, however, including ineffective erythropoiesis, and the breakdown of other heme-containing proteins, such as muscle myoglobin and cytochromes. The unconjugated bilirubin then travels to the liver through the bloodstream. Because this bilirubin is not soluble, it is transported through the blood bound to serum albumin.
Fouling Mitigation Biofouling Anti-fouling_agent > Micro fouling > Biofouling Biofouling or biological fouling is the undesirable accumulation of micro-organisms, algae and diatoms, plants, and animals on surfaces, such as ships and submarine hulls, or piping and reservoirs with untreated water. This can be accompanied by microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). Bacteria can form biofilms or slimes.
Drude theory Thermopower Drude_theory > Mathematical treatment > Thermopower A generic temperature gradient when switched on in a thin bar will trigger a current of electrons towards the lower temperature side, given the experiments are done in an open circuit manner this current will accumulate on that side generating an electric field countering the electric current. This field is called thermoelectric field: and Q is called thermopower. The estimates by Drude are a factor of 100 low given the direct dependency with the specific heat. where the typical thermopowers at room temperature are 100 times smaller of the order of micro-volts.
Media filter Oil and gas industry Media_filter > Uses > Oil and gas industry The oil and gas industry uses media filters for various purposes in both upstream and downstream operations. Nut shell filters are commonly used as a tertiary oil removal step for treatment of produced water. Sand filters are often used to remove fine solids following biological treatment and clarification of oil refinery wastewater. Multi-media filters are used for removing suspended solids from both produced water and refinery wastewater. The materials commonly used in multi-media filters are gravel, sand, garnet, and anthracite.
Geometric pattern Symmetry Geometric_patterns > Nature > Symmetry Symmetry is widespread in living things. Animals that move usually have bilateral or mirror symmetry as this favours movement. : 48–49 Plants often have radial or rotational symmetry, as do many flowers, as well as animals which are largely static as adults, such as sea anemones. Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, including starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies.
Catalytic RNA Summary Ribozyme They also participate in a variety of RNA processing reactions, including RNA splicing, viral replication, and transfer RNA biosynthesis. Examples of ribozymes include the hammerhead ribozyme, the VS ribozyme, leadzyme, and the hairpin ribozyme. Researchers who are investigating the origins of life through the RNA world hypothesis have been working on discovering a ribozyme with the capacity to self-replicate, which would require it to have the ability to catalytically synthesize polymers of RNA. This should be able to happen in prebiotically plausible conditions with high rates of copying accuracy to prevent degradation of information but also allowing for the occurrence of occasional errors during the copying process to allow for Darwinian evolution to proceed.Attempts have been made to develop ribozymes as therapeutic agents, as enzymes which target defined RNA sequences for cleavage, as biosensors, and for applications in functional genomics and gene discovery.
Logical analysis Translation procedures Logical_analysis > Translation procedures Various logicians have proposed translation procedures employing several steps to arrive at correct translations. Some only constitute rough guidelines to help translators in the process while others consist of detailed and effective procedures covering all the steps needed to arrive at a translation. In either case, they are usually not exact algorithms that could be blindly followed but rather tools to simplify the process.Preparatory steps may be taken within natural language before the actual translation starts. An initial step is often to understand the meaning of the original text, for example, by analyzing the claims made in it.
Optical fiber sensor Intrinsic sensors Optical_fiber_sensor > Intrinsic sensors Optical fibers can be made into interferometric sensors such as fiber-optic gyroscopes, which are used in the Boeing 767 and in some car models (for navigation purposes). They are also used to make hydrogen sensors. Fiber-optic sensors have been developed to measure co-located temperature and strain simultaneously with very high accuracy using fiber Bragg gratings.
Fluidic logic Summary Fluidics This provides nonlinear amplification, similar to the transistor used in electronic digital logic. It is used mostly in environments where electronic digital logic would be unreliable, as in systems exposed to high levels of electromagnetic interference or ionizing radiation.
Variable (mathematics) Example: the ideal gas law Variable_(logics) > Specific kinds of variables > Examples > Example: the ideal gas law One could approach this function more formally and think about its domain and range: in function notation, here P {\displaystyle P} is a function P: R > 0 × N × R > 0 → R {\displaystyle P:\mathbb {R} _{>0}\times \mathbb {N} \times \mathbb {R} _{>0}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} } . However, in an experiment, in order to determine the dependence of pressure on a single one of the independent variables, it is necessary to fix all but one of the variables, say T {\displaystyle T} . This gives a function where now N {\displaystyle N} and V {\displaystyle V} are also regarded as constants.
Rogue Data Cache Load Affected hardware Rogue_Data_Cache_Load > Impact > Affected hardware Google has reported that any Intel processor since 1995 with out-of-order execution is potentially vulnerable to the Meltdown vulnerability (this excludes Itanium and pre-2013 Intel Atom CPUs). Intel introduced speculative execution to their processors with Intel's P6 family microarchitecture with the Pentium Pro IA-32 microprocessor in 1995.ARM has reported that the majority of their processors are not vulnerable, and published a list of the specific processors that are affected. The ARM Cortex-A75 core is affected directly by both Meltdown and Spectre vulnerabilities, and Cortex-R7, Cortex-R8, Cortex-A8, Cortex-A9, Cortex-A15, Cortex-A17, Cortex-A57, Cortex-A72 and Cortex-A73 cores are affected only by the Spectre vulnerability.
Dry reforming Summary Dry_reforming For example, the following reaction typically proceeds with lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself: CO + H 2 O ⇌ 600 o C CO 2 + H 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O <=> CO2 + H2}}} Another issue with dry reforming is situated in the fact that it operates at conditions that produces water. As a result, this water can lead to unwanted back-reaction to CO2 via the water-gas shift reaction. To prevent CO2 from being formed, and consequently losses in CO yield, CO2 can be adsorbed onto calcium oxide.
Object system Composition, inheritance, and delegation Object_Oriented_Programming > Features > Composition, inheritance, and delegation For example, class Person might define variables "first_name" and "last_name" with method "make_full_name()". These will also be available in class Employee, which might add the variables "position" and "salary".
Order of magnitude (numbers) 1042 to 10100 Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers) > 1042 to 10100 However, these estimates are generally regarded as guesswork. (Compare the Eddington number, the estimated total number of protons in the observable universe.) Computing: 9.999 999×1096 is equal to the largest value that can be represented in the IEEE decimal32 floating-point format.
AMD Optimizing C/C++ Compiler Summary AMD_Optimizing_C/C++_Compiler The AMD Optimizing C/C++ Compiler (AOCC) is an optimizing C/C++ and Fortran compiler suite from AMD targeting 32-bit and 64-bit Linux platforms. It is a proprietary fork of LLVM + Clang with various additional patches to improve performance for AMD's Zen microarchitecture in Epyc and Ryzen microprocessors. In a May 2017 benchmark comparing AOCC v1.0 to Clang 4 and 5, and GCC 6 through 8, Phoronix found AOCC provided marginal improvement over Clang 4.0 in several benchmarks and no difference in others. Compilation time generally increased relative to Clang 4.0.
Link prediction Markov logic networks (MLNs) Link_prediction > Approaches and methods > Mixed methods > Markov logic networks (MLNs) Markov logic networks (MLNs) is a probabilistic graphical model defined over Markov networks. These networks are defined by templated first-order logic-like rules, which is then grounded over the training data. MLNs are able to incorporate both local and relational rules for the purpose of link prediction.
Lie derivative The Lie derivative of a spinor field Lie_commutator > Generalizations > The Lie derivative of a spinor field It is worth noting that the spinor Lie derivative is independent of the metric, and hence also of the connection. This is not obvious from the right-hand side of Kosmann's local expression, as the right-hand side seems to depend on the metric through the spin connection (covariant derivative), the dualisation of vector fields (lowering of the indices) and the Clifford multiplication on the spinor bundle. Such is not the case: the quantities on the right-hand side of Kosmann's local expression combine so as to make all metric and connection dependent terms cancel. To gain a better understanding of the long-debated concept of Lie derivative of spinor fields one may refer to the original article, where the definition of a Lie derivative of spinor fields is placed in the more general framework of the theory of Lie derivatives of sections of fiber bundles and the direct approach by Y. Kosmann to the spinor case is generalized to gauge natural bundles in the form of a new geometric concept called the Kosmann lift.
Mathematical Q models Basics Mathematical_Q_models > Basics In order to compare the different models they considered plane-wave propagation in a homogeneous viscoelastic medium. They used the Kolsky–Futterman model as a reference and studied several other models. These other models were compared with the behavior of the Kolsky–Futterman model. The Kolsky–Futterman model was first described in the article ‘Dispersive body waves’ by Futterman (1962).
Participatory governance Effective governance Participatory_governance > As a normative concept > Effective governance Acting according to these needs, effectiveness is achieved by transparent, decentralized and neutral structures, that are consistent and disciplined. Therefore, efficient financial management, high-quality and committed personnel and formalized and standardized ways of processes is needed. For the latter, governments became much more efficient with the arise of bureaucracies.
Rafael Bombelli Reputation Rafael_Bombelli > Reputation Bombelli is generally regarded as the inventor of complex numbers, as no one before him had made rules for dealing with such numbers, and no one believed that working with imaginary numbers would have useful results. Upon reading Bombelli's Algebra, Leibniz praised Bombelli as an ". . .
Relativistic quantum field theory Renormalization Quantum_field_theories > Principles > Renormalization In the case of ϕ4 theory, the field strength is first redefined: ϕ = Z 1 / 2 ϕ r , {\displaystyle \phi =Z^{1/2}\phi _{r},} where ϕ is the bare field, ϕr is the renormalized field, and Z is a constant to be determined. The Lagrangian density becomes: L = 1 2 ( ∂ μ ϕ r ) ( ∂ μ ϕ r ) − 1 2 m r 2 ϕ r 2 − λ r 4 ! ϕ r 4 + 1 2 δ Z ( ∂ μ ϕ r ) ( ∂ μ ϕ r ) − 1 2 δ m ϕ r 2 − δ λ 4 !
Atomino Summary Atomino Atomino is a 1990 puzzle video game originally for the Amiga, Atari ST and MS-DOS. A version was made for the Commodore 64 in 1991. The objective is to build molecules from atoms, with gradually increasing difficulty and speed.
Venous hypertension Diagnosis Venous_hypertension > Diagnosis History and examination by a clinician for characteristic signs and symptoms are sufficient in many cases in ruling out systemic causes of venous hypertension such as hypervolemia and heart failure. A duplex ultrasound (doppler ultrasonography and b-mode) can detect venous obstruction or valvular incompetence as the cause, and is used for planning venous ablation procedures, but it is not necessary in suspected venous insufficiency where surgical intervention is not indicated.Insufficiency within a venous segment is defined as reflux of more than 0.5 seconds with distal compression. Invasive venography can be used in patients who may require surgery or have suspicion of venous stenosis.
Active learning (machine learning) Summary Active_learning_(machine_learning) Active learning is a special case of machine learning in which a learning algorithm can interactively query a user (or some other information source) to label new data points with the desired outputs. In statistics literature, it is sometimes also called optimal experimental design. The information source is also called teacher or oracle. There are situations in which unlabeled data is abundant but manual labeling is expensive.
Human chromosomes Evolution Protein-coding_gene > Evolution Indeed, even within humans, there has been found to be a previously unappreciated amount of copy number variation (CNV) which can make up as much as 5–15% of the human genome. In other words, between humans, there could be +/- 500,000,000 base pairs of DNA, some being active genes, others inactivated, or active at different levels. The full significance of this finding remains to be seen.
Pipeline flush Example Pipeline_flush > Types > Data hazards > Write after read (WAR) > Example For example: i1. R4 <- R1 + R5 i2. R5 <- R1 + R2 In any situation with a chance that i2 may finish before i1 (i.e., with concurrent execution), it must be ensured that the result of register R5 is not stored before i1 has had a chance to fetch the operands.
Cancer epigenetics MicroRNA and DNA repair Cancer_epigenetics > MicroRNA and DNA repair Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to cancer (see malignant neoplasms). Germ line mutations in DNA repair genes cause only 2–5% of colon cancer cases. However, altered expression of microRNAs, causing DNA repair deficiencies, are frequently associated with cancers and may be an important causal factor for these cancers.
Type inference Types in programming languages Inferred_typing > Types in programming languages The recent emergence of just-in-time compilation allows for hybrid approaches where the type of arguments supplied by the various calling context is known at compile time, and can generate a large number of compiled versions of the same function. Each compiled version can then be optimized for a different set of types. For instance, JIT compilation allows there to be at least two compiled versions of add_one: A version that accepts an integer input and uses implicit type conversion. A version that accepts a floating-point number as input and uses floating point instructions throughout.
Therapeutic drugs Systems, receptors and ligands Therapeutic_drugs > Theory of pharmacology > Systems, receptors and ligands Receptors are typically categorised based on structure and function. Major receptor types studied in pharmacology include G protein coupled receptors, ligand gated ion channels and receptor tyrosine kinases. Network pharmacology is a subfield of pharmacology that combines principles from pharmacology, systems biology, and network analysis to study the complex interactions between drugs and targets (e.g., receptors or enzymes etc) in biological systems. The topology of a biochemical reaction network determines the shape of drug dose-response curve as well as the type of drug-drug interactions, thus can help designing efficient and safe therapeutic strategies. The topology Network pharmacology utilizes computational tools and network analysis algorithms to identify drug targets, predict drug-drug interactions, elucidate signaling pathways, and explore the polypharmacology of drugs.
Georelational data model Summary Georelational_data_model A georelational data model is a geographic data model that represents geographic features as an interrelated set of spatial and attribute data. The georelational model was the dominant form of vector file format during the 1980s and 1990s, including the Esri coverage and Shapefile.
Adrenocortical insufficiency Treatment Primary_adrenocortical_insufficiency > Treatment In general, the treatment of adrenal insufficiency requires replacement of deficient hormones, as well as treatment of any underlying cause. All types of adrenal insufficiency will require glucocorticoid repletion. Many cases (typically, primary adrenal insufficiency) will also require mineralocorticoid repletion. In rarer cases, repletion of androgens may also be indicated, typically in female patients with mood disturbances and changes in well-being. Adrenal crisis (acute) treatment Intravenous fluids Intravenous glucocorticoidstypically hydrocortisone (Cortef) but dexamethasone (Decadron) may be used if diagnostic studies are necessary, as dexamethasone does not affect testing results Supportive measures and correction of any additional issues such as electrolyte abnormalities Chronic adrenal insufficiency treatment Glucocorticoid deficiency (low cortisol) Oral glucocorticoidsHydrocortisone (brand name: Cortef), or Prednisone (brand name: Deltasone), or Dexamethasone (brand name: Decadron) Mineralocorticoid deficiency (low aldosterone) treatment Oral mineralocorticoidsFludrocortisone (brand name: Florinef) Sex hormone deficiency (low androgen) Oral androgensDehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
Natural resources engineering Concepts and areas of research and development Natural_resources_engineering > Concepts and areas of research and development The discipline of Natural Resource engineering specifically concentrates on natural resources. Natural resources are "industrial materials and capacities (such as mineral deposits and water power) supplied by nature" and sometimes legally are classified by their ability to be used by humans to meet their demands. Natural resources can be both living and non-living natural elements and include fossil fuels, plants, animals, minerals, sediment, and bodies of water.
Inclusive education Differing views among experts in education Inclusive_education > Differing views among experts in education However, if individual situations were addressed and a plan was made for each child with special needs, inclusion models would be more effective as children with very high needs would not spend as much time in the general classroom.4 This would shift the attention from how to make inclusion work, to a focus on effective education and helping the students reach their personal goals. Overall, experts in the field of education have done extensive research on the topic of inclusion in regards to special education and have found a lot of data supporting both sides of the debate. As seen, this debate on whether or not inclusion is the right model for special education has been long-lasting, and there is no telling if it will ever really be over.
Stellar precession Torque-free or Torque neglected Torque-free_precession > Torque-free or Torque neglected Torque-free precession implies that no external moment (torque) is applied to the body. In torque-free precession, the angular momentum is a constant, but the angular velocity vector changes orientation with time. What makes this possible is a time-varying moment of inertia, or more precisely, a time-varying inertia matrix. The inertia matrix is composed of the moments of inertia of a body calculated with respect to separate coordinate axes (e.g. x, y, z).
Lagrangian Mechanics Newton's laws Lagrangian_Mechanics > From Newtonian to Lagrangian mechanics > Newton's laws The acceleration components in terms of the Christoffel symbols can be avoided by evaluating derivatives of the kinetic energy instead. If there is no resultant force acting on the particle, F = 0, it does not accelerate, but moves with constant velocity in a straight line. Mathematically, the solutions of the differential equation are geodesics, the curves of extremal length between two points in space (these may end up being minimal so the shortest paths, but that is not necessary).
History of the International System of Units Definition vs. realization of units History_of_the_International_System_of_Units > Realisation of units > Definition vs. realization of units The nature of the defining constants ranges from fundamental constants of nature such as c to the purely technical constant Kcd. : 128–129 Prior to 2019, h, e, k, and NA were not defined a priori but were rather very precisely measured quantities. In 2019, their values were fixed by definition to their best estimates at the time, ensuring continuity with previous definitions of the base units.
System Contention Scope Summary System_Contention_Scope In computer science, The System Contention Scope is one of two thread-scheduling schemes used in operating systems. This scheme is used by the kernel to decide which kernel-level thread to schedule onto a CPU, wherein all threads (as opposed to only user-level threads, as in the Process Contention Scope scheme) in the system compete for the CPU. Operating systems that use only the one-to-one model, such as Windows, Linux, and Solaris, schedule threads using only System Contention Scope. == References ==
Generalized manifold Examples Generalized_manifold > Examples Any topological manifold is a homology manifold. An example of a homology manifold that is not a manifold is the suspension of a homology sphere that is not a sphere.
Liver fibrosis Advanced disease Cirrhosis_of_the_liver > Signs and symptoms > Advanced disease As the disease progresses, complications may develop. In some people, these may be the first signs of the disease. Bruising and bleeding can result from decreased production of clotting factors Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) occurs when ammonia and related substances build up in the blood. This build-up affects brain function when they are not cleared from the blood by the liver.
AdS/CFT duality dS/CFT correspondence Anti-de_Sitter/conformal_field_theory_correspondence > Generalizations > dS/CFT correspondence Unlike our universe, which is now known to be expanding at an accelerating rate, anti-de Sitter space is neither expanding nor contracting. Instead it looks the same at all times. In more technical language, one says that anti-de Sitter space corresponds to a universe with a negative cosmological constant, whereas the real universe has a small positive cosmological constant.Although the properties of gravity at short distances should be somewhat independent of the value of the cosmological constant, it is desirable to have a version of the AdS/CFT correspondence for positive cosmological constant. In 2001, Andrew Strominger introduced a version of the duality called the dS/CFT correspondence.
Communication noise Psychological noise Communication_noise > Psychological noise For example, suppose the receiver has a general liking to the sender in the communication encounter. In that case, the receiver will be more successful in effectively listening to the sender’s message, and he or she will be able to respond effectively. Also, if the receiver is in either a bad or good mood, it will have an impact on how he or she receives the message. Although a positive emotion can increase the possibility of a successful communication encounter, it can also have a negative impact. It is crucial to recognize these emotions and analyze whether they are impacting the message transmission.
History of quantum mechanics Wave theory of light History_of_quantum_mechanics > Triumph and trouble at the end of the classical era > Wave theory of light The wave view did not immediately displace the ray and particle view, but began to dominate scientific thinking about light in the mid 19th century, since it could explain polarization phenomena that the alternatives could not.James Clerk Maxwell discovered that he could apply his previously discovered Maxwell's equations, along with a slight modification to describe self-propagating waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. It quickly became apparent that visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared light were all electromagnetic waves of differing frequency. : 272 This theory became a critical ingredient in the beginning of quantum mechanics.
Chain of custody Criminal evidence Chain_of_custody > Criminal evidence Maintaining a chain of custody is essential for the forensic scientist that is working on a specific criminal case. The documentation of evidence is key for maintaining a chain of custody because everything that is done to the piece of evidence must be listed and whoever came in contact with that piece of evidence is accountable for what happens to it. This prevents police officers and other law officials from contaminating the evidence or taking the piece of evidence.
Feature engineering Summary Feature_engineering Feature engineering or feature extraction or feature discovery is the process of extracting features (characteristics, properties, attributes) from raw data. Due to deep learning networks, such as convolutional neural networks, that are able to learn it by itself, domain-specific- based feature engineering has become obsolete for vision and speech processing. Other examples of features in physics include the construction of dimensionless numbers such as Reynolds number in fluid dynamics; then Nusselt number in heat transfer; Archimedes number in sedimentation; construction of first approximations of the solution such as analytical strength of materials solutions in mechanics, etc.
Choropleth map Property: aggregate statistical summaries Choropleth_map > Structure > Property: aggregate statistical summaries Other types of thematic maps, especially proportional symbols and cartograms, are designed to represent extensive variables and are generally preferred. : 131 A spatially intensive variable, also known as a field, statistical surface, or localized variable, represents a property that could be measured at any location (a point or small area, depending on its nature) in space, independent of any boundaries, although its variation over a district can be summarized as a single value. Common intensive variables include densities, proportions, rates of change, mean allotments (e.g., GDP per capita), and descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, standard deviation).
Key word signing Summary Key_word_signing Research suggests that lexical representations of words, including manual signing, as well as speech and graphic symbols, can be used to reinforce other lexical representations. This indicates that the use of AAC, including manual signing and key word signing, can be beneficial for speech and language interventions. == References ==
Super-recursive algorithm Inductive Turing machines Super-recursive_algorithm > Inductive Turing machines Kleene also demanded that such an algorithm must eventually exhibit "some object" (Kleene 1952:137). Burgin argues that this condition is satisfied by inductive Turing machines, as their results are exhibited after a finite number of steps.
Liouville's theorem (differential algebra) Basic theorem Liouville's_theorem_(differential_algebra) > Basic theorem Thus, on an intuitive level, the theorem states that the only elementary antiderivatives are the "simple" functions plus a finite number of logarithms of "simple" functions. A proof of Liouville's theorem can be found in section 12.4 of Geddes, et al. See Lützen's scientific bibliography for a sketch of Liouville's original proof (Chapter IX. Integration in Finite Terms), its modern exposition and algebraic treatment (ibid. §61).
Electron device Reliability Vacuum_diode > Reliability Some had a resistance wire running the length of the power cord to drop the voltage to the tubes. Others had series resistors made like regular tubes; they were called ballast tubes. Following World War II, tubes intended to be used in series heater strings were redesigned to all have the same ("controlled") warm-up time.
Business process management Business process automation Business_process_management > Life-cycle > Execution > Business process automation Business process automation is performed and orchestrated at the business process layer or the consumer presentation layer of SOA Reference Architecture. BPM software suites such as BPMS or iBPMS or low-code platforms are positioned at the business process layer. While the emerging robotic process automation software performs business process automation at the presentation layer, therefore is considered non-invasive to and de-coupled from existing application systems. One of the ways to automate processes is to develop or purchase an application that executes the required steps of the process; however, in practice, these applications rarely execute all the steps of the process accurately or completely.
Generational cohort Summary Generational_cohort A generation refers to all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–⁠30 years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children." In kinship terminology, it is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. It is known as biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in the biological sciences.
Space-based solar power Non-typical configurations and architectural considerations Satellite_solar_power > Non-typical configurations and architectural considerations The typical reference system-of-systems involves a significant number (several thousand multi-gigawatt systems to service all or a significant portion of Earth's energy requirements) of individual satellites in GEO. The typical reference design for the individual satellite is in the 1-10 GW range and usually involves planar or concentrated solar photovoltaics (PV) as the energy collector / conversion. The most typical transmission designs are in the 1–10 GHz (2.45 or 5.8 GHz) RF band where there are minimum losses in the atmosphere. Materials for the satellites are sourced from, and manufactured on Earth and expected to be transported to LEO via re-usable rocket launch, and transported between LEO and GEO via chemical or electrical propulsion.
Kalman's conjecture Summary Kalman's_conjecture Kalman's conjecture or Kalman problem is a disproved conjecture on absolute stability of nonlinear control system with one scalar nonlinearity, which belongs to the sector of linear stability. Kalman's conjecture is a strengthening of Aizerman's conjecture and is a special case of Markus–Yamabe conjecture. This conjecture was proven false but led to the (valid) sufficient criteria on absolute stability.
Sensory branding Overview Sensory_branding > Overview Sensory branding is used to create an atmosphere that encourages the customer to pay money and can be influenced by sight, noise, touch, taste and smell. Sensory marketing is defined as a way of: measuring and explaining consumer emotions spotting and capitalizing on new market opportunities an opportunity to maximize product profitability ensuring first and repeat purchase (loyalty) ensuring long-lasting product success Sensory stimuli, in relation to retailing pertains to any event or object, igniting the senses, that elicits a response by the person receiving them. These faculties include; olfactory (smelling), tactile (touching), aural (hearing), visual (seeing) and oral (tasting).
The Selfish Gene Choice of words The_Selfish_Gene > Reception > Choice of words The distinction is as follows: replicator: an entity that passes on its structure largely intact in successive replications. interactor: an entity that interacts as a cohesive whole with its environment in such a way that this interaction causes replication to be differential. selection: a process in which the differential extinction or proliferation of interactors causes the differential perpetuation of the replicators that produced them.Hull suggests that, despite some similarities, Dawkins takes too narrow a view of these terms, engendering some of the objections to his views. According to Godfrey-Smith, this more careful vocabulary has cleared up "misunderstandings in the "units of selection" debates."
N2 diagram Functions on the diagonal N2_diagram > N2 charts building blocks > Functions on the diagonal If function 1 does not send data to any of the other functions, the rest of the boxes to right of function 1 would be empty. If function 2 sends data to function 3 and function 5, then the data elements would be placed in the first and third boxes to the right of function 2. If any function sends data back to a previous function, then the associated box to the left of the function would have the data elements placed in it.
Corporate immune response Summary Corporate_immune_response The term corporate immune system, or corporate immune response, refers to a process within corporations that demands organizations within the company accomplish activities in a certain way, a form of conformity tendencies. It is, in effect, the active form of groupthink, when the past outcome of groupthink processes forces itself on organizations that are otherwise different. The term is most commonly used to describe such processes that drive out innovation and entrepreneurial activity within organizations. This is often found within in large multi-divisional companies, where it manifests itself as inter-divisional fighting, often subtle or unintended. Multinational corporations are particularly common examples, as divisional differences can be compounded by different corporate structures, languages and even time zones.
Four-bar linkage Other Linkages and Mechanisms Crank-rocker > Examples > Other Linkages and Mechanisms Chebyshev linkage Chebyshev lambda linkage Evans "Grasshopper" linkage Hoecken linkage Horse-head linkage Pantograph Roberts linkage Valve gear Watt's linkage
Bjerknes force Hydrodynamics - Electromagnetism Analogy Bjerknes_force > Hydrodynamics - Electromagnetism Analogy In Fields of Force Bjerknes lay out geometrical and dynamical analogies between the Maxwell's theory of Electromagnetism and Hydrodynamics. In the light of these analogies the Bjerknes Forces are being predicted.
Constant random variable Constant random variable Degenerate_probability_distribution > Constant random variable In probability theory, a constant random variable is a discrete random variable that takes a constant value, regardless of any event that occurs. This is technically different from an almost surely constant random variable, which may take other values, but only on events with probability zero. Constant and almost surely constant random variables, which have a degenerate distribution, provide a way to deal with constant values in a probabilistic framework. Let X: Ω → R be a random variable defined on a probability space (Ω, P).
History of molecular biology The encounter between biochemistry and genetics History_of_molecular_biology > The encounter between biochemistry and genetics Nevertheless, the chemical nature of genes and their mechanisms of action remained a mystery. Molecular biologists committed themselves to the determination of the structure, and the description of the complex relations between, genes and proteins. The development of molecular biology was not just the fruit of some sort of intrinsic "necessity" in the history of ideas, but was a characteristically historical phenomenon, with all of its unknowns, imponderables and contingencies: the remarkable developments in physics at the beginning of the 20th century highlighted the relative lateness in development in biology, which became the "new frontier" in the search for knowledge about the empirical world.
Axiom of Choice Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it Axiom_of_Choice > Weaker forms > Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF. Set theory The ultrafilter lemma (with ZF) can be used to prove the Axiom of choice for finite sets: Given I ≠ ∅ {\displaystyle I\neq \varnothing } and a collection ( X i ) i ∈ I {\displaystyle \left(X_{i}\right)_{i\in I}} of non-empty finite sets, their product ∏ i ∈ I X i {\displaystyle \prod _{i\in I}X_{i}} is not empty.
Chemical Computing Group Products Chemical_Computing_Group > Products MOE (Molecular Operating Environment)MOE is a drug discovery software platform that integrates visualization, modeling, and simulations, as well as methodology development. MOE scientific applications are used by biologists, medicinal chemists and computational chemists in pharmaceutical, biotechnology and academic research. MOE runs on Windows, Linux, Unix, and MAC OS X. Main application areas: Structure-Based Design, Fragment-Based Design, Pharmacophore Discovery, Medicinal Chemistry Applications, Biologics Applications, Protein and Antibody Modeling, Molecular Modeling and Simulations, Cheminformatics & QSAR PSILO: A Protein Structure Database SystemPSILO is a protein structure database system that provides a repository for macromolecular and protein-ligand structural information. It allows research organizations to track, register and search both experimental and computational macromolecular structural data. A web-browser interface facilitates the searching and accessing of public and private structural data.
Contact homology Research articles Contact_homology > References > Research articles Comm. Pure Appl. Math.