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Aldosterone antagonist Pharmacokinetics Aldosterone_antagonist > Pharmacokinetics 5 hours). Spironolactone has a long half-life and is excreted 47-51% through kidneys. Patients with chronic kidney disease therefore require close monitoring when taking the drug.
Utpal Banerjee Metabolic control in Cancer pathways Utpal_Banerjee > Research > Metabolic control in Cancer pathways Banerjee and his researchers are also interested in the study of metabolic control in cancer pathways. In the past, his lab has identified components of signal transduction pathways that participate in oncogenesis. In addition, they have examined the role of the mitochondrion in controlling cell cycle, particularly that when cells become transformed they choose alternate means of metabolism (a phenomenon referred to as the Warburg effect). Also of interest to Banerjee and his team is studying the effect of signal transduction pathways on the control of cellular metabolism and the proper balance between cellular growth and metabolism that goes awry in cancer.
Eosinophilic asthma Long–term control Asthma_attack > Management > Medications > Long–term control Continuous (daily) use of an inhaled corticosteroid, rather than its intermitted use, seems to provide better results in controlling asthma exacerbations. Commonly used corticosteroids are budesonide, fluticasone, mometasone and ciclesonide.
Open/closed principle Meyer's open–closed principle Open–closed_principle > Meyer's open–closed principle Bertrand Meyer is generally credited for having originated the term open–closed principle, which appeared in his 1988 book Object Oriented Software Construction. : 23 A module will be said to be open if it is still available for extension. For example, it should be possible to add fields to the data structures it contains, or new elements to the set of functions it performs. A module will be said to be closed if is available for use by other modules.
Rainbow tables Defense against rainbow tables Rainbow_tables > Defense against rainbow tables An alternative approach, called key strengthening, extends the key with a random salt, but then (unlike in key stretching) securely deletes the salt. This forces both the attacker and legitimate users to perform a brute-force search for the salt value. Although the paper that introduced key stretching referred to this earlier technique and intentionally chose a different name, the term "key strengthening" is now often (arguably incorrectly) used to refer to key stretching.
Class conflict Usage Class_conflict > Usage In political science, socialists and Marxists use the term class conflict to define a social class by its relationship to the means of production, such as factories, agricultural land, and industrial machinery. The social control of labor and of the production of goods and services is a political contest between the social classes. The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin said that the class struggles of the working class, the peasantry, and the working poor were central to realizing a social revolution to depose and replace the ruling class, and the creation of libertarian socialism. Marx's theory of history proposes that class conflict is decisive in the history of economic systems organized by hierarchies of social class such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the working class is viewed by them as inevitable under the plutocratic capitalism.
Mode dial Modes Mode_dial > Modes Various camera types and specific cameras have different modes. The simpler dial in the top illustration has: Manual modes: Manual (M), Program (P), Shutter priority (S), Aperture priority (A). Automatic modes: Auto, Action, Portrait, Night portrait, Landscape, Macro.Most dSLRs have a few manual settings and a small sample of automatic modes. Most SLR-like cameras have manual modes and several automatic scene modes.
Imitation SWI Summary Imitation_SWI However, the chromatin remodeling activities of ISWI and SWI/SNF are distinct and mediate the binding of non-overlapping sets of DNA transcription factors.The protein ISW1 is the first ATPase subunit which has been isolated in the ISWI chromatin remodeling family in the fruit fly Drosophila. This protein presents high level of similarity to the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling family in the ATPase domain. Outside the ATPase domain ISWI loses the similarity with the member of the SWI/SNF family, possessing a SANT domain instead of the bromodomain.
First–countable space Properties First-countable_space > Properties In particular, if f {\displaystyle f} is a function on a first-countable space, then f {\displaystyle f} has a limit L {\displaystyle L} at the point x {\displaystyle x} if and only if for every sequence x n → x , {\displaystyle x_{n}\to x,} where x n ≠ x {\displaystyle x_{n}\neq x} for all n , {\displaystyle n,} we have f ( x n ) → L . {\displaystyle f\left(x_{n}\right)\to L.} Also, if f {\displaystyle f} is a function on a first-countable space, then f {\displaystyle f} is continuous if and only if whenever x n → x , {\displaystyle x_{n}\to x,} then f ( x n ) → f ( x ) .
Bayes-Nash equilibrium Three stages Bayes-Nash_equilibrium > Normal form games with incomplete information > Three stages There are three stages of Bayesian games, each describing the players’ knowledge of types within the game. Ex-ante stage game. Players do not know their own types or those of other players. A player recognises payoffs as expected values based on a prior distribution of all possible types.
Green's functions Motivation Green’s_function > Motivation A Green's function can also be thought of as a right inverse of L {\displaystyle \operatorname {L} } . Aside from the difficulties of finding a Green's function for a particular operator, the integral in equation (3) may be quite difficult to evaluate. However the method gives a theoretically exact result. This can be thought of as an expansion of f according to a Dirac delta function basis (projecting f over δ ( x − s ) {\displaystyle \delta (x-s)} ; and a superposition of the solution on each projection. Such an integral equation is known as a Fredholm integral equation, the study of which constitutes Fredholm theory.
ADHM construction Vortices ADHM_construction > Generalizations > Vortices Setting B2 and J to zero, one obtains the classical moduli space of nonabelian vortices in a supersymmetric gauge theory with an equal number of colors and flavors, as was demonstrated in Vortices, instantons and branes. The generalization to greater numbers of flavors appeared in Solitons in the Higgs phase: The Moduli matrix approach. In both cases the Fayet–Iliopoulos term, which determines a squark condensate, plays the role of the noncommutativity parameter in the real moment map.
Industrial Internet of Things Automotive industry Industrial_Internet > Application and Industries > Automotive industry For example, 3D printers simplify the way of shaping pressing tools by printing the shape directly from steel granulate. These tools enable new possibilities for designing (with high precision).
Finite state automaton Finite-state machines (automata theory) in theoretical computer science Finite_state_automata > Further reading > Finite-state machines (automata theory) in theoretical computer science Lewis, Harry R.; Papadimitriou, Christos H. (1998). Elements of the Theory of Computation (2nd ed.).
Resistbot How Resistbot works Resistbot > How Resistbot works Users text one of many keywords to 50409, and respond to what the bot texts back. If a user wants to write to their officials, Resistbot will ask for their address to find out who represents them, ask for the user to type out the letter they want to send, and deliver the message via electronic delivery, fax, or postal mail, depending on what method is available. Users may also use iMessage, Facebook Messenger, Twitter, or Telegram to use the service. Resistbot is free to use, and does not require an app download.
Linear parameter-varying control Linear parameter-varying systems Linear_parameter-varying_control > Linear parameter-varying systems LPV systems are a very special class of nonlinear systems which appears to be well suited for control of dynamical systems with parameter variations. In general, LPV techniques provide a systematic design procedure for gain-scheduled multivariable controllers. This methodology allows performance, robustness and bandwidth limitations to be incorporated into a unified framework. A brief introduction on the LPV systems and the explanation of terminologies are given below.
Structure Tensor Summary Structure_Tensor In mathematics, the structure tensor, also referred to as the second-moment matrix, is a matrix derived from the gradient of a function. It describes the distribution of the gradient in a specified neighborhood around a point and makes the information invariant respect the observing coordinates. The structure tensor is often used in image processing and computer vision.
Fast Fourier Transforms History Fast_Fourier_Transform > History Frank Yates in 1932 published his version called interaction algorithm, which provided efficient computation of Hadamard and Walsh transforms. Yates' algorithm is still used in the field of statistical design and analysis of experiments. In 1942, G. C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos published their version to compute DFT for x-ray crystallography, a field where calculation of Fourier transforms presented a formidable bottleneck.
Implicit memory Memory as tool vs. memory as object Implicit_memory > Memory as tool vs. memory as object Jacoby and Kelly posited that memory could serve as both an object and a tool. Memory is treated as an object in recall or recognition; it can be inspected and described to others. In this case, the focus is on the past.
Extrachromosomal DNA Prokaryotic Extrachromosomal_DNA > Prokaryotic Although prokaryotic organisms do not possess a membrane-bound nucleus like eukaryotes, they do contain a nucleoid region in which the main chromosome is found. Extrachromosomal DNA exists in prokaryotes outside the nucleoid region as circular or linear plasmids. Bacterial plasmids are typically short sequences, consisting of 1 to a few hundred kilobase (kb) segments, and contain an origin of replication which allows the plasmid to replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome. The total number of a particular plasmid within a cell is referred to as the copy number and can range from as few as two copies per cell to as many as several hundred copies per cell.
Isotope Occurrence in nature Nuclear_notation > Occurrence in nature Elements are composed either of one nuclide (mononuclidic elements), or of more than one naturally occurring isotopes. The unstable (radioactive) isotopes are either primordial or postprimordial. Primordial isotopes were a product of stellar nucleosynthesis or another type of nucleosynthesis such as cosmic ray spallation, and have persisted down to the present because their rate of decay is so slow (e.g. uranium-238 and potassium-40). Post-primordial isotopes were created by cosmic ray bombardment as cosmogenic nuclides (e.g., tritium, carbon-14), or by the decay of a radioactive primordial isotope to a radioactive radiogenic nuclide daughter (e.g. uranium to radium).
Work of breathing Effects of pressure and gas composition Work_of_breathing > Work of breathing in ambient pressure diving > Effects of pressure and gas composition Density of a given gas mixture is proportional to absolute pressure at a constant temperature throughout the range of respirable pressures, and resistance to flow is a function of flow velocity, density and viscosity.As density increases, the amount of pressure difference required to drive a given flow rate increases. When the density exceeds about 6g/litre the exercise tolerance of the diver becomes significantly reduced, and by 10 g/litre it is marginal. At this stage even moderate exertion may cause a carbon dioxide buildup that cannot be reversed by increased ventilation, as the work required to increase ventilation produces more carbon dioxide than is eliminated by the increased ventilation, and flow may be choked by the effects of dynamic airway compression.
Singular Value Decomposition Relation to eigenvalue decomposition Singular-value_decomposition > SVD and spectral decomposition > Relation to eigenvalue decomposition Otherwise, it can be recast as an SVD by moving the phase eiφ of each σi to either its corresponding Vi or Ui. The natural connection of the SVD to non-normal matrices is through the polar decomposition theorem: M = SR, where S = UΣU⁎ is positive semidefinite and normal, and R = UV⁎ is unitary. Thus, except for positive semi-definite matrices, the eigenvalue decomposition and SVD of M, while related, differ: the eigenvalue decomposition is M = UDU−1, where U is not necessarily unitary and D is not necessarily positive semi-definite, while the SVD is M = UΣV⁎, where Σ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } } is diagonal and positive semi-definite, and U and V are unitary matrices that are not necessarily related except through the matrix M. While only non-defective square matrices have an eigenvalue decomposition, any m × n {\displaystyle m\times n} matrix has a SVD.
C8H15NO6 Summary C8H15NO6 The molecular formula C8H15NO6 (molar mass: 221.21 g/mol, exact mass: 221.089937) may refer to: N-Acetylgalactosamine N-Acetylglucosamine N-Acetylmannosamine
Black sheep effect History Group_processes > History The history of group dynamics (or group processes) has a consistent, underlying premise: 'the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.' A social group is an entity that has qualities which cannot be understood just by studying the individuals that make up the group. In 1924, Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer proposed ‘There are entities where the behaviour of the whole cannot be derived from its individual elements nor from the way these elements fit together; rather the opposite is true: the properties of any of the parts are determined by the intrinsic structural laws of the whole’ (Wertheimer 1924, p.
Chinchilla AI Summary Chinchilla_AI It considerably simplifies downstream utilization because it requires much less computer power for inference and fine-tuning. Based on the training of previously employed language models, it has been determined that if one doubles the model size, one must also have twice the number of training tokens. This hypothesis has been used to train Chinchilla AI by DeepMind.
Factor (arithmetic) Summary Multiplier_(coefficient) Multiplication (often denoted by the cross symbol ×, by the mid-line dot operator ⋅, by juxtaposition, or, on computers, by an asterisk *) is one of the four elementary mathematical operations of arithmetic, with the other ones being addition, subtraction, and division. The result of a multiplication operation is called a product. The multiplication of whole numbers may be thought of as repeated addition; that is, the multiplication of two numbers is equivalent to adding as many copies of one of them, the multiplicand, as the quantity of the other one, the multiplier; both numbers can be referred to as factors. a × b = b + ⋯ + b ⏟ a times {\displaystyle a\times b=\underbrace {b+\cdots +b} _{a{\text{ times}}}} For example, 4 multiplied by 3, often written as 3 × 4 {\displaystyle 3\times 4} and spoken as "3 times 4", can be calculated by adding 3 copies of 4 together: 3 × 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 {\displaystyle 3\times 4=4+4+4=12} Here, 3 (the multiplier) and 4 (the multiplicand) are the factors, and 12 is the product.
Comparison of programming paradigms Main paradigm approaches Comparison_of_programming_paradigms > Main paradigm approaches Automata-based programming – a program, or part, is treated as a model of a finite state machine or any other formal automaton. Reactive programming is a declarative programming paradigm concerned with data streams and the propagation of change.The subroutines that implement OOP methods may be ultimately coded in an imperative, functional, or procedural style that may, or may not, directly alter state on behalf of the invoking program. There is some overlap between paradigms, inevitably, but the main features or identifiable differences are summarized in this table:
Equivalence point Methods to determine the equivalence point Equivalence_point > Methods to determine the equivalence point Surprisingly, this usually makes it difficult to determine the endpoint precisely. As a result, precipitation titrations often have to be done as back titrations.
Real-root isolation Specifications and general strategy Real-root_isolation > Specifications and general strategy For finding real roots of a polynomial, the common strategy is to divide the real line (or an interval of it where root are searched) into disjoint intervals until having at most one root in each interval. Such a procedure is called root isolation, and a resulting interval that contains exactly one root is an isolating interval for this root. Wilkinson's polynomial shows that a very small modification of one coefficient of a polynomial may change dramatically not only the value of the roots, but also their nature (real or complex). Also, even with a good approximation, when one evaluates a polynomial at an approximate root, one may get a result that is far to be close to zero.
Storage Area Networks Storage architectures Storage_Area_Networks > Storage architectures : 9 It grew out of data-centric mainframe architectures, where clients in a network can connect to several servers that store different types of data. : 11 To scale storage capacities as the volumes of data grew, direct-attached storage (DAS) was developed, where disk arrays or just a bunch of disks (JBODs) were attached to servers. In this architecture, storage devices can be added to increase storage capacity.
Slow glass Summary Slow_glass Reduction of the speed of light by a factor of 165 was reported in 1995. In 1998, Danish physicist Lene Vestergaard Hau led a combined team from Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science which realized much lower group velocities of light. They succeeded in slowing a beam of light to about 17 meters per second. In 2004, researchers at UC Berkeley first demonstrated slow light in a semiconductor, with a group velocity 9.6 kilometers per second. Hau and her colleagues later succeeded in stopping light completely, and developed methods by which it can be stopped and later restarted.In 2005, IBM created a microchip that can slow down light, fashioned out of fairly standard materials, potentially paving the way toward commercial adoption.
Late positive component Theory and sources Late_positive_component > Theory and sources As reviewed by Rugg and Curran, the precise functional significance of the LPC continues to be debated. One early suggestion was that the effect reflects processes that contribute to the representation of recollected information. Alternatively, the effect might index attentional orienting to recollected information, rather than processes supporting its representation or maintenance.
Carcinogenesis Summary Neoplastic_transformation According to the prevailing accepted theory of carcinogenesis, the somatic mutation theory, mutations in DNA and epimutations that lead to cancer disrupt these orderly processes by interfering with the programming regulating the processes, upsetting the normal balance between proliferation and cell death. This results in uncontrolled cell division and the evolution of those cells by natural selection in the body. Only certain mutations lead to cancer whereas the majority of mutations do not.Variants of inherited genes may predispose individuals to cancer.
Spindle fibre Microtubule subclasses Spindle_fibre > Mitosis > Microtubule subclasses As stated above, this helps the centrosomes orient themselves away from each other in the cell. However these astral microtubules do not interact with the mitotic spindle itself. Experiments have shown that without these astral microtubules, the mitotic spindle can form, however its orientation in the cell is not always correct and thus mitosis does not occur as effectively.
Polyethylene Polymerization Polyethylene > Manufacturing process > Polymerization The most common catalysts consist of titanium(III) chloride, the so-called Ziegler–Natta catalysts. Another common catalyst is the Phillips catalyst, prepared by depositing chromium(VI) oxide on silica. Polyethylene can be produced through radical polymerization, but this route has only limited utility and typically requires high-pressure apparatus.
Long tail Statistical meaning Long_tail > Statistical meaning In those cases the infrequent, low-amplitude (or low-revenue) events – the long tail, represented here by the portion of the curve to the right of the 20th percentile – can become the largest area under the line. This suggests that a variation of one mechanism (internet access) or relationship (the cost of storage) can significantly shift the frequency of occurrence of certain events in the distribution. The shift has a crucial effect in probability and in the customer demographics of businesses like mass media and online sellers.
Vorticity transport equation Physical interpretation Vorticity_transport_equation > Physical interpretation The term ∇ × (∇ ∙ τ/ρ), accounts for the diffusion of vorticity due to the viscous effects. The term ∇ × B provides for changes due to external body forces. These are forces that are spread over a three-dimensional region of the fluid, such as gravity or electromagnetic forces. (As opposed to forces that act only over a surface (like drag on a wall) or a line (like surface tension around a meniscus).
Cori cycle Process Cori_cycle > Process Instead of accumulating inside the muscle cells, lactate produced by anaerobic fermentation is taken up by the liver. This initiates the other half of the Cori cycle. In the liver, gluconeogenesis occurs.
Omega-6 fatty acids Health effects Omega-6_fatty_acids > Health effects A study involving Drosophila shows an increase in lipid mediators for the pathway of inflammatory responses with omega-6, and unaltered changes with omega-3. Although Drosophila lack prostaglandins, in humans, omega-6 activates an increase in prostaglandin production, and other key mediators of inflammation. A study in 2003 showed that replacing omega-6 with omega-3 within cell membranes can protect the cell against inflammation.
Hereditary breast–ovarian cancer syndrome Causes Hereditary_breast–ovarian_cancer_syndrome > Causes It produces particularly high rates of breast cancer among younger women with mutated genes, and despite being rare, 4% of women with breast cancer under age 30 have a mutation in this gene. PTEN: Mutations cause Cowden syndrome, which produces hamartomas (benign polyps) in the colon, skin growths, and other clinical signs, as well as an increased risk for many cancers. CDH1: Mutations are associated with lobular breast cancer and gastric cancer.
Space Time Continuum Mutual time dilation Lorentz_interval > Spacetime in special relativity > Mutual time dilation and the twin paradox > Mutual time dilation Recording again the four readings for the events, defined by "two clocks simultaneously at one place", results in the analogous temporal distances of the two events, now temporally and spatially separated in S′, and only temporally separated but collocated in S. To keep the spacetime interval invariant, the temporal distance in S must be smaller than in S′, because of the spatial separation of the events in S′: now clock W is observed to run slower.The necessary recordings for the two judgements, with "one moving clock" and "two clocks at rest" in respectively S or S′, involves two different sets, each with three clocks. Since there are different sets of clocks involved in the measurements, there is no inherent necessity that the measurements be reciprocally "consistent" such that, if one observer measures the moving clock to be slow, the other observer measures the one's clock to be fast.
Embedded processor Microkernels and exokernels Embedded_Systems > Embedded software architectures > Microkernels and exokernels A microkernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User-mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to and extensible by application programmers.
Space-time continuum Accelerated observer with horizon Invariant_interval > Beyond the basics > Acceleration > Accelerated observer with horizon : 110–113 Fig. 4-6 illustrates a specific calculated scenario. Terence (A) and Stella (B) initially stand together 100 light hours from the origin. Stella lifts off at time 0, her spacecraft accelerating at 0.01 c per hour.
Convolution kernel Applications Convolution_kernel > Applications The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other. In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor).
Mental Calculation Approximating common logarithms (log base 10) Mental_math > Methods and techniques > Approximating common logarithms (log base 10) To approximate a common logarithm (to at least one decimal point accuracy), a few logarithm rules, and the memorization of a few logarithms is required. One must know: log(a × b) = log(a) + log(b) log(a / b) = log(a) - log(b) log(0) does not exist log(1) = 0 log(2) ~ .30 log(3) ~ .48 log(7) ~ .85From this information, one can find the logarithm of any number 1-9. log(1) = 0 log(2) ~ .30 log(3) ~ .48 log(4) = log(2 × 2) = log(2) + log(2) ~ .60 log(5) = log(10 / 2) = log(10) − log(2) ~ .70 log(6) = log(2 × 3) = log(2) + log(3) ~ .78 log(7) ~ .85 log(8) = log(2 × 2 × 2) = log(2) + log(2) + log(2) ~ .90 log(9) = log(3 × 3) = log(3) + log(3) ~ .96 log(10) = 1 + log(1) = 1The first step in approximating the common logarithm is to put the number given in scientific notation. For example, the number 45 in scientific notation is 4.5 × 101, but one will call it a × 10b. Next, find the logarithm of a, which is between 1 and 10.
Phagosome Antigen presentation Phagosomal_vacuole > Function > Antigen presentation Immature dendritic cells (DCs) can phagocytose, but mature DCs cannot due to changes in Rho GTPases involved in cytoskeleton remodelling. The phagosomes of DCs are less hydrolytic and acidic than those of macrophages and neutrophils, as DCs are mainly involved in antigen presentation rather than pathogen degradation. They need to retain protein fragments of a suitable size for specific bacterial recognition, so the peptides are only partially degraded. Peptides from the bacteria are trafficked to the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). The peptide antigens are presented to lymphocytes, where they bind to T-cell receptors and activates T-cells, bridging the gap between innate and adaptive immunity. This is specific to mammals, birds, and jawed fish, as insects do not have adaptive immunity.
Cluster File Systems Architecture Cluster_File_Systems > Architecture Client(s) that access and use the data. Lustre presents all clients with a unified namespace for all of the files and data in the filesystem, using standard POSIX semantics, and allows concurrent and coherent read and write access to the files in the filesystem.The MDT, OST, and client may be on the same node (usually for testing purposes), but in typical production installations these devices are on separate nodes communicating over a network. Each MDT and OST may be part of only a single filesystem, though it is possible to have multiple MDTs or OSTs on a single node that are part of different filesystems.
Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 Pathology Hepatocyte_nuclear_factor_4 > Pathology Mutations in the HNF4A gene have been linked to maturity onset diabetes of the young 1 (MODY1).This seems to be caused by HNF4-a's role in the synthesis of SHBG, which is known to be severely diminished in patients with insulin-resistance.
Saturated model Relationship to prime models Saturated_model > Relationship to prime models The notion of saturated model is dual to the notion of prime model in the following way: let T be a countable theory in a first-order language (that is, a set of mutually consistent sentences in that language) and let P be a prime model of T. Then P admits an elementary embedding into any other model of T. The equivalent notion for saturated models is that any "reasonably small" model of T is elementarily embedded in a saturated model, where "reasonably small" means cardinality no larger than that of the model in which it is to be embedded. Any saturated model is also homogeneous. However, while for countable theories there is a unique prime model, saturated models are necessarily specific to a particular cardinality. Given certain set-theoretic assumptions, saturated models (albeit of very large cardinality) exist for arbitrary theories. For λ-stable theories, saturated models of cardinality λ exist.
Equation of motion Kinematic quantities Equations_of_motion > Kinematic equations for one particle > Kinematic quantities From the instantaneous position r = r(t), instantaneous meaning at an instant value of time t, the instantaneous velocity v = v(t) and acceleration a = a(t) have the general, coordinate-independent definitions; Notice that velocity always points in the direction of motion, in other words for a curved path it is the tangent vector. Loosely speaking, first order derivatives are related to tangents of curves. Still for curved paths, the acceleration is directed towards the center of curvature of the path. Again, loosely speaking, second order derivatives are related to curvature.
Kolbe nitrile synthesis Summary Kolbe_nitrile_synthesis With the application of alkali cyanides such as sodium cyanide and polar solvents the reaction type is an SN2 reaction whereby the alkylhalide is attacked by the more nucleophilic carbon atom of the cyanide ion. This type of reaction together with dimethyl sulfoxide as a solvent is a convenient method for the synthesis of nitriles. The use of DMSO was a major advancement in the development of this reaction, as it works for more sterically hindered electrophilies (secondary and neopentyl halides) without rearrangement side-reactions.
Geometric term of location Examples Geometric_term_of_location > Examples Collinear – in the same line Parallel – in the same direction. Transverse – intersecting at any angle, i.e. not parallel. Orthogonal (or perpendicular) – at a right angle (at the point of intersection).
Eui-Cheol Shin Summary Eui-Cheol_Shin Eui-Cheol Shin is a Korean medical immunologist, academic, and author. He is a professor at the Graduate School of Medical Science and Engineering at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), and director of The Center for Viral Immunology at the Institute for Basic Science (IBS), a Korean government-funded research institute.Shin's research focus lies in the field of medical immunology with a particular focus on T cell responses to viral infection and cancer and T cell-mediated immunopathogenesis.Shin is a Fellow of the Korean Academy of Science and Technology. He is Deputy Editor of Immune Network.
Energy payback time ISO 13602 Energy_pay-back > ISO 13602 ISO 13602-1 provides methods to analyse, characterize and compare technical energy systems (TES) with all their inputs, outputs and risk factors. It contains rules and guidelines for the methodology for such analyses.ISO 13602-1 describes a means of to establish relations between inputs and outputs (net energy) and thus to facilitate certification, marking, and labelling, comparable characterizations, coefficient of performance, energy resource planning, environmental impact assessments, meaningful energy statistics and forecasting of the direct natural energy resource or energyware inputs, technical energy system investments and the performed and expected future energy service outputs.In ISO 13602-1:2002, renewable resource is defined as "natural resource for which the ratio of the creation of the natural resource to the output of that resource from nature to the technosphere is equal to or greater than one".
Escape and radiate coevolution Summary Escape_and_radiate_coevolution Escape and radiate coevolution is a hypothesis proposing that a coevolutionary 'arms-race' between primary producers and their consumers contributes to the diversification of species by accelerating speciation rates. The hypothesized process involves the evolution of novel defenses in the host, allowing it to "escape" and then "radiate" into differing species.
Glossary of calculus S Glossary_of_calculus > S shell integration . Simpson's rule . sine .
Induced stem cells Reprogramming through a physical approach Induced_stem_cells > Induced progenitor stem cells > Reprogramming through a physical approach For example, neural progenitor cells can be generated from fibroblasts directly through a physical approach without introducing exogenous reprogramming factors. Physical cues, in the form of parallel microgrooves on the surface of cell-adhesive substrates, can replace the effects of small-molecule epigenetic modifiers and significantly improve reprogramming efficiency. The mechanism relies on the mechanomodulation of the cells' epigenetic state.
Upwelling current Coastal Upwelling_current > Types > Coastal The California Current System (CCS) is an eastern boundary current of the North Pacific that is also characterized by a north and south split. The split in this system occurs at Point Conception, California due to weak upwelling in the South and strong upwelling in the north. The Canary Current is an eastern boundary current of the North Atlantic Gyre and is also separated due to the presence of the Canary Islands. Finally, the Humboldt Current or the Peru Current flows west along the coast of South America from Peru to Chile and extends up to 1,000 kilometers offshore. These four eastern boundary currents comprise the majority of coastal upwelling zones in the oceans.
SYN flooding Technical details SYN_flooding > Technical details When a client attempts to start a TCP connection to a server, the client and server exchange a series of messages which normally runs like this: The client requests a connection by sending a SYN (synchronize) message to the server. The server acknowledges this request by sending SYN-ACK back to the client. The client responds with an ACK, and the connection is established.This is called the TCP three-way handshake, and is the foundation for every connection established using the TCP protocol. A SYN flood attack works by not responding to the server with the expected ACK code.
Slip (materials science) Summary Slip_(materials_science) In materials science, slip is the large displacement of one part of a crystal relative to another part along crystallographic planes and directions. Slip occurs by the passage of dislocations on close/packed planes, which are planes containing the greatest number of atoms per area and in close-packed directions (most atoms per length). Close-packed planes are known as slip or glide planes.
Carboxylate Examples Carboxylate_group > Examples This list is for cases where there is a separate article for the anion or its derivatives. All other organic acids should be found at their parent carboxylic acid. Formate ion, HCOO− Acetate ion, CH3COO− Methanetetracarboxylate ion, C(COO−)4 Oxalate ion, (COO)2−2
Behavioural synchrony Research background Behavioural_synchrony > Research background These assumptions cause coordination to slow, where the speed is dependent on the network structure, and the agents need to think hard during the coordination process. The behavioural synchrony approach introduced behavioural realism into social network coordination, via assuming that the network structure is similar to actual human groups, and by making the coordination process not-trivial, and thus making the modelled group processes reflect human behaviour. The behavioural synchrony approach has led to a range of human application, especially concerning the human evolutionary past: Synchronisation of physical activity, especially of exertion, contributes to group bonding.
Preselector gearbox Multi-clutch gearboxes Pre-selector_gearbox > Comparison with other transmissions > Multi-clutch gearboxes A multi-clutch gearbox avoids the difficulties of shifting gear by avoiding the need to shift at all. It operates as a number of separate gearboxes, each one controlled by a separate clutch, interlocked to avoid multiple selection. Selecting a gear is a matter of selecting the appropriate clutch. An advantage of this type is that it's simple to arrange remote operation, as there is no gear shift linkage as such, merely duplication of a clutch linkage.
Consumer privacy Summary Consumer_privacy Firms are also expected to protect consumer privacy both within the organizations themselves and from outside third entities including third party providers of services, suppliers who provide product components and supplies, and government institutions or community partnership organizations. In addition, businesses are sometime required to provide an agreement/contract to service clients or product consumer that states customer or client information and data will be kept confidential and that it will not be used for advertising or promotional purposes for example. The US government, including the FTC, have consumer protection laws like The Telephone Consumer Protection Act and Data Transparency and Privacy Act. Individuals States have laws and regulation that protect consumers as well. One example of this is The California Consumer Privacy Act.
Kinetic temperature Bibliography of cited references Kinetic_temperature > Notes and references > Bibliography of cited references On an absolute thermometric scale founded on Carnot's theory of the motive power of heat, and calculated from Regnault's observations, Proc. Camb. Phil.
Design for manufacturability Design for additive manufacturing Design_for_manufacturability > Design for additive manufacturing Additive manufacturing broadens the ability of a designer to optimize the design of a product or part (to save materials for example). Designs tailored for additive manufacturing are sometimes very different from designs tailored for machining or forming manufacturing operations. In addition, due to some size constraints of additive manufacturing machines, sometimes the related bigger designs are split into smaller sections with self-assembly features or fasteners locators. A common characteristic of additive manufacturing methods, such as fused deposition modeling, is the need for temporary support structures for overhanging part features.
OpenMI Standard The OpenMI is interface-based OpenMI_Standard > OpenMI standard in a nutshell > The OpenMI is interface-based Its standardized part is defined as a software interface specification. The interface acts as a contract between software components. The interface specification is not limited to specific technology platforms or implementations. The interface implementation may be limited by the technology supported in a specific release. By adopting the implemented interface a component becomes an “OpenMI-compliant” component.
Chlorophyll Photosynthesis Chlorophyll > Photosynthesis These centres are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red-peak absorption maximum. The identity, function and spectral properties of the types of chlorophyll in each photosystem are distinct and determined by each other and the protein structure surrounding them. The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem.
Statistical power Example Statistical_power > Example The null hypothesis of no effect will be that the mean difference will be zero, i.e. H 0: μ D = 0. {\displaystyle H_{0}:\mu _{D}=0.} In this case, the alternative hypothesis states a positive effect, corresponding to H 1: μ D > 0.
Analogical models Explanation Analogical_models > Explanation A simple type of analogy is one that is based on shared properties; and analogizing is the process of representing information about a particular subject (the analogue or source system) by another particular subject (the target system), in order "to illustrate some particular aspect (or clarify selected attributes) of the primary domain".Analogical models, also called "analog" or "analogue" models, seek the analog systems that share properties with the target system as a means of representing the world. It is often practicable to construct source systems that are smaller and/or faster than the target system so that one can deduce a priori knowledge of target system behaviour. Analog devices are therefore those in which may differ in substance or structure but share properties of dynamic behaviour (Truit and Rogers, p. 1-3).
Internet security Summary Internet_security Internet security is a branch of computer security. It encompasses the Internet, browser security, web site security, and network security as it applies to other applications or operating systems as a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet is an inherently insecure channel for information exchange, with high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, trojans, ransomware and worms. Many methods are used to combat these threats, including encryption and ground-up engineering.
Grøstl Examples of Grøstl hashes Grøstl > Examples of Grøstl hashes Hash values of empty string. Grøstl-224("") 0x f2e180fb5947be964cd584e22e496242c6a329c577fc4ce8c36d34c3 Grøstl-256("") 0x 1a52d11d550039be16107f9c58db9ebcc417f16f736adb2502567119f0083467 Grøstl-384("") 0x ac353c1095ace21439251007862d6c62f829ddbe6de4f78e68d310a9205a736d8b11d99bffe448f57a1cfa2934f044a5 Grøstl-512("") 0x 6d3ad29d279110eef3adbd66de2a0345a77baede1557f5d099fce0c03d6dc2ba8e6d4a6633dfbd66053c20faa87d1a11f39a7fbe4a6c2f009801370308fc4ad8 Even a small change in the message will (with overwhelming probability) result in a mostly different hash, due to the avalanche effect. For example, adding a period to the end of the sentence: Grøstl-256("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog") 0x 8c7ad62eb26a21297bc39c2d7293b4bd4d3399fa8afab29e970471739e28b301 Grøstl-256("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.") 0x f48290b1bcacee406a0429b993adb8fb3d065f4b09cbcdb464a631d4a0080aaf
Gastric mucosa Types of glands Gastric_mucosa > Types of glands The pyloric glands contain gastrin-producing cells (G cells); this hormone stimulates acid production from the parietal cells. Enterochromaffin-like cells (ECLs), found in the oxyntic glands release histamine, which also is a powerful stimulant of the acid secretion. The A cells produce glucagon, which mobilizes the hepatic glycogen, and the enterochromaffin cells produce serotonin, which stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles.
Carroll's paradox Explanation Carroll's_paradox > Explanation It therefore possesses angular momentum. The reaction force on the rod from either circular guide is frictionless, so it must be directed along the rod; there can be no component of the reaction force perpendicular to the rod. Taking moments about the center of the rod, there can be no moment acting on the rod, so its angular momentum remains constant.
Electron Conductivity Electron > Characteristics > Conductivity In BCS theory, pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.)
Prior probability Summary Bayesian_prior There are many ways to construct a prior distribution. In some cases, a prior may be determined from past information, such as previous experiments. A prior can also be elicited from the purely subjective assessment of an experienced expert.
Pythagoras's constant History Square_root_of_two > History This approximation is the seventh in a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations based on the sequence of Pell numbers, which can be derived from the continued fraction expansion of 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}} . Despite having a smaller denominator, it is only slightly less accurate than the Babylonian approximation. Pythagoreans discovered that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side, or in modern language, that the square root of two is irrational.
Commercial eye tracking Aviation applications Eye_Tracking > Applications > Aviation applications Research on interacting with multi-functional displays in simulator environment showed that eye tracking can improve the response times and perceived cognitive load significantly over existing systems. Further, research also investigated utilizing measurements of fixation and pupillary responses to estimate pilot's cognitive load. Estimating cognitive load can help to design next generation adaptive cockpits with improved flight safety. Eye tracking is also useful for detecting pilot fatigue.
Kinetochore Structure of Kinetochore Kinetochore > Structure of Kinetochore The kinetochore contains two regions: an inner kinetochore, which is tightly associated with the centromere DNA and assembled in a specialized form of chromatin that persists throughout the cell cycle; an outer kinetochore, which interacts with microtubules; the outer kinetochore is a very dynamic structure with many identical components, which are assembled and functional only during cell division.Even the simplest kinetochores consist of more than 19 different proteins. Many of these proteins are conserved between eukaryotic species, including a specialized histone H3 variant (called CENP-A or CenH3) which helps the kinetochore associate with DNA. Other proteins in the kinetochore adhere it to the microtubules (MTs) of the mitotic spindle. There are also motor proteins, including both dynein and kinesin, which generate forces that move chromosomes during mitosis.
Gilchrist–Thomas process Summary Gilchrist–Thomas_process The disadvantages of the basic process includes larger iron loss and more frequent relining. After having favored the spectacular growth of the Lorraine iron and steel industry, the process progressively faded away in front of the Siemens-Martin open hearth, which also used the benefit of basic refractory lining, before disappearing in the mid-1960s: with the development of gas liquefaction, the use of pure oxygen became economically viable. Even if modern pure oxygen converters all operate with a basic medium, their performance and operation have little to do with their ancestor.
List of probability topics General aspects List_of_probability_topics > General aspects Probability Randomness, Pseudorandomness, Quasirandomness Randomization, hardware random number generator Random number generation Random sequence Uncertainty Statistical dispersion Observational error Equiprobable Equipossible Average Probability interpretations Markovian Statistical regularity Central tendency Bean machine Relative frequency Frequency probability Maximum likelihood Bayesian probability Principle of indifference Credal set Cox's theorem Principle of maximum entropy Information entropy Urn problems Extractor Free probability Exotic probability Schrödinger method Empirical measure Glivenko–Cantelli theorem Zero–one law Kolmogorov's zero–one law Hewitt–Savage zero–one law Law of truly large numbers Littlewood's law Infinite monkey theorem Littlewood–Offord problem Inclusion–exclusion principle Impossible event Information geometry Talagrand's concentration inequality
Volume resuscitation Septic shock Fluid_resuscitation > Clinical uses > Septic shock However, there is no gold standard on determining the fluid responsiveness. Among other ways of determining the fluid responsiveness and the end point of fluid resuscitation are: Central venous oxygen saturation (ScvO2), passive leg raising test, ultrasound measurements of pulse pressure variation, stroke volume variation, and respiratory variations at superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and internal jugular vein. Stabilisation phase - In this stage, the tissue perfusion starts to stabilise and the need of fluid or vasopressors starts reducing.
Behavioral epigenetics Discovery Behavioral_epigenetics > Discovery Immediately after birth, Meaney and Szyf found that methyl groups repress the glucocorticoid receptor gene in all rat pups, making the gene unable to unwind from the histone in order to be transcribed, causing a decreased stress response. Nurturing behaviours from the mother rat were found to stimulate activation of stress signalling pathways that remove methyl groups from DNA. This releases the tightly wound gene, exposing it for transcription.
Multivariate analyses Multivariate analysis Redundancy_analysis > Multivariate analysis Often, studies that wish to use multivariate analysis are stalled by the dimensionality of the problem. These concerns are often eased through the use of surrogate models, highly accurate approximations of the physics-based code. Since surrogate models take the form of an equation, they can be evaluated very quickly. This becomes an enabler for large-scale MVA studies: while a Monte Carlo simulation across the design space is difficult with physics-based codes, it becomes trivial when evaluating surrogate models, which often take the form of response-surface equations.
Sudden Unintended Acceleration Definition and background Sudden_Unintended_Acceleration > Definition and background By the 1960s, gear selection arrangements became standardized in the familiar PRNDL, with reverse well away from the forward positions and between the Park and Neutral selections. The elimination of 'push-button' drive control on all Chrysler products began after 1965 to eliminate the ease of selecting an unintended direction. The most prominent incidents of sudden unintended acceleration recently took place from 2000–2010 in Toyota and Lexus vehicles, resulting in as many as 89 deaths and 52 injuries in the USA.
Integrate by parts Visualization Integrate_by_parts > Visualization Consider a parametric curve by (x, y) = (f(t), g(t)). Assuming that the curve is locally one-to-one and integrable, we can define The area of the blue region is Similarly, the area of the red region is The total area A1 + A2 is equal to the area of the bigger rectangle, x2y2, minus the area of the smaller one, x1y1: Or, in terms of t, Or, in terms of indefinite integrals, this can be written as Rearranging: Thus integration by parts may be thought of as deriving the area of the blue region from the area of rectangles and that of the red region. This visualization also explains why integration by parts may help find the integral of an inverse function f−1(x) when the integral of the function f(x) is known. Indeed, the functions x(y) and y(x) are inverses, and the integral ∫ x dy may be calculated as above from knowing the integral ∫ y dx.
Malabsorption syndrome Gastrointestinal manifestations Malabsorption_syndrome > Signs and symptoms > Gastrointestinal manifestations Not only do unabsorbed nutrients contribute to stool mass but mucosal fluid and electrolyte secretion is also increased in diseases associated with mucosal inflammation such as coeliac disease. In addition, unabsorbed fatty acids, converted to hydroxy-fatty acids by colonic flora, as well as unabsorbed bile acids both impair absorption and induce secretion of water and electrolytes by the colon adding to stool mass. Weight loss is common among patients with significant intestinal malabsorption but must be evaluated in the context of caloric intake.
Ex vivo Summary Ex_vivo In cell biology, ex vivo procedures often involve living cells or tissues taken from an organism and cultured in a laboratory apparatus, usually under sterile conditions with no alterations, for up to 24 hours to obtain sufficient cells for the experiments. Experiments generally start after 24 hours of incubation. Using living cells or tissue from the same organism are still considered to be ex vivo. One widely performed ex vivo study is the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay. In this assay, angiogenesis is promoted on the CAM membrane of a chicken embryo outside the organism (chicken).
Classical definition of probability History Classical_interpretation > History This description is what would ultimately provide the classical definition of probability. Laplace published several editions of multiple documents (technical and a popularization) on probability over a half-century span. Many of his predecessors (Cardano, Bernoulli, Bayes) published a single document posthumously.
Structural chemistry of the metal fluorides Noble gas compounds Fluorine_compounds > Nonmetal fluorides > Noble gas compounds Krypton tetrafluoride was reported in 1963, but was subsequently shown to be a mistaken identification; the compound seems to be very hard to synthesize now (although even the hexafluoride may exist).In accordance with the periodic trends, radon is more reactive toward fluorine. Radon difluoride has been claimed. The lighter noble gases (helium through argon) do not form stable binary fluorides.
Special functions Tables of special functions Special_functions > Tables of special functions Many special functions appear as solutions of differential equations or integrals of elementary functions. Therefore, tables of integrals usually include descriptions of special functions, and tables of special functions include most important integrals; at least, the integral representation of special functions. Because symmetries of differential equations are essential to both physics and mathematics, the theory of special functions is closely related to the theory of Lie groups and Lie algebras, as well as certain topics in mathematical physics. Symbolic computation engines usually recognize the majority of special functions.
Centripetal forces Formula Centripetal_forces > Formula From the kinematics of curved motion it is known that an object moving at tangential speed v along a path with radius of curvature r accelerates toward the center of curvature at a rate Here, a c {\displaystyle a_{c}} is the centripetal acceleration and Δ v {\displaystyle \Delta {\textbf {v}}} is the difference between the velocity vectors at t + Δ t {\displaystyle t+\Delta {t}} and t {\displaystyle t} . By Newton's second law, the cause of acceleration is a net force acting on the object, which is proportional to its mass m and its acceleration. The force, usually referred to as a centripetal force, has a magnitude and is, like centripetal acceleration, directed toward the center of curvature of the object's trajectory.
Volume (thermodynamics) Conversion factors Volume_(thermodynamics) > Gas volume > Conversion factors The following conversion factors can be used to convert between expressions for volume of a gas:
Hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry List of well known fractionation effects Hydrogen_isotope_biogeochemistry > Important concepts > List of well known fractionation effects Since different isotopes have different masses, the bond energies are different between different isotopologues of a chemical species. This will result in a difference in the rate of a reaction for the different isotopologues, resulting in a fractionation of the different isotopes between the reactant and product in a chemical reaction. This is known as the kinetic isotope effect. A classic example of such an isotope effect is the D/H ratio difference in the equilibrium between H2O and H2 which can have an alpha value of as much as 3–4.
Secure computation Multi-party protocols Secure_computation > Protocols > Multi-party protocols Most MPC protocols, as opposed to 2PC protocols and especially under the unconditional setting of private channels, make use of secret sharing. In the secret sharing based methods, the parties do not play special roles (as in Yao, of creator and evaluator). Instead, the data associated with each wire is shared amongst the parties, and a protocol is then used to evaluate each gate. The function is now defined as a "circuit" over a finite field, as opposed to the binary circuits used for Yao.
Normal stress Isotropic Normal_stress > Simple types > Isotropic Another simple type of stress occurs when the material body is under equal compression or tension in all directions. This is the case, for example, in a portion of liquid or gas at rest, whether enclosed in some container or as part of a larger mass of fluid; or inside a cube of elastic material that is being pressed or pulled on all six faces by equal perpendicular forces — provided, in both cases, that the material is homogeneous, without built-in stress, and that the effect of gravity and other external forces can be neglected. In these situations, the stress across any imaginary internal surface turns out to be equal in magnitude and always directed perpendicularly to the surface independently of the surface's orientation.
Multiplier (Fourier analysis) Summary Fourier_multiplier There are natural questions in this field that are still open, such as characterizing the Lp bounded multiplier operators (see below). Multiplier operators are unrelated to Lagrange multipliers, except that they both involve the multiplication operation. For the necessary background on the Fourier transform, see that page. Additional important background may be found on the pages operator norm and Lp space.
Correlation spectroscopy Fundamental concepts Two-dimensional_NMR > Fundamental concepts Each experiment consists of a sequence of radio frequency (RF) pulses with delay periods in between them. The timing, frequencies, and intensities of these pulses distinguish different NMR experiments from one another. Almost all two-dimensional experiments have four stages: the preparation period, where a magnetization coherence is created through a set of RF pulses; the evolution period, a determined length of time during which no pulses are delivered and the nuclear spins are allowed to freely precess (rotate); the mixing period, where the coherence is manipulated by another series of pulses into a state which will give an observable signal; and the detection period, in which the free induction decay signal from the sample is observed as a function of time, in a manner identical to one-dimensional FT-NMR.The two dimensions of a two-dimensional NMR experiment are two frequency axes representing a chemical shift. Each frequency axis is associated with one of the two time variables, which are the length of the evolution period (the evolution time) and the time elapsed during the detection period (the detection time).
Quadratic voting Summary Quadratic_funding Quadratic voting is a collective decision-making procedure which involves individuals allocating votes to express the degree of their preferences, rather than just the direction of their preferences. By doing so, quadratic voting seeks to address issues of the Condorcet paradox and majority rule. Quadratic voting works by allowing users to "pay" for additional votes on a given matter to express their support for given issues more strongly, resulting in voting outcomes that are aligned with the highest willingness to pay outcome, rather than just the outcome preferred by the majority regardless of the intensity of individual preferences. The payment for votes may be through either artificial or real currencies (e.g. with tokens distributed equally among voting members or with real money).