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Atmospheric turbulence Features Atmospheric_turbulence > Features For instance, in large bodies of water like oceans this coefficient can be found using Richardson's four-third power law and is governed by the random walk principle. In rivers and large ocean currents, the diffusion coefficient is given by variations of Elder's formula. Rotationality Turbulent flows have non-zero vorticity and are characterized by a strong three-dimensional vortex generation mechanism known as vortex stretching.
Ground level ozone Health effects Ground-level_ozone > Health effects Examples of these respiratory complications include bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Inflammation and damage to the lining of the lungs. Within a few days, the damaged cells are shed and replaced much like the skin peels after a sunburn.
Hamiltonian flow Summary Hamiltonian_vector_field In mathematics and physics, a Hamiltonian vector field on a symplectic manifold is a vector field defined for any energy function or Hamiltonian. Named after the physicist and mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton, a Hamiltonian vector field is a geometric manifestation of Hamilton's equations in classical mechanics. The integral curves of a Hamiltonian vector field represent solutions to the equations of motion in the Hamiltonian form. The diffeomorphisms of a symplectic manifold arising from the flow of a Hamiltonian vector field are known as canonical transformations in physics and (Hamiltonian) symplectomorphisms in mathematics.Hamiltonian vector fields can be defined more generally on an arbitrary Poisson manifold. The Lie bracket of two Hamiltonian vector fields corresponding to functions f and g on the manifold is itself a Hamiltonian vector field, with the Hamiltonian given by the Poisson bracket of f and g.
Internet performance Subnetwork Internet > Internet Protocol Suite > Internet protocol > Subnetwork In the address allocation architecture of the Internet using CIDR and in large organizations, it is necessary to allocate address space efficiently. Subnetting may also enhance routing efficiency, or have advantages in network management when subnetworks are administratively controlled by different entities in a larger organization. Subnets may be arranged logically in a hierarchical architecture, partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like routing structure.
PP (complexity class) PP compared to other complexity classes Probabilistic_polynomial-time > PP compared to other complexity classes Furthermore, PP includes MA, which subsumes the previous two inclusions. PP also includes BQP, the class of decision problems solvable by efficient polynomial time quantum computers. In fact, BQP is low for PP, meaning that a PP machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve BQP problems instantly.
Electric conductivity In ionic liquids/electrolytes Electrical_conduction > Causes of conductivity > In ionic liquids/electrolytes In electrolytes, electrical conduction happens not by band electrons or holes, but by full atomic species (ions) traveling, each carrying an electrical charge. The resistivity of ionic solutions (electrolytes) varies tremendously with concentration – while distilled water is almost an insulator, salt water is a reasonable electrical conductor. Conduction in ionic liquids is also controlled by the movement of ions, but here we are talking about molten salts rather than solvated ions. In biological membranes, currents are carried by ionic salts. Small holes in cell membranes, called ion channels, are selective to specific ions and determine the membrane resistance. The concentration of ions in a liquid (e.g., in an aqueous solution) depends on the degree of dissociation of the dissolved substance, characterized by a dissociation coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } , which is the ratio of the concentration of ions N {\displaystyle N} to the concentration of molecules of the dissolved substance N 0 {\displaystyle N_{0}}: The specific electrical conductivity ( σ {\displaystyle \sigma } ) of a solution is equal to: where q {\displaystyle q}: module of the ion charge, b + {\displaystyle b^{+}} and b − {\displaystyle b^{-}}: mobility of positively and negatively charged ions, N 0 {\displaystyle N_{0}}: concentration of molecules of the dissolved substance, α {\displaystyle \alpha }: the coefficient of dissociation.
Visual indexing theory Attentional facilitation Visual_indexing_theory > Overview > Role in the visual perception process > Attentional facilitation FINSTs do not directly convey any information about an indexed object, beyond its position at a given instant. "Thus, on initial contact, objects are not interpreted as belonging to a certain type or having certain properties; in other words, objects are initially detected without being conceptualised." Like the fingers described above, FINSTs' role in visual perception is purely an indexical one.
Psychophysics Method of limits Psychophysics > Experimentation > Classical psychophysical methods > Method of limits In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected.In experiments, the ascending and descending methods are used alternately and the thresholds are averaged.
Food and biological process engineering Genetic engineering Food_and_biological_process_engineering > Concepts > Genetic engineering Modern food and biological process engineering relies heavily on applications of genetic manipulation. By understanding plants and animals on the molecular level, scientists are able to engineer them with specific goals in mind.Among the most notable applications of such genetic engineering is the creation of disease or insect resistant plants, such as those modified to produce Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterium that kills strain-specific varieties of insect upon consumption. However, insects are able to adapt to Bacillus thuringiensis strains, necessitating continued research to maintain disease-resistance.
Catalytic activity Bulk chemicals Catalyst > Significance > Bulk chemicals Bulk polymers derived from ethylene and propylene are often prepared via Ziegler-Natta catalysis. Polyesters, polyamides, and isocyanates are derived via acid-base catalysis. Most carbonylation processes require metal catalysts, examples include the Monsanto acetic acid process and hydroformylation.
Methyl diethanolamine MDEA blends Methyl_diethanolamine > MDEA blends MDEA is less reactive towards CO2, but has an equilibrium loading capacity approaching 1 mole CO2 per mole amine. It also requires less energy to regenerate. To combine the advantages of MDEA and the smaller amines, MDEA is usually mixed with a catalytic promoter such as piperazine, PZ, or a fast reacting amine such as MEA to retain reactivity, but lower regeneration costs. Activated MDEA or aMDEA uses piperazine as a catalyst to increase the speed of the reaction with CO2.
Social affordance Social affordances and human-computer interaction Social_affordance > Social affordances and human-computer interaction Human-computer interactions were proposed by the effects that arise from the human and computer interactions in computer assisted education software. It later expands its usage to any social interaction between computer related applications and its users. In computer assisted education software, social affordance is evaluated with five characteristics: Accessibility, Contextualisation, Professional learning, Communities, Learning design, Adaptability. Social affordance in interactive website also exists. Evaluations of social affordances in websites have focused on some of the following features: Tagging, User Profiles, Activity Streams, Comments, Ratings and Votes. These social affordances allow users to be aware of other users’ opinions, thoughts and feedback and, in so doing, help to engage users and build social connections.
Closed-form equation Differential Galois theory Analytic_expression > Dealing with non-closed-form expressions > Differential Galois theory The integral of a closed-form expression may or may not itself be expressible as a closed-form expression. This study is referred to as differential Galois theory, by analogy with algebraic Galois theory. The basic theorem of differential Galois theory is due to Joseph Liouville in the 1830s and 1840s and hence referred to as Liouville's theorem. A standard example of an elementary function whose antiderivative does not have a closed-form expression is: whose one antiderivative is (up to a multiplicative constant) the error function:
Decentralized information technology Goals Decentralized_information_technology > Overview > Goals DiversityNorman L. Johnson writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like ecosystems, social groups, large organizations, political systems. "Diversity is defined to be unique properties of entities, agents, or individuals that are not shared by the larger group, population, structure. Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the agents have some ability to operate "locally."
Field experiment Characteristics Field_experiment > Characteristics Under random assignment, outcomes of field experiments are reflective of the real-world because subjects are assigned to groups based on non-deterministic probabilities. Two other core assumptions underlie the ability of the researcher to collect unbiased potential outcomes: excludability and non-interference. The excludability assumption provides that the only relevant causal agent is through the receipt of the treatment. Asymmetries in assignment, administration or measurement of treatment and control groups violate this assumption.
Gene–culture coevolution Historical development Biocultural_evolution > Historical development This book outlined a series of mathematical models of how genetic evolution might favor the selection of cultural traits and how cultural traits might, in turn, affect the speed of genetic evolution. While it was the first book published describing how genes and culture might coevolve, it had relatively little effect on the further development of DIT. Some critics felt that their models depended too heavily on genetic mechanisms at the expense of cultural mechanisms.
Projection filters Summary Projection_filters Projection filters are ideal for in-line estimation, as they are quick to implement and run efficiently in time, providing a finite dimensional SDE for the parameter that can be implemented efficiently. Projection filters are also flexible, as they allow fine tuning the precision of the approximation by choosing richer approximating families, and some exponential families make the correction step in the projection filtering algorithm exact.
Group with operators Examples Group_with_operators > Examples Given any group G, (G, ∅) is trivially a group with operators Given a module M over a ring R, R acts by scalar multiplication on the underlying abelian group of M, so (M, R) is a group with operators. As a special case of the above, every vector space over a field k is a group with operators (V, k).
Rhamnolipid Rhamnolipids biosynthesis Rhamnolipid > Rhamnolipids biosynthesis The first genes discovered in a mutagenesis screen for mutants unable to produce rhamnolipids were rhlA and rhlB. They are arranged in an operon, adjacent to rhlRI, a master regulator of quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The proteins encoded by rhlA and rhlB; RhlA and RhlB respectively, are expected to form a complex because of the operonic nature of the genes which encode these two proteins and because both proteins are necessary for production of rhamnolipids. Furthermore, it was supposed that the role of RhlA was to stabilise RhlB in the cell membrane and thus the RhlAB complex was labelled as the enzyme Rhamnosyltransferase 1 and is frequently cited as such although there is no biochemical evidence for this and RhlA has been shown to be monomeric in solution.
Kepler triangle Summary Kepler_triangle Alternative definitions of the same triangle characterize it in terms of the three Pythagorean means of two numbers, or via the inradius of isosceles triangles. This triangle is named after Johannes Kepler, but can be found in earlier sources. Although some sources claim that ancient Egyptian pyramids had proportions based on a Kepler triangle, most scholars believe that the golden ratio was not known to Egyptian mathematics and architecture.
Simulation in manufacturing systems Methods Simulation_in_manufacturing_systems > Methods This type of simulation allows to assess the system’s performance by statistically and probabilistically reproducing the interactions of all its components during a determined period of time. In some cases, manufacturing systems modelling needs a continuous simulation approach.
Intelligence collection management Collection department ratings Intelligence_collection_management > Collection department ratings In U.S. practice, a typical system, using the basic A-F and 1-6 conventions below, comes from (FM 2-22.3, Appendix B, Source and Information Reliability Matrix). Raw reports are typically given a two-part rating by the collection department, which also removes all precise source identification before sending the report to the analysts. An "A" rating might mean a thoroughly trusted source, such as your own communications intelligence operation.
History of classical mechanics Medieval thought History_of_classical_mechanics > Precursors to classical mechanics > Medieval thought Which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force. This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was later described as "impetus" by John Buridan, who was influenced by Ibn Sina's Book of Healing.In the 12th century, Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi adopted and modified Avicenna's theory on projectile motion. In his Kitab al-Mu'tabar, Abu'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination (mayl qasri) on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover.
Seiberg–Witten gauge theory Monopole condensation and confinement Seiberg–Witten_gauge_theory > Monopole condensation and confinement However, at the strongly coupled point the theory admits a dual description which is weakly coupled. The dual theory has different field content, with two N = 1 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}=1} chiral superfields M , M ~ {\displaystyle M,{\tilde {M}}} , and gauge field the dual photon A D {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}_{D}} , with a potential that gives equations of motion which are Witten's monopole equations, also known as the Seiberg–Witten equations at the critical points u = ± u 0 {\displaystyle u=\pm u_{0}} where the monopoles become massless. In the context of Seiberg–Witten invariants, one can view Donaldson invariants as coming from a twist of the original theory at u = ∞ {\displaystyle u=\infty } giving a topological field theory. On the other hand, Seiberg–Witten invariants come from twisting the dual theory at u = ± u 0 {\displaystyle u=\pm u_{0}} . In theory, such invariants should receive contributions from all finite u {\displaystyle u} but in fact can be localized to the two critical points, and topological invariants can be read off from solution spaces to the monopole equations.
Internet Governance Internet bodies Internet_Governance > Internet bodies Global Commission on Internet Governance, launched in January 2014 by two international think tanks, the Centre for International Governance Innovation and Chatham House, to make recommendations about the future of global Internet governance. International Organization for Standardization, Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166 MA): Defines names and postal codes of countries, dependent territories, special areas of geographic significance. To date it has only played a minor role in developing Internet standards. Internet Architecture Board (IAB): Oversees the technical and engineering development of the IETF and IRTF.
Cossee-Arlman mechanism Publications of historic interest Cossee–Arlman_mechanism > Publications of historic interest 3 (1): 80–89. doi:10.1016/0021-9517(64)90095-8. Arlman, E. J.
Interface (computing) In object-oriented languages Software_interface > Software interfaces > In object-oriented languages An interface called "Stack" might define two methods: push() and pop(). It can be implemented in different ways, for example, FastStack and GenericStack—the first being fast, working with a data structure of fixed size, and the second using a data structure that can be resized, but at the cost of somewhat lower speed. Though interfaces can contain many methods they may contain only one or even none at all. For example, the Java language defines the interface Readable that has the single read() method; various implementations are used for different purposes, including BufferedReader, FileReader, InputStreamReader, PipedReader, and StringReader. Marker interfaces like Serializable contain no methods at all and serve to provide run-time information to generic processing using Reflection.
Cryptocurrency Environmental impact Crypto_assets > Impacts and analysis > Environmental impact XRP is the world's most energy efficient cryptocurrency, using 0.0079 kilowatt-hours of electricity per transaction.Although the biggest PoW blockchains consume energy on the scale of medium-sized countries, the annual power demand from proof-of-stake (PoS) blockchains is on a scale equivalent to a housing estate. The Times identified six "environmentally friendly" cryptocurrencies: Chia, IOTA, Cardano, Nano, Solarcoin and Bitgreen. Academics and researchers have used various methods for estimating the energy use and energy efficiency of blockchains.
Logarithmic tangent History Tangent_function > History The trigonometric functions were later studied by mathematicians including Omar Khayyám, Bhāskara II, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Jamshīd al-Kāshī (14th century), Ulugh Beg (14th century), Regiomontanus (1464), Rheticus, and Rheticus' student Valentinus Otho. Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1400) made early strides in the analysis of trigonometric functions in terms of infinite series.
Consistency model Remote-write protocols Memory_consistency > Consistency and replication > Consistency protocols > Primary-based protocols > Remote-write protocols The primary server sends request to backups to perform the update. The server then receives the update acknowledgement from all backups and sends the acknowledgement of completion of writes to the client. Any client can read the last available update locally.
Discovery and development of tubulin inhibitors II. Tubulin polymerization inhibitors Discovery_and_development_of_tubulin_inhibitors > Tubulin binding drugs > II. Tubulin polymerization inhibitors Some were found to have effect on lower blood sugar levels and others act as hemostatics. The most interesting thing was that vinblastine and vincristine, were found to lower the number of white cells in blood. A high number of white cells in the blood indicates leukemia, so a new anti-cancer drug had been discovered.
Best fit line Assumptions Linear_modeling > Formulation > Assumptions Constant variance (a.k.a. homoscedasticity). This means that the variance of the errors does not depend on the values of the predictor variables.
Biostasis Summary Biostasis Biostasis or Cryptobiosis is the ability of an organism to tolerate environmental changes without having to actively adapt to them. Biostasis is found in organisms that live in habitats that likely encounter unfavorable living conditions, such as drought, freezing temperatures, change in pH levels, pressure, or temperature. Insects undergo a type of dormancy to survive these conditions, called diapause. Diapause may be obligatory for these insects to survive. The insect may also be able to undergo change prior to the arrival of the initiating event.
Reflexive space Reflexive locally convex spaces Reflexive_Banach_space > Reflexive locally convex spaces The notion of reflexive Banach space can be generalized to topological vector spaces in the following way. Let X {\displaystyle X} be a topological vector space over a number field F {\displaystyle \mathbb {F} } (of real numbers R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } or complex numbers C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } ). Consider its strong dual space X b ′ , {\displaystyle X_{b}^{\prime },} which consists of all continuous linear functionals f: X → F {\displaystyle f:X\to \mathbb {F} } and is equipped with the strong topology b ( X ′ , X ) , {\displaystyle b\left(X^{\prime },X\right),} that is,, the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets in X . {\displaystyle X.}
Retrometabolic drug design Summary Retrometabolic_drug_design In retrometabolic drug design, metabolic reaction information of drugs is used to design parent drugs whose metabolism and distribution can be controlled to target and eliminate the drug to increase efficacy and minimize undesirable side effects. The new drugs thus designed achieve selective organ and/or therapeutic site drug targeting and produce safe therapeutic agents and safe environmental chemicals. These approaches represent systematic methodologies that thoroughly integrate structure-activity (SAR) and structure-metabolism (SMR) relationships and are aimed at designing safe, locally active compounds with improved therapeutic index (ratio of benefit vs. side effect).
Logically consistent Consistency and completeness in arithmetic and set theory Logically_consistent > Consistency and completeness in arithmetic and set theory Moreover, Gödel's second incompleteness theorem shows that the consistency of sufficiently strong recursively enumerable theories of arithmetic can be tested in a particular way. Such a theory is consistent if and only if it does not prove a particular sentence, called the Gödel sentence of the theory, which is a formalized statement of the claim that the theory is indeed consistent. Thus the consistency of a sufficiently strong, recursively enumerable, consistent theory of arithmetic can never be proven in that system itself.
Two-body Dirac equation Constraint dynamics and the TBDE Two-body_Dirac_equation > Constraint dynamics and the TBDE frame. It does this by imposing on each Dirac operator a structure such that in a particular combination they lead to this interaction independent form, eliminating in a covariant way the relative energy. In this expression p {\displaystyle p} is the relative momentum having the form ( p 1 − p 2 ) / 2 {\displaystyle (p_{1}-p_{2})/2} for equal masses.
Mitotic phase Preprophase (plant cells) Mitosis > Phases > Mitosis > Preprophase (plant cells) This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakdown and spindle formation in prometaphase. : 58–67
Wheeled vehicle Mechanics and function Wheeled_vehicle > Mechanics and function A wheeled vehicle requires much less work to move than simply dragging the same weight. The low resistance to motion is explained by the fact that the frictional work done is no longer at the surface that the vehicle is traversing, but in the bearings. In the simplest and oldest case the bearing is just a round hole through which the axle passes (a "plain bearing"). Even with a plain bearing, the frictional work is greatly reduced because: The normal force at the sliding interface is same as with simple dragging.
Bernard Weiner Attribution theory Bernard_Weiner > Research > Attribution theory Attribution theory seeks to explain the causes of an event or behavior. A three stages process, they are observations, determination of behavior, and attributing to causes. There are two types of attributions, namely external and internal. External attribution relates causality to outside agents, whereas, internal attribution assigns the person himself for any behavior.
Blood oxygenation Fundamental limitations Pulse_oximetry > Limitations > Fundamental limitations Pulse oximetry solely measures hemoglobin saturation, not ventilation and is not a complete measure of respiratory sufficiency. It is not a substitute for blood gases checked in a laboratory, because it gives no indication of base deficit, carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, or bicarbonate (HCO3−) concentration. The metabolism of oxygen can be readily measured by monitoring expired CO2, but saturation figures give no information about blood oxygen content. Most of the oxygen in the blood is carried by hemoglobin; in severe anemia, the blood contains less hemoglobin, which despite being saturated cannot carry as much oxygen.Pulse oximetry also is not a complete measure of circulatory oxygen sufficiency.
Standard quantum limit Usage in quantum optics Quantum_limit > Examples > Usage in quantum optics In the context of interferometry or other optical measurements, the standard quantum limit usually refers to the minimum level of quantum noise which is obtainable without squeezed states.There is additionally a quantum limit for phase noise, reachable only by a laser at high noise frequencies. In spectroscopy, the shortest wavelength in an X-ray spectrum is called the quantum limit.
Characteristic function (probability theory) Data analysis Characteristic_function_(probability_theory) > Uses > Data analysis Paulson et al. (1975) and Heathcote (1977) provide some theoretical background for such an estimation procedure. In addition, Yu (2004) describes applications of empirical characteristic functions to fit time series models where likelihood procedures are impractical. Empirical characteristic functions have also been used by Ansari et al. (2020) and Li et al. (2020) for training generative adversarial networks.
Metaphase II Phases Metaphase_II > Phases Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere. This replication does not change the ploidy of the cell since the centromere number remains the same.
Dioxygen molecule Summary Dioxygen_molecule Singlet oxygen, systematically named dioxygen(singlet) and dioxidene, is a gaseous inorganic chemical with the formula O=O (also written as 1 or 1O2), which is in a quantum state where all electrons are spin paired. It is kinetically unstable at ambient temperature, but the rate of decay is slow. The lowest excited state of the diatomic oxygen molecule is a singlet state. It is a gas with physical properties differing only subtly from those of the more prevalent triplet ground state of O2.
Riemann–Stieltjes Integral Application to functional analysis Riemann–Stieltjes_Integral > Application to functional analysis The Riemann–Stieltjes integral appears in the original formulation of F. Riesz's theorem which represents the dual space of the Banach space C of continuous functions in an interval as Riemann–Stieltjes integrals against functions of bounded variation. Later, that theorem was reformulated in terms of measures. The Riemann–Stieltjes integral also appears in the formulation of the spectral theorem for (non-compact) self-adjoint (or more generally, normal) operators in a Hilbert space. In this theorem, the integral is considered with respect to a spectral family of projections.
HElib Features HElib > Features The library implements the Brakerski-Gentry-Vaikuntanathan (BGV) fully homomorphic encryption scheme, as well as optimizations such as Smart-Vercauteren ciphertext packing techniques.HElib is written in C++ and uses the NTL mathematical library. == References ==
Derivative works United States Derived_work > Definition > United States § 103(b) provides: The copyright in a compilation or derivative work extends only to the material contributed by the author of such work, as distinguished from the preexisting material employed in the work, and does not imply any exclusive right in the preexisting material. The copyright in such work is independent of, and does not affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence of, any copyright protection in the preexisting material. 17 U.S.C.
Chirality (physics) Chirality and helicity Left-right_model > Chirality and helicity The chirality of a particle is more abstract: It is determined by whether the particle transforms in a right- or left-handed representation of the Poincaré group.For massless particles – photons, gluons, and (hypothetical) gravitons – chirality is the same as helicity; a given massless particle appears to spin in the same direction along its axis of motion regardless of point of view of the observer. For massive particles – such as electrons, quarks, and neutrinos – chirality and helicity must be distinguished: In the case of these particles, it is possible for an observer to change to a reference frame moving faster than the spinning particle, in which case the particle will then appear to move backwards, and its helicity (which may be thought of as “apparent chirality”) will be reversed. That is, helicity is a constant of motion, but it is not Lorentz invariant.
Convex optimization Standard form Convex_minimization > Definition > Standard form In general, a convex optimization problem may have zero, one, or many solutions.Many optimization problems can be equivalently formulated in this standard form. For example, the problem of maximizing a concave function f {\displaystyle f} can be re-formulated equivalently as the problem of minimizing the convex function − f {\displaystyle -f} . The problem of maximizing a concave function over a convex set is commonly called a convex optimization problem.
Normally distributed Cumulative distribution functions Normal_distributions > Definitions > Cumulative distribution functions ! {\displaystyle !!}
Oral microbiology Summary Oral_microbiology Bacteria occupy the ecological niche provided by both the tooth surface and mucosal epithelium. Factors of note that have been found to affect the microbial colonization of the oral cavity include the pH, oxygen concentration and its availability at specific oral surfaces, mechanical forces acting upon oral surfaces, salivary and fluid flow through the oral cavity, and age. However, a highly efficient innate host defense system constantly monitors the bacterial colonization and prevents bacterial invasion of local tissues.
Random error Drift Observational_error > Sources > Sources of systematic error > Drift Measuring instruments such as ammeters and voltmeters need to be checked periodically against known standards. Systematic errors can also be detected by measuring already known quantities.
CALO Selected publications CALO > Selected publications Collective Multi-Label Classification, Nadia Ghamrawi and Andrew McCallum. CIKM'05, Bremen, Germany. Composition of Conditional Random Fields for Transfer Learning, Charles Sutton and Andrew McCallum.
Factorization Summary Factorization Factorization may also refer to more general decompositions of a mathematical object into the product of smaller or simpler objects. For example, every function may be factored into the composition of a surjective function with an injective function. Matrices possess many kinds of matrix factorizations. For example, every matrix has a unique LUP factorization as a product of a lower triangular matrix L with all diagonal entries equal to one, an upper triangular matrix U, and a permutation matrix P; this is a matrix formulation of Gaussian elimination.
Seediq language Numerals Seediq_language > Numerals The cardinal numbers are: kingal deha teru sepat rima mataru mpitu maspat mengari maxalOther numerals and numeral-related affixes (Tsukida 2005:297): taxa: used for humans – one person 'uwin: used for objects – one object ma- -(u)l: used to form words for 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ma-xa-l: 10 m-pusa-l: 20 me-teru-l: 30 me-sepat-ul: 40 me-rima-l: 50
Lean systems Criticism Just-in-time_manufacturing > Criticism According to Williams, it becomes necessary to find suppliers that are close by or can supply materials quickly with limited advance notice. When ordering small quantities of materials, suppliers' minimum order policies may pose a problem, though.Employees are at risk of precarious work when employed by factories that utilize just-in-time and flexible production techniques. A longitudinal study of US workers since 1970 indicates employers seeking to easily adjust their workforce in response to supply and demand conditions respond by creating more nonstandard work arrangements, such as contracting and temporary work.Natural and human-made disasters will disrupt the flow of energy, goods and services. The down-stream customers of those goods and services will, in turn, not be able to produce their product or render their service because they were counting on incoming deliveries "just in time" and so have little or no inventory to work with.
Undulipodium Summary Undulipodium An undulipodium or undulopodium (Greek: "swinging foot"; plural undulipodia), or a 9+2 organelle is a motile filamentous extracellular projection of eukaryotic cells. It is basically synonymous to flagella and cilia which are differing terms for similar molecular structures used on different types of cells, and usually correspond to different waveforms. The name was coined to differentiate from the analogous structures present in prokaryotic cells.The usage of the term was early supported by Lynn Margulis, especially in support of endosymbiotic theory. The eukaryotic cilia are structurally identical to eukaryotic flagella, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function and/or length. The Gene Ontology database does not make a distinction between the two, referring to most undulipodia as "motile cilium", and to that in the sperm as sperm flagellum.
Chemical Thermodynamics Summary Chemical_Thermodynamics Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties, but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the spontaneity of processes. The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics.
RNA Biology Abstracting and indexing RNA_Biology > Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed in: According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 4.766.
Blocking (computing) Summary Blocking_(computing) In computing, a process is an instance of a computer program that is being executed. A process always exists in exactly one process state. A process that is blocked is one that is waiting for some event, such as a resource becoming available or the completion of an I/O operation.In a multitasking computer system, individual tasks, or threads of execution, must share the resources of the system. Shared resources include: the CPU, network and network interfaces, memory and disk.
Abstract concept Prototype theory Abstract_concept > Notable theories on the structure of concepts > Prototype theory It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item's membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member—the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities.
Vibrational circular dichroism Theory Vibrational_circular_dichroism > Theory Buckingham, FRS, at Cambridge University in the UK, and first implemented analytically in the Cambridge Analytical Derivative Package (CADPAC) by R.D. Amos. Previous developments by D.P.
Discovery and development of angiotensin receptor blockers Functions Discovery_and_development_of_angiotensin_receptor_blockers > The angiotensin II receptor > Functions Most of the known actions of Ang II are mediated through the AT1 receptors, for example vasoconstriction, aldosterone release, renal sodium reabsorption and vasopressin secretion. The AT2 receptor also takes part in regulation of blood pressure and renal function but mediates antagonistic effects compared to the AT1 receptor.
Solar powered flashlight Summary Solar-powered_flashlight Solar powered flashlights or solar powered torches are flashlights powered by solar energy stored in rechargeable batteries. Most of these flashlights use light-emitting diodes lamps since they have lower energy consumption compared to incandescent light bulbs.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol Motivation and adoption Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol > Motivation and adoption TCP has provided the primary means to transfer data reliably across the Internet. However, TCP has imposed limitations on several applications. From RFC 4960: TCP provides both reliable data transfer and strict order-of-transmission delivery of data.
Gene centered view of evolution Individual altruism and genetic egoism Gene-centric_view_of_evolution > Selfish-gene theory > Individual altruism and genetic egoism The gene is a unit of hereditary information that exists in many physical copies in the world, and which particular physical copy will be replicated and originate new copies does not matter from the gene's point of view. A selfish gene could be favored by selection by producing altruism among organisms containing it. The idea is summarized as follows: If a gene copy confers a benefit B on another vehicle at cost C to its own vehicle, its costly action is strategically beneficial if pB > C, where p is the probability that a copy of the gene is present in the vehicle that benefits. Actions with substantial costs therefore require significant values of p. Two kinds of factors ensure high values of p: relatedness (kinship) and recognition (green beards).
Ancient atom Energy levels Atomic_structure > Properties > Energy levels The potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative relative to when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity; its dependence on the electron's position reaches the minimum inside the nucleus, roughly in inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can occupy only a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for a theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state.
Glossary of artificial intelligence B Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence > B belief-desire-intention software model (BDI) A software model developed for programming intelligent agents. Superficially characterized by the implementation of an agent's beliefs, desires and intentions, it actually uses these concepts to solve a particular problem in agent programming. In essence, it provides a mechanism for separating the activity of selecting a plan (from a plan library or an external planner application) from the execution of currently active plans.
Cluster decomposition Properties Cluster_decomposition > Properties In this sense cluster decomposition serves a similar purpose for the S-matrix as microcausality does for fields, preventing causal influence from propagating between regions that are distantly separated. However, cluster decomposition is weaker than having no superluminal causation since it can be formulated for classical theories as well.One key requirement for cluster decomposition is that it requires a unique vacuum state, with it failing if the vacuum state is a mixed state. The rate at which the correlation functions factorize depends on the spectrum of the theory, where if it has mass gap of mass m {\displaystyle m} then there is an exponential falloff ⟨ ϕ ( x ) ϕ ( 0 ) ⟩ ∼ e − m | x | {\displaystyle \langle \phi (x)\phi (0)\rangle \sim e^{-m|x|}} while if there are massless particles present then it can be as slow as 1 / | x | 2 {\displaystyle 1/|x|^{2}} . == References ==
High voltage direct current Costs High-voltage_direct-current > Costs Generally, providers of HVDC systems, such as GE Vernova, Siemens and ABB, do not specify cost details of particular projects. Such costs are treated as Confidential Business Matters between the supplier and the client. Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the project (such as power rating, circuit length, overhead vs. cabled route, land costs, site seismology, and AC network improvements required at either terminal). A detailed comparison of DC vs. AC transmission costs may be required in situations where there is no clear technical advantage to DC, and economical reasoning alone drives the selection.
Abscopal effect Summary Abscopal_effect For instance, chemotherapeutics commonly circulate through the blood stream and therefore exclude the possibility of any abscopal response. The mediators of the abscopal effect of radiotherapy were unknown for decades. In 2004, it was postulated for the first time that the immune system might be responsible for these “off-target” anti-tumor effects.
Net capacity factor Capacity factor of renewable energy Net_capacity_factor > Capacity factor of renewable energy For renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind power and hydroelectricity, the main reason for reduced capacity factor is generally the availability of the energy source. The plant may be capable of producing electricity, but its "fuel" (wind, sunlight or water) may not be available. A hydroelectric plant's production may also be affected by requirements to keep the water level from getting too high or low and to provide water for fish downstream. However, solar, wind and hydroelectric plants do have high availability factors, so when they have fuel available, they are almost always able to produce electricity.When hydroelectric plants have water available, they are also useful for load following, because of their high dispatchability.
Spontaneously broken symmetry Sombrero potential Spontaneously_broken_symmetry > Examples > Sombrero potential The dome and the ball retain their individual symmetry, but the system does not. In the simplest idealized relativistic model, the spontaneously broken symmetry is summarized through an illustrative scalar field theory.
Audio analysis Natural Analysis Audio_analysis > Natural Analysis An inherent ability of humans, hearing is fundamental in communication across the globe, and the process of assigning meaning and value to speech is a complex but necessary function of the human body. The study of the auditory system has been greatly centered using mathematics and the analysis of sinusoidal vibrations and sounds. The Fourier Transform has been an essential theorem in understanding how the human ear processes moving air and turns it into the audible frequency range, about 20 to 20,000 Hz.
Electron correlation Crystalline systems Electronic_correlation > Crystalline systems In condensed matter physics, electrons are typically described with reference to a periodic lattice of atomic nuclei. Non-interacting electrons are therefore typically described by Bloch waves, which correspond to the delocalized, symmetry adapted molecular orbitals used in molecules (while Wannier functions correspond to localized molecular orbitals). A number of important theoretical approximations have been proposed to explain electron correlations in these crystalline systems. The Fermi liquid model of correlated electrons in metals is able to explain the temperature dependence of resistivity by electron-electron interactions.
Enzymatic Biofuel Cells Operation Enzymatic_biofuel_cell > Operation This can be done either directly from the enzyme to the electrode (“direct electron transfer”) or with the aid of other chemicals that transfer electrons from the enzyme to the electrode (“mediated electron transfer”). The former technique is possible only with certain types of enzymes whose activation sites are close to the enzyme's surface, but doing so presents fewer toxicity risks for fuel cells intended to be used inside the human body. Finally, completely processing the complex fuels used in enzymatic biofuel cells requires a series of different enzymes for each step of the ‘metabolism’ process; producing some of the required enzymes and maintaining them at the required levels can pose problems.
Carrier-to-interference ratio Summary Carrier-to-interference_ratio The signal-to-interference ratio (SIR or S/I), also known as the carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR or C/I), is the quotient between the average received modulated carrier power S or C and the average received co-channel interference power I, i.e. crosstalk, from other transmitters than the useful signal.The CIR resembles the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR or C/N), which is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N) of a modulated signal before demodulation. A distinction is that interfering radio transmitters contributing to I may be controlled by radio resource management, while N involves noise power from other sources, typically additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant) Books Jakob_Nielsen_(usability_consultant) > Bibliography > Books Eyetracking Web Usability. New Riders Publishing. ISBN 978-0321498366.
Category of sets Foundations for the category of sets Category_of_sets > Foundations for the category of sets In this setting, categories formed from sets are said to be small and those (like Set) that are formed from proper classes are said to be large. Another solution is to assume the existence of Grothendieck universes. Roughly speaking, a Grothendieck universe is a set which is itself a model of ZF(C) (for instance if a set belongs to a universe, its elements and its powerset will belong to the universe).
Display memory Summary Off-screen_buffer In computing, a screen buffer is a part of computer memory used by a computer application for the representation of the content to be shown on the computer display. The screen buffer may also be called the video buffer, the regeneration buffer, or regen buffer for short. Screen buffers should be distinguished from video memory.
162 (number) In mathematics 162_(number) > In mathematics Having only 2 and 3 as its prime divisors, 162 is a 3-smooth number. 162 is also an abundant number, since its sum of divisors 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 + 9 + 18 + 27 + 54 + 81 = 201 {\displaystyle 1+2+3+6+9+18+27+54+81=201} is greater than it. As the product 3 × 6 × 9 = 162 {\displaystyle 3\times 6\times 9=162} of numbers three units apart from each other, it is a triple factorial number.There are 162 ways of partitioning seven items into subsets of at least two items per subset. 16264 + 1 is a prime number.
Recurrent neural networks Memristive Networks Recurrent_neural_network > Architectures > Memristive Networks Greg Snider of HP Labs describes a system of cortical computing with memristive nanodevices. The memristors (memory resistors) are implemented by thin film materials in which the resistance is electrically tuned via the transport of ions or oxygen vacancies within the film. DARPA's SyNAPSE project has funded IBM Research and HP Labs, in collaboration with the Boston University Department of Cognitive and Neural Systems (CNS), to develop neuromorphic architectures which may be based on memristive systems. Memristive networks are a particular type of physical neural network that have very similar properties to (Little-)Hopfield networks, as they have a continuous dynamics, have a limited memory capacity and they natural relax via the minimization of a function which is asymptotic to the Ising model.
Kardashev scale Summary Kardashev_scale The Kardashev scale (Russian: Шкала Кардашева, romanized: Shkala Kardasheva) is a method of measuring a civilization's level of technological advancement based on the amount of energy it is capable of using. The measure was proposed by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev in 1964 and was named after him. The scale is hypothetical, and refers to energy consumption on a cosmic scale. Various extensions of the scale have since been proposed, including a wider range of power levels (types 0, IV to V) and the use of metrics other than pure power (e.g., computational growth or food consumption).
Federated learning Hybrid Federated Dual Coordinate Ascent (HyFDCA) Federated_learning > Federated learning variations > Hybrid Federated Dual Coordinate Ascent (HyFDCA) HyFDCA empirically outperforms FedAvg in loss function value and validation accuracy across a multitude of problem settings and datasets. The authors also introduce a hyperparameter selection framework for FL with competing metrics using ideas from multiobjective optimization.There is only one other algorithm that focuses on hybrid FL, HyFEM proposed by Zhang et al. (2020). This algorithm uses a feature matching formulation that balances clients building accurate local models and the server learning an accurate global model.
Mathematical symmetry Symmetry in geometry Mathematical_symmetry > Symmetry in geometry The types of symmetry considered in basic geometry include reflectional symmetry, rotation symmetry, translational symmetry and glide reflection symmetry, which are described more fully in the main article Symmetry (geometry).
Infective endocarditis Risk Acute_endocarditis > Diagnosis > Risk Marantz also found a prevalence of endocarditis of 13% among such patients in the emergency department with fever. Samet found a 6% incidence among 283 such patients, but after excluding patients with initially apparent major illness to explain the fever (including 11 cases of manifest endocarditis), there was a 7% prevalence of endocarditis. During the Opioid epidemic in the United States, hospitals observed an increase in stroke associated with infective endocarditis.Among people with staphylococcal bacteremia (SAB), one study found a 29% prevalence of endocarditis in community-acquired SAB versus 5% in nosocomial SAB. However, only 2% of strains were resistant to methicillin and so these numbers may be low in areas of higher resistance.
Axiom of Choice Variants Axiom_of_Choice > Statement > Variants There are many other equivalent statements of the axiom of choice. These are equivalent in the sense that, in the presence of other basic axioms of set theory, they imply the axiom of choice and are implied by it. One variation avoids the use of choice functions by, in effect, replacing each choice function with its range: Given any set X of pairwise disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set C that contains exactly one element in common with each of the sets in X.This guarantees for any partition of a set X the existence of a subset C of X containing exactly one element from each part of the partition. Another equivalent axiom only considers collections X that are essentially powersets of other sets: For any set A, the power set of A (with the empty set removed) has a choice function.Authors who use this formulation often speak of the choice function on A, but this is a slightly different notion of choice function. Its domain is the power set of A (with the empty set removed), and so makes sense for any set A, whereas with the definition used elsewhere in this article, the domain of a choice function on a collection of sets is that collection, and so only makes sense for sets of sets. With this alternate notion of choice function, the axiom of choice can be compactly stated as Every set has a choice function.which is equivalent to For any set A there is a function f such that for any non-empty subset B of A, f(B) lies in B.The negation of the axiom can thus be expressed as: There is a set A such that for all functions f (on the set of non-empty subsets of A), there is a B such that f(B) does not lie in B.
Interrupted gene Discovery Interrupted_gene > Discovery Interrupted genes were independently discovered by Richard J. Roberts and Phillip A. Sharp in 1977, for which they shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Their discovery implied the existence of then-unknown machinery for splicing out introns and assembling genes; namely, the spliceosome. Unlike prokaryotic genomes, eukaryotic genomes were largely complex and inconsistent. It was soon accepted that 94% of human genes are interrupted, and 50% of hereditary diseases are involved in splicing intron errors out of interrupted genes. The best known example of a disease caused by a splicing error is Beta-thalassemia, in which extra intronic material is erroneously spliced into the gene for making hemoglobin.
D electron count Ligand field perspective D_electron_count > Ligand field perspective That leaves the (n − 1)d orbitals to be involved in some portion of the bonding and in the process also describes the metal complex's valence electrons. The final description of the valence is highly dependent on the complex's geometry, in turn highly dependent on the d electron count and character of the associated ligands. For example, in the MO diagram provided for the 3+ the ns orbital – which is placed above (n − 1)d in the representation of atomic orbitals (AOs) – is used in a linear combination with the ligand orbitals, forming a very stable bonding orbital with significant ligand character as well as an unoccupied high energy antibonding orbital which is not shown.
Route assignment Heuristic procedures Route_assignment > General Approaches > Heuristic procedures The latest iteration gets a weight of 0.25 and the previous gets a weight of 0.75. 3. Continue.These procedures seem to work "pretty well," but they are not exact.
Algebraic stack Summary Algebraic_stack In mathematics, an algebraic stack is a vast generalization of algebraic spaces, or schemes, which are foundational for studying moduli theory. Many moduli spaces are constructed using techniques specific to algebraic stacks, such as Artin's representability theorem, which is used to construct the moduli space of pointed algebraic curves M g , n {\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}_{g,n}} and the moduli stack of elliptic curves. Originally, they were introduced by Grothendieck to keep track of automorphisms on moduli spaces, a technique which allows for treating these moduli spaces as if their underlying schemes or algebraic spaces are smooth. But, through many generalizations the notion of algebraic stacks was finally discovered by Michael Artin.
Electric generators Summary AC_generator In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motion-based power (potential and kinetic energy) or fuel-based power (chemical energy) into electric power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.
Telomeric repeat-containing RNAs Immunodeficiency, Centromeric Region Instability, Facial Anomalies (ICF Syndrome) Telomeric_Repeat-Containing_RNA_(TERRA) > Proposed Role in Human Disease > Immunodeficiency, Centromeric Region Instability, Facial Anomalies (ICF Syndrome) ICF is a rare autosomal recessive disease arising from deficiencies or mutations in DNA Methyltransferase 3b (DNMT3b), which acts as a key modulator in maintaining heterochromatin at telomeres. As a result, many ICF patients experience spontaneous genomic instability in various tissues and systemic immunodeficiency. Contrary to traditionally low TERRA levels at short telomeres it has recently been shown that ICF patients display increased TERRA transcription at critically shortened telomeres. However, this is likely the result DNMT3b deficiencies or mutations causing hypomethylation of the CpG islands within the subtelomeric region, allowing for increased TERRA transcription.
Security-Enhanced Linux Users, policies and security contexts SE_Linux > Users, policies and security contexts SELinux users and roles do not have to be related to the actual system users and roles. For every current user or process, SELinux assigns a three string context consisting of a username, role, and domain (or type). This system is more flexible than normally required: as a rule, most of the real users share the same SELinux username, and all access control is managed through the third tag, the domain. The circumstances under which a process is allowed into a certain domain must be configured in the policies.
Unconditional security (cryptography) Overview Unconditional_security_(cryptography) > Overview Symmetric encryption can be constructed under an information-theoretic notion of security called entropic security, which assumes that the adversary knows almost nothing about the message being sent. The goal here is to hide all functions of the plaintext rather than all information about it. Information-theoretic cryptography is quantum-safe.
Hypoxic death Other types of medical hypoxia Hypoxic_death > Other types of medical hypoxia It may be caused by:Ventilation perfusion mismatch, Pulmonary shunt Circulatory hypoxia, ischemic hypoxia or stagnant hypoxia may be caused by abnormally low blood flow to the lungs, which can occur during shock, cardiac arrest, severe congestive heart failure, or abdominal compartment syndrome, where the main dysfunction is in the cardiovascular system, causing a major reduction in perfusion. Arterial gas is adequately oygenated in the lungs, and the tissues are able to accept the oxygen available, but the flow rate to the tissues is insufficient. Venous oxygenation is particularly low.
D electron count Electron configurations of transition metal atoms D_electron_count > Electron configurations of transition metal atoms For free atoms, electron configurations have been determined by atomic spectroscopy. Lists of atomic energy levels and their electron configurations have been published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for both neutral and ionized atoms.For neutral atoms of all elements, the ground-state electron configurations are listed in general chemistry and inorganic chemistry: 38 textbooks. The ground-state configurations are often explained using two principles: the Aufbau principle that subshells are filled in order of increasing energy, and the Madelung rule that this order corresponds to the order of increasing values of (n + l) where n is the principal quantum number and l is the azimuthal quantum number. This rule predicts for example that the 4s orbital (n = 4, l = 0, n + l = 4) is filled before the 3d orbital (n = 3, l = 2, n + l = 5), as in titanium with configuration 4s23d2.
Glossary of genetics (0–L) C Glossary_of_gene_expression_terms > C Cofactors are required for the initiation of catalysis. comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) complementarity A property of nucleic acid biopolymers whereby two polymeric chains or "strands" aligned antiparallel to each other will tend to form base pairs consisting of hydrogen bonds between the individual nucleobases comprising each chain, with each type of nucleobase pairing almost exclusively with one other type of nucleobase; e.g. in double-stranded DNA molecules, A pairs only with T and C pairs only with G. Strands that are paired in such a way, and the bases themselves, are said to be complementary. The degree of complementarity between two strands strongly influences the stability of the duplex molecule; certain sequences may also be internally complementary, which can result in a single strand binding to itself.
Entropy (information theory) Introduction Shannon's_entropy > Introduction In this case a coin flip has an entropy of one bit. (Similarly, one trit with equiprobable values contains log 2 ⁡ 3 {\displaystyle \log _{2}3} (about 1.58496) bits of information because it can have one of three values.) The minimum surprise is when p = 0 or p = 1, when the event outcome is known ahead of time, and the entropy is zero bits.