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Ventral ramus of spinal nerve Summary Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve Each of these three structures carries both sensory and motor information. Each spinal nerve carries both sensory and motor information, via efferent and afferent nerve fibers—ultimately via the motor cortex in the frontal lobe and to somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe—but also through the phenomenon of reflex. Spinal nerves are referred to as "mixed nerves".
Stevens–Johnson syndrome Treatment Stevens–Johnson_syndrome > Treatment Early retrospective studies suggested corticosteroids increased hospital stays and complication rates. No randomized trials of corticosteroids have been conducted for SJS, and it can be managed successfully without them.Other agents have been used, including cyclophosphamide and ciclosporin, but none have exhibited much therapeutic success. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment has shown some promise in reducing the length of the reaction and improving symptoms.
Ott-Heinrich Keller Summary Ott-Heinrich_Keller The Jacobian conjecture is quite naturally posed in that setting. The motivation for looking at rather general polynomial transformations, say of the projective plane, came from the singularity theory for algebraic curves. During World War II he taught in a naval college in Flensburg. After the war he had several positions, and was appointed a professor at Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg in 1952, as successor of H. W. E. Jung.
Low-code machine learning Summary Automated_machine_learning The high degree of automation in AutoML aims to allow non-experts to make use of machine learning models and techniques without requiring them to become experts in machine learning. Automating the process of applying machine learning end-to-end additionally offers the advantages of producing simpler solutions, faster creation of those solutions, and models that often outperform hand-designed models. Common techniques used in AutoML include hyperparameter optimization, meta-learning and neural architecture search.
Modular process skid Skid design and layout Modular_process_skid > Skid design and layout Process skids are designed to contain a complete process system, a complete unit of operations or to organize a manufacturing process into logical units. All skids have the following characteristics in common: Portable design– because they are self-contained units, built within frames, skid systems are easier to transport than traditional process systems. Small footprint – process skid frames allow equipment layering. Piping, tanks, and necessary process equipment can be fit into a smaller footprint with a skid design Gathered process connections – process connections are gathered into one spot on the skid, making plant connections easier.
Biological simulation Genetics Biological_simulation > Genetics Digital genetic sequences obtained from DNA sequencing may be stored in sequence databases, be analyzed (see Sequence analysis), be digitally altered or be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using artificial gene synthesis.
State-transition matrix Other properties State-transition_matrix > Other properties It satisfies the differential equation ∂ Φ ( t , t 0 ) ∂ t = A ( t ) Φ ( t , t 0 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {\Phi } (t,t_{0})}{\partial t}}=\mathbf {A} (t)\mathbf {\Phi } (t,t_{0})} with initial conditions Φ ( t 0 , t 0 ) = I {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Phi } (t_{0},t_{0})=I} . 6. The state-transition matrix Φ ( t , τ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Phi } (t,\tau )} , given by Φ ( t , τ ) ≡ U ( t ) U − 1 ( τ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Phi } (t,\tau )\equiv \mathbf {U} (t)\mathbf {U} ^{-1}(\tau )} where the n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix U ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {U} (t)} is the fundamental solution matrix that satisfies U ˙ ( t ) = A ( t ) U ( t ) {\displaystyle {\dot {\mathbf {U} }}(t)=\mathbf {A} (t)\mathbf {U} (t)} with initial condition U ( t 0 ) = I {\displaystyle \mathbf {U} (t_{0})=I} .7. Given the state x ( τ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (\tau )} at any time τ {\displaystyle \tau } , the state at any other time t {\displaystyle t} is given by the mapping x ( t ) = Φ ( t , τ ) x ( τ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathbf {\Phi } (t,\tau )\mathbf {x} (\tau )}
Output-sensitive algorithm Summary Output-sensitive_algorithm In computer science, an output-sensitive algorithm is an algorithm whose running time depends on the size of the output, instead of, or in addition to, the size of the input. For certain problems where the output size varies widely, for example from linear in the size of the input to quadratic in the size of the input, analyses that take the output size explicitly into account can produce better runtime bounds that differentiate algorithms that would otherwise have identical asymptotic complexity.
Tree-adjoining grammar Description Tree-adjoining_grammar > Description The rules in a TAG are trees with a special leaf node known as the foot node, which is anchored to a word. There are two types of basic trees in TAG: initial trees (often represented as ' α {\displaystyle \alpha } ') and auxiliary trees (' β {\displaystyle \beta } '). Initial trees represent basic valency relations, while auxiliary trees allow for recursion.
Dynamic list Circularly linked vs. linearly linked Dynamic_list > Tradeoffs > Circularly linked vs. linearly linked This property greatly simplifies some algorithms and data structures, such as the quad-edge and face-edge. The simplest representation for an empty circular list (when such a thing makes sense) is a null pointer, indicating that the list has no nodes. Without this choice, many algorithms have to test for this special case, and handle it separately.
Introduction to viruses Protein synthesis Introduction_to_viruses > Structure > Protein synthesis Protein synthesis consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.Transcription is the process where information in DNA, called the genetic code, is used to produce RNA copies called messenger RNA (mRNA). These migrate through the cell and carry the code to ribosomes where it is used to make proteins. This is called translation because the protein's amino acid structure is determined by the mRNA's code.
On Vision and Colours § 1 On_Vision_and_Colours > Content > Chapter 1—On Vision > § 1 The law of causality is the sole form of the understanding and the precondition of the possibility of any objective perception. Illusion occurs when the understanding is given uncommon sensations. If the sensations become commonplace, the illusion may disappear.Intellectual understanding, or knowing the objective cause of a subjective sensation, distinguishes animals from plants.
Sedenion Arithmetic Sedenion > Arithmetic Addition and subtraction are defined by the addition and subtraction of corresponding coefficients and multiplication is distributive over addition. Like other algebras based on the Cayley–Dickson construction, the sedenions contain the algebra they were constructed from. So, they contain the octonions (generated by e 0 {\displaystyle e_{0}} to e 7 {\displaystyle e_{7}} in the table below), and therefore also the quaternions (generated by e 0 {\displaystyle e_{0}} to e 3 {\displaystyle e_{3}} ), complex numbers (generated by e 0 {\displaystyle e_{0}} and e 1 {\displaystyle e_{1}} ) and real numbers (generated by e 0 {\displaystyle e_{0}} ).
Marine bacterium Roles in marine food webs Marine_bacterium > Roles in marine food webs Therefore, in addition to colour satellite imagery, SAR satellite imagery may provide additional insights into a global picture of biophysical processes at the boundary between the ocean and atmosphere, air-sea greenhouse gas exchanges and production of climate-active marine aerosols. The diagram on the right shows links among the ocean's biological pump and the pelagic food web and the ability to sample these components remotely from ships, satellites, and autonomous vehicles. Light blue waters are the euphotic zone, while the darker blue waters represent the twilight zone.
Chronic cerebro-spinal venous insufficiency Pathophysiology Chronic_cerebrospinal_venous_insufficiency > Pathophysiology Zamboni and colleagues claimed that in MS patients diagnosed with CCSVI, the azygos and IJV veins are stenotic (abnormally narrowed) in around 90% of cases. Zamboni theorized that malformed blood vessels cause increased deposition of iron in the brain, which in turn triggers autoimmunity and degeneration of the nerve's myelin sheath. While the initial article on CCSVI claimed that abnormal venous function parameters were not seen in healthy people, others have noted that this is not the case. In the report by Zamboni none of the healthy participants met criteria for a diagnosis of CCSVI while all patients did.
Surface mount Identification Surface-mounted_device > Identification Capacitors Non-electrolytic capacitors are usually unmarked and the only reliable method of determining their value is removal from the circuit and subsequent measurement with a capacitance meter or impedance bridge. The materials used to fabricate the capacitors, such as nickel tantalate, possess different colours and these can give an approximate idea of the capacitance of the component. Generally physical size is proportional to capacitance and (squared) voltage for the same dielectric.
Work ethic Summary Work_ethic Work ethic is a belief that work and diligence have a moral benefit and an inherent ability, virtue or value to strengthen character and individual abilities. It is a set of values centered on importance of work and manifested by determination or desire to work hard. Social ingrainment of this value is considered to enhance character through hard work that is respective to an individual's field of work.
Casimir element Case of sl(2) Casimir_operator > Examples > Case of sl(2) The Lie algebra s l 2 C {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {sl}}_{2}\mathbb {C} } consists of two-by-two complex matrices with zero trace. There are three standard basis elements, e {\displaystyle e} , f {\displaystyle f} , and h {\displaystyle h} , with e = , f = , h = . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}e&={\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\0&0\end{bmatrix}},&f&={\begin{bmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{bmatrix}},&h&={\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&-1\end{bmatrix}}.\end{aligned}}} The commutators are = h , = − 2 f , = 2 e . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&=h,&&=-2f,&&=2e.\end{aligned}}} One can show that the Casimir element is
Lamport's Bakery algorithm Summary Lamport's_Bakery_algorithm Lamport's bakery algorithm is a computer algorithm devised by computer scientist Leslie Lamport, as part of his long study of the formal correctness of concurrent systems, which is intended to improve the safety in the usage of shared resources among multiple threads by means of mutual exclusion. In computer science, it is common for multiple threads to simultaneously access the same resources. Data corruption can occur if two or more threads try to write into the same memory location, or if one thread reads a memory location before another has finished writing into it. Lamport's bakery algorithm is one of many mutual exclusion algorithms designed to prevent concurrent threads entering critical sections of code concurrently to eliminate the risk of data corruption.
Comparison sort Sorting a pre-sorted list Comparison_sort > Number of comparisons required to sort a list > Sorting a pre-sorted list If a list is already close to sorted, according to some measure of sortedness, the number of comparisons required to sort it can be smaller. An adaptive sort takes advantage of this "presortedness" and runs more quickly on nearly-sorted inputs, often while still maintaining an O ( n log ⁡ n ) {\displaystyle O(n\log n)} worst case time bound. An example is adaptive heap sort, a sorting algorithm based on Cartesian trees. It takes time O ( n log ⁡ k ) {\displaystyle O(n\log k)} , where k {\displaystyle k} is the average, over all values x {\displaystyle x} in the sequence, of the number of times the sequence jumps from below x {\displaystyle x} to above x {\displaystyle x} or vice versa.
Selective breeding History Selective_breeding > History Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional animal and plant breeding from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics. Darwin used the term "artificial selection" twice in the 1859 first edition of his work On the Origin of Species, in Chapter IV: Natural Selection, and in Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory: Slow though the process of selection may be, if feeble man can do much by his powers of artificial selection, I can see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the co-adaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection. We are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations; and we are immediately made conscious of this by reflecting on the differences in the breeds of our domesticated animals in different countries,—more especially in the less civilized countries where there has been but little artificial selection.
Memory retrieval Attention Memory_recall > Factors that affect recall > Attention Many different ways that attention is focused on hearing what the speaker has to say are the inflection of the presenter's voice in a sad, content, or frustrated sound or in the use of words that are close to the heart. A study was conducted to observe if the use of emotional vocabulary was a key receptor of recall memory. The groups were put into the same lecture halls and given the same speakers, but the results came back to determine that the inflection and word choice recalled by the listeners concluded that emotional words, phrases, and sounds are more memorable than neutral speakers.Recall memory is linked with instincts and mechanisms.
Bibliography of code-switching General theories Bibliography_of_code-switching > General theories Linguistics. 22 (269): 99–136 Poplack, Shana & Meechan, Marjory (1998). Introduction: How Languages Fit Together in Codemixing.
List of data structures Lists List_of_data_structures > Linear data structures > Lists Doubly linked list Array list Linked list also known as a Singly linked list Association list Self-organizing list Skip list Unrolled linked list VList Conc-tree list Xor linked list Zipper Doubly connected edge list also known as half-edge Difference list Free list
Galois field extension Characterization of Galois extensions Galois_extension > Characterization of Galois extensions An important theorem of Emil Artin states that for a finite extension E / F , {\displaystyle E/F,} each of the following statements is equivalent to the statement that E / F {\displaystyle E/F} is Galois: E / F {\displaystyle E/F} is a normal extension and a separable extension. E {\displaystyle E} is a splitting field of a separable polynomial with coefficients in F . {\displaystyle F.} | Aut ⁡ ( E / F ) | = , {\displaystyle |\!\operatorname {Aut} (E/F)|=,} that is, the number of automorphisms equals the degree of the extension.Other equivalent statements are: Every irreducible polynomial in F {\displaystyle F} with at least one root in E {\displaystyle E} splits over E {\displaystyle E} and is separable.
Vector potential Nonuniqueness Vector_potential > Nonuniqueness The vector potential admitted by a solenoidal field is not unique. If A is a vector potential for v, then so is where f {\displaystyle f} is any continuously differentiable scalar function. This follows from the fact that the curl of the gradient is zero. This nonuniqueness leads to a degree of freedom in the formulation of electrodynamics, or gauge freedom, and requires choosing a gauge.
Drug action Ionic bonds Drug_action > Short note on receptors > Ionic bonds Mainly occur through attractions between opposite charges; for example, between protonated amino (on salbutamol) or quaternary ammonium (e.g. acetylcholine), and the dissociated carboxylic acid group. Similarly, the dissociated carboxylic acid group on the drug can bind with amino groups on the receptor. This type of bond is very strong, and varies with the inverse of the distance between the atoms so that it can act over large distances.
Glossary of computer science C Glossary_of_computer_science > C collection A collection or container is a grouping of some variable number of data items (possibly zero) that have some shared significance to the problem being solved and need to be operated upon together in some controlled fashion. Generally, the data items will be of the same type or, in languages supporting inheritance, derived from some common ancestor type. A collection is a concept applicable to abstract data types, and does not prescribe a specific implementation as a concrete data structure, though often there is a conventional choice (see Container for type theory discussion).
Epidemiology Random error Epidemiological_study > Characterization, validity, and bias > Random error Random error is the result of fluctuations around a true value because of sampling variability. Random error is just that: random. It can occur during data collection, coding, transfer, or analysis. Examples of random errors include poorly worded questions, a misunderstanding in interpreting an individual answer from a particular respondent, or a typographical error during coding.
Siegel modular form Applications to physics Siegel_modular_form > Applications to physics In the D1D5P system of supersymmetric black holes in string theory, the function that naturally captures the microstates of black hole entropy is a Siegel modular form. In general, Siegel modular forms have been described as having the potential to describe black holes or other gravitational systems.Siegel modular forms also have uses as generating functions for families of CFT2 with increasing central charge in conformal field theory, particularly the hypothetical AdS/CFT correspondence.
Auto pilots Stability augmentation systems Automatic_pilot > Stability augmentation systems A stability augmentation system (SAS) is another type of automatic flight control system; however, instead of maintaining the aircraft required altitude or flight path, the SAS will move the aircraft control surfaces to damp unacceptable motions. SAS automatically stabilizes the aircraft in one or more axes. The most common type of SAS is the yaw damper which is used to reduce the Dutch roll tendency of swept-wing aircraft. Some yaw dampers are part of the autopilot system while others are stand-alone systems.Yaw dampers use a sensor to detect how fast the aircraft is rotating (either a gyroscope or a pair of accelerometers), a computer/amplifier and an actuator.
Artificial intelligence in healthcare US FDA Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare > Regulation > US FDA In January 2021, the US FDA published a new Action Plan, entitled Artificial Intelligence (AI) /Machine Learning (ML)-Based Software as a Medical Device (SaMD) Action Plan. This plan lays out the FDA's future plans for regulation of medical devices that would include artificial intelligence in their software. There are five main actions the FDA plans to take to increase regulation: 1. Tailored Regulatory Framework for Ai/M:-based SaMD, 2.
Cache-oblivious algorithm Practicality Cache-oblivious_algorithm > Practicality For both execution time and memory usage, the hash table was best, followed by the B-tree, with the Bender set the worst in all cases. The memory usage for all tests did not exceed main memory. The hash tables were described as easy to implement, while the Bender set "required a greater amount of effort to implement correctly".
Digital modeling and fabrication Summary Digital_modeling_and_fabrication Digital modeling and fabrication is a design and production process that combines 3D modeling or computing-aided design (CAD) with additive and subtractive manufacturing. Additive manufacturing is also known as 3D printing, while subtractive manufacturing may also be referred to as machining, and many other technologies can be exploited to physically produce the designed objects.
Lift-induced drag Explanation Lift-induced_drag > Explanation The total aerodynamic force acting on a body is usually thought of as having two components, lift and drag. By definition, the component of force parallel to the oncoming flow is called drag; and the component perpendicular to the oncoming flow is called lift. : Section 5.3 At practical angles of attack the lift greatly exceeds the drag.Lift is produced by the changing direction of the flow around a wing. The change of direction results in a change of velocity (even if there is no speed change), which is an acceleration.
First integral Comment Integral_of_motion > In quantum mechanics > Comment For an arbitrary state of a Quantum Mechanical system, if H and Q commute, i.e. if and Q is not explicitly dependent on time, then But if ψ {\displaystyle \psi } is an eigenfunction of Hamiltonian, then even if it is still the case that provided Q is independent of time.
Accessible image Accessibility planning for transportation in the United Kingdom Disability_access > Transportation > Accessibility planning for transportation in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom also has a "code of practice" for making train and stations accessible: "Accessible Train and Station Design for Disabled People: A Code of Practice". This code of practice was first published in 2002 with the objective of compliance to Section 71B of the Railways Act 1993, and revised after a public consultation period in 2008. Some transport companies have since improved the accessibility of their services, such as incorporating low-floor buses into their stock as standard.
Wing planform Tailplanes and foreplanes Straight_wing > Tailplanes and foreplanes Tandem: two or more main wings, one behind the other. Both provide significant lift. An example is the Rutan Quickie.
C2H3NO4 Summary C2H3NO4 The molecular formula C2H3NO4 (molar mass: 105.05 g/mol, exact mass: 105.0062 u) may refer to: Acetyl nitrate Nitroacetic acid
Signaling cascade Stem cells Biochemical_cascade > Cell-specific biochemical cascades > Stem cells Self-renewal and differentiation abilities are exceptional properties of stem cells. These cells can be classified by their differentiation capacity, which progressively decrease with development, in totipotents, pluripotents, multipotents and unipotents.Self-renewal process is highly regulated from cell cycle and genetic transcription control. There are some signaling pathways, such as LIF/JAK/STAT3 (Leukemia inhibitory factor/Janus kinase/Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) and BMP/SMADs/Id (Bone morphogenetic proteins/ Mothers against decapentaplegic/ Inhibitor of differentiation), mediated by transcription factors, epigenetic regulators and others components, and they are responsible for self-renewal genes expression and inhibition of differentiation genes expression, respectively.At cell cycle level there is an increase of complexity of the mechanisms in somatic stem cells. However, it is observed a decrease of self-renewal potential with age.
Dermal fibroblasts Cell progenitors and analogs Dermal_fibroblast > Cell progenitors and analogs Dermal fibroblasts are derived from mesenchymal stem cells within the body. Like corneal fibroblasts, dermal fibroblast proliferation can be stimulated by the presence of fibroblast growth factor (FGF). Fibroblasts do not appear to be fully differentiated or specialized. After examining the CD markers of the fibroblast cells, researchers at BioMed Central discovered that these cell lack "distinctive markers" confirming that these cells can be further differentiated.One example of further differentiation of dermal fibroblasts is that upon injury, dermal fibroblasts can give rise to myofibroblasts, fibroblast cells with smooth muscle characteristics.
NeuroMatrix Summary NeuroMatrix 6539368 B1) and is optimized to support the implementation of artificial neural networks. From this derives the name NeuroMatrix Core (NMC). Newer devices contain multiple DSP cores and additional ARM or PowerPC 470 cores.
Selberg trace formula Early history Selberg_trace_formula > Early history Cases of particular interest include those for which the space is a compact Riemann surface S. The initial publication in 1956 of Atle Selberg dealt with this case, its Laplacian differential operator and its powers. The traces of powers of a Laplacian can be used to define the Selberg zeta function. The interest of this case was the analogy between the formula obtained, and the explicit formulae of prime number theory. Here the closed geodesics on S play the role of prime numbers. At the same time, interest in the traces of Hecke operators was linked to the Eichler–Selberg trace formula, of Selberg and Martin Eichler, for a Hecke operator acting on a vector space of cusp forms of a given weight, for a given congruence subgroup of the modular group. Here the trace of the identity operator is the dimension of the vector space, i.e. the dimension of the space of modular forms of a given type: a quantity traditionally calculated by means of the Riemann–Roch theorem.
Line Pay In popular culture Line_(software) > In popular culture On November 20, 2012, Line was shown in Far East Movement's music video, featuring Sidney Samson, for the song "Change Your Life". DJ Virman is seen chatting with Sidney Samson at the middle of the music video.On December 16, 2012, the Line application was shown in American rap artist Big Sean's music video for the song "Guap".On May 16, 2014, Warner Music Italy released the music video for Italian singer Annalisa's "Sento solo il presente", in which the recording artist is seen using the Line application at the beginning of the video.Since Line has become ubiquitous in Japan, its usage is depicted with relative frequency in anime, dramas, and other pop culture. For example, in the 2017 anime Tsuki ga Kirei, the Line app is the protagonists' main way of communication.
Darboux vector Summary Darboux_vector In differential geometry, especially the theory of space curves, the Darboux vector is the angular velocity vector of the Frenet frame of a space curve. It is named after Gaston Darboux who discovered it. It is also called angular momentum vector, because it is directly proportional to angular momentum.
Photoacoustic microscopy Contrast Photoacoustic_microscopy > Contrast In photoacoustic imaging modalities, including photoacoustic microscopy, contrast is based on photon excitation and is thus determined by the optical properties of the tissue. When an electron absorbs a photon, it moves to a higher energy state. Upon returning to a lower energy level, the electron undergoes either radiative or nonradiative relaxation. During radiative relaxation, the electron releases energy in the form of a photon.
Chemical molecule Molecular science Molecular_compound > Molecular science The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on whether the focus is on chemistry or physics. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague.
Balance of payments Imbalances Capital_movement > Imbalances While the BoP has to balance overall, surpluses or deficits on its individual elements can lead to imbalances between countries. In general there is concern over deficits in the current account. Countries with deficits in their current accounts will build up increasing debt or see increased foreign ownership of their assets. The types of deficits that typically raise concern are A visible trade deficit where a nation is importing more physical goods than it exports (even if this is balanced by the other components of the current account.)
Inner planets Humanity's perspective Inner_planets > Humanity's perspective Christiaan Huygens followed on from these observations by discovering Saturn's moon Titan and the shape of the rings of Saturn. In 1677, Edmond Halley observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, leading him to realize that observations of the solar parallax of a planet (more ideally using the transit of Venus) could be used to trigonometrically determine the distances between Earth, Venus, and the Sun. Halley's friend Isaac Newton, in his magisterial Principia Mathematica of 1687, demonstrated that celestial bodies are not quintessentially different from Earthly ones: the same laws of motion and of gravity apply on Earth and in the skies.
Sort algorithms Counting sort Sort_algorithm > Popular sorting algorithms > Distribution sorts > Counting sort Counting sort is applicable when each input is known to belong to a particular set, S, of possibilities. The algorithm runs in O(|S| + n) time and O(|S|) memory where n is the length of the input. It works by creating an integer array of size |S| and using the ith bin to count the occurrences of the ith member of S in the input. Each input is then counted by incrementing the value of its corresponding bin.
Electrostatic units Electromagnetic units (EMU) Centimeter_gram_second_system_of_units > Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism > Electromagnetic units (EMU) In another variant of the CGS system, electromagnetic units (EMU), current is defined via the force existing between two thin, parallel, infinitely long wires carrying it, and charge is then defined as current multiplied by time. (This approach was eventually used to define the SI unit of ampere as well). In the EMU CGS subsystem, this is done by setting the Ampere force constant k A = 1 {\displaystyle k_{\rm {A}}=1} , so that Ampère's force law simply contains 2 as an explicit factor.
Acute myelogenous leukaemia Chemical exposure Acute_nonlymphocytic_leukemia > Risk factors > Chemical exposure Exposure to anticancer chemotherapy, in particular alkylating agents, can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML. Other chemotherapy agents, including fludarabine, and topoisomerase II inhibitors are also associated with the development of AML; most commonly after 4–6 years and 1–3 years respectively. These are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells.Other chemical exposures associated with the development of AML include benzene, chloramphenicol and phenylbutazone.
Functional languages Concepts Functional_languages > Concepts A number of concepts and paradigms are specific to functional programming, and generally foreign to imperative programming (including object-oriented programming). However, programming languages often cater to several programming paradigms, so programmers using "mostly imperative" languages may have utilized some of these concepts.
Robust linear regression Least squares alternatives Robust_regression > Methods for robust regression > Least squares alternatives The Theil–Sen estimator has a lower breakdown point than LTS but is statistically efficient and popular. Another proposed solution was S-estimation. This method finds a line (plane or hyperplane) that minimizes a robust estimate of the scale (from which the method gets the S in its name) of the residuals.
Common misunderstandings of genetics Genes as a blueprint Common_misunderstandings_of_genetics > Genes as a blueprint It is widely believed that genes provide a "blueprint" for the body in much the same way that architectural or mechanical engineering blueprints describe buildings or machines. At a superficial level, genes and conventional blueprints share the common property of being low dimensional (genes are organised as a one-dimensional string of nucleotides; blueprints are typically two-dimensional drawings on paper) but containing information about fully three-dimensional structures. However, this view ignores the fundamental differences between genes and blueprints in the nature of the mapping from low order information to the high order object. In the case of biological systems, a long and complicated chain of interactions separates genetic information from macroscopic structures and functions.
Clear air turbulence Background information Clear_air_turbulence > Factors > Background information These differences cause changes in air density, and hence viscosity. The viscosity of the air thus presents both inertias and accelerations which cannot be determined in advance. Vertical wind shear above the jet stream (i.e., in the stratosphere) is sharper when it is moving upwards, because wind speed decreases with height in the stratosphere.
Chemical conditioning Summary Chemical_conditioning In chemistry, conditioning is a process in which chemical reaction factors are stabilized or enhanced. Examples include increasing the quality of a material by using another material (a conditioner) or improving the ability of solids to capture and physically or chemically treat water. There are three main conditioning systems: heat, inorganic compounds and organic polymers. == References ==
Biofluid dynamics Basic Principles of Fluid Dynamics Biofluid_dynamics > Basic Principles of Fluid Dynamics They are: Ideal Fluid Real Fluid Newtonian Fluid Non-Newtonian fluidAn Ideal Fluid is a fluid that has no viscosity, means it will offer no resistance, pragmatically this type of fluid does not exist. It is incompressible in nature. Real fluids are compressible in nature.
Artificial moral agents Development and analysis Artificial_moral_agents > Development and analysis It is useful to compare the idea of moral agency with the legal doctrine of mens rea, which means guilty mind, and states that a person is legally responsible for what he does as long as he should know what he is doing, and his choices are deliberate. Some theorists discard any attempts to evaluate mental states and, instead, adopt the doctrine of strict liability, whereby one is liable under the law without regard to capacity, and that the only thing is to determine the degree of punishment, if any. Moral determinists would most likely adopt a similar point of view. Psychologist Albert Bandura has observed that moral agents engage in selective moral disengagement in regards to their own inhumane conduct.
A New Chart of History Summary A_New_Chart_of_History The number or density of entries . .
Complex random vector Covariance matrix and pseudo-covariance matrix Complex_random_vector > Covariance matrix and pseudo-covariance matrix The covariance matrix (also called second central moment) K Z Z {\displaystyle \operatorname {K} _{\mathbf {Z} \mathbf {Z} }} contains the covariances between all pairs of components. The covariance matrix of an n × 1 {\displaystyle n\times 1} random vector is an n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix whose ( i , j ) {\displaystyle (i,j)} th element is the covariance between the i th and the j th random variables. : p.372 Unlike in the case of real random variables, the covariance between two random variables involves the complex conjugate of one of the two.
Hydrokinetic transmission Torque converter elements Lockup_torque_converter > Function > Torque converter elements Modifications to the basic three element design have been periodically incorporated, especially in applications where higher than normal torque multiplication is required. Most commonly, these have taken the form of multiple turbines and stators, each set being designed to produce differing amounts of torque multiplication. For example, the Buick Dynaflow automatic transmission was a non-shifting design and, under normal conditions, relied solely upon the converter to multiply torque.
Hunger (physiology) Long-term regulation of hunger and food intake Hunger_(physiology) > Long-term regulation of hunger and food intake Later studies showed that appetite regulation is an immensely complex process involving the gastrointestinal tract, many hormones, and both the central and autonomic nervous systems. The circulating gut hormones that regulate many pathways in the body can either stimulate or suppress appetite. For example, ghrelin stimulates appetite, whereas cholecystokinin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) suppress appetite.
Thematic analysis Data reduction (Coffey and Atkinson) Thematic_analysis > Braun and Clarke's six phases of thematic analysis > Phase 2: Generating codes > Data reduction (Coffey and Atkinson) For some thematic analysis proponents, coding can be thought of as a means of reduction of data or data simplification (this is not the case for Braun and Clarke who view coding as both data reduction and interpretation). For Coffey and Atkinson, using simple but broad analytic codes it is possible to reduce the data to a more manageable feat. In this stage of data analysis the analyst must focus on the identification of a more simple way of organizing data.
Darboux integral Summary Darboux_integral Consequently, introductory textbooks on calculus and real analysis often develop Riemann integration using the Darboux integral, rather than the true Riemann integral. Moreover, the definition is readily extended to defining Riemann–Stieltjes integration. Darboux integrals are named after their inventor, Gaston Darboux (1842–1917).
Dynamic scoping Definition Dynamic_scoping > Definition The strict definition of the (lexical) "scope" of a name (identifier) is unambiguous: lexical scope is "the portion of source code in which a binding of a name with an entity applies". This is virtually unchanged from its 1960 definition in the specification of ALGOL 60. Representative language specifications follow: ALGOL 60 (1960) The following kinds of quantities are distinguished: simple variables, arrays, labels, switches, and procedures.
Markov switching multifractal Discrete time Markov_switching_multifractal > MSM specification > Discrete time Let P t {\displaystyle P_{t}} denote the price of a financial asset, and let r t = ln ⁡ ( P t / P t − 1 ) {\displaystyle r_{t}=\ln(P_{t}/P_{t-1})} denote the return over two consecutive periods. In MSM, returns are specified as r t = μ + σ ¯ ( M 1 , t M 2 , t . .
Impedance bridging Explanation Impedance_bridging > Explanation However a transformer can be used instead to match impedance and provide better signal-to-noise. And the 6dB attenuation can be easily be made up in the amplifier. Facilitates connecting multiple loads to the same source.
Short-chain carboxylic acid Acidity Carboxyl_group > Physical properties > Acidity Carboxylic acids are Brønsted–Lowry acids because they are proton (H+) donors. They are the most common type of organic acid. Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids, meaning that they only partially dissociate into H3O+ cations and RCOO− anions in neutral aqueous solution. For example, at room temperature, in a 1-molar solution of acetic acid, only 0.001% of the acid are dissociated (i.e. 10−5 moles out of 1 mol).
Centripetal Force Local coordinates Centripetal_Force > Analysis of several cases > General planar motion > Local coordinates {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\rho (s)}}=\kappa (s)={\frac {\mathrm {d} \theta }{\mathrm {d} s}}\ .} The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature κ is a signed quantity. A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to the osculating circle.
Continuous simulation Mathematical theory Continuous_simulation > Mathematical theory In continuous simulation, the continuous time response of a physical system is modeled using ODEs, embedded in a conceptual model. The time response of a physical system depends on its initial state. The problem of solving the ODEs for a given initial state is called the initial value problem.
Phase-out of chlorofluorocarbons Reactions Phase-out_of_chlorofluorocarbons > Reactions is long-lived in the upper atmosphere, where it catalyzes the conversion of ozone into O2. Ozone absorbs UV-B radiation, so its depletion allows more of this high energy radiation to reach the Earth's surface. Bromine atoms are even more efficient catalysts; hence brominated CFCs are also regulated.
Chaotic motion Sensitivity to initial conditions Chaotic_map > Chaotic dynamics > Sensitivity to initial conditions For example, the maximal Lyapunov exponent (MLE) is most often used, because it determines the overall predictability of the system. A positive MLE is usually taken as an indication that the system is chaotic.In addition to the above property, other properties related to sensitivity of initial conditions also exist. These include, for example, measure-theoretical mixing (as discussed in ergodic theory) and properties of a K-system.
Forensic chemistry Standards Forensic_chemistry > Standards By comparing the readouts of the controls with their known profiles the instrument can be confirmed to have been working properly at the time the unknowns were tested. Standards are also used to determine the instrument's limit of detection and limit of quantification for various common substances. Calculated quantities must be above the limit of detection to be confirmed as present and above the limit of quantification to be quantified. If the value is below the limit the value is not considered reliable.
Logical Atomism Principles Logical_Atomism > Principles In addition, there are judgments ("beliefs"), which are in a relationship to the facts, and by this relationship either true or false. According to this theory, even ordinary objects of daily life "are apparently complex entities". According to Russell, words like "this" and "that" are used to denote particulars.
Substance-related disorder Complications Substance-related_disorder > Classification and terminology > Complications There are many potential complications that can arise due to substance use such as severe physiological damage, psychological changes and social changes that are often not desirable. Physiological damage is often the most obvious, observed as an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism: For instance, there are several known alcohol-induced diseases (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, alcoholic cardiomyopathy.) Substance use is also often associated with premature ageing, fertility complications, brain damage and a higher risk of infectious diseases due to a weakened immune system.Long-term use has been linked to personality changes such as depression, paranoia, anxiety which can be related to psychological disorders.
Nomogram Description Nomogram > Description More complicated equations can sometimes be expressed as the sum of functions of the three variables. For example, the nomogram at the top of this article could be constructed as a parallel-scale nomogram because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking logarithms of both sides of the equation. The scale for the unknown variable can lie between the other two scales or outside of them.
Epithelioid sarcoma CD109 Epithelioid_sarcoma > Molecular biology > CD109 CD109 is often expressed in advanced epithelioid sarcoma and is thought to mark the cancer stem cell (or cancer initiating cell) of the disease. Its level of expression has also been shown to be predictive of outcome. Cancer stem cells are a small population of tumor cells characterized by general chemo-resistance, the ability to self-renew, multi-differentiation potential, dormancy capabilities, and tumorigenesis. Therefore, cancer stem cells are thought to play key roles in the progression and relapse of cancer.
Influence line Distributed loads Influence_line > Alternate loading cases > Distributed loads Many loads do not act as point loads, but instead act over an extended length or area as distributed loads. For example, a tractor with continuous tracks will apply a load distributed over the length of each track. To find the effect of a distributed load, the designer can integrate an influence line, found using a point load, over the affected distance of the structure. For example, if a three-foot-long track acts between 5 feet and 8 feet along a beam, the influence line of that beam must be integrated between 5 and 8 feet. The integration of the influence line gives the effect that would be felt if the distributed load had a unit magnitude. Therefore, after integrating, the designer must still scale the results to get the actual effect of the distributed load.
Green's function for the three-variable Laplace equation Mathematical exposition Green's_function_for_the_three-variable_Laplace_equation > Mathematical exposition The article by Chester Snow, "Magnetic Fields of Cylindrical Coils and Annular Coils" (National Bureau of Standards, Applied Mathematical Series 38, December 30, 1953), clearly shows the relationship between the free-space Green's function in cylindrical coordinates and the Q-function expression. Likewise, see another one of Snow's pieces of work, titled "Formulas for Computing Capacitance and Inductance", National Bureau of Standards Circular 544, September 10, 1954, pp 13–41. Indeed, not much has been published recently on the subject of toroidal functions and their applications in engineering or physics.
Technical computing The computational scientist Computational_Science > The computational scientist The term computational scientist is used to describe someone skilled in scientific computing. Such a person is usually a scientist, an engineer, or an applied mathematician who applies high-performance computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied disciplines in physics, chemistry, or engineering. Computational science is now commonly considered a third mode of science, complementing and adding to experimentation/observation and theory (see image). Here, one defines a system as a potential source of data, an experiment as a process of extracting data from a system by exerting it through its inputs and a model (M) for a system (S) and an experiment (E) as anything to which E can be applied in order to answer questions about S. A computational scientist should be capable of: recognizing complex problems adequately conceptualizing the system containing these problems designing a framework of algorithms suitable for studying this system: the simulation choosing a suitable computing infrastructure (parallel computing/grid computing/supercomputers) hereby, maximizing the computational power of the simulation assessing to what level the output of the simulation resembles the systems: the model is validated adjusting the conceptualization of the system accordingly repeat the cycle until a suitable level of validation is obtained: the computational scientist trusts that the simulation generates adequately realistic results for the system under the studied conditionsSubstantial effort in computational sciences has been devoted to developing algorithms, efficient implementation in programming languages, and validating computational results.
Foundations of statistics The likelihood principle Foundations_of_statistics > The likelihood principle Likelihood is a concept that was introduced and developed by Fisher over a span of more than 40 years, although earlier references to the concept exist and Fisher's support for it was not wholehearted. The concept was subsequently accepted and substantially revised by Jeffreys. In 1962, Birnbaum "proved" the likelihood principle based on premises that were widely accepted among statisticians, although his proof has been subject to dispute by statisticians and philosophers.
Group structure Dispersal and transformation Group_structure > Dispersal and transformation The two most common causes of a malfunctioning group are the addition of too many individuals, and the failure of the leader to enforce a common purpose, though malfunctions may occur due to a failure of any of the other elements (i.e., confusions status or of norms). In a society, there is a need for more people to participate in cooperative endeavors than can be accommodated by a few separate groups. The military has been the best example as to how this is done in its hierarchical array of squads, platoons, companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions.
Show control Subsystems Show_control > Subsystems Entertainment control systems are the highest level of subsystem, often consisting of sophisticated, expensive controllers which fulfill a single purpose. The modern lighting control console is probably the best example of this type of equipment. Some of the largest concert and hotel-casino installations might use three lighting consoles, each with a distinct purpose.
Renewable energy policy Non-technical barriers to acceptance Renewable_energy_policy > Non-technical barriers to acceptance Lack of information dissemination and consumer awareness. Higher capital cost of renewable energy technologies compared with conventional energy technologies. Inadequate financing options for renewable energy projects, including insufficient access to affordable financing for project developers, entrepreneurs and consumers.
Bell jar Physiological experiments Bell_jar > Vacuum > Physiological experiments Priestley also carried out experiments using plants and mice beneath a bell jar. He found that whilst a mouse kept alone inside a bell jar eventually died, when a plant was also placed inside the jar the mouse would survive. Boyle also studied the effect of removing the air from bell jars containing a number of different animals including insects, mice, birds and fish and observed how they reacted when the air was removed. In "Experiment 40", from New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects, (Made, for the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine) he tested the ability of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, whilst in "Experiment 41," he demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on air for their survival. The oil painting An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump depicts a natural philosopher repeating a similar experiment to that of Boyle with a bird inside a bell jar.
Multiple Virtual Storage MVS filesystem Multiple_Virtual_Storage > MVS filesystem The most important use of PDSes was for program libraries - system administrators used the main PDS as a way to allocate disk space to a project and the project team then created and edited the members. Other uses of PDSs are libraries of frequently used job control procedures (PROCs), and "copy books" of programming language statements such as record definitions used by several programs. Generation Data Groups (GDGs) are groups of like named data sets, which can be referenced by absolute generation number, or by an offset from the most recent generation.
Fourier transform on finite groups Applications Fourier_transform_on_finite_groups > Applications This generalization of the discrete Fourier transform is used in numerical analysis. A circulant matrix is a matrix where every column is a cyclic shift of the previous one. Circulant matrices can be diagonalized quickly using the fast Fourier transform, and this yields a fast method for solving systems of linear equations with circulant matrices.
Chain Transfer Types Chain_transfer_reaction > Types Branched polymers are formed as monomer adds to the new radical site which is located along the polymer backbone. The properties of low-density polyethylene are critically determined by the amount of chain transfer to polymer that takes place. Transfer to solvent. In solution polymerization, the solvent can act as a chain transfer agent. Unless the solvent is chosen to be inert, very low molecular weight polymers (oligomers) can result.
Apache Hadoop Hadoop distributed file system Hadoop_Distributed_Filesystem > Architecture > File systems > Hadoop distributed file system The Hadoop distributed file system (HDFS) is a distributed, scalable, and portable file system written in Java for the Hadoop framework. Some consider it to instead be a data store due to its lack of POSIX compliance, but it does provide shell commands and Java application programming interface (API) methods that are similar to other file systems. A Hadoop instance is divided into HDFS and MapReduce. HDFS is used for storing the data and MapReduce is used for processing data.
M-Theory (learning framework) Templates M-Theory_(learning_framework) > Intuition > Templates Another core idea of M-theory is close in spirit to ideas from the field of compressed sensing. An implication from Johnson–Lindenstrauss lemma says that a particular number of images can be embedded into a low-dimensional feature space with the same distances between images by using random projections. This result suggests that dot product between the observed image and some other image stored in memory, called template, can be used as a feature helping to distinguish the image from other images. The template need not to be anyhow related to the image, it could be chosen randomly.
Azomethine ylide 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions Azomethine_ylide > 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions The endo product is generally favored, as in the isoelectronic Diels–Alder reaction. In these reactions, the azomethine ylide is typically the HOMO, and the electron-deficient dipolarophile the LUMO, although cycloaddition reactions with unactivated π-systems are known to occur, especially when the cyclization is intramolecular. For a discussion of frontier molecular orbital theory of 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions, see 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition#Frontier molecular orbital theory.
Bar scale Summary Bar_scale A linear scale, also called a bar scale, scale bar, graphic scale, or graphical scale, is a means of visually showing the scale of a map, nautical chart, engineering drawing, or architectural drawing. A scale bar is common element of map layouts. On large scale maps and charts, those covering a small area, and engineering and architectural drawings, the linear scale can be very simple, a line marked at intervals to show the distance on the earth or object which the distance on the scale represents. A person using the map can use a pair of dividers (or, less precisely, two fingers) to measure a distance by comparing it to the linear scale.
For (command) 1991: Python For_(command) > Timeline of the for-loop syntax in various programming languages > 1991: Python Python does not contain the classical for loop, rather a foreach loop is used to iterate over the output of the built-in range() function which returns an iterable sequence of integers.Using range(6) would run the loop from 0 to 5.
Chemotherapy Dosage Chemotherapy > Treatment strategies > Dosage The incidence of serious diarrhea was reduced from 12% in the BSA-dosed group of patients to 1.7% in the dose-adjusted group, and the incidence of severe mucositis was reduced from 15% to 0.8%.The FOLFOX study also demonstrated an improvement in treatment outcomes. Positive response increased from 46% in the BSA-dosed group to 70% in the dose-adjusted group. Median progression free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) both improved by six months in the dose adjusted group.One approach that can help clinicians individualize chemotherapy dosing is to measure the drug levels in blood plasma over time and adjust dose according to a formula or algorithm to achieve optimal exposure.
Medial lemniscus Summary Medial_lemniscus In neuroanatomy, the medial lemniscus, also known as Reil's band or Reil's ribbon (for German anatomist Johann Christian Reil), is a large ascending bundle of heavily myelinated axons that decussate (cross) in the brainstem, specifically in the medulla oblongata. The medial lemniscus is formed by the crossings of the internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers are composed of axons of nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus. The axons of the nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus in the medial lemniscus have cell bodies that lie contralaterally. The medial lemniscus is part of the dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway, which ascends from the skin to the thalamus, which is important for somatosensation from the skin and joints, therefore, lesion of the medial lemnisci causes an impairment of vibratory and touch-pressure sense.
Polyester resins Unsaturated polyester Polyester_resin > Unsaturated polyester The diluent allows control over the viscosity of the resin, and is also a participant in the curing reaction. The initially liquid resin is converted to a solid by cross-linking chains. This is done by creating free radicals at unsaturated bonds, which propagate in a chain reaction to other unsaturated bonds in adjacent molecules, linking them in the process.
Outline of control engineering Control applications Outline_of_control_engineering > Control applications Automation and remote control Distributed control system Electric motors Industrial control systems Mechatronics Motion control Process Control Robotics Supervisory control (SCADA)
AWPP General Almost_Wide_Probabilistic_Polynomial-Time > References > General {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Provides information on the connection between various complexity classes. Stephen A. Fenner (June 19, 2002). "PP-lowness and a simple definition of AWPP".
X-fast trie Summary X-fast_trie In computer science, an x-fast trie is a data structure for storing integers from a bounded domain. It supports exact and predecessor or successor queries in time O(log log M), using O(n log M) space, where n is the number of stored values and M is the maximum value in the domain. The structure was proposed by Dan Willard in 1982, along with the more complicated y-fast trie, as a way to improve the space usage of van Emde Boas trees, while retaining the O(log log M) query time.