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Blood in stool Motility Blood_in_stool > Differential diagnoses > Gut wall changes > Motility The gut wall is important for the movement of waste products through the GI tract. Repetitive attempts to have a bowel movement can lead to tearing around the exit of the rectum (anal fissure) Constipation
Statistical density function Example Joint_density_function > Example Suppose bacteria of a certain species typically live 4 to 6 hours. The probability that a bacterium lives exactly 5 hours is equal to zero. A lot of bacteria live for approximately 5 hours, but there is no chance that any given bacterium dies at exactly 5.00... hours. However, the probability that the bacterium dies between 5 hours and 5.01 hours is quantifiable.
Mitral regurgitation Medicine Mitral_regurgitation > Treatment > Medicine Any hypertension is treated aggressively, e.g. by diuretics and a low sodium diet. In both hypertensive and normotensive cases, digoxin and antiarrhythmics are also indicated. Also, chronic anticoagulation is given where there is concomitant mitral valve prolapse or atrial fibrillation.
Renal cancer Medical imaging Renal_cancer > Diagnosis > Medical imaging Since there is a large differential diagnosis for a kidney tumor, the first step is to characterize the mass with medical imaging to assess its likelihood of being benign or malignant. Ultrasonography is sometimes used to evaluate a suspected kidney mass, as it can characterize cystic and solid kidney masses without radiation exposure and at relative low cost. Radiologically tumors are grouped based on appearance into simple cystic, complex cystic, or solid. The most important differentiating feature of a cancerous and non-cancerous tumor on imaging is enhancement.
Local boundedness Examples Local_boundedness > Examples {\displaystyle M=2|a|+5.} The function f: R → R {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {R} } defined by is neither bounded nor locally bounded. In any neighborhood of 0 this function takes values of arbitrarily large magnitude.Any continuous function is locally bounded.
Glutamate synthase (NADPH) Summary Glutamate_synthase_(NADPH) In enzymology, a glutamate synthase (NADPH) (EC 1.4.1.13) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction L-glutamine + 2-oxoglutarate + NADPH + H+ ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } 2 L-glutamate + NADP+Thus, the four substrates of this enzyme are L-glutamine, 2-oxoglutarate (α-ketoglutarate), NADPH, and H+, whereas the two products are L-glutamate and NADP+. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the CH-NH2 group of donors with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. This enzyme participates in glutamate metabolism and nitrogen metabolism. It has 5 cofactors: FAD, Iron, FMN, Sulfur, and Iron-sulfur. It occurs in bacteria and plants but not animals, and is important as it provides glutamate for the glutamine synthetase reaction.
O-I super-heavy tank History and development O-I_super-heavy_tank > History and development Later it was given the official designation of the "O-I tank" (オイ車). "オ" is an abbreviation of "大き"(big or large) and "イ" in Japanese army nomenclature, refers to model number 1, from the old Japanese alphabet iroha.
Phreatic surface Seasonal fluctuations Perched_lake > Fluctuations > Seasonal fluctuations In some regions, for example, Great Britain or California, winter precipitation is often higher than summer precipitation and so the groundwater storage is not fully recharged in summer. Consequently, the water table is lower during the summer. This disparity between the level of the winter and summer water table is known as the "zone of intermittent saturation", wherein the water table will fluctuate in response to climatic conditions.
Isotopic analysis Carbon-13 Stable_isotope_analysis > Applications > Ecology > Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems > Carbon-13 Carbon isotopes aid us in determining the primary production source responsible for the energy flow in an ecosystem. The transfer of 13C through trophic levels remains relatively the same, except for a small increase (an enrichment < 1 ‰). Large differences of δ13C between animals indicate that they have different food sources or that their food webs are based on different primary producers (i.e. different species of phytoplankton, marsh grasses.)
Inertial Force Summary Fictitious_forces The pseudo force on an object arises as an imaginary influence when the frame of reference used to describe the object's motion is accelerating compared to a non-accelerating frame. The pseudo force "explains," using Newton's second law mechanics, why an object does not follow Newton's second law and "floats freely" as if weightless. As a frame may accelerate in any arbitrary way, so may pseudo forces also be as arbitrary (but only in direct response to the acceleration of the frame).
Robot motion planning Completeness and performance Motion_planning > Completeness and performance This property therefore is related to Turing completeness and serves in most cases as a theoretical underpinning/guidance. Planners based on a brute force approach are always complete, but are only realizable for finite and discrete setups. In practice, the termination of the algorithm can always be guaranteed by using a counter, that allows only for a maximum number of iterations and then always stops with or without solution.
Geothrix fermentans Electricity production Geothrix_fermentans > Electricity production The possibility of compound loss coupled with the great amount of energy needed to produce these compounds does not add up to efficient electricity yield when compared to those DIRB that require direct contact with the electron acceptor. The bacteria such as Geobacter sulfurreducens that are in direct contact with electrodes showed higher total power outputs in several studies, but G. fermentans has a mechanism that has the potential to cover lost ground. By secreting amounts of the unidentified electron shuttle around the cell, accumulation of the compound over time in the environment enhances electron transfer and helps to prevent compound and electron loss.
Internet Layer IETF standards Internet_Layer > IETF standards doi:10.17487/RFC0815. RFC 815. Unknown.
Electron shell model History K_shell > History So when Bohr outlined his electron shell atomic theory in 1922, there was no mathematical formula for the theory. So Rutherford said he was hard put "to form an idea of how you arrive at your conclusions". Einstein said of Bohr's 1922 paper that his "electron-shells of the atoms together with their significance for chemistry appeared to me like a miracle – and appears to me as a miracle even today".
Flick grinder Effects on work material properties Surface_grinder > Effects on work material properties The high temperatures encountered at the ground surface create residual stresses and a thin martensitic layer may form on the part surface; this decreases the fatigue strength. In ferromagnetic materials, if the temperature of the surface is raised beyond the Curie temperature then it may lose some magnetic properties. Finally, the surface may be more susceptible to corrosion.
Higgins trust framework Summary Higgins_trust_framework Higgins 2.0: the plan is to move beyond selector functionality to add support for managing passwords and Higgins relationship cards, as well other protocols such as OpenID. It also becomes a client for the Personal Data Store (see below) and thereby provides a kind of dashboard for personal information and a place to manage "permissioning"—deciding who gets access to what slice of the user's data. Personal Data Store (PDS) is a new work area under development for Higgins 2.0. A PDS stores local personal data, controls access to remotely hosted personal data, synchronizes personal data to other devices and computers, accessed directly or via a PDS client it allows the user to share selected aspects of their information with people and organizations that they trust. Identity Services - Code for (i) an IMI and SAML compatible Identity Provider and (ii) enabling websites to be IMI and OpenID compatible.
Orders of magnitude (data) Summary Computer_capacity_measurements An order of magnitude is usually a factor of ten. Thus, four orders of magnitude is a factor of 10,000 or 104. This article presents a list of multiples, sorted by orders of magnitude, for units of information measured in bits and bytes. The byte is a common unit of measurement of information (kilobyte, kibibyte, megabyte, mebibyte, gigabyte, gibibyte, terabyte, tebibyte, etc.).
Burden of proof (philosophy) In statistics Burden_of_proof_(philosophy) > Application > In statistics The hybrid is in turn criticized as incorrect and incoherent—for details, see Statistical hypothesis testing. Statistical inference can be done without a null hypothesis, by specifying a statistical model corresponding to each candidate hypothesis and using model selection techniques to choose the most appropriate model. (The most common selection techniques are based on either Akaike information criterion or Bayes factor.)
Technology in Star Trek Original warp scale (The Original Series, The Animated Series, Enterprise, and Discovery) Technology_in_Star_Trek > Warp drive > Warp speeds > Original warp scale (The Original Series, The Animated Series, Enterprise, and Discovery) Enterprise, set in 2151 and onward, follows the voyages of the first human ship capable of traveling at warp factor 5.2, which under the old warp table formula (the cube of the warp factor times the speed of light), is about 140 times the speed of light (i.e., 5.2 cubed). In the series pilot episode "Broken Bow", Capt. Archer equates warp 4.5 to "Neptune and back in six minutes" (which would correspond to a distance of 547 light-minutes or 66 au, consistent with Neptune's being a minimum of 29 au distant from Earth).
Factored language model Summary Factored_language_model The factored language model (FLM) is an extension of a conventional language model introduced by Jeff Bilmes and Katrin Kirchoff in 2003. In an FLM, each word is viewed as a vector of k factors: w i = { f i 1 , . . .
Convolutional layer Dropout Deep_convolutional_neural_network > Regularization methods > Empirical > Dropout The removed nodes are then reinserted into the network with their original weights. In the training stages, p {\displaystyle p} is usually 0.5; for input nodes, it is typically much higher because information is directly lost when input nodes are ignored. At testing time after training has finished, we would ideally like to find a sample average of all possible 2 n {\displaystyle 2^{n}} dropped-out networks; unfortunately this is unfeasible for large values of n {\displaystyle n} .
Central force motion Relation to the classical two-body problem Classical_central-force_problem > Basics > Relation to the classical two-body problem Newton's laws of motion allow any classical two-body problem to be converted into a corresponding exact one-body problem. To demonstrate this, let x1 and x2 be the positions of the two particles, and let r = x1 − x2 be their relative position. Then, by Newton's second law, The final equation derives from Newton's third law; the force of the second body on the first body (F21) is equal and opposite to the force of the first body on the second (F12). Thus, the equation of motion for r can be written in the form where μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the reduced mass As a special case, the problem of two bodies interacting by a central force can be reduced to a central-force problem of one body.
Cross-reference Summary Cross-reference The term cross-reference (abbreviation: xref) can refer to either: An instance within a document which refers to related information elsewhere in the same document. In both printed and online dictionaries cross-references are important because they form a network structure of relations existing between different parts of data, dictionary-internal as well as dictionary external. In an index, a cross-reference is often denoted by See also.
Red–black tree Analogy to B-trees of order 4 Red–black_tree > Analogy to B-trees of order 4 All optimizations possible in B-trees to increase the average fill factors of clusters are possible in the equivalent multicolored binary tree. Notably, maximizing the average fill factor in a structurally equivalent B-tree is the same as reducing the total height of the multicolored tree, by increasing the number of non-black nodes. The worst case occurs when all nodes in a colored binary tree are black, the best case occurs when only a third of them are black (and the other two thirds are red nodes).
Sickness behavior Depression Sickness_behavior > Medical conditions > Depression It has been proposed that major depressive disorder is nearly identical with sickness behavior, raising the possibility that it is a maladaptive manifestation of sickness behavior due to abnormalities in circulating cytokines. Moreover, chronic, but not acute, treatment with antidepressant drugs was found to attenuate sickness behavior symptoms in rodents. The mood effects caused by interleukin-6 following an immune response have been linked to increased activity within the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, an area involved in the etiology of depression. Inflammation-associated mood change can also produce a reduction in the functional connectivity of this part of the brain to the amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and superior temporal sulcus.
Cartographic scale Representation of scale Cartographic_scale > Terminology > Representation of scale Map scales may be expressed in words (a lexical scale), as a ratio, or as a fraction. Examples are: 'one centimetre to one hundred metres' or 1:10,000 or 1/10,000 'one inch to one mile' or 1:63,360 or 1/63,360 'one centimetre to one thousand kilometres' or 1:100,000,000 or 1/100,000,000. (The ratio would usually be abbreviated to 1:100M)
String graph Background String_graph > Background Seymour Benzer (1959) described a concept similar to string graphs as they applied to genetic structures. In that context, he also posed the specific case of intersecting intervals on a line, namely the now classical family of interval graphs. Later, Sinden (1966) specified the same idea to electrical networks and printed circuits. The mathematical study of string graphs began with the paper Ehrlich, Even & Tarjan (1976) and through a collaboration between Sinden and Ronald Graham, where the characterization of string graphs eventually came to be posed as an open question at the 5th Hungarian Colloquium on Combinatorics in 1976. However, the recognition of string graphs was eventually proven to be NP-complete, implying that no simple characterization is likely to exist.
Oxymercuration reaction Other applications Oxymercuration_reaction > Other applications Oxymercuration is not limited to an alkene reacting with water to add hydroxyl and mercury groups. The carbon–mercury structure can undergo spontaneous replacement of the mercury by hydrogen, rather than persisting until a separate reduction step. In this manner, the effect is for mercury to be a Lewis acid catalyst.
Sensory neuroscience Typical experiments Sensory_neuroscience > Typical experiments A typical experiment in sensory neuroscience involves the presentation of a series of relevant stimuli to an experimental subject while the subject's brain is being monitored. This monitoring can be accomplished by noninvasive means such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or electroencephalography (EEG), or by more invasive means such as electrophysiology, the use of electrodes to record the electrical activity of single neurons or groups of neurons. fMRI measures changes in blood flow which related to the level of neural activity and provides low spatial and temporal resolution, but does provide data from the whole brain. In contrast, Electrophysiology provides very high temporal resolution (the shapes of single spikes can be resolved) and data can be obtained from single cells. This is important since computations are performed within the dendrites of individual neurons.
Stem cell lineage database Multilineage potential of mesenchymal stem cells Stem_cell_lineage_database > Advancements in stem cell research > Multilineage potential of mesenchymal stem cells Fetal tissue stem cells can give rise to a variety of differentiated cell types. However, many adult tissues contain populations of stem cells that have the capacity for renewal after trauma, disease, or aging. Stem cells found in human adult bone marrow also possess the ability to differentiate into different cell types as well. These adult bone marrow cells give rise to mesenchymal stem cells these give rise to the regeneration of mesenchymal tissues such as bone, cartilage, muscle, ligament, tendon, adipose, and stroma.
Subject indexing Exhaustivity Subject_indexing > Depth of indexing > Exhaustivity The additional time taken in an automated system would be much less significant. At the other end of the scale, in a selective index only the most important aspects are covered. Recall is reduced in a selective index as if an indexer does not include enough terms, a highly relevant article may be overlooked. Therefore, indexers should strive for a balance and consider what the document may be used. They may also have to consider the implications of time and expense.
Minimal automaton Summary Minimal_automaton In automata theory (a branch of theoretical computer science), DFA minimization is the task of transforming a given deterministic finite automaton (DFA) into an equivalent DFA that has a minimum number of states. Here, two DFAs are called equivalent if they recognize the same regular language. Several different algorithms accomplishing this task are known and described in standard textbooks on automata theory.
Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors Pantoprazole Potassium-competitive_acid_blocker > Development > Pantoprazole From the numerous already synthesized and tested compounds that fulfilled these criteria the most promising candidates were pantoprazole and its salt, pantoprazole sodium.In 1986 pantoprazole sodium sesquihydrate was synthesized and from 1987 onwards the development of pantoprazole was switched to the sodium salt which is more stable and has better compatibility with other excipients used in the drug formulation.Pantoprazole was identified after nearly seven years of research and registered for clinical use after a further seven years of development, and finally reached its first market in 1994 in Germany. During the course of the studies on pantoprazole, more than 650 PPIs had been synthesized and evaluated. Pantoprazole obtained high selection criteria in its development process — especially concerning the favorable low potential for interaction with other drugs. Good solubility of pantoprazole and a very high solution stability allowed it to become the first marketed PPI for intravenous use in critical care patients.
String graph Related graph classes String_graph > Related graph classes In particular, the subdivision of the complete graph K5 shown in the illustration is not a string graph, because K5 is not planar.Every circle graph, as an intersection graph of line segments (the chords of a circle), is also a string graph. Every chordal graph may be represented as a string graph: chordal graphs are intersection graphs of subtrees of trees, and one may form a string representation of a chordal graph by forming a planar embedding of the corresponding tree and replacing each subtree by a string that traces around the subtree's edges. The complement graph of every comparability graph is also a string graph.
PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation Derived standards PCI_eXtensions_for_Instrumentation > Derived standards In 2015 National Instruments extended the standard to use PCI Express 3.x, increasing the system bandwidth to 24 GByte/s.An MXI link provides a PC with direct control over the PXI backplane and connected cards using a PXI card and a connected PCI/CompactPCI card. This interface provides a maximum data throughput of 208 MByte/s using fiber-optic or copper cabling, and can support a maximum length of 200 metres (660 ft) using a fiber-optic connection.PXI MultiComputing (PXImc) is an interconnection standard that allows multiple PXI systems to be linked together, with each system potentially including both instrumentation and processing. Using PXImc, data gathered from one system can be processed in parallel on multiple computing nodes, or a single PC can access instruments in several PXI chassis.
Secure Socket Layer Forward secrecy Secure_Socket_Layer > Security > Forward secrecy Forward secrecy is a property of cryptographic systems which ensures that a session key derived from a set of public and private keys will not be compromised if one of the private keys is compromised in the future. Without forward secrecy, if the server's private key is compromised, not only will all future TLS-encrypted sessions using that server certificate be compromised, but also any past sessions that used it as well (provided that these past sessions were intercepted and stored at the time of transmission). An implementation of TLS can provide forward secrecy by requiring the use of ephemeral Diffie–Hellman key exchange to establish session keys, and some notable TLS implementations do so exclusively: e.g., Gmail and other Google HTTPS services that use OpenSSL.
Unequal crossover Mechanisms Unequal_crossover > Mechanisms During meiosis, the duplicated chromosomes (chromatids) in eukaryotic organisms are attached to each other in the centromere region and are thus paired. The maternal and paternal chromosomes then align alongside each other. During this time, recombination can take place via crossing over of sections of the paternal and maternal chromatids and leads to reciprocal recombination or non-reciprocal recombination. Unequal crossing over requires a measure of similarity between the sequences for misalignment to occur.
Wankel engine Aircraft Wankel_rotary_engine > Non-road vehicle applications > Aircraft The aim is to reduce fuel consumption and emissions by up to 25%. An onboard 40 hp (30 kW) Austro Engines rotary engine and generator provides the electricity. A propeller speed reduction unit is eliminated.
Smart City Data collection Smart_Cities > Data collection This data could be collected through sensors such as cameras, RFID, or GPS positioning. The perception layer sends data it collects using wireless transmissions to the network layer. The network layer is responsible for transporting collected data from the perception layer to the application layer.
Common integrals in quantum field theory Gaussian integral Common_integrals_in_quantum_field_theory > Variations on a simple Gaussian integral > Gaussian integral The first integral, with broad application outside of quantum field theory, is the Gaussian integral. In physics the factor of 1/2 in the argument of the exponential is common. Note: Thus we obtain
Model Theory Canonical textbooks Model_Theory > References > Canonical textbooks Kopperman, R. (1972). Model Theory and Its Applications.
Fractional crystallisation (geology) Igneous rocks Fractional_crystallisation_(geology) > Igneous rocks Fractional crystallization is the removal and segregation from a melt of mineral precipitates; except in special cases, removal of the crystals changes the composition of the magma. In essence, fractional crystallization is the removal of early formed crystals from an originally homogeneous magma (for example, by gravity settling) so that these crystals are prevented from further reaction with the residual melt. The composition of the remaining melt becomes relatively depleted in some components and enriched in others, resulting in the precipitation of a sequence of different minerals.Fractional crystallization in silicate melts (magmas) is complex compared to crystallization in chemical systems at constant pressure and composition, because changes in pressure and composition can have dramatic effects on magma evolution. Addition and loss of water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are among the compositional changes that must be considered.
Impossibility proof In natural science Proof_of_impossibility > In natural science In natural science, impossibility assertions (like other assertions) come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. Two examples of widely accepted impossibilities in physics are perpetual motion machines, which violate the law of conservation of energy, and exceeding the speed of light, which violates the implications of special relativity. Another is the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, which asserts the impossibility of simultaneously knowing both the position and the momentum of a particle.
Schizochroal eye Summary Schizochroal_eye Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons (neurones). In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain.
Yves Pomeau Research Yves_Pomeau > Research In his thesis he showed that in a dense fluid the interactions are different from what they are at equilibrium and propagate through hydrodynamic modes, which leads to the divergence of transport coefficients in 2 spatial dimensions. This aroused his interest in fluid mechanics, and in the transition to turbulence. Together with Paul Manneville they discovered a new mode of transition to turbulence, the transition by temporal Intermittency, which was confirmed by numerous experimental observations and CFD simulations. This is the so-called Pomeau–Manneville scenario, associated with the Pomeau-Manneville maps In papers published in 1973 and 1976, Jean Hardy, Pomeau and Olivier de Pazzis introduced the first lattice Boltzmann model, which is called the HPP model after the authors.
Genetically modified organisms Summary Genetically_modified_organisms The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. Golden rice has been engineered with three genes that increase its nutritional value. Other prospects for GM crops are as bioreactors for the production of biopharmaceuticals, biofuels, or medicines.
Equilibrium state Cited bibliography Thermodynamical_equilibrium > Cited bibliography (1970). Classical Thermodynamics, translated by E.S. Halberstadt, Wiley–Interscience, London.
Cell biomechanics Ongoing research concerns Cell_biomechanics > Ongoing research concerns Thus, the time-dependent and predictive theoretical description of cell mechanics remains to be incomplete. It is also not fully understood whether mechanical phenomena are side products of biological processes or they are controlled at the genetic and physiological level through feedback loops, actuation and response pathways given our existing knowledge of cell physiology or neurophysiology. == References ==
Data matrix (statistics) Definition Design_matrix > Definition The design matrix is defined to be a matrix X {\displaystyle X} such that X i j {\displaystyle X_{ij}} (the jth column of the ith row of X {\displaystyle X} ) represents the value of the jth variable associated with the ith object. A regression model may be represented via matrix multiplication as y = X β + e , {\displaystyle y=X\beta +e,} where X is the design matrix, β {\displaystyle \beta } is a vector of the model's coefficients (one for each variable), e {\displaystyle e} is a vector of random errors with mean zero, and y is the vector of predicted outputs for each object.
Growth chart Summary Growth_velocity It's important to note that other parameters are more commonly used such as waist circumference for assessing obesity and skin fold difference for assessing malnutrition. Growth charts can also be compiled with a portion of the population deemed to have been raised in more or less ideal environments, such as nutrition that conforms to pediatric guidelines, and no maternal smoking.
Laplacian plane Summary Laplace_plane The Laplace plane or Laplacian plane of a planetary satellite, named after its discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), is a mean or reference plane about whose axis the instantaneous orbital plane of that satellite precesses. Laplace's name is sometimes applied to the invariable plane, which is the plane perpendicular to a system's mean angular momentum vector, but the two should not be confused. They are equivalent only in the case where all perturbers and resonances are far from the precessing body.
Multi-state modeling of biomolecules Multi-state biomolecules in signal transduction Multi-state_modeling_of_biomolecules > Introduction > Multi-state biomolecules in signal transduction In living cells, signals are processed by networks of proteins that can act as complex computational devices. These networks rely on the ability of single proteins to exist in a variety of functionally different states achieved through multiple mechanisms, including post-translational modifications, ligand binding, conformational change, or formation of new complexes. Similarly, nucleic acids can undergo a variety of transformations, including protein binding, binding of other nucleic acids, conformational change and DNA methylation. In addition, several types of modifications can co-exist, exerting a combined influence on a biological macromolecule at any given time.
Glossary of probability and statistics M Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics > M M-estimator marginal distribution Given two jointly distributed random variables X and Y, the marginal distribution of X is simply the probability distribution of X when information about Y is ignored. marginal likelihood marginal probability The probability of a given event, ignoring any information about other events. The marginal probability of A is written P(A). Contrast conditional probability.
Sequence analysis in social sciences Describing and rendering state sequences Sequence_analysis_in_social_sciences > Methods > Describing and rendering state sequences Given an alignment rule, a set of sequences can be represented in tabular form with sequences in rows and columns corresponding to the positions in the sequences.
Two New Sciences The two new sciences Two_New_Sciences > The two new sciences The two sciences mentioned in the title are the strength of materials and the motion of objects (the forebears of modern material engineering and kinematics). In the title of the book "mechanics" and "motion" are separate, since at Galileo's time "mechanics" meant only statics and strength of materials.
Kernel-independent component analysis Summary Kernel-independent_component_analysis In statistics, kernel-independent component analysis (kernel ICA) is an efficient algorithm for independent component analysis which estimates source components by optimizing a generalized variance contrast function, which is based on representations in a reproducing kernel Hilbert space. Those contrast functions use the notion of mutual information as a measure of statistical independence.
Lactose intolerant Causes Lactose_intolerence > Causes Populations that are lactose intolerant lack this mutation. The LCT and MCM6 genes are both located on the long arm (q) of chromosome 2 in region 21.
Spike sorting Summary Spike_sorting Spike sorting refers to the process of assigning spikes to different neurons. The background to this is that the exact time course of a spike event as recorded by the electrode depends on the size and shape of the neuron, the position of the recording electrode relative to the neuron, etc. These electrodes, positioned outside of the cells in the tissue, however, often 'see' the spikes generated by several neurons in their vicinity. Since the spike shapes are unique and quite reproducible for each neuron they can be used to distinguish spikes produced by different neurons, i.e. to separate the activity produced by each.
Vector cross product Conversion to matrix multiplication Xyzzy_(mnemonic) > Alternative ways to compute > Conversion to matrix multiplication The vector cross product also can be expressed as the product of a skew-symmetric matrix and a vector: where superscript T refers to the transpose operation, and × is defined by: The columns ×,i of the skew-symmetric matrix for a vector a can be also obtained by calculating the cross product with unit vectors. That is, or where ⊗ {\displaystyle \otimes } is the outer product operator. Also, if a is itself expressed as a cross product: then This result can be generalized to higher dimensions using geometric algebra. In particular in any dimension bivectors can be identified with skew-symmetric matrices, so the product between a skew-symmetric matrix and vector is equivalent to the grade-1 part of the product of a bivector and vector.
Large aircraft Structure Large_aircraft > Characteristics > Structure Large aircraft do still pose a design challenge. The structural members may be no thicker, but they are now twice as long, so stiffness becomes a problem, and the design approach must be adapted to ensure adequate overall stiffness. This is typically achieved by making structural members cellular. For example, the wing spar in a small aircraft may in fact be a simple I-beam with a solid cross-section, but in a larger design the upright part of the beam or "web" will be constructed as an open lattice of trusses in a triangulated structure.
Fundamental vector field Motivation Fundamental_vector_field > Motivation The flow ϕ X: R × M → M {\displaystyle \phi _{X}:\mathbb {R} \times M\to M} given by ϕ X ( t , p ) = γ p ( t ) {\displaystyle \phi _{X}(t,p)=\gamma _{p}(t)} is in fact an action of the additive Lie group ( R , + ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {R} ,+)} on M {\displaystyle M} . Conversely, every smooth action A: R × M → M {\displaystyle A:\mathbb {R} \times M\to M} defines a complete vector field X {\displaystyle X} via the equation: X p = d d t | t = 0 A ( t , p ) . {\displaystyle X_{p}=\left.
Variance-to-mean ratio Similar ratios Variance-to-mean_ratio > See also > Similar ratios Coefficient of variation, σ / μ {\displaystyle \sigma /\mu } Standardized moment, μ k / σ k {\displaystyle \mu _{k}/\sigma ^{k}} Fano factor, σ W 2 / μ W {\displaystyle \sigma _{W}^{2}/\mu _{W}} (windowed VMR) signal-to-noise ratio, μ / σ {\displaystyle \mu /\sigma } (in signal processing)
Convolution for optical broad-beam responses in scattering media First interactions Convolution_for_optical_broad-beam_responses_in_scattering_media > Errors in numerical evaluation > First interactions First photon-tissue interactions always occur on the z axis and hence contribute to the specific absorption or related physical quantities as a Dirac delta function. Errors will result if absorption due to the first interactions is not recorded separately from absorption due to subsequent interactions. The total impulse response can be expressed in two parts: C ( r , z ) = G 1 ( 0 , z ) δ ( r ) 2 π r + G 2 ( r , z ) , ( 12 ) {\displaystyle C(r,z)=G_{1}(0,z){\frac {\delta (r)}{2\pi r}}+G_{2}(r,z),\qquad (12)} where the first term results from the first interactions and the second, from subsequent interactions. For a Gaussian beam, we have C ( r , z ) = G 1 ( 0 , z ) S ( r ) + 2 π S 0 ∫ 0 ∞ G 2 ( r ″ , z ) e x p I 0 e ( 4 r r ″ R 2 ) r ″ d r ″ . ( 13 ) {\displaystyle C(r,z)=G_{1}(0,z)S(r)+2\pi S_{0}\int _{0}^{\infty }G_{2}(r'',z)\,exp\leftI_{0e}\left({\frac {4rr''}{R^{2}}}\right)r''\,dr''.\qquad (13)} For a top-hat beam, we have C ( r , z ) = G 1 ( 0 , z ) S ( r ) + 2 π S 0 ∫ 0 ∞ G 2 ( r ″ , z ) I ϕ ( r , r ″ ) r ″ d r ″ . ( 14 ) {\displaystyle C(r,z)=G_{1}(0,z)S(r)+2\pi S_{0}\int _{0}^{\infty }G_{2}(r'',z)I_{\phi }(r,r'')r''\,dr''.\qquad (14)}
Heterogametic sex Summary Homogametic_sex Sex ratio distortion has been observed in mice, mosquitos, and other organisms and can be caused by meiotic drive elements. Heterogamesis can lead to reduced or absent meiotic recombination between the sex chromosomes, and in some species, this extends to the autosomes, a phenomenon called achiasmy. For example, most lineages of male Drosophila melanogaster flies are achiasmic, lacking recombination on all chromosomes, although females show recombination.
Software standard Open versus closed standards Software_standard > Open versus closed standards A standard can be a closed standard or an open standard. The documentation for an open standard is open to the public and anyone can create a software that implements and uses the standard. The documentation and specification for closed standards are not available to the public, enabling its developer to sell and license the code to manage their data format to other interested software developers. While this process increases the revenue potential for a useful file format, it may limit acceptance and drive the adoption of a similar, open standard instead.
Atomic battery Betavoltaic conversion Nuclear_battery > Non-thermal conversion > Radiovoltaic conversion > Betavoltaic conversion Betavoltaic devices use a semiconductor junction to produce electrical energy from energetic beta particles (electrons). A commonly used source is the hydrogen isotope tritium. Betavoltaic devices are particularly well-suited to low-power electrical applications where long life of the energy source is needed, such as implantable medical devices or military and space applications.
Electron-degenerate matter Concept Neutron_degenerate_matter > Concept : 436 The electrons are confined by Coulomb attraction to positive ion cores; the neutrons are confined by gravitation attraction. The fermions, forced in to higher levels by the Pauli principle, exert pressure preventing further compression. The allocation or distribution of fermions into quantum states ranked by energy is called the Fermi-Dirac distribution. : 30 Degenerate matter exhibits the results of Fermi-Dirac distribution.
Lorentz Force Law Charged particle Lorentz_Force_Law > Equation > Charged particle The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. In that context, it is also called the Laplace force. The Lorentz force is a force exerted by the electromagnetic field on the charged particle, that is, it is the rate at which linear momentum is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the particle. Associated with it is the power which is the rate at which energy is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the particle. That power is Notice that the magnetic field does not contribute to the power because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
Human brain Regulation Human_brain > Function > Regulation In the circadian day an ultradian rhythm takes control of the sleeping pattern. Sleep is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build-up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep.
Fermat primality test Summary Fermat_primality_test The Fermat primality test is a probabilistic test to determine whether a number is a probable prime.
Light front quantization Overview Light_front_quantization > Overview The state of the system then does not have a definite number of particles, but is instead a quantum-mechanical linear combination of Fock states, each with a definite particle number. Any single measurement of particle number will return a value with a probability determined by the amplitude of the Fock state with that number of particles. These amplitudes are the light-front wave functions.
LdrD-RdlD toxin-antitoxin system Suspected mechanism of inhibition LdrD-RdlD_toxin-antitoxin_system > Suspected mechanism of inhibition The precise mechanism by which RdlD inhibits LdrD is unknown, however it has been shown that RdlD seems to regulate LdrD expression at the post-transcriptional level. The RdlD antisense RNA does not overlap with the translational initiation region of ldrD, as is common with Type 1 toxin-antitoxin systems.
Astronomical albedo Trees Astronomical_albedo > Examples of terrestrial albedo effects > Trees The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.
Quadtree Summary Quad_tree A quadtree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly four children. Quadtrees are the two-dimensional analog of octrees and are most often used to partition a two-dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into four quadrants or regions. The data associated with a leaf cell varies by application, but the leaf cell represents a "unit of interesting spatial information". The subdivided regions may be square or rectangular, or may have arbitrary shapes.
Aufbau Principle Exceptions in the f-block Aufbau_Principle > Madelung energy ordering rule > Exceptions in the f-block The valence d-subshell often "borrows" one electron (in the case of thorium two electrons) from the valence f-subshell. For example, in uranium 92U, according to the Madelung rule, the 5f subshell (n + l = 5 + 3 = 8) is occupied before the 6d subshell (n + l = 6 + 2 = 8). The rule then predicts the electron configuration 5f4 7s2 where denotes the configuration of radon, the preceding noble gas. However, the measured electron configuration of the uranium atom is 5f3 6d1 7s2.
Portal hypertension Causes Portal_hypertension > Causes The causes for portal hypertension are classified as originating in the portal venous system before it reaches the liver (prehepatic causes), within the liver (intrahepatic) or between the liver and the heart (post-hepatic). The most common cause is cirrhosis (chronic liver failure). Other causes include:Prehepatic causes Portal vein thrombosis Splenic vein thrombosis Arteriovenous fistula (increased portal blood flow) Splenomegaly and/or hypersplenism (increased portal blood flow)Hepatic causes Cirrhosis of any cause. alcohol use disorder chronic viral hepatitis biliary atresia Primary biliary cirrhosis Primary sclerosing cholangitis Chronic pancreatitis Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia Schistosomiasis Congenital hepatic fibrosis Nodular regenerative hyperplasia Fibrosis of space of Disse Granulomatous or infiltrative liver diseases (Gaucher disease, mucopolysaccharidosis, sarcoidosis, lymphoproliferative malignancies, amyloidosis, etc.) Toxicity (from arsenic, copper, vinyl chloride monomers, mineral oil, vitamin A, azathioprine, dacarbazine, methotrexate, amiodarone, etc.) Viral hepatitis Fatty liver disease Veno-occlusive diseasePosthepatic causes Inferior vena cava obstruction Right-sided heart failure, e.g. from constrictive pericarditis Budd–Chiari syndrome also known as hepatic vein thrombosis
Flux limiters Summary Flux_limiters Flux limiters are used in high resolution schemes – numerical schemes used to solve problems in science and engineering, particularly fluid dynamics, described by partial differential equations (PDEs). They are used in high resolution schemes, such as the MUSCL scheme, to avoid the spurious oscillations (wiggles) that would otherwise occur with high order spatial discretization schemes due to shocks, discontinuities or sharp changes in the solution domain. Use of flux limiters, together with an appropriate high resolution scheme, make the solutions total variation diminishing (TVD). Note that flux limiters are also referred to as slope limiters because they both have the same mathematical form, and both have the effect of limiting the solution gradient near shocks or discontinuities. In general, the term flux limiter is used when the limiter acts on system fluxes, and slope limiter is used when the limiter acts on system states (like pressure, velocity etc.).
Sexual selection in human evolution Contest competition Sexual_selection_in_human_evolution > Sexual selection in males > Contest competition Contest competition is form of sexual selection in which mating is obtained by using force or the threat of force to exclude same-sex competitors from mates. Male contest competition favors large body size, which is seen in the sexual dimorphism of human males and females. In all living hominid species, males are more muscular, allowing them to have more strength and power. Human males have 61% more overall muscle mass compared to females.
Quantum theory of gravity String theory Quantum_Gravity > Quantum mechanics and general relativity > Spacetime background dependence > String theory String theory can be seen as a generalization of quantum field theory where instead of point particles, string-like objects propagate in a fixed spacetime background, although the interactions among closed strings give rise to space-time in a dynamic way. Although string theory had its origins in the study of quark confinement and not of quantum gravity, it was soon discovered that the string spectrum contains the graviton, and that "condensation" of certain vibration modes of strings is equivalent to a modification of the original background. In this sense, string perturbation theory exhibits exactly the features one would expect of a perturbation theory that may exhibit a strong dependence on asymptotics (as seen, for example, in the AdS/CFT correspondence) which is a weak form of background dependence.
Driftless Area Geology Driftless_Area > Characteristic landforms > Geology The sedimentary rocks of the valley walls date to the Paleozoic Era and are often covered with colluvium or loess. Bedrock, where not directly exposed, is very near the surface and is composed of "primarily Ordovician dolomite, limestone, and sandstone in Minnesota, with Cambrian sandstone, shale, and dolomite exposed along the valley walls of the Mississippi River." In the east, the Baraboo Range, an ancient, profoundly eroded monadnock in south central Wisconsin, consists primarily of Precambrian quartzite and rhyolite.
Symmetry Breaking and Cortical Rotation Summary Symmetry_Breaking_and_Cortical_Rotation One of the most studied examples is the cortical rotation during Xenopus development, where this rotation acts as the symmetry-breaking event that determines the dorsal-ventral axis of the developing embryo. This example is discussed in more detail below. Another example that involves symmetry breaking is the establishment of dendrites and axon during neuron development, and the PAR protein network in C. elegans. It is thought that a protein called shootin-1 determines which outgrowth in neurons eventually becomes the axon, at it does this by breaking symmetry and accumulating in only one outgrowth. The PAR protein network works under similar mechanisms, where the certain PAR proteins, which are initially homogenous throughout the cell, break their symmetry and are segregated to different ends of the zygote to establish a polarity during development.
SnCl2 Preparation Cl2Sn > Preparation Anhydrous SnCl2 is prepared by the action of dry hydrogen chloride gas on tin metal. The dihydrate is made by a similar reaction, using hydrochloric acid: Sn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → SnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)The water then carefully evaporated from the acidic solution to produce crystals of SnCl2·2H2O. This dihydrate can be dehydrated to anhydrous using acetic anhydride.
Energy industry Security Energy_industry > Politics > Security With new advancements in renewable resources less pressure has been put on companies that produce the world's oil, these resources are, geothermal, solar power, wind power and hydro-electric. Although these are not all the current and possible future options for the world to turn to as the oil depletes the most important issue is protecting these vital resources from future threats. These new resources will become more useful as the price of exporting and importing oil will increase due to increase of demand.
Computer simulation and organizational studies Basic distinctions/definitions Computer_simulation_and_organizational_studies > Basic distinctions/definitions Researchers studying organizations and firms using computer simulations utilize a variety of basic distinctions and definitions that are common in computational science Agent-based vs Equation-based: agent-based models unfold according to the interactions of relatively simple actions, while equation-based models unfold numerically based on a variety of dynamic or steady-state equations (Note: some argue this is something of a false distinction since some agent based models use equations to direct the behavior of their agents) Model: simplified versions of the real world that contain only essential elements of theoretical interest Complexity of the model: the number of conceptual parts in the model and the connections between those parts Deterministic vs. Stochastic: deterministic models unfold exactly as specified by some pre-specified logic, while stochastic models depend on a variety of draws from probability distributions Optimizing vs. Descriptive: models with actors that either seek optimums (like the peaks in fitness landscapes) or do not
Givens rotation Triangularization Givens_rotation > Triangularization This new matrix A3 is the upper triangular matrix needed to perform an iteration of the QR decomposition. Q is now formed using the transpose of the rotation matrices in the following manner: Q = G 1 T G 2 T .
Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy Medical uses Pancreatic_enzyme_replacement_therapy > Medical uses It is composed of amylase, lipase and protease. This mixture is used to treat conditions in which pancreatic secretions are deficient, such as surgical pancreatectomy, pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis. It has been claimed to help with food allergies, celiac disease, autoimmune disease, cancer and weight loss.
Irreducible complexity Reducibility of "irreducible" systems Irreducibly_complex > Response of the scientific community > Reducibility of "irreducible" systems They claim that Behe overestimated the significance of irreducible complexity because of his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions, resulting in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures, and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded. They also criticized his over-reliance on overly simplistic metaphors, such as his mousetrap. A computer model of the co-evolution of proteins binding to DNA in the peer-reviewed journal Nucleic Acids Research consisted of several parts (DNA binders and DNA binding sites) which contribute to the basic function; removal of either one leads immediately to the death of the organism.
Selective glucocorticoid receptor agonists Mechanism of action Selective_glucocorticoid_receptor_agonists > Mechanism of action These target genes encode proteins such as cyclooxygenase, NO synthase, phospholipase A2, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor beta, ICAM-1, and a number of other pro-inflammatory proteins.Hence the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids results from both transactivation and transrepression. In contrast, studies in rats and mice have shown that most of the side effects of glucocorticoids, such as diabetogenic activity, osteoporosis, as well as skin atrophy, are mainly caused by transactivation.
Penetrating head injury Cause Penetrating_head_injury > Cause In penetrating injury from high-velocity missiles, injuries may occur not only from initial laceration and crushing of brain tissue by the projectile, but also from the subsequent cavitation. High-velocity objects create rotations and can create a shock wave that cause stretch injuries, forming a cavity that is three to four times greater in diameter than the missile itself. A pulsating temporary cavity is also formed by a high-speed missile and can have a diameter 30 times greater than that of the missile. Though this cavity is reduced in size once the force ends, the tissue that was compressed during cavitation remains injured.
Contact homology Research articles Contact_homology > References > Research articles 41 (6): 775–813. doi:10.1002/cpa.3160410603. ——— (1988).
Remote Terminal Unit Analog inputs Remote_Terminal_Unit > Architecture > Analog inputs An RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types including 0-1 mA, 4–20 mA current loop, 0–10 V., ±2.5 V, ±5.0 V etc. Many RTU inputs buffer larger quantities via transducers to convert and isolate real-world quantities from sensitive RTU input levels. An RTU can also receive analog data via a communication system from a master or IED (intelligent electronic device) sending data values to it. The RTU or host system translates and scales this raw data into the appropriate units such as the quantity of water left, temperature degrees, or Megawatts, before presenting the data to the user via the human–machine interface.
Rejuvenation Modern developments Rejuvenation > Modern developments The first applications of this technology are to isolate stem cells from the bone marrow of patients having blood disease mutations, to correct those mutations in laboratory dishes using zinc finger endonucleases and to transplant the stem cells back into the patients. More recent efforts leverage CRISPR-Cas systems or adeno-associated viruses (AAVs). Enhanced DNA repair has been proposed as a potential rejuvenation strategy.Stem cell regenerative medicine uses three different strategies: Implantation of stem cells from culture into an existing tissue structure Implantation of stem cells into a tissue scaffold that guides restoration Induction of residual cells of a tissue structure to regenerate the necessary body partA salamander can not only regenerate a limb, but can regenerate the lens or retina of an eye and can regenerate an intestine.
Nonlinear regression General Nonlinear_regression > General In nonlinear regression, a statistical model of the form, y ∼ f ( x , β ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} \sim f(\mathbf {x} ,{\boldsymbol {\beta }})} relates a vector of independent variables, x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } , and its associated observed dependent variables, y {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} } . The function f {\displaystyle f} is nonlinear in the components of the vector of parameters β {\displaystyle \beta } , but otherwise arbitrary. For example, the Michaelis–Menten model for enzyme kinetics has two parameters and one independent variable, related by f {\displaystyle f} by: f ( x , β ) = β 1 x β 2 + x {\displaystyle f(x,{\boldsymbol {\beta }})={\frac {\beta _{1}x}{\beta _{2}+x}}} This function is nonlinear because it cannot be expressed as a linear combination of the two β {\displaystyle \beta } s. Systematic error may be present in the independent variables but its treatment is outside the scope of regression analysis. If the independent variables are not error-free, this is an errors-in-variables model, also outside this scope.
Trinity (The Matrix) Character overview Trinity_(The_Matrix) > Character overview Like the series' other main characters, Trinity is a computer programmer and a hacker who has escaped from the Matrix, a sophisticated computer program where most humans are imprisoned. Though few specifics are revealed about her previous life inside the Matrix, it is told that she cracked a database so secure that she is famous among hackers, and that Morpheus, one of a number of real-world hovercraft commanders, initially identified her and helped her escape from the program. At the beginning of the series, she is first mate on Morpheus' Nebuchadnezzar and serves mainly as a go-between for him and the individuals he wishes to free from the Matrix. As the series progresses, her primary importance as a character becomes her close relationship with Neo. She is skilled with computers, at operating vehicles both inside and outside the Matrix, and in martial arts.
Glyoxalase system Major metabolic pathways converging on the glyoxalase cycle Glyoxalase_system > Major metabolic pathways converging on the glyoxalase cycle Although the glyoxalase pathway is the main metabolic system that reduces methylglyoxal levels in the cell, other enzymes have also been found to convert methylglyoxal into non-AGE producing species: specifically, 99% of MG is processed by glyoxalase metabolism, while less than 1% is metabolized into hydroxyacetone by aldo-keto reductases (AKRs) or into pyruvate by aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH). Other reactions have been found to produce MG that also feeds into the glyoxalase pathway. These reactions include catabolism of threonine and acetone, peroxidation of lipids, autoxidation of glucose, and degradation of glycated proteins.
Inorganic chemist Qualitative theories Inorganic_chemical_reaction > Theoretical inorganic chemistry > Qualitative theories Inorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories. Such theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum theory. Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts, or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an explanation for why NH3 is pyramidal whereas ClF3 is T-shaped. For the transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why 3− has only one unpaired electron, whereas 3+ has five. A particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting, focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in a molecule.
Health Level 7 Clinical Document Architecture Health_Level_7 > Primary standards > Clinical Document Architecture The HL7 Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure and semantics of clinical documents for exchange. The standard was jointly published with ISO as ISO/HL7 27932.
Screw-propelled vehicle Summary Screw_propelled_vehicle The counter-rotations cancel out so that the vehicle moves forwards (or backwards) along the axis of rotation. The principle of the operation is the inverse of the screw conveyor. A screw conveyor uses a helical screw to move semi-solid materials horizontally or at a slight incline; in a screw propelled vehicle, the semi-solid substrate remains stationary and the machine itself moves.
T2 weighted Artifacts Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging > Artifacts An MRI artifact is a visual artifact, that is, an anomaly during visual representation. Many different artifacts can occur during magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), some affecting the diagnostic quality, while others may be confused with pathology. Artifacts can be classified as patient-related, signal processing-dependent and hardware (machine)-related.
Naïve physics Psychological research Naïve_physics > Psychological research At this point, the experimenter will introduce another stimulus. The infant will then dishabituate by attending to the new stimulus. In each case, the experimenter measures the time it takes for the infant to habituate to each stimulus.