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Superconductive quantum computing Background Superconducting_qubits > Background Each qubit is built using semiconductor circuits with an LC circuit: a capacitor and an inductor.Superconducting capacitors and inductors are used to produce a resonant circuit that dissipates almost no energy, as heat can disrupt quantum information. The superconducting resonant circuits are a class of artificial atoms that can be used as qubits. Theoretical and physical implementations of quantum circuits are widely different.
Conjugate depth Mathematical derivation Conjugate_depth > Mathematical derivation Substitute x for the constant y2/y1: F r 1 2 = x 2 2 + x 2 ⇒ 0 = x 2 2 + x 2 − F r 1 2 . {\displaystyle Fr_{1}^{2}={\frac {x^{2}}{2}}+{\frac {x}{2}}\Rightarrow 0={\frac {x^{2}}{2}}+{\frac {x}{2}}-Fr_{1}^{2}.} Solving the quadratic equation and multiplying it by 4 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\sqrt {4}}{2}}} gives: x = − 1 2 ± ( 1 / 2 ) 2 + 4 ( 1 / 2 ) ( F r 1 2 ) 2 ( 1 / 2 ) . {\displaystyle x={\frac {-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\pm {\sqrt {(1/2)^{2}+4(1/2)(Fr_{1}^{2})}}}{2(1/2)}}.} Substitute the constant y2/y1 back in for x to get the conjugate depth equation y 2 y 1 = 1 2 ( 1 + 8 F r 1 2 − 1 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {y_{2}}{y_{1}}}={\frac {1}{2}}\left({\sqrt {1+8Fr_{1}^{2}}}-1\right)} Note that this equation is only applicable to hydraulic jumps over flat beds.
Protein NMR Orientation restraints Protein_nuclear_magnetic_resonance > Restraint generation > Orientation restraints Normally in solution NMR the dipolar couplings between nuclei are averaged out because of the fast tumbling of the molecule. The slight overpopulation of one orientation means that a residual dipolar coupling remains to be observed. The dipolar coupling is commonly used in solid state NMR and provides information about the relative orientation of the bond vectors relative to a single global reference frame. Typically the orientation of the N-H vector is probed in an HSQC-like experiment. Initially, residual dipolar couplings were used for refinement of previously determined structures, but attempts at de novo structure determination have also been made.
Quantum nanoscience Summary Quantum_nanoscience Quantum nanoscience is the basic research area at the intersection of nanoscale science and quantum science that creates the understanding that enables development of nanotechnologies. It uses quantum mechanics to explore and use coherent quantum effects in engineered nanostructures. This may eventually lead to the design of new types of nanodevices and nanoscopic scale materials, where functionality and structure of quantum nanodevices are described through quantum phenomena such as superposition and entanglement. With the growing work toward realization of quantum computing, quantum has taken on new meaning that describes the effects at this scale. Current quantum refers to the quantum mechanical phenomena of superposition, entanglement and quantum coherence that are engineered instead of naturally-occurring phenomena.
Homomorphic secret sharing Summary Homomorphic_secret_sharing In cryptography, homomorphic secret sharing is a type of secret sharing algorithm in which the secret is encrypted via homomorphic encryption. A homomorphism is a transformation from one algebraic structure into another of the same type so that the structure is preserved. Importantly, this means that for every kind of manipulation of the original data, there is a corresponding manipulation of the transformed data.
Quaise Comparison with other power sources Quaise > Comparison with other power sources The approach proposes advantages compared with other power sources: Constant 24-hour generation - Maximum output always available. Does not require storage. Wind and Solar are intermittent generators. {{Citation needed}} Small land footprint - Consumes less than 1% of the land area of wind or solar for the same maximum output.
Ex-Prodigy In mathematics Ex-Prodigy > Work > In mathematics The Wiener–Khinchin theorem, (also known as the Wiener – Khintchine theorem and the Khinchin – Kolmogorov theorem), states that the power spectral density of a wide-sense-stationary random process is the Fourier transform of the corresponding autocorrelation function. An abstract Wiener space is a mathematical object in measure theory, used to construct a "decent", strictly positive and locally finite measure on an infinite-dimensional vector space. Wiener's original construction only applied to the space of real-valued continuous paths on the unit interval, known as classical Wiener space.
Epigenetics in stem cell differentiation Effects of global histone modifications during embryonic stem cell differentiation Epigenetics_in_stem_cell_differentiation > Effects of global histone modifications during embryonic stem cell differentiation These results indicate a decrease in the level of active euchromatin epigenetic marks upon initiation of embryonic stem cell differentiation which is then followed immediately by reprogramming of the epigenome. Histone modifications of H3K9 position show a decrease in di- and tri-methylation of undifferentiated embryonic stem cells and had a gradual increase in methylation during the six-day time course of in vitro differentiation, which indicated that there is a global increase of inactive heterochromatin levels at this histone mark.As the embryonic stem cell undergoes differentiation the markers for active euchromatin (histone acetylation and H3K4 methylation) are decreased after the removal of LIF showing that the cell is indeed becoming more differentiated. The slight rebound in each of these marks allows for further differentiation to occur by allowing another opportunity to decrease the markers once again, bringing the cell closer to its mature state. Since there is also an increase throughout the six-day period in H3K9me, a marker for active heterochromatin, once differentiation occurs it is concluded that the formation of heterochromatin occurs as the cell is differentiated into its desired fate making the cell inactive to prevent further differentiation.
Stage drop Emergency provision of gas Scuba_gas_management > Emergency provision of gas The standard buddy breathing technique is for the divers to alternately breathe from the demand valve, each taking two breaths, although since the receiver is likely to initially be out of breath, he/she may need a few more breaths to stabilise. Once air sharing has been established, the dive terminates, unless the underlying problem can be resolved. Assisted ascents using a secondary demand valve are simpler than buddy breathing ascents, the risk to both divers is lower, gas consumption may be less, and this skill is quicker to learn.Another type of emergency gas provision is using gas from a cylinder when the regulator has failed, This can occur in any one of several ways.
Symmetrically continuous function Summary Symmetrically_continuous_function In mathematics, a function f: R → R {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {R} } is symmetrically continuous at a point x if lim h → 0 f ( x + h ) − f ( x − h ) = 0. {\displaystyle \lim _{h\to 0}f(x+h)-f(x-h)=0.} The usual definition of continuity implies symmetric continuity, but the converse is not true.
Linear Algebra Endomorphisms and square matrices Linear_Algebra > Endomorphisms and square matrices A linear endomorphism is a linear map that maps a vector space V to itself. If V has a basis of n elements, such an endomorphism is represented by a square matrix of size n. With respect to general linear maps, linear endomorphisms and square matrices have some specific properties that make their study an important part of linear algebra, which is used in many parts of mathematics, including geometric transformations, coordinate changes, quadratic forms, and many other part of mathematics.
Characteristic value Matrix with repeated eigenvalues example Eigen_value_problem > Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of matrices > Matrix examples > Matrix with repeated eigenvalues example As in the previous example, the lower triangular matrix has a characteristic polynomial that is the product of its diagonal elements, The roots of this polynomial, and hence the eigenvalues, are 2 and 3. The algebraic multiplicity of each eigenvalue is 2; in other words they are both double roots. The sum of the algebraic multiplicities of all distinct eigenvalues is μA = 4 = n, the order of the characteristic polynomial and the dimension of A. On the other hand, the geometric multiplicity of the eigenvalue 2 is only 1, because its eigenspace is spanned by just one vector T {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}0&1&-1&1\end{bmatrix}}^{\textsf {T}}} and is therefore 1-dimensional.
Financial correlation Copula correlations Financial_correlation > Financial correlation measures > The binomial correlation coefficient > Copula correlations Formally, a copula function C transforms an n-dimensional function on the interval into a unit-dimensional one: C: n → {\displaystyle C:^{n}\rightarrow } (6).More explicitly, let u i {\displaystyle u_{i}} be a uniform random vector with u i = u 1 , . . .
Infrared film Summary Infrared_photography ("Infrared filter" may refer either to this type of filter or to one that blocks infrared but passes other wavelengths.) When these filters are used together with infrared-sensitive film or sensors, "in-camera effects" can be obtained; false-color or black-and-white images with a dreamlike or sometimes lurid appearance known as the "Wood Effect," an effect mainly caused by foliage (such as tree leaves and grass) strongly reflecting in the same way visible light is reflected from snow. There is a small contribution from chlorophyll fluorescence, but this is marginal and is not the real cause of the brightness seen in infrared photographs.
Riboflavin synthase Mechanism Riboflavin_synthase > Mechanism In studies on the role of Cys48 as a possible nucleophile, it has not been determined if nucleophilic displacement occurs via an SN1 or SN2 reaction.During the dismutation reaction, a four carbon unit is exchanged between the two molecules of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine. In the course of the reaction, a pentacyclic molecule is created which is then broken apart into riboflavin and 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione. Interestingly, archeal riboflavin synthase creates an "enantiomeric" intermediate as opposed to eubacterial, fungal and plant riboflavin synthase, where the attack of one molecule proceeds from the opposite face compared to the other enzyme. The exact mechanism of the formation of cyclic adduct is unknown. It is also unknown how exactly the mechanism proceeds when not catalyzed by an enzyme.
Lie group theory The exponential map Real_Lie_group > Basic concepts > The exponential map Because the exponential map is surjective on some neighbourhood N {\displaystyle N} of e {\displaystyle e} , it is common to call elements of the Lie algebra infinitesimal generators of the group G {\displaystyle G} . The subgroup of G {\displaystyle G} generated by N {\displaystyle N} is the identity component of G {\displaystyle G} . The exponential map and the Lie algebra determine the local group structure of every connected Lie group, because of the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula: there exists a neighborhood U {\displaystyle U} of the zero element of g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} , such that for X , Y ∈ U {\displaystyle X,Y\in U} we have exp ⁡ ( X ) exp ⁡ ( Y ) = exp ⁡ ( X + Y + 1 2 + 1 12 , Y ] − 1 12 , X ] − ⋯ ) , {\displaystyle \exp(X)\,\exp(Y)=\exp \left(X+Y+{\tfrac {1}{2}}+{\tfrac {1}{12}},Y]-{\tfrac {1}{12}},X]-\cdots \right),} where the omitted terms are known and involve Lie brackets of four or more elements.
Maxwell–Faraday equation Einstein's view Maxwell–Faraday_equation > Faraday's law and relativity > Einstein's view Reflection on this apparent dichotomy was one of the principal paths that led Albert Einstein to develop special relativity: It is known that Maxwell's electrodynamics—as usually understood at the present time—when applied to moving bodies, leads to asymmetries which do not appear to be inherent in the phenomena. Take, for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a conductor. The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor and the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places where parts of the conductor are situated.
Open Data Protocol OASIS OData Technical Committee Open_Data_Protocol > Standardization > OASIS OData Technical Committee "The OASIS OData TC works to simplify the querying and sharing of data across disparate applications and multiple stakeholders for re-use in the enterprise, Cloud, and mobile devices. A REST-based protocol, OData builds on HTTP, AtomPub, and JSON using URIs to address and access data feed resources. It enables information to be accessed from a variety of sources including (but not limited to) relational databases, file systems, content management systems, and traditional Web sites.
−1 Square roots of −1 −1 > Algebraic properties > Square roots of −1 Although there are no real square roots of −1, the complex number i satisfies i2 = −1, and as such can be considered as a square root of −1. The only other complex number whose square is −1 is −i because there are exactly two square roots of any non‐zero complex number, which follows from the fundamental theorem of algebra. In the algebra of quaternions – where the fundamental theorem does not apply – which contains the complex numbers, the equation x2 = −1 has infinitely many solutions.
Introduction to gauge theory Summary Introduction_to_gauge_theory Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric field E and the magnetic field B are observable, while the potentials V ("voltage") and A (the vector potential) are not.
Alcoholic cardiomyopathy Signs and symptoms Alcoholic_cardiomyopathy > Signs and symptoms Doctors will sometimes test for pitting edema by pressing their fingers against the swelling to see if any "pitting" occurs. Overall swelling Loss of appetite Shortness of breath (dyspnea), especially with activity Breathing difficulty while lying down This medical term for this symptoms is orthopnea, it occurs because fluid builds up in the posterior portion of both lungs, making it difficult to breathe. Fatigue, weakness, faintness Decreased alertness or concentration Cough containing mucus, or pink, frothy material Decreased urine output (oliguria) Need to urinate at night (nocturia) Heart palpitations (irregular heart beat) Rapid pulse (tachycardia)The signs and symptoms of alcoholic cardiomyopathy (ACM) can vary depending on the severity of the condition.
Biomolecular engineering Scale-up Biomolecular_engineering > Applications and fields > In industry > Scale-up Scaling up a process involves using data from an experimental-scale operation (model or pilot plant) for the design of a large (scaled-up) unit, of commercial size. Scaling up is a crucial part of commercializing a process. For example, insulin produced by genetically modified Escherichia coli bacteria was initialized on a lab-scale, but to be made commercially viable had to be scaled up to an industrial level. In order to achieve this scale-up a lot of lab data had to be used to design commercial sized units.
Translation memory OLIF Translation_memory > Related standards > OLIF Open Lexicon Interchange Format. OLIF is an open, XML-compliant standard for the exchange of terminological and lexical data. Although originally intended as a means for the exchange of lexical data between proprietary machine translation lexicons, it has evolved into a more general standard for terminology exchange.
Trusted Information Security Assessment Exchange Summary Trusted_Information_Security_Assessment_Exchange It approves the testing service providers and monitors the quality of the execution and the assessment results. This is to ensure that both the results at the end correspond to a desired quality and objectivity, and that the rights and obligations of the participants are safeguarded. This allows a company to decide whether the resulting maturity level of the supplier (service providers and suppliers) meets the requirements of the buyer.
Ventilation perfusion mismatch Diagnosis Ventilation_perfusion_mismatch > Pathogenesis > Diagnosis It may be found in PNEUMONIA or COPD.Results are reported in following way: Normal - No abnormality found. Low Probability - Chances of blood clot is low. Needs further and more testing.
Applications of artificial intelligence Chemistry and biology Applications_of_AI > Chemistry and biology It can also be used for "drug discovery and development, drug repurposing, improving pharmaceutical productivity, and clinical trials". It has been used for the design of proteins with prespecified functional sites.It has been used with databases for the development of a 46-day process to design, synthesize and test a drug which inhibits enzymes of a particular gene, DDR1. DDR1 is involved in cancers and fibrosis which is one reason for the high-quality datasets that enabled these results.There are various types of applications for machine learning in decoding human biology, such as helping to map gene expression patterns to functional activation patterns or identifying functional DNA motifs. It is widely used in genetic research.There also is some use of machine learning in synthetic biology, disease biology, nanotechnology (e.g. nanostructured materials and bionanotechnology), and materials science.
Causal relationships Engineering Cause_system > Fields > Science > Engineering A causal system is a system with output and internal states that depends only on the current and previous input values. A system that has some dependence on input values from the future (in addition to possible past or current input values) is termed an acausal system, and a system that depends solely on future input values is an anticausal system. Acausal filters, for example, can only exist as postprocessing filters, because these filters can extract future values from a memory buffer or a file.
Cobalt hexamine Summary Hexamminecobalt(III)_chloride Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride is the chemical compound with the formula Cl3. It is the chloride salt of the coordination complex 3+, which is considered an archetypal "Werner complex", named after the pioneer of coordination chemistry, Alfred Werner. The cation itself is a metal ammine complex with six ammonia ligands attached to the cobalt(III) ion.
Statistical model validation Methods for validating Statistical_model_validation > Methods for validating When doing a validation, there are three notable causes of potential difficulty, according to the Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences. The three causes are these: lack of data; lack of control of the input variables; uncertainty about the underlying probability distributions and correlations. The usual methods for dealing with difficulties in validation include the following: checking the assumptions made in constructing the model; examining the available data and related model outputs; applying expert judgment.
Effector memory T cell Lifetime overview Effector_memory_T_cell > Function > Lifetime overview Memory T cells undergo different changes and play different roles in different life stages for humans. At birth and early childhood, T cells in the peripheral blood are mainly naïve T cells. Through frequent antigen exposure, the population of memory T cells accumulates. This is the memory generation stage, which lasts from birth to about 20–25 years old when our immune system encounters the greatest number of new antigens.
Unpowered aircraft Gliders Unpowered_aircraft > Gliders A small foot-launched glider is launched by running downhill or stepping off a high location. Forward speed is then maintained by a gradual descent through the surrounding air, with the wings angled slightly down so that their lift also provides a small forward thrust to counter the drag of the wing. If the air is rising faster than the aircraft is descending through it, the glider will gain height and additional potential energy.
Interlimb coordination Control centre of locomotor movements Interlimb_coordination > Modelization of interlimb coordination > Control centre of locomotor movements The spinal cord is the core of the neural control of locomotion. This organ is the integrative centre of the CNS for motor control, it is done by receiving sensory information from peripheral receptors to control and adjust movements. The central pattern generator (CPG) from the model is simulated as a network of spinal neurons that controls the basic locomotor output.
Opportunistic infection Bacteria Opportunistic_pathogen > Types of opportunistic infections > Bacteria Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium known to cause skin infections and sepsis, among other pathologies. Notably, S. aureus has evolved several drug-resistant strains, including MRSA. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a bacterium that causes respiratory infections. Streptococcus pyogenes (also known as group A Streptococcus) is a bacterium that can cause a variety of pathologies, including impetigo and strep throat, as well as other, more serious, illnesses.
Essential (primary) hypertension Obesity Essential_hypertension > Risk factors > Obesity Obesity can increase the risk of hypertension to fivefold as compared with normal weight, and up to two-thirds of hypertension cases can be attributed to excess weight. More than 85% of cases occur in those with a Body mass index (BMI) greater than 25. A definitive link between obesity and hypertension has been found using animal and clinical studies; from these it has been realized that many mechanisms are potential causes of obesity-induced hypertension. These mechanisms include the activation of the sympathetic nervous system as well as the activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
Electromagnetic coil Summary Magnetic_coil Conversely, a changing external magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor such as a wire, due to Faraday's law of induction. The induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil because the field lines intersect the circuit multiple times.The direction of the magnetic field produced by a coil can be determined by the right hand grip rule.
Spectral analyzer History Spectral_analyzer > History The first spectrum analyzers, in the 1960s, were swept-tuned instruments.Following the discovery of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) in 1965, the first FFT-based analyzers were introduced in 1967.Today, there are three basic types of analyzer: the swept-tuned spectrum analyzer, the vector signal analyzer, and the real-time spectrum analyzer.
Natural polymer Summary Natural_polymer Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Like other polymers, biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded in chains to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. The Polynucleotides, RNA and DNA, are long polymers of nucleotides.
Kernel (group theory) Malcev algebras Kernel_(ring_theory) > Universal algebra > Malcev algebras The kernel is usually denoted ker f (or a variation). In symbols: ker ⁡ f = { a ∈ A: f ( a ) = e B } .
Contract Bridge Auction Contract_Bridge > Gameplay > Auction Calls may be made orally or with a bidding box. If the last bid was by the opposing partnership, one may also double the opponents' bid, increasing the penalties for undertricks, but also increasing the reward for making the contract. Doubling does not carry to future bids by the opponents unless future bids are doubled again.
Epithelioid cell Structure and function Epithelioid_cell > Structure and function Structurally, epithelioid cells (when examined by light microscopy after stained with hematoxylin and eosin), are elongated, with finely granular, pale eosinophilic (pink) cytoplasm, and central, ovoid nuclei (oval or elongate), which are less dense than that of a lymphocyte. They have indistinct shape and often appear to merge into one another, forming aggregates known as giant cells. When examined by transmission electron microscopy in epithelioid cells in the field of Golgi lamellar complex are taped not only zonated, but also sleek vesicles with dense center, and also great many (more than 100) large granulas with diameters up to 340 nm and with finegranular matrix more light than in macrophage granulas, sometimes with perigranular halo.
Diving disorders Hypoxia Diving_disorders > Non-dysbaric disorders associated with diving > Hypoxia Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. Variations in arterial oxygen concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during strenuous physical exercise. A mismatch between oxygen supply and its demand at the cellular level may result in a hypoxic condition. Generalized hypoxia occurs when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air, or when breathing gas mixtures blended to prevent oxygen toxicity at depths below about 60 m near or at the surface.
Bcache Overview Bcache > Overview Write amplification is avoided by not performing random writes to SSDs; instead, all random writes to SSD caches are always combined into block-level writes, ending up with rewriting only the complete erase blocks on SSDs.Both write-back and write-through (which is the default) policies are supported for caching write operations. In case of the write-back policy, written data is stored inside the SSD caches first, and propagated to the HDDs later in a batched way while performing seek-friendly operations – making bcache to act also as an I/O scheduler. For the write-through policy, which ensures that no write operation is marked as finished until the data requested to be written has reached both SSDs and HDDs, performance improvements are reduced by effectively performing only caching of the written data.Write-back policy with batched writes to HDDs provides additional benefits to write-sensitive redundant array of independent disks (RAID) layouts such as RAID 5 and RAID 6, which perform actual write operations as atomic read-modify-write sequences. That way, performance penalties of small random writes are reduced or avoided for such RAID layouts, by grouping them together and performing as batched sequential writes.Caching performed by bcache operates at the block device level, making itself file system–agnostic as long as the file system provides an embedded universally unique identifier (UUID); this requirement is satisfied by virtually all standard Linux file systems, as well as by swap partitions. Sizes of the logical blocks used internally by bcache as caching extents can go down to the size of a single HDD sector.
Limit at infinity History Epsilon,_delta > History Although implicit in the development of calculus of the 17th and 18th centuries, the modern idea of the limit of a function goes back to Bolzano who, in 1817, introduced the basics of the epsilon-delta technique (see #(ε, δ)-definition of limit below) to define continuous functions. However, his work was not known during his lifetime.In his 1821 book Cours d'analyse, Augustin-Louis Cauchy discussed variable quantities, infinitesimals and limits, and defined continuity of y = f ( x ) {\displaystyle y=f(x)} by saying that an infinitesimal change in x necessarily produces an infinitesimal change in y, while (Grabiner 1983) claims that he used a rigorous epsilon-delta definition in proofs. In 1861, Weierstrass first introduced the epsilon-delta definition of limit in the form it is usually written today.
Trim lines Summary Trim_lines A trim line, also written as trimline, is a clear line on the side of a valley formed by a glacier. The line marks the most recent highest extent of the glacier. The line may be visible due to changes in color to the rock or to changes in vegetation on either side of the line. The term "trim line" is also used for similar looking phenomena caused by floods, volcanic activity, or tsunamis. == References ==
Accretion disc Accretion disk physics Accretion_disk > Accretion disk physics In the 1940s, models were first derived from basic physical principles. In order to agree with observations, those models had to invoke a yet unknown mechanism for angular momentum redistribution. If matter is to fall inward it must lose not only gravitational energy but also lose angular momentum. Since the total angular momentum of the disk is conserved, the angular momentum loss of the mass falling into the center has to be compensated by an angular momentum gain of the mass far from the center.
Hydraulic jump Height of the jump Hydraulic_jump > Analysis of the hydraulic jump on a liquid surface > Height of the jump {\displaystyle Fr^{2}={v_{0}^{2} \over gh_{0}}.} Here F r {\displaystyle Fr} is the dimensionless Froude number, and relates inertial to gravitational forces in the upstream flow. Solving this quadratic yields: h 1 h 0 = − 1 ± 1 + 8 v 0 2 g h 0 2 .
Chaotic behavior Jerk systems Chaotic_behavior > Chaotic dynamics > Jerk systems In physics, jerk is the third derivative of position, with respect to time. As such, differential equations of the form J ( x . . .
Introduction to general relativity Physical consequences Introduction_to_general_relativity > From special to general relativity > Physical consequences Conversely, light sent from the higher observer to the lower is blue-shifted, that is, shifted towards higher frequencies. Einstein argued that such frequency shifts must also be observed in a gravitational field. This is illustrated in the figure at left, which shows a light wave that is gradually red-shifted as it works its way upwards against the gravitational acceleration.
Conservation of linear momentum Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Conservation_of_Momentum > History of the concept > Momentum > Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz In 1686, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, in Discourse on Metaphysics, gave an argument against Descartes' construction of the conservation of the "quantity of motion" using an example of dropping blocks of different sizes different distances. He points out that force is conserved but quantity of motion, construed as the product of size and speed of an object, is not conserved.
Ethical AI Governmental initiatives Ethical_AI > Actors in AI ethics > Governmental initiatives Additionally, federal entities are even encouraged to use the order to circumnavigate any state laws and regulations that a market might see as too onerous to fulfill. The Computing Community Consortium (CCC) weighed in with a 100-plus page draft report – A 20-Year Community Roadmap for Artificial Intelligence Research in the US The Center for Security and Emerging Technology advises US policymakers on the security implications of emerging technologies such as AI. The Non-Human Party is running for election in New South Wales, with policies around granting rights to robots, animals and generally, non-human entities whose intelligence has been overlooked. In Russia, the first-ever Russian "Codex of ethics of artificial intelligence" for business was signed in 2021. It was driven by Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation together with major commercial and academic institutions such as Sberbank, Yandex, Rosatom, Higher School of Economics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, ITMO University, Nanosemantics, Rostelecom, CIAN and others.
Mathematics of general relativity The Cauchy problem Mathematics_of_general_relativity > Mathematical techniques for analysing spacetimes > The Cauchy problem The Cauchy problem (sometimes called the initial value problem) is the attempt at finding a solution to a differential equation given initial conditions. In the context of general relativity, it means the problem of finding solutions to Einstein's field equations - a system of hyperbolic partial differential equations - given some initial data on a hypersurface. Studying the Cauchy problem allows one to formulate the concept of causality in general relativity, as well as 'parametrising' solutions of the field equations. Ideally, one desires global solutions, but usually local solutions are the best that can be hoped for. Typically, solving this initial value problem requires selection of particular coordinate conditions.
Coase Theorem Summary Coase_Theorem This 'theorem' is commonly attributed to Nobel Prize laureate Ronald Coase (quotations noting that Coase's theorem is not a theorem in the strict mathematical sense). In practice, numerous complications, including imperfect information and poorly defined property rights, can prevent this optimal Coasean bargaining solution.
Process management (computing) Two-state process management model Process_management_(computing) > Two-state process management model From this model we can identify some design elements of the OS: The need to represent, and keep track of each process. The state of a process. The queuing of NON RUNNING processes
Feature learning Supervised Feature_learning > Supervised Supervised feature learning is learning features from labeled data. The data label allows the system to compute an error term, the degree to which the system fails to produce the label, which can then be used as feedback to correct the learning process (reduce/minimize the error). Approaches include:
Yeast two hybrid Basic premise Two-hybrid_screening > Basic premise The protein fused to the BD may be referred to as the bait protein, and is typically a known protein the investigator is using to identify new binding partners. The protein fused to the AD may be referred to as the prey protein and can be either a single known protein or a library of known or unknown proteins. In this context, a library may consist of a collection of protein-encoding sequences that represent all the proteins expressed in a particular organism or tissue, or may be generated by synthesising random DNA sequences.
Hydrogeology Application of finite element models Groundwater_hydrology > Calculation of groundwater flow > Numerical methods > Application of finite element models Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS; Hydrus, a commercial unsaturated flow model; FEFLOW, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes; OpenGeoSys, a scientific open-source project for thermo-hydro-mechanical-chemical (THMC) processes in porous and fractured media; COMSOL Multiphysics (a commercial general modelling environment), FEATool Multiphysics an easy to use MATLAB simulation toolbox, and Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM), but they are still not as popular in with practicing hydrogeologists as MODFLOW is. Finite element models are more popular in university and laboratory environments, where specialized models solve non-standard forms of the flow equation (unsaturated flow, density dependent flow, coupled heat and groundwater flow, etc.)
Permanent magnets Fields of a magnet Magnet > Units and calculations > Fields of a magnet Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center. Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc. At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.
Recombinant clone Overview Recombinant_clone > Overview Molecular cloning takes advantage of the fact that the chemical structure of DNA is fundamentally the same in all living organisms. Therefore, if any segment of DNA from any organism is inserted into a DNA segment containing the molecular sequences required for DNA replication, and the resulting recombinant DNA is introduced into the organism from which the replication sequences were obtained, then the foreign DNA will be replicated along with the host cell's DNA in the transgenic organism. Molecular cloning is similar to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in that it permits the replication of DNA sequence. The fundamental difference between the two methods is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA in a living microorganism, while PCR replicates DNA in an in vitro solution, free of living cells.
Low-volatility anomaly Explanations Low-volatility_anomaly > Explanations Relative performance: Many investors want to consistently beat the market average, or benchmark as discussed by Blitz and van Vliet (2007) and Baker, Bradley, and Wurgler (2011). Agency issues: Many professional investors have misaligned interests when managing client money. Falkenstein (1996) and Karceski (2001) give evidence for mutual fund managers.
Flexural modulus Related pages Flexural_modulus > Related pages Stiffness == References ==
Work loop Method 2: Area inside the loop method Work_loop > Work loop experimental approach > Calculating muscular work and power from experimental data > Method 2: Area inside the loop method The area inside the work loop can be quantified either 1) digitally by importing a work loop image into ImageJ, tracing the work loop shape and quantifying its area. Or, 2) manually by printing a hard copy of the work loop graph, cutting the inner area and weighing it on an analytical balance. Net work is then divided by the time duration of the cycle to obtain net power.
Allan variance Practical measurements Allan_deviation > Practical measurements While several approaches to measurement of Allan variance can be devised, a simple example may illustrate how measurements can be performed.
Norepinephrine Sympathetic nervous system Norepinephrine > Functions > Sympathetic nervous system In the pancreas, increased release of glucagon, a hormone whose main effect is to increase the production of glucose by the liver. In skeletal muscles, an increase in glucose uptake. In adipose tissue (i.e., fat cells), an increase in lipolysis, that is, conversion of fat to substances that can be used directly as energy sources by muscles and other tissues.
Blood clots Pathophysiology Cerebral_thrombosis > Pathophysiology A thrombus occurs when the hemostatic process, which normally occurs in response to injury, becomes activated in an uninjured or slightly injured vessel. A thrombus in a large blood vessel will decrease blood flow through that vessel (termed a mural thrombus). In a small blood vessel, blood flow may be completely cut off (termed an occlusive thrombus), resulting in death of tissue supplied by that vessel. If a thrombus dislodges and becomes free-floating, it is considered an embolus.
Time hierarchy Statement Time_hierarchy > Deterministic time hierarchy theorem > Statement Time Hierarchy Theorem. If f(n) is a time-constructible function, then there exists a decision problem which cannot be solved in worst-case deterministic time o(f(n)) but can be solved in worst-case deterministic time O(f(n)log f(n)). Thus D T I M E ( o ( f ( n ) ) ) ⊊ D T I M E ( f ( n ) log ⁡ f ( n ) ) . {\displaystyle {\mathsf {DTIME}}(o(f(n)))\subsetneq {\mathsf {DTIME}}\left(f(n)\log f(n)\right).}
Nucleophilic substitution SN1 and SN2 reactions Nucleophilic_substitution > Saturated carbon centres > SN1 and SN2 reactions This means that the better the leaving group, the faster the reaction rate. A general rule for what makes a good leaving group is the weaker the conjugate base, the better the leaving group. In this case, halogens are going to be the best leaving groups, while compounds such as amines, hydrogen, and alkanes are going to be quite poor leaving groups.
Myocardial perfusion imaging Major indications Myocardial_perfusion_scan > Major indications Diagnosis of CAD and various cardiac abnormalities. Identifying location and degree of CAD in patients with a history of CAD. Prognosis of patients who are at risk of having a myocardial or coronary incident (i.e. myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, coronary aneurysm, wall motion abnormalities). Assessment of viable myocardium in particular coronary artery territory following heart attacks to justify revascularization Post intervention revascularization (coronary artery bypass graft, angioplasty) evaluation of heart. Evaluation of shortness of breath of a possible cardiac origin.
Rooftop solar PV Feed-in tariff mechanism Rooftop_solar_PV > Finances > Feed-in tariff mechanism In a grid connected rooftop photovoltaic power station, the generated electricity can sometimes be sold to the servicing electric utility for use elsewhere in the grid. This arrangement provides payback for the investment of the installer. Many consumers from across the world are switching to this mechanism owing to the revenue yielded. A public utility commission usually sets the rate that the utility pays for this electricity, which could be at the retail rate or the lower wholesale rate, greatly affecting solar power payback and installation demand.
Picnic table Location Picnic_table > Design > Location Most picnic tables a fixed or foldable structures, free standing or mounted to the floor and found at landmarks, scenic views or public places, for people to rest and gather. In contrast, a mobile picnic table does not have a particular spot or location, but follows around together with its platform and can be used for multiple purposes.
NPL (programming language) Summary NPL_(programming_language) NPL is a functional programming language with pattern matching designed by Rod Burstall and John Darlington in 1977. The language allows certain sets and logic constructs to appear on the right hand side of definitions, e.g. setofeven(X) <= <:x: x in X & even(x) :> The NPL interpreter evaluates the list of generators from left to right so conditions can mention any bound variables that occur to their left. These were known as set comprehensions. NPL eventually evolved into Hope but lost set comprehensions, which made a reappearance in the form of list comprehensions in later functional languages.
Return on modeling effort Purpose Return_on_modeling_effort > Purpose In engineering, modelling always serves a particular goal. For example, the lightning protection of aircraft can be modelled as an electrical circuit, in order to predict whether the protection will still work in 30 years, given the ageing of its electrical components. More and more effort can be put in making this model predict reality perfectly. However, this perfection comes at a price: researchers invest time and money in improving the model.
MOOSE (software) Background MOOSE_(software) > Background For a new application, existing Kernels are selected as-is, or modified as necessary, and "plugged" in. An advection-diffusion-reaction equation is of the same mathematical form no matter what application it is being used for. Typically, only the form of the coefficients or the dependencies on other physics need to be defined; rarely must complete Kernels be constructed from scratch.
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox Bell's theorem Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen_paradox > Later developments > Bell's theorem All experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of quantum mechanics. The present view of the situation is that quantum mechanics flatly contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory must fulfill "local realism". The fact that quantum mechanics violates Bell inequalities indicates that any hidden-variable theory underlying quantum mechanics must be non-local; whether this should be taken to imply that quantum mechanics itself is non-local is a matter of debate.
Monte Carlo method in statistical mechanics Generalizations Monte_Carlo_method_in_statistical_mechanics > Generalizations The great success of this method in statistical mechanics has led to various generalizations such as the method of simulated annealing for optimization, in which a fictitious temperature is introduced and then gradually lowered.
Database caching Benefits Database_caching > Benefits Database caching improves scalability by distributing query workload from backend to multiple cheap front-end systems. It allows flexibility in the processing of data; for example, the data of Platinum customers can be cached while that of ordinary customers are not. Caching can improve availability of data, by providing continued service for applications that depend only on cached tables even if the backend server is unavailable. Another benefit is improved data access speeds brought about by locality of data and smoothing out load peaks by avoiding round-trips between middle-tier and data-tier.
Interleukin 19 IL-10 family Interleukin_19 > IL-10 family Interleukin-19 is a cytokine that belongs to the IL-10 family of cytokines along with several other interleukins including IL-10, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, IL-26, and several virus-encoded cytokines. It signals through the same cell surface receptor (IL-20R) that is used by IL-20 and IL-24.
Induced stem cells Single transcription factor transdifferentiation Induced_stem_cells > Induced progenitor stem cells > Direct transdifferentiation > Single transcription factor transdifferentiation Originally, only early embryonic cells could be coaxed into changing their identity. Mature cells are resistant to changing their identity once they've committed to a specific kind. However, brief expression of a single transcription factor, the ELT-7 GATA factor, can convert the identity of fully differentiated, specialized non-endodermal cells of the pharynx into fully differentiated intestinal cells in intact larvae and adult roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans with no requirement for a dedifferentiated intermediate.
Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis Immune system HPA_axis > Immune system There is bi-directional communication and feedback between the HPA axis and the immune system. A number of cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha can activate the HPA axis, although IL-1 is the most potent. The HPA axis in turn modulates the immune response, with high levels of cortisol resulting in a suppression of immune and inflammatory reactions. This helps to protect the organism from a lethal overactivation of the immune system, and minimizes tissue damage from inflammation.In many ways, the CNS is "immune privileged", but it plays an important role in the immune system and is affected by it in turn.
Solaristor Conductivity modulator (transistor element) Solaristor > Principle of operation > Conductivity modulator (transistor element) A solaristor effect is achieved by modifying the internal field properties or the overall conductivity of the solar cell. Ferroelectric solaristors. One possibility is the use of ferroelectric semiconductors as transport layers. A ferroelectric layer can be seen as a semiconductor with switchable surface charge polarity. Because of this tuneable dipole effect, ferroelectrics bend their electronic band structure and offsets with respect to adjacent metals and/or semiconductors when switching the ferroelectric polarization so that the overall conductivity can be tuned orders of magnitude.
AMP-activated protein kinase Mitochondria AMP-activated_protein_kinase > Clinical significance > Mitochondria PGC-1α is a transcriptional regulator for genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, gluconeogenesis, and is considered the master regulator for mitochondrial biogenesis.To do this, it enhances the activity of transcription factors like nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF-1), myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), host cell factor (HCF), and others. It also has a positive feedback loop, enhancing its own expression. Both MEF2 and cAMP response element (CRE) are essential for contraction-induced PGC-1α promoter activity. LKB1 knockout mice show a decrease in PGC-1α, as well as mitochondrial proteins.
Subpolar oceanic climate The cause Subtropical_highland > The cause Oceanic climates are not necessarily found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels; however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advances low pressure systems, storms, and fronts. In coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes (45–60° latitude), the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates.
Ministry of Science and Technology (China) Chronic kidney disease survey Ministry_of_Science_and_Technology_(China) > Supported projects > Chronic kidney disease survey The survey is a nationwide public health survey supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, and a total of 50,500 adults were invited to conduct the survey. The background of this survey is that the prevalence of chronic kidney disease in developing countries is relatively high, but there is no such related survey in China. To specifically analyse the factors related to chronic kidney disease, this survey uses logistic regression. The survey concluded that the estimated prevalence of chronic kidney disease in China is similar to that in developed countries such as the United States and Norway.
Absorption of water Active osmotic water absorption Absorption_of_water > Active absorption > Active osmotic water absorption If stated, water potential is comparatively positive in the soil water. This gradient of water potential causes endosmosis. The endosmosis of water continues until the water potential both in the root and soil becomes equal.
COVID-19 pandemic Health COVID-19_pandemic > Long-term effects > Health An increase in excess deaths from underlying causes not related to COVID-19 has been largely blamed on systematic issues causing delays in health care and screening during the pandemic, which has resulted in an increase of non-COVID-19 related deaths.
Probabilistic database Types of Uncertainties Probabilistic_database > Terminology > Types of Uncertainties There are essentially two kinds of uncertainties that could exist in a probabilistic database, as described in the table below: By assigning values to random variables associated with the data items, different possible worlds can be represented.
Light field microscopy Fourier Slice Photography Light_field_microscopy > Fourier Slice Photography . . , 0 ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}_{M}^{N}(x_{1},...,x_{M})=f(x_{1},...,x_{M},0,...,0)} Photography Change of Basis: Let B α {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}_{\alpha }} denote an operator for a change of basis of an 4-dimensional function so that B ( x ) = f ( B − 1 x ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}(\mathrm {x} )=f({\mathcal {B}}^{-1}\mathrm {x} )} , with B α = {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}_{\alpha }={\begin{bmatrix}\alpha &0&1-\alpha &0\\0&\alpha &0&1-\alpha \\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}} .
Lift (force) Integrated force/momentum balance in lifting flows Aerodynamic_lift > Manifestations of lift in the farfield > Integrated force/momentum balance in lifting flows For a square or circle, the momentum fluxes and pressure differences account for half the lift each. For a vertical rectangle that is much taller than it is wide, the unbalanced pressure forces on the top and bottom are negligible, and lift is accounted for entirely by momentum fluxes, with a flux of upward momentum that enters the control volume through the front accounting for half the lift, and a flux of downward momentum that exits the control volume through the back accounting for the other half.The results of all of the control-volume analyses described above are consistent with the Kutta–Joukowski theorem described above. Both the tall rectangle and circle control volumes have been used in derivations of the theorem.
Vector notation Rectangular coordinates Vector_notation > Rectangular coordinates Given a Cartesian coordinate system, a vector may be specified by its Cartesian coordinates, which are a tuple of numbers.
Fourier transform spectrograph Measuring an absorption spectrum Fourier_transform_spectroscopy > Conceptual introduction > Measuring an absorption spectrum The method of Fourier-transform spectroscopy can also be used for absorption spectroscopy. The primary example is "FTIR Spectroscopy", a common technique in chemistry. In general, the goal of absorption spectroscopy is to measure how well a sample absorbs or transmits light at each different wavelength. Although absorption spectroscopy and emission spectroscopy are different in principle, they are closely related in practice; any technique for emission spectroscopy can also be used for absorption spectroscopy.
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change Structure of the atmosphere Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change > Structure of the atmosphere Most of the air - including ~88% of the CO2 - is located in the lower part of the atmosphere known as troposphere. The troposphere is thicker in the equator and thinner at the poles, but the global mean of its thickness is around 11 km. Inside the troposphere, the temperature drops approximately linearly at a rate of 6.5 Celsius degrees per km, from a global mean of 288 Kelvin (15 Celsius) on the ground to 220 K (-53 Celsius). At higher altitudes, up to 20 km, the temperature is approximately constant; this layer is called the tropopause.
HEARO RNA motif Summary HEARO_RNA_motif Additional analysis was consistent with the hypothesis of self replication.Subsequent work found that the predicted HNH endonucleases associated with HEARO RNAs are IscB proteins, and function as DNA endonucleases that use an RNA molecule to determine where cleavage occurs. Thus, they are similar to CRISPR-Cas systems, and the IscB proteins is thought to be evolutionarily related to Cas12 proteins in certain CRISPR-Cas systems. A part of the HEARO RNA motif was called the omega-RNA, and is required for the CRISPR-Cas-like activity of the system.
Respiratory regulation Feedback control Involuntary_control_of_respiration > Control of respiratory rhythm > Feedback control The nasopulmonary and nasothoracic reflexes regulate the mechanism of breathing through deepening the inhale. Triggered by the flow of the air, the pressure of the air in the nose, and the quality of the air, impulses from the nasal mucosa are transmitted by the trigeminal nerve to the respiratory center in the brainstem, and the generated response is transmitted to the bronchi, the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. Head's paradoxical reflex where sudden inflation of the lung causes a transient respiratory effort or gasp.
Tyrannosaurus rex Thermoregulation Tyrannosaurus_rex > Paleobiology > Thermoregulation Tyrannosaurus, like most dinosaurs, was long thought to have an ectothermic ("cold-blooded") reptilian metabolism. The idea of dinosaur ectothermy was challenged by scientists like Robert T. Bakker and John Ostrom in the early years of the "Dinosaur Renaissance", beginning in the late 1960s. T. rex itself was claimed to have been endothermic ("warm-blooded"), implying a very active lifestyle. Since then, several paleontologists have sought to determine the ability of Tyrannosaurus to regulate its body temperature.
Compiler design Summary Compiler_theory A bootstrap compiler is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language. Related software include, a program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler ; a program that translates between high-level languages, usually called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language.
Cache-only memory architecture Summary Cache-only_memory_architecture On the other hand, it raises problems of how to find a particular data (there is no longer a home node) and what to do if a local memory fills up (migrating some data into the local memory then needs to evict some other data, which doesn't have a home to go to). Hardware memory coherence mechanisms are typically used to implement the migration.
Secure Erase Privacy preserving data mining Secure_Erase > Applications of data sanitization > Privacy preserving data mining This type of data hiding can be used to cover wide patterns in data, but is not as effective for specific information protection. Heuristic based methods are not as suited to sanitizing large datasets, however, recent developments in the heuristics based field have analyzed ways to tackle this problem. An example includes the MR-OVnTSA approach, a heuristics based sensitive pattern hiding approach for big data, introduced by Shivani Sharma and Durga Toshniwa.
Ole Rømer Rømer and the speed of light Ole_Rømer > Rømer and the speed of light In 1672 Rømer went to Paris and continued observing the satellites of Jupiter as Cassini's assistant. Rømer added his own observations to Cassini's and observed that times between eclipses (particularly those of Io) got shorter as Earth approached Jupiter, and longer as Earth moved farther away. Cassini made an announcement to the Academy of Sciences on 22 August 1676: This second inequality appears to be due to light taking some time to reach us from the satellite; light seems to take about ten to eleven minutes a distance equal to the half-diameter of the terrestrial orbit.
Bloom filter Interesting properties Bloom_filter > Interesting properties The union operation on Bloom filters is lossless in the sense that the resulting Bloom filter is the same as the Bloom filter created from scratch using the union of the two sets. The intersect operation satisfies a weaker property: the false positive probability in the resulting Bloom filter is at most the false-positive probability in one of the constituent Bloom filters, but may be larger than the false positive probability in the Bloom filter created from scratch using the intersection of the two sets. Some kinds of superimposed code can be seen as a Bloom filter implemented with physical edge-notched cards. An example is Zatocoding, invented by Calvin Mooers in 1947, in which the set of categories associated with a piece of information is represented by notches on a card, with a random pattern of four notches for each category.
Neuropsychopharmacology Neurotransmission Neuropsychopharmacology > Neurotransmission The synthesis of cellular proteins from nuclear DNA has the same fundamental machinery for all cells; the exploration of which now has a firm basis thanks to the Human Genome Project which has enumerated the entire human DNA sequence, although many of the estimated 35,000 genes remain to be identified. The complete neurotransmission process extends to the genetic level. Gene expression determines protein structures through type II RNA polymerase.
Computational psychiatry Memory and synaptic plasticity Mathematical_neuroscience > Major topics > Memory and synaptic plasticity Additional models look at the close relationship between the basal ganglia and the prefrontal cortex and how that contributes to working memory.One of the major problems in neurophysiological memory is how it is maintained and changed through multiple time scales. Unstable synapses are easy to train but also prone to stochastic disruption. Stable synapses forget less easily, but they are also harder to consolidate.