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Laser Inertial Fusion Energy Fusion–fission hybrid Laser_Inertial_Fusion_Energy > LIFE > Fusion–fission hybrid Commercial light-water nuclear reactors, the most prevalent power reactors in the world, use nuclear fuel containing uranium enriched to 3 to 5% U-235 while the leftover is U-238.Each fusion event in the D-T fusion reactor gives off an alpha particle and a fast neutron with around 14 MeV of kinetic energy. This is enough energy to cause fission in U-238, and many other transuranic elements as well. This reaction is used in H-bombs to increase the yield of the fusion section by wrapping it in a layer of depleted uranium, which undergoes rapid fission when hit by the neutrons from the fusion bomb inside.
Chemical affinities Thermodynamics Chemical_affinity > Thermodynamics The present IUPAC definition is that affinity A is the negative partial derivative of Gibbs free energy G with respect to extent of reaction ξ at constant pressure and temperature. That is, A = − ( ∂ G ∂ ξ ) P , T . {\displaystyle A=-\left({\frac {\partial G}{\partial \xi }}\right)_{P,T}.}
Asymmetric carbon Summary Asymmetric_carbon One may initially be inclined to think this atom is not asymmetric because it is attached to two carbon atoms, but because those two carbon atoms are not attached to exactly the same things, there are two different groups of atoms that the carbon atom in question is attached to, therefore making it an asymmetric carbon atom: A tetrose with 2 asymmetric carbon atoms has 22 = 4 stereoisomers: An aldopentose with 3 asymmetric carbon atoms has 23 = 8 stereoisomers: An aldohexose with 4 asymmetric carbon atoms has 24 = 16 stereoisomers: The four groups of atoms attached to the carbon atom can be arranged in space in two different ways that are mirror images of each other, and which lead to so-called left-handed and right-handed versions of the same molecule. Molecules that cannot be superimposed on their own mirror image are said to be chiral like mirror image. == References ==
History of electromagnetic theory Lorentz and Poincaré History_of_electromagnetic_theory > 20th century > Lorentz and Poincaré This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the ether) makes the same observations as a resting observer. This theorem was extended for terms of all orders by Lorentz in 1904. Lorentz noticed, that it was necessary to change the space-time variables when changing frames and introduced concepts like physical length contraction (1892) to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment, and the mathematical concept of local time (1895) to explain the aberration of light and the Fizeau experiment.
Euclid's formula Special cases Euclid's_formula > Elementary properties of primitive Pythagorean triples > Special cases There exist infinitely many Pythagorean triples in which the hypotenuse and the longest leg differ by exactly one. Such triples are necessarily primitive and have the form (2n + 1, 2n2 + 2n, 2n2 + 2n +1). This results from Euclid's formula by remarking that the condition implies that the triple is primitive and must verify (m2 + n2) - 2mn = 1.
Isoelectronicity Summary Valence_isoelectronic More usually, definitions are broader, and may extend to allowing different numbers of atoms in the species being compared.The importance of the concept lies in identifying significantly related species, as pairs or series. Isoelectronic species can be expected to show useful consistency and predictability in their properties, so identifying a compound as isoelectronic with one already characterised offers clues to possible properties and reactions (Differences in properties such as electronegativity of the atoms in isolelectronic species can affect reactivity.) In quantum mechanics, hydrogen-like atoms are ions with only one electron such as Li2+. These ions would be described as being isoelectronic with hydrogen.
Electrovalency Strength of the bonding Electrovalency > Strength of the bonding The further away from the nucleus the weaker the shield. The Born–Landé equation gives a reasonable fit to the lattice energy of, e.g., sodium chloride, where the calculated (predicted) value is −756 kJ/mol, which compares to −787 kJ/mol using the Born–Haber cycle. In aqueous solution the binding strength can be described by the Bjerrum or Fuoss equation as function of the ion charges, rather independent of the nature of the ions such as polarizability or size.
Abel–Ruffini theorem Context Abel–Ruffini_theorem > Context With modern computers and programs, deciding whether a polynomial is solvable by radicals can be done for polynomials of degree up to 31. Computing the solutions in radicals of solvable polynomials requires huge computations and, as of 2023, no implemented algorithm has been published for polynomials of degree higher than seven. Even for the degree five, the expression of the solutions is so huge that it has no practical interest.
Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure Genes that are used as RNA Eukaryotic_chromosome_fine_structure > Genes that are used as RNA Many regions of the DNA are transcribed with RNA as the functional form: rRNA: Ribosomal RNA are used in the ribosome. tRNA: Transfer RNA are used in the translation process by bringing amino acids to the ribosome. snRNA: Small nuclear RNA are used in spliceosomes to help the processing of pre-mRNA.
Instrumentation and control engineering Summary Instrumentation_and_control_engineering Automatic control manages a device without the need of human inputs for correction, such as cruise control for regulating a car's speed. Control systems engineering activities are multi-disciplinary in nature. They focus on the implementation of control systems, mainly derived by mathematical modeling. Because instrumentation and control play a significant role in gathering information from a system and changing its parameters, they are a key part of control loops.
Gravitational Forces Summary Gravitational_Forces A review in Performing Songwriter magazine described the characters found in Gravitational Forces as "everyday people pulled, led, and sometimes dragged by some outside strength." Billboard noted, however, that Keen's more recent tales avoid some of the violent imagery found in some of his earlier songs.
Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Glycogenesis Inborn_errors_of_carbohydrate_metabolism > By affected system > Glycogen metabolism > Glycogenesis Glycogenesis is the metabolic pathway in which glycogen is created. Glycogen, which consists of branched long chains made out of the simple sugar glucose, is an energy storage form for carbohydrates in many human cells; this is most important in liver, muscle and certain brain cells. The monosaccharide glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) is typically the input substance for glycogenesis. G-6-P is most commonly created from glucose by the action of the enzymes glucokinase (see glycolysis step 1) or hexokinase.
Deep cerebellar nuclei Inputs Deep_cerebellar_nuclei > Inputs These nuclei receive inhibitory (GABAergic) inputs from Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex and excitatory (glutamatergic) inputs from mossy fiber and climbing fiber pathways. Most output fibers of the cerebellum originate from these nuclei. One exception is that fibers from the flocculonodular lobe synapse directly on vestibular nuclei without first passing through the deep cerebellar nuclei. The vestibular nuclei in the brainstem are analogous structures to the deep nuclei, since they receive both mossy fiber and Purkinje cell inputs.
Computing π Early history Numerical_approximations_of_π > Early history This is 'approximately' the circumference of a circle whose diameter is 20,000. Approximating π to four decimal places: π ≈ 62832⁄20000 = 3.1416, Aryabhata stated that his result "approximately" (āsanna "approaching") gave the circumference of a circle. His 15th-century commentator Nilakantha Somayaji (Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics) has argued that the word means not only that this is an approximation, but that the value is incommensurable (irrational).
Infection rate Clinical applications Infection_rate > Clinical applications To get payment from Medicare, hospitals are required to report data about some infections to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN). Hospitals currently submit information on central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs), catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs), surgical site infections (SSIs), MRSA Bacteremia, and C. difficile laboratory-identified events. The public reporting of these data is an effort by the Department of Health and Human Services.For meaningful comparisons of infection rates, populations must be very similar between the two or more assessments. However, a problem with mean rates is that they cannot reflect differences in risk between populations,
Differentiable vector–valued functions from Euclidean space Differentiability on Euclidean space Differentiable_vector–valued_functions_from_Euclidean_space > Continuously differentiable vector-valued functions > Differentiability on Euclidean space {\displaystyle C^{1}.} For k ∈ N , {\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {N} ,} having defined what it means for a function f {\displaystyle f} to be C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} (or k {\displaystyle k} times continuously differentiable), say that f {\displaystyle f} is k + 1 {\displaystyle k+1} times continuously differentiable or that f {\displaystyle f} is C k + 1 {\displaystyle C^{k+1}} if f {\displaystyle f} is continuously differentiable and each of its partial derivatives is C k . {\displaystyle C^{k}.}
Manin matrix Linear algebra theorems Manin_matrix > Properties > Linear algebra theorems Assume a two-sided inverse to a Manin matrix M exists, then it will also be a Manin matrix. Moreover, det(M−1) = (det(M))−1. This proposition is somewhat non-trivial, it implies the result by Enriquez-Rubtsov and Babelon-Talon in the theory of quantum integrable systems (see section 4.2.1).
Java Data Objects JDO vs. EJB3 vs. JPA Java_Data_Objects > JDO vs. EJB3 vs. JPA JDO, from an API point of view, is agnostic to the technology of the underlying datastore, whereas JPA is targeted to RDBMS datastores (although there are several JPA providers that support access to non-relational datastores through the JPA API, such as DataNucleus and ObjectDB). Leading JDO commercial implementations and open source projects also offer a JPA API implementation as an alternative access to their underlying persistence engines, formerly exposed solely via JDO in the original products. There are many open source implementations of JDO.
Algorithm characterization 1943, 1952 Stephen Kleene's characterization Algorithm_characterization > 1943, 1952 Stephen Kleene's characterization Think of the "function-box" as a little man either calculating by hand using "general recursion" or computing by Turing machine (or an equivalent machine). "Effectively calculable/computable" is more generic and means "calculable/computable by some procedure, method, technique ... whatever...". "General recursive" was Kleene's way of writing what today is called just "recursion"; however, "primitive recursion"—calculation by use of the five recursive operators—is a lesser form of recursion that lacks access to the sixth, additional, mu-operator that is needed only in rare instances. Thus most of life goes on requiring only the "primitive recursive functions."
Eustress Measurement Eustress > Measurement This model uses hope, positive affect, meaningfulness, and manageability as a measure of eustress, and negative psychological states, negative affect, anxiety, and anger as a measure of distress. Objective measures have also been used and include blood pressure rate, muscle tension, and absenteeism rates. Further physiological research has looked for neuroendocrine changes as a result of eustress and distress. Research has shown that catecholamines change rapidly to pleasurable stimuli. Studies have demonstrated that eustress and distress produce different responses in the neuroendocrine system, particularly dependent on the amount of personal control one feels over a stressor.
Coordinate chart Summary Coordinate_chart In topology, a branch of mathematics, a topological manifold is a topological space that locally resembles real n-dimensional Euclidean space. Topological manifolds are an important class of topological spaces, with applications throughout mathematics. All manifolds are topological manifolds by definition. Other types of manifolds are formed by adding structure to a topological manifold (e.g. differentiable manifolds are topological manifolds equipped with a differential structure).
Space time algebra Maxwell's Equation Spacetime_algebra > Classical electromagnetism > Maxwell's Equation Combining the electromagnetic field and current density together with the spacetime gradient as defined earlier, we can combine all four of Maxwell's equations into a single equation in spacetime algebra. : 230 The fact that these quantities are all covariant objects in the spacetime algebra automatically guarantees Lorentz covariance of the equation, which is much easier to show than when separated into four separate equations. In this form, it is also much simpler to prove certain properties of Maxwell's equations, such as the conservation of charge.
SDS Sigma 7 Memory SDS_Sigma_7 > Features > Memory Memory in the Sigma systems can be addressed as individual bytes, halfwords, words, or doublewords. All 32-bit Sigma systems except the Sigma 5 and Sigma 8 used a memory map to implement virtual memory. The following description applies to the Sigma 9, other models have minor differences. The effective virtual address of a word is 17 bits wide.
Feature-driven development Build feature list Feature_Driven_Development > Overview > Build feature list Knowledge gathered during the initial modeling is used to identify a list of features by functionally decomposing the domain into subject areas. Subject areas each contain business activities, and the steps within each business activity form the basis for a categorized feature list. Features in this respect are small pieces of client-valued functions expressed in the form " ", for example: 'Calculate the total of a sale' or 'Validate the password of a user'. Features should not take more than two weeks to complete, else they should be broken down into smaller pieces.
Descemet's membrane Summary Descemet's_membrane Descemet's membrane (or the Descemet membrane) is the basement membrane that lies between the corneal proper substance, also called stroma, and the endothelial layer of the cornea. It is composed of different kinds of collagen (Type IV and VIII) than the stroma. The endothelial layer is located at the posterior of the cornea. Descemet's membrane, as the basement membrane for the endothelial layer, is secreted by the single layer of squamous epithelial cells that compose the endothelial layer of the cornea.
Hashimoto's encephalopathy Summary Hashimoto's_encephalopathy Hashimoto's encephalopathy, also known as steroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with autoimmune thyroiditis (SREAT), is a neurological condition characterized by encephalopathy, thyroid autoimmunity, and good clinical response to corticosteroids. It is associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and was first described in 1966. It is sometimes referred to as a neuroendocrine disorder, although the condition's relationship to the endocrine system is widely disputed. It is recognized as a rare disease by the NIH Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center.Up to 2005, almost 200 case reports of this disease were published.
Glossary of graph theory G Spanning_subgraph > G greedy Produced by a greedy algorithm. For instance, a greedy coloring of a graph is a coloring produced by considering the vertices in some sequence and assigning each vertex the first available color. Grötzsch 1.
Simultaneously diagonalize Diagonalizable matrices Matrix_diagonalisation > Examples > Diagonalizable matrices Involutions are diagonalizable over the reals (and indeed any field of characteristic not 2), with ±1 on the diagonal. Finite order endomorphisms are diagonalizable over C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } (or any algebraically closed field where the characteristic of the field does not divide the order of the endomorphism) with roots of unity on the diagonal. This follows since the minimal polynomial is separable, because the roots of unity are distinct. Projections are diagonalizable, with 0s and 1s on the diagonal.
Metandienone Side effects Metandienone > Side effects Androgenic side effects such as oily skin, acne, seborrhea, increased facial/body hair growth, scalp hair loss, and virilization may occur. Estrogenic side effects such as gynecomastia and fluid retention can also occur. Case reports of gynecomastia exist. As with other 17α-alkylated steroids, methandienone poses a risk of hepatotoxicity and use over extended periods of time can result in liver damage without appropriate precautions.
Prostate specific membrane antigen Neurotransmitter degradation Prostate_specific_membrane_antigen > Neurotransmitter degradation For those studying neural based diseases, NAAG is one of the three most prevalent neurotransmitters found in the central nervous system and when it catalyzes the reaction to produce glutamate it is also producing another neurotransmitter. Glutamate is a common and abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; however, if there is too much glutamate transmission, this can kill or at least damage neurons and has been implicated in many neurological diseases and disorders therefore the balance that NAAG peptidase contributes to is quite important.
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Related conditions CFTR_protein > Related conditions This mucus obstructs the airways and glands, causing the characteristic signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis. In addition, only thin mucus can be removed by cilia; thick mucus cannot, so it traps bacteria that give rise to chronic infections. Cholera: ADP-ribosylation caused by cholera toxin results in increased production of cyclic AMP which in turn opens the CFTR channel which leads to Over secretion of Cl−. Na+ and H2O follow Cl− into the small intestine, resulting in dehydration and loss of electrolytes.
Glossary of calculus G Glossary_of_calculus > G ( n − k ) ! {\displaystyle {n \choose k}={n! \over k!(n-k)!}}
Network automaton Summary Network_automaton A network automaton (plural network automata) is a mathematical system consisting of a network of nodes that evolves over time according to predetermined rules. It is similar in concept to a cellular automaton, but much less studied. Stephen Wolfram's book A New Kind of Science, which is primarily concerned with cellular automata, briefly discusses network automata, and suggests (without positive evidence) that the universe might at the very lowest level be a network automaton.
Innermost stable circular orbit Basic concept Innermost_stable_circular_orbit > Basic concept In general relativity (GR) things become more complex. For one, there is now an upper limit to the speed of any object, the speed of light.
Wave functions Many-particle states in 3d position space Normalized_wavefunction > Definitions (other cases) > Many-particle states in 3d position space The physical interchange of particles corresponds to mathematically switching arguments in the wave function. The antisymmetry feature of fermionic wave functions leads to the Pauli principle. Generally, bosonic and fermionic symmetry requirements are the manifestation of particle statistics and are present in other quantum state formalisms.
Ultimate failure Summary Ultimate_failure In engineering there are multiple types of failure based upon the application of the material. In many machine applications any change in the part due to yielding will result in the machine piece needing to be replaced. Although this deformation or weakening of the material is not the technical definition of ultimate failure, the piece has failed.
Congenital nephrotic syndrome Diagnosis Congenital_nephrotic_syndrome > Diagnosis Kidneys on ultrasound imaging may appear enlarged and brighter (hyperechoic). The disorder can be screened during pregnancy by finding elevated levels of alpha-fetoprotein on a routine sampling of amniotic fluid.Indication for kidney biopsy remains unclear as histologic findings do no reveal the cause of congenital nephrotic syndrome, but findings may help in developing treatment strategies. Findings on light microscopy can vary from minimal change nephropathy to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis or diffuse mesangial sclerosis. Electron microscopy shows podocyte disruption (loss of foot processes or slit diaphragm).Genetic analysis and infectious workup are needed to determine the precise cause of congenital nephrotic syndrome. Understanding the underlying cause can assist in disease management, prognosis, and genetic counseling.
Parabolic branch Horizontal asymptotes Parabolic_branch > Asymptotes of functions > Horizontal asymptotes Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x → ±∞. The horizontal line y = c is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = ƒ(x) if lim x → − ∞ f ( x ) = c {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow -\infty }f(x)=c} or lim x → + ∞ f ( x ) = c {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow +\infty }f(x)=c} .In the first case, ƒ(x) has y = c as asymptote when x tends to −∞, and in the second ƒ(x) has y = c as an asymptote as x tends to +∞. For example, the arctangent function satisfies lim x → − ∞ arctan ⁡ ( x ) = − π 2 {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow -\infty }\arctan(x)=-{\frac {\pi }{2}}} and lim x → + ∞ arctan ⁡ ( x ) = π 2 . {\displaystyle \lim _{x\rightarrow +\infty }\arctan(x)={\frac {\pi }{2}}.}
Bilateral Laplace transform Summary Bilateral_Laplace_transform In mathematics, the two-sided Laplace transform or bilateral Laplace transform is an integral transform equivalent to probability's moment generating function. Two-sided Laplace transforms are closely related to the Fourier transform, the Mellin transform, the Z-transform and the ordinary or one-sided Laplace transform. If f(t) is a real- or complex-valued function of the real variable t defined for all real numbers, then the two-sided Laplace transform is defined by the integral B { f } ( s ) = F ( s ) = ∫ − ∞ ∞ e − s t f ( t ) d t . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}\{f\}(s)=F(s)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{-st}f(t)\,dt.}
Error function Cumulative distribution function Error_function > Related functions > Cumulative distribution function {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}Q(x)&={\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {erf} {\frac {x}{\sqrt {2}}}\\&={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {erfc} {\frac {x}{\sqrt {2}}}.\end{aligned}}} The inverse of Φ is known as the normal quantile function, or probit function and may be expressed in terms of the inverse error function as probit ⁡ ( p ) = Φ − 1 ( p ) = 2 erf − 1 ⁡ ( 2 p − 1 ) = − 2 erfc − 1 ⁡ ( 2 p ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {probit} (p)=\Phi ^{-1}(p)={\sqrt {2}}\operatorname {erf} ^{-1}(2p-1)=-{\sqrt {2}}\operatorname {erfc} ^{-1}(2p).} The standard normal cdf is used more often in probability and statistics, and the error function is used more often in other branches of mathematics.
Atony C Atony > C It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal projections. Cranial nerves – are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord). Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem.
Bacterial Meningitis Antibiotics Bacterial_Meningitis > Management > Bacterial meningitis > Antibiotics Empiric antibiotics (treatment without exact diagnosis) should be started immediately, even before the results of the lumbar puncture and CSF analysis are known. The choice of initial treatment depends largely on the kind of bacteria that cause meningitis in a particular place and population. For instance, in the United Kingdom, empirical treatment consists of a third-generation cefalosporin such as cefotaxime or ceftriaxone. In the US, where resistance to cefalosporins is increasingly found in streptococci, addition of vancomycin to the initial treatment is recommended.
Blood glucose regulation Insulin Glucose_homeostasis > Mechanisms > Insulin Diabetes mellitus type 1 is caused by insufficient or non-existent production of insulin, while type 2 is primarily due to a decreased response to insulin in the tissues of the body (insulin resistance). Both types of diabetes, if untreated, result in too much glucose remaining in the blood (hyperglycemia) and many of the same complications. Also, too much insulin and/or exercise without enough corresponding food intake in diabetics can result in low blood sugar (hypoglycemia).
Bayesian Estimation of Templates in Computational Anatomy Summary Bayesian_Estimation_of_Templates_in_Computational_Anatomy Statistical shape analysis and statistical shape theory in computational anatomy (CA) is performed relative to templates, therefore it is a local theory of statistics on shape. Template estimation in computational anatomy from populations of observations is a fundamental operation ubiquitous to the discipline. Several methods for template estimation based on Bayesian probability and statistics in the random orbit model of CA have emerged for submanifolds and dense image volumes.
Construction drawing Scale Engineering_drawings > Common features > Scale Site plans are often drawn at 1:200 or 1:100. Scale is a nuanced subject in the use of engineering drawings. On one hand, it is a general principle of engineering drawings that they are projected using standardized, mathematically certain projection methods and rules.
Polymer chain Polymer architecture Organic_polymer > Structure > Microstructure > Polymer architecture There exist also two-dimensional polymers (2DP) which are composed of topologically planar repeat units. A polymer's architecture affects many of its physical properties including solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various solvents, glass-transition temperature and the size of individual polymer coils in solution. A variety of techniques may be employed for the synthesis of a polymeric material with a range of architectures, for example living polymerization.
Electrostriction Explanation Electrostriction > Explanation Electrostriction is a property of all dielectric materials, and is caused by displacement of ions in the crystal lattice upon being exposed to an external electric field. Positive ions will be displaced in the direction of the field, while negative ions will be displaced in the opposite direction. This displacement will accumulate throughout the bulk material and result in an overall strain (elongation) in the direction of the field. The thickness will be reduced in the orthogonal directions characterized by Poisson's ratio.
Renewable portfolio standards in the United States Program diversity Renewable_portfolio_standards_in_the_United_States > Program diversity Of all the state-based RPS programs in place today, no two are the same. Each has been designed taking into account state-specific policy objectives (e.g. economic growth, diversity of energy supply, environmental concerns), local resource endowment, political considerations, and the capacity to expand renewable energy production. At the most basic level, this gives rise to differing RPS targets and years (e.g. Arizona's 15% by 2025 and Colorado's 30% by 2020). Other factors in program design include resource eligibility, in-state requirements, new build requirements, technology favoritism, lobbying by industry associations and non-profits, groups cost caps, program coverage (IOUs versus Cooperatives and Municipal utilities), cost recovery by utilities, penalties for non-compliance, rules regarding REC creation and trading, and additional non-binding goals.
Plandemic Fact-checking responses Plandemic > Plandemic: The Hidden Agenda Behind Covid-19 > Summary > Fact-checking responses This is incorrect; SARS-CoV-2 is similar but is not directly descended from SARS-CoV (SARS-1), and the viruses have only 79% genetic similarity. That hospitals receive $13,000 from Medicare if they "call it COVID-19" when a patient dies.
Machine Learning Artificial neural networks Applications_of_machine_learning > Approaches > Models > Artificial neural networks An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum of its inputs. The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges".
Root node Type theory Interior_node > Type theory As an abstract data type, the abstract tree type T with values of some type E is defined, using the abstract forest type F (list of trees), by the functions: value: T → E children: T → F nil: () → F node: E × F → Twith the axioms: value(node(e, f)) = e children(node(e, f)) = fIn terms of type theory, a tree is an inductive type defined by the constructors nil (empty forest) and node (tree with root node with given value and children).
HIV vaccine development Approaches to catching the virion (Stage I-III, VI, VII) HIV_vaccines > Classification of possible vaccines > Approaches to catching the virion (Stage I-III, VI, VII) Phagocytosis of the HIV virions. Chemical or organically based capture (creation of any skin or additional membrane around the virion) of HIV virions Chemical or organic attachments to the virion
Suspension lift Leaf spring lift Suspension_lift > Leaf spring lift Some methods of lifting are good for the rear, but not for the front, such as lifting blocks. Lifting the rear with blocks is a common way to achieve the desired height. This is done by installing a block, of the desired height of lift, in between the leaf spring and leaf spring perch and installing longer U-bolts.
Primitive root modulo n Lower bounds Primitive_root_modulo_p > Order of magnitude of primitive roots > Lower bounds Fridlander (1949) and Salié (1950) proved that there is a positive constant C such that for infinitely many primes gp > C log p . It can be proved in an elementary manner that for any positive integer M there are infinitely many primes such that M < gp < p − M .
Capillary tube mat Idea Capillary_tube_mat > Technology > Idea At the same time, due to the large number of parallel capillary tubes, the drive energy required to maintain the flow is comparatively low. Due to the small distance of the capillary tubes to the surface of the room area, the system reacts very quickly. The temperature of the heating or cooling medium is given off very evenly and quickly to the environment due to the large number of capillary tubes. These two properties – very good heat transmission and low pressure loss – provide an advantage in terms of energy saving. In the broad definition of the terms of the technology, the capillary tube mat is a surface heat exchanger, and can be used for the transfer of heat between two media.
Asynchronous cellular automaton Implications Asynchronous_cellular_automaton > Implications Often, models like cellular automata are used to help understanding of processes that work in real life. By building simplified models, new insights can be learned. There is always a question of how simple these models should be in order to adequately describe what is being modelled.
Intrinsic immunity Relationship to the immune system Intrinsic_immunity > Relationship to the immune system Intrinsic Immunity combines aspects of the two traditional branches of the immune system – adaptive and innate immunity – but is mechanistically distinct. Innate cellular immunity recognizes viral infection using toll-like receptors (TLRs), or pattern recognition receptors, which sense Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), triggering the expression of nonspecific antiviral proteins. Intrinsic immune proteins, however, are specific both in virus recognition and their mechanism of viral attenuation.
Purcell factor Summary Purcell_effect The Purcell effect is the enhancement of a quantum system's spontaneous emission rate by its environment. In the 1940s Edward Mills Purcell discovered the enhancement of spontaneous emission rates of atoms when they are incorporated into a resonant cavity. In terms of quantum electrodynamics the Purcell effect is a consequence of enhancement (or decreasing) of local density of photonic states at the emitter position.
Band edge diagram Anatomy Band-bending_diagram > Anatomy While a basic band diagram only shows electron energy levels, often a band diagram will be decorated with further features. It is common to see cartoon depictions of the motion in energy and position of an electron (or electron hole) as it drifts, is excited by a light source, or relaxes from an excited state. The band diagram may be shown connected to a circuit diagram showing how bias voltages are applied, how charges flow, etc. The bands may be colored to indicate filling of energy levels, or sometimes the band gaps will be colored instead.
Projectile Motion Velocity Projectile_Motion > Kinematic quantities > Velocity Let the projectile be launched with an initial velocity v ( 0 ) ≡ v 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (0)\equiv \mathbf {v} _{0}} , which can be expressed as the sum of horizontal and vertical components as follows: v 0 = v 0 x x ^ + v 0 y y ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{0}=v_{0x}\mathbf {\hat {x}} +v_{0y}\mathbf {\hat {y}} } .The components v 0 x {\displaystyle v_{0x}} and v 0 y {\displaystyle v_{0y}} can be found if the initial launch angle, θ {\displaystyle \theta } , is known: v 0 x = v 0 cos ⁡ ( θ ) {\displaystyle v_{0x}=v_{0}\cos(\theta )} , v 0 y = v 0 sin ⁡ ( θ ) {\displaystyle v_{0y}=v_{0}\sin(\theta )} The horizontal component of the velocity of the object remains unchanged throughout the motion. The vertical component of the velocity changes linearly, because the acceleration due to gravity is constant. The accelerations in the x and y directions can be integrated to solve for the components of velocity at any time t, as follows: v x = v 0 cos ⁡ ( θ ) {\displaystyle v_{x}=v_{0}\cos(\theta )} , v y = v 0 sin ⁡ ( θ ) − g t {\displaystyle v_{y}=v_{0}\sin(\theta )-gt} .The magnitude of the velocity (under the Pythagorean theorem, also known as the triangle law): v = v x 2 + v y 2 {\displaystyle v={\sqrt {v_{x}^{2}+v_{y}^{2}}}} .
Effective diffusion coefficient Modeling Effective_diffusion_coefficient > Modeling The effective diffusion coefficient can be modeled using Hart's equation when lattice diffusion is dominant (type A kinetics): D eff = f D gb + ( 1 − f ) D ℓ {\displaystyle D_{\text{eff}}=fD_{\text{gb}}+(1-f)D_{\ell }} where D eff = {\displaystyle D_{\text{eff}}={}} effective diffusion coefficient D gb = {\displaystyle D_{\text{gb}}={}} grain boundary diffusion coefficient D ℓ = {\displaystyle D_{\ell }={}} lattice diffusion coefficient f = q δ d {\displaystyle f={\frac {q\delta }{d}}} q = {\displaystyle q={}} value based on grain shape, 1 for parallel grains, 3 for square grains d = {\displaystyle d={}} average grain size δ = {\displaystyle \delta ={}} grain boundary width, often assumed to be 0.5 nmGrain boundary diffusion is significant in face-centered cubic metals below about 0.8 Tmelt (Absolute). Line dislocations and other crystalline defects can become significant below ~0.4 Tmelt in FCC metals.
Bernhard Riemann Complex analysis Bernhard_Riemann > Complex analysis By Ferdinand Georg Frobenius and Solomon Lefschetz the validity of this relation is equivalent with the embedding of C n / Ω {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{n}/\Omega } (where Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } is the lattice of the period matrix) in a projective space by means of theta functions. For certain values of n {\displaystyle n} , this is the Jacobian variety of the Riemann surface, an example of an abelian manifold. Many mathematicians such as Alfred Clebsch furthered Riemann's work on algebraic curves.
Memory compression Increased thrashing Memory_compression > Shortcomings > Increased thrashing The physical memory used by a compression system reduces the amount of physical memory available to processes that a system runs, which may result in increased paging activity and reduced overall effectiveness of virtual memory compression. This relationship between the paging activity and available physical memory is roughly exponential, meaning that reducing the amount of physical memory available to system processes results in an exponential increase of paging activity.In circumstances where the amount of free physical memory is low and paging is fairly prevalent, any performance gains provided by the compression system (compared to paging directly to and from auxiliary storage) may be offset by an increased page fault rate that leads to thrashing and degraded system performance. In an opposite state, where enough physical memory is available and paging activity is low, compression may not impact performance enough to be noticeable. The middle ground between these two circumstances‍—‌low RAM with high paging activity, and plenty of RAM with low paging activity‍—‌is where virtual memory compression may be most useful.
Fisheye lens Other applications Fish_eye_lens > Other applications Astronomers use fisheye lenses to capture cloud cover and light pollution data. Photographers and videographers use fisheye lenses so they can get the camera as close as possible for action shots whilst also capturing context, for example in skateboarding to focus on the board and still retain an image of the skater. The "eye" of the HAL 9000 computer from 2001: A Space Odyssey was constructed using a Fisheye-Nikkor 8 mm f/8 lens.
Euclidean tensor Vector calculus Cartesian_tensor > Vector and tensor calculus > Vector calculus Following are the differential operators of vector calculus. Throughout, let Φ(r, t) be a scalar field, and be vector fields, in which all scalar and vector fields are functions of the position vector r and time t. The gradient operator in Cartesian coordinates is given by: and in index notation, this is usually abbreviated in various ways: This operator acts on a scalar field Φ to obtain the vector field directed in the maximum rate of increase of Φ: The index notation for the dot and cross products carries over to the differential operators of vector calculus. : 197 The directional derivative of a scalar field Φ is the rate of change of Φ along some direction vector a (not necessarily a unit vector), formed out of the components of a and the gradient: The divergence of a vector field A is: Note the interchange of the components of the gradient and vector field yields a different differential operator which could act on scalar or vector fields. In fact, if A is replaced by the velocity field u(r, t) of a fluid, this is a term in the material derivative (with many other names) of continuum mechanics, with another term being the partial time derivative: which usually acts on the velocity field leading to the non-linearity in the Navier-Stokes equations.
Apache Accumulo Papers Apache_Accumulo > Papers 2011 YCSB++: Benchmarking and Performance Debugging Advanced Features in Scalable Table Stores by Carnegie Mellon University and the National Security Agency. 2012 Driving Big Data With Big Compute by MIT Lincoln Laboratory. 2013 D4M 2.0 Schema:A General Purpose High Performance Schema for the Accumulo Database by MIT Lincoln Laboratory. 2013 Spatio-temporal Indexing in Non-relational Distributed Databases by CCRi
Steam reheat Description Steam_reheat > Description These factors contribute to a higher efficiency for the cycle. The benefit of this is offset by the low temperatures of steam admitted to the turbine(s). Gas turbines, for instance, have turbine entry temperatures approaching 1500 °C. However, the thermal efficiencies of actual large steam power stations and large modern gas turbine stations are similar.
Open Method of Coordination Summary Open_Method_of_Coordination It was officially named, defined and endorsed at the Lisbon Council for the realm of social policy. Since then it has been applied in the European employment strategy, social inclusion, pensions, consumer care, immigration, asylum, education and culture and research, and its use has also been suggested for health as well as environmental affairs. The OMC was also frequently debated in the European Convention.
Squamous cell carcinoma antigen-1 Summary Squamous_cell_carcinoma_antigen-1 Serpin B3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SERPINB3 gene.
Youth ministry Catholic young people Youth_ministry > Christianity > Catholicism > Catholic young people Unlike the case in some Protestant churches, a youth minister in the Roman Catholic Church is not a member of the clergy. Ministry, including youth ministry, is considered one of the functions within the Church because most believe that people should start learning about God at a young age so they have more time to grow spiritually through adulthood. Therefore, it is more likely for a Catholic youth minister or youth ministry leader to be a lay person, rather than an ordained priest.
Aortic valve insufficiency Classification Aortic_insufficiency > Diagnosis > Classification The hemodynamic sequelae of AI are dependent on the rate of onset of AI. Therefore, can be acute or chronic as follows: Acute aortic regurgitation In acute AR, as may be seen with acute perforation of the aortic valve due to endocarditis, there will be a sudden increase in the volume of blood in the left ventricle. The ventricle is unable to deal with the sudden change in volume. The filling pressure of the left ventricle will increase.
Engine efficiency Gasoline (petrol) engines Engine_efficiency > Internal combustion engines > Reciprocating engines > Gasoline (petrol) engines Some of the work generated is also lost as friction, noise, air turbulence, and work used to turn engine equipment and appliances such as water and oil pumps and the electrical generator, leaving only about 20-40% of the energy released by the fuel consumed available to move the vehicle. A gasoline engine burns a mix of gasoline and air, consisting of a range of about twelve to eighteen parts (by weight) of air to one part of fuel (by weight). A mixture with a 14.7:1 air/fuel ratio is stoichiometric, that is when burned, 100% of the fuel and the oxygen are consumed.
Nucleoporin 88 Interactions Nucleoporin_88 > Interactions NUP88 has been shown to interact with NUP98.
Specific potential energy Summary Specific_potential_energy Specific potential energy is potential energy of an object per unit of mass of that object. In a gravitational field it is the acceleration of gravity times height, e u = g h {\displaystyle e_{u}=gh} .
Ohm's Law History Ohms_Law > History Thus, Ohm's coefficients are, Ohm's law was probably the most important of the early quantitative descriptions of the physics of electricity. We consider it almost obvious today.
Subadditive function Summary Subadditive_function In mathematics, subadditivity is a property of a function that states, roughly, that evaluating the function for the sum of two elements of the domain always returns something less than or equal to the sum of the function's values at each element. There are numerous examples of subadditive functions in various areas of mathematics, particularly norms and square roots. Additive maps are special cases of subadditive functions.
Risk metric Examples Risk_metric > Examples Deaths per passenger mile (transportation) Probability of failure (systems reliability) Volatility (finance) Delta (finance) Value at risk (finance/actuarial) Probability of default (finance/actuarial)
Tert-Butyl alcohol Reactions Tertiary_butyl_alcohol > Reactions It readily abstracts acidic protons from substrates, but its steric bulk inhibits the group from participating in nucleophilic substitution, such as in a Williamson ether synthesis or an SN2 reaction. tert-Butyl alcohol reacts with hydrogen chloride to form tert-butyl chloride. O-Chlorination of tert-butyl alcohol with hypochlorous acid to give tert-butyl hypochlorite: (CH3)3COH + HOCl → (CH3)3COCl + H2O
Noether's second theorem Summary Noether's_second_theorem Noether's second theorem is sometimes used in gauge theory. Gauge theories are the basic elements of all modern field theories of physics, such as the prevailing Standard Model. The theorem is named after Emmy Noether.
AA tree Deletion AA_tree > Deletion T := decrease_level(T) T := skew(T) right(T) := skew(right(T)) if not nil(right(T)) right(right(T)) := skew(right(right(T))) end if T := split(T) right(T) := split(right(T)) return T end function function decrease_level is input: T, a tree for which we want to remove links that skip levels. output: T with its level decreased. should_be = min(level(left(T)), level(right(T))) + 1 if should_be < level(T) then level(T) := should_be if should_be < level(right(T)) then level(right(T)) := should_be end if end if return T end function A good example of deletion by this algorithm is present in the Andersson paper.
Circular knitting Magic loop technique Circular_knitting > Magic loop technique Invented by Sarah Hauschka and first described in Beverly Galeskas’s booklet The Magic Loop, this technique uses a long circular knitting needle (for instance 40 inches) to knit projects (of any circumference substantially less than the needle length) in the round. The key is pulling a loop of extra cable out between the stitches halfway through the round.The magic loop technique also allows knitting two-at-a-time projects like pairs of socks or the sleeves of sweaters. This knitting both pieces at once makes it easier to render the two as similar as possible.
HER2 negative breast cancer Overview HER2_negative_breast_cancer > Schemes or aspects > Overview The TNM classification for staging breast cancer is based on the size of the cancer where it originally started in the body and the locations to which it has travelled. These cancer characteristics are described as the size of the tumor (T), whether or not the tumor has spread to the lymph nodes (N) in the armpits, neck, and inside the chest, and whether the tumor has metastasized (M) (i.e. spread to a more distant part of the body). Larger size, nodal spread, and metastasis have a larger stage number and a worse prognosis.
Intramuscular coordination Role Intramuscular_coordination > Role IC aims at synchronous activation of a large number of fibres within a certain muscle. Training of IC is recommended for athletes heading towards increasing maximum available power without growth of muscular mass. The use of available muscular mass will be used more effective.
Priority search tree Summary Priority_search_tree In computer science, a priority search tree is a tree data structure for storing points in two dimensions. It was originally introduced by Edward M. McCreight. It is effectively an extension of the priority queue with the purpose of improving the search time from O(n) to O(s + log n) time, where n is the number of points in the tree and s is the number of points returned by the search.
Observational study Types Observational_study > Types Case-control study: study originally developed in epidemiology, in which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. Cross-sectional study: involves data collection from a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time. Longitudinal study: correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time. Cohort study and Panel study are particular forms of longitudinal study.
Gradient vector flow Theory Gradient_vector_flow > Theory Because the diffusion process is inherent in the GVF solution, vectors that point in opposite directions tend to compete as they meet at a central location, thereby defining a type of geometric feature that is related to the boundary configuration, but not directly evident from the edge map. For example, perceptual edges are gaps in the edge map which tend to be connected visually by human perception. GVF helps to connect them by diffusing opposing edge gradient vectors across the gap; and even though there is no actual edge map, active contour will converge to the perceptual edge because the GVF vectors drive them there (see Xu, C.; Prince, J.L.
OpenPlaG Summary OpenPlaG openPlaG is a PHP based function graph plotter for use on websites. It was first released in April 2006. In June 2007 its source code was published under the GNU GPL license.
Surface texture symbol Summary Surface_texture Surface finish, also known as surface texture or surface topography, is the nature of a surface as defined by the three characteristics of lay, surface roughness, and waviness. It comprises the small, local deviations of a surface from the perfectly flat ideal (a true plane). Surface texture is one of the important factors that control friction and transfer layer formation during sliding. Considerable efforts have been made to study the influence of surface texture on friction and wear during sliding conditions.
Gene regulatory network Summary Genetic_pathway Some proteins though serve only to activate other genes, and these are the transcription factors that are the main players in regulatory networks or cascades. By binding to the promoter region at the start of other genes they turn them on, initiating the production of another protein, and so on. Some transcription factors are inhibitory.In single-celled organisms, regulatory networks respond to the external environment, optimising the cell at a given time for survival in this environment.
Nim (programming language) Method calls and encapsulation Nim_(programming_language) > Programming paradigms > Object-oriented programming > Method calls and encapsulation Nim's uniform function call syntax enables calling ordinary functions with syntax similar to method call invocations in other programming languages. This is functional for "getters": and Nim also provides syntax for the creation of such "setters" as well. Objects may be made public on a per-field basis, providing for encapsulation.
Units of measure Systems of units Units_of_measurements > Systems of units Among the different systems of units used in the world, the most widely used and internationally accepted one is the International System of Units, or SI system of units. The base SI units are the second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela. All other SI units can be derived from these base units.Systems of measurement in modern use include the metric system, the imperial system, and United States customary units.
Riemann rearrangement theorem Summary Riemann_series_theorem In mathematics, the Riemann series theorem, also called the Riemann rearrangement theorem, named after 19th-century German mathematician Bernhard Riemann, says that if an infinite series of real numbers is conditionally convergent, then its terms can be arranged in a permutation so that the new series converges to an arbitrary real number, or diverges. This implies that a series of real numbers is absolutely convergent if and only if it is unconditionally convergent. As an example, the series 1 − 1 + 1/2 − 1/2 + 1/3 − 1/3 + ⋯ converges to 0 (for a sufficiently large number of terms, the partial sum gets arbitrarily near to 0); but replacing all terms with their absolute values gives 1 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/3 + ⋯, which sums to infinity.
Conceptual Graph Diagrammatic calculus of logics Conceptual_Graph > Research branches > Diagrammatic calculus of logics Another research branch continues the work on existential graphs of Charles Sanders Peirce, which were one of the origins of conceptual graphs as proposed by Sowa. In this approach, developed in particular by Dau (Dau 2003), conceptual graphs are conceptual diagrams rather than graphs in the sense of graph theory, and reasoning operations are performed by operations on these diagrams.
YoungJu Choie Summary YoungJu_Choie YoungJu Choie (Korean: 최영주, born June 15, 1959) is a South Korean mathematician who works as a professor of mathematics at the Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH). Her research interests include number theory and modular forms.
Cognitive workload History Cognitive_load_theory > Theory > History He suggests problem solving by means-ends analysis requires a relatively large amount of cognitive processing capacity, which may not be devoted to schema construction. Sweller suggested that instructional designers should prevent this unnecessary cognitive load by designing instructional materials which do not involve problem solving. Examples of alternative instructional materials include what are known as worked-examples and goal-free problems.In the 1990s, cognitive load theory was applied in several contexts. The empirical results from these studies led to the demonstration of several learning effects: the completion-problem effect; modality effect; split-attention effect; worked-example effect; and expertise reversal effect.
Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes Plastic deformation Mechanical_properties_of_carbon_nanotubes > Plastic deformation This defect structure is metastable, so it takes an energy of several eV to nucleate, or form. In addition, the defect moves by the separate migration of the 5-7 defect pairs. This motion is also associated with an energy barrier.
Behavioral immune system Overgeneralization Behavioral_immune_system > Proximate mechanisms > Sensory components > Overgeneralization The “smoke detector principle” of evolved systems that regulate protective responses has also been used to describe the behavioral immune systems tendency to overgeneralize. Evolved responses to signals of pathogen threat cannot be perfect and rely on liberal identification criteria. This makes the behavioral immune system susceptible to activating when pathogens are absent.
Model of hierarchical complexity Vertical complexity of tasks performed Model_of_hierarchical_complexity > Vertical complexity of tasks performed One major basis for this developmental theory is task analysis. The study of ideal tasks, including their instantiation in the real world, has been the basis of the branch of stimulus control called psychophysics. Tasks are defined as sequences of contingencies, each presenting stimuli and each requiring a behavior or a sequence of behaviors that must occur in some non-arbitrary fashion. The complexity of behaviors necessary to complete a task can be specified using the horizontal complexity and vertical complexity definitions described below.
Sjogren's Syndrome Musculoskeletal Sjögren’s_syndrome > Treatment > Musculoskeletal Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be used to treat musculoskeletal symptoms. For individuals with severe complications, corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs may be prescribed, and sometimes intravenous immunoglobulins. Also, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs such as methotrexate may be helpful. Hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil) is another option and is generally considered safer than methotrexate. However, these prescribed drugs have a range of side effects such as nausea, loss of appetite, dizziness, hair loss, stomach aches/cramps, headache, liver toxicity and increased risk of infections.
MYB (gene) Summary MYB_(gene) Myb genes are part of a large gene family of transcription factors found in animals and plants. In humans, it includes Myb proto-oncogene like 1 and Myb-related protein B in addition to MYB proper. Members of the extended SANT/Myb family also include the SANT domain and other similar all-helical homeobox-like domains.