Datasets:
Matisse6410
/
more-sim-docs

Dataset card Data Studio Files Community
1
page_content
stringlengths
51
3.15k
Xeno Nucleic Acid Background Xeno_Nucleic_Acid > Background The "X" in XNA stands for "xeno," meaning stranger or alien, indicating the difference in the molecular structure as compared to DNA or RNA.Not much was done with XNA until the development of special polymerase enzyme, capable of copying XNA from a DNA template as well as copying XNA back into DNA. Pinheiro et al. (2012), for example, has demonstrated such an XNA-capable polymerase that works on sequences of ~100bp in length. More recently, synthetic biologists Philipp Holliger and Alexander Taylor managed to create XNAzymes, the XNA equivalent of a ribozyme, enzymes made of RNA. This demonstrates that XNAs not only store hereditary information, but can also serve as enzymes, raising the possibility that life elsewhere could have begun with something other than RNA or DNA.
Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm Summary Odlyzko–Schönhage_algorithm In mathematics, the Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm is a fast algorithm for evaluating the Riemann zeta function at many points, introduced by (Odlyzko & Schönhage 1988). The main point is the use of the fast Fourier transform to speed up the evaluation of a finite Dirichlet series of length N at O(N) equally spaced values from O(N2) to O(N1+ε) steps (at the cost of storing O(N1+ε) intermediate values). The Riemann–Siegel formula used for calculating the Riemann zeta function with imaginary part T uses a finite Dirichlet series with about N = T1/2 terms, so when finding about N values of the Riemann zeta function it is sped up by a factor of about T1/2. This reduces the time to find the zeros of the zeta function with imaginary part at most T from about T3/2+ε steps to about T1+ε steps. The algorithm can be used not just for the Riemann zeta function, but also for many other functions given by Dirichlet series. The algorithm was used by Gourdon (2004) to verify the Riemann hypothesis for the first 1013 zeros of the zeta function.
Random stimulus Summary Random_stimulus A random stimulus is any class of creativity techniques that explores randomization. Most of their names start with the word "random", such as random word, random heuristic, random picture and random sound. In each random creativity technique, the user is presented with a random stimulus and explores associations that could trigger novel ideas. The power of random stimulus is that it can lead you to explore useful associations that would not emerge intentionally.
Subband coding Basic principles Subband_coding > Basic principles The basic idea of SBC is to enable a data reduction by discarding information about frequencies which are masked. The result differs from the original signal, but if the discarded information is chosen carefully, the difference will not be noticeable, or more importantly, objectionable. First, a digital filter bank divides the input signal spectrum into some number (e.g., 32) of subbands.
Proof of impossibility In social science Impossibility_proof > In social science In political science, Arrow's impossibility theorem states that it is impossible to devise a voting system that satisfies a set of five specific axioms. This theorem is proved by showing that four of the axioms together imply the opposite of the fifth. Similarly, the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem states that no voting system can have more than two alternatives, be robust to strategic voting and prevent a single voter to decide the outcome. In economics, Holmström's theorem is an impossibility theorem proving that no incentive system for a team of agents can satisfy all of three desirable criteria.
Quantum parallelism Skepticism Quantum_Computer > Engineering > Skepticism Current quantum computing hardware generates only a limited amount of entanglement before getting overwhelmed by noise and does not rule out practical simulation on conventional computers, possibly except for contrived cases. Quantum algorithms provide speedup over conventional algorithms only for some tasks, and matching these tasks with practical applications proved challenging. Some promising tasks and applications require resources far beyond those available today.
Group 15 elements Chemical Pnictogen > Characteristics > Chemical Like other groups, the members of this family show similar patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior. This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5 electrons in their outermost shell, that is 2 electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired electrons in the p subshell. They are therefore 3 electrons short of filling their outermost electron shell in their non-ionized state. The Russell–Saunders term symbol of the ground state in all elements in the group is 4S3⁄2. The most important elements of this group to life on Earth are nitrogen (N), which in its diatomic form is the principal component of air, and phosphorus (P), which, like nitrogen, is essential to all known forms of life.
History of scientific method Integrating deductive and inductive method History_of_scientific_method > Integrating deductive and inductive method Measuring and comparing observations was to be used to find generalisations in "empirical laws", which described regularities in phenomena, then natural philosophers were to work towards the higher aim of finding a universal "law of nature" which explained the causes and effects producing such regularities. An explanatory hypothesis was to be found by evaluating true causes (Newton's "vera causae") derived from experience, for example evidence of past climate change could be due to changes in the shape of continents, or to changes in Earth's orbit. Possible causes could be inferred by analogy to known causes of similar phenomena.
Heat flux measurements of thermal insulation Calculation and precision Heat_flux_measurements_of_thermal_insulation > On-site methods > Calculation and precision The heat flux q {\displaystyle q} can be calculated from the voltage by: q = V S {\displaystyle q={\frac {V}{S}}} V is the voltage measured by the HFT (measured in volt, V) S is the sensitivity of the HFT (measured in volt / watt per square meter V m 2 W {\displaystyle {\frac {Vm^{2}}{W}}} )The apparent thermal conductivity can be calculated from: λ = q D t 1 − t 2 {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {qD}{t_{1}-t_{2}}}} q is the heat flux calculated from the HFT (measured in watt per square meter, W m 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {W}{m^{2}}}} ) D is the thickness of the insulation material (measured in millimeter, mm) t 1 {\displaystyle t_{1}} the temperature of the process surface, the inside of the material t 2 {\displaystyle t_{2}} the temperature of the surface near the HFT, the outside of the materialThe interpretation and precision of the results depends on the section of measurement, the choice of HFT and external conditions. The correct heat flux sensor and measurement test section are of importance for a good in-situ measurement and should be based on manufacturer recommendations, past experience and careful consideration of the testing area.
Artin L-function Summary Artin_root_number In mathematics, an Artin L-function is a type of Dirichlet series associated to a linear representation ρ of a Galois group G. These functions were introduced in 1923 by Emil Artin, in connection with his research into class field theory. Their fundamental properties, in particular the Artin conjecture described below, have turned out to be resistant to easy proof. One of the aims of proposed non-abelian class field theory is to incorporate the complex-analytic nature of Artin L-functions into a larger framework, such as is provided by automorphic forms and the Langlands program. So far, only a small part of such a theory has been put on a firm basis.
Platinum silicide Structure and bonding Platinum_silicide > Structure and bonding As a result, it has been shown that two sets of covalent bonds compose the bonds forming the compound. One set is the three center Pt–Si–Pt bond, and the other set the two center Pt–Si bonds. Each silicon atom in the compound has one three center bond and two center bonds.
Volatility (finance) Volatility over time Volatility_(finance) > Volatility over time Also, a time when prices rise quickly (a possible bubble) may often be followed by prices going up even more, or going down by an unusual amount. Most typically, extreme movements do not appear 'out of nowhere'; they are presaged by larger movements than usual.
Sensor Web Characteristics of Delin's sensor web architecture Sensor_Web > Characteristics of Delin's sensor web architecture The shape of a sensor web may impact its usefulness, for instance a particular deployment made sure each pod was in range to communicate with at least two other pods. Sensor web measurement cycles have typically been between 30 seconds and 15 minutes for deployed systems thus far.Sensor webs consisting of pods have been deployed that have spanned miles and run continuously for years. Sensor webs have been fielded in harsh environments (including deserts, mountain snowpacks, and Antarctica) for the purposes of environmental science and have also proved valuable in urban search and rescue and infrastructure protection. The technology is not only monitoring the environment but sometimes also controlling the environment by actuating devices.
Epsilon, delta More general definition using limit points and subsets Limit_at_infinity > Functions of a single variable > More general definition using limit points and subsets It also extends the notion of one-sided limits to the included endpoints of (half-)closed intervals, so the square root function f ( x ) = x {\displaystyle f(x)={\sqrt {x}}} can have limit 0 as x approaches 0 from above: since for every ε > 0, we may take δ = ε such that for all x ≥ 0, if 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then |f(x) − 0| < ε. This definition allows a limit to be defined at limit points of the domain S, if a suitable subset T which has the same limit point is chosen. Notably, the previous two-sided definition works on int ⁡ S ∪ iso ⁡ S c , {\displaystyle \operatorname {int} S\cup \operatorname {iso} S^{c},} which is a subset of the limit points of S. For example, let S = . {\displaystyle S=.} The previous two-sided definition would work at 1 ∈ iso ⁡ S c = { 1 } , {\displaystyle 1\in \operatorname {iso} S^{c}=\{1\},} but it wouldn't work at 0 or 2, which are limit points of S.
Impact breccia Volcanic Breccia > Types > Igneous > Volcanic Volcanic pyroclastic rocks are formed by explosive eruption of lava and any rocks which are entrained within the eruptive column. This may include rocks plucked off the wall of the magma conduit, or physically picked up by the ensuing pyroclastic surge. Lavas, especially rhyolite and dacite flows, tend to form clastic volcanic rocks by a process known as autobrecciation. This occurs when the thick, nearly solid lava breaks up into blocks and these blocks are then reincorporated into the lava flow again and mixed in with the remaining liquid magma.
Cross training Summary Cross_training Cross-training is athletic training in sports other than the athlete's usual sport. The goal is improving overall performance. It takes advantage of the particular effectiveness of one training method to negate the shortcomings of another.
Power electronics Inverters Power_electronic > Applications > Inverters Inverters may also be employed in other renewable systems, such as wind turbines. In these applications, the turbine speed usually varies, causing changes in voltage frequency and sometimes in the magnitude. In this case, the generated voltage can be rectified and then inverted to stabilize frequency and magnitude.
Liver injury Management Liver_injury > Management Generally if there is estimated to be less than 300mL of free floating fluid, no injury to surrounding organs, and no need for blood transfusion, there is a low risk of complication from nonoperative management. In special cases where there is a higher risk with surgery, such as in the elderly, nonoperative management would include the infusion of packed red blood cells in an intensive care unit. Typically hepatic injuries resulting from stab wounds cause little damage unless a vital part of the liver is injured, such as the hepatic portal vein; with gunshot wounds, the damage is worse.
Ensembles of classifiers Stacking Stacked_Generalization > Common types of ensembles > Stacking It has been successfully used on both supervised learning tasks (regression, classification and distance learning ) and unsupervised learning (density estimation). It has also been used to estimate bagging's error rate. It has been reported to out-perform Bayesian model-averaging. The two top-performers in the Netflix competition utilized blending, which may be considered a form of stacking.
The halting problem Computability theory Halting_problem > Computability theory These numbers have the same Turing degree as the halting problem. It is a normal and transcendental number which can be defined but cannot be completely computed.
Contact homology Summary Contact_homology Loosely speaking, Floer homology is the Morse homology of the function on the infinite-dimensional manifold. A Floer chain complex is formed from the abelian group spanned by the critical points of the function (or possibly certain collections of critical points). The differential of the chain complex is defined by counting the function's gradient flow lines connecting certain pairs of critical points (or collections thereof).
Molality Definition Molality > Definition The molality (b), of a solution is defined as the amount of substance (in moles) of solute, nsolute, divided by the mass (in kg) of the solvent, msolvent: b = n s o l u t e m s o l v e n t {\displaystyle b={\frac {n_{\mathrm {solute} }}{m_{\mathrm {solvent} }}}} In the case of solutions with more than one solvent, molality can be defined for the mixed solvent considered as a pure pseudo-solvent. Instead of mole solute per kilogram solvent as in the binary case, units are defined as mole solute per kilogram mixed solvent.
Stochastic neural network Artificial neurons Artificial_Neural_Network > Models > Artificial neurons This weighted sum is then passed through a (usually nonlinear) activation function to produce the output. The initial inputs are external data, such as images and documents. The ultimate outputs accomplish the task, such as recognizing an object in an image.
Atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability Locking vs. multiversioning Atomicity,_consistency,_isolation,_durability > Implementation > Locking vs. multiversioning This allows readers to operate without acquiring locks, i.e., writing transactions do not block reading transactions, and readers do not block writers. Going back to the example, when user A's transaction requests data that user B is modifying, the database provides A with the version of that data that existed when user B started his transaction. User A gets a consistent view of the database even if other users are changing data. One implementation, namely snapshot isolation, relaxes the isolation property.
UV ray "Black lights" UV_radiation > Artificial sources > "Black lights" Other black lights use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating. Incandescent black lights are also produced, using a filter coating on the envelope of an incandescent bulb that absorbs visible light (see section below). These are cheaper but very inefficient, emitting only a small fraction of a percent of their power as UV.
Design for All (in ICT) Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion Design_for_All_(in_ICT) > Related networks and projects > Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion SHARE-IT: Supported Human Autonomy for Recovery and Enhancement of cognitive and motor abilities using Information TechnologiesThis project is developing scalable and adaptive 'add-ons' which will allow assistive technologies to be integrated into intelligent ICTs for the home. HaH: Hearing at HomeThis project is looking at the next generation of assistive devices which will help hearing-impaired people to participate fully in the Information Society. CogKnow: Helping people with mild dementia navigate their dayCogKnow aims to develop and prototype a cognitive prosthetic device to help those struggling with dementia to perform their daily activities.
Schinzel's hypothesis H Summary Schinzel's_hypothesis_H In mathematics, Schinzel's hypothesis H is one of the most famous open problems in the topic of number theory. It is a very broad generalization of widely open conjectures such as the twin prime conjecture. The hypothesis is named after Andrzej Schinzel.
Bolt (fastener) Bolts vs. screws Grip_length > Bolts vs. screws The distinction between a bolt and a screw is poorly-defined. The academic distinction, per Machinery's Handbook, is in their intended design: bolts are designed to pass through an unthreaded hole in a component and be fastened with the aid of a nut, although such a fastener can be used without a nut to tighten into a threaded component such as a nut-plate or tapped housing. Screws in contrast are used in components which contain their own thread, or to cut its own internal thread into them. This definition allows ambiguity in the description of a fastener depending on the application it is actually used for, and the terms screw and bolt are widely used by different people or in different countries to apply to the same or varying fastener.
Privacy settings Policy design Privacy_settings > Companies' role in privacy settings > Policy design In a study that examined Facebook's privacy policy from 2005 to 2015, Shore et al. found that the policy became increasingly unclear and unaccountable. A specific portion regarding the use of user personal data and third party involvement was found to be increasingly confusing.
Space-time continuum Asymptotic symmetries Spacetime_Interval > Technical topics > Asymptotic symmetries Not only are the Lorentz transformations asymptotic symmetry transformations, there are also additional transformations that are not Lorentz transformations but are asymptotic symmetry transformations. In fact, they found an additional infinity of transformation generators known as supertranslations. This implies the conclusion that General Relativity (GR) does not reduce to special relativity in the case of weak fields at long distances. : 35
Eocyte hypothesis Molecular studies Eocyte_hypothesis > Revival > Molecular studies The structure of these heat shock proteins were identified through X-ray crystallography to find the three dimensional structure of the proteins. These proteins however have differing purposes as the eukaryote heat shock protein is a part of the T-complex while the archaeal heat shock protein is a molecular chaperone. This creates an issue with the sequence homology that has been seen between 70 kilodalton heat shock proteins in eukaryotes and Gram-negative bacteria.Ribosome protein sequencing and phylogenetic analyses in 2004 showed that eukaryotes emerged from archaea.
Computer simulations of fluids Background and history Computational_fluid_mechanics > Background and history The Navier–Stokes equations were the ultimate target of development. Two-dimensional codes, such as NASA Ames' ARC2D code first emerged. A number of three-dimensional codes were developed (ARC3D, OVERFLOW, CFL3D are three successful NASA contributions), leading to numerous commercial packages.
Symmetries in quantum mechanics Unitary groups in quantum field theory Symmetries_in_quantum_mechanics > Symmetries in quantum field theory and particle physics > Unitary groups in quantum field theory Let U ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {U}}} be a unitary operator, so the inverse is the Hermitian adjoint U ^ − 1 = U ^ † {\displaystyle {\widehat {U}}^{-1}={\widehat {U}}^{\dagger }} , which commutes with the Hamiltonian: then the observable corresponding to the operator U ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {U}}} is conserved, and the Hamiltonian is invariant under the transformation U ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {U}}} . Since the predictions of quantum mechanics should be invariant under the action of a group, physicists look for unitary transformations to represent the group. Important subgroups of each U(N) are those unitary matrices which have unit determinant (or are "unimodular"): these are called the special unitary groups and are denoted SU(N).
Alcoholic proof United States Alcohol_proof > Governmental regulation > United States In the United States, alcohol content is legally mandated to be specified as an ABV percentage. For bottled spirits over 100 ml (3.5 imp fl oz; 3.4 US fl oz) containing no solids, actual alcohol content is allowed to vary by up to 0.15% of the ABV stated on the label. By contrast, bottled spirits which are less than 100 ml (as well as those which otherwise contain solids) may vary by up to 0.25%. Proof (the term degrees proof is not used), defined as being twice the percentage of alcohol by volume, may be optionally stated in conjunction with the ABV.
Coase theorem Transaction costs Coase_theorem > Criticism > Criticisms of the applicability of the theorem > Transaction costs Ronald Coase's work itself emphasized a problem in applying the Coase theorem: transactions are "often extremely costly, sufficiently costly at any rate to prevent many transactions that would be carried out in a world in which the pricing system worked without cost." (Coase, 1960—first paragraph of section VI.) This isn't a criticism of the theorem itself, since the theorem considers only those situations in which there are no transaction costs. Instead, it is an objection to applications of the theorem that neglect this crucial assumption.
Electric column Summary Voltaic_pile The voltaic pile was the first electrical battery that could continuously provide an electric current to a circuit. It was invented by Italian chemist Alessandro Volta, who published his experiments in 1799. Its invention can be traced back to an argument between Volta and Luigi Galvani, Volta’s fellow Italian scientist who had conducted experiments on frogs' legs.
Behavioural responses to stress Aggressive behaviours and anti-predator responses Behavioural_responses_to_stress > Behavioural responses > Aggressive behaviours and anti-predator responses Stressed animals would choose to avoid a novel situation rather than confront it. Aggressive behaviour is associated with sex hormones, such as testosterone, and specific brain regions and systems, such as the medial preoptic nucleus, prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition, and anterior hypothalamus. Stress negatively impacts sex hormones, which results in an imbalance and reduction in aggression related hormones and function. Also, chronic stress results in prefrontal cortex-dependent response inhibition. This results in reduction in aggression, thus promoting anti-predator responses.
Bibliography of biology Evolutionary biology Bibliography_of_biology > Evolutionary biology Oxford University Press.In the preface, Fisher considers some general points, including that there must be an understanding of natural selection distinct from that of evolution, and that the then-recent advances in the field of genetics (see history of genetics) now allowed this. In the first chapter, Fisher considers the nature of inheritance, rejecting blending inheritance in favour of particulate inheritance. The second chapter introduces Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection.
Klaus Schulten University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Klaus_Schulten > Career and Research > University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign If we want to understand health and disease, we need to understand life at the molecular level and to know how all the molecular components work together like clockwork. Over time, Schulten targeted biological structures of increasing size and complexity, with larger and larger computers. By 2007 he was exploring molecular modeling using graphical processing units (GPUs).
Abelian monoid Relation to category theory Monoid_homomorphism > Relation to category theory So this construction gives an equivalence between the category of (small) monoids Mon and a full subcategory of the category of (small) categories Cat. Similarly, the category of groups is equivalent to another full subcategory of Cat. In this sense, category theory can be thought of as an extension of the concept of a monoid.
Byzantine fault Implementations Byzantine_failure > Examples > Implementations One example of BFT in use is Bitcoin, a peer-to-peer digital cash system. The Bitcoin network works in parallel to generate a blockchain with proof-of-work allowing the system to overcome Byzantine failures and reach a coherent global view of the system's state. Some proof of stake blockchains also use BFT algorithms.Some aircraft systems, such as the Boeing 777 Aircraft Information Management System (via its ARINC 659 SAFEbus network), the Boeing 777 flight control system, and the Boeing 787 flight control systems use Byzantine fault tolerance; because these are real-time systems, their Byzantine fault tolerance solutions must have very low latency. For example, SAFEbus can achieve Byzantine fault tolerance within the order of a microsecond of added latency.
Plasma membranes Function Surface_protein > Function Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance.
Micro-operation Optimizations Micro-operation > Optimizations Micro-op fusion is used in some modern CPU designs. : 89–91, 105–106: 6–7, 9–15 Execution optimization has gone even further; processors not only translate many machine instructions into a series of μops, but also do the opposite when appropriate; they combine certain machine instruction sequences (such as a compare followed by a conditional jump) into a more complex μop which fits the execution model better and thus can be executed faster or with less machine resources involved. This is also known as macro-op fusion.
Contract Bridge Basic natural systems Contract_Bridge > Strategy > Bidding > Basic natural systems A better than average hand, containing 12 or 13 points, is usually considered sufficient to open the bidding, i.e., to make the first bid in the auction. A combination of two such hands (i.e., 25 or 26 points shared between partners) is often sufficient for a partnership to bid, and generally to make, game in a major suit or notrump (more are usually needed for a minor suit game, as the level is higher). In natural systems, a 1NT opening bid usually reflects a hand that has a relatively balanced shape (usually between two and four (or less often five) cards in each suit) and a sharply limited number of high card points, usually somewhere between 12 and 18 – the most common ranges use a span of exactly three points (for example, 12–14, 15–17 or 16–18), but some systems use a four-point range, usually 15–18.
Thrombosis prevention Herbal interactions Thrombosis_prevention > Medication > Heparins > Herbal interactions The therapeutic effects of warfarin may be decreased by valerian. Anticoagulants can be affected by chamomile. Dong quai, garlic, ginger, Ginkgo biloba, bilberry and feverfew can increase bleeding time. These same herbal supplements taken with warfarin increased prothrombin time.
Alpha level Vehicle speed measuring Type_I_Error > Example > Vehicle speed measuring That is to say, if the recorded speed of a vehicle is greater than critical value 121.9, the driver will be fined. However, there are still 5% of the drivers are falsely fined since the recorded average speed is greater than 121.9 but the true speed does not pass 120, which we say, a type I error. The type II error corresponds to the case that the true speed of a vehicle is over 120 kilometers per hour but the driver is not fined.
Glossary of engineering: A–L J Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > J It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889). Joule heatingAlso known as resistive, resistance, or Ohmic heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat.
Fixed point operator The factorial function Fixed_point_combinator > Usage in programming > The factorial function The factorial function provides a good example of how the fixed-point combinator may be applied. The result demonstrates simple recursion, as would be implemented in a single loop in an imperative language. The definition of numbers used is explained in Church encoding. The function taking itself as a parameter is F f n = ( IsZero ⁡ n ) 1 ( multiply ⁡ n ( f ( pred ⁡ n ) ) ) .
Innateness hypothesis Linguistic nativism Innate_linguistic_capacity > Linguistic nativism Linguistic nativism is the hypothesis that humans are born with some knowledge of language. It is intended as an explanation for the fact that children are reliably able to accurately acquire enormously complex linguistic structures within a short period of time. The central argument in favour of nativism is the poverty of the stimulus. Additional arguments come from the fact that language acquisition among children occurs in ordered developmental stages and that adult learners – having passed the critical age for language acquisition – are typically unable to acquire native-like proficiency in a second language.
The Internet of Things Privacy, autonomy, and control The_Internet_of_Things > Criticism, problems and controversies > Privacy, autonomy, and control "Tim O'Reilly believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the "IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision-making. "Editorials at WIRED have also expressed concern, one stating "What you're about to lose is your privacy.
XOR linked list Summary XOR_linked_list An XOR linked list is a type of data structure used in computer programming. It takes advantage of the bitwise XOR operation to decrease storage requirements for doubly linked lists.
Knowledge distillation Concept of distillation Knowledge_distillation > Concept of distillation Transferring the knowledge from a large to a small model needs to somehow teach to the latter without loss of validity. If both models are trained on the same data, the small model may have insufficient capacity to learn a concise knowledge representation given the same computational resources and same data as the large model. However, some information about a concise knowledge representation is encoded in the pseudolikelihoods assigned to its output: when a model correctly predicts a class, it assigns a large value to the output variable corresponding to such class, and smaller values to the other output variables. The distribution of values among the outputs for a record provides information on how the large model represents knowledge.
Human brain Summary Brain_tissue The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere has an inner core composed of white matter, and an outer surface – the cerebral cortex – composed of grey matter. The cortex has an outer layer, the neocortex, and an inner allocortex.
Youth marketing Youth trends Youth_marketing > Consumer behavior and attitude towards youth marketing > Youth trends On the other end of the youth marketing spectrum, It could be stated that the traditional definition of “youth” doesn't really exist. This assumption was based upon consumer behavior in a study done by Viacom Brand Solutions International called the “Golden Age of Youth”. This case study was designed to focus on adults from 20 to 34 years old who primarily delayed their adult responsibilities in favor of staying younger in all aspects of life. According to this study, 16- to 19-year-olds are considered to be going through the discovery period.
Closed-loop box reuse History Closed-loop_box_reuse > History The closed loop term describes a circular life for boxes and cartons made possible by the help of such supportive devices. Closed-loop box reuse is the process by which packaging materials can be used and reused to minimize waste. Similar and overlapping terms commonly used are closed-loop recycling, returnable packaging, reusable packaging, sustainable supply chains and circular economy.
Drug design Summary Drug_design These other characteristics are often difficult to predict with rational design techniques. Nevertheless, due to high attrition rates, especially during clinical phases of drug development, more attention is being focused early in the drug design process on selecting candidate drugs whose physicochemical properties are predicted to result in fewer complications during development and hence more likely to lead to an approved, marketed drug. Furthermore, in vitro experiments complemented with computation methods are increasingly used in early drug discovery to select compounds with more favorable ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) and toxicological profiles.
Gambling and information theory Applications for self-information Gambling_and_information_theory > Applications for self-information Here the quantity that's measured in bits is the logarithmic information measure mentioned above. Hence there are N bits of surprisal in landing all heads on one's first toss of N coins. The additive nature of surprisals, and one's ability to get a feel for their meaning with a handful of coins, can help one put improbable events (like winning the lottery, or having an accident) into context.
No-SCAR genome editing Human health No-SCAR_genome_editing > Applications > Human health The corrections of these genetic mutations, more importantly, are potential future vehicles for cell and gene therapies where the patient’s own repaired stem cells can be re-implanted. The no-SCAR method, as an improvement of the CRISPR/Cas system, will play an important role in modeling human disease using iPS cells and in the future treating these same diseases. == References ==
Main processor Cache Central_Processing_Unit > Structure and implementation > Cache The first CPUs that used a cache had only one level of cache; unlike later level 1 caches, it was not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions). Almost all current CPUs with caches have a split L1 cache. They also have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches as well.
Quantum technology Future Goals Quantum_technology > Future Goals In the realm of Quantum technology we are in the first couple years of its life. For each individual section of Quantum technology such as quantum computers, simulators, communications, sensors and metrology there is so much room for improvement according to Quantum in a nutshell. In the next couple years Quantum computers hope to process 50 qubits, as well as demonstrate quantum speed-up and outperforming classical computers. Quantum simulators have the capability to solve problems beyond supercomputer capacity. For more information visit Quantum technologies in a nut shell. According to quantum technology expert Paul Martin Quantum technology promises improvements in everyday gadgets such as navigation, timing systems, communication security, computers, and more accurate healthcare imaging.
Eye contact effect Autism spectrum disorders Eye_contact_effect > Atypical development > Autism spectrum disorders Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) which include autism and Asperger syndrome are characterized by social interaction and communication difficulties. Atypical responses to direct gaze, a characteristic of ASD, have been demonstrated to manifest in infancy, suggesting that these responses are present from early in development. Due to these difficulties, the development of the eye contact effect may be obstructed. However, studies addressing eye contact in individuals with ASD can elicit mixed results. Response to eye contact has been identified as stronger neuro-physiologically for direct gaze than indirect gaze. This may be due to individuals with ASD responding faster to eye contact based on their detection of features, rather than in the facial context.
Gravity turn Summary Gravity_turn A gravity turn or zero-lift turn is a maneuver used in launching a spacecraft into, or descending from, an orbit around a celestial body such as a planet or a moon. It is a trajectory optimization that uses gravity to steer the vehicle onto its desired trajectory. It offers two main advantages over a trajectory controlled solely through the vehicle's own thrust. First, the thrust is not used to change the spacecraft's direction, so more of it is used to accelerate the vehicle into orbit.
Sparse Distributed Memory Artificial general intelligence Sparse_Distributed_Memory > Applications > Artificial general intelligence CMatie is a 'conscious' software agent developed to manage seminar announcements in the Mathematical Sciences Department at the University of Memphis. It is based on SDM augmented with the use of genetic algorithms as an associative memory. Hierarchical temporal memory utilizes SDM for storing sparse distributed representations of the data.
Equilibrium chemistry Partition Equilibrium_chemistry > Partition log ⁡ p = log ⁡ o r g a n i c p h a s e a q u e o u s p h a s e {\displaystyle \log p=\log {\frac {_{\mathrm {organic\;phase} }}{_{\mathrm {aqueous\;phase} }}}} The partition coefficient is defined at a specified temperature and, if applicable, pH of the aqueous phase. Partition coefficients are very important in pharmacology because they determine the extent to which a substance can pass from the blood (an aqueous solution) through a cell wall which is like an organic solvent.
Space of functions Examples Functional_space > Examples A commonly used example is the compact-open topology, e.g. loop space. Also available is the product topology on the space of set theoretic functions (i.e. not necessarily continuous functions) YX. In this context, this topology is also referred to as the topology of pointwise convergence.
Natural join Summary Relational_Algebra In database theory, relational algebra is a theory that uses algebraic structures for modeling data, and defining queries on it with a well founded semantics. The theory was introduced by Edgar F. Codd. The main application of relational algebra is to provide a theoretical foundation for relational databases, particularly query languages for such databases, chief among which is SQL.
Microevolution Gene flow Microevolution > Four processes > Gene flow Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations.
Effort on sail Analysis Forces_on_sails > Measurement and computation tools > Analysis Sail design differs from wing design in several respects, especially since on a sail air flow varies with wind and boat motion and sails are usually deformable airfoils, sometimes with a mast for a leading edge. Often simplifying assumptions are employed when making design calculations, including: a flat travel surface—water, ice or land, constant wind velocity and unchanging sail adjustment.The analysis of the forces on sails takes into account the aerodynamic surface force, its centre of effort on a sail, its direction, and its variable distribution over the sail. Modern analysis employs fluid mechanics and aerodynamics airflow calculations for sail design and manufacture, using aeroelasticity models, which combine computational fluid dynamics and structural analysis. Secondary effects pertaining to turbulence and separation of the boundary layer are secondary factors.
Pythagoras In early Christianity Pythagoras > Later influence in antiquity > In early Christianity Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD) rejected Pythagoras's teaching of metempsychosis without explicitly naming him, but otherwise expressed admiration for him. In On the Trinity, Augustine lauds the fact that Pythagoras was humble enough to call himself a philosophos or "lover of wisdom" rather than a "sage". In another passage, Augustine defends Pythagoras's reputation, arguing that Pythagoras certainly never taught the doctrine of metempsychosis.
TXL (programming language) Summary TXL_(programming_language) TXL is a special-purpose programming language originally designed by Charles Halpern-Hamu and James Cordy at the University of Toronto in 1985. The acronym "TXL" originally stood for "Turing eXtender Language" after the language's original purpose, the specification and rapid prototyping of variants and extensions of the Turing programming language, but no longer has any meaningful interpretation. Modern TXL is specifically designed for creating, manipulating and rapidly prototyping language-based descriptions, tools and applications using source transformation. It is a hybrid functional / rule-based language using first order functional programming at the higher level and term rewriting at the lower level.
List of important publications in physics Quantum mechanics List_of_important_publications_in_physics > Quantum mechanics Retrieved 2008-02-18.English translations: "On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light". Translated by Dirk ter Haar "On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light. Translated by Wikisource Introduced the concept of light quanta (called photons today) to explain the photoelectric effect.
Decay theory Working memory Decay_theory > Inconsistencies > Working memory Both theories are equally argued in working memory. One situation in which this shows considerable debate is within the complex-span task of working memory, where a complex task is alternated with the encoding of to-be-remembered items. It is either argued that the amount of time taken to perform this task or the amount of interference this task involves cause decay. A time-based resource-sharing model has also been proposed, stating that temporal decay occurs once attention is switched away from whatever information is to be remembered, and occupied by processing of the information.
Trapped-ion quantum computer Summary Trapped_ion_quantum_computers A trapped-ion quantum computer is one proposed approach to a large-scale quantum computer. Ions, or charged atomic particles, can be confined and suspended in free space using electromagnetic fields. Qubits are stored in stable electronic states of each ion, and quantum information can be transferred through the collective quantized motion of the ions in a shared trap (interacting through the Coulomb force). Lasers are applied to induce coupling between the qubit states (for single qubit operations) or coupling between the internal qubit states and the external motional states (for entanglement between qubits).The fundamental operations of a quantum computer have been demonstrated experimentally with the currently highest accuracy in trapped-ion systems.
Rietveld refinement Summary Rietveld_refinement The only wavelength and technique independent scale is in reciprocal space units or momentum transfer Q, which is historically rarely used in powder diffraction but very common in all other diffraction and optics techniques. The relation is Q = 4 π sin ⁡ ( θ ) λ . {\displaystyle Q={\frac {4\pi \sin \left(\theta \right)}{\lambda }}.}
Human Proteome Project Computational resources Human_Proteome_Project > Computational resources Data reduction, analysis and validation of MS/MS based proteomics results is being provided by Eric Deutsch at the Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle, USA (PeptideAtlas). Data handling associated with antibody methods is being coordinated by Kalle von Feilitzen, Stockholm, Sweden (Human Protein Atlas). Overall integration and reporting informatics are the responsibility of Lydie Lane at SIB, Geneva, Switzerland (NeXtProt). All data generated as part of HPP contributions are deposited to one of the ProteomeXchange repositories.
Spectral shift Doppler effect Galactic_redshifts > Redshift formulae > Doppler effect In brief, objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the time dilation of special relativity which can be corrected for by introducing the Lorentz factor γ into the classical Doppler formula as follows (for motion solely in the line of sight): 1 + z = ( 1 + v c ) γ . {\displaystyle 1+z=\left(1+{\frac {v}{c}}\right)\gamma .} This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G.R.
Cancer vaccine Hypothesized problems Cancer_vaccines > Hypothesized problems Many cancer vaccine clinical trials target patients' immune responses. Correlations typically show that the patients with the strongest immune responses lived the longest, offering evidence that the vaccine is working. An alternative explanation is that patients with the best immune responses were healthier patients with a better prognosis, and would have survived longest even without the vaccine.
Electrical Conductance Static and differential resistance Non-ohmic_resistance > Static and differential resistance Many electrical elements, such as diodes and batteries do not satisfy Ohm's law. These are called non-ohmic or non-linear, and their current–voltage curves are not straight lines through the origin. Resistance and conductance can still be defined for non-ohmic elements. However, unlike ohmic resistance, non-linear resistance is not constant but varies with the voltage or current through the device; i.e., its operating point.
Resultant Macaulay's resultant Macaulay_resultant > Macaulay's resultant Like the homogeneous resultant, Macaulay's may be defined with determinants, and thus behaves well under ring homomorphisms. However, it cannot be defined by a single determinant. It follows that it is easier to define it first on generic polynomials.
Cord factor Summary Cord_factor Cord factor is virulent towards mammalian cells and critical for survival of M. tuberculosis in hosts, but not outside of hosts. Cord factor has been observed to influence immune responses, induce the formation of granulomas, and inhibit tumor growth. The antimycobacterial drug SQ109 is thought to inhibit TDM production levels and in this way disrupts its cell wall assembly.
Interlimb coordination Schematic representation of the neural control of interlimb coordination Interlimb_coordination > Modelization of interlimb coordination > Schematic representation of the neural control of interlimb coordination Each limb has its own spinal locomotor CPG, a schematic representation can illustrate the interactions between parts of the CPG controlling flexor and extensor activity.
Liver fibrosis Immunity Liver_fibrosis > Treatment > Immunity Cirrhosis is known to cause immune dysfunction in numerous ways. It impedes the immune system from working normally.
History of Mars observation Orbital models History_of_Mars_observation > Orbital models After the completion of his education, Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer, Tycho Brahe. With access granted to Tycho's detailed observations of Mars, Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables. After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism, he succeeded in matching Tycho's observations by assuming the orbit was an ellipse and the Sun was located at one of the foci. His model became the basis for Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which were published in his multi-volume work Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) between 1615 and 1621.
Read-copy-update Advantages and disadvantages Read-copy-update > Advantages and disadvantages For example, RCU is a specialized technique that works best in situations with mostly reads and few updates, but is often less applicable to update-only workloads. For another example, although the fact that RCU readers and updaters may execute concurrently is what enables the lightweight nature of RCU's read-side primitives, some algorithms may not be amenable to read/update concurrency. Despite well over a decade of experience with RCU, the exact extent of its applicability is still a research topic.
Voltage and frequency scaling Power Voltage_and_frequency_scaling > Power Low voltage modes are used in conjunction with lowered clock frequencies to minimize power consumption associated with components such as CPUs and DSPs; only when significant computational power is needed will the voltage and frequency be raised. Some peripherals also support low voltage operational modes.
GRASP (object-oriented design) Controller GRASP_(object-oriented_design) > Patterns > Controller The controller should delegate the work that needs to be done to other objects; it coordinates or controls the activity. It should not do much work itself. The GRASP Controller can be thought of as being a part of the application/service layer (assuming that the application has made an explicit distinction between the application/service layer and the domain layer) in an object-oriented system with common layers in an information system logical architecture. Related Pattern or Principle: Command, Facade, Layers, Pure Fabrication
Electron configuration Ionization of the transition metals Electron_configurations > Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule > Ionization of the transition metals The electron configuration of the central chromium atom is described as 3d6 with the six electrons filling the three lower-energy d orbitals between the ligands. The other two d orbitals are at higher energy due to the crystal field of the ligands. This picture is consistent with the experimental fact that the complex is diamagnetic, meaning that it has no unpaired electrons. However, in a more accurate description using molecular orbital theory, the d-like orbitals occupied by the six electrons are no longer identical with the d orbitals of the free atom.
Decreased urine output Diagnostic approach Decreased_urine_output > Diagnostic approach Perform ultrasound examination of the kidney to rule out obstructive processes.The mechanisms causing oliguria can be categorized globally in three different categories: Prerenal: in response to hypoperfusion of the kidney (e.g. as a result of dehydration by poor oral intake, cardiogenic shock, diarrhea, G6PD deficiency, massive bleeding or sepsis) Renal: due to kidney damage (severe hypoperfusion, rhabdomyolysis, medication) Postrenal: as a consequence of obstruction of the urine flow (e.g. enlarged prostate, tumour compression urinary outflow, expanding hematoma or fluid collection)
Type II error Null hypothesis Type_II_error > Related terms > Null hypothesis It is standard practice for statisticians to conduct tests in order to determine whether or not a "speculative hypothesis" concerning the observed phenomena of the world (or its inhabitants) can be supported. The results of such testing determine whether a particular set of results agrees reasonably (or does not agree) with the speculated hypothesis. On the basis that it is always assumed, by statistical convention, that the speculated hypothesis is wrong, and the so-called "null hypothesis" that the observed phenomena simply occur by chance (and that, as a consequence, the speculated agent has no effect) – the test will determine whether this hypothesis is right or wrong. This is why the hypothesis under test is often called the null hypothesis (most likely, coined by Fisher (1935, p.
Ball and stick model Summary Ball-and-stick_model Ball-and-stick models can be physical artifacts or virtual computer models. The former are usually built from molecular modeling kits, consisting of a number of coil springs or plastic or wood sticks, and a number of plastic balls with pre-drilled holes. The sphere colors commonly follow the CPK coloring. Some university courses on chemistry require students to buy such models as learning material.
Design for All (in ICT) Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion Design_for_All_(in_ICT) > Related networks and projects > Examples of EU-funded research projects addressing ICT and inclusion VAALID: Accessibility and Usability Validation Framework for AAL Interaction Design ProcessThe project aims at creating modeling and simulation supporting tools to optimize user interaction design and accessibility and usability validation process when developing Ambient Assisted Living solutions. PERSONA: Perceptive Spaces promoting Independent AgingThe project aims at further develop Ambient Assisted Living products and services that are affordable, easy to use and commercially viable. The project develops an integrated technological platform that seamlessly links up the different products and services for social inclusion, for support in daily life activities, for early risk detection, for personal protection from health and environmental risks, for support in mobility and displacements within his neighbourhood/town, all of which make a life of freedom worth living within their families and within the society.
Linked lists Summary Linked_list This structure allows for efficient insertion or removal of elements from any position in the sequence during iteration. More complex variants add additional links, allowing more efficient insertion or removal of nodes at arbitrary positions. A drawback of linked lists is that data access time is a linear function of the number of nodes for each linked list (I.e., the access time linearly increases as nodes are added to a linked list.)
Motor neurone disease Biochemistry ALS > Pathophysiology > Biochemistry Motor neurons are more sensitive to excitotoxicity than other types of neurons because they have a lower calcium-buffering capacity and a type of glutamate receptor (the AMPA receptor) that is more permeable to calcium. In ALS, there are decreased levels of excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), which is the main transporter that removes glutamate from the synapse; this leads to increased synaptic glutamate levels and excitotoxicity. Riluzole, a drug that modestly prolongs survival in ALS, inhibits glutamate release from pre-synaptic neurons; however, it is unclear if this mechanism is responsible for its therapeutic effect.
Joule (unit) Summary Joule The joule (pronounced , JOOL or JOWL; symbol: J) is the unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI). It is equal to the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton displaces a mass through a distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force applied. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when an electric current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889).
ADA compliance Impact ADA_compliance > Impact The ADA led to significant improvements in terms of access to public services, accessibility in the built environment, and societal understanding of disability.
Born approximation Distorted-wave Born approximation Born_approximation > Distorted-wave Born approximation For a charged-particle-induced direct nuclear reaction, the procedure is used twice. There are similar methods that do not use the Born approximations. In condensed-matter research, DWBA is used to analyze grazing-incidence small-angle scattering.
Hash function strength In symmetric cryptography Cryptographic_strength > In symmetric cryptography Symmetric algorithms usually have a strictly defined security claim. For symmetric ciphers, it is typically equal to the key size of the cipher — equivalent to the complexity of a brute-force attack. Cryptographic hash functions with output size of n bits usually have a collision resistance security level n/2 and a preimage resistance level n. This is because the general birthday attack can always find collisions in 2n/2 steps. For example, SHA-256 offers 128-bit collision resistance and 256-bit preimage resistance.
Healthcare-associated infection Treatment Hospital_acquired_infections > Treatment An estimated more than 20% of the Klebsiella infections in Brooklyn hospitals "are now resistant to virtually all modern antibiotics, and those supergerms are now spreading worldwide. "The bacteria, classified as Gram-negative because of their color on the Gram stain, can cause severe pneumonia and infections of the urinary tract, bloodstream, and other parts of the body. Their cell structures make them more difficult to attack with antibiotics than Gram-positive organisms like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Misuse of statistics Data manipulation Abuse_of_statistics > Types of misuse > Data manipulation However, some scientists refuse to publish their data and methods.Data manipulation is a serious issue/consideration in the most honest of statistical analyses. Outliers, missing data and non-normality can all adversely affect the validity of statistical analysis. It is appropriate to study the data and repair real problems before analysis begins. "n any scatter diagram there will be some points more or less detached from the main part of the cloud: these points should be rejected only for cause."
General Protection Fault Technical causes for faults General_Protection_Fault > Technical causes for faults General protection faults are raised by the processor when a protected instruction is encountered which exceeds the permission level of the currently executing task, either because a user-mode program is attempting a protected instruction, or because the operating system has issued a request which would put the processor into an undefined state. General protection faults are caught and handled by modern operating systems. Generally, if the fault originated in a user-mode program, the user-mode program is terminated. If, however, the fault originated in a core system driver or the operating system itself, the operating system usually saves diagnostic information either to a file or to the screen and stops operating. It either restarts the computer or displays an error screen, such as a Blue Screen of Death or kernel panic.