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Singular matrix p-adic approximation Matrix_inversion > Methods of matrix inversion > p-adic approximation If A is a matrix with integer or rational entries and we seek a solution in arbitrary-precision rationals, then a p-adic approximation method converges to an exact solution in O(n4 log2 n), assuming standard O(n3) matrix multiplication is used. The method relies on solving n linear systems via Dixon's method of p-adic approximation (each in O(n3 log2 n)) and is available as such in software specialized in arbitrary-precision matrix operations, for example, in IML.
Debian Free Software Guidelines Software Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines > Application > Software Most discussions about the DFSG happen on the debian-legal mailing list. When a Debian Developer first uploads a package for inclusion in Debian, the ftpmaster team checks the software licenses and determines whether they are in accordance with the social contract. The team sometimes confers with the debian-legal list in difficult cases.
Emmy Noether Background on abstract algebra and begriffliche Mathematik (conceptual mathematics) Emmy_Noether > Contributions to mathematics and physics > Background on abstract algebra and begriffliche Mathematik (conceptual mathematics) Any set of things that obeys all the rules for one (or two) operation(s) is, by definition, a group (or ring), and obeys all theorems about groups (or rings). Integer numbers, and the operations of addition and multiplication, are just one example. For example, the elements might be computer data words, where the first combining operation is exclusive or and the second is logical conjunction.
Log jam Summary Log_jam Until they are dismantled by natural causes or humans, log jams can grow exponentially, as more wood arriving from upstream becomes entangled in the mass. Log jams can persist for many decades, as is the case with the log jam in Spirit Lake. Historically in North America, large natural "log rafts" were common across the continent prior to European settlement.
Fat link Summary Fat_link For example, in content from Wikipedia or Google Search, many words and terms in the text are hyperlinked to definitions of those terms. Hyperlinks are often used to implement reference mechanisms such as tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters, and glossaries. In some hypertext, hyperlinks can be bidirectional: they can be followed in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets.
Lag plot Applications Lag_plot > Applications The correlogram can help provide answers to the following questions: Are the data random? Is an observation related to an adjacent observation? Is an observation related to an observation twice-removed? (etc.) Is the observed time series white noise?
Iminodiacetic acid Summary Aminodiacetic_acid Iminodiacetic acid is the organic compound with the formula HN(CH2CO2H)2, often abbreviated to IDA. A white solid, the compound is a dicarboxylic acid amine (the nitrogen atom forms a secondary amino group, not an imino group as the name suggests). The iminodiacetate dianion is a tridentate ligand, forming metal complexes by forming two, fused, five membered chelate rings. The proton on the nitrogen atom can be replaced by a carbon atom of a polymer to create an ion-exchange resin, such as chelex 100.
Light front quantization Fundamentals Light_front_quantization > Fundamentals Front-form relativistic quantum mechanics was introduced by Paul Dirac in a 1949 paper published in Reviews of Modern Physics. Light-front quantum field theory is the front-form representation of local relativistic quantum field theory. The relativistic invariance of a quantum theory means that the observables (probabilities, expectation values and ensemble averages) have the same values in all inertial coordinate systems. Since different inertial coordinate systems are related by inhomogeneous Lorentz transformations (Poincaré transformations), this requires that the Poincaré group is a symmetry group of the theory.
Structural support Structure Structural_support > Structure To be able to analyze a structure, it is necessary to be clear about the forces that can be quite complicated. There are two types of forces, External Forces which are the actions of other bodies on the structure under consideration and Internal Forces which the rest of the structure exert on a member or portion of the structure as forces and couples. A little deflection or play is required for a structure to protect other surrounding materials from those forces.
Staging area Summary Staging_area In space exploration, an area where final assembly is done on space vehicles before they are moved out to their launch pad. In data management, an intermediate storage area between the sources of information and the data warehouse (DW) or data mart (DM). It is usually of temporary nature, and its contents can be erased after the DW/DM has been loaded successfully (see data staging).
De Dion tube Advantages and disadvantages De_Dion_tube > History > Advantages and disadvantages Advantages: Reduced unsprung weight compared to the Hotchkiss drive (live axle), since the differential and half-shafts are connected to the chassis. Unlike most fully independent suspension there are no camber changes on axle loading and unloading (or rebound). Fixing the camber of both wheels at 0° assists in obtaining good traction from wide tires and also tends to reduce wheel hop under high power operations compared to an independent suspension.
Geochemistry Chemical elements Geochemical_research > Chemical elements The building blocks of materials are the chemical elements. These can be identified by their atomic number Z, which is the number of protons in the nucleus. An element can have more than one value for N, the number of neutrons in the nucleus. The sum of these is the mass number, which is roughly equal to the atomic mass.
Break-up velocity M Hydrogen-burning_limit > M moment of inertia factor Also normalized polar moment of inertia. A dimensionless quantity that characterizes the radial distribution of mass inside a planet or moon. moon See natural satellite.
Search engine indexing Compression Search_engine_indexing > Indexing > Compression Generating or maintaining a large-scale search engine index represents a significant storage and processing challenge. Many search engines utilize a form of compression to reduce the size of the indices on disk. Consider the following scenario for a full text, Internet search engine. It takes 8 bits (or 1 byte) to store a single character.
Conjugated double bonds In pigments Conjugated_polymer > In pigments However, for good numerical agreement of the particle in a box model with experiment, the single-bond/double-bond bond length alternations of the polyenes must be taken into account. Alternatively, one can use the Hückel method which is also designed to model the electronic structure of conjugated systems. Many electronic transitions in conjugated π-systems are from a predominantly bonding molecular orbital (MO) to a predominantly antibonding MO (π to π*), but electrons from non-bonding lone pairs can also be promoted to a π-system MO (n to π*) as often happens in charge-transfer complexes.
Fundamental Attribution Error Versus correspondence bias Fundamental_Attribution_Error > Versus correspondence bias Correspondence inferences and causal attributions also differ in automaticity. Inferences can occur spontaneously if the behavior implies a situational or dispositional inference, while causal attributions occur much more slowly. It has also been suggested that correspondence inferences and causal attributions are elicited by different mechanisms.
Privacy Sandbox Federated Credential Management Privacy_Sandbox > Proposals > Proposals for serving advertisements > Federated Credential Management Federated Credential Management is an API that will provide the primitives needed to support federated identity designs that previously depended on third-party cookies.
A/B Testing Email marketing Split_testing > Examples > Email marketing For example, even though more of the customers receiving the code B1 accessed the website, because the Call To Action didn't state the end-date of the promotion many of them may feel no urgency to make an immediate purchase. Consequently, if the purpose of the test had been simply to see which email would bring more traffic to the website, then the email containing code B1 might well have been more successful. An A/B test should have a defined outcome that is measurable such as number of sales made, click-rate conversion, or number of people signing up/registering.
Theoretical chemist Closely related disciplines Theoretical_chemist > Closely related disciplines Physical chemistry and chemical physics: Chemistry investigated via physical methods like laser techniques, scanning tunneling microscope, etc. The formal distinction between both fields is that physical chemistry is a branch of chemistry while chemical physics is a branch of physics. In practice this distinction is quite vague. Many-body theory: The discipline studying the effects which appear in systems with large number of constituents. It is based on quantum physics – mostly second quantization formalism – and quantum electrodynamics.Hence, theoretical chemistry has emerged as a branch of research. With the rise of the density functional theory and other methods like molecular mechanics, the range of application has been extended to chemical systems which are relevant to other fields of chemistry and physics, including biochemistry, condensed matter physics, nanotechnology or molecular biology.
Modern chemistry Substance and mixture Chemical_Sciences > Modern principles > Matter > Substance and mixture A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air and alloys.
Eiffel programming language Deferred classes and features Eiffel_programming_language > Syntax and semantics > Deferred classes and features Classes may be defined with deferred class rather than with class to indicate that the class may not be directly instantiated. Non-instantiatable classes are called abstract classes in some other object-oriented programming languages. In Eiffel parlance, only an "effective" class can be instantiated (it may be a descendant of a deferred class).
Web accessibility Accessible Web applications and WAI-ARIA Web_accessibility > Accessible Web applications and WAI-ARIA WAI-ARIA (Accessible Rich Internet Applications) is a specification published by the World Wide Web Consortium that specifies how to increase the accessibility of dynamic content and user interface components developed with Ajax, HTML, JavaScript and related technologies. ARIA enables accessibility by enabling the author to provide all the semantics to fully describe its supported behaviour. It also allows each element to expose its current states and properties and its relationships between other elements. Accessibility problems with the focus and tab index are also corrected.
String operations String homomorphism String_operations > String homomorphism The class of regular languages is closed under homomorphisms and inverse homomorphisms. Similarly, the context-free languages are closed under homomorphisms and inverse homomorphisms.A string homomorphism is said to be ε-free (or e-free) if f ( a ) ≠ ε {\displaystyle f(a)\neq \varepsilon } for all a in the alphabet Σ {\displaystyle \Sigma } . Simple single-letter substitution ciphers are examples of (ε-free) string homomorphisms.
Displacement reaction Catalysis Chemical_transformation > Catalysis Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes.
Noninnocent ligand Redox reactions of complexes of innocent vs. non-innocent ligands Non-innocent_ligands > Redox reactions of complexes of innocent vs. non-innocent ligands Another example of conventional metal-centered redox couple is 3+/2+. Ammonia is innocent in this transformation.
Machine learning in earth sciences Summary Machine_learning_in_earth_sciences The Earth system can be subdivided into four major components including the solid earth, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.A variety of algorithms may be applied depending on the nature of the earth science exploration. Some algorithms may perform significantly better than others for particular objectives. For example, convolutional neural networks (CNN) are good at interpreting images, artificial neural networks (ANN) perform well in soil classification but more computationally expensive to train than support-vector machine (SVM) learning. The application of machine learning has been popular in recent decades, as the development of other technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), ultra-high resolution remote sensing technology and high-performance computing units lead to the availability of large high-quality datasets and more advanced algorithms.
Local language (formal language) Examples Local_language_(formal_language) > Examples Over the alphabet {a,b,} a a ∗ , . {\displaystyle aa^{*},\ \ .}
Argon gas Summary Argon_gas Argon is a chemical element with the symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abundant as water vapor (which averages about 4000 ppmv, but varies greatly), 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide (400 ppmv), and more than 500 times as abundant as neon (18 ppmv).
Fully abstract Abstraction Fully_abstract > Abstraction Additional desirable properties we may wish to hold between operational and denotational semantics are: Constructivism: Constructivism is concerned with whether domain elements can be shown to exist by constructive methods. Independence of denotational and operational semantics: The denotational semantics should be formalized using mathematical structures that are independent of the operational semantics of a programming language; However, the underlying concepts can be closely related. See the section on Compositionality below. Full completeness or definability: Every morphism of the semantic model should be the denotation of a program.
Object oriented programming language History Object-oriented_languages > History Adding these features to languages that were not initially designed for them often led to problems with compatibility and maintainability of code. More recently, a number of languages have emerged that are primarily object-oriented, but that are also compatible with procedural methodology. Two such languages are Python and Ruby.
Disease ecology Models and predicting disease ecology Disease_ecology > In relation to anthropogenic factors > Climate change > Models and predicting disease ecology There are numerous approaches when predicting the impacts of climate change on diseases. Static approaches use reproduction rates to find how climate change will affect vectors. An example of the use of static approaches is a process-based model called MIASMA. This model explores the relationship between different climate change scenarios and the reproduction rate of vectors.
Static light scattering Debye plot Static_light_scattering > Data analyses > Debye plot An advantage of the Debye plot is the possibility to determine the second virial coefficient. This parameter describes the interaction between particles and the solvent. In macromolecule solutions, for instance, it can assume negative (particle-particle interactions are favored), zero, or positive values (particle-solvent interactions are favored).
Blood gas test Values measured Blood_gas_analysis > Values measured Blood samples for testing are taken from arterial blood by a radial artery puncture, and from venous blood by venipuncture. Samples of capillary blood are taken using a lancet and capillary action. Samples from capillaries from either the earlobe or the fingertip can be used to predict the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and the blood's pH. Samples from the earlobe are seen to be a more appropriate site for the prediction of the arterial partial pressure of oxygen.Blood gas tests also measure the levels of bicarbonate and of standard bicarbonate, of base excess, of oxygen saturation, and of pH. An arterial blood gas test is more often used.
Copying mechanism Protein interaction networks Copying_mechanism > Undirected models > Protein interaction networks Vazquez proposed a growing graph based on duplication modeling protein interactions. At every time step a prototype is chosen randomly. With probability q edges of the prototype are copied. With probability p an edge to the prototype is created.
Scanning tunnelling microscope Bardeen's formalism Scanning_tunnelling_microscope > Principle of operation > Bardeen's formalism The allowed energies are only those between the two step-like Fermi levels, and the integral becomes I t = 4 π e ℏ ∫ 0 e V ρ S ( E F − e V + ε ) ρ T ( E F + ε ) | M | 2 d ε . {\displaystyle I_{t}={\frac {4\pi e}{\hbar }}\int _{0}^{eV}\rho _{S}(E_{F}-eV+\varepsilon )\,\rho _{T}(E_{F}+\varepsilon )\,|M|^{2}\,d\varepsilon .} When the bias is small, it is reasonable to assume that the electron wave functions and, consequently, the tunneling matrix element do not change significantly in the narrow range of energies.
Practical capacitors AC current Types_of_capacitors > Electrical characteristics > Limiting current loads > AC current AC loads can occur in AC motor run capacitors, for voltage doubling, in snubbers, lighting ballast and for PFC for phase shifting to improve transmission network stability and efficiency, which is one of the most important applications for large power capacitors. These mostly large PP film or metallized paper capacitors are limited by the rated reactive power VAr. Bipolar electrolytic capacitors, to which an AC voltage may be applicable, are specified with a rated ripple current.
Cell components Summary Living_cells The human brain accounts for around 80 billion of these cells.The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology. Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago.
Chronic headaches Primary Chronic_headaches > Causes > Primary Cluster headaches can be treated with triptans and prevented with prednisone, ergotamine or lithium. trigeminal neuralgia or occipital neuralgia: shooting face pain hemicrania continua: continuous unilateral pain with episodes of severe pain. Hemicrania continua can be relieved by the medication indomethacin.
Dm-cache Cache policies Dm-cache > Cache policies As of August 2015 and version 4.2 of the Linux kernel, the following three cache policies are distributed with the Linux kernel mainline, out of which dm-cache by default uses the stochastic multiqueue policy: multiqueue (mq) The multiqueue (mq) policy has three sets of 16 queues, using the first set for entries waiting for the cache and the remaining two sets for entries already in the cache, with the latter separated so the clean and dirty entries belong to each of the two sets. The age of cache entries in the queues is based on their associated logical time. The selection of entries going into the cache (i.e., becoming promoted) is based on variable thresholds, and queue selection is based on the hit count of an entry. This policy aims to take different cache miss costs into account, and to make automatic adjustments to different load patterns.
Megabyte Definitions Megabyte > Definitions By the end of 2009, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, ISO and NIST. Nevertheless, the term megabyte continues to be widely used with different meanings. Base 10 1 MB = 1000000 bytes (= 10002 B = 106 B) is the definition following the rules of the International System of Units (SI), and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
Induction cooking Efficiency Induction_burner > Cooking properties > Efficiency These clues indicate that the 84% induction average efficiency reference value should be taken with caution. For comparison and in agreement with DOE findings, cooking with gas has an average energy efficiency of about 40%. It can be raised only by using special pots with fins.When comparing with gas, the relative cost of electrical and gas energy, and the efficiency of electricity generation affect overall environmental efficiency and user cost.
Digital test controller Summary Digital_test_controller Digital test controllers are devices (usually computer based) that provide motion control by processing digital signals. Typically a controller has inputs connected to sensors on the device they control, which measure the feedback, its current state (for example the current position), and process this signal to provide an output to a hydraulical, electrical or other type of servomechanism control of the controlled device, with the aim of matching a control signal. A good example is an elevator. The control signal is the button selects the floor the passenger wants to go.
Discrete Laplace operator Discrete Schrödinger operator Discrete_Laplace_operator > Discrete Schrödinger operator If the number of edges meeting at a vertex is uniformly bounded, and the potential is bounded, then H is bounded and self-adjoint. The spectral properties of this Hamiltonian can be studied with Stone's theorem; this is a consequence of the duality between posets and Boolean algebras. On regular lattices, the operator typically has both traveling-wave as well as Anderson localization solutions, depending on whether the potential is periodic or random.
Existence precedes essence Choice and sedimentation Existence_precedes_essence > Choice and sedimentation Simone de Beauvoir, on the other hand, holds that there are various factors, grouped together under the term sedimentation, that offer resistance to attempts to change our direction in life. Sedimentations are themselves products of past choices and can be changed by choosing differently in the present, but such changes happen slowly. They are a force of inertia that shapes the agent's evaluative outlook on the world until the transition is complete. : 5, 9, 66
Chiral gauge theory Summary Chiral_gauge_theory In quantum field theory, a chiral gauge theory is a quantum field theory with charged chiral (i.e. Weyl) fermions. For instance, the Standard Model is a chiral gauge theory. For topological reasons, chiral charged fermions cannot be given a mass without breaking the gauge symmetry, which will lead to inconsistencies unlike a global symmetry. It is notoriously difficult to construct a chiral gauge theory from a theory which does not already contain chiral fields at the fundamental level.
Decidable (logic) Semidecidability Decidable_(logic) > Semidecidability Every decidable theory or logical system is semidecidable, but in general the converse is not true; a theory is decidable if and only if both it and its complement are semi-decidable. For example, the set of logical validities V of first-order logic is semi-decidable, but not decidable. In this case, it is because there is no effective method for determining for an arbitrary formula A whether A is not in V. Similarly, the set of logical consequences of any recursively enumerable set of first-order axioms is semidecidable. Many of the examples of undecidable first-order theories given above are of this form.
Markov chain mixing time Summary Markov_chain_mixing_time In probability theory, the mixing time of a Markov chain is the time until the Markov chain is "close" to its steady state distribution. More precisely, a fundamental result about Markov chains is that a finite state irreducible aperiodic chain has a unique stationary distribution π and, regardless of the initial state, the time-t distribution of the chain converges to π as t tends to infinity. Mixing time refers to any of several variant formalizations of the idea: how large must t be until the time-t distribution is approximately π?
Differential and integral calculus Significance Differential_and_integral_calculus > History > Significance : 341–453 Applications of integral calculus include computations involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure. : 685–700 More advanced applications include power series and Fourier series. Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion.
Diffraction topography Reticulography Diffraction_topography > Experimental techniques III – Special techniques and recent developments > Reticulography doi:10.1107/s0909049596010515. ISSN 0909-0495. PMID 16702698.
C-squares Spatial searching C-squares > Spatial searching In a system that uses c-squares codes as units of spatial indexing, a text-based search on any of these square identifiers will retrieve data associated with the relevant square. If a wildcard search is supported (for example in the case that the wildcard character is a percent sign), a search on "7500%" will retrieve all data items in that ten degree square, a search on "7500:1%" will retrieve all data items in that five degree square, etc. The asterisk character "*" has a special (reserved) meaning in c-squares notation, being a "compact" notation indicating that all finer cells within a higher level cell are included, to the level of resolution indicated by the number of asterisks. In the example above, "7500:*" would indicate that all 4 five-degree cells within parent ten-degree cell "7500" are filled, "7500:***" would indicate that all 100 one-degree cells within parent ten-degree cell "7500" are filled, etc. This approach enables the filling of contiguous blocks of cells with an economy of characters in many cases (a form of data compression), that is useful for efficient storage and transfer of c-squares codes as required.
Maximum entropy probability distribution Uniform and piecewise uniform distributions Maximum_entropy_probability_distribution > Examples > Uniform and piecewise uniform distributions The uniform distribution on the interval is the maximum entropy distribution among all continuous distributions which are supported in the interval , and thus the probability density is 0 outside of the interval. This uniform density can be related to Laplace's principle of indifference, sometimes called the principle of insufficient reason. More generally, if we are given a subdivision a=a0 < a1 < ... < ak = b of the interval and probabilities p1,...,pk that add up to one, then we can consider the class of all continuous distributions such that Pr ⁡ ( a j − 1 ≤ X < a j ) = p j for j = 1 , … , k {\displaystyle \operatorname {Pr} (a_{j-1}\leq X
Kolmogorov equations (Markov jump process) Background Kolmogorov_equations_(continuous-time_Markov_chains) > Background The original derivation of the equations by Kolmogorov starts with the Chapman–Kolmogorov equation (Kolmogorov called it fundamental equation) for time-continuous and differentiable Markov processes on a finite, discrete state space. In this formulation, it is assumed that the probabilities P ( i , s ; j , t ) {\displaystyle P(i,s;j,t)} are continuous and differentiable functions of t > s {\displaystyle t>s} . Also, adequate limit properties for the derivatives are assumed. Feller derives the equations under slightly different conditions, starting with the concept of purely discontinuous Markov process and then formulating them for more general state spaces. Feller proves the existence of solutions of probabilistic character to the Kolmogorov forward equations and Kolmogorov backward equations under natural conditions.
Playground surfacing Accessibility Playground_surfacing > Accessibility In the United States, as well as being safe, a playground surface should be firm enough to meet the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act, which means it must offer easy mobility for children in wheelchairs. Meeting these dual objectives limits the number of types of surfaces that can be considered by responsible playground owner/operators. ASTM International has developed test method F1951 to evaluate compliance with the Americans With Disability Act (ADA). However, meeting the ADA's requirements does not guarantee that all children with disabilities can use the playground equipment.
Linear sweep voltammetry Experimental method Linear_sweep_voltammetry > Experimental method As E approaches Es, the current on the surface increases, and when E = Es, the concentration of A equals that of the oxidized/reduced A at the surface ( = ). As the molecules on the surface of the working electrode are oxidized/reduced, they move away from the surface and new molecules come into contact with the surface of the working electrode. The flow of electrons into or out of the electrode causes the current.
Quantum field theory in curved spacetime Approximation to quantum gravity Quantum_field_theory_in_curved_spacetime > Approximation to quantum gravity The theory of quantum field theory in curved spacetime may be considered as an intermediate step towards quantum gravity. QFT in curved spacetime is expected to be a viable approximation to the theory of quantum gravity when spacetime curvature is not significant on the Planck scale. However, the fact that the true theory of quantum gravity remains unknown means that the precise criteria for when QFT on curved spacetime is a good approximation are also unknown. : 1 Gravity is not renormalizable in QFT, so merely formulating QFT in curved spacetime is not a true theory of quantum gravity.
Virtual battlefield The simulation spectrum Virtual_battlefield > The simulation spectrum However, its prescriptive nature acted against any impulse of the participants towards free and creative thinking. Conversely, free Kriegsspiel could encourage this type of thinking, as its rules were open to interpretation by umpires and could be adapted during operation. This very interpretation, though, tended to negate the verifiable nature of the simulation, as different umpires might well adjudge the same situation in different ways, especially where there was a lack of historical precedent.
Coulometric titration Coulometric titration Coulometry > Coulometric titration Chemical substances that are unstable or difficult to handle because of their high volatility or reactivity in solution can also very easily be used as titrants. Examples are bromine, chlorine, Ti3+, Sn2+, Cr2+, and Karl Fischer reagents (iodine). Coulometric titration can also be performed under inert atmosphere or be remotely controlled e.g. with radioactive substances.
Quantitative comparative linguistics Metrics Quantitative_comparative_linguistics > Evaluation of methods > Metrics It represents the proportion of patterns correctly assigned. The Retention Index (RI) measures the amount of similarity in a character. It is the ratio (g - s) / (g - m) where g is the greatest number of steps of a character on any tree, m is the minimum number of steps on any tree, and s is the minimum steps on a particular tree.
Advanced National Seismic System Summary Advanced_National_Seismic_System The Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) is a collaboration of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and regional, state, and academic partners that collects and analyzes data on significant earthquakes to provide near real-time (generally within 10 to 30 minutes) information to emergency responders and officials, the news media, and the public. Such information is used to anticipate the likely severity and extent of damage, and to guide decisions on the responses needed.Data is collected by eleven regional seismic networks and the National Seismic Network ("ANSS backbone") of dedicated stations, with additional inputs from overseas seismic networks.
Quartic polynomial Solving by Lagrange resolvent Quartic_equations > Solution > Solution methods > Solving by Lagrange resolvent Substituting the si by their values in term of the xi, this polynomial may be expanded in a polynomial in s whose coefficients are symmetric polynomials in the xi. By the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials, these coefficients may be expressed as polynomials in the coefficients of the monic quartic. If, for simplification, we suppose that the quartic is depressed, that is b = 0, this results in the polynomial This polynomial is of degree six, but only of degree three in s2, and so the corresponding equation is solvable by the method described in the article about cubic function.
Global Science Opera Gravity Global_Science_Opera > Productions > Gravity GRAVITY! is the Global Science Opera's 5th production. The opera's story was created by students in Brazil, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe. It celebrates the 100th anniversary of Eddington proof Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Premieres on the International Children's Day: November 20, 2019 on YouTube.
Quantum hypothesis Special relativity and electrodynamics Quantum_system > Relation to other scientific theories > Special relativity and electrodynamics Quantum electrodynamics is, along with general relativity, one of the most accurate physical theories ever devised.The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one that has been used since the inception of quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being acted on by a classical electromagnetic field.
Flexible manufacturing Industrial FMS communication Flexible_manufacturing > Industrial FMS communication An industrial flexible manufacturing system consists of robots, computer-controlled Machines, computer numerical controlled machines (CNC), instrumentation devices, computers, sensors, and other stand alone systems such as inspection machines. The use of robots in the production segment of manufacturing industries promises a variety of benefits ranging from high utilization to high volume of productivity. Each Robotic cell or node will be located along a material handling system such as a conveyor or automatic guided vehicle. The production of each part or work-piece will require a different combination of manufacturing nodes.
Plasmolysis Plasmolysis Plasmolysis > Plasmolysis This is because as the solution surrounding the cell is hypertonic, exosmosis takes place and the space between the cell wall and cytoplasm is filled with solutes, as most of the water drains away and hence the concentration inside the cell becomes more hypertonic. There are some mechanisms in plants to prevent excess water loss in the same way as excess water gain. Plasmolysis can be reversed if the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution.
Function model Functional flow block diagram Function_modeling > Functional modeling methods > Functional flow block diagram In the system context, the functional flow steps may include combinations of hardware, software, personnel, facilities, and/or procedures. In the FFBD method, the functions are organized and depicted by their logical order of execution. Each function is shown with respect to its logical relationship to the execution and completion of other functions.
Rotating locomotion in living systems Microscopic Rotating_locomotion_in_living_systems > Known instances of rotation in biology > Free rotation > Microscopic The engine is powered by proton motive force, i.e. by the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the bacterial cell membrane due to a concentration gradient set up by the cell's metabolism. (In species of the genus Vibrio, there are two kinds of flagella, lateral and polar, and some are driven by a sodium ion pump rather than a proton pump.) Flagella are quite efficient, allowing bacteria to move at speeds of up to 60 cell lengths per second.
Deep inference Summary Deep_inference Deep inference names a general idea in structural proof theory that breaks with the classical sequent calculus by generalising the notion of structure to permit inference to occur in contexts of high structural complexity. The term deep inference is generally reserved for proof calculi where the structural complexity is unbounded; in this article we will use non-shallow inference to refer to calculi that have structural complexity greater than the sequent calculus, but not unboundedly so, although this is not at present established terminology. Deep inference is not important in logic outside of structural proof theory, since the phenomena that lead to the proposal of formal systems with deep inference are all related to the cut-elimination theorem. The first calculus of deep inference was proposed by Kurt Schütte, but the idea did not generate much interest at the time.
Extremophiles in biotechnology Importance Extremophiles_in_biotechnology > Importance A great deal of biological and chemical processes undertaken in laboratories take great stretches of time, are extremely delicate and tend to be costly. This is due to the fact that general biological enzymes, proteins and other various organic compounds have very specific requirements for them to function properly. These are generally moderate conditions and therefore are known as mesophilic. Catalysts that involve changes in temperature, salinity, or acidity can impact the mesophilic organic compounds and products within a given process which in turn negatively affects the outcome.
Binary chop Hashing Binary_search > Binary search versus other schemes > Hashing For implementing associative arrays, hash tables, a data structure that maps keys to records using a hash function, are generally faster than binary search on a sorted array of records. Most hash table implementations require only amortized constant time on average. However, hashing is not useful for approximate matches, such as computing the next-smallest, next-largest, and nearest key, as the only information given on a failed search is that the target is not present in any record. Binary search is ideal for such matches, performing them in logarithmic time. Binary search also supports approximate matches. Some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, can be done efficiently on sorted arrays but not on hash tables.
Relative pressure Liquid pressure Fluid_pressure > Types > Liquid pressure Restating this as an energy equation, the energy per unit volume in an ideal, incompressible liquid is constant throughout its vessel. At the surface, gravitational potential energy is large but liquid pressure energy is low. At the bottom of the vessel, all the gravitational potential energy is converted to pressure energy.
Interference freedom Deadlock and termination Interference_freedom > Deadlock and termination Owicki-Gries deals mainly with partial correctness: {P} S {Q} means: If S executed in a state in which P is true terminates, then Q is true of the state upon termination. However, Owicki-Gries also gives some practical techniques that use information obtained from a partial correctness proof to derive other correctness properties, including freedom from deadlock, program termination, and mutual exclusion. A program is in deadlock if all processes that have not terminated are executing await statements and none can proceed because their await conditions are false. Owicki-Gries provides conditions under which deadlock cannot occur.
Glossary of power electronics R Glossary_of_power_electronics > R resonant frequency (fr) (capacitor) The lowest frequency at which the impedance of the capacitor becomes minimum. reversible converter A converter in which the direction of the power flow is reversible. reverse blocking state the non-conducting state of a reverse blocking valve device or an arm consisting of such devices when reverse voltage is applied between its main terminals (electrodes).
Vector inversion generator Construction Vector_inversion_generator > Construction Discrete components allow large lumped capacitors to be used thus storing much more energy, but have difficulty replicating the high voltage multiplication ratios and extremely short rise times of spiral transmission line types. A spiral VIG consists of four alternating conductor-insulator-conductor-insulator sheets, wound into a cylinder, forming a capacitor also acting as a single-ended transmission line, connected to a spark gap switch. The capacitor is charged from a power source, e.g. an EDFEG, then the spark gap fires after its breakdown voltage is reached.
Potential evapotranspiration Potential evapotranspiration Potential_evapotranspiration > Potential evapotranspiration Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the amount of water that would be evaporated and transpired by a specific crop, soil or ecosystem if there were sufficient water available. It is a reflection of the energy available to evaporate or transpire water, and of the wind available to transport the water vapor from the ground up into the lower atmosphere and away from the initial location. Often a value for the potential evapotranspiration is calculated at a nearby climatic station on a reference surface, conventionally on land dominated by short grass (though may differ from station to station).
Programming languages for artificial intelligence Languages Programming_languages_for_artificial_intelligence > Languages It offers several paradigms of programming like vectorial computation, functional programming and object-oriented programming. Python is widely used for artificial intelligence, with packages for several applications including general AI, machine learning, natural language processing, and artificial neural networks. The application of AI to develop programs that do human-like jobs and portray human skills is machine learning.
Quantum Neural Network Quantum associative memory Quantum_Neural_Network > Examples > Quantum associative memory The first quantum associative memory algorithm was introduced by Dan Ventura and Tony Martinez in 1999. The authors do not attempt to translate the structure of artificial neural network models into quantum theory, but propose an algorithm for a circuit-based quantum computer that simulates associative memory. The memory states (in Hopfield neural networks saved in the weights of the neural connections) are written into a superposition, and a Grover-like quantum search algorithm retrieves the memory state closest to a given input. As such, this is not a fully content-addressable memory, since only incomplete patterns can be retrieved.
Adiponectin Function Adiponectin > Function Furthermore, a recent study suggests that adipose tissue within bone marrow, which increases during caloric restriction, contributes to elevated circulating adiponectin in this context.Transgenic mice with increased adiponectin show reduced adipocyte differentiation and increased energy expenditure associated with mitochondrial uncoupling. The hormone plays a role in the suppression of the metabolic derangements that may result in type 2 diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and an independent risk factor for metabolic syndrome. Adiponectin in combination with leptin has been shown to completely reverse insulin resistance in mice.
Cantor's theorem Proof Cantor's_theorem > Proof Each column records the values of the indicator function of the set corresponding to the column. The indicator function of B coincides with the logically negated (swap "true" and "false") entries of the main diagonal. Thus the indicator function of B does not agree with any column in at least one entry.
Backlash (engineering) Leadscrews where positioning and power are both important Backlash_(engineering) > Anti-backlash designs > Leadscrews where positioning and power are both important Some motion controllers include backlash compensation. Compensation may be achieved by simply adding extra compensating motion (as described earlier) or by sensing the load's position in a closed loop control scheme. The dynamic response of backlash itself, essentially a delay, makes the position loop less stable and thus more prone to oscillation.
Sugar in wine Glucose Sugar_in_wine > Sucrose > Glucose At the beginning of the ripening stage there is usually more glucose than fructose present in the grape (as much as five times more) but the rapid development of fructose shifts the ratio to where at harvest there are generally equal amounts. Grapes that are overripe, such as some late harvest wines, may have more fructose than glucose. During fermentation, yeast cells break down and convert glucose first. The linking of glucose molecules with aglycone, in a process that creates glycosides, also plays a role in the resulting flavor of the wine due to their relation and interactions with phenolic compounds like anthocyanins and terpenoids.
Pea protein Composition Pea_protein > Composition The proteins are mainly albumins and globulins, which account for 10-20% and 70-80% of the protein in the pea seed, respectively. The albumins are water-soluble and considered the metabolic and enzymatic proteins, while the globulins are salt soluble and act as the storage proteins for the seed. Globulins can be further classified into legumin and vicilin, which belong to the 11S and 7S seed storage protein classes, respectively.
Wobbulator Summary Wobbulator Such an amplitude-versus-frequency graph is also often referred to as a Bode (pronounced "bodee") plot or Bode graph. In the 1960s a device described as a wobbulator was made by instrument company Brüel & Kjær.
Struthio camelus Biochemistry Ostrich_meat > Physiology > Osmoregulation > System overview > Biochemistry The majority of the common ostrich's internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+), chloride ions (Cl−), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon and exhibits a rapid fall in Na+ concentrations and small changes in K+ and Cl−. The colon is divided into three sections and takes part in solute absorption. The upper colon largely absorbs Na+ and SCFA and partially absorbs KCl.
Social graphs Communication Human_network > Research clusters > Communication Communication Studies are often considered a part of both the social sciences and the humanities, drawing heavily on fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, information science, biology, political science, and economics as well as rhetoric, literary studies, and semiotics. Many communication concepts describe the transfer of information from one source to another, and can thus be conceived of in terms of a network. Social network analysis has thus been successfully applied to phenomena ranging from the social diffusion of linguistic innovation to the influence of peer learner communication on study abroad second language acquisition.
Ribosome High-resolution structure Ribosome > Structure > High-resolution structure The general molecular structure of the ribosome has been known since the early 1970s. In the early 2000s, the structure has been achieved at high resolutions, of the order of a few ångströms. The first papers giving the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution were published almost simultaneously in late 2000. The 50S (large prokaryotic) subunit was determined from the archaeon Haloarcula marismortui and the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, and the structure of the 30S subunit was determined from Thermus thermophilus.
Apoptotic pathway Defective pathways Apoptosis > Implication in disease > Defective pathways XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9 and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the number of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of transcriptional regulation and the response to apoptotic signals, to curtail dependence on the tissue that the cell belongs. This degree of independence from external survival signals, can enable cancer metastasis.
F(R) gravity Palatini f(R) gravity F(R)_gravity > Palatini f(R) gravity In Palatini f(R) gravity, one treats the metric and connection independently and varies the action with respect to each of them separately. The matter Lagrangian is assumed to be independent of the connection. These theories have been shown to be equivalent to Brans–Dicke theory with ω = −3⁄2. Due to the structure of the theory, however, Palatini f(R) theories appear to be in conflict with the Standard Model, may violate Solar system experiments, and seem to create unwanted singularities.
Java programming Syntax Java_language > Syntax The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++ and C. Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an object-oriented language. All code is written inside classes, and every data item is an object, with the exception of the primitive data types, (i.e. integers, floating-point numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not objects for performance reasons. Java reuses some popular aspects of C++ (such as the printf method).
Equilibrium chemistry Multiple equilibria Equilibrium_chemistry > Equilibrium constant > Multiple equilibria Two or more equilibria can exist at the same time. When this is so, equilibrium constants can be ascribed to individual equilibria, but they are not always unique. For example, three equilibrium constants can be defined for a dibasic acid, H2A. A2− + H+ ⇌ HA−; K 1 = {\displaystyle K_{1}={\frac {}{}}} HA− + H+ ⇌ H2A; K 2 = {\displaystyle K_{2}={\frac {}{}}} A2− + 2 H+ ⇌ H2A; β 2 = 2 {\displaystyle \beta _{2}={\frac {}{^{2}}}} The three constants are not independent of each other and it is easy to see that β2 = K1K2. The constants K1 and K2 are stepwise constants and β is an example of an overall constant.
Exploratory thought In statistics Exploratory_thought > In statistics Princeton statistician John Tukey wrote about selection between confirmation or rejection of existing hypotheses and exploration of new ones, focusing on how practicing statisticians might decide between the two modes of thought at various junctures. Subsequent statisticians, philosophers of science, and organizational psychologists have expanded on the topic.
Degeneracy (biology) Theory Degeneracy_(biology) > Theory Tononi et al. have found evidence that degeneracy is inseparable from the existence of hierarchical complexity in neural populations. They argue that the link between degeneracy and complexity is likely to be much more general. Fairly abstract simulations have supported the hypothesis that degeneracy fundamentally alters the propensity for a genetic system to access novel heritable phenotypes and that degeneracy could therefore be a precondition for open-ended evolution. The three hypotheses above have been integrated in where they propose that degeneracy plays a central role in the open-ended evolution of biological complexity. In the same article, it was argued that the absence of degeneracy within many designed (abiotic) complex systems may help to explain why robustness appears to be in conflict with flexibility and adaptability, as seen in software, systems engineering, and artificial life.
Boltzmann machine Training Boltzmann_machine > Training Therefore, the training procedure performs gradient ascent on the log-likelihood of the observed data. This is in contrast to the EM algorithm, where the posterior distribution of the hidden nodes must be calculated before the maximization of the expected value of the complete data likelihood during the M-step. Training the biases is similar, but uses only single node activity: ∂ G ∂ θ i = − 1 R {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {G}}{\partial {\theta _{i}}}}=-{\frac {1}{R}}}
Pulmonary trunk Clinical significance Pulmonary_artery > Clinical significance A pulmonary embolus is a common cause of death in patients with cancer and stroke. : 720–721 A large pulmonary embolus that becomes lodged in the bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk with extensions into both the left and right main pulmonary arteries is called a saddle embolus.Several animal models have been utilized for investigating pulmonary artery related pathologies. Porcine model of pulmonary artery is the most frequently used and it was recently found that their mechanical properties vary with every subsequent branching.
Sloped armor Basic physical principles of deflection Sloped_armor > Deflection > Basic physical principles of deflection The projectile in a process of elastic collision deflects at an angle of 2 α {\displaystyle \alpha } (where α {\displaystyle \alpha } denotes the angle between the armour plate surface and the projectile's initial direction), however the change of direction could be virtually divided into a deceleration part, when the projectile is halted when moving in a direction perpendicular to the plate (and will move along the plate after having been deflected at an angle of about α {\displaystyle \alpha } ), and a process of elastic acceleration, when the projectile accelerates out of the plate (velocity along the plate is considered as invariant because of negligible friction). Thus the maximum energy accumulated by the plate can be calculated from the deceleration phase of the collision event. Under the assumption that only elastic deformation occurs and that a target is solid, while disregarding friction, it is easy to calculate the proportion of energy absorbed by a target if it is hit by a projectile, which, if also disregarding more complex deflection effects, after impact bounces off (elastic case) or slides along (idealised inelastic case) the armour plate.
Need for cognition False memories Need_for_cognition > Features > Biases and decision making > False memories High need for cognition is associated with a greater susceptibility to the creation of false memories associated with certain learning tasks. In a commonly used research paradigm, participants are asked to memorise a list of related words. Recognition is tested by having them pick out learned words from a set of studied and non-studied items. Certain non-studied items are conceptually related to studied items (e.g., chair if the original list contained table and legs). People high in NFC are more likely to show false memory for these lures, due to their greater elaboration of learned items in memory as they are more likely to think of semantically related (but non-studied) items.
Li–Fraumeni syndrome Clinical Li–Fraumeni_syndrome > Pathology > Clinical Other tumours reported in this syndrome, but not yet proved to be linked with it, include melanoma, Wilms' and other kidney tumors, hepatocellular carcinoma, gonadal germ cell, pancreatic, gastric, choroid plexus, colorectal, and prostate cancers. Around 80% of children with adrenocortical carcinoma and 2–10% of childhood brain tumors have p53 mutations. About 2–3% of osteosarcomas, 9% of rhabdomyosarcomas, and 7–20% of patients with multiple primary tumours have p53 mutations.Although most cases of this syndrome have early onset of cancer, cases have also been reported later in life.
Small nucleolar RNA Z206 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_Z206 In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA Z206 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the modification of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). This type of modifying RNA is usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. snoRNA Z206 belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs which contain the conserved sequence motifs known as the C box (UGAUGA) and the D box (CUGA). Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs.Plant snoRNA Z206 was identified in a screen of Oryza sativa.
Quarkonium Charmonium Quarkonium > Heavy quarks > Charmonium In the following table, the same particle can be named with the spectroscopic notation or with its mass. In some cases excitation series are used: ψ′ is the first excitation of ψ (which, for historical reasons, is called J/ψ particle); ψ″ is a second excitation, and so on. That is, names in the same cell are synonymous. Some of the states are predicted, but have not been identified; others are unconfirmed.
Forward link Private and public Reverse_link > Types > Private and public Links are often referred to by terms that refer to the ownership or accessibility of the link. A private link is a link that is either owned by a specific entity or a link that is only accessible by a specific entity. A public link is a link that uses the public switched telephone network or other public utility or entity to provide the link and which may also be accessible by anyone.
Communication accommodation theory Assumptions Communication_accommodation_theory > Assumptions The prior experiences people have with others can influence their communication in the future and how they accommodate others. People's attitudes and beliefs, derived from those factors, determine the extent to which they are willing to accommodate in a conversation. The more similarities that they share with each other, the more likely for them to accommodate.