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Azide Bonding Azide > Bonding Azide is isoelectronic with carbon dioxide CO2, cyanate OCN−, nitrous oxide N2O, nitronium ion NO+2 and cyanogen fluoride NCF. Per valence bond theory, azide can be described by several resonance structures; an important one being N−=N+=N−
Combinatorial synthesis Materials science Combinatorial_synthesis > Materials science Work has been continued by several academic groups as well as companies with large research and development programs (Symyx Technologies, GE, Dow Chemical etc.). The technique has been used extensively for catalysis, coatings, electronics, and many other fields. The application of appropriate informatics tools is critical to handle, administer, and store the vast volumes of data produced. New types of design of experiments methods have also been developed to efficiently address the large experimental spaces that can be tackled using combinatorial methods.
Digit-reassembly number Tests for Osiris numbers Digit-reassembly_number > Tests for Osiris numbers / 6!. However, because each digit of n occurs 55440 times in each of the six possible positions in the samples, the test is reduced to this: 1. digit-sum (332,639,667,360) = 3+3+2+6+3+9+6+6+7+3+6+0 = 54 2. 55440 x 54 x 111,111 = 332,639,667,360 3. Therefore 332,639,667,360 is an Osiris number.
Mouse tracking History Mouse_tracking > History Additionally, advertisers are interested in click data in terms of banner advertisements and where to place their ads on pages to get the most click-throughs. More recently, the term mouse tracking has been expanded even more to develop a much broader area of research in helping understand the human-computer interaction (HCI). This development began with eye tracking.
Andrey Kolmogorov Adulthood Andrey_Kolmogorov > Biography > Adulthood Yushkevich surmised that, unlike many of the other high-profile persecutions of the era, Stalin did not personally initiate the persecution of Luzin and instead eventually concluded that he was not a threat to the regime, which would explain the unusually mild punishment relative to other contemporaries.In a 1938 paper, Kolmogorov "established the basic theorems for smoothing and predicting stationary stochastic processes"—a paper that had major military applications during the Cold War. In 1939, he was elected a full member (academician) of the USSR Academy of Sciences. During World War II Kolmogorov contributed to the Soviet war effort by applying statistical theory to artillery fire, developing a scheme of stochastic distribution of barrage balloons intended to help protect Moscow from German bombers during the Battle of Moscow.In his study of stochastic processes, especially Markov processes, Kolmogorov and the British mathematician Sydney Chapman independently developed a pivotal set of equations in the field that have been given the name of the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations.
Photon gas Thermodynamics of a black body photon gas Photon_gas > Thermodynamics of a black body photon gas If the photons are absorbed and emitted by the walls of the system containing the photon gas, and the walls are at a particular temperature, then the equilibrium distribution for the photons will be a black-body distribution at that temperature. A very important difference between a Bose gas (gas of massive bosons) and a photon gas with a black-body distribution is that the number of photons in the system is not conserved. A photon may collide with an electron in the wall, exciting it to a higher energy state, removing a photon from the photon gas.
Comparison of BSD operating systems NetBSD Comparison_of_BSD_operating_systems > Aims and philosophies > NetBSD In June 2008, the NetBSD Foundation moved to a two-clause BSD license, citing changes at UCB and industry applicability. NPF is a project spawned by NetBSD. Derivatives: OS108 – system with graphical desktop environment based on NetBSD.
Glossary of probability and statistics Q Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics > Q quartile A type of quantile which divides a range of data points into four groups, termed quarters, of equal size. For any quartile-divided dataset, there are exactly three quartiles or cut points that create the four groups. The first quartile ( Q {\displaystyle Q} 1) is defined as the middle data point or value that is halfway between the smallest value (minimum) and the median of the dataset, such that 25 percent of the data lies below this quartile.
Rebreather diving Oxygen monitoring failure Rebreather_diving > Safety > Failure modes > Oxygen monitoring failure Use of oxygen sensor cells with different ages or histories reduces the risk of all failing at the same time, and testing the cells before a dive at oxygen partial pressure above the alarm value is likely to identify cells that are close to failing.Mitigation: If oxygen monitoring fails, the diver can not be sure that the contents of a mixed gas CCR rebreather will sustain consciousness. Bailout is the only safe option. Oxygen monitoring is generally an optional facility on a SCR, but may be part of real time decompression calculations. Appropriate action will depend on circumstances, but this is not an immediately life-threatening event.
Convergent prefilter Convergence of nets of sets Cluster_point_of_a_filter > Examples of applications of prefilters > Convergence of nets of sets {\displaystyle f\left(S_{\bullet }\right)\to f(S){\text{ in }}Y.} A map f: X → Y {\displaystyle f:X\to Y} is continuous if and only if whenever S ∙ {\displaystyle S_{\bullet }} is a net of sets or points in X {\displaystyle X} that clusters at (respectively, converges to) some given point or subset S {\displaystyle S} of X , {\displaystyle X,} then f ( S ∙ ) := ( f ( S i ) ) i ∈ I {\displaystyle f\left(S_{\bullet }\right):=\left(f\left(S_{i}\right)\right)_{i\in I}} clusters at (respectively, converges to) f ( S ) {\displaystyle f(S)} in Y . {\displaystyle Y.}
Arc tangent Numerical accuracy Inverse_tangent > Applications > In computer science and engineering > Numerical accuracy For angles near 0 and π, arccosine is ill-conditioned, and similarly with arcsine for angles near −π/2 and π/2. Computer applications thus need to consider the stability of inputs to these functions and the sensitivity of their calculations, or use alternate methods.
Automated deduction Decidability of the problem Automated_proof > Decidability of the problem The above applies to first order theories, such as Peano arithmetic. However, for a specific model that may be described by a first order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model. For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any theory whose proper axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of proper axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable. It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest. Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first order theory (such as the integers).
Autoimmune disorder Balancing infection and autoimmunity Auto-immune_disease > Causes > Genetics > Balancing infection and autoimmunity For instance, variants in the ERAP2 gene provide some resistance to infection even though they increase the risk of autoimmunity (positive selection). By contrast, variants in the TYK2 gene protect against autoimmune diseases but increase infectious risk (negative selection). This suggests that the benefits of infection resistance outweigh the risk of autoimmune diseases, which is not surprising given the high risk of infection during most of human history.
Motion detector Ultrasonic Motion_detectors > Sensor technology > Ultrasonic An ultrasonic transducer emits an ultrasonic wave (sound at a frequency higher than a human ear can hear) and receives reflections from nearby objects. Exactly as in Doppler radar, heterodyne detection of the received field indicates motion. The detected doppler shift is also at low audio frequencies (for walking speeds) since the ultrasonic wavelength of around a centimeter is similar to the wavelengths used in microwave motion detectors. One potential drawback of ultrasonic sensors is that the sensor can be sensitive to motion in areas where coverage is undesired, for instance, due to reflections of sound waves around corners. Such extended coverage may be desirable for lighting control, where the goal is the detection of any occupancy in an area, but for opening an automatic door, for example, a sensor selective to traffic in the path toward the door is superior.
Design effect Common types of weights Design_effect > Design effect for well-known sampling designs > Unequal selection probabilities > Common types of weights With these, each weight is an integer number that indicates the absolute frequency of an item in the sample. These are also sometimes termed repeat (or occurrence) weights. The specific value has an absolute meaning that is lost if the weights are transformed (e.g.: scaling).
Gaetano Fichera Functional analysis and eigenvalue theory Gaetano_Fichera > Work > Research activity > Functional analysis and eigenvalue theory It is difficult to single out his contributions to functional analysis since, as stated at the beginning of this section, the methods of functional analysis are ubiquitous in his research: however, it is worth to remember paper (Fichera 1955a), where an important existence theorem is proved.His contributions in the field of eigenvalue theory began with the paper (Fichera 1955b), where he formalizes a method developed by Mauro Picone for the approximation of eigenvalues of operators subject only to the condition that their inverse is compact: however, as he admits in (Fichera 1974a, pp. 13–14), this method does not give any estimate on the approximation error on the value of the calculated (approximated) eigenvalues. He contributed also to the classical eigenvalue problem for symmetric operators, introducing the method of orthogonal invariants.
SaTScan Summary SaTScan SaTScan is a software tool that employs scan statistics for the spatial and temporal analysis of clusters of events. The software is trademarked by Martin Kulldorff, and was designed originally for public health and epidemiology to identify clusters of cases in both space (geographical location) and time and to perform statistical analysis to determine if these clusters are significantly different from what would be expected by chance The software provides a user-friendly interface and a range of statistical methods, making it accessible to researchers and practitioners. While not a full Geographic Information System, the outputs from SaTScan can be integrated with software such as ArcGIS or QGIS to visualize and analyze spatial data, and to map the distribution of various phenomena.
Audio deepfake Imitation-based Audio_deepfake > Categories > Imitation-based Indeed, both methods modify acoustic-spectral and style characteristics of the speech audio signal, but the Imitation-based usually keeps the input and output text unaltered. This is obtained by changing how this sentence is spoken to match the target speaker's characteristics.Voices can be imitated in several ways, such as using humans with similar voices that can mimic the original speaker. In recent years, the most popular approach involves the use of particular neural networks called Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) due to their flexibility as well as high-quality results.Then, the original audio signal is transformed to say a speech in the target audio using an imitation generation method that generates a new speech, shown in the fake one.
Reflecting instrument Reflecting circles Reflecting_instrument > Beyond the sextant > Reflecting circles This instrument was so distinctive it was given the name Borda circle or repeating circle. Borda and Lenoir developed the instrument for geodetic surveying. Since it was not used for the celestial measures, it did not use double reflection and substituted two telescope sights.
Open Science Before journals Open_Science > History > Before journals Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both claimed priority in discovering calculus. Newton said that he wrote about calculus in the 1660s and 1670s, but did not publish until 1693. Leibniz published "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", a treatise on calculus, in 1684.
Earthquake forecasting Characteristic earthquakes Earthquake_forecasting > Methods for earthquake forecasting > Characteristic earthquakes Extrapolation from the Parkfield earthquakes of 1857, 1881, 1901, 1922, 1934, and 1966 led to a forecast of an earthquake around 1988, or before 1993 at the latest (at the 95% confidence interval), based on the characteristic earthquake model. Instrumentation was put in place in hopes of detecting precursors of the anticipated earthquake. However, the forecasted earthquake did not occur until 2004. The failure of the Parkfield prediction experiment has raised doubt as to the validity of the characteristic earthquake model itself.
Newton–Laplace equation Other methods Newton–Laplace_equation > Experimental methods > Other methods In these methods, the time measurement has been replaced by a measurement of the inverse of time (frequency). Kundt's tube is an example of an experiment which can be used to measure the speed of sound in a small volume. It has the advantage of being able to measure the speed of sound in any gas. This method uses a powder to make the nodes and antinodes visible to the human eye.
Design argument Watchmaker analogy Design_argument > Modernity > Watchmaker analogy For this reason, and for no other; namely, that, if the different parts had been differently shaped from what they are, if a different size from what they are, or placed after any other manner, or in any order than that in which they are placed, either no motion at all would have been carried on in the machine, or none which would have answered the use that is now served by it. According to Alister McGrath, Paley argued that "The same complexity and utility evident in the design and functioning of a watch can also be discerned in the natural world. Each feature of a biological organism, like that of a watch, showed evidence of being designed in such a way as to adapt the organism to survival within its environment.
Carboxylic acid anhydride Summary Acid_anhydrides Nomenclature of unsymmetrical acid anhydrides list the names of both of the reacted carboxylic acids before the word "anhydride" (for example, the dehydration reaction between benzoic acid and propanoic acid would yield "benzoic propanoic anhydride").One or both acyl groups of an acid anhydride may also be derived from another type of organic acid, such as sulfonic acid or a phosphonic acid. One of the acyl groups of an acid anhydride can be derived from an inorganic acid such as phosphoric acid. The mixed anhydride 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid, an intermediate in the formation of ATP via glycolysis, is the mixed anhydride of 3-phosphoglyceric acid and phosphoric acid. Acidic oxides are also classified as acid anhydrides.
Wolff–Kishner reduction Mechanism Wolff–Kishner_reduction > Mechanism Several molecules of solvent have to be involved in this process in order to allow for a concerted process. A detailed Hammett analysis of aryl aldehydes, methyl aryl ketones and diaryl ketones showed a non-linear relationship which the authors attribute to the complexity of the rate-determining step. Mildly electron-withdrawing substituents favor carbon-hydrogen bond formation, but highly electron-withdrawing substituents will decrease the negative charge at the terminal nitrogen and in turn favor a bigger and harder solvation shell that will render breaking of the N-H bond more difficult.
Self-disorder Clinical relevance Self-disorder > Clinical relevance In their review, Parnas, et al. (2014) say, "The psychiatrist’s acquaintance with the phenomenon of 'non-specific specificity' is, in our view, extremely important in the context of early diagnostic assessment, especially of people presenting with a vague, unelaborated picture of maladjustment, underperformance, chronic malaise and dysphoria, negative symptoms, or hypochondriac preoccupations." People with schizophrenia often describe their self-disorders as causing more suffering for them than psychosis.Self-disorders underlie most of the first-rank symptoms, those often termed passivity phenomena. There is a current proposal to list self-disorder as one of the symptoms of schizophrenia in the upcoming ICD-11.
Catalog of articles in probability theory Counters of articles Catalog_of_articles_in_probability_theory > Counters of articles Here k(n) means: n links to k articles. (Some articles are linked more than once.)
UniverSud Paris Education UniverSud_Paris > Education Mastères spécialisés (Post-master professional certificates) enable students which have already completed a Master's degree to develop their knowledge in a speciality to a high standard. A full-time MBA (Master of Business Administration) ranked No. 6 in the world for the international mobility of its students. Doctoral programmes (PhD): UniverSud Paris laboratories play host to 4,000 doctoral students. Thesis enrolment is handled by the UniverSud Paris institute or college to which the host laboratory is attached. UniverSud Paris also offer continuing education courses aimed at professionals, accessible with a Bachelor or university degree, with courses to the degrees of Ingénieur, Master, Specialized Master or Doctorate.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel Prize memoir (1818) and sequel Conical_refraction > Contributions to physical optics > Diffraction > Prize memoir (1818) and sequel : 486 On 15 January 1818, in a different context (revisited below), Fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. His method was similar to the phasor representation, except that the "forces" were plane vectors rather than complex numbers; they could be added, and multiplied by scalars, but not (yet) multiplied and divided by each other. The explanation was algebraic rather than geometric.
Corticorelin Medical uses Corticorelin > Medical uses The corticorelin stimulation test helps to differentiate between the causes for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-dependent hypercortisolism. It is used to distinguish a pituitary source of excessive ACTH secretion from a different source. If corticorelin injection increases plasma levels of ACTH and cortisol, a diagnosis of Cushing's disease is achieved (ACTH of pituitary origin). If corticorelin injection leads to little or no response in plasma levels of ACTH or cortisol, a diagnosis of ectopic ACTH syndrome is confirmed.
Establishment of sister chromatid cohesion Medical relevance Establishment_of_sister_chromatid_cohesion > Medical relevance Defects in the establishment of sister chromatid cohesion have serious consequences for the cell and are therefore tied to many human diseases. Failure to establish cohesion correctly or inappropriate loss of cohesion can lead to missegregation of chromosomes during mitosis, which results in aneuploidy. The loss of the human homologs of core cohesin proteins or of Eco1, Pds5, Wapl, Sororin, or Scc2 has been tied to cancer. Mutations affecting cohesion and establishment of cohesion are also responsible for Cornelia de Lange Syndrome and Roberts Syndrome. Diseases arising from defects in cohesin or other proteins involved in sister chromatid cohesion are referred to as cohesinopathies.
Animal models of Parkinson's disease 6-OHDA Animal_models_of_Parkinson's_disease > Neurotoxin models > 6-OHDA This toxicity emerges from the production of free radicals from the additional hydroxyl group in the neurotoxin's structure. There is also oxidative stress occurring mediated through the inhibition of the cell's mitochondrial complex I, producing ROS (reactive oxygen species), which causes a decrease or loss in respiratory activity. In addition, there is also the proposed mechanism of oxidative stress inducing neuroinflammation (Figure 3).
DNA microarray experiment A typical protocol DNA_Chip > Uses and types > A typical protocol The modified nucleotides (usually in a ratio of 1 aaUTP: 4 TTP (thymidine triphosphate)) are added enzymatically in a low ratio to normal nucleotides, typically resulting in 1 every 60 bases. The aaDNA is then purified with a column (using a phosphate buffer solution, as Tris contains amine groups). The aminoallyl group is an amine group on a long linker attached to the nucleobase, which reacts with a reactive dye.
Vector theory Topological vector spaces Vector_space > Vector spaces with additional structure > Topological vector spaces {\displaystyle V.} For example, the f i {\displaystyle f_{i}} could be (real or complex) functions belonging to some function space V , {\displaystyle V,} in which case the series is a function series.
Delta function potential Remarks and application Delta_potential > Single delta potential > Remarks and application On the other hand, many systems only change along one coordinate direction and are translationally invariant along the others. The Schrödinger equation may then be reduced to the case considered here by an Ansatz for the wave function of the type Ψ ( x , y , z ) = ψ ( x ) ϕ ( y , z ) {\displaystyle \Psi (x,y,z)=\psi (x)\phi (y,z)\,\!} . Alternatively, it is possible to generalize the delta function to exist on the surface of some domain D (see Laplacian of the indicator).The delta function model is actually a one-dimensional version of the Hydrogen atom according to the dimensional scaling method developed by the group of Dudley R. Herschbach The delta function model becomes particularly useful with the double-well Dirac Delta function model which represents a one-dimensional version of the Hydrogen molecule ion, as shown in the following section.
Shift work disorder Cardiovascular disease Shift_work_disorder > Health effects > Cardiovascular disease Decreased sleep quality and duration have also been associated with other chronic illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease. Many studies have shown that prolonged sleeplessness and sleep disorders, such as OSA, increases systemic levels of CRP, a marker of cardiovascular disease. Many studies have shown that lack of sleep causes blood pressure to increase from the prolonged stimulation of the nervous system. The increase of inflammatory markers, like IL-6, up-regulate the production of CRP.
Replication factor C RFC as a checkpoint Replication_factor_C > RFC as a checkpoint The checkpoint signal is also established by RFC3. To regulate the G2-M transition RFC proteins appear to be important in signal transmission to the checkpoint machinery. == References ==
Ground-level ozone Climate change impacts on processes that affect ozone Ground-level_ozone > Ozone and the climate > Climate change impacts on processes that affect ozone As a result, as the temperature rises, the lifetime of PAN reduces, changing the long-range transport of ozone pollution. Second, the same CO2 radiative forcing that causes global warming would chill the stratosphere. This cooling is projected to result in a relative rise in ozone (O3) depletion in the polar region, as well as an increase in the frequency of ozone holes.Ozone depletion, on the other hand, is a radiative forcing of the climate system.
Aluminium joining Friction stir welding Aluminium_joining > Friction stir welding Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to join two facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material. Heat is generated by friction between the rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened region near the FSW tool. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and softened metal by the mechanical pressure, which is applied by the tool, much like joining clay or dough. It was primarily used on wrought or extruded aluminium, particularly for structures which need very high weld strength. == References ==
Structured sparsity regularization Connection to Multiple Kernel Learning Best_subset_selection > Connections to Other Areas of Machine Learning > Connection to Multiple Kernel Learning , a p ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \Phi _{A}(x)=(a_{1}(x),...,a_{p}(x))} , Φ B: X → R q {\displaystyle \Phi _{B}:X\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{q}} , given by Φ B ( x ) = ( b 1 ( x ) , . . .
Van ’t Hoff equation Van 't Hoff analysis Van_’t_Hoff_equation > Applications of the Van 't Hoff plot > Van 't Hoff analysis The equilibrium constant for each reaction was found at a variety of temperatures, and a Van 't Hoff plot was created. This analysis showed that enthalpically, the water preferred to hydrogen bond to the C-terminus, but entropically it was more favorable to hydrogen bond with the N-terminus.
Electrical reactance Inductive reactance Reactance_(electronics) > Inductive reactance For an ideal inductor in an AC circuit, the inhibitive effect on change in current flow results in a delay, or a phase shift, of the alternating current with respect to alternating voltage. Specifically, an ideal inductor (with no resistance) will cause the current to lag the voltage by a quarter cycle, or 90°. In electric power systems, inductive reactance (and capacitive reactance, however inductive reactance is more common) can limit the power capacity of an AC transmission line, because power is not completely transferred when voltage and current are out-of-phase (detailed above).
Compile time Summary Translate_time In computer science, compile time (or compile-time) describes the time window during which a language's statements are converted into 0s and 1s for the computer to understand. The term is used as an adjective to describe concepts related to the context of program compilation, as opposed to concepts related to the context of program execution (runtime). For example, compile-time requirements are programming language requirements that must be met by source code before compilation and compile-time properties are properties of the program that can be reasoned about during compilation. The actual length of time it takes to compile a program is usually referred to as compilation time.
Ceiling fan Operation Ceiling_fans > Operation Digital wall control. With this style of control, all of the fan's functions— on/off status, speed, the direction of rotation, and any attached light fixtures— are controlled by a computerized wall control, which typically does not require any special wiring. Instead, it uses the normal house wiring to send coded electrical pulses to the fan, which decodes and acts on them using a built-in set of electronics.
Old Red Sandstone Anglo-Welsh Basin Old_Red_Sandstone > Stratigraphy > Anglo-Welsh Basin In the east of the basin, the top of the Raglan Mudstone is marked by a well-developed calcrete, the Bishop's Frome Limestone. The lowermost Devonian formation is the St Maughans Formation, itself overlain by the Brownstones Formation though with an intervening Senni Formation over much of the area. The Upper Devonian sequence is rather thinner and comprises a series of formations which are more laterally restricted. In the Brecon Beacons, the Plateau Beds Formation is unconformably overlain by the Grey Grits Formation though further east these divisions are replaced by the Quartz Conglomerate Group which is itself subdivided into a variety of different formations.
Feature descriptor Texture Image_descriptor > Types > General information descriptors > Texture It's an important quality in order to describe an image. The texture descriptors characterize image textures or regions. They observe the region homogeneity and the histograms of these region borders. The set of descriptors is formed by: Homogeneous texture descriptor (HTD) Texture browsing descriptor (TBD) Edge histogram descriptor (EHD)
Transformational grammar Historical context Transformational-generative_grammar > Historical context This more lenient approach offers more prospects of universalizability. It is, for example, argued that the English SVO word-order (subject, verb, object) represents the initial state of the cognitive language faculty. However, in languages like Classical Arabic, which has a basic VSO order, sentences are automatically transformed by the move operation from the underlying SVO order on which the matrix of all sentences in all languages is reconstructed. Therefore, there is no longer a need for a separate surface and deep matrix and additional rules of conversion between the two levels. According to Chomsky, this solution allows sufficient descriptive and explanatory adequacy—descriptive because all languages are analyzed on the same matrix, and explanatory because the analysis shows in which particular way the sentence is derived from the (hypothesized) initial cognitive state.
Self-driving car Self-driving car Autonomous_car > Definitions > Self-driving car PC Magazine defined a self-driving car as "a computer-controlled car that drives itself". The Union of Concerned Scientists used "cars or trucks in which human drivers are never required to take control to safely operate the vehicle. Also known as autonomous or 'driverless' cars, they combine sensors and software to control, navigate, and drive the vehicle. "The British Automated and Electric Vehicles Act 2018 law defines a vehicle as "driving itself" if the vehicle "is operating in a mode in which it is not being controlled, and does not need to be monitored, by an individual".Another British definition adopts "Self-driving vehicles are vehicles that can safely and lawfully drive themselves."
Distributed artificial intelligence Goals Distributed_artificial_intelligence > Goals Distributed problem solving (DPS): the concept of agent, autonomous entities that can communicate with each other, was developed to serve as an abstraction for developing DPS systems. See below for further details. Multi-Agent Based Simulation (MABS): a branch of DAI that builds the foundation for simulations that need to analyze not only phenomena at macro level but also at micro level, as it is in many social simulation scenarios.
Speech-independent gestures Haptics: touching in communication Non-verbal_communication > Movement and body position > Haptics: touching in communication Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication, and haptic communication refers to how people and other animals communicate via touching. Touches among humans that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching. : 9 These behaviors are referred to as "adapters" or "tells" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator and a listener.
Haptotaxis Immune System Haptotaxis > Immune System Other leukocytes also exhibit haptotactic movement: neutrophils undergo IL-8 mediated migration, while monocytes, basophils, eosinophils and some T cells are influenced by RANTES chemokines. In the autoimmune disorder rheumatoid arthritis and in osteoarthritis, the associated swelling and migration of neutrophils to the affected site has been shown to be linked to membrane bound midkine cytokine. This cytokine operates in a haptotactic fashion, attracting local neutrophils to the site of expression.
Autocorrelation matrix Multi-dimensional autocorrelation Autocorrelation_function > Multi-dimensional autocorrelation Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function.
List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics Classical mechanics List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics > Advanced undergraduate and graduate > Classical mechanics Abraham, R.; Marsden, J. E. (2008). Foundations of Mechanics: A Mathematical Exposition of Classical Mechanics with an Introduction to the Qualitative Theory of Dynamical Systems (2nd ed.). AMS Chelsea Publishing.
Fish Immune system Fish_conservation > Diseases > Immune system Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.
Number sign History Number_sign > History usage. The term hash sign is found in South African writings from the late 1960s and from other non-North-American sources in the 1970s.The symbol appears to have been used primarily in handwritten material; in the printing business, the numero symbol (№) and barred-lb (℔) were used for "number" and "pounds" respectively.For mechanical devices, the symbol appeared on the keyboard of the Remington Standard typewriter (c. 1886).
Principal submatrix Summary Real_matrices In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array or table of numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged in rows and columns, which is used to represent a mathematical object or a property of such an object. For example, is a matrix with two rows and three columns. This is often referred to as a "two by three matrix", a " 2 × 3 {\displaystyle 2\times 3} matrix", or a matrix of dimension 2 × 3 {\displaystyle 2\times 3} . Without further specifications, matrices represent linear maps, and allow explicit computations in linear algebra.
Pythagorean mean History Pythagorean_means > History It turns out that in this proportion the interval between the greater terms is greater and that between the lesser terms is less. The name "harmonic mean", according to Iamblichus, was coined by Archytas and Hippasus. The Pythagorean means also appear in Plato's Timaeus.
Vanishing gradient problem Summary Vanishing_gradient_problem Hochreiter's diplom thesis of 1991 formally identified the reason for this failure in the "vanishing gradient problem", which not only affects many-layered feedforward networks, but also recurrent networks. The latter are trained by unfolding them into very deep feedforward networks, where a new layer is created for each time step of an input sequence processed by the network. (The combination of unfolding and backpropagation is termed backpropagation through time.) When activation functions are used whose derivatives can take on larger values, one risks encountering the related exploding gradient problem.
Language Summary Language Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning. Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000.
Equicontinuous linear maps Summary Equicontinuity In mathematical analysis, a family of functions is equicontinuous if all the functions are continuous and they have equal variation over a given neighbourhood, in a precise sense described herein. In particular, the concept applies to countable families, and thus sequences of functions. Equicontinuity appears in the formulation of Ascoli's theorem, which states that a subset of C(X), the space of continuous functions on a compact Hausdorff space X, is compact if and only if it is closed, pointwise bounded and equicontinuous.
Nuclear contamination Low-level contamination Radiological_contamination > Contamination hazards > Low-level contamination The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation. If a survey or map is made of a contaminated area, random sampling locations may be labeled with their activity in becquerels or curies on contact. Low levels may be reported in counts per minute using a scintillation counter.
Complexity Sources and factors Complexity > Sources and factors There are generally rules which can be invoked to explain the origin of complexity in a given system. The source of disorganized complexity is the large number of parts in the system of interest, and the lack of correlation between elements in the system. In the case of self-organizing living systems, usefully organized complexity comes from beneficially mutated organisms being selected to survive by their environment for their differential reproductive ability or at least success over inanimate matter or less organized complex organisms. See e.g. Robert Ulanowicz's treatment of ecosystems.Complexity of an object or system is a relative property.
Render farm Management Render_farm > Management To manage large farms, a queue manager is required that automatically distributes processes to the many processors. Each "process" could be the rendering of one full image, a few images, or even a sub-section (or tile) of an image. The software is typically a client–server package that facilitates communication between the processors and the queue manager, although some queues have no central manager. Some common features of queue managers are: re-prioritization of the queue, management of software licenses, and algorithms to best optimize throughput based on various types of hardware in the farm.
Auditory spatial attention Summary Auditory_spatial_attention Auditory spatial attention is a specific form of attention, involving the focusing of auditory perception to a location in space. Although the properties of visuospatial attention have been the subject of detailed study, relatively less work has been done to elucidate the mechanisms of audiospatial attention. Spence and Driver note that while early researchers investigating auditory spatial attention failed to find the types of effects seen in other modalities such as vision, these null effects may be due to the adaptation of visual paradigms to the auditory domain, which has decreased spatial acuity. Recent neuroimaging research has provided insight into the processes behind audiospatial attention, suggesting functional overlap with portions of the brain previously shown to be responsible for visual attention.
Energy infrastructure Fossil fuels Energy_production > Fossil fuels Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.
Machine Learning (journal) Selected articles Machine_Learning_(journal) > Selected articles "QG/GA: a stochastic search for Progol". Machine Learning. 70 (2–3): 121–133. doi:10.1007/s10994-007-5029-3. == References ==
HVDC link Capacitor-commutated converters (CCC) Voltage_source_inverter > History > Capacitor-commutated converters (CCC) Line-commutated converters have some limitations in their use for HVDC systems. This results from requiring the AC circuit to turn off the thyristor current and the need for a short period of 'reverse' voltage to effect the turn-off (turn-off time). An attempt to address these limitations is the capacitor-commutated converter (CCC) which has been used in a small number of HVDC systems. The CCC differs from a conventional HVDC system in that it has series capacitors inserted into the AC line connections, either on the primary or secondary side of the converter transformer.
Biased competition theory History Biased_competition_theory > History Research into the subject of attentional mechanisms in regard to visual perception was undertaken as an attempt to better understand the functional principles and potential constraints surrounding visual perception Visual search tasks are commonly used by experimenters to aid the exploration of visual perception. The classical view of visual attention suggests that there are two basic principles: the pre-attentive stage and the attentive stage. In the pre-attentive stage, an individual has an unlimited capacity for perception which is capable of processing information from the entire visual field concurrently. During the attentive stage, the processing of visual information corresponding to local spatial areas takes place.
Discrete math Calculus of finite differences, discrete analysis, and discrete calculus Discrete_structure > Topics in discrete mathematics > Discrete analogues of continuous mathematics > Calculus of finite differences, discrete analysis, and discrete calculus Many questions and methods concerning differential equations have counterparts for difference equations. For instance, where there are integral transforms in harmonic analysis for studying continuous functions or analogue signals, there are discrete transforms for discrete functions or digital signals.
PATH Biobank PATH in the media PATH_Biobank > PATH in the media Ohlms, U., Anzeneder, T.: Einfrieren für die Forschung – Die Brustkrebs-Tumorbank der Stiftung PATH., TumorDiagnostik & Therapie, 33, 61–62, 2012 Mason, E., Schmitt, D.C., Biobanking: The view from the Patients end of the microscope, PATH – The Patients' Tumour Bank of Hope run by Patients for Patients., BIG Newsletter, 13/2, 3–6, 2011 Jackisch, C., Braun, S., Fuhljahn, C., Schmidt, H.U., Thill, M.: PATH- Patients' Tumor Bank of Hope. Die weltweit einzige Tumorbank von Patientinnen für Patientinnen- Eine neue Form der klinischen Forschung in Deutschland
Rocket propulsion Purpose and function Spacecraft_Propulsion > Purpose and function The impulse provided by launching a particle of reaction mass having mass m at velocity v is mv. But this particle has kinetic energy mv²/2, which must come from somewhere. In a conventional solid, liquid, or hybrid rocket, the fuel is burned, providing the energy, and the reaction products are allowed to flow out the back, providing the reaction mass.
Conical refraction Breakthrough: Pure transverse waves (1821) Conical_refraction > Contributions to physical optics > Polarization > Breakthrough: Pure transverse waves (1821) He continued: It has only been for a few months that in meditating more attentively on this subject, I have realized that it was very probable that the oscillatory movements of light waves were executed solely along the plane of these waves, for direct light as well as for polarized light. According to this new view, he wrote, "the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements, but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components".While selectionists could insist on interpreting Fresnel's diffraction integrals in terms of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static.
Chemotactic drug-targeting Summary Chemotactic_drug-targeting Careful selection of chemotactic component of the ligand not only the chemoattractant character could be expended, however, chemorepellent ligands are also valuable as they are useful to keep away cell populations degrading the conjugate containing the drug. In a larger sense, chemotactic drug-targeting has the potential to improve cancer, inflammation, and arthritis treatment by taking advantage of the difference in environment between the target site and its surroundings. Therefore, this Wikipedia article aims to provide a brief overview of chemotactic drug targeting, the principles behind the approach, possible limitations and advantages, and its application to cancer and inflammation.
Visual variable Additional Variables Visual_variable > Additional Variables A number of additional variables have been suggested at times. Some are recent technology-driven proposals, while others are earlier entries that have fallen out of favor.
Constant multiple rule The inverse function rule Differentiation_rules > Elementary rules of differentiation > The inverse function rule If the function f has an inverse function g, meaning that g ( f ( x ) ) = x {\displaystyle g(f(x))=x} and f ( g ( y ) ) = y , {\displaystyle f(g(y))=y,} then In Leibniz notation, this is written as
Continuity test Uses Continuity_test > Uses Continuity tests have uses which include testing components, ensuring proper grounding of equipment, and reverse engineering circuit boards.
Multi-agent pathfinding Types of Collisions Multi-agent_pathfinding > Problem Formalization > Types of Collisions Formally, a vertex conflict happens when π i = π j {\displaystyle \pi _{i}=\pi _{j}} . Edge conflict: an edge conflict occurs whenever two agents cross the same edge in the same direction at the same time, that is π i = π j {\displaystyle \pi _{i}=\pi _{j}} and π i = π j {\displaystyle \pi _{i}=\pi _{j}} . If vertex conflicts are not allowed, then edge conflicts cannot exist.
Orientation homology class Closed, orientable Orientation_homology_class > Definition > Closed, orientable When M is a connected orientable closed manifold of dimension n, the top homology group is infinite cyclic: H n ( M ; Z ) ≅ Z {\displaystyle H_{n}(M;\mathbf {Z} )\cong \mathbf {Z} } , and an orientation is a choice of generator, a choice of isomorphism Z → H n ( M ; Z ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {Z} \to H_{n}(M;\mathbf {Z} )} . The generator is called the fundamental class. If M is disconnected (but still orientable), a fundamental class is the direct sum of the fundamental classes for each connected component (corresponding to an orientation for each component). In relation with de Rham cohomology it represents integration over M; namely for M a smooth manifold, an n-form ω can be paired with the fundamental class as ⟨ ω , ⟩ = ∫ M ω , {\displaystyle \langle \omega ,\rangle =\int _{M}\omega \ ,} which is the integral of ω over M, and depends only on the cohomology class of ω.
Passive cooling Overview Passive_cooling > Overview Passive cooling covers all natural processes and techniques of heat dissipation and modulation without the use of energy. Some authors consider that minor and simple mechanical systems (e.g. pumps and economizers) can be integrated in passive cooling techniques, as long they are used to enhance the effectiveness of the natural cooling process. Such applications are also called 'hybrid cooling systems'.
Fail-fast Examples Fail-fast > Hardware and software > Examples Given a state-change in a state machine, the fail-fast system will halt the machine if the state-change is forbidden. It could be the case that the forbidden state-change is due to a wrong external input. In that case the fail-fast system will stop processing the request as soon as the wrong input is detected (vs. delegating to the state-machine implementation).
Universal Machine Efficiency Universal_Turing_Machine > Efficiency Starting from the above encoding, in 1966 F. C. Hennie and R. E. Stearns showed that given a Turing machine Mα that halts on input x within N steps, then there exists a multi-tape universal Turing machine that halts on inputs α, x (given on different tapes) in CN log N, where C is a machine-specific constant that does not depend on the length of the input x, but does depend on M's alphabet size, number of tapes, and number of states. Effectively this is an O ( N log ⁡ N ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}\left(N\log {N}\right)} simulation, using Donald Knuth's Big O notation. The corresponding result for space-complexity rather than time-complexity is that we can simulate in a way that uses at most CN cells at any stage of the computation, an O ( N ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(N)} simulation.
Control theorist Controllability and observability Control_theorist > Topics in control theory > Controllability and observability From a geometrical point of view, looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behavior in the closed-loop system. That is, if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closed-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis. Solutions to problems of an uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors.
Experimental confirmation Pragmatic model Scientific_methods > Models of scientific inquiry > Pragmatic model In that vein, he defined truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, a proposition) to its object and, pragmatically, not as the actual consensus of some definite, finite community (such that to inquire would be to poll the experts), but instead as that final opinion which all investigators would reach sooner or later but still inevitably, if they were to push investigation far enough, even when they start from different points. In tandem he defined the real as a true sign's object (be that object a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law), which is what it is independently of any finite community's opinion and, pragmatically, depends only on the final opinion destined in a sufficient investigation. That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.
Computational materials engineering Multiscale modeling in material processing Integrated_computational_materials_engineering > Multiscale modeling in material processing Multiscale modeling aims to evaluate material properties or behavior on one level using information or models from different levels and properties of elementary processes. Usually, the following levels, addressing a phenomenon over a specific window of length and time, are recognized: Structural scale: Finite element, finite volume and finite difference partial differential equation are solvers used to simulate structural responses such as solid mechanics and transport phenomena at large (meters) scales. process modeling/simulations: extrusion, rolling, sheet forming, stamping, casting, welding, etc. product modeling/simulations: performance, impact, fatigue, corrosion, etc. Macroscale: constitutive (rheology) equations are used at the continuum level in solid mechanics and transport phenomena at millimeter scales.
Off-by-one error Security implications Off-by-one_error > Cases > Security implications One approach that often helps avoid such problems is to use variants of these functions that calculate how much to write based on the total length of the buffer, rather than the maximum number of characters to write. Such functions include strlcat and strlcpy, and are often considered "safer" because they make it easier to avoid accidentally writing past the end of a buffer. (In the code example above, calling strlcat(buf, s, sizeof(buf)) instead would remove the bug.)
Cavernous sinus thrombosis Signs and symptoms Cavernous_sinus_thrombosis > Signs and symptoms Headache with nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness) may occur. One or both pupils may be dilated and sluggishly reactive. Infection can spread to contralateral cavernous sinus within 24–48 hours of initial presentation.
Hydralazine Research Hydralazine > Research Hydralazine has also been studied as a treatment for myelodysplastic syndrome in its capacity as a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor.
Seroconversion Seroconversion in COVID-19 Seroconversion > Seroconversion in COVID-19 As with other viruses, seroconversion in COVID-19 refers to the development of antibodies in the blood serum against COVID-19 antigens. An individual is seropositive, or has seroconverted for COVID-19, once standard techniques are able to detect COVID-19 antibodies in the blood. Seroconversion testing is primarily used to detect individuals who have been infected with COVID-19 in the past who have already resolved their infections. Due to the time delay of seroconversion compared to viral load, seroconversion is not sufficiently timely to diagnose a current case of COVID-19.
Data governance Data governance drivers Data_governance > Data governance drivers The risks can be financial misstatement, inadvertent release of sensitive data, or poor data quality for key decisions. Methods to manage these risks vary from industry to industry. Examples of commonly referenced best practices and guidelines include COBIT, ISO/IEC 38500, and others. The proliferation of regulations and standards creates challenges for data governance professionals, particularly when multiple regulations overlap the data being managed. Organizations often launch data governance initiatives to address these challenges.
Tensor space As multidimensional arrays Tensor_equation > Definition > As multidimensional arrays Just as the components of a vector change when we change the basis of the vector space, the components of a tensor also change under such a transformation. Each type of tensor comes equipped with a transformation law that details how the components of the tensor respond to a change of basis. The components of a vector can respond in two distinct ways to a change of basis (see Covariance and contravariance of vectors), where the new basis vectors e ^ i {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {e}} _{i}} are expressed in terms of the old basis vectors e j {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{j}} as, e ^ i = ∑ j = 1 n e j R i j = e j R i j .
Orbital hybridisation Hybridisation defects Hybridization_theory > Hybridisation in computational VB theory > Hybridisation defects In methane, CH4, the calculated p/s ratio is approximately 3 consistent with "ideal" sp3 hybridisation, whereas for silane, SiH4, the p/s ratio is closer to 2. A similar trend is seen for the other 2p elements. Substitution of fluorine for hydrogen further decreases the p/s ratio.
Hydrogen bonding Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water Hydrogen_bond > Hydrogen bonds in small molecules > Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds. This type of bonding is called "bifurcated" (split in two or "two-forked"). It can exist, for instance, in complex organic molecules. It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation.Acceptor-type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygen's lone pairs) are more likely to form bifurcation (it is called overcoordinated oxygen, OCO) than are donor-type hydrogen bonds, beginning on the same oxygen's hydrogens.
Immature ovum Summary Immature_ovum An immature ovum is a cell that goes through the process of oogenesis to become an ovum. It can be an oogonium, an oocyte, or an ootid. An oocyte, in turn, can be either primary or secondary, depending on how far it has come in its process of meiosis.
Magnetic chemistry 2nd and 3rd row transition metals Magnetochemistry > Complexes of transition metal ions > 2nd and 3rd row transition metals Crystal field splitting is larger for complexes of the heavier transition metals than for the transition metals discussed above. A consequence of this is that low-spin complexes are much more common. Spin–orbit coupling constants, ζ, are also larger and cannot be ignored, even in elementary treatments. The magnetic behaviour has been summarized, as below, together with an extensive table of data.
Public opinion on climate change Individual risk assessment and assignment Public_opinion_on_climate_change > Influences on individual opinion > Individual risk assessment and assignment Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare Gore effect) in the public arena. While the greenhouse effect per se is essential for life on Earth, the case was quite different with the ozone shield and other metaphors about the ozone depletion.
Radical axis Coaxal circles Radical_line > Coaxal circles Definition and properties: Let c 1 , c 2 {\displaystyle c_{1},c_{2}} be two circles and Π 1 , Π 2 {\displaystyle \Pi _{1},\Pi _{2}} their power functions. Then for any λ ≠ 1 {\displaystyle \lambda \neq 1} Π 1 ( x , y ) − λ Π 2 ( x , y ) = 0 {\displaystyle \Pi _{1}(x,y)-\lambda \Pi _{2}(x,y)=0} is the equation of a circle c ( λ ) {\displaystyle c(\lambda )} (see below). Such a system of circles is called coaxal circles generated by the circles c 1 , c 2 {\displaystyle c_{1},c_{2}} . (In case of λ = 1 {\displaystyle \lambda =1} the equation describes the radical axis of c 1 , c 2 {\displaystyle c_{1},c_{2}} .)
Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure Protein-coding genes Eukaryotic_chromosome_fine_structure > Protein-coding genes An unnamed region after the poly-A tail, but before the actual site for transcription termination, is spliced off during transcription, and so does not become part of the 3' UTR. Its function, if any, is unknown.
Language production Summary Language_production Language production is the production of spoken or written language. In psycholinguistics, it describes all of the stages between having a concept to express and translating that concept into linguistic forms. These stages have been described in two types of processing models: the lexical access models and the serial models. Through these models, psycholinguists can look into how speeches are produced in different ways, such as when the speaker is bilingual. Psycholinguists learn more about these models and different kinds of speech by using language production research methods that include collecting speech errors and elicited production tasks.
Schedules of reinforcement Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory Positive_reinforcement > Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion.Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The communicator must realize that different groups have different values. : 24–25 In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.
Programming language research Sub-disciplines and related fields Programming_language_research > Sub-disciplines and related fields There are several fields of study that either lie within programming language theory, or which have a profound influence on it; many of these have considerable overlap. In addition, PLT makes use of many other branches of mathematics, including computability theory, category theory, and set theory.