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Linear phase Summary Linear_phase In signal processing, linear phase is a property of a filter where the phase response of the filter is a linear function of frequency. The result is that all frequency components of the input signal are shifted in time (usually delayed) by the same constant amount (the slope of the linear function), which is referred to as the group delay. Consequently, there is no phase distortion due to the time delay of frequencies relative to one another.
Learning theory (education) Informal and post-modern theories Learning_theory_(education) > Other learning theories > Informal and post-modern theories This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and the language of a subject should be split into multiple steps.Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation may create a more self-regulated learner, yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration and mediation. Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.
Collision response Contact forces Collision_response > Contact forces The origin of the rebound phenomenon, or reaction, may be traced to the behaviour of real bodies that, unlike their perfectly rigid idealised counterparts, do undergo minor compression on collision, followed by expansion, prior to separation. The compression phase converts the kinetic energy of the bodies into potential energy and to an extent, heat. The expansion phase converts the potential energy back to kinetic energy. During the compression and expansion phases of two colliding bodies, each body generates reactive forces on the other at the points of contact, such that the sum reaction forces of one body are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the forces of the other, as per the Newtonian principle of action and reaction. If the effects of friction are ignored, a collision is seen as affecting only the component of the velocities that are directed along the contact normal and as leaving the tangential components unaffected
Indicated airspeed Other airspeeds Indicated_airspeed > Other airspeeds Ground speed is just a pilot aid to estimate if the flight is on time, behind or ahead of schedule. It is not used for takeoff and landing purposes, since the imperative speed for a flying aircraft always is the speed against the wind. The Machmeter is, on subsonic aircraft, a warning indicator.
Computational methods for free surface flow Marker-and-cell or MAC Scheme Computational_methods_for_free_surface_flow > Methods of computation > Interface capturing method > Marker-and-cell or MAC Scheme MAC scheme was proposed by Harlow and Welch in 1965. In this method, a mass-less particle is introduced at the initial time at the free surface. The motion of this mass-less particle is followed with the passage of time. Benefit: This scheme can treat complex phenomena like wave breaking. Drawback: In three dimensional flow solving the equations governing fluid flow and also following the motion of a large number of markers both simultaneously demands high computational power.
Database Design and modeling Database_language > Design and modeling The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS. This is often called physical database design, and the output is the physical data model. A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications.
Spin lattice Viewing the Ising model as a Markov chain Ising_spin > Monte Carlo methods for numerical simulation > Viewing the Ising model as a Markov chain It is possible to view the Ising model as a Markov chain, as the immediate probability Pβ(ν) of transitioning to a future state ν only depends on the present state μ. The Metropolis algorithm is actually a version of a Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation, and since we use single-spin-flip dynamics in the Metropolis algorithm, every state can be viewed as having links to exactly L other states, where each transition corresponds to flipping a single spin site to the opposite value. Furthermore, since the energy equation Hσ change only depends on the nearest-neighbor interaction strength J, the Ising model and its variants such the Sznajd model can be seen as a form of a voter model for opinion dynamics.
Energy Security Threats Energy_Security > Threats The modern world relies on a vast energy supply to fuel anything from transportation to communication, to security and health delivery systems. Peak oil expert Michael Ruppert has claimed that for every kilocalorie of food produced in the industrial world, 10 kilocalories of oil and gas energy are invested in the forms of fertilizer, pesticide, packaging, transportation, and running farm equipment. Energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country as a fuel to power the economic engine. Some sectors rely on energy more heavily than others; for example, the Department of Defense relies on petroleum for approximately 77% of its energy needs.
Roger Lhermitte Patents Roger_Lhermitte > Publications > Patents Atmospheric motion non-coherent pulse doppler system (July 6, 1965) Method and means of determining variability of atmospheric motion with respect to altitude (July 27, 1965) Atmospheric Motion Coherent Pulse Doppler Radar System (October 12, 1965) Radar tornado alarm (September 6, 1966) Waveform Averaging and Contouring Device For Weather Radars And The Like (January 30, 1968)
Micropower Other microgenerator/nanogenerator technologies Micropower > Other microgenerator/nanogenerator technologies Professor Orest Symko of the University of Utah physics department and his students developed Thermal Acoustic Piezo Energy Conversion (TAPEC), devices of a cubic inch (16 cubic centimeters), or so, which convert waste heat into acoustic resonance and then into electricity. It would be used to power microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS. The research was funded by the U.S.
RDF Store Related database types RDF_Store > Related database types Adding a name to the triple makes a "quad store" or named graph. A graph database has a more generalized structure than a triplestore, using graph structures with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store data. Graph databases might provide index-free adjacency, meaning every element contains a direct pointer to its adjacent elements, and no index lookups are necessary. General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases.
Structured sparsity regularization Connection to Multiple Kernel Learning Structured_sparsity_regularization > Connections to Other Areas of Machine Learning > Connection to Multiple Kernel Learning , b q ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \Phi _{B}(x)=(b_{1}(x),...,b_{q}(x))} , and Φ: X → R p + q {\displaystyle \Phi :X\rightarrow \mathbb {R} ^{p+q}} , given by the concatenation of Φ A , Φ B {\displaystyle \Phi _{A},\Phi _{B}} , respectively. In the structured sparsity regularization approach to this scenario, the relevant groups of variables which the group norms consider correspond to the subspaces H A {\displaystyle H_{A}} and H B {\displaystyle H_{B}} . This approach promotes setting the groups of coefficients corresponding to these subspaces to zero as opposed to only individual coefficients, promoting sparse multiple kernel learning. The above reasoning directly generalizes to any finite number of dictionaries, or feature maps. It can be extended to feature maps inducing infinite dimensional hypothesis spaces.
Android rooting Advantages Android_rooting > Overview > Advantages Advantages of rooting include the possibility for complete control over the appearance, feel, and behaviour of the device. As a superuser has access to the device's system files, all aspects of the operating system can be customized with the only real limitation being the level of coding expertise. Immediately expectable advantages of rooted devices include the following: Support for theming, allowing everything to be visually changed from the color and type of the battery status indicator to the boot animation that appears while the device is booting, the status bar, control menu, virtual on-screen navigation buttons, and more. Full control of the kernel, which, for example, allows overclocking and underclocking the CPU and GPU.
Wilfley table Design and operation Wilfley_table > Mineral separation > Design and operation The table, like most shaking tables, consists of a riffled deck with a gentle tilt on a stable support to counteract the table's oscillation. A motor, usually mounted to the side, drives a small arm that shakes the table along its length. The riffles are typically less than 10 mm (0.39 inches) high and cover more than half the table’s surface.
Brushless motors Summary Brushless_DC_electric_motor The construction of a brushless motor system is typically similar to a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or an induction (asynchronous) motor. They may also use neodymium magnets and be outrunners (the stator is surrounded by the rotor), inrunners (the rotor is surrounded by the stator), or axial (the rotor and stator are flat and parallel).The advantages of a brushless motor over brushed motors are high power-to-weight ratio, high speed, nearly instantaneous control of speed (rpm) and torque, high efficiency, and low maintenance. Brushless motors find applications in such places as computer peripherals (disk drives, printers), hand-held power tools, and vehicles ranging from model aircraft to automobiles. In modern washing machines, brushless DC motors have allowed replacement of rubber belts and gearboxes by a direct-drive design.
Evidence under Bayes theorem Examples Evidence_under_Bayes'_theorem > Examples There are some famous cases where Bayes' theorem can be applied. In the medical examples, a comparison is made between the evidence of cancer suggested by mammograms (5% show positive) versus the general risk of having cancer (1% in general): the ratio is 1:5, or 20% risk, of having breast cancer when a mammogram shows a positive result. A court case which argued the probabilities, with DNA evidence, is R v Adams.
Plant-fungus horizontal gene transfer Summary Plant–fungus_horizontal_gene_transfer Plant–fungus horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between individuals in the plant and fungus kingdoms. Horizontal gene transfer is universal in fungi, viruses, bacteria, and other eukaryotes. Horizontal gene transfer research often focuses on prokaryotes because of the abundant sequence data from diverse lineages, and because it is assumed not to play a significant role in eukaryotes.Most plant–fungus horizontal gene transfer events are ancient and rare, but they may have provided important gene functions leading to wider substrate use and habitat spread for plants and fungi. Since these events are rare and ancient, they have been difficult to detect and remain relatively unknown. Plant–fungus interactions could play a part in a multi-horizontal gene transfer pathway among many other organisms.
Outline of the human brain Cranial nerves Outline_of_the_human_brain > Structure of the human brain > Visible anatomy > Cranial nerves Many neurons connect to the brain on one end, with the other end connected to another neuron, with the outside (the brain) junction located within the spinal column. Other neurons bundles which are labeled cranial nerves, connect to the brain on one end, and to locations outside the brain on the other, without having a junction inside the spinal column. Cranial nerves are actually huge collections of vast numbers of individual neurons that have found common routes through the body.
R Coronae Borealis Spectrum R_Coronae_Borealis > Spectrum The normal absorption spectrum is replaced by emission lines, especially HeI, CaII, NaI, and other metals. The lines are typically very narrow at this stage. Helium emission lines sometimes show P Cygni profiles.
Death regulator Nedd2-like caspase Accidental Cell Death and Compensatory Proliferation Death_regulator_Nedd2-like_caspase > Functions > Apoptotic functions > Accidental Cell Death and Compensatory Proliferation Cell death during animal tissues development is rapidly compensated by cell divisions in a process called compensatory proliferation. The developing Drosophila imaginal disk has a very high regenerative capacity that is independent of the size control mechanism that governs the disk. It is not completely known how these phenomena are regulated, but it is thought that dying cells secrete mitogens that activate the reproduction of neighbouring cells, a process that would be regulated by apoptotic signalling pathway (in which Caspase Dronc is involved). This means that if cells were stimulated to undergo apoptosis, and at the same time artificially kept alive (e.g. by overexpressing the inhibitor of effector caspases, p35), neighbouring cells would be led to conduct uncontrollable compensatory proliferation. The fact that Dronc is insensitive to p35 inhibition has suggested that it could be required for compensatory proliferation, a hypothesis that was demonstrated in 2006.
Reynolds Number Similarity of flows Reynolds_numbers > Similarity of flows This allows engineers to perform experiments with reduced scale models in water channels or wind tunnels and correlate the data to the actual flows, saving on costs during experimentation and on lab time. Note that true dynamic similitude may require matching other dimensionless numbers as well, such as the Mach number used in compressible flows, or the Froude number that governs open-channel flows. Some flows involve more dimensionless parameters than can be practically satisfied with the available apparatus and fluids, so one is forced to decide which parameters are most important.
Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics Concentration-dependent effects Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics > Concentration-dependent effects The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration are used to measure in vitro activity of antimicrobial agents. They are good indicators of antimicrobial potency, but don't give any information relating to time-dependent antimicrobial killing (the so-called post antibiotic effect).
Right-angled triangle Area Right_triangle > Principal properties > Area As with any triangle, the area is equal to one half the base multiplied by the corresponding height. In a right triangle, if one leg is taken as the base then the other is height, so the area of a right triangle is one half the product of the two legs. As a formula the area T is T = 1 2 a b {\displaystyle T={\tfrac {1}{2}}ab} where a and b are the legs of the triangle.
Cerebral vascular accident Subtypes Brain_stroke > Signs and symptoms > Subtypes If the area of the brain affected includes one of the three prominent central nervous system pathways—the spinothalamic tract, corticospinal tract, and the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway, symptoms may include: hemiplegia and muscle weakness of the face numbness reduction in sensory or vibratory sensation initial flaccidity (reduced muscle tone), replaced by spasticity (increased muscle tone), excessive reflexes, and obligatory synergies.In most cases, the symptoms affect only one side of the body (unilateral). Depending on the part of the brain affected, the defect in the brain is usually on the opposite side of the body. However, since these pathways also travel in the spinal cord and any lesion there can also produce these symptoms, the presence of any one of these symptoms does not necessarily indicate stroke. In addition to the above CNS pathways, the brainstem gives rise to most of the twelve cranial nerves. A brainstem stroke affecting the brainstem and brain, therefore, can produce symptoms relating to deficits in these cranial nerves: altered smell, taste, hearing, or vision (total or partial) drooping of eyelid (ptosis) and weakness of ocular muscles decreased reflexes: gag, swallow, pupil reactivity to light decreased sensation and muscle weakness of the face balance problems and nystagmus altered breathing and heart rate weakness in sternocleidomastoid muscle with inability to turn head to one side weakness in tongue (inability to stick out the tongue or move it from side to side)If the cerebral cortex is involved, the CNS pathways can again be affected, but can also produce the following symptoms: aphasia (difficulty with verbal expression, auditory comprehension, reading and writing; Broca's or Wernicke's area typically involved) dysarthria (motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury) apraxia (altered voluntary movements) visual field defect memory deficits (involvement of temporal lobe) hemineglect (involvement of parietal lobe) disorganized thinking, confusion, hypersexual gestures (with involvement of frontal lobe) lack of insight of his or her, usually stroke-related, disabilityIf the cerebellum is involved, ataxia might be present and this includes: altered walking gait altered movement coordination vertigo and or disequilibrium
Resting heart rate Correlation with cardiovascular mortality risk Heart_Rate > Clinical significance > Correlation with cardiovascular mortality risk A faster resting heart rate is associated with shorter life expectancy and is considered a strong risk factor for heart disease and heart failure, independent of level of physical fitness. Specifically, a resting heart rate above 65 beats per minute has been shown to have a strong independent effect on premature mortality; every 10 beats per minute increase in resting heart rate has been shown to be associated with a 10–20% increase in risk of death. In one study, men with no evidence of heart disease and a resting heart rate of more than 90 beats per minute had a five times higher risk of sudden cardiac death.
Influenza A virus Structure and genetics Influenza_A_virus > Structure and genetics Transcription of the viral (-) sense genome (vRNA) can only proceed after the PB2 protein binds to host capped RNAs, allowing for the PA subunit to cleave several nucleotides after the cap. This host-derived cap and accompanied nucleotides serve as the primer for viral transcription initiation. Transcription proceeds along the vRNA until a stretch of several uracil bases is reached, initiating a 'stuttering' whereby the nascent viral mRNA is poly-adenylated, producing a mature transcript for nuclear export and translation by host machinery.The RNA synthesis takes place in the cell nucleus, while the synthesis of proteins takes place in the cytoplasm.
Geometric object Angles Elementary_geometry > Main concepts > Objects > Angles Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. In modern terms, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to study polygons and triangles, as well as forming an object of study in their own right. The study of the angles of a triangle or of angles in a unit circle forms the basis of trigonometry.In differential geometry and calculus, the angles between plane curves or space curves or surfaces can be calculated using the derivative.
Animal cells Replication Sub-cellular_compartment > Cellular processes > Replication Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four.
Dynamicism Summary Dynamicism Dynamicism, also termed dynamic hypothesis or dynamic cognition, is an approach in cognitive science popularized by the work of philosopher Tim van Gelder. It argues that differential equations and dynamical systems are more suited to modeling cognition rather than the commonly used ideas of symbolicism, connectionism, or traditional computer models. It is closely related to dynamical neuroscience. == References ==
Vault RNA Research methods Vault_RNA > Biological applications > Research methods Fragrep2 seeks to solve this problem by using a pattern-based algorithm that can match or almost match exact sequences of motifs within the desired molecule. In order to help build fragrep2, the scientists needed a test molecule and found vault RNAs to be perfect. The reason being that vault RNAs generally have two very well conserved sequences, surrounded by regions of high variability. This tool is significant not only because it has helped advance the research of vault RNA, but also because of its other applications within the RNA field. Vault RNAs are not the only kind of RNA with this type of semi-conserved/highly variable structure, other notable RNAs include RNAse P, RNAse MRP, telomerase RNA, and 7SK RNA.
Satellite Internet System hardware components Satellite_Internet > One-way broadcast, receive only > System hardware components Similar to one-way terrestrial return, satellite Internet access may include interfaces to the public switched telephone network for squawk box applications. An Internet connection is not required, but many applications include a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server to queue data for broadcast.
Acidity constant Applications and significance Acid–base_equilibrium > Applications and significance For example, hydrogen cyanide is a very toxic gas, because the cyanide ion inhibits the iron-containing enzyme cytochrome c oxidase. Hydrogen cyanide is a weak acid in aqueous solution with a pKa of about 9. In strongly alkaline solutions, above pH 11, say, it follows that sodium cyanide is "fully dissociated" so the hazard due to the hydrogen cyanide gas is much reduced.
Moment magnitude Richter scale: the original measure of earthquake magnitude Moment_magnitude > History > Richter scale: the original measure of earthquake magnitude At the beginning of the twentieth century, very little was known about how earthquakes happen, how seismic waves are generated and propagate through the earth's crust, and what information they carry about the earthquake rupture process; the first magnitude scales were therefore empirical. The initial step in determining earthquake magnitudes empirically came in 1931 when the Japanese seismologist Kiyoo Wadati showed that the maximum amplitude of an earthquake's seismic waves diminished with distance at a certain rate. Charles F. Richter then worked out how to adjust for epicentral distance (and some other factors) so that the logarithm of the amplitude of the seismograph trace could be used as a measure of "magnitude" that was internally consistent and corresponded roughly with estimates of an earthquake's energy.
2-group Definition 2-group > Definition A 2-group is a monoidal category G in which every morphism is invertible and every object has a weak inverse. (Here, a weak inverse of an object x is an object y such that xy and yx are both isomorphic to the unit object.)
Sulfide Chemical properties Sulfide > Chemical properties The sulfide ion, S2−, does not exist in aqueous alkaline solutions of Na2S. Instead sulfide converts to hydrosulfide: S2− + H2O → SH− + OH−Upon treatment with an acid, sulfide salts convert to hydrogen sulfide: S2− + H+ → SH− SH− + H+ → H2SOxidation of sulfide is a complicated process. Depending on the conditions, the oxidation can produce elemental sulfur, polysulfides, polythionates, sulfite, or sulfate. Metal sulfides react with halogens, forming sulfur and metal salts. 8 MgS + 8 I2 → S8 + 8 MgI2
Correlation Other measures of dependence among random variables Positively_correlated > Other measures of dependence among random variables For two binary variables, the odds ratio measures their dependence, and takes range non-negative numbers, possibly infinity: {\displaystyle } . Related statistics such as Yule's Y and Yule's Q normalize this to the correlation-like range {\displaystyle } . The odds ratio is generalized by the logistic model to model cases where the dependent variables are discrete and there may be one or more independent variables. The correlation ratio, entropy-based mutual information, total correlation, dual total correlation and polychoric correlation are all also capable of detecting more general dependencies, as is consideration of the copula between them, while the coefficient of determination generalizes the correlation coefficient to multiple regression.
Ti plasmid Virulence operon Ti_plasmid > Features > Virulence operon The expression of the vir region is usually repressed under normal conditions, and only becomes activated when the bacteria senses plant-derived signals from wound sites. This activation is necessary for the production of Vir proteins and the transfer of DNA and proteins into host plant cells.VirA and VirG form a two-component regulatory system within Agrobacterium. This is a type of sensing and signalling system found commonly in bacteria; in this case, they act to sense plant-derived signals to drive the expression of the vir region. During the sensing, VirA, a histidine sensor kinase, will become phosphorylated before passing on this phosphate group to the response regulator VirG.
Diffusion layer Summary Diffusion_layer In electrochemistry, the diffusion layer, according to IUPAC, is defined as the "region in the vicinity of an electrode where the concentrations are different from their value in the bulk solution. The definition of the thickness of the diffusion layer is arbitrary because the concentration approaches asymptotically the value in the bulk solution". The diffusion layer thus depends on the diffusion coefficient (D) of the analyte and, for voltammetric measurements, on the scan rate (V/s). It is usually considered to be some multiple of D t {\displaystyle {\sqrt {Dt}}} (where 1 t {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{t}}} = scan rate).
Critical line (mathematics) Analytic criteria equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis Critical_line_(mathematics) > Consequences > Analytic criteria equivalent to the Riemann hypothesis Speiser (1934) proved that the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that ζ ′ ( s ) {\displaystyle \zeta '(s)} , the derivative of ζ ( s ) {\displaystyle \zeta (s)} , has no zeros in the strip 0 < ℜ ( s ) < 1 2 . {\displaystyle 0<\Re (s)<{\frac {1}{2}}.} That ζ ( s ) {\displaystyle \zeta (s)} has only simple zeros on the critical line is equivalent to its derivative having no zeros on the critical line.
Compound helicopter Flight controls Compound_helicopter > Design characteristics > Flight controls Helicopter rotors are designed to operate in a narrow range of RPM. The throttle controls the power produced by the engine, which is connected to the rotor by a fixed ratio transmission. The purpose of the throttle is to maintain enough engine power to keep the rotor RPM within allowable limits so that the rotor produces enough lift for flight. In single-engine helicopters, the throttle control is a motorcycle-style twist grip mounted on the collective control, while dual-engine helicopters have a power lever for each engine.
Fenfluramine/phentermine Adverse effects of serotonin Fenfluramine/phentermine > Adverse effects of serotonin The findings on fen-phen, specifically fenfluramine, causing valvular heart disease and pulmonary hypertension prompted a renewed interest in the deleterious effects of systemic serotonin. It had already been known for decades that two of the major side-effects of the carcinoid syndrome, in which excessive serotonin is produced endogenously, are valvular disease and pulmonary hypertension. Several centers were able to note a relationship to an excessive activation of the serotonin receptor subtype 5-HT2B.
Digital evidence Authentication Digital_evidence > Authentication US v. Vela, 673 F.2d 86, 90 (5th Cir. 1982). A common attack on digital evidence is that digital media can be easily altered.
Comparison of OLAP servers Operating systems Comparison_of_OLAP_servers > Operating systems The OLAP servers can run on the following operating systems: Note (1):The server availability depends on Java Virtual Machine not on the operating system
Environmental stress cracking Mechanisms of ESC Environmental_stress_cracking > Mechanisms of ESC There are a number of opinions on how certain reagents act on polymers under stress. Because ESC is often seen in amorphous polymers rather than in semicrystalline polymers, theories regarding the mechanism of ESC often revolve around liquid interactions with the amorphous regions of polymers. One such theory is that the liquid can diffuse into the polymer, causing swelling which increases the polymer's chain mobility. The result is a decrease in the yield stress and glass transition temperature (Tg), as well as a plasticisation of the material which leads to crazing at lower stresses and strains.
Immanuel Kant Principles of pure understanding Immanuel_Kant > Philosophy > Kant's theory of judgment > Principles of pure understanding Principle of simultaneity according to the law of reciprocity or community: The final analogy argues that "determinate judgments that objects (or states of substance) in different regions of space exists simultaneously are possible only if such objects stand in mutual causal relation of community or reciprocal interaction." (This is Kant's rejoinder to Leibniz's thesis in the Monadology. )The fourth section of this chapter, which is not an analogy, deals with the empirical use of the modal categories.
Pyroelectric detector Power generation Pyroelectric_crystal > Applications > Power generation A pyroelectric can be repeatedly heated and cooled (analogously to a heat engine) to generate usable electrical power. An example of a heat engine is the movement of the pistons in an internal combustion engine like that found in a gasoline powered automobile.One group calculated that a pyroelectric in an Ericsson cycle could reach 50% of Carnot efficiency, while a different study found a material that could, in theory, reach 84-92% of Carnot efficiency (these efficiency values are for the pyroelectric itself, ignoring losses from heating and cooling the substrate, other heat-transfer losses, and all other losses elsewhere in the system). Possible advantages of pyroelectric generators for generating electricity (as compared to the conventional heat engine plus electrical generator) include: Harvesting energy from waste-heatPotentially lower operating temperatures Less bulky equipment Fewer moving parts.Although a few patents have been filed for such a device, such generators do not appear to be anywhere close to commercialization.
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy Experimental methods Scanning_tunneling_spectroscopy > Experimental methods The A.C. component of the tunneling current is recorded using a lock-in amplifier, and the component in-phase with the tip-sample bias modulation gives d I / d V {\displaystyle dI/dV} directly. The amplitude of the modulation Vm has to be kept smaller than the spacing of the characteristic spectral features.
Energy is conserved History Energy_is_conserved > History In 1687, Isaac Newton published his Principia, which was organized around the concept of force and momentum. However, the researchers were quick to recognize that the principles set out in the book, while fine for point masses, were not sufficient to tackle the motions of rigid and fluid bodies. Some other principles were also required.
Fifth force Other approaches Fifth_force > Experimental approaches > Other approaches Some experiments used a lake plus a tower that is 320 m high. A comprehensive review by Ephraim Fischbach and Carrick Talmadge suggested there is no compelling evidence for the fifth force, though scientists still search for it. The Fischbach-Talmadge article was written in 1992, and since then, other evidence has come to light that may indicate a fifth force.The above experiments search for a fifth force that is, like gravity, independent of the composition of an object, so all objects experience the force in proportion to their masses. Forces that depend on the composition of an object can be very sensitively tested by torsion balance experiments of a type invented by Loránd Eötvös. Such forces may depend, for example, on the ratio of protons to neutrons in an atomic nucleus, nuclear spin, or the relative amount of different kinds of binding energy in a nucleus (see the semi-empirical mass formula). Searches have been done from very short ranges, to municipal scales, to the scale of the Earth, the Sun, and dark matter at the center of the galaxy.
Photo-active material Relaxation Photo-active_material > Photoluminescence properties of direct-gap semiconductors > Ideal quantum-well structures > Relaxation Initially, the laser light induces coherent polarization in the sample, i.e., the transitions between electron and hole states oscillate with the laser frequency and a fixed phase. The polarization dephases typically on a sub-100 fs time-scale in case of nonresonant excitation due to ultra-fast Coulomb- and phonon-scattering.The dephasing of the polarization leads to creation of populations of electrons and holes in the conduction and the valence bands, respectively. The lifetime of the carrier populations is rather long, limited by radiative and non-radiative recombination such as Auger recombination. During this lifetime a fraction of electrons and holes may form excitons, this topic is still controversially discussed in the literature.
Ring (algebra) Notes on the definition Unit_ring > Definition > Notes on the definition In the terminology of this article, a ring is defined to have a multiplicative identity, while a structure with the same axiomatic definition but without the requirement for a multiplicative identity is instead called a rng (IPA: ). For example, the set of even integers with the usual + and ⋅ is a rng, but not a ring. As explained in § History below, many authors apply the term "ring" without requiring a multiplicative identity. The multiplication symbol ⋅ is usually omitted; for example, xy means x · y. Although ring addition is commutative, ring multiplication is not required to be commutative: ab need not necessarily equal ba.
Composite Material Continuous fiber reinforcement Composite_Material > Mechanical properties of composites > Continuous fiber reinforcement In general, continuous fiber reinforcement is implemented by incorporating a fiber as the strong phase into a weak phase, matrix. The reason for the popularity of fiber usage is materials with extraordinary strength can be obtained in their fiber form. Non-metallic fibers are usually showing a very high strength to density ratio compared to metal fibers because of the covalent nature of their bonds. The most famous example of this is carbon fibers that have many applications extending from sports gear to protective equipment to space industries.The stress on the composite can be expressed in terms of the volume fraction of the fiber and the matrix.
Soybean Protein Soybean > Chemical composition > Nutrition > Protein Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma, whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the cupin superfamily, a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants.2S albumins form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many dicot species and in some monocots but not in grasses (cereals). Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein. 2S albumin are grouped in the prolamin superfamily. Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific plant lipid transfer proteins, alpha amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitors, and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses.Peanuts, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S. It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein.
Electron diffraction Formation of a diffraction pattern Electron_diffraction > Types and techniques > In a transmission electron microscope > Formation of a diffraction pattern Which part? This one can never say as electrons are everywhere until they are detected (wavefunction collapse) according to the Copenhagen interpretation.
Engineering validation test Prototyping Engineering_validation_test > Prototyping In the prototyping stage, engineers create actual working samples of the product they plan to produce. Engineering verification testing (EVT) is used on prototypes to verify that the design meets pre-determined specifications and design goals. This valuable information is used to validate the design as is, or identify areas that need to be modified.
Heterogeneous gold catalysis Water gas shift Heterogeneous_gold_catalysis > Proposed applications > Water gas shift Water gas shift is the most widespread industrial process for the production of dihydrogen, H2. It involves the reaction of carbon monoxide and water (syngas) to form hydrogen and carbon dioxide as a byproduct. In many catalytic reaction schemes, one of the elementary reactions is the oxidation of CO with an adsorbed oxygen species.
Obligate aerobic Aerobic Respiration Obligate_aerobic > Aerobic Respiration Aerobic organisms use a process called aerobic respiration to create ATP from ADP and a phosphate. Glucose (a monosaccharide) is oxidized to power the electron transport chain:This equation is a summary of what happens in three series of biochemical reactions: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 38 ADP + 38 phosphate → 6 CO2 + 44 H2O + 38 ATPIn Oxidative phosphorylation, ATP is synthesized from ADP and a phosphate using ATP synthase. ATP synthase is powered by a proton-motive force created by using the energy generated from the electron transport chain.
Precompiled header C++Builder Precompiled_header > Common implementations > C++Builder In the default project configuration, the C++Builder compiler implicitly generates precompiled headers for all headers included by a source module until the line #pragma hdrstop is found. : 76 Precompiled headers are shared for all modules of the project if possible. For example, when working with the Visual Component Library, it is common to include the vcl.h header first which contains most of the commonly used VCL header files. Thus, the precompiled header can be shared across all project modules, which dramatically reduces the build times. In addition, C++Builder can be instrumented to use a specific header file as precompiled header, similar to the mechanism provided by Visual C++. C++Builder 2009 introduces a "Precompiled Header Wizard" which parses all source modules of the project for included header files, classifies them (i.e. excludes header files if they are part of the project or do not have an Include guard) and generates and tests a precompiled header for the specified files automatically.
Wave particle duality History Three_wave_hypothesis > History In 1905 Einstein interpreted the photoelectric effect also with discrete energies for photons. These both indicate particle behavior. Despite confirmation by various experimental observations, the photon theory (as it came to be called) remained controversial until Arthur Compton performed a series of experiments from 1922 to 1924 demonstrating the momentum of light.
Homoplasy Parallelism and convergence Homoplasy > Parallelism and convergence Parallel and convergent evolution lead to homoplasy when different species independently evolve or gain apparently identical features, which are different from the feature inferred to have been present in their common ancestor. When the similar features are caused by an equivalent developmental mechanism, the process is referred to as parallel evolution. The process is called convergent evolution when the similarity arises from different developmental mechanisms.
Semantic memory Search of associative memory Hyperspace_Analogue_to_Language > Models > Associative models > Search of associative memory A standard model of memory that employs association in this manner is the search of associative memory (SAM) model. Though SAM was originally designed to model episodic memory, its mechanisms are sufficient to support some semantic memory representations. The model contains a short-term store (STS) and long-term store (LTS), where STS is a briefly activated subset of the information in the LTS. The STS has limited capacity and affects the retrieval process by limiting the amount of information that can be sampled and limiting the time the sampled subset is in an active mode.
Second order Fresnel lens Illumination Second_order_Fresnel_lens > Uses > Illumination Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' focal point, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide as 70°. The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light.
Enzyme-substrate complex Summary Enzyme-substrate_complex The study of enzymes is called enzymology and the field of pseudoenzyme analysis recognizes that during evolution, some enzymes have lost the ability to carry out biological catalysis, which is often reflected in their amino acid sequences and unusual 'pseudocatalytic' properties.Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes. Enzymes' specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures.
Log-linear analysis Summary Log-linear_analysis Log-linear analysis is a technique used in statistics to examine the relationship between more than two categorical variables. The technique is used for both hypothesis testing and model building. In both these uses, models are tested to find the most parsimonious (i.e., least complex) model that best accounts for the variance in the observed frequencies. (A Pearson's chi-square test could be used instead of log-linear analysis, but that technique only allows for two of the variables to be compared at a time.)
Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Co-morbidities Postural_Orthostatic_Tachycardia_Syndrome > Epidemiology > Co-morbidities Conditions that are commonly reported with POTS include: Migraine headaches (11–40%) Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (20–25%) Fibromyalgia (11–20%) Irritable bowel syndrome (7–30%) Chronic fatigue syndrome (7–21%) Mast cell activation disorder (6–9%)
Photovoltaic power systems Solar array Photovoltaic_device > Components > Solar array A photovoltaic array, or solar array, is a linked collection of solar modules. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the modules into alternating current that can power lights, motors, and other loads.
Slow Learner "Entropy" Slow_Learner > Synopsis > "Entropy" A weekend-long lease-breaking party devolves into disarray as Meatball Mulligan entertains a revolving door of cronies, servicemen, and jazz musicians while, in a hothouse room, Callisto and his lover Aubade ponder the everpresent condition of enclosed systems creating disorder while trying to nurse a baby bird back to health. The temperature outside remains 37 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the day, fueling apocalyptic paranoia in Callisto, who pontificates on the discoveries of the Laws of Thermodynamics, the Clausius theorem, and Gibbs and Boltzmann, finally deciding that entropy is an adequate metaphor to apply to American consumerist society, "a similar tendency from the least to the most probable, from differentiation to sameness, from ordered individuality to a kind of chaos." Meanwhile, Meatball juggles his attention between conversations about communication theory and personal relationships, keeping the musicians from smoking marijuana in his place, and the unexpected entrances of three coed philosophy majors lugging gallons of Chianti and, later, five sailors searching for a whorehouse. As the musicians discuss music theory, the girls and sailors chant drunken songs together, and childish chicanery break out all over, Meatball debates whether to hide in a closet until the party subsides its second wind or try to calm everyone down, one by one. He decides on the latter, patching up each out-of-control situation until the party tapers down to a din. Callisto's bird fails to improve under the unchanging conditions, which causes Aubade to smash out a window of the hothouse with her bare hands, displacing the constant temperature of inside and outside and leaving the story in a state of hovering uncertainty of where the next moment will lead.
Ionic radii Non-spherical ions Ionic_radii > Non-spherical ions This holds in particular for ions on lattice sites of polar symmetry, which are the crystallographic point groups C1, C1h, Cn or Cnv, n = 2, 3, 4 or 6. A thorough analysis of the bonding geometry was recently carried out for pyrite-type compounds, where monovalent chalcogen ions reside on C3 lattice sites. It was found that chalcogen ions have to be modeled by ellipsoidal charge distributions with different radii along the symmetry axis and perpendicular to it.
Home lift Screw-nut driven home lifts Home_lift > Types > Screw-nut driven home lifts Screw-nut driven home lifts are designed around the concept of a motor that rotates a nut, which turns the screw thus moves the lift up and down. It's known to be reliable, safe and space efficient, and requires less maintenance than hydraulic or belt driven elevators. most commonly used up to 6 floors.
Optical correlation Introduction Optical_correlation > Introduction The correlator has an input signal which is multiplied by some filter in the Fourier domain. An example filter is the matched filter which uses the cross correlation of the two signals. The cross correlation or correlation plane, c ( x , y ) {\displaystyle c(x,y)} of a 2D signal i ( x , y ) {\displaystyle i(x,y)} with h ( x , y ) {\displaystyle h(x,y)} is c ( x , y ) = i ( x , y ) ⊗ h ∗ ( − x , − y ) {\displaystyle c(x,y)=i(x,y)\otimes h^{*}(-x,-y)} This can be re-expressed in Fourier space as C ( ξ , η ) = I ( ξ , η ) H ∗ ( − ξ , − η ) {\displaystyle C(\xi ,\eta )=I(\xi ,\eta )H^{*}(-\xi ,-\eta )} where the capital letters denote the Fourier transform of what the lower case letter denotes. So the correlation can then be calculated by inverse Fourier transforming the result.
Autonomation Summary Autonomation Autonomation describes a feature of machine design to effect the principle of jidoka (自働化)（じどうか jidouka), used in the Toyota Production System (TPS) and lean manufacturing. It may be described as "intelligent automation" or "automation with a human touch". This type of automation implements some supervisory functions rather than production functions.
Reverse causation Third factor C (the common-causal variable) causes both A and B Reverse_causation > Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation > Third factor C (the common-causal variable) causes both A and B The third-cause fallacy (also known as ignoring a common cause or questionable cause) is a logical fallacy in which a spurious relationship is confused for causation. It asserts that X causes Y when in reality, both X and Y are caused by Z. It is a variation on the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and a member of the questionable cause group of fallacies. All of those examples deal with a lurking variable, which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation. A difficulty often also arises where the third factor, though fundamentally different from A and B, is so closely related to A and/or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them (see Example 4).
Track algorithm Track Track_algorithm > Track For example, a track coast can result from an aircraft collision, so the cause needs to be determined otherwise supervisory personnel need to be notified. Civilian air traffic control personnel use leaders produced by the track algorithm to alert pilots when the future position of two tracks violate the separation limit.
Wood screw Summary Wood_screw A screw and a bolt (see Differentiation between bolt and screw below) are similar types of fastener typically made of metal and characterized by a helical ridge, called a male thread (external thread). Screws and bolts are used to fasten materials by the engagement of the screw thread with a similar female thread (internal thread) in a matching part. Screws are often self-threading (also known as self-tapping) where the thread cuts into the material when the screw is turned, creating an internal thread that helps pull fastened materials together and prevents pull-out. There are many screws for a variety of materials; materials commonly fastened by screws include wood, sheet metal, and plastic.
NADH:ubiquinone reductase (H+-translocating) Overall mechanism NADH_dehydrogenase_(ubiquinone) > Mechanism > Overall mechanism All redox reactions take place in the hydrophilic domain of complex I. NADH initially binds to complex I, and transfers two electrons to the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) prosthetic group of the enzyme, creating FMNH2. The electron acceptor – the isoalloxazine ring – of FMN is identical to that of FAD. The electrons are then transferred through the FMN via a series of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters, and finally to coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone). This electron flow changes the redox state of the protein, inducing conformational changes of the protein which alters the pK values of ionizable side chain, and causes four hydrogen ions to be pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix. Ubiquinone (CoQ) accepts two electrons to be reduced to ubiquinol (CoQH2).
Collision Types of collisions Collision_of_bodies > Types of collisions There are two types of collisions between two bodies - 1) Head-on collisions or one-dimensional collisions - where the velocity of each body just before impact is along the line of impact, and 2) Non-head-on collisions, oblique collisions or two-dimensional collisions - where the velocity of each body just before impact is not along the line of impact. According to the coefficient of restitution, there are two special cases of any collision as written below: A perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which there is no loss of kinetic energy in the collision. In reality, any macroscopic collision between objects will convert some kinetic energy to internal energy and other forms of energy, so no large-scale impacts are perfectly elastic. However, some problems are sufficiently close to perfectly elastic that they can be approximated as such.
Convolutional layer Deep belief networks Max_pooling > Related architectures > Deep belief networks Convolutional deep belief networks (CDBN) have structure very similar to convolutional neural networks and are trained similarly to deep belief networks. Therefore, they exploit the 2D structure of images, like CNNs do, and make use of pre-training like deep belief networks. They provide a generic structure that can be used in many image and signal processing tasks. Benchmark results on standard image datasets like CIFAR have been obtained using CDBNs.
Light front quantization Nonperturbative dynamics Light_front_quantization > Fundamentals > Nonperturbative dynamics The strategy for performing nonperturbative calculations in light-front field theory is similar to the strategy used in lattice calculations. In both cases a nonperturbative regularization and renormalization are used to try to construct effective theories of a finite number of degrees of freedom that are insensitive to the eliminated degrees of freedom. In both cases the success of the renormalization program requires that the theory has a fixed point of the renormalization group; however, the details of the two approaches differ. The renormalization methods used in light-front field theory are discussed in Light-front computational methods#Renormalization group.
Prefix sum Algorithm 2: Work-efficient Prefix_sum > Parallel algorithms > Algorithm 2: Work-efficient A work-efficient parallel prefix sum can be computed by the following steps. Compute the sums of consecutive pairs of items in which the first item of the pair has an even index: z0 = x0 + x1, z1 = x2 + x3, etc. Recursively compute the prefix sum w0, w1, w2, ... of the sequence z0, z1, z2, ... Express each term of the final sequence y0, y1, y2, ... as the sum of up to two terms of these intermediate sequences: y0 = x0, y1 = z0, y2 = z0 + x2, y3 = w1, etc. After the first value, each successive number yi is either copied from a position half as far through the w sequence, or is the previous value added to one value in the x sequence.If the input sequence has n steps, then the recursion continues to a depth of O(log n), which is also the bound on the parallel running time of this algorithm. The number of steps of the algorithm is O(n), and it can be implemented on a parallel random access machine with O(n/log n) processors without any asymptotic slowdown by assigning multiple indices to each processor in rounds of the algorithm for which there are more elements than processors.
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory 5. Axiom of union ZFC_set_theory > Axioms > 5. Axiom of union {\displaystyle \forall {\mathcal {F}}\,\exists A\,\forall Y\,\forall x.} Although this formula doesn't directly assert the existence of ∪ F {\displaystyle \cup {\mathcal {F}}} , the set ∪ F {\displaystyle \cup {\mathcal {F}}} can be constructed from A {\displaystyle A} in the above using the axiom schema of specification: ∪ F = { x ∈ A: ∃ Y ( x ∈ Y ∧ Y ∈ F ) } . {\displaystyle \cup {\mathcal {F}}=\{x\in A:\exists Y(x\in Y\land Y\in {\mathcal {F}})\}.}
Reorganization energy The Marcus model Reorganization_energy > The Marcus model This is illustrated by the SN2 substitution of the saponification of an alkyl halide where the rear side attack of the OH− ion pushes out a halide ion and where a transition state with a five-coordinated carbon atom must be visualized. The system of the reactants becomes coupled so tightly during the reaction that they form the activated complex as an integral entity. The solvent here has a minor effect.
Parents with disabilities Visually impaired parents Parents_with_disabilities > Classification of disabilities and issues > Physically disabled parents > Visually impaired parents Visually impaired parents face difficulties in ensuring a safe environment for both their children and themselves, as well as the restriction in accessible activities for them to take part in with their children.
Weierstrass transform The inverse transform Weierstrass_transform > The inverse transform The formal inverse of the Weierstrass transform is thus given by W − 1 = e − D 2 . {\displaystyle W^{-1}=e^{-D^{2}}~.} Again, this formula is not universally valid but can serve as a guide.
Cuckoo filter Algorithm description Cuckoo_filter > Algorithm description A cuckoo filter uses a hash table based on cuckoo hashing to store the fingerprints of items. The data structure is broken into buckets of some size b {\displaystyle b} . To insert the fingerprint of an item x {\displaystyle x} , one first computes two potential buckets h 1 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{1}(x)} and h 2 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{2}(x)} where x {\displaystyle x} could go. These buckets are calculated using the formula h 1 ( x ) = hash ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{1}(x)={\text{hash}}(x)} h 2 ( x ) = h 1 ( x ) ⊕ hash ( fingerprint ( x ) ) {\displaystyle h_{2}(x)=h_{1}(x)\oplus {\text{hash}}({\text{fingerprint}}(x))} Note that, due to the symmetry of the XOR operation, one can compute h 2 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{2}(x)} from h 1 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{1}(x)} , and h 1 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{1}(x)} from h 2 ( x ) {\displaystyle h_{2}(x)} .
Environmental toxicology Metals toxicity Environmental_toxicology > Sources of environmental toxicity > Metals toxicity The most known or common types of heavy metals include zinc, arsenic, copper, lead, nickel, chromium and cadmium. All of these types cause certain risks on human and environment health. Though certain amount of these metals can actually have an important role in, for example, maintaining certain biochemical and physiological, "functions in living organisms when in very low concentrations, however they become noxious when they exceed certain threshold concentrations." Heavy metal are a huge part of environmental pollutions and their toxicity "is a problem of increasing significance for ecological, evolutionary, nutritional and environmental reasons."
Weil conjectures Summary Weil_conjectures The generating function has coefficients derived from the numbers Nk of points over the extension field with qk elements. Weil conjectured that such zeta functions for smooth varieties are rational functions, satisfy a certain functional equation, and have their zeros in restricted places. The last two parts were consciously modelled on the Riemann zeta function, a kind of generating function for prime integers, which obeys a functional equation and (conjecturally) has its zeros restricted by the Riemann hypothesis. The rationality was proved by Bernard Dwork (1960), the functional equation by Alexander Grothendieck (1965), and the analogue of the Riemann hypothesis by Pierre Deligne (1974).
Acanthocephala Life cycles Acanthocephala > Life cycles Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, for both developmental and resting stages. Complete life cycles have been worked out for only 25 species.
Stress field Summary Stress_field Stress fields can be created by adding different sized atoms to the lattice (solute strengthening). If a smaller atom is added to the lattice a tensile stress field is created. The atomic bonds are longer due to the smaller radius of the solute atom.
Philosophy of physics Interpretations of quantum mechanics Philosophy_of_physics > Philosophy of quantum mechanics > Interpretations of quantum mechanics : 85–90 The Everett, or many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics claims that the wave-function of a quantum system is telling us claims about the reality of that physical system. It denies wavefunction collapse, and claims that superposition states should be interpreted literally as describing the reality of many-worlds where objects are located, and not simply indicating the indeterminacy of those variables. This is sometimes argued as a corollary of scientific realism, which states that scientific theories aim to give us literally true descriptions of the world.
Microcanonical Ensemble Thermodynamic analogies Microcanonical_Ensemble > Thermodynamic analogies Even when the initial T's are equal, there may be energy transferred. Moreover, the T of the combination is different from the initial values. This contradicts the intuition that temperature should be an intensive quantity, and that two equal-temperature systems should be unaffected by being brought into thermal contact.
Ecosystem respiration External references Ecosystem_respiration > External references ISBN 0-08-044642-6 Yvon-Durocher, Gabriel; Caffrey, Jane M.; Cescatti, Alessandro; Dossena, Matteo; Giorgio, Paul del; Gasol, Josep M.; Montoya, José M.; Pumpanen, Jukka; Staehr, Peter A. (2012-06-20). "Reconciling the temperature dependence of respiration across timescales and ecosystem types".
Water wheels Vertical axis Undershot_wheel > Types > Vertical axis A horizontal wheel with a vertical axle. Commonly called a tub wheel, Norse mill or Greek mill, the horizontal wheel is a primitive and inefficient form of the modern turbine. However, if it delivers the required power then the efficiency is of secondary importance. It is usually mounted inside a mill building below the working floor. A jet of water is directed on to the paddles of the water wheel, causing them to turn. This is a simple system usually without gearing so that the vertical axle of the water wheel becomes the drive spindle of the mill.
Ali H. Nayfeh Summary Ali_H._Nayfeh Ali Hasan Nayfeh (21 December 1933 – 27 March 2017) was a Palestinian-Jordanian mathematician, mechanical engineer and physicist. He is regarded as the most influential scholar and scientist in the area of applied nonlinear dynamics in mechanics and engineering. He was the inaugural winner of the Thomas K. Caughey Dynamics Award, and was awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in mechanical engineering. His pioneering work in nonlinear dynamics has been influential in the construction and maintenance of machines and structures that are common in daily life, such as ships, cranes, bridges, buildings, skyscrapers, jet engines, rocket engines, aircraft and spacecraft.
Dalton (unit) Summary Atomic_mass_constant This is an intrinsic property of the isotope and all helium-4 atoms have the same mass. Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), C9H8O4, has an average mass of about 180.157 Da.
Turboexpander Refrigeration system Turboexpander > Applications > Refrigeration system The vapor–liquid mixture is then routed through the evaporator, where it is vaporized by heat absorbed from the space being cooled. The vaporized refrigerant flows to the compressor inlet to complete the cycle. In the case where the working fluid remains gaseous into the heat exchangers without undergoing phase changes, this cycle is also referred to as reverse Brayton cycle or "refrigerating Brayton cycle".
Diagonal matrix Matrix operations Scalar_matrix > Matrix operations The operations of matrix addition and matrix multiplication are especially simple for diagonal matrices. Write diag(a1, ..., an) for a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries starting in the upper left corner are a1, ..., an. Then, for addition, we have diag(a1, ..., an) + diag(b1, ..., bn) = diag(a1 + b1, ..., an + bn)and for matrix multiplication, diag(a1, ..., an) diag(b1, ..., bn) = diag(a1b1, ..., anbn).The diagonal matrix diag(a1, ..., an) is invertible if and only if the entries a1, ..., an are all nonzero. In this case, we have diag(a1, ..., an)−1 = diag(a1−1, ..., an−1).In particular, the diagonal matrices form a subring of the ring of all n-by-n matrices. Multiplying an n-by-n matrix A from the left with diag(a1, ..., an) amounts to multiplying the i-th row of A by ai for all i; multiplying the matrix A from the right with diag(a1, ..., an) amounts to multiplying the i-th column of A by ai for all i.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Responsibilities Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority > Responsibilities IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet and Internet-connected systems. IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function.In the case of the two major Internet namespaces, namely IP addresses and domain names, extra administrative policy and delegation to subordinate administrations is required because of the multi-layered distributed use of these resources. IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers, which are numerical identifiers assigned to an Internet resource or used in the networking protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system (AS) numbers.
World Fit Summary World_Fit World Fit is a program of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), and the United States Olympians and Paralympians Association (USOP) to promote physical fitness and the Olympic Games ideals to school children through kids fitness programs, school fitness programs, and childhood obesity programs. World Fit is part of the world's largest obesity-prevention network, EPODE International Network
Mitotic spindles Centrosome-mediated "search-and-capture" model Metaphase_plate > Organizing the spindle apparatus > Centrosome-mediated "search-and-capture" model In this model, microtubules are nucleated at microtubule organizing centers and undergo rapid growth and catastrophe to 'search' the cytoplasm for kinetochores. Once they bind a kinetochore, they are stabilized and their dynamics are reduced. The newly mono-oriented chromosome oscillates in space near the pole to which it is attached until a microtubule from the opposite pole binds the sister kinetochore. This second attachment further stabilizes kinetochore attachment to the mitotic spindle.
Functional integration (neurobiology) Summary Functional_integration_(neurobiology) Functional integration is the study of how brain regions work together to process information and effect responses. Though functional integration frequently relies on anatomic knowledge of the connections between brain areas, the emphasis is on how large clusters of neurons – numbering in the thousands or millions – fire together under various stimuli. The large datasets required for such a whole-scale picture of brain function have motivated the development of several novel and general methods for the statistical analysis of interdependence, such as dynamic causal modelling and statistical linear parametric mapping. These datasets are typically gathered in human subjects by non-invasive methods such as EEG/MEG, fMRI, or PET. The results can be of clinical value by helping to identify the regions responsible for psychiatric disorders, as well as to assess how different activities or lifestyles affect the functioning of the brain.