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Ragone plot Summary Ragone_chart A Ragone plot ( rə-GOH-nee) is a plot used for comparing the energy density of various energy-storing devices. On such a chart the values of specific energy (in W·h/kg) are plotted versus specific power (in W/kg). Both axes are logarithmic, which allows comparing performance of very different devices.
Checkpoint inhibition Intracellular checkpoint inhibitors Checkpoint_inhibition > Types > Intracellular checkpoint inhibitors Other modes of enhancing immunotherapy include targeting so-called intrinsic checkpoint blockades. Many of these intrinsic regulators include molecules with ubiquitin ligase activity, including CBLB, and CISH.
Serum total protein Summary Serum_total_protein Serum total protein, also known as total protein, is a clinical chemistry parameter representing the concentration of protein in serum. Serum contains many proteins including serum albumin, a variety of globulins, and many others. While it is possible to analyze these proteins individually, total protein is a relatively quick and inexpensive analysis that does not discriminate by protein type. The traditional method for measuring total protein uses the biuret reagent, but other chemical methods such as dye-binding and refractometry are now available. The measurement is usually performed on automated analysers along with other laboratory tests.
Close Coupled Cooling Air Conditioner Types Close_Coupled_Cooling > Air Conditioner Types Commercially available close coupled solutions can be divided into two categories: Open-Loop and Closed-Loop.
Human immune system Manipulation by pathogens Immune_system > Evolution and other mechanisms > Manipulation by pathogens These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses.An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium Salmonella and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium spp.)
Accelerometer Structure Acceleration_sensor > Structure As long as the Q-factor is not too low, damping does not result in a lower sensitivity. Under the influence of external accelerations, the proof mass deflects from its neutral position. This deflection is measured in an analog or digital manner.
Hyperpolarization (physics) Introduction Hyperpolarization_(physics) > Spin-exchange optical pumping > Introduction Each of these noble gases has their own specific application, such as characterizing lung space and tissue via in vivo molecular imaging and functional imaging of lungs, to study changes in metabolism of healthy versus cancer cells, or use as targets for nuclear physics experiments. During this process, circularly polarized infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an alkali metal, such as caesium or rubidium inside a sealed glass vessel. Infrared light is necessary because it contains the wavelengths necessary to excite the alkali metal electrons, although the wavelength necessary to excite sodium electrons is below this region (Table 1).
Page file Performance Page_swapping > Performance The backing store for a virtual memory operating system is typically many orders of magnitude slower than RAM. Additionally, using mechanical storage devices introduces delay, several milliseconds for a hard disk. Therefore, it is desirable to reduce or eliminate swapping, where practical.
Abdominal CT Contrast administration Abdominal_CT > Contrast administration Abdominal imaging is associated with many potential uses for the different phases of contrast CT. The majority of abdominal and pelvic CT’s can be performed using a single-phase, but the evaluation of some tumor types (hepatic/pancreatic/renal), the urinary collecting system, and trauma patients among others, may be best performed with multiple phases.In discussing the numerous phases and indications for CT, best patient care requires individualized CT protocols based upon each patient’s specific symptoms, pathology, and underlying co-morbidities. Although labor intensive, this provides the highest likelihood of an accurate diagnosis with the lowest necessary radiation dose.
Quinolinate synthase Summary Quinolinate_synthase Quinolinate synthase (EC 2.5.1.72, NadA, QS, quinolinate synthetase) is an enzyme with systematic name glycerone phosphate:iminosuccinate alkyltransferase (cyclizing). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction glycerone phosphate + iminosuccinate ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylate + 2 H2O + phosphateThis iron-sulfur protein that requires a cluster for activity.
Ceramic water filter Method of action Ceramic_water_filter > Method of action Similar to other methods of filtering water, the filter removes particles larger than the size of the pores in the filter material. Typically bacteria, protozoa, and microbial cysts are removed. However, filters are typically not effective against viruses since they are small enough to pass through to the "clean" side of the filter. Ceramic water filters (CWF) may be treated with silver in a form that will not leach away.
Control loading system Design and Technology Control_loading_system > Control Loading Systems > Design and Technology Fly-by-wire systems are disconnected from the control surfaces and so do not need the complex features but add other functionality which is simulated. The high fidelity architecture has centralized control, individual analog signals to the control module, a brushless DC motor with low gear ratio and linkages to the pilot controls. The modular designs have localized control and digital reporting over a field bus to the central control module.
Software construction Coding Software_construction > Practical considerations > Coding The following considerations apply to the software construction coding activity: Techniques for creating understandable source code, including naming and source code layout. One study showed that the effort required to debug a program is minimized when the variables' names are between 10 and 16 characters. Use of classes, enumerated types, variables, named constants, and other similar entities: A study done by NASA showed that the putting the code into well-factored classes can double the code reusability compared to the code developed using functional design. One experiment showed that designs which access arrays sequentially, rather than randomly, result in fewer variables and fewer variable references.
Acceleration of free fall Summary Gravitational_acceleration In physics, gravitational acceleration is the acceleration of an object in free fall within a vacuum (and thus without experiencing drag). This is the steady gain in speed caused exclusively by the force of gravitational attraction. All bodies accelerate in vacuum at the same rate, regardless of the masses or compositions of the bodies; the measurement and analysis of these rates is known as gravimetry. At a fixed point on the surface, the magnitude of Earth's gravity results from combined effect of gravitation and the centrifugal force from Earth's rotation.
Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions) Summary Comparison_of_programming_languages_(basic_instructions) This article compares a large number of programming languages by tabulating their data types, their expression, statement, and declaration syntax, and some common operating-system interfaces.
Fast heartbeat Sinus Reflex_tachycardia > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis > Sinus Metabolic myopathies interfere with the muscle's ability to create energy. This energy shortage in muscle cells causes an inappropriate rapid heart rate in response to exercise. The heart tries to compensate for the energy shortage by increasing heart rate to maximize delivery of oxygen and other blood borne fuels to the muscle cells.
Fluorometric assays Enzyme units Enzyme_activity > Enzyme units The quantity or concentration of an enzyme can be expressed in molar amounts, as with any other chemical, or in terms of activity in enzyme units.
Generative Adversarial Network StyleGAN-1 Generative_adversarial_networks > Variants > StyleGAN series > StyleGAN-1 StyleGAN-1 is designed as a combination of Progressive GAN with neural style transfer.The key architectural choice of StyleGAN-1 is a progressive growth mechanism, similar to Progressive GAN. Each generated image starts as a constant 4 × 4 × 512 {\displaystyle 4\times 4\times 512} array, and repeatedly passed through style blocks. Each style block applies a "style latent vector" via affine transform ("adaptive instance normalization"), similar to how neural style transfer uses Gramian matrix. It then adds noise, and normalize (subtract the mean, then divide by the variance).
Point clouds Alignment and registration Point_clouds > Alignment and registration Point clouds are often aligned with 3D models or with other point clouds, a process termed point set registration. For industrial metrology or inspection using industrial computed tomography, the point cloud of a manufactured part can be aligned to an existing model and compared to check for differences. Geometric dimensions and tolerances can also be extracted directly from the point cloud.
Inequality sign Cauchy–Schwarz inequality Inequality_(mathematics) > Cauchy–Schwarz inequality The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality states that for all vectors u and v of an inner product space it is true that where ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } is the inner product. Examples of inner products include the real and complex dot product; In Euclidean space Rn with the standard inner product, the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality is
Cant language Anti-language Cant_language > Anti-language Like the early records of the languages of exotic cultures, the information usually comes to us as word lists. The simplest form taken by an anti-language is that of new words for old: it is a language relexicalised. The principle is that of same grammar, different vocabulary.
Gastric juice Summary Gastric_acid The parietal cell releases bicarbonate into the bloodstream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as an alkaline tide. The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen degrades proteins (e.g., food).
Physical oceanography Summary Physical_oceanography Dynamical physical oceanography focuses primarily upon the processes that govern the motion of fluids with emphasis upon theoretical research and numerical models. These are part of the large field of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (GFD) that is shared together with meteorology. GFD is a sub field of Fluid dynamics describing flows occurring on spatial and temporal scales that are greatly influenced by the Coriolis force.
Continuous-time Markov process Definition Continuous-time_Markov_process > Definition If Q {\displaystyle Q} is regular, then for the unique solution P {\displaystyle P} , for each t ∈ T {\displaystyle t\in T} , P ( t ) {\displaystyle P(t)} will be a stochastic matrix. We will assume Q {\displaystyle Q} is regular from the beginning of the following subsection up through the end of this section, even though it is conventional to not include this assumption. (Note for the expert: thus we are not defining continuous-time Markov chains in general but only non-explosive continuous-time Markov chains.)
Mascot (software) Scoring Mascot_(software) > Scoring When performing a decoy search, Mascot generates a randomized sequence of the same length for every sequence in the target database. The decoy sequence is generated such that it has the same average amino acid composition as the target database. The FDR is estimated as the ratio of decoy database matches to target database matches.
Agent based model Early developments Multiple-agent_system > History > Early developments The idea intrigued von Neumann, who drew it up—creating the first of the devices later termed cellular automata. Another advance was introduced by the mathematician John Conway. He constructed the well-known Game of Life. Unlike von Neumann's machine, Conway's Game of Life operated by simple rules in a virtual world in the form of a 2-dimensional checkerboard. The Simula programming language, developed in the mid 1960s and widely implemented by the early 1970s, was the first framework for automating step-by-step agent simulations.
Elastic Deformation Summary Plastic_deformation_in_solids When there is a significant change in size, the true stress and true strain can be derived from the instantaneous size of the object. In the figure it can be seen that the compressive loading (indicated by the arrow) has caused deformation in the cylinder so that the original shape (dashed lines) has changed (deformed) into one with bulging sides.
Accidental Adversaries Possible leverage points Accidental_Adversaries > Possible leverage points It is possible to achieve leverage by introducing or re-emphasising a link between each party's success, thus re-establishing the outer virtuous reinforcing loop shown in Figure 3. Kemeny proposes a list of seven action steps to deal with the unintended consequences of each party's actions, given their mental models: Reconstruct the conditions that were the catalyst for collaboration. Review the original understandings and expected mutual benefits. Identify conflicting incentives that may be driving adversarial behaviour.
Vector cross product As an external product Cross_Product > As an external product This can be thought of as the oriented multi-dimensional element "perpendicular" to the bivector. Only in three dimensions is the result an oriented one-dimensional element – a vector – whereas, for example, in four dimensions the Hodge dual of a bivector is two-dimensional – a bivector. So, only in three dimensions can a vector cross product of a and b be defined as the vector dual to the bivector a ∧ b: it is perpendicular to the bivector, with orientation dependent on the coordinate system's handedness, and has the same magnitude relative to the unit normal vector as a ∧ b has relative to the unit bivector; precisely the properties described above.
Model-centered instruction Theory summary Model-centered_instruction > Theory summary Gibbons defines a problem as “a request for information about an incompletely known model. A problem is a request for the learner…to supply one or more of the model’s behaviors, elements, or interrelations that are missing”. Problems act as filters or masks that focus learner attention on specific information about the objects or models. Problems also trigger learning processes used in the construction of mental models. As problems are solved in sequence, learners process more information and construct more comprehensive and useful mental models.
Molecular virology Reassortment Molecular_virology > Genetics > Reassortment Reassortment is the switching of genes from different parents and it is particularly useful when studying the genetics of viruses that have segmented genomes (fragmented into two or more nucleic acid molecules) such as influenza viruses and rotaviruses. The genes that encode properties such as serotype can be identified in this way.
Local reboot BIOS Local_reboot > BIOS By default, when the operating system is running in real mode (or in a pre-boot environment, when no operating system is started yet), this keystroke combination is intercepted by the BIOS. The BIOS reacts by performing a soft reboot (also known as a warm reboot). Examples of such operating systems include DOS, Windows 3.0 in Standard Mode as well as earlier versions of Windows.
Oxide jacking Physical process Oxide_jacking > Physical process According to metallurgist Jack Harris, "Oxidation is usually accompanied by a net expansion so that when it occurs in a confined space stresses are generated in the metal component itself or in any surrounding medium such as stone or cement. So much energy is released by oxidation that the stresses generated are of sufficient magnitude to deform or fracture all known materials. "As early as 1915, it was recognized that certain modern metal alloys are more susceptible to excessive oxidation when subjected to weathering than other metals. At that time, there was a trend to replace wrought iron fasteners with mild steel equivalents, which were less expensive. Unexpectedly, the mild steel fasteners failed in real world use much more quickly than anticipated, leading to a return to use of wrought iron in certain applications where length of service was important.
Covariant vector Informal usage Covariance_and_contravariance_of_vectors > Informal usage In the field of physics, the adjective covariant is often used informally as a synonym for invariant. For example, the Schrödinger equation does not keep its written form under the coordinate transformations of special relativity. Thus, a physicist might say that the Schrödinger equation is not covariant. In contrast, the Klein–Gordon equation and the Dirac equation do keep their written form under these coordinate transformations.
Amortized complexity Method Amortized_analysis > Method All of these give correct answers; the choice of which to use depends on which is most convenient for a particular situation. Aggregate analysis determines the upper bound T(n) on the total cost of a sequence of n operations, then calculates the amortized cost to be T(n) / n. The accounting method is a form of aggregate analysis which assigns to each operation an amortized cost which may differ from its actual cost. Early operations have an amortized cost higher than their actual cost, which accumulates a saved "credit" that pays for later operations having an amortized cost lower than their actual cost.
Tribology The origin of friction Tribology > Physics > Friction > The origin of friction Contact between surfaces is made up of a large number of microscopic regions, in the literature called asperities or junctions of contact, where atom-to-atom contact takes place. The phenomenon of friction, and therefore of the dissipation of energy, is due precisely to the deformations that such regions undergo due to the load and relative movement. Plastic, elastic, or rupture deformations can be observed: Plastic deformations – permanent deformations of the shape of the bumps; Elastic deformations – deformations in which the energy expended in the compression phase is almost entirely recovered in the decompression phase (elastic hysteresis); Break deformations – deformations that lead to the breaking of bumps and the creation of new contact areas.The energy that is dissipated during the phenomenon is transformed into heat, thus increasing the temperature of the surfaces in contact. The increase in temperature also depends on the relative speed and the roughness of the material, it can be so high as to even lead to the fusion of the materials involved. In friction phenomena, temperature is fundamental in many areas of application. For example, a rise in temperature may result in a sharp reduction of the friction coefficient, and consequently, the effectiveness of the brakes.
Euclidean quantum gravity More rigorous treatment Euclidean_quantum_gravity > More rigorous treatment Euclidean quantum gravity refers to a Wick rotated version of quantum gravity, formulated as a quantum field theory. The manifolds that are used in this formulation are 4-dimensional Riemannian manifolds instead of pseudo Riemannian manifolds. It is also assumed that the manifolds are compact, connected and boundaryless (i.e. no singularities).
Pore-forming toxins Increasing intracellular levels of cAMP Pore-forming_toxin > Types > Binary toxins > Increasing intracellular levels of cAMP Anthrax toxin edema toxin triggers a calcium ion influx into the target cell. This subsequently elevates intracellular cAMP levels. This can profoundly alter any sort of immune response, by inhibiting leucocyte proliferation, phagocytosis, and proinflammatory cytokine release.
Pentagonal number theorem Franklin's bijective proof Pentagonal_number_theorem > Franklin's bijective proof For example, the coefficient of x5 is +1 because there are two ways to split 5 into an even number of distinct parts (4+1 and 3+2), but only one way to do so for an odd number of distinct parts (the one-part partition 5). However, the coefficient of x12 is −1 because there are seven ways to partition 12 into an even number of distinct parts, but there are eight ways to partition 12 into an odd number of distinct parts, and 7 − 8 = −1. This interpretation leads to a proof of the identity by canceling pairs of matched terms (involution method).
Gaussian filter Summary Gaussian_filter In electronics and signal processing, mainly in digital signal processing, a Gaussian filter is a filter whose impulse response is a Gaussian function (or an approximation to it, since a true Gaussian response would have infinite impulse response). Gaussian filters have the properties of having no overshoot to a step function input while minimizing the rise and fall time. This behavior is closely connected to the fact that the Gaussian filter has the minimum possible group delay. A Gaussian filter will have the best combination of suppression of high frequencies while also minimizing spatial spread, being the critical point of the uncertainty principle. These properties are important in areas such as oscilloscopes and digital telecommunication systems.Mathematically, a Gaussian filter modifies the input signal by convolution with a Gaussian function; this transformation is also known as the Weierstrass transform.
Scale (map) Bar scale vs. lexical scale Scale_(map) > Terminology > Bar scale vs. lexical scale In addition to the above many maps carry one or more (graphical) bar scales. For example, some modern British maps have three bar scales, one each for kilometres, miles and nautical miles. A lexical scale in a language known to the user may be easier to visualise than a ratio: if the scale is an inch to two miles and the map user can see two villages that are about two inches apart on the map, then it is easy to work out that the villages are about four miles apart on the ground. A lexical scale may cause problems if it expressed in a language that the user does not understand or in obsolete or ill-defined units. For example, a scale of one inch to a furlong (1:7920) will be understood by many older people in countries where Imperial units used to be taught in schools. But a scale of one pouce to one league may be about 1:144,000, depending on the cartographer's choice of the many possible definitions for a league, and only a minority of modern users will be familiar with the units used.
Eddy current Origin of term Foucault_current > Origin of term The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water in fluid dynamics, causing localised areas of turbulence known as eddies giving rise to persistent vortices. Somewhat analogously, eddy currents can take time to build up and can persist for very short times in conductors due to their inductance.
Mind–body dualism Substance or Cartesian dualism Mind–body_dualism > Types > Substance or Cartesian dualism Substance dualism, or Cartesian dualism, most famously defended by René Descartes, argues that there are two kinds of foundation: mental and physical. This philosophy states that the mental can exist outside of the body, and the body cannot think. Substance dualism is important historically for having given rise to much thought regarding the famous mind–body problem. The Copernican Revolution and the scientific discoveries of the 17th century reinforced the belief that the scientific method was the unique way of knowledge.
Computer algorithm Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939) Computer_algorithms > History: Development of the notion of "algorithm" > Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939) See more at Post–Turing machineAlan Turing's work preceded that of Stibitz (1937); it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing's biographer believed that Turing's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: "Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter, and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'". Given the prevalence at the time of Morse code, telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and teletypewriters, it is quite possible that all were influences on Turing during his youth.
Integral of the secant function History Integral_of_the_secant_function > History The integral of the secant function was one of the "outstanding open problems of the mid-seventeenth century", solved in 1668 by James Gregory. He applied his result to a problem concerning nautical tables. In 1599, Edward Wright evaluated the integral by numerical methods – what today we would call Riemann sums.
Correctness (computer science) Summary Correctness_of_computer_programs In theoretical computer science, an algorithm is correct with respect to a specification if it behaves as specified. Best explored is functional correctness, which refers to the input-output behavior of the algorithm (i.e., for each input it produces an output satisfying the specification).Within the latter notion, partial correctness, requiring that if an answer is returned it will be correct, is distinguished from total correctness, which additionally requires that an answer is eventually returned, i.e. the algorithm terminates. Correspondingly, to prove a program's total correctness, it is sufficient to prove its partial correctness, and its termination. The latter kind of proof (termination proof) can never be fully automated, since the halting problem is undecidable.
Sensory integration Bayesian integration Multimodal_integration > Theories and approaches > Bayesian integration The theory of Bayesian integration is based on the fact that the brain must deal with a number of inputs, which vary in reliability. In dealing with these inputs, it must construct a coherent representation of the world that corresponds to reality. The Bayesian integration view is that the brain uses a form of Bayesian inference. This view has been backed up by computational modeling of such a Bayesian inference from signals to coherent representation, which shows similar characteristics to integration in the brain.
Starvation Biochemistry Starvation > Biochemistry Thus, when fatty acids are being broken down for energy, all of the remaining glucose is made available for use by the brain.After two or three days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for three days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies.
Long non-coding RNA In regulation of DNA replication timing and chromosome stability Long_non_coding_RNA > Functions > In regulation of DNA replication timing and chromosome stability A number of lncRNAs are crucial at the different stages of the main pathways of DSB repair in eukaryotic cells: nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) and homology-directed repair (HDR). Gene mutations or variation in expression levels of such RNAs can lead to local DNA repair defects, increasing the chromosome aberration frequency. Moreover, it was demonstrated that some RNAs could stimulate long-range chromosomal rearrangements.
Point and figure chart Advantages of point and figure Point_and_figure_chart > Advantages of point and figure Point and Figure charts are based primarily on price action, not time. If there are no significant price moves over time, P&F charts will show no new data. This difference can make P&F charts ideal for detecting directional patterns and trends in a condensed format.
Chemotherapy Dosage Chemotherapy > Treatment strategies > Dosage Dosage of chemotherapy can be difficult: If the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, whereas, at excessive doses, the toxicity (side-effects) will be intolerable to the person receiving it. The standard method of determining chemotherapy dosage is based on calculated body surface area (BSA). The BSA is usually calculated with a mathematical formula or a nomogram, using the recipient's weight and height, rather than by direct measurement of body area. This formula was originally derived in a 1916 study and attempted to translate medicinal doses established with laboratory animals to equivalent doses for humans.
Kelvin–Planck statement Relation between Kelvin's statement and Planck's proposition Second_principle_of_thermodynamics > Various statements of the law > Relation between Kelvin's statement and Planck's proposition It is almost customary in textbooks to speak of the "Kelvin–Planck statement" of the law, as for example in the text by ter Haar and Wergeland. This version, also known as the heat engine statement, of the second law states that It is impossible to devise a cyclically operating device, the sole effect of which is to absorb energy in the form of heat from a single thermal reservoir and to deliver an equivalent amount of work.
Solomon Mikhlin Partial differential equations Solomon_Mikhlin > Work > Research activity > Partial differential equations In four papers, published in the period 1940–1942, Mikhlin applies the potentials method to the mixed problem for the wave equation. In particular, he solves the mixed problem for the two-space dimensional wave equation in the half plane by reducing it to the planar Abel integral equation. For plane domains with a sufficiently smooth curvilinear boundary he reduces the problem to an integro-differential equation, which he is also able to solve when the boundary of the given domain is analytic. In 1951 Mikhlin proved the convergence of the Schwarz alternating method for second order elliptic equations. He also applied the methods of functional analysis, at the same time as Mark Vishik but independently of him, to the investigation of boundary value problems for degenerate second order elliptic partial differential equations.
Basal ganglia disease Dystonia Basal_ganglia_disease > Associated disorders > Hyperkinetic disorders > Dystonia Until recently it was thought that dystonia was likely caused by extreme lack of function of the direct pathway between the Putamen and the GPi. Again, it was thought that this dysfunction led to a decrease in basal ganglia output to the thalamus and a resultant increased disinhibition of the thalamic projections to the premotor and motor cortex. However recent models in mice show that the dysfunction in the cerebellum may play an equal part in dystonia.
Camera lenses Aperture and focal length Convertible_lens > Aperture and focal length The two fundamental parameters of an optical lens are the focal length and the maximum aperture. The lens' focal length determines the magnification of the image projected onto the image plane, and the aperture the light intensity of that image. For a given photographic system the focal length determines the angle of view, short focal lengths giving a wider field of view than longer focal length lenses. A wider aperture, identified by a smaller f-number, allows using a faster shutter speed for the same exposure.
Ferredoxin—NADP(+) reductase Function Ferredoxin-NADP+_reductase > Function When bound to the thylakoid membrane, the enzyme exists as a dimer, but when it is free in the stroma, it is monomeric. The binding of the FNR to the integral membrane proteins on the thylakoid membrane is enhanced under acidic conditions, so recruitment and binding of FNR to the thylakoid membrane may be a method of storing and stabilizing the enzyme in the dark when photosynthesis is not occurring. The chloroplast stroma varies from being slightly acidic in the dark to more alkaline in the light. Therefore, in the dark, more FNRs would be recruited and bound to the thylakoid membrane, and in the light, more FNRs would dissociate from the membrane and be free in the stroma.
Linear encoder Summary Linear_encoder A linear encoder is a sensor, transducer or readhead paired with a scale that encodes position. The sensor reads the scale in order to convert the encoded position into an analog or digital signal, which can then be decoded into position by a digital readout (DRO) or motion controller. The encoder can be either incremental or absolute. In an incremental system, position is determined by motion over time; in contrast, in an absolute system, motion is determined by position over time.
Prime matter Modern physics Prime_matter > Legacy > Modern physics It's a quantitative version of the old concept of potentia from Aristotle's philosophy. It introduces something standing in the middle between the idea of an event and the actual event, a strange kind of physical reality just in the middle between possibility and reality. A hylomorphic interpretation of Bohmian mechanics has been suggested, in which the cosmos is a single substance that is composed of both material particles and a substantial form. There is also a hylomorphic interpretation of the collapse of the wave function.
Fish physiology Thermoregulation Fish_physiology > Thermoregulation When fish become acclimated to other temperatures, the efficiency of their physiological processes may decrease but will continue to function. This is called the thermal neutral zone at which an organism can survive indefinitely.H.M.
Implicit parallelism Example Implicit_parallelism > Example If a particular problem involves performing the same operation on a group of numbers (such as taking the sine or logarithm of each in turn), a language that provides implicit parallelism might allow the programmer to write the instruction thus: The compiler or interpreter can calculate the sine of each element independently, spreading the effort across multiple processors if available.
Uniform Convergence Definition Local_uniform_convergence > Definition {\displaystyle f_{n}\rightrightarrows f,\quad {\underset {n\to \infty }{\mathrm {unif\ lim} }}f_{n}=f,\quad f_{n}{\overset {\mathrm {unif.} }{\longrightarrow }}f,\quad f=u-\lim _{n\to \infty }f_{n}.} Frequently, no special symbol is used, and authors simply write f n → f u n i f o r m l y {\displaystyle f_{n}\to f\quad \mathrm {uniformly} } to indicate that convergence is uniform.
Object Oriented Polymorphism Object_system > Features > Polymorphism Subtyping – a form of polymorphism – is when calling code can be independent of which class in the supported hierarchy it is operating on – the parent class or one of its descendants. Meanwhile, the same operation name among objects in an inheritance hierarchy may behave differently. For example, objects of type Circle and Square are derived from a common class called Shape. The Draw function for each type of Shape implements what is necessary to draw itself while calling code can remain indifferent to the particular type of Shape being drawn. This is another type of abstraction that simplifies code external to the class hierarchy and enables strong separation of concerns.
Proof of impossibility Halting problem: Turing's first proof Proof_of_impossibility > Halting problem: Turing's first proof The Entscheidungsproblem, the decision problem, was first answered by Church in April 1935 and preceded Turing by over a year, as Turing's paper was received for publication in May 1936. Turing's proof is made difficult by number of definitions required and its subtle nature. See Turing machine and Turing's proof for details. Turing's first proof (of three) follows the schema of Richard's paradox: Turing's computing machine is an algorithm represented by a string of seven letters in a "computing machine".
Ordinary-language philosophy Secondary sources Linguistic_Philosophy > Further reading > Secondary sources Forguson, Lynd. "Oxford and the "Epidemic" of Ordinary Language Philosophy", The Monist 84: 325–345, 2001. Passmore, John. A Hundred Years of Philosophy, revised edition.
Apoptosis-inducing factor Summary Apoptosis-inducing_factor Normally it is found behind the outer membrane of the mitochondrion and is therefore secluded from the nucleus. However, when the mitochondrion is damaged, it moves to the cytosol and to the nucleus. Inactivation of AIF leads to resistance of embryonic stem cells to death following the withdrawal of growth factors indicating that it is involved in apoptosis.
Fermionic condensate Summary Chiral_condensate A fermionic condensate (or Fermi–Dirac condensate) is a superfluid phase formed by fermionic particles at low temperatures. It is closely related to the Bose–Einstein condensate, a superfluid phase formed by bosonic atoms under similar conditions. The earliest recognized fermionic condensate described the state of electrons in a superconductor; the physics of other examples including recent work with fermionic atoms is analogous. The first atomic fermionic condensate was created by a team led by Deborah S. Jin using potassium-40 atoms at the University of Colorado Boulder in 2003.
Seismic engineering Seismic vibration control Earthquake_engineering_research > Seismic vibration control Seismic vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and non-building structures. All seismic vibration control devices may be classified as passive, active or hybrid where: passive control devices have no feedback capability between them, structural elements and the ground; active control devices incorporate real-time recording instrumentation on the ground integrated with earthquake input processing equipment and actuators within the structure; hybrid control devices have combined features of active and passive control systems.When ground seismic waves reach up and start to penetrate a base of a building, their energy flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90%. However, the remaining portions of the incident waves during a major earthquake still bear a huge devastating potential. After the seismic waves enter a superstructure, there are a number of ways to control them in order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for instance: to dissipate the wave energy inside a superstructure with properly engineered dampers; to disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies; to absorb the resonant portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of so-called mass dampers.Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned (passive), as AMD for the active, and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers, have been studied and installed in high-rise buildings, predominantly in Japan, for a quarter of a century.However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into the superstructure known as seismic or base isolation.
List of free and open-source software packages Database management systems (including administration) List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages > Data storage and management > Database management systems (including administration) Apache Cassandra - A NoSQL database from Apache Software Foundation offers support for clusters spanning multiple datacenter Apache CouchDB - A NoSQL database from Apache Software Foundation with multi-master replication MariaDB - A community-developed relational database management system with pluggable storage engines and commercial support PostGIS - Adds support for geographic objects to the PostgreSQL as per Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) PostgreSQL - A relational database management system emphasizes on extensibility and SQL compliance and available for Windows, Linux, FreeBSD, and OpenBSD
Newton–Krylov method Summary Newton–Krylov_method The result is a Newton-Krylov method. The Jacobian itself might be too difficult to compute, but the GMRES method does not require the Jacobian itself, only the result of multiplying given vectors by the Jacobian. Often this can be computed efficiently via difference formulae. Solving the Newton iteration formula in this manner, the result is a Jacobian-Free Newton-Krylov (JFNK) method.
Respiratory organs Plants Pulmonary_system > Plants Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO2 (carbon dioxide) and 6 H2O (water), which in the presence of sunlight makes C6H12O6 (glucose) and 6 O2 (oxygen). Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon atoms as the repository for the energy obtained from sunlight. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis.
Victor Johnston Summary Victor_Johnston in psychopharmacology, 1967, University of Edinburgh, Scotland. His doctoral research on the biochemistry of Schizophrenia was awarded the A.E. Bennett Neuropsychiatric Research Foundation Award.
Polymer capacitor Types and styles Polymer_electrolytic > Types and styles Based on the used anode metal and the combination of a polymer electrolyte together with a liquid electrolyte, there are three different types: Polymer tantalum electrolytic capacitor Polymer aluminium electrolytic capacitor Hybrid polymer aluminium electrolytic capacitorThese three different types or families, are produced in two different styles, Rectangular SMD chip, usually molded with a plastic case, available with sintered tantalum anode or with stacked aluminium anode foils and Cylindrical style with a wound cell in a metal case, available as cylindrical SMDs (V-chips) style or as radial leaded versions (single-ended)Styles of polymer electrolytic capacitors
Move semantics constexpr – Generalized constant expressions Move_semantics > Extensions to the C++ core language > Core language runtime performance enhancements > constexpr – Generalized constant expressions Before C++11, the values of variables could be used in constant expressions only if the variables are declared const, have an initializer which is a constant expression, and are of integral or enumeration type. C++11 removes the restriction that the variables must be of integral or enumeration type if they are defined with the constexpr keyword: Such data variables are implicitly const, and must have an initializer which must be a constant expression. To construct constant expression data values from user-defined types, constructors can also be declared with constexpr.
Logical Atomism Russell's principles Logical_Atomism > Principles > Russell's principles Here, the link between psychological experience – sense data – and components of logical atomism – universals and particulars – causes a breach in the typical logic of the theory; Russell's logical atomism is in some respects defined by the crossover of metaphysics and analytical philosophy, which characterizes the field of naturalized epistemology.In his theory of Logical Atomism, Russell posited the highly controversial idea that for every positive fact exists a parallel negative fact: a fact that is untrue. The correspondence theory maintains that every atomic proposition coordinates with exactly one atomic fact, and that all atomic facts exist. The Theory of Acquaintance says that for any given statement taking the form of an atomic proposition, we must be familiar with the assertion it makes.
Primorial Definition for natural numbers Primorial_numbers > Definition for natural numbers Since ϑ(n) asymptotically approaches n for large values of n, primorials therefore grow according to: n # = e ( 1 + o ( 1 ) ) n . {\displaystyle n\#=e^{(1+o(1))n}.} The idea of multiplying all known primes occurs in some proofs of the infinitude of the prime numbers, where it is used to derive the existence of another prime.
Fences and pickets model of plasma membrane structure Membrane skeleton fence model Fences_and_pickets_model_of_plasma_membrane_structure > Membrane skeleton fence model The actin-based membrane skeleton (MSK) meshwork is directly situated on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane. Membrane skeleton fence, or membrane skeleton corralling model, suggests that this meshwork is likely to partition the plasma membrane into many small compartments with regard to the lateral diffusion of membrane molecules. Cytoplasmic domains collide with the actin-based membrane skeleton which induces temporary confinement or corralling of transmembrane (TM) proteins in the membrane skeleton mesh. TM proteins are capable to hop between adjacent compartments when the distance between the meshwork and the membrane becomes large enough, or when the meshwork temporarily and locally dissociates. Cytoplasmic molecules located on the inner surface of the plasma membrane also exhibit confinement within actin-based compartments.
Egyptian Arabic language Regular verbs, form I Egyptian_Arabic_language > Morphology > Verbs > Strong verbs > Regular verbs, form I Form I verbs have a given vowel pattern for past (a or i) and present (a, i or u). Combinations of each exist:
Idiopathic chronic fatigue Signs and symptoms Idiopathic_chronic_fatigue > Diagnosis > Signs and symptoms Clinically evaluated fatigue New or definite onset (not lifelong) Fatigue persists or is relapsing for six consecutive months or longer Fails to meet the criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome The cause is unknown (not resulting from another medical condition)
Vibrational band Diatomic molecules Vibrational_band > Diatomic molecules (For B also, a double prime indicates the ground state and a single prime an electronically excited state.) The values of the rotational constants may differ appreciably because the bond length in the electronic excited state may be quite different from the bond length in the ground state, because of the operation of the Franck-Condon principle. The rotational constant is inversely proportional to the square of the bond length.
Scale modeling Gauge vs scale Scale_model > Subjects > Vehicles > Trains > Gauge vs scale This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as the Aurora Plastics Corporation. However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale.
Cell engineering Summary Cell_engineering Cell engineering is the purposeful process of adding, deleting, or modifying genetic sequences in living cells to achieve biological engineering goals such as altering cell production, changing cell growth and proliferation requirements, adding or removing cell functions, and many more. Cell engineering often makes use of DNA technology to achieve these modifications as well as closely related tissue engineering methods. Cell engineering can be characterized as an intermediary level in the increasingly specific disciplines of biological engineering which includes organ engineering, tissue engineering, protein engineering, and genetic engineering. The field of cellular engineering is gaining more traction as biomedical research advances in tissue engineering and becomes more specific. Publications in the field have gone from several thousand in the early 2000s to nearly 40,000 in 2020.
Varnish cache Architecture Varnish_cache > Architecture When the configured limit on the number of active worker threads is reached, incoming connections are placed in an overflow queue; when this queue reaches its configured limit incoming connections will be rejected. The principal configuration mechanism is Varnish Configuration Language (VCL), a domain-specific language (DSL) used to write hooks that are called at critical points in the handling of each request. Most policy decisions are left to VCL code, making Varnish more configurable and adaptable than most other HTTP accelerators.
Technoliberalism Networked technology Technoliberalism > Networked technology High-speed development of networked technology provides the platform for spreading information which encourages the freedom of speech and communication technologies. Networks of distributed intelligence increase the capacity of information technology. Free access to the Internet deeply reflects the idea of technoliberalism.
Warfarin necrosis Treatment Warfarin_necrosis > Treatment The first element of treatment is usually to discontinue the offending drug, although there have been reports describing how the eruption evolved little after it had established in spite of continuing the medication.Based on the assumption that low levels of protein C are involved in the underlying mechanism, common treatments in this setting include fresh frozen plasma or pure activated protein C.Since the clot-promoting effects of starting administration of 4-hydroxycoumarins are transitory, patients with protein C deficiency or previous warfarin necrosis can still be restarted on these drugs if appropriate measures are taken. These include gradual increase starting from low doses and supplemental administration of protein C (pure or from fresh frozen plasma).The necrotic skin areas are treated as in other conditions, sometimes healing spontaneously with or without scarring, sometimes going on to require surgical debridement or skin grafting.
Neil J. Gunther Universal Law of Computational Scalability Neil_J._Gunther > Current research interests > Universal Law of Computational Scalability This scalability law was originally developed by Gunther in 1993 while he was employed at Pyramid Technology. Since there are no topological dependencies, C(N) can model symmetric multiprocessors, multicores, clusters, and GRID architectures. Also, because each of the three terms has a definite physical meaning, they can be employed as a heuristic to determine where to make performance improvements in hardware platforms or software applications. At a more fundamental level, the above equation can be derived from the Machine Repairman queueing model: Theorem (Gunther 2008): The universal scalability law is equivalent to the synchronous queueing bound on throughput in a modified Machine Repairman with state-dependent service times. The following corollary (Gunther 2008 with β = 0 {\displaystyle \beta =0} ) corresponds to Amdahl's law: Theorem (Gunther 2002): Amdahl's law for parallel speedup is equivalent to the synchronous queueing bound on throughput in a Machine Repairman model of a multiprocessor.
Topological phase transition Mechanism of topological order Topological_phase_transition > References by categories > Mechanism of topological order doi:10.1103/physrevb.72.035307. S2CID 118956379. Bombin, H.; Martin-Delgado, M. A.
Evolutionary psychiatry Schizophrenia Evolutionary_psychiatry > Evolutionary explanations for specific disorders > Schizophrenia Many alleles predisposing to schizophrenia are common in the population, making adaptive hypotheses plausible, as has been noted since the mid 20th century.Hypotheses explaining schizophrenia as resulting from adaptation vary widely. Early theorists proposed it conveyed improvements to the immune system or illness recovery or facilitates group-splitting. Inspired by the longstanding cultural ideas of madness as related to genius, Nettle proposed that schizotypy could be related to creative success, which added to mating success, and that the positive effects of schizotypal traits might be an explanation for why these traits persist.
Heat energy Heat and enthalpy Heat_source > Classical thermodynamics > Heat and enthalpy The latter are such as shaft work, and include isochoric work. The internal energy, U, is a state function. In cyclical processes, such as the operation of a heat engine, state functions of the working substance return to their initial values upon completion of a cycle.
Load balancing (computing) Hierarchy Load_balancing_(computing) > Problem overview > Hardware architecture > Hierarchy Adapting to the hardware structures seen above, there are two main categories of load balancing algorithms. On the one hand, the one where tasks are assigned by “master” and executed by “workers” who keep the master informed of the progress of their work, and the master can then take charge of assigning or reassigning the workload in case of the dynamic algorithm. The literature refers to this as "Master-Worker" architecture. On the other hand, the control can be distributed between the different nodes.
Cantor's isomorphism theorem Statement and examples Cantor's_isomorphism_theorem > Statement and examples The integers and rational numbers both form countable sets, but the real numbers do not, by a different result of Cantor, his proof that the real numbers are uncountable. Two linear orders are order-isomorphic when there exists a one-to-one correspondence between them that preserves their ordering. For instance, the integers and the even numbers are order-isomorphic, under a bijection that multiplies each integer by two.With these definitions in hand, Cantor's isomorphism theorem states that every two unbounded countable dense linear orders are order-isomorphic.
Tripartite classification of authority The classification of authority in the context of history Tripartite_classification_of_authority > The classification of authority in the context of history Weber also notes that legal domination is the most advanced, and that societies evolve from having mostly traditional and charismatic authorities to mostly rational and legal ones, because the instability of charismatic authority inevitably forces it to "routinize" into a more structured form of authority. Likewise he notes that in a pure type of traditional rule, sufficient resistance to a master can lead to a "traditional revolution". Thus he alludes to an inevitable move towards a rational-legal structure of authority, utilizing a bureaucratic structure. This ties to his broader concept of rationalization by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction.
Artificial induction of immunity Temporarily induced immunity Artificial_induction_of_immunity > Temporarily induced immunity Passive immunity is temporary, because the antibodies which are transferred have a lifespan of only about 3–6 months. Every placental mammal (which includes humans) has experienced temporarily induced immunity by transfer of homologous antibodies from its mother across the placenta, giving it passive immunity to whatever its mother became immune to.
Young's convolution inequality Summary Young's_convolution_inequality In mathematics, Young's convolution inequality is a mathematical inequality about the convolution of two functions, named after William Henry Young.
Random testing History of random testing Random_testing > History of random testing Random testing for hardware was first examined by Melvin Breuer in 1971 and initial effort to evaluate its effectiveness was done by Pratima and Vishwani Agrawal in 1975.In software, Duran and Ntafos had examined random testing in 1984.The use of hypothesis testing as a theoretical basis for random testing was described by Howden in Functional Testing and Analysis. The book also contained the development of a simple formula for estimating the number of tests n that are needed to have confidence at least 1-1/n in a failure rate of no larger than 1/n. The formula is the lower bound nlogn, which indicates the large number of failure-free tests needed to have even modest confidence in a modest failure rate bound.
Extracellular DNA History and anthropology Naked_DNA > Uses in technology > History and anthropology Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology.
Recursive WITH Unary operators Recursive_WITH > CONNECT BY > Unary operators The following example returns the last name of each employee in department 10, each manager above that employee in the hierarchy, the number of levels between manager and employee, and the path between the two:
Progressive inflammatory neuropathy Diagnosis Progressive_inflammatory_neuropathy > Diagnosis Since no pathogenic agent had been found, these diseases were ruled out as being related.Next two very similar neuropathies were ruled out. Guillain–Barré syndrome induces an acute autoimmune response which affects the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Guillain–Barré syndrome is usually triggered by an infection that causes weakness and tingling that may lead to muscle loss.
Elementary algebra Linear equations with one variable Elementary_algebra > Solving algebraic equations > Linear equations with one variable How old is the child?Equivalent equation: 2 x + 4 = 12 {\displaystyle 2x+4=12} where x represent the child's ageTo solve this kind of equation, the technique is add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same number in order to isolate the variable on one side of the equation. Once the variable is isolated, the other side of the equation is the value of the variable. This problem and its solution are as follows: In words: the child is 4 years old. The general form of a linear equation with one variable, can be written as: a x + b = c {\displaystyle ax+b=c} Following the same procedure (i.e. subtract b from both sides, and then divide by a), the general solution is given by x = c − b a {\displaystyle x={\frac {c-b}{a}}}
Complexity classes Completeness Complexity_class > Properties of complexity classes > Reductions > Completeness If a problem X {\displaystyle X} is hard for C and is also in C, then X {\displaystyle X} is said to be complete for C. This means that X {\displaystyle X} is the hardest problem in C (since there could be many problems that are equally hard, more precisely X {\displaystyle X} is as hard as the hardest problems in C). Of particular importance is the class of NP-complete problems—the most difficult problems in NP. Because all problems in NP can be polynomial-time reduced to NP-complete problems, finding an NP-complete problem that can be solved in polynomial time would mean that P = NP.
First mover advantage Buyer switching costs Free-rider_effect > Mechanisms leading to first-mover advantages > Buyer switching costs The final type of benefit that first movers may enjoy comes from buyer-switching costs. If it is costly or inconvenient for a customer to switch to a new brand, the first company to gain the customer will have an advantage. Buyers will rationally stick with the first brand they encounter that performs the job adequately. Especially for consumer products, the first mover has the opportunity to shape consumer preferences and to earn customer loyalty.