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Best-fit bin packing Summary Best-fit_bin_packing The best-fit algorithm uses the following heuristic: It keeps a list of open bins, which is initially empty. When an item arrives, it finds the bin with the maximum load into which the item can fit, if any. If such a bin is found, the new item is placed inside it. Otherwise, a new bin is opened and the coming item is placed inside it.
Basement rocks Summary Basement_rocks In geology, basement and crystalline basement are crystalline rocks lying above the mantle and beneath all other rocks and sediments. They are sometimes exposed at the surface, but often they are buried under miles of rock and sediment. The basement rocks lie below a sedimentary platform or cover, or more generally any rock below sedimentary rocks or sedimentary basins that are metamorphic or igneous in origin. In the same way, the sediments or sedimentary rocks on top of the basement can be called a "cover" or "sedimentary cover". Crustal rocks are modified several times before they become basement, and these transitions alter their composition.
Information-based complexity An example: mathematical finance Information_based_complexity > An example: mathematical finance The 360 {\displaystyle 360} dimensions in the CMO represent monthly future times. Due to the discounted value of money variables representing times for in the future are less important than the variables representing nearby times. Thus the integrals are non-isotropic.
Tarski-Grothendieck set theory Axioms Tarski-Grothendieck_set_theory > Axioms That's the guaranteed Grothendieck universe it belongs to. And then any such y {\displaystyle y} is itself a member of an even larger “almost universal set” and so on. It's one of the strong cardinality axioms guaranteeing vastly more sets than one normally assumes to exist.
Neuromechanics Latency Neuromechanics > Measuring the neural control of muscles - Electromyography > Latency The use of EMG to identify nervous systems disorders is known as a nerve conduction study (NCS). Nerve conduction studies can only diagnose diseases on the muscular and nerve level. They cannot detect disease in the spinal cord or the brain.
Regulation of artificial intelligence Brazil Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence > Regional and national regulation > Brazil As easily observed, the Brazilian Legal Framework for Artificial Intelligence lacks binding and obligatory clauses and is rather filled with relaxed guidelines. In fact, experts emphasize that this bill may even make accountability for AI discriminatory biases even harder to achieve. Compared to the EU's proposal of extensive risk-based regulations, the Brazilian Bill has 10 articles proposing vague and generic recommendations.
An internet of things Metropolitan scale deployments An_internet_of_things > Applications > Infrastructure > Metropolitan scale deployments Using its RPMA (Random Phase Multiple Access) technology, San Diego-based Ingenu has built a nationwide public network for low-bandwidth data transmissions using the same unlicensed 2.4 gigahertz spectrum as Wi-Fi. Ingenu's "Machine Network" covers more than a third of the US population across 35 major cities including San Diego and Dallas. French company, Sigfox, commenced building an Ultra Narrowband wireless data network in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2014, the first business to achieve such a deployment in the U.S.
Photosynthetic pigment Summary Antenna_pigments A photosynthetic pigment (accessory pigment; chloroplast pigment; antenna pigment) is a pigment that is present in chloroplasts or photosynthetic bacteria and captures the light energy necessary for photosynthesis. List of photosynthetic pigments (in order of increasing polarity): Carotene: an orange pigment Xanthophyll: a yellow pigment Phaeophytin a: a gray-brown pigment Phaeophytin b: a yellow-brown pigment Chlorophyll a: a blue-green pigment Chlorophyll b: a yellow-green pigmentChlorophyll a is the most common of the six, present in every plant that performs photosynthesis. Each pigment absorbs light more efficiently in a different part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Chlorophyll a absorbs well in the ranges of 400–450 nm and at 650–700 nm; chlorophyll b at 450–500 nm and at 600–650 nm. Xanthophyll absorbs well at 400–530 nm. However, none of the pigments absorbs well in the green-yellow region; the diffuse reflection of the unabsorbed green light is responsible for the abundant green we see in nature.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel Prize memoir (1818) and sequel Conical_refraction > Contributions to physical optics > Diffraction > Prize memoir (1818) and sequel Knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction, dated 19 April 1818 and deposited on 20 April, in which Fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks. He restated Huygens's principle in combination with the superposition principle, saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions, all elements acting separately (see Huygens–Fresnel principle). For a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position, the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion.
Glia cells Development Glial_cell > Development Most glia are derived from ectodermal tissue of the developing embryo, in particular the neural tube and crest. The exception is microglia, which are derived from hematopoietic stem cells. In the adult, microglia are largely a self-renewing population and are distinct from macrophages and monocytes, which infiltrate an injured and diseased CNS.
Online spreadsheet Functions Spreadsheet_software > Concepts > Functions Spreadsheets usually contain several supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for example, summations, averages, and so forth), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and so forth. In addition there is often a provision for user-defined functions. In Microsoft Excel, these functions are defined using Visual Basic for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic editor, and such functions are automatically accessible on the worksheet.
TU (Time Unit) Summary TU_(Time_Unit) A time unit (TU) is a unit of time equal to 1024 microseconds. It was originally introduced in IEEE 802.11-1999 standard and continues to be used in newer issues of the IEEE 802.11 standard.A whole number of such units are used to describe several intervals in that standard. The use of the term is to avoid using the term "millisecond", which is about 2.4% shorter. The unit allows for maintaining intervals that are easy to implement in hardware that has a 1 MHz clock (by dividing the clock signal in half ten times, rather than operating a phase-locked loop or digital divider to divide such a clock signal by 1000). One time unit is equal to one millionth of a kibisecond (1 TU = 10−6 Kis).
Shape factor (boundary layer flow) Momentum thickness Shape_factor_(boundary_layer_flow) > The bounded boundary layer description > Momentum thickness For laminar boundary layer flows along a flat plate that behave according to the Blasius solution conditions, the momentum thickness is δ 2 ( x ) ≈ 0.664 ν x u 0 , {\displaystyle \delta _{2}(x)\approx 0.664{\sqrt {{\nu x} \over u_{0}}}\quad ,} where u e ≈ u 0 {\displaystyle u_{e}\approx u_{0}} is constant. The momentum thickness is not directly related to the boundary layer thickness but is given approximately as δ 2 ≈ δ / 6 {\displaystyle \delta _{2}\approx \delta /6} . It has a prominent role in calculating the Shape Factor. A related parameter called the Energy Thickness is sometimes mentioned in reference to turbulent energy distribution but is rarely used.
Fissile material Fissile nuclides Fissile_material > Fissile nuclides More generally, nuclides with an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons, and located near a well-known curve in nuclear physics of atomic number vs. atomic mass number are more stable than others; hence, they are less likely to undergo fission. They are more likely to "ignore" the neutron and let it go on its way, or else to absorb the neutron but without gaining enough energy from the process to deform the nucleus enough for it to fission. These "even-even" isotopes are also less likely to undergo spontaneous fission, and they also have relatively much longer partial half-lives for alpha or beta decay.
Memory locality Relevance Data_locality > Relevance There are several reasons for locality. These reasons are either goals to achieve or circumstances to accept, depending on the aspect. The reasons below are not disjoint; in fact, the list below goes from the most general case to special cases: Predictability: Locality is merely one type of predictable behavior in computer systems.
High-voltage power supply AC power supplies High_voltage_power_supplies > Types > AC power supplies An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and uses a transformer to step up or step down the voltage to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take place as well. In some cases, the source voltage is the same as the output voltage; this is called an isolation transformer. Other AC power supply transformers do not provide mains isolation; these are called autotransformers; a variable output autotransformer is known as a variac.
Electrical motor Servomotor Magnetic_motor > Special magnetic motors > Rotary > Servomotor The speed/torque curve is important and is high ratio for a servomotor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are important; these factors limit performance. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback.
Physical stress Uniaxial normal Physical_stress > Simple types > Uniaxial normal A common situation with a simple stress pattern is when a straight rod, with uniform material and cross section, is subjected to tension by opposite forces of magnitude F {\displaystyle F} along its axis. If the system is in equilibrium and not changing with time, and the weight of the bar can be neglected, then through each transversal section of the bar the top part must pull on the bottom part with the same force, F with continuity through the full cross-sectional area, A. Therefore, the stress σ throughout the bar, across any horizontal surface, can be expressed simply by the single number σ, calculated simply with the magnitude of those forces, F, and cross sectional area, A. On the other hand, if one imagines the bar being cut along its length, parallel to the axis, there will be no force (hence no stress) between the two halves across the cut. This type of stress may be called (simple) normal stress or uniaxial stress; specifically, (uniaxial, simple, etc.) tensile stress. If the load is compression on the bar, rather than stretching it, the analysis is the same except that the force F and the stress σ {\displaystyle \sigma } change sign, and the stress is called compressive stress.
DNS management software DNS and databases DNS_management_software > DNS and databases Tinydns quickly became the second most popular DNS server and a number of DNS managers were released for it, including: VegaDNS, SuaveDNS, and NicTool. In 2005, PowerDNS was released. One of its features was the ability to serve DNS data directly out of the SQL database, bypassing the export step entirely. PowerDNS also spawned a number of DNS managers that provide web interfaces to its SQL data store.
Rage syndrome Endocrine Rage_syndrome > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis > Endocrine Thyroid function is tested during typical diagnostic workups as thyroid conditions, most commonly hypo- and hyperthyroidism, have been suggested to cause pathophysiological aggression that may present similarly to Rage syndrome.
Cosmological Constant Summary Cosmological_term In cosmology, the cosmological constant (usually denoted by the Greek capital letter lambda: Λ), alternatively called Einstein's cosmological constant, is the constant coefficient of a term that Albert Einstein temporarily added to his field equations of general relativity. He later removed it. Much later it was revived and reinterpreted as the energy density of space, or vacuum energy, that arises in quantum mechanics.
Learning augmented algorithm Binary search Learning_augmented_algorithm > Examples > Binary search The binary search algorithm is an algorithm for finding elements of a sorted list x 1 , … , x n {\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}} . It needs O ( log ⁡ ( n ) ) {\displaystyle O(\log(n))} steps to find an element with some known value x {\displaystyle x} in a list of length n {\displaystyle n} . With a prediction i {\displaystyle i} for the position of x {\displaystyle x} , the following learning augmented algorithm can be used. First, look at position i {\displaystyle i} in the list.
Thermosphere Solar wind Thermosphere > Energy input > Solar wind The second source of energy input into the thermosphere is solar wind energy which is transferred to the magnetosphere by mechanisms that are not well understood. One possible way to transfer energy is via a hydrodynamic dynamo process. Solar wind particles penetrate the polar regions of the magnetosphere where the geomagnetic field lines are essentially vertically directed. An electric field is generated, directed from dawn to dusk.
Natural immunity History of theories Natural_immunity > History of theories In the treatise, Al Razi describes the clinical presentation of smallpox and measles and goes on to indicate that exposure to these specific agents confers lasting immunity (although he does not use this term).Until the 19th century, the miasma theory was also widely accepted. The theory viewed diseases such as cholera or the Black Plague as being caused by a miasma, a noxious form of "bad air". If someone was exposed to the miasma in a swamp, in evening air, or breathing air in a sickroom or hospital ward, they could catch a disease.
Animal models of Parkinson's disease PINK1 Animal_models_of_Parkinson's_disease > Genetic models > PINK1 Pten-Induced Kinase 1 (PINK1) mutations are associated with autosomal recessive parkinsonism. It is a neuroprotective kinase predominantly found in the mitochondria and cytoplasmic areas of the cell. PINK1 is also a serine/threonine protein kinase and is associated with the mitochondria. PINK1, in research studies, is generally used as a knockout (KO) model.
Intertrial priming Integrative framework Intertrial_priming > Top-down and bottom-up attention > Integrative framework There are factors in visual search tasks that the top down versus bottom up dichotomy does not take into consideration. Not all selection biases can be explained by physical saliency (bottom up) or observer goals (top down). Studies that have found that stimuli that are equally salient and are connected with rewards and can draw a participants' attention, even if this choice doesn't match their selection goals. An alternative framework has been proposed where past selection history, current goals and physical salience are integrated in a model of attentional control.
Smirnov method of incomplete separation of variables STTD versus Green's function technique Smirnov_method_of_incomplete_separation_of_variables > STTD versus Green's function technique Causality of the (unique) Riemann–Volterra solution is provided automatically, without need to recur to additional considerations, such as the retarded nature of the argument, wave propagation in certain direction, specific choice of the integration path, etc. (Usually the descriptive equations, such as the classical scalar wave equation, possess the T-symmetry. It is the time-asymmetric initial conditions that define the arrow of time through the limitation of the integration domain in the Riemann formula to t > 0 {\displaystyle t>0} , see more in and a particular example given below.)
Monoclonal antibody therapy Summary Therapeutic_monoclonal_antibodies Antibodies are used to bind to molecules involved in T-cell regulation to remove inhibitory pathways that block T-cell responses. This is known as immune checkpoint therapy.It is possible to create a mAb that is specific to almost any extracellular/cell surface target. Research and development is underway to create antibodies for diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Ebola and different types of cancers).
Glucose solution Glucose degradation User:Just_some_student_on_the_web/sandbox > Biochemical properties > Glucose degradation Muscular lactate enters the liver through the bloodstream in mammals, where gluconeogenesis occurs (Cori cycle). With a high supply of glucose, the metabolite acetyl-CoA from the Krebs cycle can also be used for fatty acid synthesis.
Ergodicity In statistical mechanics Uniquely_ergodic > Ergodicity in physics and geometry > In statistical mechanics Spin glasses present particular difficulties. Formal mathematical proofs of ergodicity in statistical physics are hard to come by; most high-dimensional many-body systems are assumed to be ergodic, without mathematical proof.
Linklog Summary Linklog A linklog is a type of blog which is meant to act as a linked list. Common practice is for the post titles to link directly to an external URLs, and the content of the post includes information to complement the associated URL.Linklogs existed as a feature of computing systems before the internet as well. In distributed file systems a link log was a method of recording data in which a record is created and added to the proper log when updating a transaction. The format of a log record closely matches the specification of the transaction type it corresponds to. Link log records consisted of two parts in such a system: a set of type-independent fields, and a set of type-specific fields. The former set consists of pointers to the preceding and succeeding records of the log.In PBX systems such as AUDIX link-logs were a collection of data collecting to assist operators in maintaining the system.
Antifoaming agent Test methods Antifoaming_agent > Test methods The cylinder is fitted with a scale to measure the foam height. This equipment may have a heater to control the temperature. Entrained air can be tested with similar equipment that has a density meter that can record changes of the liquid density over time. Drainage can be tested with a filter system for measuring the time to drain a liquid through the filter. The filter might be pressurized or have a vacuum.
Audio synchronizer Error correction Audio_synchronizer > Error correction To correct audio video sync problems, the video processing circuitry outputs a DDO (digital delay output) signal, which carries information about the amount of delay the video signal experiences due to the video processing. The DDO may, for example, be provided by equipment which adheres to the SMPTE Audio to Video Synchronization Standard. The audio synchronizer receives the DDO signal and in response delays the audio by an equivalent amount, thereby maintaining proper audio-video sync. Modern audio synchronizers operate by digitizing and writing the audio signal into a ring memory, which is most commonly a RAM-based memory having independent read and write ability.
J. Robert Oppenheimer Legacy J._Robert_Oppenheimer > Legacy During World War II, scientists became involved in military research to an unprecedented degree. Because of the threat fascism posed to Western civilization, they volunteered in great numbers for technological, and organizational, assistance to the Allied effort, resulting in powerful tools such as radar, the proximity fuze and operations research. As a cultured, intellectual, theoretical physicist who became a disciplined military organizer, Oppenheimer represented the shift away from the idea that scientists had their "heads in the clouds" and that knowledge of esoteric subjects like the composition of the atomic nucleus had no "real-world" applications.Two days before the Trinity test, Oppenheimer expressed his hopes and fears in a quotation from Bhartṛhari's Śatakatraya:
Graph Theory Linguistics Graph_Theory > Applications > Linguistics Graph-theoretic methods, in various forms, have proven particularly useful in linguistics, since natural language often lends itself well to discrete structure. Traditionally, syntax and compositional semantics follow tree-based structures, whose expressive power lies in the principle of compositionality, modeled in a hierarchical graph. More contemporary approaches such as head-driven phrase structure grammar model the syntax of natural language using typed feature structures, which are directed acyclic graphs.
Management control Limitations Control_(management) > Limitations For example, users in this field may resist when the GPS or control area of a control system is tracking their location. They see it as a restriction on their freedom. Employees are restricted or restricted in their freedom.
Southwestern blot Summary Southwestern_blot The southwestern blot, is a lab technique that involves identifying as well as characterizing DNA-binding proteins by their ability to bind to specific oligonucleotide probes. Determination of molecular weight of proteins binding to DNA is also made possible by the technique. The name originates from a combination of ideas underlying Southern blotting and Western blotting techniques of which they detect DNA and protein respectively. Similar to other types of blotting, proteins are separated by SDS-PAGE and are subsequently transferred to nitrocellulose membranes.
Differentiation (sociology) Code Differentiation_(sociology) > Functional differentiation > Code Code is a way to distinguish elements within a system from those elements not belonging to that system. It is the basic language of a functional system. Examples are truth for the science system, payment for the economic system, legality for the legal system; its purpose is to limit the kinds of permissible communication. According to Luhmann a system will only understand and use its own code, and will not understand nor use the code of another system; there is no way to import the code of one system into another because the systems are closed and can only react to things within their environment. : 100
Size effect Energetic Size Effect Size_effect_on_structural_strength > Energetic Size Effect These materials include concrete, fiber composites, rocks, coarse-grained and toughened ceramics, rigid foams, sea ice, dental ceramics, dentine, bone, biological shells, many bio- and bio-inspired materials, masonry, mortar, stiff cohesive soils, grouted soils, consolidated snow, wood, paper, carton, coal, cemented sands, etc. On the micro- or nano scale, all the brittle materials become quasibrittle, and thus must exhibit the energetic size effect. A pronounced energetic size effect occurs in shear, torsional and punching failures of reinforced concrete, in pullout of anchors from concrete, in compression failure of slender reinforced concrete columns and prestressed concrete beams, in compression and tensile failures of fiber-polymer composites and sandwich structures, and in the failures of all the aforementioned quasibrittle materials. One may distinguish two basic types of this size effect.
Natural experiment Game shows Natural_experiments > Recent examples > Game shows Within economics, game shows are a frequently studied form of natural experiment. While game shows might seem to be artificial contexts, they can be considered natural experiments due to the fact that the context arises without interference of the scientist. Game shows have been used to study a wide range of different types of economic behavior, such as decision making under risk and cooperative behavior.
Malignant liver tumor Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and Nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) Malignant_liver_tumor > Causes > Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and Nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) NASH and NAFL is beginning to be called a risk factor for liver cancer, particularly HCC. In recent years, there has been a noted increase in liver transplantations for HCC that was attributable to NASH. More research is needed in this area and NASH/NAFL.
Chemical bonding Single and multiple bonds Bond_(chemical) > Strong chemical bonds > Covalent bond > Single and multiple bonds The pair of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond. The electron density of these two bonding electrons in the region between the two atoms increases from the density of two non-interacting H atoms. A double bond has two shared pairs of electrons, one in a sigma bond and one in a pi bond with electron density concentrated on two opposite sides of the internuclear axis.
Category utility What makes a good category? Category_utility > Category "goodness": models and philosophy > What makes a good category? If it does, then what is the locus of this independent existence? The question of locus was an important issue on which the classical schools of Plato and Aristotle famously differed. However, they remained in agreement that universals did indeed have a mind-independent existence.
Social anxiety disorder DSM-V Diagnosis Social_anxiety_disorder > Diagnosis > DSM-V Diagnosis DSM-5 defines Social Anxiety Disorder as a marked, or intense, fear or anxiety of social situations in which the individual may be scrutinized by others.DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria with Diagnostic Features: Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others. Examples include social interactions (e.g., having a conversation, meeting unfamiliar people), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), and performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). Note: In children, the anxiety must occur in peer settings and not just during interactions with adults. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way or show anxiety symptoms that will be negatively evaluated (i.e., will be humiliating or embarrassing: will lead to rejection or offend others).
Multiple sclerosis signs and symptoms Cognitive Multiple_sclerosis_signs_and_symptoms > Cognitive Severe impairment is a major predictor of a low quality of life, unemployment, caregiver distress, and difficulty in driving; limitations in a patient's social and work activities are also correlated with the extent of impairment.Cognitive impairments occur in about 40 to 60 percent of patients with multiple sclerosis, with the lowest percentages usually from community-based studies and the highest ones from hospital-based. Impairments may be present at the beginning of the disease. Probable multiple sclerosis patients, meaning after a first attack but before a secondary confirmatory one, have up to 50 percent of patients with impairment at onset.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Risk of death Post-SSRI_sexual_dysfunction > Side effects > Risk of death A 2017 meta-analysis found that antidepressants including SSRIs were associated with significantly increased risk of death (+33%) and new cardiovascular complications (+14%) in the general population. Conversely, risks were not greater in people with existing cardiovascular disease.
René Marcelin Work René_Marcelin > Work He theorized that the progress of a chemical reaction could be described as a point in a potential energy surface with coordinates in atomic momenta and distances. In his PhD thesis, which he defended in 1914, he developed a general theory on absolute reaction rates, in which he used concepts of both thermodynamic and kinetic origin, describing the activation dependent phenomena as the movement of representative points in space. His 1915 publication, published shortly after his death, describes a chemical reaction between N atomic species in a 2N-dimensional phase space, using statistical mechanics to formally obtain the pre-exponential factor before the exponential term containing the Gibbs free energy of activation.
Trimeric Autotransporter Adhesins (TAA) Type V secretion system (T5SS) Trimeric_autotransporter_adhesin > Type V secretion system (T5SS) Hence, the T5SS pathway overcomes this problem.T5SS uses Sec-machinery system to work. The enzyme Sec translocase is found to be present on the inner membrane. Such Sec-dependent systems do not need to use energy, unlike Sec-independent machinery, which uses other forms of energy such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or a proton gradient.
Net force Resultant force Net_force > Resultant force Resultant force and torque replaces the effects of a system of forces acting on the movement of a rigid body. An interesting special case is a torque-free resultant, which can be found as follows: Vector addition is used to find the net force; Use the equation to determine the point of application with zero torque: r → × F → R = ∑ i = 1 N ( r → i × F → i ) {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}\times {\vec {F}}_{\mathrm {R} }=\sum _{i=1}^{N}({\vec {r}}_{i}\times {\vec {F}}_{i})} where F → R {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}_{\mathrm {R} }} is the net force, r → {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}} locates its application point, and individual forces are F → i {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}_{i}} with application points r → i {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}_{i}} . It may be that there is no point of application that yields a torque-free resultant. The diagram opposite illustrates simple graphical methods for finding the line of application of the resultant force of simple planar systems: Lines of application of the actual forces F → 1 {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}_{1}} and F → 2 {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}_{2}} on the leftmost illustration intersect.
Validity (psychometric) Ecological validity Validity_(statistics) > Experimental validity > External validity > Ecological validity Ecological validity is the extent to which research results can be applied to real-life situations outside of research settings. This issue is closely related to external validity but covers the question of to what degree experimental findings mirror what can be observed in the real world (ecology = the science of interaction between organism and its environment). To be ecologically valid, the methods, materials and setting of a study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation. Ecological validity is partly related to the issue of experiment versus observation.
Scleroderma Differential Scleroderma > Diagnosis > Differential Graft-versus-host disease is an autoimmune condition that occurs as a result of bone-marrow transplants in which the immune cells from the transplanted bone marrow attack the host's body. Mycosis fungoides is a type of cutaneous T cell lymphoma, a rare cancer that causes rashes all over the body. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis is a condition usually caused by kidney failure that results in fibrosis (thickening) of the tissues. Primary biliary cirrhosis is an autoimmune disease of the liver. Primary pulmonary hypertension Complex regional pain syndrome
Glomerular nephritis Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Glomerular_nephritis > Proliferative > Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, also known as crescentic GN, is characterised by a rapid, progressive deterioration in kidney function. People with rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis may present with a nephritic syndrome. In management, steroid therapy is sometimes used, although the prognosis remains poor. Three main subtypes are recognised:: 557–558 Type 1 is Goodpasture syndrome, an autoimmune disease also affecting the lung.
Idle game Open-ended or closed gameplay loops Clicker_game > Mechanics > Open-ended or closed gameplay loops Incremental games vary as to whether they have a victory condition: games like Cookie Clicker allow the players to play indefinitely, while games like Candy Box! or Universal Paperclips feature endings that can be reached after a certain amount of progress is made.
Transcriptor Invention and description Transcriptor > Invention and description On March 28, 2013, a team of bioengineers from Stanford University led by Drew Endy announced that they had created the biological equivalent of a transistor, which they named a "transcriptor". That is, they created a three-terminal device with a logic system that can control other components. The transcriptor regulates the flow of RNA polymerase across a strand of DNA using special combinations of enzymes to control movement. According to project member Jerome Bonnet, "The choice of enzymes is important.
Feature integration theory Summary Feature_integration_theory Feature integration theory is a theory of attention developed in 1980 by Anne Treisman and Garry Gelade that suggests that when perceiving a stimulus, features are "registered early, automatically, and in parallel, while objects are identified separately" and at a later stage in processing. The theory has been one of the most influential psychological models of human visual attention.
Rayleigh wave Characteristics Rayleigh_wave > Characteristics Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of solids. Rayleigh waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that decrease exponentially in amplitude as distance from the surface increases. There is a phase difference between these component motions.The existence of Rayleigh waves was predicted in 1885 by Lord Rayleigh, after whom they were named. In isotropic solids these waves cause the surface particles to move in ellipses in planes normal to the surface and parallel to the direction of propagation – the major axis of the ellipse is vertical.
Organellar DNA Summary Organellar_DNA Organellar DNA (oDNA) is DNA contained in organelles (such as mitochondria and chloroplasts), outside the nucleus of Eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria contain mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Plastids (e.g., chloroplasts) contain plastid DNA (cpDNA)
Computational Chemistry Summary Computational_Chemistry In some cases, the details of electronic structure are less important than the long-time phase space behavior of molecules. This is the case in conformational studies of proteins and protein-ligand binding thermodynamics. Classical approximations to the potential energy surface are used, typically with molecular mechanics force fields, as they are computationally less intensive than electronic calculations, to enable longer simulations of molecular dynamics.
Ring signatures Summary Ring_signatures In cryptography, a ring signature is a type of digital signature that can be performed by any member of a set of users that each have keys. Therefore, a message signed with a ring signature is endorsed by someone in a particular set of people. One of the security properties of a ring signature is that it should be computationally infeasible to determine which of the set's members' keys was used to produce the signature.
Scientific assessment of ozone depletion Predictions Scientific_assessment_of_ozone_depletion > Findings > Predictions Chemistry-climate models predict that springtime Antarctic ozone levels will be increasing by 2010 because of projected decreases of halogens in the stratosphere. A return to pre-1980 total column ozone amounts in the Antarctic is expected by the middle of this century. Arctic ozone depletion is highly variable and difficult to predict, but a future Arctic polar ozone hole similar to that of the Antarctic appears unlikely.
Noise bandwidth Convolution Spectral_leakage > Spectral analysis > Convolution The appeal of DFT-symmetric windows is explained by the popularity of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm for implementation of the DFT, because truncation of an odd-length sequence results in an even-length sequence. Their real-valued DFT coefficients are also an advantage in certain esoteric applications where windowing is achieved by means of convolution between the DFT coefficients and an unwindowed DFT of the data. : p.62: p.85 In those applications, DFT-symmetric windows (even or odd length) from the Cosine-sum family are preferred, because most of their DFT coefficients are zero-valued, making the convolution very efficient. : p.85
Chromatin Summary Chromatin Prokaryotic cells have entirely different structures for organizing their DNA (the prokaryotic chromosome equivalent is called a genophore and is localized within the nucleoid region). The overall structure of the chromatin network further depends on the stage of the cell cycle. During interphase, the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA.
Power-system automation Data acquisition system Power-system_automation > Hardware structure of the power-system automation > Data acquisition system The instrument transformers with protective relays are used to sense the power-system voltage and current. They are physically connected to power-system apparatus and convert the actual power-system signals. The transducers convert the analog output of an instrument transformer from one magnitude to another or from one value type to another, such as from an ac current to dc voltage. Also the input data is taken from the auxiliary contacts of switch gears and power-system control equipment.
Energy efficiency of internal combustion engines Summary Energy_efficiency_of_internal_combustion_engines ICEs are typically powered by hydrocarbon-based fuels like natural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel, or ethanol. Renewable fuels like biodiesel are used in compression ignition (CI) engines and bioethanol or ETBE (ethyl tert-butyl ether) produced from bioethanol in spark ignition (SI) engines. As early as 1900 the inventor of the diesel engine, Rudolf Diesel, was using peanut oil to run his engines. Renewable fuels are commonly blended with fossil fuels. Hydrogen, which is rarely used, can be obtained from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.
Group dynamics Group cohesion Group_dynamics > Intragroup dynamics > Group cohesion As an extension of Lewin's work, Festinger (along with Stanley Schachter and Kurt Back) described cohesion as, “the total field of forces which act on members to remain in the group” (Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950, p. 37). Later, this definition was modified to describe the forces acting on individual members to remain in the group, termed attraction to the group.
Tris(glycinato)cobalt(III) Summary Tris(glycinato)cobalt(III) Tris(glycinato)cobalt(III) describes coordination complexes with the formula Co(H2NCH2CO2)3. Several isomers exist of these octahedral complexes formed between low-spin d6 Co(III) and the conjugate base of the amino acid glycine.
Paxos (computer science) Fast Paxos Paxos_algorithm > Fast Paxos Fast Paxos generalizes Basic Paxos to reduce end-to-end message delays. In Basic Paxos, the message delay from client request to learning is 3 message delays. Fast Paxos allows 2 message delays, but requires that (1) the system be composed of 3f+ 1 acceptors to tolerate up to f faults (instead of the classic 2f+1), and (2) the Client to send its request to multiple destinations. Intuitively, if the leader has no value to propose, then a client could send an Accept!
DNA transposon Polintons DNA_transposon > Mechanisms of action > Polintons Second, the Polinton undergoes replication using the DNA polymerase B, with initiation started by a terminal protein, which may encoded in some linear plasmids. Once the double stranded Polinton is generated, the integrase serves to insert it into the host genome. Polintons exhibit high variability between difference species and may tightly regulated, resulting in a low frequency rate in many genomes.
Glossary of geography terms (A–M) M Glossary_of_geography_terms_(A–M) > M map A picture of a place drawn at an established scale on a two-dimensional plane surface, often depicting natural and manmade features on or under the surface of the Earth or other planetary body, typically with the features positioned as accurately as possible relative to a coordinate reference system; more generally, any graphical representation of locative information about the relative positions of particular features within a space or place. map index Also index map. A graphical key identifying the relationships between the individual maps of a map series, their coverage areas, and/or their production status or availability.
Stokes' Theorem Topological preliminaries; integration over chains Stokes'_Theorem > Topological preliminaries; integration over chains the singular cohomology group Hk(M, Z)), defined using continuous rather than smooth simplices in M. On the other hand, the differential forms, with exterior derivative, d, as the connecting map, form a cochain complex, which defines the de Rham cohomology groups H d R k ( M , R ) {\displaystyle H_{dR}^{k}(M,\mathbf {R} )} . Differential k-forms can be integrated over a k-simplex in a natural way, by pulling back to Rk. Extending by linearity allows one to integrate over chains.
Symbolic simulation Summary Symbolic_simulation This is typically achieved by augmenting the domain over which the simulation takes place. A symbolic variable can be used in the simulation state representation in order to index multiple executions of the system.
Hierarchical control system Summary Hierarchical_control_system A hierarchical control system (HCS) is a form of control system in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchical tree. When the links in the tree are implemented by a computer network, then that hierarchical control system is also a form of networked control system.
Amortized time Literature Amortized_complexity > Literature Online Computation and Competitive Analysis. pp. 20, 141.
Divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithm Analysis Divide-and-conquer_eigenvalue_algorithm > Analysis Clearly, Θ ( m 2 ) = Ω ( m 1 ) {\displaystyle \Theta (m^{2})=\Omega (m^{1})} , so we have T ( m ) = Θ ( m 2 ) {\displaystyle T(m)=\Theta (m^{2})} Remember that above we pointed out that reducing a Hermitian matrix to tridiagonal form takes 4 3 m 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {4}{3}}m^{3}} flops. This dwarfs the running time of the divide-and-conquer part, and at this point it is not clear what advantage the divide-and-conquer algorithm offers over the QR algorithm (which also takes Θ ( m 2 ) {\displaystyle \Theta (m^{2})} flops for tridiagonal matrices). The advantage of divide-and-conquer comes when eigenvectors are needed as well.
Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies Original editions Analytical_Dynamics_of_Particles_and_Rigid_Bodies > Publication history > Original editions (1917). A treatise on the analytical dynamics of particles and rigid bodies; with an introduction to the problem of three bodies (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pressure Exchanger Reverse osmosis Pressure_Exchanger > Reverse osmosis One application in which pressure exchangers are widely used is reverse osmosis (RO). In an RO system, pressure exchangers are used as energy recovery devices (ERDs). As illustrated, high-pressure concentrate from the membranes is directed to the ERD . The ERD uses this high-pressure concentrate stream to pressurize the low-pressure seawater stream (stream becomes stream ), which it then merges (with the aid of a circulation pump ) into the highest-pressure seawater stream created by the high-pressure pump .
Anders Lindquist Selection of publications Anders_Lindquist > Selection of publications A. Lindquist, On feedback control of linear stochastic systems, SIAM J.Control, 11 (May 1973), 323–343. A. Lindquist, "A new algorithm for optimal filtering of discrete-time stationary processes," SIAM J. Control 12 (November 1974) 736–746. A. Lindquist with G. Picci, On the stochastic realization problem, SIAM J. Control and Optimization, 17 (1979), 365–389. W.B.
Scientific Method Elements of the scientific method Scientific_studies > Elements of the scientific method The elements above are often taught in the educational system as "the scientific method".The scientific method is not a single recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity. In this sense, it is not a mindless set of standards and procedures to follow, but is rather an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate, and comprehensive models and methods. For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.
Vinylogy Summary Vinylogy Hence, vinylogy is a useful heuristic for the prediction of the behavior of systems that are structurally similar but contain intervening C=C bonds that are conjugated to the attached functional groups. For example, a key property of carboxylic acids is their Brønsted acidity. The simplest carboxylic acid, formic acid (HC(=O)−OH), is a moderately strong organic acid with a pKa of 3.7.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Polymerases Phosphodiester_backbone > Interactions with proteins > DNA-modifying enzymes > Polymerases For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure. It synthesizes telomeres at the ends of chromosomes.
Signal transduction pathways Light Intracellular_signaling_peptides_and_proteins > Stimuli > Light In mammals, light controls the sense of sight and the circadian clock by activating light-sensitive proteins in photoreceptor cells in the eye's retina. In the case of vision, light is detected by rhodopsin in rod and cone cells. In the case of the circadian clock, a different photopigment, melanopsin, is responsible for detecting light in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells.
Wing-in-ground effect vehicle Design Wing-in-ground_effect_vehicle > Design Unlike the hydrofoil, it does not have any contact with the surface of the water when in "flight". The ground-effect vehicle constitutes a unique class of transportation. The Boston-based (United States) company REGENT proposed an electric-powered high-wing design with a standard hull for water operations, but also incorporated fore- and aft-mounted hydrofoil units designed to lift the craft out of the water during takeoff run, to facilitate lower liftoff speeds.
Parkinsonian tremor Pathophysiology Parkinson_disease > Pathophysiology These are known as the motor, oculomotor, associative, limbic, and orbitofrontal circuits. Names indicate the main projection area of each circuit. All are affected in PD, and their disruption causes movement-, attention- and learning-related symptoms of the disease.
Magnetostatic energy Re-introducing Faraday's law Static_magnetic_field > Applications > Re-introducing Faraday's law A common technique is to solve a series of magnetostatic problems at incremental time steps and then use these solutions to approximate the term ∂ B / ∂ t {\displaystyle \partial \mathbf {B} /\partial t} . Plugging this result into Faraday's Law finds a value for E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } (which had previously been ignored). This method is not a true solution of Maxwell's equations but can provide a good approximation for slowly changing fields.
Topical antibiotic Etymology Topical_antibiotic > Etymology It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. In current usage, the term "antibiotic" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not.The term "antibiotic" derives from anti + βιωτικός (biōtikos), "fit for life, lively", which comes from βίωσις (biōsis), "way of life", and that from βίος (bios), "life". The term "antibacterial" derives from Greek ἀντί (anti), "against" + βακτήριον (baktērion), diminutive of βακτηρία (baktēria), "staff, cane", because the first bacteria to be discovered were rod-shaped.
Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena Contents Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena > Contents Joyce. 'Kinetics of Ising Models', by K. Kawasaki. Volume 3: Series Expansions for Lattice Models (1974) ISBN 0122203038 'Graph Theory and Embeddings', by C. Domb.
Scribe (markup language) The markup language Scribe_(markup_language) > The markup language The idea of using markup language, in which meta-information about the document and its formatting were contained within the document itself, first saw widespread use in a program called RUNOFF; Scribe contained the first robust implementation of declarative markup language.In Scribe, markup was introduced with an @ sign, followed either by a Begin-End block or by a direct token invocation: @Heading(The Beginning) @Begin(Quotation) Let's start at the very beginning, a very good place to start @End(Quotation) It was also possible to pass parameters: @MakeSection(tag=beginning, title="The Beginning") Typically, large documents were composed of Chapters, with each chapter in a separate file. These files were then referenced by a master document file, thereby concatenating numerous components into a single large source document. The master file typically also defined styles (such as fonts and margins) and declared macros like MakeSection shown above; macros had limited programmatic features. From that single concatenated source, Scribe computed chapter numbers, page numbers, and cross-references. These processes replicate features in later markup languages like HTML. Placing styles in a separate file gave some advantages like Cascading Style Sheets, and programmed macros presaged the document manipulation aspects of JavaScript.
Social impact theory Psychosocial law Social_impact_theory > Original research > Psychosocial law The psychosocial law states that the most significant difference in social impact will occur in the transition from 0 to 1 source and as the number of sources increases, this difference will become even eventually. The equation Latané uses for this law is I m p a c t = s ⋅ N t {\displaystyle Impact=s\cdot N^{t}} That is, some power (t) of the number of people (N) multiplied by the scaling constant (s) determines social impact. Latané applied this theory to previous studies done on imitation and conformity as well as on embarrassment. Asch's study of conformity in college students contradicts the psychosocial law, showing that one or two sources of social impact make little difference.
Probabilistic Turing Machine Description Probabilistic_Turing_Machine > Description A probabilistic Turing machine is a type of nondeterministic Turing machine in which each nondeterministic step is a "coin-flip", that is, at each step there are two possible next moves and the Turing machine probabilistically selects which move to take.
Transpirational cooling (biological) Transpiration and cooling Transpirational_cooling_(biological) > Transpiration and cooling The water that becomes raw material for sugar production, also cools the leaf and supports its structure through the pressure of turgidity. In 2022, attempts to mass-produce artificial leaves to replicate this process and create hydrogen were still in the development stage. All organic matter, living and dead, originated as sugars.
Geometrical proof Statistical proof using data Geometric_proof > Related concepts > Statistical proof using data "Statistical proof" from data refers to the application of statistics, data analysis, or Bayesian analysis to infer propositions regarding the probability of data. While using mathematical proof to establish theorems in statistics, it is usually not a mathematical proof in that the assumptions from which probability statements are derived require empirical evidence from outside mathematics to verify. In physics, in addition to statistical methods, "statistical proof" can refer to the specialized mathematical methods of physics applied to analyze data in a particle physics experiment or observational study in physical cosmology. "Statistical proof" may also refer to raw data or a convincing diagram involving data, such as scatter plots, when the data or diagram is adequately convincing without further analysis.
Custom-fit Rapid Manufacturing Systems, Tools and Materials Custom-fit > Technical Tools > Rapid Manufacturing Systems, Tools and Materials This will enable the manufacturing of products with two or more materials that are graded and there will be no distinct boundary between the materials. This will result in products with unique mechanical properties. Dr. Michiel Willemse who is leading the project says, "The process is unique in its capability to print highly viscous, UV curable, resins.
Protein chemistry Motor proteins Protein_chemistry > Areas of Research > Motor proteins These machines and their nanoscale dynamics are far more complex than any molecular machines that have yet been artificially constructed.These molecular motors are the essential agents of movement in living organisms. In general terms, a motor is a device that consumes energy in one form and converts it into motion or mechanical work; for example, many protein-based molecular motors harness the chemical free energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP in order to perform mechanical work. In terms of energetic efficiency, this type of motor can be superior to currently available man-made motors.
Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures Summary Equivalent_definitions_of_mathematical_structures In the former case, equivalence of two definitions means that a mathematical object (for example, geometric body) satisfies one definition if and only if it satisfies the other definition. In the latter case, the meaning of equivalence (between two definitions of a structure) is more complicated, since a structure is more abstract than an object. Many different objects may implement the same structure.
Scott–Potter set theory Preliminaries Scott–Potter_set_theory > ZU etc. > Preliminaries The accumulation of a, acc(a), is the set {x: x is an urelement or ∃b∈a (x∈b or x⊂b)}. If ∀v∈V(v = acc(V∩v)) then V is a history. A level is the accumulation of a history.
Best-fit bin packing Approximation ratio Best-fit_bin_packing > Approximation ratio Denote by BF(L) the number of bins used by Best-Fit, and by OPT(L) the optimal number of bins possible for the list L. The analysis of BF(L) was done in several steps. The first upper bound of B F ( L ) ≤ 1.7 O P T + 3 {\displaystyle BF(L)\leq 1.7\mathrm {OPT} +3} was proven by Ullman in 1971. An improved upper bound B F ( L ) ≤ 1.7 O P T + 2 {\displaystyle BF(L)\leq 1.7\mathrm {OPT} +2} was proved by Garey, Graham and Ullman, Johnson and Demers.
O-GlcNAc Diabetes O-GlcNAc > Therapeutic relevance > Diabetes Elevated O-GlcNAc has been associated with diabetes. Pancreatic β cells synthesize and secrete insulin to regulate blood glucose levels. One study found that inhibition of OGA with streptozotocin followed by glucosamine treatment resulted in O-GlcNAc accumulation and apoptosis in β cells; a subsequent study showed that a galactose-based analogue of streptozotocin was unable to inhibit OGA but still resulted in apoptosis, suggesting that the apoptotic effects of streptozotocin are not directly due to OGA inhibition.O-GlcNAc has been suggested to attenuate insulin signaling. In 3T3-L1 adipocytes, OGA inhibition with PUGNAc inhibited insulin-mediated glucose uptake.
Web form Interpreted languages HTML_form > Use with programming languages > Interpreted languages Some of the interpreted languages commonly used to design interactive forms in web development are PHP, Python, Ruby, Perl, JSP, Adobe ColdFusion and some of the compiled languages commonly used are Java and C# with ASP.NET.
Newton's Laws First law Newton's_3rd_law > Laws > First law The concept of an inertial observer makes quantitative the everyday idea of feeling no effects of motion. For example, a person standing on the ground watching a train go past is an inertial observer. If the observer on the ground sees the train moving smoothly in a straight line at a constant speed, then a passenger sitting on the train will also be an inertial observer: the train passenger feels no motion.
Linear programming duality Farmer example Linear_programming_duality > Examples > Farmer example The primal problem deals with physical quantities. With all inputs available in limited quantities, and assuming the unit prices of all outputs is known, what quantities of outputs to produce so as to maximize total revenue? The dual problem deals with economic values.