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# Concept
## Ontology of concepts {#ontology_of_concepts}
### Concepts as abstract objects {#concepts_as_abstract_objects}
The semantic view of concepts suggests that concepts are abstract objects. In this view, concepts are abstract objects of a category out of a human\'s mind rather than some mental representations.
There is debate as to the relationship between concepts and natural language. However, it is necessary at least to begin by understanding that the concept \"dog\" is philosophically distinct from the things in the world grouped by this concept---or the reference class or extension. Concepts that can be equated to a single word are called \"lexical concepts\".
The study of concepts and conceptual structure falls into the disciplines of linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science.
In the simplest terms, a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence, such as a person, a place, or a thing. It may represent a natural object that exists in the real world like a tree, an animal, a stone, etc. It may also name an artificial (man-made) object like a chair, computer, house, etc. Abstract ideas and knowledge domains such as freedom, equality, science, happiness, etc., are also symbolized by concepts. A concept is merely a symbol, a representation of the abstraction. The word is not to be mistaken for the thing. For example, the word \"moon\" (a concept) is not the large, bright, shape-changing object up in the sky, but only *represents* that celestial object. Concepts are created (named) to describe, explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.
#### *A priori* concepts and *a posteriori* concepts {#a_priori_concepts_and_a_posteriori_concepts}
Kant maintained the view that human minds possess not only empirical or *a posteriori* concepts, but also pure or *a priori* concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things *in general*, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are twelve categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an *a priori* concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an *a posteriori* concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. He held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction \"a posteriori concepts\" (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an *a posteriori* concept is a general representation (*Vorstellung*) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic §1, Note 1)
A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical *a posteriori* concepts are created. `{{Blockquote|The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are:
# ''comparison'', i.e., the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness;
# ''reflection'', i.e., the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally
# ''abstraction'' or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ ...
In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree.|Logic, §6}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Embodied content {#embodied_content}
In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or *recollections*, in Plato\'s term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation.
#### Realist universal concepts {#realist_universal_concepts}
Platonist views of the mind construe concepts as abstract objects. Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say, this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato\'s ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts.
#### Sense and reference {#sense_and_reference}
Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status.
#### Concepts in calculus {#concepts_in_calculus}
According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his *The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development*, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.
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# Concept
## Notable theories on the structure of concepts {#notable_theories_on_the_structure_of_concepts}
### Classical theory {#classical_theory}
The classical theory of concepts, also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts (it can be traced back to Aristotle), and was prominently held until the 1970s. The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure. Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features. These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition. Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both *necessary* and jointly *sufficient* for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A set of features is considered sufficient if having all the parts required by the definition entails membership in the class. For example, the classic example *bachelor* is said to be defined by *unmarried* and *man*. An entity is a bachelor (by this definition) if and only if it is both unmarried and a man. To check whether something is a member of the class, you compare its qualities to the features in the definition. Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the *law of the excluded middle*, which means that there are no partial members of a class, you are either in or out.
The classical theory persisted for so long unquestioned because it seemed intuitively correct and has great explanatory power. It can explain how concepts would be acquired, how we use them to categorize and how we use the structure of a concept to determine its referent class. In fact, for many years it was one of the major activities in philosophy---concept analysis. Concept analysis is the act of trying to articulate the necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the referent class of a concept. For example, Shoemaker\'s classic \"Time Without Change\" explored whether the concept of the flow of time can include flows where no changes take place, though change is usually taken as a definition of time.
#### Arguments against the classical theory {#arguments_against_the_classical_theory}
Given that most later theories of concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory, it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Wittgenstein and Rosch argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments summarized as follows:
- It seems that there simply are no definitions---especially those based in sensory primitive concepts.
- It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don\'t know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail.
- Quine\'s argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions.
- Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership.
- Experiments and research showed that assumptions of well defined concepts and categories might not be correct. Researcher Hampton asked participants to differentiate whether items were in different categories. Hampton did not conclude that items were either clear and absolute members or non-members. Instead, Hampton found that some items were barely considered category members and others that were barely non-members. For example, participants considered sinks as barely members of kitchen utensil category, while sponges were considered barely non-members, with much disagreement among participants of the study. If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept.
- Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. See below.
- Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions.
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# Concept
## Notable theories on the structure of concepts {#notable_theories_on_the_structure_of_concepts}
### Prototype theory {#prototype_theory}
Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Brent Berlin, Anglin, and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as *family resemblances*. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership; a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like \'vegetable\' or \'furniture\' as more or less typical of that class. It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. We can judge an item\'s membership of the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member---the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. Lech, Gunturkun, and Suchan explain that categorization involves many areas of the brain. Some of these are: visual association areas, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia, and temporal lobe.
The Prototype perspective is proposed as an alternative view to the Classical approach. While the Classical theory requires an all-or-nothing membership in a group, prototypes allow for more fuzzy boundaries and are characterized by attributes. Lakoff stresses that experience and cognition are critical to the function of language, and Labov\'s experiment found that the function that an artifact contributed to what people categorized it as. For example, a container holding mashed potatoes versus tea swayed people toward classifying them as a bowl and a cup, respectively. This experiment also illuminated the optimal dimensions of what the prototype for \"cup\" is.
Prototypes also deal with the essence of things and to what extent they belong to a category. There have been a number of experiments dealing with questionnaires asking participants to rate something according to the extent to which it belongs to a category. This question is contradictory to the Classical Theory because something is either a member of a category or is not. This type of problem is paralleled in other areas of linguistics such as phonology, with an illogical question such as \"is /i/ or /o/ a better vowel?\" The Classical approach and Aristotelian categories may be a better descriptor in some cases.
### Theory-theory {#theory_theory}
Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts\' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don\'t in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. Theory-theory also postulates that people\'s theories about the world are what inform their conceptual knowledge of the world. Therefore, analysing people\'s theories can offer insights into their concepts. In this sense, \"theory\" means an individual\'s mental explanation rather than scientific fact. This theory criticizes classical and prototype theory as relying too much on similarities and using them as a sufficient constraint. It suggests that theories or mental understandings contribute more to what has membership to a group rather than weighted similarities, and a cohesive category is formed more by what makes sense to the perceiver. Weights assigned to features have shown to fluctuate and vary depending on context and experimental task demonstrated by Tversky. For this reason, similarities between members may be collateral rather than causal.
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# Concept
## Methodology of conceptualisation {#methodology_of_conceptualisation}
Regarding conceptualisation, the conventional approach, influenced by Giovanni Sartori, treats concepts as precise categories with defined attributes. It uses a \"ladder of abstraction\" to adjust a concept\'s generality for clear classification and analytical rigour. In contrast, interpretive approaches view concepts as fluid products of language and social context. These methods analyse how language and a researcher\'s own positionality shape conceptual meaning in practice.
Methodological debates in the social sciences have been addressing how researchers should refine concepts that are misaligned with empirical reality. Emerging methodologies tried to bridge the above-mentioned traditions. For instance, Knott and Alejandro developed a structured four-step process to guide researchers through reconceptualisation when an existing concept is misaligned with their observations. Their approach integrates the conventional need for clarity with a reflexive attention to context to give concepts greater analytical leverage. Specifically, the process involves mapping the attributes of the original concept against the nuances of the empirical case to pinpoint misalignments and systematically build a revised concept.
## Ideasthesia
According to the theory of ideasthesia (or \"sensing concepts\"), activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for the creation of phenomenal experiences. Therefore, understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences (or qualia) emerge within a physical system e.g., the sourness of the sour taste of lemon. This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness. Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the inducer. Later research expanded these results into everyday perception.
There is a lot of discussion on the most effective theory in concepts. Another theory is semantic pointers, which use perceptual and motor representations and these representations are like symbols.
## Etymology
The term \"concept\" is traced back to 1554--60 (Latin *conceptum* -- \"something conceived\")
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# Cimabue
**Giovanni Cimabue** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|tʃ|iː|m|ə|ˈ|b|uː|eɪ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|CHEE|mə|BOO|ay}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|tʃimaˈbuːe|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{c.|1240}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1302), also known as **Cenni di Pepo** or **Cenni di Pepi**, was an Italian painter and designer of mosaics from Florence.
Although heavily influenced by Byzantine models, Cimabue is generally regarded as one of the first great Italian painters to break from the Italo-Byzantine style. Compared with the norms of medieval art, his works have more lifelike figural proportions and a more sophisticated use of shading to suggest volume. According to Italian painter and historian Giorgio Vasari, Cimabue was the teacher of Giotto, the first great artist of the Italian Proto-Renaissance. However, many scholars today tend to discount Vasari\'s claim by citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise.
## Life
Little is known about Cimabue\'s early life. One source that recounts his career is Vasari\'s *Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects*, but its accuracy is uncertain.
He was born in Florence and died in Pisa. Hayden Maginnis speculates that he could have trained in Florence under masters who were culturally connected to Byzantine art. The art historian Pietro Toesca attributed the *Crucifixion* in the church of San Domenico in Arezzo to Cimabue, dating around 1270, making it the earliest known attributed work that departs from the Byzantine style. Cimabue\'s Christ is bent, and the clothes have the golden striations that were introduced by Coppo di Marcovaldo.
Around 1272, Cimabue is documented as being present in Rome, and a little later he made another *Crucifix* for the Florentine church of Santa Croce. Now restored, having been damaged by the 1966 Arno River flood, the work was larger and more advanced than the one in Arezzo, with traces of naturalism perhaps inspired by the works of Nicola Pisano.
According to Vasari, Cimabue, while travelling from Florence to Vespignano, came upon the 10-year-old Giotto (c. 1277) drawing his sheep with a rough rock upon a smooth stone. He asked if Giotto would like to come and stay with him, which the child accepted with his father\'s permission. Vasari elaborates that during Giotto\'s apprenticeship, he allegedly painted a fly on the nose of a portrait Cimabue was working on; the teacher attempted to sweep the fly away several times before he understood his pupil\'s prank. Many scholars now discount Vasari\'s claim that he took Giotto as his pupil, citing earlier sources that suggest otherwise.
Around 1280, Cimabue painted the *Maestà*, originally displayed in the church of San Francesco at Pisa, but now at the Louvre. This work established a style that was followed subsequently by numerous artists, including Duccio di Buoninsegna in his *Rucellai Madonna* (in the past, wrongly attributed to Cimabue) as well as Giotto. Other works from the period, which were said to have heavily influenced Giotto, include a *Flagellation* (Frick Collection), mosaics for the Baptistery of Florence (now largely restored), the *Maestà* at the Santa Maria dei Servi in Bologna and the *Madonna* in the Pinacoteca of Castelfiorentino. A workshop painting, perhaps assignable to a slightly later period, is the *Maestà with Saints Francis and Dominic* now in the Uffizi.
During the pontificate of Pope Nicholas IV, the first Franciscan pope, Cimabue worked in Assisi. At Assisi, in the transept of the Lower Basilica of San Francesco, he created a fresco named *Madonna with Child Enthroned, Four Angels and St Francis*. The left portion of this fresco is lost, but it may have shown St Anthony of Padua (the authorship of the painting has been recently disputed for technical and stylistic reasons). Cimabue was subsequently commissioned to decorate the apse and the transept of the Upper Basilica of Assisi, in the same period of time that Roman artists were decorating the nave. The cycle he created there comprises scenes from the Gospels, the lives of the Virgin Mary, St Peter and St Paul. The paintings are now in poor condition because of oxidation of the brighter colours that were used by the artist.
The *Maestà of Santa Trinita*, dated to c. 1290--1300, which was originally painted for the church of Santa Trinita in Florence, is now in the Uffizi Gallery. The softer expression of the characters suggests that it was influenced by Giotto, who was by then already active as a painter.
Cimabue spent the last period of his life, 1301 to 1302, in Pisa. There, he was commissioned to finish a mosaic of Christ Enthroned, originally begun by Maestro Francesco, in the apse of the city\'s cathedral. Cimabue was to create the part of the mosaic depicting St John the Evangelist, which remains the sole surviving work documented as being by the artist. Cimabue died around 1302. `{{Gallery
|File:Pisa - Duomo di Pisa - 2023-09-29 14-36-41 001.jpeg|The mosaic in its architectural context
|File:Cimabue 001.jpg|The figure of Saint John, the only documented work by Cimabue
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Character
According to Vasari, quoting a contemporary of Cimabue, \"Cimabue of Florence was a painter who lived during the author\'s own time, a nobler man than anyone knew but he was as a result so haughty and proud that if someone pointed out to him any mistake or defect in his work, or if he had noted any himself \... he would immediately destroy the work, no matter how precious it might be.\"
The nickname Cimabue translates as \"bull-head\" but also possibly as \"one who crushes the views of others\", from the Italian verb *cimare*, meaning \"to top\", \"to shear\", and \"to blunt\". The conclusion for the second meaning is drawn from similar commentaries on Dante, who was also known \"for being contemptuous of criticism\".
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# Cimabue
## Legacy
History has long regarded Cimabue as the last of an era that was overshadowed by the Italian Renaissance. As early as 1543, Vasari wrote of Cimabue, \"Cimabue was, in one sense, the principal cause of the renewal of painting,\" with the qualification that, \"Giotto truly eclipsed Cimabue\'s fame just as a great light eclipses a much smaller one.\"
## In Dante\'s *Divine Comedy* {#in_dantes_divine_comedy}
In Canto XI of his *Purgatorio*, Dante laments the quick loss of public interest in Cimabue in the face of Giotto\'s revolution in art. Cimabue himself does not appear in *Purgatorio*, but is mentioned by Oderisi, who is also repenting for his pride. The artist serves to represent the fleeting nature of fame in contrast with the Enduring God.
> O vanity of human powers, how briefly lasts the crowning green of glory, unless an age of darkness follows! In painting Cimabue thought he held the field but now it\'s Giotto has the cry, so that the other\'s fame is dimmed.
## Market
On 27 October 2019, *The Mocking of Christ*, was sold for €24m (£20m; \$26.6m), a price the auctioneers described as a new world record for a medieval painting. The picture had been located in the kitchen of a home in northern France, and its owner had been unaware of its value.
## List of works {#list_of_works}
Around a dozen works are securely attributed to Cimabue, with several less secure attributions. None are signed or dated.
- Crucifixes
- Crucifix (Cimabue, Santa Croce), c. 1265, Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence
- Crucifix (Cimabue, Arezzo), c. 1267--1271, Basilica of San Domenico, Arezzo
- Frescos c. 1277--1280 in the Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, Assisi
- *Nativity and Betrothal of the Virgin*
- Choir, central vault, right transept
- Three surviving panels (of eight) from the *Diptych of devotion*, c.1280
- *The Mocking of Christ*, Musée du Louvre, Paris
- *Virgin and Child with Two Angels*, National Gallery, London
- *The Flagellation of Christ*, Frick Collection, New York
- Maestà or Virgin and Child Enthroned
- *Maestà,* c. 1280, Pisa, now Louvre
- *Maestà of Santa Maria dei Servi,* 1280--1285, Basilica di Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna
- *Gualino Madonna,* 1280--1283, Galleria Sabauda, Turin
- ?: *Madonna di Castelfiorentino,* c. 1283--1284, Museo di Santa Verdiana, Castelfiorentino
- *Santa Trinita Maestà,* c. 1290--1300, Santa Trinita, Florence, now Uffizi, Florence
- Mosaic ceiling at Florence Baptistery, c. 1300
- Mosaic of *Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John*, Pisa Cathedral, 1301--1302
## Gallery
<File:CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo> taken by Senet. April 20, 2010-Perspective correction, crop and blackframe with GIMP by Paolo Villa 2019.jpg\|*Crucifix* (c. 1267--1271), San Domenico, Arezzo <File:La> Vierge et l\'Enfant en majesté entourés de six anges - Cimabue - Musée du Louvre Peintures INV 254 ; MR 159.jpg\|*Maestà* (c. 1280), Louvre, Paris <File:Cimabue> Diptych Overview FR.svg\|Hypothetical reconstruction of the Diptych <File:Cimabue>, The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Two Angels.jpg\|*Virgin and Child with Two Angels* (c. 1280), National Gallery, London <File:Cimabue> Christ Mocked.jpg\|*The Mocking of Christ (Cimabue)* (c. 1280), sold at auction for €24m in 2019 <File:Cimabue> - Flagellation.jpg\|*The Flagellation of Christ* (c. 1280), Frick Collection, New York <File:Santa> Maria dei Servi, bo, interno, maestà di cimabue 01.JPG\|Attributed to Cimabue, *Maestà* (c. 1280--1285), Santa Maria dei Servi, Bologna <File:Cimabue> madonna castefliorentino.jpg\|*Castelfiorentino Madonna* (c. 1283--1284), Museo di Santa Verdiana, Castelfiorentino <File:Cerchia> di cimabue o artista senese, ultima cena di new orleans 01.jpg\|*The Last Supper* <File:Cimabue> - Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels (detail) - WGA04921.jpg\|*Madonna Enthroned with the Child, St Francis and four Angels* (detail) <File:Cimabue> 037.jpg\|*Maestà of Santa Trinita*, (detail) *Prophet* <File:Cimabue> - Crucifix (detail) - WGA04929.jpg\|Detail of the *Santa Croce Crucifix* showing Apostle John <File:Cimabue> 001.jpg\|Detail of mosaic *Christ enthroned with the Virgin and St John* showing St
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# Culture of Canada
The **culture of Canada** embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canadians. Throughout Canada\'s history, its culture has been influenced firstly by its indigenous cultures, and later by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada\'s immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada\'s population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language (in English-speaking Canada), significant media penetration, and geographic proximity.
Canada is often characterized as being \"very progressive, diverse, and multicultural\". Canada\'s federal government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canada\'s culture draws from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Canadian policies---such as abortion, euthanasia, same-sex marriage, and cannabis; an emphasis on cultural diversity; significant immigration; abolishing capital punishment; publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation; efforts to eliminate poverty; and strict gun control are social indicators of the country\'s political and cultural values. Canadians view the country\'s institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the national park system, and the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms* as integral to their national identity.
The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
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# Culture of Canada
## Cultural components {#cultural_components}
### History
#### Influences
For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by indigenous peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Although not without conflict and bloodshed, early European interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations in what is now Canada were arguably peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade. Over the course of three centuries, countless North American Indigenous words, inventions, concepts, and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use. Many places in Canada, both natural features and human habitations, use indigenous names. The name \"Canada\" itself derives from the St. Lawrence Huron-Iroquoian word \"Kanata\" meaning \"village\" or \"settlement\". The name of Canada\'s capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term \"adawe\" meaning \"to trade\".
In the 17th-century, French colonials settled New France in Acadia, in the present-day Maritimes, and in *Canada*, along the St. Lawrence River in present-day Quebec and Ontario. These regions were under French control from 1534 to 1763. However, the British conquered Acadia in 1710 and conquered *Canada* in 1760. The British were able to deport most of the Acadians, but they were unable to deport the Canadiens of *Canada* because they severely outnumbered the British forces. The British therefore had to make deals with Canadiens and hope they would one day become assimilated. The American Revolution, from 1775 to 1783, provoked the migration of 40,000 to 50,000 United Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies to the newly conquered British lands, which brought American influences to Canada for the first time. Following the War of 1812, many Scottish and English people settled in Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Many Irish people fleeing the Great Famine also arrived between 1845 and 1852.
The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism; however, in 1917 and 1944, conscription crises highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones. As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority. Canada, until the 1940s, was often described as \"binational\", with the 2 components being the cultural, linguistic and political identities of English Canadians and of French Canadians.
Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and *Chinese Immigration Act*) that had favoured British, American and other European immigrants (such as Dutch, German, Italian, Polish, Swedish and Ukrainian) were amended during the 1960s, resulting in an influx of people of many different ethnicities. By the end of the 20th century, immigrants were increasingly Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican, Filipino, Lebanese, Pakistani and Haitian. By the 21st century Canada had thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller numbers. `{{As of|2006}}`{=mediawiki}, 16.2% of the population self-identify as a visible minority.
#### Development of popular culture {#development_of_popular_culture}
upright=1.2\|thumb\|\"Ye Gude Olde Days\" from *Hockey: Canada\'s Royal Winter Game*, 1899\|alt=Cartoon drawing of hockey game and people falling through the ice Themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian culture. Modern Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time period of westward expansion and nation building. Contributing factors include Canada\'s unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period including ice hockey and embracement of the summer indigenous game of lacrosse.
By the 19th century, Canadians came to believe themselves possessed of a unique \"northern character,\" due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and sports that reflected this, such as snowshoeing and cross-country skiing, were asserted as characteristically Canadian. During this period, the churches tried to influence leisure activities by preaching against drinking, and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities. In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song. Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment.
By the 1930s, radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional teams. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage and the propagation of national myths. Outside the sports and music arena, Canadians expressed a national character of being hard working, peaceful, orderly and polite.
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# Culture of Canada
## Cultural components {#cultural_components}
### Political culture {#political_culture}
#### Cultural legislation {#cultural_legislation}
French Canada\'s early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and this was preserved by the Quebec Act 1774, which allowed Roman Catholics to hold offices and practice their faith. The *Constitution Act, 1867* was thought to meet the growing calls for Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States. The compromises reached during this time between the English- and French-speaking Fathers of Confederation set Canada on a path to bilingualism which in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity. The English and French languages have had limited constitutional protection since 1867 and full official status since 1969. Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867 (BNA Act) guarantees that both languages may be used in the Parliament of Canada. Canada adopted its *first Official Languages Act* in 1969, giving English and French equal status in the government of Canada. Doing so makes them \"official\" languages, having preferred status in law over all other languages used in Canada.
Prior to the advent of the *Canadian Bill of Rights* in 1960 and its successor the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms* in 1982, the laws of Canada did not provide much in the way of civil rights and this issue was typically of limited concern to the courts. Canada since the 1960s has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all people. Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government and is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1995, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in *Egan v. Canada* that sexual orientation should be \"read in\" to Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a part of the Constitution of Canada guaranteeing equal rights to all Canadians. Following a series of decisions by provincial courts and the Supreme Court of Canada, on July 20, 2005, the *Civil Marriage Act* (Bill C-38) became law, legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Furthermore, sexual orientation was included as a protected status in the human-rights laws of the federal government and of all provinces and territories.
#### Contemporary politics {#contemporary_politics}
Canadian governments at the federal level have a tradition of liberalism, and govern with a moderate, centrist political ideology. Canada\'s egalitarian approach to governance emphasizing social justice and multiculturalism, is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics that has wide public and political support. Peace, order, and good government are constitutional goals of the Canadian government.
Canada has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative customs derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The country has been dominated by two parties, the centre-left Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right Conservative Party of Canada. The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale, with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. Smaller parties like the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have also been able to exert their influence over the political process by representation at the federal level.
#### Nationalism and protectionism {#nationalism_and_protectionism}
In general, Canadian nationalists are concerned about the protection of Canadian sovereignty and loyalty to the Canadian State, placing them in the civic nationalist category. It has likewise often been suggested that anti-Americanism plays a prominent role in Canadian nationalist ideologies. A unified, bi-cultural, tolerant and sovereign Canada remains an ideological inspiration to many Canadian nationalists. Alternatively Quebecois nationalism and support for maintaining French Canadian culture many of whom were supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement during the late-20th century.
Cultural protectionism in Canada has, since the mid-20th century, taken the form of conscious, interventionist attempts on the part of various Canadian governments to promote Canadian cultural production. Sharing a large border, a common language (for the majority), and being exposed to massive diffusions of American media makes it difficult for Canada to preserve its own culture versus being assimilated to American culture. While Canada tries to maintain its cultural differences, it also must balance this with responsibility in trade arrangements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the United States--Mexico--Canada Agreement (USMCA).
#### Foreign relations {#foreign_relations}
The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States. Canada\'s foreign policy of peacekeeping, peace enforcement, peacemaking, and peacebuilding has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions since the end of World War II.
Canada\'s central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid-1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the \"common good\" of all nations. Canada has since been engaged with the United Nations, NATO and the European Union (EU) in promoting its middle power status into an active role in world affairs.
Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, in Afghanistan and Libya. The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti.
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# Culture of Canada
## Cultural components {#cultural_components}
### Values
Canadian values are the perceived commonly shared ethical and human values of Canadians. Canadians generally value freedom and individuality, often making personal decisions based on family interests rather than collective Canadian identity. Tolerance and sensitivity hold significant importance in Canada\'s multicultural society, as does politeness and fairness Canadians typically tend to embrace liberal views on social and political issues. A majority of Canadians shared the values of human rights, respect for the law and gender equality. Universal access to publicly funded health services \"is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country.\"
The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold Canadian values, but use generalities to specify them. Historian Ian MacKay argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of \"Rebels, Reds, and Radicals\", and allied leftist political elements, \"egalitarianism, social equality, and peace\... are now often simply referred to\...as \'Canadian values.\'\"
thumb\|upright=1.5\|A copy of the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, was intended to be a source for Canadian values and national unity. The 15th Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau wrote in his *Memoirs* that:`{{blockquote|Canada itself could now be defined as a "society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.<ref name="Trudeau1993">{{cite book|author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau|title=Memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqsJbzlwtwsC|year=1993|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-8588-8|pages= 322–323}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Numerous scholars, beginning in the 1940s with American sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset; have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries, especially the United States. However, there are critics who say that such a task is practically impossible.
Denis Stairs a professor of political Science at Dalhousie University; links the concept of Canadian values with nationalism. \[Canadians typically\]\...believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values -- *Canadian* values -- and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous.
### Identity
Canada\'s large geographic size, the presence of a significant number of indigenous peoples, the conquest of one European linguistic population by another and relatively open immigration policy have led to an extremely diverse society. As a result, the issue of Canadian identity remains under scrutiny.
Canada has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation or a single national myth. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many commentators speak of a French Canadian culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture. However, as a whole, Canada is in theory, a cultural mosaic---a collection of several regional, and ethnic subcultures.
As Professor Alan Cairns noted about the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*, \"the initial federal government premise was on developing a pan-Canadian identity\"\'. Pierre Trudeau himself later wrote in his *Memoirs (1993)* that \"Canada itself\" could now be defined as a \"society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom\", and that all Canadians could identify with the values of liberty and equality.
Political philosopher Charles Blattberg suggests that Canada is a \"multinational country\"; as all Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of the other kinds.
Journalist and author Richard Gwyn has suggested that \"tolerance\" has replaced \"loyalty\" as the touchstone of Canadian identity. Journalist and professor Andrew Cohen wrote in 2007: `{{Blockquote |The Canadian Identity, as it has come to be known, is as elusive as the [[Bigfoot|Sasquatch]] and [[Ogopogo]]. It has animated—and frustrated—generations of statesmen, historians, writers, artists, philosophers, and the National Film Board ... Canada resists easy definition.<ref name="Cohen2008zxc">{{cite book|first=Andrew|last=Cohen|title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glcBcaMC6doC&pg=PA3|year= 2008|publisher=McClelland & Stewart|isbn=978-0-7710-2286-9|pages=3–}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Canada\'s 15th prime minister Pierre Trudeau in regards to uniformity stated:
In 2015, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau defined the country as the world\'s first postnational state: \"There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada\".
The question of Canadian identity was traditionally dominated by three fundamental themes: first, the often conflicted relations between English Canadians and French Canadians stemming from the French Canadian imperative for cultural and linguistic survival; secondly, the generally close ties between English Canadians and the British Empire, resulting in a gradual political process towards complete independence from the imperial power; and finally, the close proximity of English-speaking Canadians to the United States. Much of the debate over contemporary Canadian identity is argued in political terms, and defines Canada as a country defined by its government policies, which are thought to reflect deeper cultural values.
In 2013, nearly nine in ten (87%) Canadians were proud to identify as Canadian, with over half (61%) expressing they were very proud. The highest pride levels were for Canadian history (70%), the armed forces (64%), the health care system (64%), and the Constitution (63%). However, pride in Canada's political influence was lower at 46%. Outside Quebec, pride ranged from 91% in British Columbia to 94% in Prince Edward Island, while 70% of Quebec residents felt proud. Seniors and women showed the most pride, especially among first- and second-generation immigrants, who valued both Canadian identity and achievements.
#### Inter-provincial interactions {#inter_provincial_interactions}
Western alienation is the notion that the western provinces have historically been alienated, and in extreme cases excluded, from mainstream Canadian political affairs in favour of Eastern Canada or more specifically the central provinces. Western alienation claims that these latter two are politically represented, and economically favoured, more significantly than the former, which has given rise to the sentiment of alienation among many western Canadians. Likewise; the Quebec sovereignty movement that lead to the Québécois nation and the province of Quebec being recognized as a \"distinct society\" within Canada, highlights the sharp divisions between the Anglo and Francophone population.
Though more than half of Canadians live in just two provinces (Ontario and Quebec), each province is largely self-contained due to provincial economic self-sufficiency. Only 15 percent of Canadians live in a different province from where they were born, and only 10 percent go to another province for university. Canada has always been like this, and stands in sharp contrast to the United States\' internal mobility which is much higher. For example 30 percent live in a different state from where they were born, and 30 percent go away for university. Scott Gilmore in *Maclean\'s* argues that \"Canada is a nation of strangers\", in the sense that for most individuals, the rest of Canada outside their province is little-known. Another factor is the cost of internal travel. Intra-Canadian airfares are high---it is cheaper and more common to visit the United States than to visit another province. Gilmore argues that the mutual isolation makes it difficult to muster national responses to major national issues.
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# Culture of Canada
## Cultural components {#cultural_components}
### Humour
Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian Identity. There are several traditions in Canadian humour in both English and French. While these traditions are distinct and at times very different, there are common themes that relate to Canadians\' shared history and geopolitical situation in the Western Hemisphere and the world. Various trends can be noted in Canadian comedy. One trend is the portrayal of a \"typical\" Canadian family in an ongoing radio or television series. Other trends include outright absurdity, and political and cultural satire. Irony, parody, satire, and self-deprecation are arguably the primary characteristics of Canadian humour.
The beginnings of Canadian national radio comedy date to the late 1930s with the debut of *The Happy Gang*, a long-running weekly variety show that was regularly sprinkled with corny jokes in between tunes. Canadian television comedy begins with Wayne and Shuster, a sketch comedy duo who performed as a comedy team during the Second World War, and moved their act to radio in 1946 before moving on to television. *Second City Television*, otherwise known as *SCTV*, *Royal Canadian Air Farce*, *This Hour Has 22 Minutes*, *The Kids in the Hall*, *Trailer Park Boys*, *Corner Gas* and more recently *Schitt\'s Creek* are regarded as television shows which were very influential on the development of Canadian humour. Canadian comedians have had great success in the film industry and are amongst the most recognized in the world.
Humber College in Toronto and the École nationale de l\'humour in Montreal offer post-secondary programmes in comedy writing and performance. Montreal is also home to the bilingual (English and French) Just for Laughs festival and to the Just for Laughs Museum, a bilingual, international museum of comedy. Canada has a national television channel, The Comedy Network, devoted to comedy. Many Canadian cities feature comedy clubs and showcases, most notable, The Second City branch in Toronto (originally housed at The Old Fire Hall) and the Yuk Yuk\'s national chain. The Canadian Comedy Awards were founded in 1999 by the Canadian Comedy Foundation for Excellence, a not-for-profit organization.
## Symbols
Predominant symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian horse. Many official symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed or modified over the past few decades to Canadianize them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United Kingdom. Other prominent symbols include the sports of hockey and lacrosse, the Canada goose, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk; material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine have also been defined as uniquely Canadian. Symbols of the Canadian monarchy continue to be featured in, for example, the Arms of Canada, the armed forces, and the prefix His Majesty\'s Canadian Ship. The designation *Royal* remains for institutions as varied as the Royal Canadian Armed Forces, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet.
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# Culture of Canada
## Arts
### Visual arts {#visual_arts}
Indigenous artists were producing art in the territory that is now called Canada for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settler colonists and the eventual establishment of Canada as a nation state. Like the peoples that produced them, indigenous art traditions spanned territories that extended across the current national boundaries between Canada and the United States. The majority of indigenous artworks preserved in museum collections date from the period after European contact and show evidence of the creative adoption and adaptation of European trade goods such as metal and glass beads. Canadian sculpture has been enriched by the walrus ivory, muskox horn and caribou antler and soapstone carvings by the Inuit artists. These carvings show objects and activities from the daily life, myths and legends of the Inuit. Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.
The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid-19th century, Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch-born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the *habitants* (French-Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted pictures of indigenous life in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven developed the first distinctly Canadian style of painting, inspired by the works of the legendary landscape painter Tom Thomson. All these artists painted large, brilliantly coloured scenes of the Canadian wilderness.
Since the 1930s, Canadian painters have developed a wide range of highly individual styles. Emily Carr became famous for her paintings of totem poles in British Columbia. Other noted painters have included the landscape artist David Milne, the painters Jean-Paul Riopelle, Harold Town and Charles Carson and multi-media artist Michael Snow. The abstract art group Painters Eleven, particularly the artists William Ronald and Jack Bush, also had an important impact on modern art in Canada. Government support has played a vital role in their development enabling visual exposure through publications and periodicals featuring Canadian art, as has the establishment of numerous art schools and colleges across the country.
### Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. Canada\'s early literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada\'s position in the world, for example the poetry of Bliss Carman or the memoirs of Susanna Moodie and Catherine Parr Traill. These themes, and Canada\'s literary history, inform the writing of successive generations of Canadian authors, from Leonard Cohen to Margaret Atwood.
By the mid-20th century, Canadian writers were exploring national themes for Canadian readers. Authors were trying to find a distinctly Canadian voice, rather than merely emulating British or American writers. Canadian identity is closely tied to its literature. The question of national identity recurs as a theme in much of Canada\'s literature, from Hugh MacLennan\'s *Two Solitudes* (1945) to Alistair MacLeod\'s *No Great Mischief* (1999). Canadian literature is often categorized by region or province; by the socio-cultural origins of the author (for example, Acadians, indigenous peoples, LGBT, and Irish Canadians); and by literary period, such as \"Canadian postmoderns\" or \"Canadian Poets Between the Wars\".
Canadian authors have accumulated numerous international awards. In 1992, Michael Ondaatje became the first Canadian to win the Booker Prize for *The English Patient*. Margaret Atwood won the Booker in 2000 for *The Blind Assassin* and Yann Martel won it in 2002 for the *Life of Pi*. Carol Shields\'s *The Stone Diaries* won the Governor General\'s Awards in Canada in 1993, the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and the 1994 National Book Critics Circle Award. In 2013, Alice Munro was the first Canadian to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for her work as \"master of the modern short story\". Munro is also a recipient of the Man Booker International Prize for her lifetime body of work, and three-time winner of Canada\'s Governor General\'s Award for fiction.
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# Culture of Canada
## Arts
### Theatre
Canada has had a thriving stage theatre scene since the late 1800s. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, and the Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation. Canada also hosts one of the largest fringe festivals, the Edmonton International Fringe Festival.
Canada\'s largest cities host a variety of modern and historical venues. The Toronto Theatre District is Canada\'s largest, as well as being the third largest English-speaking theatre district in the world. In addition to original Canadian works, shows from the West End and Broadway frequently tour in Toronto. Toronto\'s Theatre District includes the venerable Roy Thomson Hall; the Princess of Wales Theatre; the Tim Sims Playhouse; The Second City; the Canon Theatre; the Panasonic Theatre; the Royal Alexandra Theatre; historic Massey Hall; and the city\'s new opera house, the Sony Centre for the Performing Arts. Toronto\'s Theatre District also includes the Theatre Museum Canada.
Montreal\'s theatre district (\"Quartier des Spectacles\") is the scene of performances that are mainly French-language, although the city also boasts a lively anglophone theatre scene, such as the Centaur Theatre. Large French theatres in the city include Théâtre Saint-Denis and Théâtre du Nouveau Monde.
Vancouver is host to, among others, the Vancouver Fringe Festival, the Arts Club Theatre Company, Carousel Theatre, Bard on the Beach, Theatre Under the Stars and Studio 58.
Calgary is home to Theatre Calgary, a mainstream regional theatre; Alberta Theatre Projects, a major centre for new play development in Canada; the Calgary Animated Objects Society; and One Yellow Rabbit, a touring company.
There are three major theatre venues in Ottawa; the Ottawa Little Theatre, originally called the Ottawa Drama League at its inception in 1913, is the longest-running community theatre company in Ottawa. Since 1969, Ottawa has been the home of the National Arts Centre, a major performing-arts venue that houses four stages and is home to the National Arts Centre Orchestra, the Ottawa Symphony Orchestra and Opera Lyra Ottawa. Established in 1975, the Great Canadian Theatre Company specializes in the production of Canadian plays at a local level.
### Television
Canadian television, especially supported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, is the home of a variety of locally produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film, is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The success of French-language domestic television in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart. In recent years nationalism has been used to prompt products on television. The *I Am Canadian* campaign by Molson beer, most notably the commercial featuring Joe Canadian, infused domestically brewed beer and nationalism.
Canada\'s television industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. Since the 1980s, Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as Hollywood North. The American TV series *Queer as Folk* was filmed in Toronto. Canadian producers have been very successful in the field of science fiction since the mid-1990s, with such shows as *The X-Files*, *Stargate SG-1*, *Highlander: The Series*, the new *Battlestar Galactica*, *My Babysitter\'s a Vampire*, *Smallville*, and *The Outer Limits* all filmed in Vancouver.
The CRTC\'s Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster\'s transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. These regulations also apply to US cable television channels such as MTV and the Discovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while showing primarily BBC shows from the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output.
### Film
A number of Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians.
Canada has developed a vigorous film industry that has produced a variety of well-known films and actors. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the bizarre and innovative directions of some works, such as auteurs Atom Egoyan (*The Sweet Hereafter*, 1997) and David Cronenberg (*The Fly*, *Naked Lunch*, *A History of Violence*) and the *avant-garde* work of Michael Snow and Jack Chambers. Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as Denys Arcand and Denis Villeneuve, while First Nations cinema includes the likes of *Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner*. At the 76th Academy Awards, Arcand\'s *The Barbarian Invasions* became Canada\'s first film to win the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
The National Film Board of Canada is a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world\'. Canada has produced many popular documentaries such as *The Corporation*, *Nanook of the North*, *Final Offer*, and *Canada: A People\'s History*. The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevalent film festivals for Western cinema. It is the première film festival in North America from which the Oscars race begins.
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# Culture of Canada
## Arts
### Music
The music of Canada has reflected the multi-cultural influences that have shaped the country. Indigenous, the French, and the British have all made historical contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The country has produced its own composers, musicians and ensembles since the mid-1600s. From the 17th century onward, Canada has developed a music infrastructure that includes church halls; chamber halls; conservatories; academies; performing arts centres; record companies; radio stations, and television music-video channels. The music has subsequently been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. Canadian rock has had a considerable impact on the development of modern popular music and the development of the most popular subgenres.
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest known song, \"The Bold Canadian\", was written in 1812. The national anthem of Canada, \"O Canada\" adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before English lyrics were written in 1906.
Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada\'s music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in a ceremony during the summer of 1970.
## Media
Canada\'s media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse, and very regionalized. The *Broadcasting Act* declares \"the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada\". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output---particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines---is often overshadowed by imports from the United States and the United Kingdom. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a \"handful of corporations\". The largest of these corporations is the country\'s national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.
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# Culture of Canada
## Sports
Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many contests that Canadians value, the most common are ice hockey, box lacrosse, Canadian football, basketball, soccer, curling and ringette. All but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada.
Ice hockey, referred to as simply \"hockey\", is Canada\'s most prevalent winter sport, its most popular spectator sport, and its most successful sport in international competition. It is Canada\'s official national winter sport. Lacrosse, a sport with indigenous origins, is Canada\'s oldest and official summer sport. Canadian football is Canada\'s second most popular spectator sport, and the Canadian Football League\'s annual championship, the Grey Cup, is the country\'s largest annual sports event.
While other sports have a larger spectator base, association football, known in Canada as *soccer* in both English and French, has the most registered players of any team sport in Canada, and is the most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada -- with a trio of teams in North America\'s top pro league, Major League Soccer -- and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon, disc golf, water sports, and several forms of wrestling.
As a country with a generally cool climate, Canada has enjoyed greater success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics, although significant regional variations in climate allow for a wide variety of both team and individual sports. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada\'s Sports Hall of Fame, while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada\'s top athlete by a panel of journalists. There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada.
## Cuisine
Canadian cuisine varies widely depending on the region. The former Canadian prime minister Joe Clark has been paraphrased to have noted: \"Canada has a cuisine of cuisines. Not a stew pot, but a smorgasbord.\" While there are considerable overlaps between Canadian food and the rest of the cuisine in North America, many unique dishes (or versions of certain dishes) are found and available only in the country. Common contenders for the Canadian national food include poutine and butter tarts. Other popular Canadian made foods include indigenous fried bread bannock, French tourtière, Kraft Dinner, ketchup chips, date squares, nanaimo bars, back bacon, the caesar cocktail and many many more. The Canadian province of Quebec is the birthplace and world\'s largest producer of maple syrup, The Montreal-style bagel and Montreal-style smoked meat are both food items originally developed by Jewish communities living in Quebec
The three earliest cuisines of Canada have First Nations, English, and French roots. The indigenous population of Canada often have their own traditional cuisine. The cuisines of English Canada are closely related to British and American cuisine. Finally, the traditional cuisines of French Canada have evolved from 16th-century French cuisine because of the tough conditions of colonial life and the winter provisions of Coureur des bois. With subsequent waves of immigration in the 18th and 19th century from Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe, and then from Asia, Africa and Caribbean, the regional cuisines were subsequently affected.
## Public opinion data {#public_opinion_data}
A 2022 web survey by the Association for Canadian Studies found that an absolute majority of respondents in all provinces except Alberta disagreed with the statement that \"there is only one Canadian culture\". Most respondents didn\'t choose what music to listen to based on whether or not the artist was Canadian. While half of Quebeckers and more than one third of respondents in the rest of Canada agreed that \"I worry about preserving my culture\" at the same time 60% of respondents agreed that \"If a Canadian artist is good enough, they will become discovered without the need for specific Canadian content rules\". Forty-six percent of respondents had no favourite Canadian musical artist. Rock, pop, and country music were the most popular genres of music, with above twenty percent fan bases in all age categories, but with hip-hop also appealing to more than twenty percent in the youngest cohort (18--35 years old). Film genre preferences were largely as the same across age categories, with comedies and action films the most popular, except that only one percent of older people (\>55 years old) were fans of animated movies compared to eleven percent in young adults, while older adults showed a strong preference for dramas compared to younger people. Three out of four respondents could not name a single Canadian visual artist, living or dead.
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# Culture of Canada
## Outside views {#outside_views}
In a 2002 interview with the *Globe and Mail*, Aga Khan, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims, described Canada as \"the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe\", citing it as \"a model for the world\". A 2007 poll ranked Canada as the country with the most positive influence in the world. 28,000 people in 27 countries were asked to rate 12 countries as either having a positive or negative worldwide influence. Canada\'s overall influence rating topped the list with 54 per cent of respondents rating it mostly positive and only 14 per cent mostly negative. A global opinion poll for the BBC saw Canada ranked the second most positively viewed nation in the world (behind Germany) in 2013 and 2014.
The United States is home to a number of perceptions about Canadian culture, due to the countries\' partially shared heritage and the relatively large number of cultural features common to both the US and Canada. For example, the average Canadian may be perceived as more reserved than his or her American counterpart. Canada and the United States are often inevitably compared as sibling countries, and the perceptions that arise from this oft-held contrast have gone to shape the advertised worldwide identities of both nations: the United States is seen as the rebellious child of the British Crown, forged in the fires of violent revolution; Canada is the calmer offspring of the United Kingdom, known for a more relaxed national demeanour
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# Control engineering
**Control engineering**, also known as **control systems engineering** and, in some European countries, **automation engineering**, is an engineering discipline that deals with control systems, applying control theory to design equipment and systems with desired behaviors in control environments. The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering, chemical engineering and mechanical engineering at many institutions around the world.
The practice uses sensors and detectors to measure the output performance of the process being controlled; these measurements are used to provide corrective feedback helping to achieve the desired performance. Systems designed to perform without requiring human input are called automatic control systems (such as cruise control for regulating the speed of a car). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of a diverse range of systems.
## Overview
Modern day control engineering is a relatively new field of study that gained significant attention during the 20th century with the advancement of technology. It can be broadly defined or classified as practical application of control theory. Control engineering plays an essential role in a wide range of control systems, from simple household washing machines to high-performance fighter aircraft. It seeks to understand physical systems, using mathematical modelling, in terms of inputs, outputs and various components with different behaviors; to use control system design tools to develop controllers for those systems; and to implement controllers in physical systems employing available technology. A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial or biological, and its mathematical modelling, analysis and controller design uses control theory in one or many of the time, frequency and complex-s domains, depending on the nature of the design problem.
Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modeling of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g. mechanical systems) and the design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical, many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering.
Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be used to implement control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many modern automobiles.
In most cases, control engineers utilize feedback when designing control systems. This is often accomplished using a proportional--integral--derivative controller **(**PID controller) system. For example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle\'s speed is continuously monitored and fed back to the system, which adjusts the motor\'s torque accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is achieved.
Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of sensors.
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# Control engineering
## History
Automatic control systems were first developed over two thousand years ago. The first feedback control device on record is thought to be the ancient Ktesibios\'s water clock in Alexandria, Egypt, around the third century BCE. It kept time by regulating the water level in a vessel and, therefore, the water flow from that vessel. `{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=22}}`{=mediawiki} This certainly was a successful device as water clocks of similar design were still being made in Baghdad when the Mongols captured the city in 1258 CE. A variety of automatic devices have been used over the centuries to accomplish useful tasks or simply just to entertain. The latter includes the automata, popular in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, featuring dancing figures that would repeat the same task over and over again; these automata are examples of open-loop control. Milestones among feedback, or \"closed-loop\" automatic control devices, include the temperature regulator of a furnace attributed to Drebbel, circa 1620, and the centrifugal flyball governor used for regulating the speed of steam engines by James Watt`{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=22}}`{=mediawiki} in 1788.
In his 1868 paper \"On Governors\", James Clerk Maxwell was able to explain instabilities exhibited by the flyball governor using differential equations to describe the control system. This demonstrated the importance and usefulness of mathematical models and methods in understanding complex phenomena, and it signaled the beginning of mathematical control and systems theory. Elements of control theory had appeared earlier but not as dramatically and convincingly as in Maxwell\'s analysis.
Control theory made significant strides over the next century. New mathematical techniques, as well as advances in electronic and computer technologies, made it possible to control significantly more complex dynamical systems than the original flyball governor could stabilize. New mathematical techniques included developments in optimal control in the 1950s and 1960s followed by progress in stochastic, robust, adaptive, nonlinear control methods in the 1970s and 1980s. Applications of control methodology have helped to make possible space travel and communication satellites, safer and more efficient aircraft, cleaner automobile engines, and cleaner and more efficient chemical processes.
Before it emerged as a unique discipline, control engineering was practiced as a part of mechanical engineering and control theory was studied as a part of electrical engineering since electrical circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. In the first control relationships, a current output was represented by a voltage control input. However, not having adequate technology to implement electrical control systems, designers were left with the option of less efficient and slow responding mechanical systems. A very effective mechanical controller that is still widely used in some hydro plants is the governor. Later on, previous to modern power electronics, process control systems for industrial applications were devised by mechanical engineers using pneumatic and hydraulic control devices, many of which are still in use today.
### Mathematical modelling {#mathematical_modelling}
David Quinn Mayne, (1930--2024) was among the early developers of a rigorous mathematical method for analysing Model predictive control algorithms (MPC). It is currently used in tens of thousands of applications and is a core part of the advanced control technology by hundreds of process control producers. MPC\'s major strength is its capacity to deal with nonlinearities and hard constraints in a simple and intuitive fashion. His work underpins a class of algorithms that are probably correct, heuristically explainable, and yield control system designs which meet practically important objectives.
## Control systems {#control_systems}
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# Control engineering
## Control theory {#control_theory}
## Education
At many universities around the world, control engineering courses are taught primarily in electrical engineering and mechanical engineering, but some courses can be instructed in mechatronics engineering, and aerospace engineering. In others, control engineering is connected to computer science, as most control techniques today are implemented through computers, often as embedded systems (as in the automotive field). The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program and employs many of the same principles in control engineering. Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived. However, specialised control engineering departments do exist, for example, in Italy there are several master in Automation & Robotics that are fully specialised in Control engineering or the Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering at the University of Sheffield or the Department of Robotics and Control Engineering at the United States Naval Academy and the Department of Control and Automation Engineering at the Istanbul Technical University.
Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behavior. Students of control engineering may start with a linear control system course dealing with the time and complex-s domain, which requires a thorough background in elementary mathematics and Laplace transform, called classical control theory. In linear control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control and nonlinear control courses require Z transformation and algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education.
## Careers
A control engineer\'s career starts with a bachelor\'s degree and can continue through the college process. Control engineer degrees are typically paired with an electrical or mechanical engineering degree, but can also be paired with a degree in chemical engineering. According to a *Control Engineering* survey, most of the people who answered were control engineers in various forms of their own career.
There are not very many careers that are classified as \"control engineer\", most of them are specific careers that have a small semblance to the overarching career of control engineering. A majority of the control engineers that took the survey in 2019 are system or product designers, or even control or instrument engineers. Most of the jobs involve process engineering or production or even maintenance, they are some variation of control engineering.
Because of this, there are many job opportunities in aerospace companies, manufacturing companies, automobile companies, power companies, chemical companies, petroleum companies, and government agencies. Some places that hire Control Engineers include companies such as Rockwell Automation, NASA, Ford, Phillips 66, Eastman, and Goodrich. Control Engineers can possibly earn \$66k annually from Lockheed Martin Corp. They can also earn up to \$96k annually from General Motors Corporation. Process Control Engineers, typically found in Refineries and Specialty Chemical plants, can earn upwards of \$90k annually.
In India, control System Engineering is provided at different levels with a diploma, graduation and postgraduation. These programs require the candidate to have chosen physics, chemistry and mathematics for their secondary schooling or relevant bachelor\'s degree for postgraduate studies.
## Recent advancement {#recent_advancement}
Originally, control engineering was all about continuous systems. Development of computer control tools posed a requirement of discrete control system engineering because the communications between the computer-based digital controller and the physical system are governed by a computer clock.`{{r|Keviczky_2019|p=23}}`{=mediawiki} The equivalent to Laplace transform in the discrete domain is the Z-transform. Today, many of the control systems are computer controlled and they consist of both digital and analog components.
Therefore, at the design stage either:
- Digital components are mapped into the continuous domain and the design is carried out in the continuous domain, or
- Analog components are mapped into discrete domain and design is carried out there.
The first of these two methods is more commonly encountered in practice because many industrial systems have many continuous systems components, including mechanical, fluid, biological and analog electrical components, with a few digital controllers.
Similarly, the design technique has progressed from paper-and-ruler based manual design to computer-aided design and now to computer-automated design or CAD which has been made possible by evolutionary computation. CAD can be applied not just to tuning a predefined control scheme, but also to controller structure optimisation, system identification and invention of novel control systems, based purely upon a performance requirement, independent of any specific control scheme.
Resilient control systems extend the traditional focus of addressing only planned disturbances to frameworks and attempt to address multiple types of unexpected disturbance; in particular, adapting and transforming behaviors of the control system in response to malicious actors, abnormal failure modes, undesirable human action, etc
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# Jean Siméon Chardin
**Jean Siméon Chardin** (`{{IPA|fr|ʒɑ̃ simeɔ̃ ʃaʁdɛ̃|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; November 2, 1699 -- December 6, 1779) was an 18th-century French painter. He is considered a master of still life, and is also noted for his genre paintings which depict kitchen maids, children, and domestic activities. Carefully balanced composition, soft diffusion of light, and granular impasto characterize his work.
## Life
Chardin was born in Paris, the son of a cabinetmaker, and rarely left the city. He lived on the Left Bank near Saint-Sulpice until 1757, when Louis XV granted him a studio and living quarters in the Louvre.
Chardin entered into a marriage contract with Marguerite Saintard in 1723, whom he did not marry until 1731. He served apprenticeships with the history painters Pierre-Jacques Cazes and Noël-Nicolas Coypel, and in 1724 became a master in the Académie de Saint-Luc.
According to one nineteenth-century writer, at a time when it was hard for unknown painters to come to the attention of the Royal Academy, he first found notice by displaying a painting at the \"small Corpus Christi\" (held eight days after the regular one) on the Place Dauphine (by the Pont Neuf). Van Loo, passing by in 1720, bought it and later assisted the young painter.
Upon presentation of *The Ray* and *The Buffet* in 1728, he was admitted to the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture. The following year he ceded his position in the Académie de Saint-Luc. He made a modest living by \"produc\[ing\] paintings in the various genres at whatever price his customers chose to pay him\", and by such work as the restoration of the frescoes at the Galerie François I at Fontainebleau in 1731. In November 1731 his son Jean-Pierre was baptized, and a daughter, Marguerite-Agnès, was baptized in 1733. In 1735 his wife Marguerite died, and within two years Marguerite-Agnès had died as well.
Beginning in 1737 Chardin exhibited regularly at the Salon. He would prove to be a \"dedicated academician\", regularly attending meetings for fifty years, and functioning successively as counsellor, treasurer, and secretary, overseeing in 1761 the installation of Salon exhibitions.
Chardin\'s work gained popularity through reproductive engravings of his genre paintings (made by artists such as François-Bernard Lépicié and P.-L. Sugurue), which brought Chardin income in the form of \"what would now be called royalties\". In 1744 he entered his second marriage, this time to Françoise-Marguerite Pouget. The union brought a substantial improvement in Chardin\'s financial circumstances. In 1745 a daughter, Angélique-Françoise, was born, but she died in 1746.
In 1752 Chardin was granted a pension of 500 livres by Louis XV. In 1756 Chardin returned to the subject of the still life. At the Salon of 1759 he exhibited nine paintings; it was the first Salon to be commented upon by Denis Diderot, who would prove to be a great admirer and public champion of Chardin\'s work. Beginning in 1761, his responsibilities on behalf of the Salon, simultaneously arranging the exhibitions and acting as treasurer, resulted in a diminution of productivity in painting, and the showing of \'replicas\' of previous works. In 1763 his services to the Académie were acknowledged with an extra 200 livres in pension. In 1765 he was unanimously elected associate member of the Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts of Rouen, but there is no evidence that he left Paris to accept the honor. By 1770 Chardin was the \'Premier peintre du roi\', and his pension of 1,400 livres was the highest in the academy. In the 1770s his eyesight weakened and he took to painting in pastels, a medium in which he executed portraits of his wife and himself (see *Self-portrait* at top right). His works in pastels are now highly valued.
In 1772 Chardin\'s son, also a painter, drowned in Venice, a probable suicide. The artist\'s last known oil painting was dated 1776; his final Salon participation was in 1779, and featured several pastel studies. Gravely ill by November of that year, he died in Paris on December 6, at the age of 80.
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# Jean Siméon Chardin
## Work
Chardin worked very slowly and painted only slightly more than 200 pictures (about four a year) in total.
Chardin\'s work had little in common with the Rococo painting that dominated French art in the 18th century. At a time when history painting was considered the supreme classification for public art, Chardin\'s subjects of choice were viewed as minor categories. He favored simple yet beautifully textured still lifes, and sensitively handled domestic interiors and genre paintings. Simple, even stark, paintings of common household items (*Still Life with a Smoker\'s Box*) and an uncanny ability to portray children\'s innocence in an unsentimental manner (*Boy with a Top* \[right\]) nevertheless found an appreciative audience in his time, and account for his timeless appeal.
Largely self-taught, Chardin was greatly influenced by the realism and subject matter of the 17th-century Low Country masters. Despite his unconventional portrayal of the ascendant bourgeoisie, early support came from patrons in the French aristocracy, including Louis XV. Though his popularity rested initially on paintings of animals and fruit, by the 1730s he introduced kitchen utensils into his work (*The Copper Cistern*, c. 1735, Louvre). Soon figures populated his scenes as well, supposedly in response to a portrait painter who challenged him to take up the genre. *Woman Sealing a Letter* (ca. 1733), which may have been his first attempt, was followed by half-length compositions of children saying grace, as in *Le Bénédicité*, and kitchen maids in moments of reflection. These humble scenes deal with simple, everyday activities, yet they also have functioned as a source of documentary information about a level of French society not hitherto considered a worthy subject for painting. The pictures are noteworthy for their formal structure and pictorial harmony. Chardin said about painting, \"Who said one paints with colors? One *employs* colors, but one paints with *feeling*.\"
A child playing was a favourite subject of Chardin. He depicted an adolescent building a house of cards on at least four occasions. The version at Waddesdon Manor is the most elaborate. Scenes such as these derived from 17th-century Netherlandish vanitas works, which bore messages about the transitory nature of human life and the worthlessness of material ambitions, but Chardin\'s also display a delight in the ephemeral phases of childhood for their own sake.
Chardin frequently painted replicas of his compositions---especially his genre paintings, nearly all of which exist in multiple versions which in many cases are virtually indistinguishable. Beginning with *The Governess* (1739, in the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa), Chardin shifted his attention from working-class subjects to slightly more spacious scenes of bourgeois life. Chardin\'s extant paintings, which number about 200, are in many major museums, including the Louvre.
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# Jean Siméon Chardin
## Influence
Chardin\'s influence on the art of the modern era was wide-ranging and has been well-documented. Édouard Manet\'s half-length *Boy Blowing Bubbles* and the still lifes of Paul Cézanne are equally indebted to their predecessor. He was one of Henri Matisse\'s most admired painters; as an art student Matisse made copies of four Chardin paintings in the Louvre. Chaïm Soutine\'s still lifes looked to Chardin for inspiration, as did the paintings of Georges Braque, and later, Giorgio Morandi. In 1999 Lucian Freud painted and etched several copies after *The Young Schoolmistress* (National Gallery, London).
Marcel Proust, in the chapter \"How to open your eyes?\" from *In Search of Lost Time* (*À la recherche du temps perdu*), describes a melancholic young man sitting at his simple breakfast table. The only comfort he finds is in the imaginary ideas of beauty depicted in the great masterpieces of the Louvre, materializing fancy palaces, rich princes, and the like. The author tells the young man to follow him to another section of the Louvre where the pictures of Chardin are. There he would see the beauty in still life at home and in everyday activities like peeling turnips.
## Gallery
<File:Jean-Baptiste> Siméon Chardin - Lapin mort et attirail de chasse.jpg\|*Dead Rabbit and Hunting Gear* (ca. 1727), oil on canvas., 81 x 65 cm., Louvre <File:Jean-Baptiste> Siméon Chardin 007.jpg\|*The Ray* (1727), oil on canvas, 114.5 x 146 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg\|*Glass Flask and Fruit* (ca. 1728), oil on canvas, 55.7 x 46 cm., Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe <File:Kitchen> utensils (1729).jpg\|*Kitchen Utensils and Three Herrings or Whitings* (1729), oil on canvas, Clark Art Institute <File:Cooking> pots (1729).jpg\|*Cooking Pots and Ladle with a White Cloth* (1729), oil on canvas, 15 3/8 x 12 1/8 in. (39.1 x 30.8 cm), Clark Art Institute <File:Chardin> - Les attributs des Sciences.jpg\|*The Attributes of Exploration* (1731), oil on canvas, 141 x 219 cm., Musée Jacquemart-André <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - Sealing the Letter - WGA04745.jpg\|*Sealing the Letter* (1733), oil on canvas, 146 x 147 cm., Schloss Charlottenburg <File:Soap> Bubbles 1733-5 Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin.jpg\|*Soap Bubbles* (ca.1733-1734), oil on canvas, 93 x 74.6 cm., National Gallery of Art <File:Jean> Baptiste Simeon - The Drawing Lesson.jpg\|*The Drawing Lesson* (ca. 1734), oil on canvas, 41 × 47 cm., Tokyo Fuji Art Museum <File:Le> Jeune Dessinateur.jpg\|*The Draftsman* (1737), oil on canvas, 80 x 65 cm., Louvre Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 017.jpg\|*Woman Cleaning Turnips* (ca. 1738), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., Alte Pinakothek <File:Chardin> - The Return from the Market, 1738.jpg\|*The Return from the Market* (1738--39), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., Louvre <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - La Gouvernante (The Governess) - WGA04762.jpg\|*The Governess* (1739), oil on canvas, 47 x 38 cm., National Gallery of Canada <File:Chardin>, Jean Siméon - Godefroy, Auguste Gabriel - Museu de Arte de São Paulo - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Portrait of Auguste Gabriel Godefroy* (1741), oil on canvas, 64.5 x 76.5 cm., São Paulo Museum of Art <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - The Prayer before Meal - WGA04770.jpg\|*Saying Grace* (1744), oil on canvas, 50 x 38 cm., Hermitage Museum <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin, The Attentive Nurse, 1747, NGA 41649.jpg\|*The Attentive Nurse* (1747), oil on canvas, 46.2 x 37 cm., National Gallery of Art <File:Chardin>, Jean-Siméon - The Good Education - Google Art Project.jpg\|*The Good Education* (ca. 1753), oil on canvas, 43 x 47.3 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, Houston <File:Chardin> - LES DEBRIS D\'UN DEJEUNER, 1763 vers (cropped).jpg\|*The Preparations of a Lunch* (1756), oil on canvas, 38 × 46 cm., Musée des Beaux-Arts de Carcassonne <File:Chardin> - Wildenstein 1969, 297.png\|*A Basket of Wild Strawberries* (ca, 1760), oil on canvas, 38 x 46 cm., private collection <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - \'La Brioche\' (Cake) - WGA04779.jpg\|*La Brioche* (1763), oil on canvas, 47 x 56 cm., Louvre <File:Chardin> - Basket of Plums, 1765.jpg\|*Basket of Plums* (1765), oil on canvas, 32.4 x 41.9 cm., Chrysler Museum of Art <File:Chardin>, Jean-Baptiste Siméon - Still Life with Attributes of the Arts - 1766.jpg\|*Still Life with Attributes of the Arts* (1766), oil on canvas, 112 x 140.5 cm., Hermitage Museum <File:Jean> Siméon Chardin - Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine - WGA04783.jpg\|*Basket of Peaches, with Walnuts, Knife and Glass of Wine* (1768), oil on canvas, 32 x 39 cm., Louvre <File:Jean-Siméon> Chardin (French - Still Life with Fish, Vegetables, Gougères, Pots, and Cruets on a Table - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Still Life with Fish and Vegetables* (1769), oil on canvas, 68.6 x 58.4 cm., J
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# Code coverage
In software engineering, **code coverage**, also called **test coverage**, is a percentage measure of the degree to which the source code of a program is executed when a particular test suite is run. A program with high code coverage has more of its source code executed during testing, which suggests it has a lower chance of containing undetected software bugs compared to a program with low code coverage. Many different metrics can be used to calculate test coverage. Some of the most basic are the percentage of program subroutines and the percentage of program statements called during execution of the test suite.
Code coverage was among the first methods invented for systematic software testing. The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in *Communications of the ACM*, in 1963.
## Coverage criteria {#coverage_criteria}
To measure what percentage of code has been executed by a test suite, one or more *coverage criteria* are used. These are usually defined as rules or requirements, which a test suite must satisfy.
### Basic coverage criteria {#basic_coverage_criteria}
There are a number of coverage criteria, but the main ones are:
- **Function coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each function (or subroutine) in the program been called?
- **Statement coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each statement in the program been executed?
- **Edge coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has every edge in the control-flow graph been executed?
- **Branch coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each branch (also called the DD-path) of each control structure (such as in *if* and *case* statements) been executed? For example, given an *if* statement, have both the *true* and *false* branches been executed? (This is a subset of edge coverage**.**)
- **Condition coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}has each Boolean sub-expression evaluated both to true and false? (Also called predicate coverage.)
For example, consider the following C function:
``` cpp
int foo (int x, int y)
{
int z = 0;
if ((x > 0) && (y > 0))
{
z = x;
}
return z;
}
```
Assume this function is a part of some bigger program and this program was run with some test suite.
- *Function coverage* will be satisfied if, during this execution, the function `foo` was called at least once.
- *Statement coverage* for this function will be satisfied if it was called for example as `foo(1,1)`, because in this case, every line in the function would be executed---including `z = x;`.
- *Branch coverage* will be satisfied by tests calling `foo(1,1)` and `foo(0,1)` because, in the first case, both `if` conditions are met and `z = x;` is executed, while in the second case, the first condition, `(x>0)`, is not satisfied, which prevents the execution of `z = x;`.
- *Condition coverage* will be satisfied with tests that call `foo(1,0)`, `foo(0,1)`, and `foo(1,1)`. These are necessary because in the first case, `(x>0)` is evaluated to `true`, while in the second, it is evaluated to `false`. At the same time, the first case makes `(y>0)` `false`, the second case does not evaluate `(y>0)` (because of the lazy-evaluation of the Boolean operator), the third case makes it `true`.
In programming languages that do not perform short-circuit evaluation, condition coverage does not necessarily imply branch coverage. For example, consider the following Pascal code fragment:
``` pascal
if a and b then
```
Condition coverage can be satisfied by two tests:
- `a=true`, `b=false`
- `a=false`, `b=true`
However, this set of tests does not satisfy branch coverage since neither case will meet the `if` condition.
Fault injection may be necessary to ensure that all conditions and branches of exception-handling code have adequate coverage during testing.
### Modified condition/decision coverage {#modified_conditiondecision_coverage}
A combination of function coverage and branch coverage is sometimes also called **decision coverage**. This criterion requires that every point of entry and exit in the program has been invoked at least once, and every decision in the program has taken on all possible outcomes at least once. In this context, the decision is a Boolean expression comprising conditions and zero or more Boolean operators. This definition is not the same as branch coverage, however, the term *decision coverage* is sometimes used as a synonym for it.
**Condition/decision coverage** requires that both decision and condition coverage be satisfied. However, for safety-critical applications (such as avionics software) it is often required that **modified condition/decision coverage (MC/DC)** be satisfied. This criterion extends condition/decision criteria with requirements that each condition should affect the decision outcome independently.
For example, consider the following code:
``` pascal
if (a or b) and c then
```
The condition/decision criteria will be satisfied by the following set of tests:
a b c
------- ------- -------
true true true
false false false
However, the above tests set will not satisfy modified condition/decision coverage, since in the first test, the value of \'b\' and in the second test the value of \'c\' would not influence the output. So, the following test set is needed to satisfy MC/DC:
a b c
----------- ----------- -----------
false true **false**
false **true** **true**
**false** **false** true
**true** false **true**
### Multiple condition coverage {#multiple_condition_coverage}
This criterion requires that all combinations of conditions inside each decision are tested. For example, the code fragment from the previous section will require eight tests:
a b c
------- ------- -------
false false false
false false true
false true false
false true true
true false false
true false true
true true false
true true true
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# Code coverage
## Coverage criteria {#coverage_criteria}
### Parameter value coverage {#parameter_value_coverage}
**Parameter value coverage** (PVC) requires that in a method taking parameters, all the common values for such parameters be considered. The idea is that all common possible values for a parameter are tested. For example, common values for a string are: 1) null, 2) empty, 3) whitespace (space, tabs, newline), 4) valid string, 5) invalid string, 6) single-byte string, 7) double-byte string. It may also be appropriate to use very long strings. Failure to test each possible parameter value may result in a bug. Testing only one of these could result in 100% code coverage as each line is covered, but as only one of seven options are tested, there is only 14.2% PVC.
### Other coverage criteria {#other_coverage_criteria}
There are further coverage criteria, which are used less often:
- **Linear Code Sequence and Jump (LCSAJ) coverage** a.k.a. **JJ-Path coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} has every LCSAJ/JJ-path been executed?
- **Path coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible route through a given part of the code been executed?
- **Entry/exit coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible call and return of the function been executed?
- **Loop coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has every possible loop been executed zero times, once, and more than once?
- **State coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has each state in a finite-state machine been reached and explored?
- **Data-flow coverage**`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Has each variable definition and its usage been reached and explored?
Safety-critical or dependable applications are often required to demonstrate 100% of some form of test coverage. For example, the ECSS-E-ST-40C standard demands 100% statement and decision coverage for two out of four different criticality levels; for the other ones, target coverage values are up to negotiation between supplier and customer. However, setting specific target values - and, in particular, 100% - has been criticized by practitioners for various reasons (cf.) Martin Fowler writes: \"I would be suspicious of anything like 100% - it would smell of someone writing tests to make the coverage numbers happy, but not thinking about what they are doing\".
Some of the coverage criteria above are connected. For instance, path coverage implies decision, statement and entry/exit coverage. Decision coverage implies statement coverage, because every statement is part of a branch.
Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible. Any module with a succession of $n$ decisions in it can have up to $2^n$ paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths. Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed. However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the halting problem). Basis path testing is for instance a method of achieving complete branch coverage without achieving complete path coverage.
Methods for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve \"basis path\" coverage the tester must cover all the path classes.`{{clarify|date=July 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Code coverage
## In practice {#in_practice}
The target software is built with special options or libraries and run under a controlled environment, to map every executed function to the function points in the source code. This allows testing parts of the target software that are rarely or never accessed under normal conditions, and helps reassure that the most important conditions (function points) have been tested. The resulting output is then analyzed to see what areas of code have not been exercised and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other test coverage methods, the aim is to develop a rigorous, yet manageable, set of regression tests.
In implementing test coverage policies within a software development environment, one must consider the following:
- What are coverage requirements for the end product certification and if so what level of test coverage is required? The typical level of rigor progression is as follows: Statement, Branch/Decision, Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MC/DC), LCSAJ (Linear Code Sequence and Jump)
- Will coverage be measured against tests that verify requirements levied on the system under test (DO-178B)?
- Is the object code generated directly traceable to source code statements? Certain certifications, (i.e. DO-178B Level A) require coverage at the assembly level if this is not the case: \"Then, additional verification should be performed on the object code to establish the correctness of such generated code sequences\" (DO-178B) para-6.4.4.2.
Software authors can look at test coverage results to devise additional tests and input or configuration sets to increase the coverage over vital functions. Two common forms of test coverage are statement (or line) coverage and branch (or edge) coverage. Line coverage reports on the execution footprint of testing in terms of which lines of code were executed to complete the test. Edge coverage reports which branches or code decision points were executed to complete the test. They both report a coverage metric, measured as a percentage. The meaning of this depends on what form(s) of coverage have been used, as 67% branch coverage is more comprehensive than 67% statement coverage.
Generally, test coverage tools incur computation and logging in addition to the actual program thereby slowing down the application, so typically this analysis is not done in production. As one might expect, there are classes of software that cannot be feasibly subjected to these coverage tests, though a degree of coverage mapping can be approximated through analysis rather than direct testing.
There are also some sorts of defects which are affected by such tools. In particular, some race conditions or similar real time sensitive operations can be masked when run under test environments; though conversely, some of these defects may become easier to find as a result of the additional overhead of the testing code.
Most professional software developers use C1 and C2 coverage. C1 stands for statement coverage and C2 for branch or condition coverage. With a combination of C1 and C2, it is possible to cover most statements in a code base. Statement coverage would also cover function coverage with entry and exit, loop, path, state flow, control flow and data flow coverage. With these methods, it is possible to achieve nearly 100% code coverage in most software projects.
### Notable code coverage tools {#notable_code_coverage_tools}
#### Hardware manufacturers {#hardware_manufacturers}
- Aldec
- Mentor Graphics
- Silvaco
- Synopsys
#### Software
- LDRA Testbed
- Parasoft
##### C / C++ {#c_c}
- Cantata++
- Gcov
- Insure++
- LDRA Testbed
- Tcov
- Testwell CTC++
- Trucov
- Squish (Froglogic)
##### C# .NET {#c_.net}
- DevPartner Studio
- JetBrains
- NCover
##### Java
- Clover
- DevPartner Java
- EMMA
- Jtest
- LDRA Testbed
##### PHP
- PHPUnit, also need Xdebug to make coverage reports
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# Code coverage
## Usage in industry {#usage_in_industry}
Test coverage is one consideration in the safety certification of avionics equipment. The guidelines by which avionics gear is certified by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is documented in DO-178B and DO-178C.
Test coverage is also a requirement in part 6 of the automotive safety standard ISO 26262 *Road Vehicles - Functional Safety*
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# Caitlin Clarke
**Caitlin Clarke** (born **Katherine Anne Clarke**; May 3, 1952 -- September 9, 2004) was an American actress best known for her roles as Valerian in the 1981 fantasy film *Dragonslayer* and Charlotte Cardoza in the 1998--1999 Broadway musical *Titanic*.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Clarke was born in Pittsburgh, the oldest of five sisters, the youngest of whom is Victoria Clarke. Her family moved to Sewickley when she was ten.
Clarke received her B.A. in theater arts from Mount Holyoke College in 1974 and her M.F.A. from the Yale School of Drama in 1978. During her final year at Yale, Clarke performed with the Yale Repertory Theater in such plays as *Tales from the Vienna Woods*.
## Career
Clarke starred in the 1981 fantasy film *Dragonslayer*.
After appearing in three Broadway plays in 1985, Clarke moved to Los Angeles for several years as a film and television actress.
In 1986, she appeared in the film *Crocodile Dundee* as Simone, a friendly prostitute. That same year, Clarke appeared in the television series *The Equalizer* as Jessie Moore, the mother of Laura, played by nine year-old Melissa Joan Hart, who asks McCall for protection from an abusive ex-husband in \"Torn.\"
She returned to theater in the early 1990s, and to Broadway as Charlotte Cardoza in *Titanic*.
From 1997 to 2000, Clarke had a reoccurring role on *Law & Order* as Defense Attorney Linda Walsh.
## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death}
Clarke was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2000. She returned to Pittsburgh to teach theater at the University of Pittsburgh and at the Pittsburgh Musical Theater\'s Rauh Conservatory as well as to perform in Pittsburgh theatre until her death on September 9, 2004.
## Stage
### Broadway
- 1983 -- *Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap*
- 1985 -- *The Marriage of Figaro*
- 1985 -- *Arms and the Man*
- 1985 -- *Strange Interlude*
- 1998 -- *Titanic: A New Musical*
### Off-Broadway {#off_broadway}
- 1979 -- *Othello*
- 1981 -- *No End of Blame*
- 1983 -- *Summer*
- 1984 -- *Total Eclipse*
- 1984 -- *Quartermaine\'s Terms*
- 1984 -- *Thin Ice*
- 1994 -- *Three Birds Alighting On A Field*
- 1994 -- *Unexpected Tenderness*
### Regional
- 1978 -- *Tales from the Vienna Woods* (New Haven)
- 1979 -- *The Winter\'s Tale* (Washington)
- 1980 -- *Bal* (Chicago)
- 1981 -- *Plenty* (Chicago)
- 1982 -- *Summer Vacation Madness* (Minneapolis)
- 1984 -- *As You Like It* (San Diego)
- 1984 -- *Not Quite Jerusalem* (New Haven)
- 1989 -- *Our Country\'s Good* (Los Angeles)
- 1991 -- *The Queen And The Rebels* (Baltimore)
- 1996 -- *Mrs
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# Chemical formula
-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-H \| data2 = Structural formula for butane }}
A **chemical formula** is a way of presenting information about the chemical proportions of atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound or molecule, using chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, commas and *plus* (+) and *minus* (−) signs. These are limited to a single typographic line of symbols, which may include subscripts and superscripts. A chemical formula is not a chemical name since it does not contain any words. Although a chemical formula may imply certain simple chemical structures, it is not the same as a full chemical structural formula. Chemical formulae can fully specify the structure of only the simplest of molecules and chemical substances, and are generally more limited in power than chemical names and structural formulae.
The simplest types of chemical formulae are called *empirical formulae*, which use letters and numbers indicating the numerical *proportions* of atoms of each type. **Molecular formulae** indicate the simple numbers of each type of atom in a molecule, with no information on structure. For example, the empirical formula for glucose is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki} (twice as many hydrogen atoms as carbon and oxygen), while its molecular formula is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} (12 hydrogen atoms, six carbon and oxygen atoms).
Sometimes a chemical formula is complicated by being written as a condensed formula (or condensed molecular formula, occasionally called a \"semi-structural formula\"), which conveys additional information about the particular ways in which the atoms are chemically bonded together, either in covalent bonds, ionic bonds, or various combinations of these types. This is possible if the relevant bonding is easy to show in one dimension. An example is the condensed molecular/chemical formula for ethanol, which is `{{chem2|CH3\sCH2\sOH}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|CH3CH2OH}}`{=mediawiki}. However, even a condensed chemical formula is necessarily limited in its ability to show complex bonding relationships between atoms, especially atoms that have bonds to four or more different substituents.
Since a chemical formula must be expressed as a single line of chemical element symbols, it often cannot be as informative as a true structural formula, which is a graphical representation of the spatial relationship between atoms in chemical compounds (see for example the figure for butane structural and chemical formulae, at right). For reasons of structural complexity, a single condensed chemical formula (or semi-structural formula) may correspond to different molecules, known as isomers. For example, glucose shares its molecular formula `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} with a number of other sugars, including fructose, galactose and mannose. Linear equivalent chemical *names* exist that can and do specify uniquely any complex structural formula (see chemical nomenclature), but such names must use many terms (words), rather than the simple element symbols, numbers, and simple typographical symbols that define a chemical formula.
Chemical formulae may be used in chemical equations to describe chemical reactions and other chemical transformations, such as the dissolving of ionic compounds into solution. While, as noted, chemical formulae do not have the full power of structural formulae to show chemical relationships between atoms, they are sufficient to keep track of numbers of atoms and numbers of electrical charges in chemical reactions, thus balancing chemical equations so that these equations can be used in chemical problems involving conservation of atoms, and conservation of electric charge.
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# Chemical formula
## Overview
A chemical formula identifies each constituent element by its chemical symbol and indicates the proportionate number of atoms of each element. In empirical formulae, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound, by ratios to the key element. For molecular compounds, these ratio numbers can all be expressed as whole numbers. For example, the empirical formula of ethanol may be written `{{chem2|C2H6O}}`{=mediawiki} because the molecules of ethanol all contain two carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulae. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of `{{chem2|CB_{''n''} }}`{=mediawiki} is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5.
When the chemical compound of the formula consists of simple molecules, chemical formulae often employ ways to suggest the structure of the molecule. These types of formulae are variously known as *molecular formulae* and *condensed formulae*. A molecular formula enumerates the number of atoms to reflect those in the molecule, so that the molecular formula for glucose is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} rather than the glucose empirical formula, which is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki}. However, except for very simple substances, molecular chemical formulae lack needed structural information, and are ambiguous.
For simple molecules, a condensed (or semi-structural) formula is a type of chemical formula that may fully imply a correct structural formula. For example, ethanol may be represented by the condensed chemical formula `{{chem2|CH3CH2OH}}`{=mediawiki}, and dimethyl ether by the condensed formula `{{chem2|CH3OCH3}}`{=mediawiki}. These two molecules have the same empirical and molecular formulae (`{{chem2|C2H6O}}`{=mediawiki}), but may be differentiated by the condensed formulae shown, which are sufficient to represent the full structure of these simple organic compounds.
Condensed chemical formulae may also be used to represent ionic compounds that do not exist as discrete molecules, but nonetheless do contain covalently bound clusters within them. These polyatomic ions are groups of atoms that are covalently bound together and have an overall ionic charge, such as the sulfate `{{chem2|[SO4]^{2-} }}`{=mediawiki} ion. Each polyatomic ion in a compound is written individually in order to illustrate the separate groupings. For example, the compound dichlorine hexoxide has an empirical formula `{{chem2|ClO3}}`{=mediawiki}, and molecular formula `{{chem2|Cl2O6}}`{=mediawiki}, but in liquid or solid forms, this compound is more correctly shown by an ionic condensed formula `{{chem2|[ClO2]+[ClO4]-}}`{=mediawiki}, which illustrates that this compound consists of `{{chem2|[ClO2]+}}`{=mediawiki} ions and `{{chem2|[ClO4]-}}`{=mediawiki} ions. In such cases, the condensed formula only need be complex enough to show at least one of each ionic species.
Chemical formulae as described here are distinct from the far more complex chemical systematic names that are used in various systems of chemical nomenclature. For example, one systematic name for glucose is (2*R*,3*S*,4*R*,5*R*)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal. This name, interpreted by the rules behind it, fully specifies glucose\'s structural formula, but the name is not a chemical formula as usually understood, and uses terms and words not used in chemical formulae. Such names, unlike basic formulae, may be able to represent full structural formulae without graphs.
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# Chemical formula
## Types
### Empirical formula {#empirical_formula}
In chemistry, the empirical formula of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in the compound. Empirical formulae are the standard for ionic compounds, such as `{{chem2|CaCl2}}`{=mediawiki}, and for macromolecules, such as `{{chem2|SiO2}}`{=mediawiki}. An empirical formula makes no reference to isomerism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. The term *empirical* refers to the process of elemental analysis, a technique of analytical chemistry used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.
For example, hexane has a molecular formula of `{{chem2|C6H14}}`{=mediawiki}, and (for one of its isomers, n-hexane) a structural formula `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki}, implying that it has a chain structure of 6 carbon atoms, and 14 hydrogen atoms. However, the empirical formula for hexane is `{{chem2|C3H7}}`{=mediawiki}. Likewise the empirical formula for hydrogen peroxide, `{{chem2|H2O2}}`{=mediawiki}, is simply `{{chem2|HO}}`{=mediawiki}, expressing the 1:1 ratio of component elements. Formaldehyde and acetic acid have the same empirical formula, `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki}. This is also the molecular formula for formaldehyde, but acetic acid has double the number of atoms.
Like the other formula types detailed below, an empirical formula shows the number of elements in a molecule, and determines whether it is a binary compound, ternary compound, quaternary compound, or has even more elements.
### Molecular formula {#molecular_formula}
-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-\\overset{\\displaystyle H \\atop \|}{\\underset{\| \\atop \\displaystyle H}{C}}-H \|align=right\|width=180 \|caption=*n*-Butane structural formula\
Molecular formula: `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}\
Condensed formula: `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki} }}
Molecular formulae simply indicate the numbers of each type of atom in a molecule of a molecular substance. They are the same as empirical formulae for molecules that only have one atom of a particular type, but otherwise may have larger numbers. An example of the difference is the empirical formula for glucose, which is `{{chem2|CH2O}}`{=mediawiki} (*ratio* 1:2:1), while its molecular formula is `{{chem2|C6H12O6}}`{=mediawiki} (*number of atoms* 6:12:6). For water, both formulae are `{{chem2|H2O}}`{=mediawiki}. A molecular formula provides more information about a molecule than its empirical formula, but is more difficult to establish.
### Structural formula {#structural_formula}
In addition to indicating the number of atoms of each elementa molecule, a structural formula indicates how the atoms are organized, and shows (or implies) the chemical bonds between the atoms. There are multiple types of structural formulas focused on different aspects of the molecular structure.
The two diagrams show two molecules which are structural isomers of each other, since they both have the same molecular formula `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}, but they have different structural formulas as shown.
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# Chemical formula
## Types
### Condensed formula {#condensed_formula}
The connectivity of a molecule often has a strong influence on its physical and chemical properties and behavior. Two molecules composed of the same numbers of the same types of atoms (i.e. a pair of isomers) might have completely different chemical and/or physical properties if the atoms are connected differently or in different positions. In such cases, a structural formula is useful, as it illustrates which atoms are bonded to which other ones. From the connectivity, it is often possible to deduce the approximate shape of the molecule.
A condensed (or semi-structural) formula may represent the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in a simple chemical substance, though it does not necessarily specify isomers or complex structures. For example, ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, with each carbon atom having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as `{{chem2|CH3CH3}}`{=mediawiki}. In ethylene there is a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only has two hydrogens), therefore the chemical formula may be written: `{{chem2|CH2CH2}}`{=mediawiki}, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is implicit because carbon has a valence of four. However, a more explicit method is to write `{{chem2|H2C\dCH2}}`{=mediawiki} or less commonly `{{chem2|H2C::CH2}}`{=mediawiki}. The two lines (or two pairs of dots) indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.
A triple bond may be expressed with three lines (`{{chem2|HC\tCH}}`{=mediawiki}) or three pairs of dots (`{{chem2|HC:::CH}}`{=mediawiki}), and if there may be ambiguity, a single line or pair of dots may be used to indicate a single bond.
Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed by enclosing the repeated group in round brackets. For example, isobutane may be written `{{chem2|(CH3)3CH}}`{=mediawiki}. This condensed structural formula implies a different connectivity from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms in the same proportions (isomers). The formula `{{chem2|(CH3)3CH}}`{=mediawiki} implies a central carbon atom connected to one hydrogen atom and three methyl groups (`{{chem2|CH3}}`{=mediawiki}). The same number of atoms of each element (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or `{{chem2|C4H10}}`{=mediawiki}) may be used to make a straight chain molecule, *n*-butane: `{{chem2|CH3CH2CH2CH3}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Chemical names in answer to limitations of chemical formulae {#chemical_names_in_answer_to_limitations_of_chemical_formulae}
The alkene called but-2-ene has two isomers, which the chemical formula `{{chem2|CH3CH\dCHCH3}}`{=mediawiki} does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (*cis* or *Z*) or on the opposite sides from each other (*trans* or *E*).
As noted above, in order to represent the full structural formulae of many complex organic and inorganic compounds, chemical nomenclature may be needed which goes well beyond the available resources used above in simple condensed formulae. See IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry and IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005 for examples. In addition, linear naming systems such as International Chemical Identifier (InChI) allow a computer to construct a structural formula, and simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES) allows a more human-readable ASCII input. However, all these nomenclature systems go beyond the standards of chemical formulae, and technically are chemical naming systems, not formula systems.
### Polymers in condensed formulae {#polymers_in_condensed_formulae}
For polymers in condensed chemical formulae, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a hydrocarbon molecule that is described as `{{chem2|CH3(CH2)50CH3}}`{=mediawiki}, is a molecule with fifty repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter *n* may be used to indicate this formula: `{{chem2|CH3(CH2)_{''n''}CH3}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Ions in condensed formulae {#ions_in_condensed_formulae}
For ions, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example, `{{chem2|Na+}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{chem2|Cu(2+)}}`{=mediawiki}. The total charge on a charged molecule or a polyatomic ion may also be shown in this way, such as for hydronium, `{{chem2|H3O+}}`{=mediawiki}, or sulfate, `{{chem2|SO4(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}. Here + and − are used in place of +1 and −1, respectively.
For more complex ions, brackets \[ \] are often used to enclose the ionic formula, as in `{{chem2|[B12H12](2-)}}`{=mediawiki}, which is found in compounds such as caesium dodecaborate, `{{chem2|Cs2[B12H12]}}`{=mediawiki}. Parentheses ( ) can be nested inside brackets to indicate a repeating unit, as in Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride, `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6](3+)Cl3-}}`{=mediawiki}. Here, `{{chem2|(NH3)6}}`{=mediawiki} indicates that the ion contains six ammine groups (`{{chem2|NH3}}`{=mediawiki}) bonded to cobalt, and \[ \] encloses the entire formula of the ion with charge +3. `{{Elucidate|date=November 2012}}`{=mediawiki}
This is strictly optional; a chemical formula is valid with or without ionization information, and Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride may be written as `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6](3+)Cl3-}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|[Co(NH3)6]Cl3}}`{=mediawiki}. Brackets, like parentheses, behave in chemistry as they do in mathematics, grouping terms together`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}they are not specifically employed only for ionization states. In the latter case here, the parentheses indicate 6 groups all of the same shape, bonded to another group of size 1 (the cobalt atom), and then the entire bundle, as a group, is bonded to 3 chlorine atoms. In the former case, it is clearer that the bond connecting the chlorines is ionic, rather than covalent.
## Isotopes
Although isotopes are more relevant to nuclear chemistry or stable isotope chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a prefixed superscript in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is `{{chem2|[^{32}PO4]^{3-} }}`{=mediawiki}. Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include the molecule `{{chem2|^{18}O^{16}O}}`{=mediawiki}.
A left-hand subscript is sometimes used redundantly to indicate the atomic number. For example, `{{chem2|_{8}O2}}`{=mediawiki} for dioxygen, and `{{ComplexNuclide|O|16|q=2}}`{=mediawiki} for the most abundant isotopic species of dioxygen. This is convenient when writing equations for nuclear reactions, in order to show the balance of charge more clearly.
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# Chemical formula
## Trapped atoms {#trapped_atoms}
*Main article: Endohedral fullerene* The @ symbol (at sign) indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. For example, a buckminsterfullerene (`{{chem2|C60}}`{=mediawiki}) with an atom (M) would simply be represented as `{{chem2|MC60}}`{=mediawiki} regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted `{{chem2|M@C60}}`{=mediawiki} if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is `{{chem2|[As@Ni12As20](3-)}}`{=mediawiki}, an ion in which one arsenic (As) atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms.
This notation was proposed in 1991 with the discovery of fullerene cages (endohedral fullerenes), which can trap atoms such as La to form, for example, `{{chem2|La@C60}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{chem2|La@C82}}`{=mediawiki}. The choice of the symbol has been explained by the authors as being concise, readily printed and transmitted electronically (the at sign is included in ASCII, which most modern character encoding schemes are based on), and the visual aspects suggesting the structure of an endohedral fullerene.
## Non-stoichiometric chemical formulae {#non_stoichiometric_chemical_formulae}
Chemical formulae most often use integers for each element. However, there is a class of compounds, called non-stoichiometric compounds, that cannot be represented by small integers. Such a formula might be written using decimal fractions, as in `{{chem2|Fe0.95O}}`{=mediawiki}, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in `{{chem2|Fe_{1–''x''}O}}`{=mediawiki}, where *x* is normally much less than 1.
## General forms for organic compounds {#general_forms_for_organic_compounds}
A chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called a *general formula*. It generates a homologous series of chemical formulae. For example, alcohols may be represented by the formula `{{chem2|C_{''n''}H_{2''n'' + 1}OH}}`{=mediawiki} (*n* ≥ 1), giving the homologs methanol, ethanol, propanol for 1 ≤ *n* ≤ 3.
## Hill system {#hill_system}
The **Hill system** (or Hill notation) is a system of writing empirical chemical formulae, molecular chemical formulae and components of a condensed formula such that the number of carbon atoms in a molecule is indicated first, the number of hydrogen atoms next, and then the number of all other chemical elements subsequently, in alphabetical order of the chemical symbols. When the formula contains no carbon, all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically.
By sorting formulae according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier elements or numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later element or number---like sorting text strings into lexicographical order---it is possible to collate chemical formulae into what is known as Hill system order.
The Hill system was first published by Edwin A. Hill of the United States Patent and Trademark Office in 1900. It is the most commonly used system in chemical databases and printed indexes to sort lists of compounds.
A list of formulae in Hill system order is arranged alphabetically, as above, with single-letter elements coming before two-letter symbols when the symbols begin with the same letter (so \"B\" comes before \"Be\", which comes before \"Br\")
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# Chymotrypsin
**Chymotrypsin** (`{{EC number|3.4.21.1}}`{=mediawiki}, chymotrypsins A and B, alpha-chymar ophth, avazyme, chymar, chymotest, enzeon, quimar, quimotrase, alpha-chymar, alpha-chymotrypsin A, alpha-chymotrypsin) is a digestive enzyme component of pancreatic juice acting in the duodenum, where it performs proteolysis, the breakdown of proteins and polypeptides. Chymotrypsin preferentially cleaves peptide amide bonds where the side chain of the amino acid N-terminal to the scissile amide bond (the P~1~ position) is a large hydrophobic amino acid (tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine). These amino acids contain an aromatic ring in their side chain that fits into a hydrophobic pocket (the S~1~ position) of the enzyme. It is activated in the presence of trypsin. The hydrophobic and shape complementarity between the peptide substrate P~1~ side chain and the enzyme S~1~ binding cavity accounts for the substrate specificity of this enzyme. Chymotrypsin also hydrolyzes other amide bonds in peptides at slower rates, particularly those containing leucine at the P~1~ position.
Structurally, it is the archetypal structure for its superfamily, the PA clan of proteases.
## Activation
Chymotrypsin is synthesized in the pancreas. Its precursor is chymotrypsinogen. Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen by cleaving peptidic bonds in positions Arg15 -- Ile16 and produces π-chymotrypsin. In turn, aminic group (-NH3^+^) of the Ile16 residue interacts with the side chain of Asp194, producing the \"oxyanion hole\" and the hydrophobic \"S1 pocket\". Moreover, chymotrypsin induces its own activation by cleaving in positions 14--15, 146--147, and 148--149, producing α-chymotrypsin (which is more active and stable than π-chymotrypsin). The resulting molecule is a three-polypeptide molecule interconnected via disulfide bonds.
## Mechanism of action and kinetics {#mechanism_of_action_and_kinetics}
`{{See also|Catalytic triad}}`{=mediawiki} *In vivo*, chymotrypsin is a proteolytic enzyme (serine protease) acting in the digestive systems of many organisms. It facilitates the cleavage of peptide bonds by a hydrolysis reaction, which despite being thermodynamically favorable, occurs extremely slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The main substrates of chymotrypsin are peptide bonds in which the amino acid N-terminal to the bond is a tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, or leucine. Like many proteases, chymotrypsin also hydrolyses amide bonds *in vitro*, a virtue that enabled the use of substrate analogs such as N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine p-nitrophenyl amide for enzyme assays.
Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds by attacking the unreactive carbonyl group with a powerful nucleophile, the serine 195 residue located in the active site of the enzyme, which briefly becomes covalently bonded to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate intermediate. Along with histidine 57 and aspartic acid 102, this serine residue constitutes the catalytic triad of the active site. These findings rely on inhibition assays and the study of the kinetics of cleavage of the aforementioned substrate, exploiting the fact that the enzyme-substrate intermediate *p*-nitrophenolate has a yellow colour, enabling measurement of its concentration by measuring light absorbance at 410 nm.
Chymotrypsin catalysis of the hydrolysis of a protein substrate (in red) is performed in two steps. First, the nucleophilicity of Ser-195 is enhanced by general-base catalysis in which the proton of the serine hydroxyl group is transferred to the imidazole moiety of His-57 during its attack on the electron-deficient carbonyl carbon of the protein-substrate main chain (k1 step). This occurs via the concerted action of the three-amino-acid residues in the catalytic triad. The buildup of negative charge on the resultant tetrahedral intermediate is stabilized in the enzyme\'s active site\'s oxyanion hole, by formation of two hydrogen bonds to adjacent main-chain amide-hydrogens.
The His-57 imidazolium moiety formed in the k1 step is a general acid catalyst for the k-1 reaction. However, evidence for similar general-acid catalysis of the k2 reaction (Tet2) has been controverted; apparently water provides a proton to the amine leaving group.
Breakdown of Tet1 (via k3) generates an acyl enzyme, which is hydrolyzed with His-57 acting as a general base (kH2O) in formation of a tetrahedral intermediate, that breaks down to regenerate the serine hydroxyl moiety, as well as the protein fragment with the newly formed carboxyl terminus.
## Uses
### Medical uses {#medical_uses}
Chymotrypsin has been used during cataract surgery. It was marketed under the brand name Zolyse.
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# Chymotrypsin
## Isozymes
------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- ---------------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- ------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------- ------------------ --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------------- -------------- --------------------- -------- ----------------------- ------------------ ------- --------------------- ----------------- --------- ------------- ----------------------------- ------------------- -------------------------------- ----------- --------- --------- --------------- ---------- -------------- -------------------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------ ------------------ ------- --------------------- ---------------- --------- -------------- -----------------------------
{{infobox protein Name = Chymotrypsinogen B1 caption = image = width = 150 px HGNCid = 2521 Symbol = CTRB1 AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 1504 OMIM = 118890 RefSeq = NM_001906 UniProt = P17538 PDB = MEROPS = S01.152 ECnumber = 3.4.21.1 Chromosome = 16 Arm = q Band = 23.1 LocusSupplementaryData = }} {{infobox protein Name = Chymotrypsinogen B2 caption = image = width = HGNCid = 2522 Symbol = CTRB2 AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 440387 OMIM = RefSeq = NM_001025200 UniProt = Q6GPI1 PDB = ECnumber = 3.4.21.1 Chromosome = 16 Arm = q Band = 22.3 LocusSupplementaryData = }} {{infobox protein Chymotrypsin C (caldecrin)\]\] caption = image = width = HGNCid = 2523 CTRC\]\] AltSymbols = EntrezGene = 11330 OMIM = 601405 RefSeq = NM_007272 UniProt = Q99895 MEROPS = S01.157 PDB = ECnumber = 3.4.21.2 Chromosome = 1 Arm = p Band = 36
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# Catapult
A **catapult** is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile at a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants -- particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden release of stored potential energy to propel its payload. Most convert tension or torsion energy that was more slowly and manually built up within the device before release, via springs, bows, twisted rope, elastic, or any of numerous other materials and mechanisms which allow the catapult to launch a projectile such as rocks, cannon balls, or debris.
During wars in the ancient times, the catapult was usually known to be the strongest heavy weaponry. In modern times the term can apply to devices ranging from a simple hand-held implement (also called a \"slingshot\") to a mechanism for launching aircraft from a ship.
The earliest catapults date to at least the 7th century BC, with King Uzziah of Judah recorded as equipping the walls of Jerusalem with machines that shot \"great stones\". Catapults are mentioned in Yajurveda under the name \"Jyah\" in chapter 30, verse 7.`{{failed verification |Reference to "Jyah" or catapults not found at this location or elsewhere in this text|date=June 2024}}`{=mediawiki} In the 5th century BC the mangonel appeared in ancient China, a type of traction trebuchet and catapult. Early uses were also attributed to Ajatashatru of Magadha in his 5th century BC war against the Licchavis. Greek catapults were invented in the early 4th century BC, being attested by Diodorus Siculus as part of the equipment of a Greek army in 399 BC, and subsequently used at the siege of Motya in 397 BC.
## Etymology
The word \'catapult\' comes from the Latin \'catapulta\', which in turn comes from the Greek *καταπέλτης* (*katapeltēs*), itself from κατά (*kata*), \"downwards\" and πάλλω (*pallō*), \"to toss, to hurl\". Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks and in ancient India where they were used by the Magadhan King Ajatashatru around the early to mid 5th century BC.
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# Catapult
## Greek and Roman catapults {#greek_and_roman_catapults}
The catapult and crossbow in Greece are closely intertwined. Primitive catapults were essentially \"the product of relatively straightforward attempts to increase the range and penetrating power of missiles by strengthening the bow which propelled them\". The historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), described the invention of a mechanical arrow-firing catapult (*katapeltikon*) by a Greek task force in 399 BC. The weapon was soon after employed against Motya (397 BC), a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily. Diodorus is assumed to have drawn his description from the highly rated history of Philistus, a contemporary of the events then. The introduction of crossbows however, can be dated further back: according to the inventor Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), who referred to the now lost works of the 3rd-century BC engineer Ctesibius, this weapon was inspired by an earlier foot-held crossbow, called the *gastraphetes*, which could store more energy than the Greek bows. A detailed description of the *gastraphetes*, or the \"belly-bow\",`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki} along with a watercolor drawing, is found in Heron\'s technical treatise *Belopoeica*.
A third Greek author, Biton (fl. 2nd century BC), whose reliability has been positively reevaluated by recent scholarship, described two advanced forms of the *gastraphetes*, which he credits to Zopyros, an engineer from southern Italy. Zopyrus has been plausibly equated with a Pythagorean of that name who seems to have flourished in the late 5th century BC. He probably designed his bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Milet between 421 BC and 401 BC. The bows of these machines already featured a winched pull back system and could apparently throw two missiles at once.
Philo of Byzantium provides probably the most detailed account on the establishment of a theory of belopoietics (*belos* = \"projectile\"; *poietike* = \"(art) of making\") circa 200 BC. The central principle to this theory was that \"all parts of a catapult, including the weight or length of the projectile, were proportional to the size of the torsion springs\". This kind of innovation is indicative of the increasing rate at which geometry and physics were being assimilated into military enterprises.`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
From the mid-4th century BC onwards, evidence of the Greek use of arrow-shooting machines becomes more dense and varied: arrow firing machines (*katapaltai*) are briefly mentioned by Aeneas Tacticus in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC. An extant inscription from the Athenian arsenal, dated between 338 and 326 BC, lists a number of stored catapults with shooting bolts of varying size and springs of sinews. The later entry is particularly noteworthy as it constitutes the first clear evidence for the switch to torsion catapults, which are more powerful than the more-flexible crossbows and which came to dominate Greek and Roman artillery design thereafter. This move to torsion springs was likely spurred by the engineers of Philip II of Macedonia.`{{Page needed | date = December 2013}}`{=mediawiki} Another Athenian inventory from 330 to 329 BC includes catapult bolts with heads and flights. As the use of catapults became more commonplace, so did the training required to operate them. Many Greek children were instructed in catapult usage, as evidenced by \"a 3rd Century B.C. inscription from the island of Ceos in the Cyclades \[regulating\] catapult shooting competitions for the young\". Arrow firing machines in action are reported from Philip II\'s siege of Perinth (Thrace) in 340 BC. At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers with shuttered windows in the top, which could have been used to house anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in Aigosthena. Projectiles included both arrows and (later) stones that were sometimes lit on fire.`{{clarify|stones lit on fire?|date=October 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Onomarchus of Phocis first used catapults on the battlefield against Philip II of Macedon. Philip\'s son, Alexander the Great, was the next commander in recorded history to make such use of catapults on the battlefield as well as to use them during sieges.
The Romans started to use catapults as arms for their wars against Syracuse, Macedon, Sparta and Aetolia (3rd and 2nd centuries BC). The Roman machine known as an arcuballista was similar to a large crossbow. Later the Romans used ballista catapults on their warships.
## Other ancient catapults {#other_ancient_catapults}
In chronological order:
- 19th century BC, Egypt, walls of the fortress of Buhen appear to contain platforms for siege weapons.
- c.750 BC, Judah, King Uzziah is documented as having overseen the construction of machines to \"shoot great stones\".
- between 484 and 468 BC, India, Ajatashatru is recorded in Jaina texts as having used catapults in his campaign against the Licchavis.
- between 500 and 300 BC, China, recorded use of mangonels. They were probably used by the Mohists as early as the 4th century BC, descriptions of which can be found in the *Mojing* (compiled in the 4th century BC). In Chapter 14 of the *Mojing*, the mangonel is described hurling hollowed out logs filled with burning charcoal at enemy troops. The mangonel was carried westward by the Avars and appeared next in the eastern Mediterranean by the late 6th century AD, where it replaced torsion powered siege engines such as the ballista and onager due to its simpler design and faster rate of fire. The Byzantines adopted the mangonel possibly as early as 587, the Persians in the early 7th century, and the Arabs in the second half of the 7th century. The Franks and Saxons adopted the weapon in the 8th century.
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# Catapult
## Medieval catapults {#medieval_catapults}
Castles and fortified walled cities were common during this period and catapults were used as siege weapons against them. As well as their use in attempts to breach walls, incendiary missiles, or diseased carcasses or garbage could be catapulted over the walls.
Defensive techniques in the Middle Ages progressed to a point that rendered catapults largely ineffective. The Viking siege of Paris (AD 885--6) \"saw the employment by both sides of virtually every instrument of siege craft known to the classical world, including a variety of catapults\", to little effect, resulting in failure.
The most widely used catapults throughout the Middle Ages were as follows:
Ballista: Ballistae were similar to giant crossbows and were designed to work through torsion. The projectiles were large arrows or darts made from wood with an iron tip. These arrows were then shot \"along a flat trajectory\" at a target. Ballistae were accurate, but lacked firepower compared with that of a mangonel or trebuchet. Because of their immobility, most ballistae were constructed on site following a siege assessment by the commanding military officer.
:
Springald: The springald\'s design resembles that of the ballista, being a crossbow powered by tension. The springald\'s frame was more compact, allowing for use inside tighter confines, such as the inside of a castle or tower, but compromising its power.
:
Mangonel: This machine was designed to throw heavy projectiles from a \"bowl-shaped bucket at the end of its arm\". Mangonels were mostly used for "firing various missiles at fortresses, castles, and cities," with a range of up to 1,300 ft. These missiles included anything from stones to excrement to rotting carcasses. Mangonels were relatively simple to construct, and eventually wheels were added to increase mobility.
:
Onager: Mangonels are also sometimes referred to as Onagers. Onager catapults initially launched projectiles from a sling, which was later changed to a \"bowl-shaped bucket\". The word *Onager* is derived from the Greek word *onagros* for \"wild ass\", referring to the \"kicking motion and force\" that were recreated in the Mangonel\'s design. Historical records regarding onagers are scarce. The most detailed account of Mangonel use is from \"Eric Marsden\'s translation of a text written by Ammianus Marcellius in the 4th Century AD\" describing its construction and combat usage.
:
Trebuchet: Trebuchets were probably the most powerful catapult employed in the Middle Ages. The most commonly used ammunition were stones, but \"darts and sharp wooden poles\" could be substituted if necessary. The most effective kind of ammunition though involved fire, such as \"firebrands, and deadly Greek Fire\". Trebuchets came in two different designs: Traction, which were powered by people, or Counterpoise, where the people were replaced with \"a weight on the short end\". The most famous historical account of trebuchet use dates back to the siege of Stirling Castle in 1304, when the army of Edward I constructed a giant trebuchet known as Warwolf, which then proceeded to \"level a section of \[castle\] wall, successfully concluding the siege\".
:
Couillard: A simplified trebuchet, where the trebuchet\'s single counterweight is split, swinging on either side of a central support post.
:
Leonardo da Vinci\'s catapult: Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve the efficiency and range of earlier designs. His design incorporated a large wooden leaf spring as an accumulator to power the catapult. Both ends of the bow are connected by a rope, similar to the design of a bow and arrow. The leaf spring was not used to pull the catapult armature directly, rather the rope was wound around a drum. The catapult armature was attached to this drum which would be turned until enough potential energy was stored in the deformation of the spring. The drum would then be disengaged from the winding mechanism, and the catapult arm would snap around. Though no records exist of this design being built during Leonardo\'s lifetime, contemporary enthusiasts have reconstructed it.
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# Catapult
## Modern use {#modern_use}
### Military
The last large scale military use of catapults was during the trench warfare of World War I. During the early stages of the war, catapults were used to throw hand grenades across no man\'s land into enemy trenches. They were eventually replaced by small mortars.
The SPBG (Silent Projector of Bottles and Grenades) was a Soviet proposal for an anti-tank weapon that launched grenades from a spring-loaded shuttle up to 100 m.
Special variants called aircraft catapults are used to launch planes from land bases and sea carriers when the takeoff runway is too short for a powered takeoff or simply impractical to extend. Ships also use them to launch torpedoes and deploy bombs against submarines.`{{dubious|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
In 2024, during the Gaza war, a trebuchet created by private initiative of an IDF reserve unit was used to throw firebrands over the border into Lebanon, in order to set on fire the undergrowth which offered camouflage to Hezbollah fighters.
### Toys, sports, entertainment {#toys_sports_entertainment}
In the 1840s, the invention of vulcanized rubber allowed the making of small hand-held catapults, either improvised from Y-shaped sticks or manufactured for sale; both were popular with children and teenagers. These devices were also known as slingshots in the United States.
Small catapults, referred to as \"traps\", are still widely used to launch clay targets into the air in the sport of clay pigeon shooting.
In the 1990s and early 2000s, a powerful catapult, a trebuchet, was used by thrill-seekers first on private property and in 2001--2002 at Middlemoor Water Park, Somerset, England, to experience being catapulted through the air for 100 ft. The practice has been discontinued due to a fatality at the Water Park. There had been an injury when the trebuchet was in use on private property. Injury and death occurred when those two participants failed to land onto the safety net. The operators of the trebuchet were tried, but found not guilty of manslaughter, though the jury noted that the fatality might have been avoided had the operators \"imposed stricter safety measures.\" Human cannonball circus acts use a catapult launch mechanism, rather than gunpowder, and are risky ventures for the human cannonballs.
Early launched roller coasters used a catapult system powered by a diesel engine or a dropped weight to acquire their momentum, such as Shuttle Loop installations between 1977 and 1978. The catapult system for roller coasters has been replaced by flywheels and later linear motors.
*Pumpkin chunking* is another widely popularized use, in which people compete to see who can launch a pumpkin the farthest by mechanical means (although the world record is held by a pneumatic air cannon).
### Smuggling
In January 2011, a homemade catapult was discovered that was used to smuggle cannabis into the United States from Mexico. The machine was found 20 ft from the border fence with 4.4 lb bales of cannabis ready to launch
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# Telecommunications in the Cook Islands
Like most countries and territories in Oceania, telecommunications in the Cook Islands is limited by its isolation and low population, with only one major television broadcasting station and six radio stations. However, most residents have a main line or mobile phone. Its telecommunications are mainly provided by Telecom Cook Islands, who is currently working with O3b Networks, Ltd. for faster Internet connection.
In February 2015 the former owner of Telecom Cook Islands Ltd., Spark New Zealand, sold its 60% interest for approximately NZD 23 million (US\$17.3 million) to Teleraro Limited.
## Telephone
In July 2012, there were about 7,500 main line telephones, which covers about 98% of the country\'s population. There were approximately 7,800 mobile phones in 2009. Telecom Cook Islands, owned by Spark New Zealand, is the islands\' main telephone system and offers international direct dialling, Internet, email, fax, and Telex. The individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and very high frequency and high frequency radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fibre-optic cable. For international communication, they rely on the satellite earth station Intelsat.
In 2003, the largest island of Rarotonga started using a GSM/GPRS mobile data service system with GSM 900 by 2013 3G UMTS 900 was introduce covering 98% of Rarotonga with HSPA+. In March 2017 4G+ launch in Rarotonga with LTE700 (B28A) and LTE1800 (B3).
Mobile service covers Aitutaki GSM/GPRS mobile data service system in GSM 900 from 2006 to 2013 while in 2014 3G UMTS 900 was introduce with HSPA+ stand system. In March 2017 4G+ also launch in Aitutaki with LTE700 (B28A). The rest of the Outer Islands (Pa Enua) mobile was well establish in 2007 with mobile coverage at GSM 900 from Mangaia 3 villages (Oneroa, Ivirua, Tamarua), Atiu, Mauke, Mitiaro, Palmerston in the Southern Group (Pa Enua Tonga) and the Northern Group (Pa Enua Tokerau) Nassau, Pukapuka, Rakahanga, Manihiki 2 Village (Tukao, Tauhunu) and Penrhyn 2 villages (Omoka Tetautua).
The Cook Islands uses the country calling code +682.
## Broadcasting
There are six radio stations in the Cook Islands, with one reaching all islands. `{{As of|1997}}`{=mediawiki} there were 14,000 radios.
Cook Islands Television broadcasts from Rarotonga, providing a mix of local news and overseas-sourced programs. `{{as of|1997}}`{=mediawiki} there were 4,000 television sets.
## Internet infrastructure and connectivity {#internet_infrastructure_and_connectivity}
### History
The internet was first setup in the Cook Islands in 1995 by Casinos of the South Pacific (also the first iGaming license in the country). Donald Wright and his nephew Darren Wright set up a 256K connection in Telecom Cook Islands facilities, connected to Telecom New Zealand. The Cook Islands are one of the birthplaces of the iGaming industry.
There were 6,000 Internet users in 2009 and 3,562 Internet hosts as of 2012. The country code top-level domain for the Cook Islands is .ck.
In June 2010, Telecom Cook Islands partnered with O3b Networks, Ltd. to provide faster Internet connection to the Cook Islands. On 25 June 2013 the O3b satellite constellation was launched from an Arianespace Soyuz ST-B rocket in French Guiana. The medium Earth orbit satellite orbits at 8062 km and uses the K~a~ band. It has a latency of about 100 milliseconds because it is much closer to Earth than standard geostationary satellites, whose latencies can be over 600 milliseconds. Although the initial launch consisted of 4 satellites, as many as 20 may be launched eventually to serve various areas with little or no optical fibre service, the first of which is the Cook Islands.
In December 2015, Alcatel-Lucent and Bluesky Pacific Group announced that they would build the Moana Cable system connecting New Zealand to Hawaii with a single fibre pair branching off to the Cook Islands. The Moana Cable is expected to be completed in 2018.
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# Telecommunications in the Cook Islands
## Digital transformation {#digital_transformation}
### The challenges {#the_challenges}
As a small island digital state (SIDS) the Cook Islands faces a unique set of challenges in digital transformation. One being that they are heavily reliant on international support and cooperation to develop and fund its ICT improvement projects.
#### Supplier monopoly, connectivity, physical infrastructure and access {#supplier_monopoly_connectivity_physical_infrastructure_and_access}
Until 2019,Telecom Cook Islands (TCI) was the sole provider for internet, mobile and fixed telephone communications for the country. Internet was provided via satellite which was costly to the government with an unreliable connection especially to the outer islands. The passing of the Competition and Regulatory Authority (CRA) Act [2019](https://lpr.adb.org/resource/competition-and-regulatory-authority-act-2019-cook-islands) and the Telecommunications Act [2019](https://cook-islands.tradeportal.org/Regulations/Details?lawId=162&l=en) provided the opportunity for new competitors to join the market. It also provides for subsidising the provision of telecommunications to areas or customer groups which cannot reasonably be served on a commercial basis.
#### Funding
The passing of the CRA and Telecommunications acts, paved the way for the Cook Islands Government to establish the state owned enterprise, Avaroa Cable Limited [(ACL)](https://www.avaroacable.com/). This was made possible through the funding from New Zealand Aid Programme and the Asian Development Bank.
A member of the United Nations (UN) the Cook Islands is influenced by convention initiatives like the UN\'s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG\'s). By using digital transformation as a platform to achieve this the Cook Islands is able to access international funding to support its digital transformation initiatives.
#### Knowledge
During research and development phases, the Cook Islands was able to tap into the knowledge and expertise through the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) including their digital readiness assessment tool and then subsequently their [digital transformation framework.](https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2023-11/%5Bconcept%20note%5D%20digital%20transformation%20framework.pdf)
### Digital transformation initiatives {#digital_transformation_initiatives}
#### Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable {#manatua_one_polynesia_fibre_cable}
In July 2020 the Cook Islands were connected to the Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable, which links the Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa and Tahiti. The cable has landing points at Rarotonga and Aitutaki. Then in September 2020 Avaroa Cable Limited and Vodafone Cook Islands signed a partnership for use of the Manatua One Polynesia Fibre Cable, making Avaroa Cable Limited the first company to be awarded a telecommunications licence under the new Cook Islands Competition and Regulatory Authority Act 2019.
#### [Upgrade to the National ITC Network](https://www.aiscorp.co.nz/news/cook-island-government-press-release) {#upgrade_to_the_national_itc_network}
In December 2021, the contract was awarded to Wellington-based IT company [Aiscorp](https://www.aiscorp.co.nz/) for the upgrade of the Cook Islands government network infrastructure. This project is ongoing and has lasting impact, benefits for the government, and the people of the Cook Island as they work towards the centralised system being available to all of government. Individual Government agencies and state-owned enterprises are continuing with development and implementation of digital plans
#### [National ICT policy 2023-27](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/National-ICT-Policy-2023.pdf) {#national_ict_policy_2023_27}
With facilitation support from the Asian Development Bank the latest version of the Cook Islands National ICT policy was launched.
#### [Digital access to Cook Islands Legislation](https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/pressroom/nz/b/nz-news/posts/lexisnexis-and-cook-islands-government-promote-digital-access-to-cook-islands-legislation?srsltid=AfmBOooY4oUk7dBa66tb6-F3-RMz4uUv3KCKmiCfYeKBRaFfrWvpBT4z) {#digital_access_to_cook_islands_legislation}
From 24 June 2024, in a partnership with LexisNexis a global leader in legal publishing, the Cook Islands government have launched a new website. [Laws Of The Cook Islands - Te Au Ture O Te Kuki Airani](https://cookislandslaws.gov.ck/#/) with features including a comprehensive legal database, user-friendly interface and regular updates. With the aim of increasing transparency
#### [National strategy Launch](https://www.undp.org/samoa/stories/cook-islands-digital-journey-boosted-launch-first-national-digital-strategy) {#national_strategy_launch}
After years of research, analysis, development and financial support from international bodies such as the United Nations (UN), New Zealand Agency for International Development (NZAID) and Asian Development Bank (ADB) as contributors, the Cook Islands celebrated a key milestone in its digital transformation journey in February 2024, with the launch of its first ever [National Digital Strategy 2024 to 2030](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/CI-National-Digital-Strategy-v10.pdf).\'
The vision for the Cook Islands is \'A digitally empowered and inclusive Cook Islands, where technology enhances all lives, fosters innovation, drives economic growth and prosperity, improves social services, and protects our unique culture and environment -- while building a shared identity for our island home.'
#### [Cyber security policy 2024](https://www.pmoffice.gov.ck/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Cook-Islands-Cyber-Security-Policy-2024.pdf) {#cyber_security_policy_2024}
With the successive rollout of the above initiatives the Cook Islands needed to ensure that set clear foundations for tackling online harm and cybercrime, securing the information and data held by its government and respective agencies, ensuring the safety of its people and protection of its critical national infrastructure. This consideration has resulted in the development of its first cyber security policy.
#### [Online visa and permit application system](https://asypx.mfai.gov.ck/#/home) {#online_visa_and_permit_application_system}
On Monday 6 January 2025, T [he Ministry of Foreign Affairs and an Immigration (MFAI) announced](https://mfai.gov.ck/news-updates/mfai-launches-new-online-visa-and-permit-application-system) that the new online visa and permit application was now live. Developed in conjunction with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) this platform allows the thousands that visit each year a more efficient and effective service
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# Churnsike Lodge
**Churnsike Lodge** is an early Victorian hunting lodge situated in the parish of Greystead, west Northumberland, England. Constructed in 1850 by the Charlton family, descendants of the noted Border Reivers family of the English Middle March, the lodge formed part of the extensive Hesleyside estate, located some 10 miles from Hesleyside Hall itself.
Consisting of the main house, stable block, hunting-dog kennels and gamekeepers bothy, when the property was acquired by the Chesters Estate in 1887 the \'Cairnsyke\' estate consisted of several thousand acres of moorland, much of which was managed to support shooting of the formerly populous black grouse. Although much of this land has now reverted to fellside or has been otherwise managed as part of the commercial timber plantations of Kielder Forest, areas of heather moorland persist, dotted with remnants of the shooting butts. It is with reference to these fells that the 1887 sale catalogue described the estate as being the \"Finest grouse moor in the Kingdom\".
Historically, the Lodge was home to the Irthing Head and Kielder hounds, regionally renowned and headed by the locally famed fox hunter William Dodd. Dodd, and his hounds, are repeatedly referenced in the traditional Northumbrian ballads of James Armstrong\'s \'Wanny Blossoms\'.
Having fallen into ruin by the 1980s, the property fell into the care of the Forestry Commission and was slated for demolition, as many properties in the area were, until being privately purchased. The former gamekeepers bothy now serves as a holiday-home
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# Crannog
`{{wikt | crannog}}`{=mediawiki} A **crannog** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|æ|n|ə|ɡ}}`{=mediawiki}; *crannóg* `{{IPA|ga|ˈkɾˠan̪ˠoːɡ|}}`{=mediawiki}; *crannag* `{{IPA|gd|ˈkʰɾan̪ˠak|}}`{=mediawiki}) is typically a partially or entirely artificial island, usually constructed in lakes, bogs and estuarine waters of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Unlike the prehistoric pile dwellings around the Alps, which were built on shores and not inundated until later, crannogs were built in the water, thus forming artificial islands.
Humans have inhabited crannogs over five millennia, from the European Neolithic Period to as late as the 17th/early-18th centuries. In Scotland there is no convincing evidence in the archaeological record of their use in the Early or Middle Bronze Age or in the Norse period. The radiocarbon dating obtained from key sites such as Oakbank and Redcastle indicates at a 95.4 per cent confidence level that they date to the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age. The date ranges fall *after* around 800 BC and so could be considered Late Bronze Age by only the narrowest of margins.
Some crannogs apparently involved free-standing wooden structures, as at Loch Tay, although more commonly they are composed of brush, stone or timber mounds that can be revetted with timber piles. In areas such as the Outer Hebrides of Scotland, timber was unavailable from the Neolithic era onwards. As a result, crannogs made completely of stone and supporting drystone architecture are common there.
## Etymology and uncertain meanings {#etymology_and_uncertain_meanings}
The Irish word *crannóg* derives from Old Irish *crannóc*, which referred to a wooden structure or vessel, stemming from *crann*, which means \"tree\", suffixed with \"-óg\" which is a diminutive ending ultimately borrowed from Welsh. The suffix *-óg* is sometimes misunderstood by non-native Irish-speakers as *óg*, which is a separate word that means \"young\". This misunderstanding leads to a folk etymology whereby *crannóg* is misanalysed as *crann óg*, which is pronounced differently and means \"a young tree\". The modern sense of the term first appears sometime around the 12th century; its popularity spread in the medieval period along with the terms *isle*, *ylle*, *inis*, *eilean* or *oileán*.
There is some confusion on what the term *crannog* originally referred to, as the structure atop the island or the island itself. The additional meanings of Irish *crannóg* can be variously related as \'structure/piece of wood\', including \'crow\'s nest\', \'pulpit\', or \'driver\'s box on a coach\'; \'vessel/box/chest\' more generally; and \'wooden pin\'. The Scottish Gaelic form is *crannag* and has the additional meanings of \'pulpit\' and \'churn\'. Thus, there is no real consensus on what the term *crannog* actually implies, although the modern adoption in the English language broadly refers to a partially or completely artificial islet that saw use from the prehistoric to the Post-Medieval period in Ireland and Scotland.
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# Crannog
## Location
Crannogs are widespread in Ireland, with an estimated 1,200 examples, while Scotland has 389 sites officially listed as such. The actual number in Scotland varies considerably depending on definition---between about 350 and 500, due to the use of the term \"island dun\" for well over one hundred Hebridean examples---a distinction that has created a divide between mainland Scottish crannog and Hebridean islet settlement studies. Previously unknown crannogs in Scotland and Ireland are still being found as underwater surveys continue to investigate loch beds for completely submerged examples.
The largest concentrations of crannogs in Ireland are found in the Drumlin Belt of the Midlands, North and Northwest. In Scotland, crannogs are mostly found on the western coast, with high concentrations in Argyll and Dumfries and Galloway. In reality, the Western Isles contain the highest density of lake-settlements in Scotland, yet they are recognised under varying terms besides \"crannog\". One lone Welsh example exists at Llangorse Lake, probably a product of Irish influence.
In Ireland, crannogs were most prevalent in Connacht and Ulster; where they were built on bogs and small lakes such as Lough Conn and Lough Gara, while being less frequent on larger lakes such as Lough Erne, or rivers such as the Shannon. Today, crannogs typically appear as small, circular islets, often 8-25 m in diameter, covered in dense vegetation due to their inaccessibility to grazing livestock. Reconstructed Irish crannógs are located at Craggaunowen, County Clare, in the Irish National Heritage Park, County Wexford and at Castle Espie, County Down. In Scotland there are reconstructions at the \"Scottish Crannog Centre\" at Loch Tay, Perthshire; this centre offers guided tours and hands-on activities, including wool-spinning, wood-turning and making fire, holds events to celebrate wild cooking and crafts, and hosts yearly Midsummer, Lughnasadh and Samhain festivals.
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# Crannog
## Types and problems with definition {#types_and_problems_with_definition}
Crannogs took on many different forms and methods of construction based on what was available in the immediate landscape. The classic image of a prehistoric crannog stems from both post-medieval illustrations and highly influential excavations, such as Milton Loch in Scotland by C. M. Piggot after World War II. The Milton Loch interpretation is of a small islet surrounded or defined at its edges by timber piles and a gangway, topped by a typical Iron Age roundhouse.
The choice of a small islet as a home may seem odd today, yet waterways were the main channels for both communication and travel until the 19th century in much of Ireland and, especially, Highland Scotland. Crannogs are traditionally interpreted as simple prehistorical farmsteads. They are also interpreted as boltholes in times of danger, as status symbols with limited access, and as inherited locations of power that imply a sense of legitimacy and ancestry towards ownership of the surrounding landscape.
A strict definition of a crannog, which has long been debated, requires the use of timber. Sites in the Western Isles do not satisfy this criterion, although their inhabitants shared the common habit of living on water. If not classed as \"true\" crannogs, small occupied islets (often at least partially artificial in nature) may be referred to as \"island duns\". Rather confusingly, 22 islet-based sites are classified as \"proper\" crannogs due to differing interpretations of inspectors or excavators who drew up field reports.
Hebridean island dwellings or crannogs were commonly built on both natural and artificial islets, usually reached by a stone causeway. The visible structural remains are traditionally interpreted as duns or, in more recent terminology, as \"Atlantic roundhouses\". This terminology has recently become popular when describing the entire range of robust, drystone structures that existed in later prehistoric Atlantic Scotland.
The majority of crannog excavations were, by modern standards, poorly conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by early antiquarians, or were purely accidental finds as lochs were drained during the improvements to increase usable farmland or pasture. In some early digs, labourers hauled away tons of materials, with little regard to anything that was not of immediate economic value. Conversely, the vast majority of early attempts at proper excavation failed to accurately measure or record stratigraphy, thereby failing to provide a secure context for artefact finds. Thus only extremely limited interpretations are possible. Preservation and conservation techniques for waterlogged materials such as logboats or structural material were all but non-existent, and a number of extremely important finds were destroyed as a result; in some instances, they were even dried out for firewood.
From about 1900 to the late 1940s there was very little crannog excavation in Scotland, while some important and highly influential contributions were made in Ireland. In contrast, relatively few crannogs have been excavated since the Second World War. This number has steadily grown, especially since the early 1980s, and may soon surpass prewar totals. The overwhelming majority of crannogs show multiple phases of occupation and re-use, often extending over centuries. Thus the re-occupiers may have viewed crannogs as a legacy that was alive in local tradition and memory.
Crannog reoccupation is important and significant, especially in the many instances of crannogs built near natural islets, which were often completely unused. This long chronology of use has been verified by both radiocarbon dating and more precisely by dendrochronology.
Interpretations of crannog function have not been static; instead they appear to have changed in both the archaeological and historic records. Rather than the simple domestic residences of prehistory, the medieval crannogs were increasingly seen as strongholds of the upper class or regional political players, such as the Gaelic chieftains of the O\'Boylans and McMahons in County Monaghan and the Kingdom of Airgíalla, until the 17th century. In Scotland, the medieval and post-medieval use of crannogs is also documented into the early 18th century. Whether this increase in status is real, or just a by-product of increasingly complex material assemblages, remains to be convincingly validated.
## History
The earliest-known constructed crannog is the completely artificial Neolithic islet of Eilean Dòmhnuill, Loch Olabhat on North Uist in Scotland. Eilean Domhnuill has produced radiocarbon dates ranging from 3650 to 2500 BC. Irish crannogs appear in middle Bronze Age layers at Ballinderry (1200--600 BC). Recent radiocarbon dating of worked timber found in Loch Bhorghastail on the Isle of Lewis has produced evidence of crannogs as old as 3380--3630 BC. Prior to the Bronze Age, the existence of artificial island settlement in Ireland is not as clear. While lakeside settlements are evident in Ireland from 4500 BC, these settlements are not crannogs, as they were not intended to be islands. Despite having a lengthy chronology, their use was not at all consistent or unchanging.
Crannog construction and occupation was at its peak in Scotland from about 800 BC to AD 200. Not surprisingly, crannogs have useful defensive properties, although there appears to be more significance to prehistoric use than simple defense, as very few weapons or evidence for destruction appear in excavations of prehistoric crannogs. In Ireland, crannogs were at their zenith during the Early Historic period, when they were the homes and retreats of kings, lords, prosperous farmers and, occasionally, socially marginalised groups, such as monastic hermits or metalsmiths who could work in isolation. Despite scholarly concepts supporting a strict Early Historic evolution, Irish excavations are increasingly uncovering examples that date from the \"missing\" Iron Age in Ireland.
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# Crannog
## Construction
The construction techniques for a crannog (prehistoric or otherwise) are as varied as the multitude of finished forms that make up the archaeological record. Island settlement in Scotland and Ireland is manifest through the entire range of possibilities ranging from entirely natural, small islets to completely artificial islets, therefore definitions remain contentious. For crannogs in the strict sense, typically the construction effort began on a shallow reef or rise in the lochbed.
When timber was available, many crannogs were surrounded by a circle of wooden piles, with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure that helped to retain the main mound and prevent erosion. The piles could also be joined by mortise and tenon, or large holes cut to carefully accept specially shaped timbers designed to interlock and provide structural rigidity. On other examples, interior surfaces were built up with any mixture of clay, peat, stone, timber or brush -- whatever was available. In some instances, more than one structure was built on crannogs.
In other types of crannogs, builders and occupants added large stones to the waterline of small natural islets, extending and enlarging them over successive phases of renewal. Larger crannogs could be occupied by extended families or communal groups, and access was either by logboats or coracles. Evidence for timber or stone causeways exists on a large number of crannogs. The causeways may have been slightly submerged; this has been interpreted as a device to make access difficult but may also be a result of loch level fluctuations over the ensuing centuries or millennia. Organic remains are often found in excellent condition on these water-logged sites. The bones of cattle, deer, and swine have been found in excavated crannogs, while remains of wooden utensils and even dairy products have been completely preserved for several millennia.
### Fire and reconstruction {#fire_and_reconstruction}
In June 2021, the Loch Tay Crannog was seriously damaged in a fire but funding was given to repair the structure, and conserve the museum materials retained. The UNESCO Chair in Refugee Integration through Languages and the Arts, Alison Phipps of Glasgow University and African artist Tawona Sithole considered its future and its impact as a symbol of common human history and \'potent ways of healing\' including restarting the creative weaving with Soay sheep wool in \'a thousand touches\'
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# Calendar date
A **calendar date** is a reference to a particular day, represented within a calendar system, enabling a specific day to be unambiguously identified. Simple math can be performed between dates; commonly, the number of days between two dates may be calculated, e.g., \"25 `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\" is ten days after \"15 `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\". The date of a particular event depends on the time zone used to record it. For example, the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. local Hawaiian time (HST) on 7 December 1941 is recorded equally as having happened on 8 December at 3:18 a.m. Japan Standard Time (JST).
A particular day may be assigned a different nominal date according to the calendar used. The de facto standard for recording dates worldwide is the Gregorian calendar, the world\'s most widely used civil calendar. Many cultures use religious calendars such as the Gregorian (Western Christendom, AD), the Julian calendar (Eastern Christendom, AD), Hebrew calendar (Judaism, AM), the Hijri calendars (Islam, AH), or any other of the many calendars used around the world. Regnal calendars (that record a date in terms of years since the beginning of the monarch\'s reign) are also used in some places, for particular purposes.
In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the (numbered) *day of the month*, the *month*, and the (numbered) *year*. There may also be additional parts, such as the *day of the week*. Years are counted from a particular starting point called the *epoch*, with *era* referring to the span of time since that epoch. A date without the year may also be referred to as a *date* or *calendar date* (such as \"`{{CURRENTDAY}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki}\" rather than \"`{{CURRENTDAY}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}`{=mediawiki} `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}\"). As such, it is either shorthand for the current year, or else it defines the day of an annual event such as a birthday on 31 May or Christmas on 25 December.
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# Calendar date
## Date format {#date_format}
thumb\|center\|upright=3.2\|`{{legend|#0860a6|Day-Month-Year}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#feb930|Year-Month-Day}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#fd489d|Month-Day-Year}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#0860a6|#feb930|DMY and YMD|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#0860a6|#fd489d|DMY and MDY|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend striped|#fd489d|#feb930|MDY and YMD|up=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{legend|#353535|MDY, DMY, and YMD}}`{=mediawiki}
There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components. These variations use the sample date of 31 May 2006: (e.g. 31/05/2006, 05/31/2006, 2006/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31/05/2006, 31-05-2006), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/2006 vs. 31/05/2006), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.2006 vs. 31.05.06), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31.V.2006 vs. 31 May 2006).
### Gregorian, day--month--year (DMY) {#gregorian_daymonthyear_dmy}
This little-endian sequence is used by a majority of the world and is the preferred form by the United Nations when writing the full date format in official documents. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as \"the Nth day of \[month\] in the year of our Lord \[year\]\" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant. The following examples use the date of 9 November 2006. (With the years 2000--2009, care must be taken to ensure that two digit years do not intend to be 1900--1909 or other similar years.) The dots have a function of ordinal dot.
- \"9 November 2006\" or \"9. November 2006\" (the latter is common in German-speaking regions)
- 9/11/2006 or 09/11/2006
- 09.11.2006 or 9.11.2006
- 9\. 11. 2006
- 9-11-2006 or 09-11-2006
- 09-Nov-2006
- 09Nov06 -- Used, including in the U.S., where space needs to be saved by skipping punctuation (often seen on the dateline of Internet news articles).
- \[The\] 9th \[of\] November 2006 -- \'The\' and \'of\' are often spoken but generally omitted in all but the most formal writing such as legal documents.
- 09/Nov/2006 -- used in the Common Log Format
- Thursday, 9 November 2006
- 9/xi/06, 9.xi.06, 9-xi.06, 9/xi-06, 9.XI.2006, 9. XI. 2006 or 9 XI 2006 (using the Roman numeral for the month) -- In the past, this was a common and typical way of distinguishing day from month and was widely used in many countries, but recently this practice has been affected by the general retreat from the use of Roman numerals. This is usually confined to handwriting only and is not put into any form of print. It is associated with a number of schools and universities. It has also been used by the Vatican as an alternative to using months named after Roman deities. It is used on Canadian postmarks as a bilingual form of the month. It was also commonly used in the Soviet Union, in both handwriting and print.
- 9 November 2006 CE or 9 November 2006 AD
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# Calendar date
## Date format {#date_format}
### Gregorian, year--month--day (YMD) {#gregorian_yearmonthday_ymd}
In this format, the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e. the year before the month before the day. It is consistent with the big-endianness of the Hindu--Arabic numeral system, which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude. That is, using this format textual orderings and chronological orderings are identical. This form is standard in East Asia, Iran, Lithuania, Hungary, and Sweden; and some other countries to a limited extent.
Examples for the 9th of November 2003:
- 2003-11-09: the standard Internet date/time format, a profile of the international standard ISO 8601, orders the components of a date like this, and additionally uses leading zeros, for example, 1996-05-01, to be easily read and sorted by computers. It is used with UTC in RFC 3339. This format is also favored in certain Asian countries, mainly East Asian countries, as well as in some European countries. The big-endian convention is also frequently used in Canada, but all three conventions are used there (both endians and the American MMDDYYYY format are allowed on Canadian bank cheques provided that the layout of the cheque makes it clear which style is to be used).
- 2003 November 9
- 2003Nov9 or 2003Nov09
- 2003-Nov-9 or 2003-Nov-09
- 2003-Nov-9, Sunday
- 2003\. `{{sic|hide=y|no|vember}}`{=mediawiki} 9. -- The official format in Hungary, point after year and day, month name with small initial. Following shorter formats also can be used: 2003. `{{sic|hide=y|nov}}`{=mediawiki}. 9., 2003. 11. 9., 2003. XI. 9.
- 2003.11.9 using dots and no leading zeros, common in China.
- 2003.11.09
- 2003/11/09 using slashes and leading zeros, common in Japan on the Internet.
- 2003/11/9
- 03/11/09
- 20031109 : the \"basic format\" profile of ISO 8601, an 8-digit number providing monotonic date codes, common in computing and increasingly used in dated computer file names. It is used in the standard iCalendar file format defined in RFC 5545. A big advantage of the ISO 8601 \"basic format\" is that a simple textual sort is equivalent to a sort by date.
It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 2003 November 9, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.
### Gregorian, month--day--year (MDY) {#gregorian_monthdayyear_mdy}
This sequence is used primarily in the Philippines and the United States. It is also used to varying extents in Canada (though never in Quebec). This date format was commonly used alongside the little-endian form in the United Kingdom until the mid-20th century and can be found in both defunct and modern print media such as the *London Gazette* and *The Times*, respectively. This format was also commonly used by several English-language print media in many former British colonies and also one of two formats commonly used in India during British Raj era until the mid-20th century.
- Thursday, November 9, 2006
- November 9, 2006
- Nov 9, 2006
- Nov-9-2006
- Nov-09-2006
- 11/9/2006 or 11/09/2006
- 11-09-2006 or 11-9-2006
- 11.09.2006 or 11.9.2006
- 11.09.06
- 11/09/06
Modern style guides recommend avoiding the use of the ordinal (e.g. 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 2024), and that format is not included in ISO standards. The ordinal was common in the past and is still sometimes used (\[the\] 4th \[of\] July or July 4th).
### Gregorian, year--day--month (YDM) {#gregorian_yeardaymonth_ydm}
This date format is used in Kazakhstan, Latvia, Nepal, and Turkmenistan. According to the official rules of documenting dates by governmental authorities, the long date format in Kazakh is written in the year--day--month order, e.g. 2006 5 April (*2006 жылғы 05 сәуір*). However, both Latvia and Kazakhstan use the day-month-year format (DD.MM.YYYY or DD/MM/YYYY) for all-numeric dates.
### Standards
There are several standards that specify date formats:
- ISO 8601 *Data elements and interchange formats -- Information interchange -- Representation of dates and times* specifies *YYYY-MM-DD* (the separators are optional, but only hyphens are allowed to be used), where all values are fixed length numeric, but also allows *YYYY-DDD*, where *DDD* is the ordinal number of the day within the year, e.g. 2001--365.
- RFC 3339 *Date and Time on the Internet: Timestamps* specifies *YYYY-MM-DD*, i.e. a particular subset of the options allowed by ISO 8601.
- RFC 5322 *Internet Message Format* specifies *day month year* where *day* is one or two digits, *month* is a three letter month abbreviation, and *year* is four digits.
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# Calendar date
## Date format {#date_format}
### Difficulties
Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits, with no context. For example, \"07/08/06\" could refer to either 7 August 2006 or July 8, 2006 (or 1906, or the sixth year of any century), or 2007 August 6.
The date format of YYYY-MM-DD in ISO 8601, as well as other international standards, have been adopted for many applications for reasons including reducing transnational ambiguity and simplifying machine processing.
An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as extremely problematic, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.`{{bsn|reason=It is not clear at what point the piece is copied from elsewhere, so find the original -- possibly by Arthur David Olson at the tz nih archive.|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
When transitioning from one calendar or date notation to another, a format that includes both styles may be developed; for example Old Style and New Style dates in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.
## Advantages for ordering in sequence {#advantages_for_ordering_in_sequence}
One of the advantages of using the ISO 8601 date format is that the lexicographical order (ASCIIbetical) of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone. Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right collation. For example:
`2003-02-28 (28 February 2003) sorts before`\
`2006-03-01 (1 March 2006) which sorts before`\
`2015-01-30 (30 January 2015)`
The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this. Sorting other date representations involves some parsing of the date strings. This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.
ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human-readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. All modern computer Operating Systems retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files\' names.
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# Calendar date
## Specialized usage {#specialized_usage}
### Day and year only {#day_and_year_only}
The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, known to them as the \"Julian date format\", which indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, \"11 December 1999\" can be written in some contexts as \"1999345\" or \"99345\", for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used in US military logistics since it simplifies the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to South Korea. If the engine is sent on 06104 (Friday, 14 April 2006), it should arrive on 06139 (Friday, 19 May). Outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the Internal Revenue Service, this format is usually referred to as \"ordinal date\", rather than \"Julian date\".
Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems). Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, \"January 17\" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month-day format. OS/390 or its successor, z/OS, display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations.
UNIX time stores time as a number in seconds since the beginning of the UNIX Epoch (1970-01-01).
Another \"ordinal\" date system (\"ordinal\" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this \"logistics\" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists. The astronomers describe their system as also being a \"Julian date\" system.
### Week number used {#week_number_used}
Companies in Europe often use year, week number, and day for planning purposes. So, for example, an event in a project can happen on `{{code|w43}}`{=mediawiki} (week 43) or `{{code|w43-1}}`{=mediawiki} (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on `{{code|w0643}}`{=mediawiki} (the year 2006, week 43; i.e., Monday 23 October`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}Sunday 29 October 2006).
An ISO week-numbering year has 52 or 53 full weeks. That is 364 or 371 days instead of the conventional Gregorian year of 365 or 366 days. These 53 week years occur on all years that have Thursday as 1 January and on leap years that start on Wednesday the 1 January. The extra week is sometimes referred to as a \'leap week\', although ISO 8601 does not use this term.
### Expressing dates in spoken English {#expressing_dates_in_spoken_english}
In English-language outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as *7 December 1941* (or *7th December 1941*) and spoken as \"the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one\" (exceedingly common usage of \"the\" and \"of\"), with the occasional usage of *December 7, 1941* (\"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.
In Canada and the United States, the usual written form is *December 7, 1941*, spoken as \"December seventh, nineteen forty-one\" or colloquially \"December the seventh, nineteen forty-one\". Ordinal numerals, however, are not always used when writing and pronouncing dates, and \"December seven, nineteen forty-one\" is also an accepted pronunciation of the date written *December 7, 1941*. A notable exception to this rule is the Fourth of July (U.S. Independence Day)
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# Cist
`{{wikt | cist}}`{=mediawiki}
In archeology, a **cist** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|s|t}}`{=mediawiki}; also **kist** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɪ|s|t}}`{=mediawiki}; ultimately from *κίστη*; cognate to *chest*) or **cist grave** is a small stone-built coffin-like box or ossuary used to hold the bodies of the dead. In some ways, it is similar to the deeper shaft tomb. Examples occur across Europe and in the Middle East. A cist may have formerly been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a cairn or a long barrow. Several cists are sometimes found close together within the same cairn or barrow. Often ornaments have been found within an excavated cist, indicating the wealth or prominence of the interred individual.
This old word is preserved in the Nordic languages as *italic= yes* in Swedish and *italic= yes* in Danish and Norwegian, where it is the word for a funerary coffin. In English the term is related to *cistern* and to *chest*
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# Center (group theory)
*Pandoc failed*: ```
Error at (line 11, column 2):
unexpected '-'
|-
^
``
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# Chambered cairn
A **chambered cairn** is a burial monument, usually constructed during the Neolithic, consisting of a sizeable (usually stone) chamber around and over which a cairn of stones was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also passage-graves. They are found throughout Britain and Ireland, with the largest number in Scotland.
Typically, the chamber is larger than a cist, and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either excarnated bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community\'s \"graveyard\".
## Scotland
### Background
During the early Neolithic (4000--3300 BC) architectural forms are highly regionalised with timber and earth monuments predominating in the east and stone-chambered cairns in the west. During the later Neolithic (3300--2500 BC) massive circular enclosures and the use of grooved ware and Unstan ware pottery emerge. Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns; they are found in various different types described below. Along with the excavations of settlements such as Skara Brae, Links of Noltland, Barnhouse, Rinyo and Balfarg and the complex site at Ness of Brodgar these cairns provide important clues to the character of civilization in Scotland in the Neolithic. However the increasing use of cropmarks to identify Neolithic sites in lowland areas has tended to diminish the relative prominence of these cairns.
In the early phases bones of numerous bodies are often found together and it has been argued that this suggests that in death at least, the status of individuals was played down. During the late Neolithic henge sites were constructed and single burials began to become more commonplace; by the Bronze Age it is possible that even where chambered cairns were still being built they had become the burial places of prominent individuals rather than of communities as a whole.
### Clyde-Carlingford court cairns {#clyde_carlingford_court_cairns}
The Clyde or Clyde-Carlingford type are principally found in northern and western Ireland and southwestern Scotland. They first were identified as a separate group in the Firth of Clyde region, hence the name. Over 100 have been identified in Scotland alone. Lacking a significant passage, they are a form of gallery grave. The burial chamber is normally located at one end of a rectangular or trapezoidal cairn, while a roofless, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance provided access from the outside (although the entrance itself was often blocked), and gives this type of chambered cairn its alternate name of court tomb or court cairn. These forecourts are typically fronted by large stones and it is thought the area in front of the cairn was used for public rituals of some kind. The chambers were created from large stones set on end, roofed with large flat stones and often sub-divided by slabs into small compartments. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland.
Examples include Cairn Holy I and Cairn Holy II near Newton Stewart, a cairn at Port Charlotte, Islay, which dates to 3900--4000 BC, and Monamore, or Meallach\'s Grave, Arran, which may date from the early fifth millennium BC. Excavations at the Mid Gleniron cairns near Cairnholy revealed a multi-period construction which shed light on the development of this class of chambered cairn.
### Orkney-Cromarty {#orkney_cromarty}
The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. The design is of dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments or stalls. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on Orkney. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate \'forecourts\' protruding from each end, creating what look like small amphitheatres. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland Europe, as they are similar to designs found in France and Spain.
Examples include Midhowe on Rousay, and both the Unstan Chambered Cairn and Wideford Hill chambered cairn from the Orkney Mainland, both of which date from the mid 4th millennium BC and were probably in use over long periods of time. When the latter was excavated in 1884, grave goods were found that gave their name to Unstan ware pottery. Blackhammer cairn on Rousay is another example dating from the 3rd millennium BC.
The Grey Cairns of Camster in Caithness are examples of this type from mainland Scotland. The Tomb of the Eagles on South Ronaldsay is a stalled cairn that shows some similarities with the later Maeshowe type. It was in use for 800 years or more and numerous bird bones were found here, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle.
### Maeshowe
The Maeshowe group, named after the famous Orkney monument, is among the most elaborate. They appear relatively late and only in Orkney and it is not clear why the use of cairns continued in the north when their construction had largely ceased elsewhere in Scotland. They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed. The central chambers are tall and steep-sided and have corbelled roofing faced with high quality stone. In addition to Maeshowe itself, which was constructed c. 2700 BC, there are various other examples from the Orkney Mainland. These include Quanterness chambered cairn (3250 BC) in which the remains of 157 individuals were found when excavated in the 1970s, Cuween Hill near Finstown which was found to contain the bones of men, dogs and oxen and Wideford Hill chambered cairn, which dates from 2000 BC.
Examples from elsewhere in Orkney are the Vinquoy chambered cairn, and the Huntersquoy chambered cairn, both found on the north end of the island of Eday and Quoyness on Sanday constructed about 2900 BC and which is surrounded by an arc of Bronze Age mounds. The central chamber of Holm of Papa Westray South cairn is over 20 metres long.
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# Chambered cairn
## Scotland
### Bookan
The Bookan type is named after a cairn found to the north-west of the Ring of Brodgar in Orkney, which is now a dilapidated oval mound, about 16 metres in diameter. Excavations in 1861 indicated a rectangular central chamber surrounded by five smaller chambers. Because of the structure\'s unusual design, it was originally presumed to be an early form. However, later interpretations and further excavation work in 2002 suggested that they have more in common with the later Maeshowe type rather than the stalled Orkney-Cromarty cairns.
Huntersquoy chambered cairn on Eday is a double storied Orkney--Cromarty type cairn with a Booken-type lower chamber.
### Shetland
The Shetland or Zetland group are relatively small passage graves, that are round or heel-shaped in outline. The whole chamber is cross or trefoil-shaped and there are no smaller individual compartments. An example is to be found on the uninhabited island of Vementry on the north side of the West Mainland, where it appears that the cairn may have originally been circular and its distinctive heel shape added as a secondary development, a process repeated elsewhere in Shetland. This probably served to make the cairn more distinctive and the forecourt area more defined.
### Hebridean
Like the Shetland cairn the Hebridean group appear relatively late in the Neolithic. They are largely found in the Outer Hebrides, although a mixture of cairn types are found here. These passage graves are usually larger than the Shetland type and are round or have funnel-shaped forecourts, although a few are long cairns -- perhaps originally circular but with later tails added. They often have a polygonal chamber and a short passage to one end of the cairn.
The Rubha an Dùnain peninsula on the island of Skye provides an example from the 2nd or 3rd millennium BC. Barpa Langass on North Uist is the best preserved chambered cairn in the Hebrides.
### Bargrennan
Bargrennan chambered cairns are a class of passage graves found only in south-west Scotland, in western Dumfries and Galloway and southern Ayrshire. As well as being structurally different from the nearby Clyde cairns, Bargrennan cairns are distinguished by their siting and distribution; they are found in upland, inland areas of Galloway and Ayrshire.
### Bronze Age {#bronze_age}
In addition to the increasing prominence of individual burials, during the Bronze Age regional differences in architecture in Scotland became more pronounced. The Clava cairns date from this period, with about 50 cairns of this type in the Inverness area. Corrimony chambered cairn near Drumnadrochit is an example dated to 2000 BC or older. The only surviving evidence of burial was a stain indicating the presence of a single body. The cairn is surrounded by a circle of 11 standing stones. The cairns at Balnuaran of Clava are of a similar date. The largest of three is the north-east cairn, which was partially reconstructed in the 19th century and the central cairn may have been used as a funeral pyre.
Glebe cairn in Kilmartin Glen in Argyll dates from 1700 BC and has two stone cists inside one of which a jet necklace was found during 19th century excavations. There are numerous prehistoric sites in the vicinity including Nether Largie North cairn, which was entirely removed and rebuilt during excavations in 1930
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# European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
The **European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations** (**CEPT**) was established on 26 June 1959 by nineteen European states in Montreux, Switzerland, as a coordinating body for European state telecommunications and postal organizations. The acronym comes from the French version of its name, *Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications*.
CEPT was responsible for the creation of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988.
## Organization
CEPT is organised into three main components:
- Electronic Communications Committee (ECC) -- responsible for radiocommunications and telecommunications matters and formed by the merger of ECTRA (European Committee for Telecommunications Regulatory Affairs) and ERC (European Radiocommunications Committee) in September 2001
- The permanent secretariat of the ECC is the European Communications Office (ECO)
- European Committee for Postal Regulation (CERP, after the French *\"Comité européen des régulateurs postaux\"*) -- responsible for postal matters
- The committee for ITU Policy (Com-ITU) is responsible for organising the co-ordination of CEPT actions for the preparation for and during the course of the ITU activities meetings of the council, Plenipotentiary Conferences, World Telecommunication Development Conferences, World Telecommunication Standardisation Assemblies
The entity is based on the concept of a Postal, telegraph and telephone service entity.
## Member countries {#member_countries}
*As of March 2022: 46 countries.*
Albania, Andorra, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City. The Russian Federation and Belarus memberships were suspended indefinitely on 17 March 2022
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# Cartoon
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Example of a modern cartoon. The text was excerpted by cartoonist Greg Williams from the Wikipedia article on Dr. Seuss.\|alt=A cartoon shows a bearded man with a red bow tie holding the hat from Dr. Seuss\'s \"The Cat in the Hat\". A **cartoon** is a type of visual art that is typically drawn, frequently animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The specific meaning has evolved, but the modern usage usually refers to either: an image or series of images intended for satire, caricature, or humor; or a motion picture that relies on a sequence of illustrations for its animation. Someone who creates cartoons in the first sense is called a *cartoonist*, and in the second sense they are usually called an *animator*.
The concept originated in the Middle Ages, and first described a preparatory drawing for a piece of art, such as a painting, fresco, tapestry, or stained glass window. In the 19th century, beginning in *Punch* magazine in 1843, cartoon came to refer -- ironically at first -- to humorous artworks in magazines and newspapers. Then it also was used for political cartoons and comic strips. When the medium developed, in the early 20th century, it began to refer to animated films that resembled print cartoons.
## Fine art {#fine_art}
In fine art, a cartoon (from *cartone* and *karton*---words describing strong, heavy paper or pasteboard and cognates for carton) is a full-size drawing made on sturdy paper as a design or *modello* for a painting, stained glass, or tapestry. Cartoons were typically used in the production of frescoes, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted on damp plaster over a series of days (*giornate*). In media such as stained tapestry or stained glass, the cartoon was handed over by the artist to the skilled craftsmen who produced the final work.
Such cartoons often have pinpricks along the outlines of the design so that a bag of soot patted or \"pounced\" over a cartoon, held against the wall, would leave black dots on the plaster (\"pouncing\"). Cartoons by painters, such as the Raphael Cartoons in London, Francisco Goya\'s tapestry cartoons, and examples by Leonardo da Vinci, are highly prized in their own right. Tapestry cartoons, usually colored, could be placed behind the loom, where the weaver would replicate the design. As tapestries are worked from behind, a mirror could be placed behind the loom to allow the weaver to see their work; in such cases the cartoon was placed behind the weaver.
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# Cartoon
## Mass media {#mass_media}
In print media, a cartoon is a drawing or series of drawings, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843, when *Punch* magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by John Leech. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new Palace of Westminster in London.
Sir John Tenniel---illustrator of *Alice\'s Adventures in Wonderland---*joined *Punch* in 1850, and over 50 years contributed over two thousand cartoons.
Cartoons can be divided into gag cartoons, which include editorial cartoons, and comic strips.
Modern single-panel gag cartoons, found in magazines, generally consist of a single drawing with a typeset caption positioned beneath, or, less often, a speech balloon. Newspaper syndicates have also distributed single-panel gag cartoons by Mel Calman, Bill Holman, Gary Larson, George Lichty, Fred Neher and others. Many consider *New Yorker* cartoonist Peter Arno the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). The roster of magazine gag cartoonists includes Charles Addams, Charles Barsotti, and Chon Day. `{{Comics navbar}}`{=mediawiki} Bill Hoest, Jerry Marcus, and Virgil Partch began as magazine gag cartoonists and moved to syndicated comic strips. Richard Thompson illustrated numerous feature articles in *The Washington Post* before creating his *Cul de Sac* comic strip. The sports section of newspapers usually featured cartoons, sometimes including syndicated features such as Chester \"Chet\" Brown\'s *All in Sport*.
*Editorial cartoons* are found almost exclusively in news publications and news websites. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using irony or satire. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and sometimes use multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include Herblock, David Low, Jeff MacNelly, Mike Peters, and Gerald Scarfe.
*Comic strips*, also known as *cartoon strips* in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the United States, they are not commonly called \"cartoons\" themselves, but rather \"comics\" or \"funnies\". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips---as well as comic books and graphic novels---are usually referred to as \"cartoonists\". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Some noteworthy cartoonists of humorous comic strips are Scott Adams, Charles Schulz, E. C. Segar, Mort Walker and Bill Watterson.
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# Cartoon
## Mass media {#mass_media}
### Political
Political cartoons are like illustrated editorials that serve visual commentaries on political events. They offer subtle criticism which are cleverly quoted with humour and satire to the extent that the criticized does not get embittered.
The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is regarded as a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th century England. George Townshend produced some of the first overtly political cartoons and caricatures in the 1750s. The medium began to develop in the latter part of the 18th century under the direction of its great exponents, James Gillray and Thomas Rowlandson, both from London. Gillray explored the use of the medium for lampooning and caricature, and has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon. By calling the king, prime ministers and generals to account for their behaviour, many of Gillray\'s satires were directed against George III, depicting him as a pretentious buffoon, while the bulk of his work was dedicated to ridiculing the ambitions of revolutionary France and Napoleon. George Cruikshank became the leading cartoonist in the period following Gillray, from 1815 until the 1840s. His career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications.
By the mid 19th century, major political newspapers in many other countries featured cartoons commenting on the politics of the day. Thomas Nast, in New York City, showed how realistic German drawing techniques could redefine American cartooning. His 160 cartoons relentlessly pursued the criminal characteristic of the Tweed machine in New York City, and helped bring it down. Indeed, Tweed was arrested in Spain when police identified him from Nast\'s cartoons. In Britain, Sir John Tenniel was the toast of London. In France under the July Monarchy, Honoré Daumier took up the new genre of political and social caricature, most famously lampooning the rotund King Louis Philippe.
Political cartoons can be humorous or satirical, sometimes with piercing effect. The target of the humor may complain, but can seldom fight back. Lawsuits have been very rare; the first successful lawsuit against a cartoonist in over a century in Britain came in 1921, when J. H. Thomas, the leader of the National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), initiated libel proceedings against the magazine of the British Communist Party. Thomas claimed defamation in the form of cartoons and words depicting the events of \"Black Friday\", when he allegedly betrayed the locked-out Miners\' Federation. To Thomas, the framing of his image by the far left threatened to grievously degrade his character in the popular imagination. Soviet-inspired communism was a new element in European politics, and cartoonists unrestrained by tradition tested the boundaries of libel law. Thomas won the lawsuit and restored his reputation.
### Scientific
Cartoons such as *xkcd* have also found their place in the world of science, mathematics, and technology. For example, the cartoon *Wonderlab* looked at daily life in the chemistry lab. In the U.S., one well-known cartoonist for these fields is Sidney Harris. Many of Gary Larson\'s cartoons have a scientific flavor.
### Comic books {#comic_books}
The first comic-strip cartoons were of a humorous tone. Notable early **humor comics** include the Swiss comic-strip book *Mr. Vieux Bois* (1837), the British strip *Ally Sloper* (first appearing in 1867) and the American strip *Yellow Kid* (first appearing in 1895).
In the United States in the 1930s, books with cartoons were magazine-format \"American comic books\" with original material, or occasionally reprints of newspaper comic strips.
In Britain in the 1930s, adventure comic magazines became quite popular, especially those published by DC Thomson; the publisher sent observers around the country to talk to boys and learn what they wanted to read about. The story line in magazines, comic books and cinema that most appealed to boys was the glamorous heroism of British soldiers fighting wars that were exciting and just. DC Thomson issued the first *The Dandy Comic* in December 1937. It had a revolutionary design that broke away from the usual children\'s comics that were published broadsheet in size and not very colourful. Thomson capitalized on its success with a similar product *The Beano* in 1938.
On some occasions, new gag cartoons have been created for book publication.
## Animation
*Main article: Animated cartoon* Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated films, *cartoon* came to refer to animation, and the word *cartoon* is currently used in reference to both animated cartoons and gag cartoons. While *animation* designates any style of illustrated images seen in rapid succession to give the impression of movement, the word \"cartoon\" is most often used as a descriptor for television programs and short films aimed at children, possibly featuring anthropomorphized animals, superheroes, the adventures of child protagonists or related themes
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# Chief Minister of the Northern Territory
The **chief minister of the Northern Territory** is the head of government of the Northern Territory. The office is the equivalent of a state premier. When the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly was created in 1974, the head of government was officially known as **majority leader**. This title was used in the first parliament (1974--1977) and the first eighteen months of the second. When the Northern Territory acquired limited self-government in 1978, the title of the head of government became chief minister with greatly expanded powers, though still somewhat less than those of a state premier.
The chief minister is formally appointed by the administrator, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whichever party holds the majority of seats in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. In times of constitutional crisis, the administrator can appoint someone else as chief minister, though this has never occurred.
Since 28 August 2024, following the 2024 Northern Territory general election, the chief minister is Lia Finocchiaro of the Country Liberal Party. She is the fourth female chief minister of the Northern Territory.
## History
The Country Liberal Party won the first Northern Territory election on 19 October 1974 and elected Goff Letts majority leader. He headed an Executive that carried out most of the functions of a ministry at the state level. At the 1977 election Letts lost his seat and party leadership. He was succeeded on 13 August 1977 by Paul Everingham (CLP) as Majority Leader. When the Territory attained self-government on 1 July 1978, Everingham became chief minister and his Executive became a Ministry.
Despite the Majority Leader\'s title, the Majority Leader\'s opposite number was not known as Minority Leader but instead the Leader of the Opposition.
In 2001, Clare Martin became the first Labor and female chief minister of the Northern Territory. Until 2004 the conduct of elections and drawing of electoral boundaries was performed by the Northern Territory Electoral Office, a unit of the Department of the chief minister. In March 2004 the independent Northern Territory Electoral Commission was established.
In 2013, Mills was replaced as chief minister and CLP leader by Adam Giles at the 2013 CLP leadership ballot on 13 March to become the first indigenous Australian to lead a state or territory government in Australia.
Following the 2016 election landslide outcome, Labor\'s Michael Gunner became chief minister; he was the first Chief Minister who was born in the Northern Territory. On 10 May 2022, Gunner announced his intention to resign. On 13 May 2022, Natasha Fyles was elected to the position by the Labor caucus. On 19 December 2023, Fyles resigned following controversy over undeclared shares in mining company South32. On 21 December 2023, Eva Lawler replaced Fyles by a unanimous decision of the Labor caucus.
## List of chief ministers of the Northern Territory {#list_of_chief_ministers_of_the_northern_territory}
From the foundation of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in 1974 until the granting of self-government in 1978, the head of government was known as the majority leader:
Political parties
`{{legend|{{party color|Australian Labor Party}}|[[Territory Labor Party]] (TL)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}`{=mediawiki}
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| | Portrait | Name\ | Election | Term of office | | | Political party |
| | | Electoral division\ | | | | | |
| | | (Birth--death) | | | | | |
+=================================================================+=================================================================+=========================+==================+================+============+==========+=================+
| Term start | Term end | Time in office | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 1 | | Goff Letts\ | 1974 | 19 October\ | 12 August\ | | CLP |
| | | MLA for Victoria River\ | | 1974 | 1977 | | |
| | | (1928--2023) | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| *None*\ | | | | | | | |
| (1975--1978) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| | rowspan=\"2\" `{{Australian party style|CLP}}`{=mediawiki} \| 2 | | Paul Everingham\ | 1977 | 13 August\ | 30 June\ | |
| | | | MLA for Jingili\ | | 1977 | 1978 | |
| | | | (born 1943) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
| John England\ | | | | | | | |
| (1978--1981) | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+----------------+------------+----------+-----------------+
From 1978, the position was known as the chief minister:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+----------------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+
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# Chinese historiography
**Chinese historiography** is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China.
## Overview of Chinese history {#overview_of_chinese_history}
The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600--1046 BC). Many written examples survive of ceremonial inscriptions, divinations and records of family names, which were carved or painted onto tortoise shell or bones. The uniformly religious context of Shang written records makes avoidance of preservation bias important when interpreting Shang history. The first conscious attempt to record history in China may have been the inscription on the Zhou dynasty bronze Shi Qiang *pan*. This and thousands of other Chinese bronze inscriptions form our primary sources for the period in which they were interred in elite burials.
The oldest surviving history texts of China were compiled in the *Book of Documents (Shujing)*. The *Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu)*, the official chronicle of the State of Lu, cover the period from 722 to 481 BC and are among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged as annals. The compilations of both of these works are traditionally ascribed to Confucius. The *Zuo zhuan*, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BC, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468 BC. The anonymous *Zhan Guo Ce* was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work composed of sporadic materials on the Warring States period between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC.
The first systematic Chinese historical text, the *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*), was written by Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135--86 BC) based on work by his father, Sima Tan, during the Han dynasty. It covers the period from the time of the Yellow Emperor until the author\'s own lifetime. Two instances of systematic book-burning and a palace fire in the preceding centuries narrowed the sources available for this work. Because of this highly praised and frequently copied work, Sima Qian is often regarded as the father of Chinese historiography. The *Twenty-Four Histories*, the official histories of the dynasties considered legitimate by imperial Chinese historians, all copied Sima Qian\'s format. Typically, rulers initiating a new dynasty would employ scholars to compile a final history from the records of the previous one, using a broad variety of sources.
Around the turn of the millennium, father--son imperial librarians Liu Xiang and Liu Xin edited and catalogued a large number of early texts, including each individual text listed by name above. Much transmitted literature surviving today is known to be ultimately the version they edited down from a larger volume of material available at the time. In 190, the imperial capital was again destroyed by arson, causing the loss of significant amounts of historical material.
The *Shitong* was the first Chinese work about historiography. It was compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 AD. The book describes the general pattern of the official dynastic histories with regard to the structure, method, arrangement, sequence, caption, and commentary, dating back to the Warring States period.
The *Zizhi Tongjian* was a pioneering reference work of Chinese historiography. Emperor Yingzong of Song ordered Sima Guang and other scholars to begin compiling this universal history of China in 1065, and they presented it to his successor Shenzong in 1084. It contains 294 volumes and about three million characters, and it narrates the history of China from 403 BC to the beginning of the Song dynasty in 959. This style broke the nearly thousand-year tradition of Sima Qian, which employed annals for imperial reigns but biographies or treatises for other topics. The more consistent style of the *Zizhi Tongjian* was not followed by later official histories. In the mid 13th century, Ouyang Xiu was heavily influenced by the work of Xue Juzheng. This led to the creation of the *New History of the Five Dynasties*, which covered five dynasties in over 70 chapters.
Toward the end of the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century, scholars looked to Japan and the West for models. In the late 1890s, although deeply learned in the traditional forms, Liang Qichao began to publish extensive and influential studies and polemics that converted young readers to a new type of historiography that Liang regarded as more scientific. Liu Yizheng published several specialized history works including *History of Chinese Culture*. This next generation became professional historians, training and teaching in universities. They included Chang Chi-yun, Gu Jiegang, Fu Sinian, and Tsiang Tingfu, who were PhDs from Columbia University; and Chen Yinke, who conducted his investigations into medieval Chinese history in both Europe and the United States. Other historians, such as Qian Mu, who was trained largely through independent study, were more conservative but remained innovative in their response to world trends. In the 1920s, wide-ranging scholars, such as Guo Moruo, adapted Marxism in order to portray China as a nation among nations, rather than having an exotic and isolated history. The ensuing years saw historians such as Wu Han master both Western theories, including Marxism, and Chinese learning.
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# Chinese historiography
## Key organizing concepts {#key_organizing_concepts}
### Dynastic cycle {#dynastic_cycle}
Like the three ages of the Greek poet Hesiod, the oldest Chinese historiography viewed mankind as living in a fallen age of depravity, cut off from the virtues of the past, as Confucius and his disciples revered the sage kings Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.
Unlike Hesiod\'s system, however, the Duke of Zhou\'s idea of the Mandate of Heaven as a rationale for dethroning the supposedly divine Zi clan led subsequent historians to see man\'s fall as a cyclical pattern. In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a morally upright founder, but his successors cannot help but become increasingly corrupt and dissolute. This immorality removes the dynasty\'s divine favor and is manifested by natural disasters (particularly floods), rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes weak enough to be replaced by a new one, whose founder is able to rectify many of society\'s problems and begin the cycle anew. Over time, many people felt a full correction was not possible, and that the golden age of Yao and Shun could not be attained.
This teleological theory implies that there can be only one rightful sovereign under heaven at a time. Thus, despite the fact that Chinese history has had many lengthy and contentious periods of disunity, a great effort was made by official historians to establish a legitimate precursor whose fall allowed a new dynasty to acquire its mandate. Similarly, regardless of the particular merits of individual emperors, founders would be portrayed in more laudatory terms, and the last ruler of a dynasty would always be castigated as depraved and unworthy -- even when that was not the case. Such a narrative was employed after the fall of the empire by those compiling the history of the Qing, and by those who justified the attempted restorations of the imperial system by Yuan Shikai and Zhang Xun.
### Multi-ethnic history {#multi_ethnic_history}
Traditional Chinese historiography includes states ruled by other peoples (Mongols, Manchus, Tibetans etc.) in the dynastic history of China proper, ignoring their own historical traditions and considering them parts of China. Two historiographic traditions: of unity in East Asia as a historical norm for this region, and of dynasties successively reigning on the Son of Heaven\'s throne allowed Chinese elites describing historical process in China in simplified categories providing the basis for the concept of modern \"unitary China\" within the borders of the former Qing Empire, which was also ruled by Chinese emperors. However, deeper analysis reveals that, in fact, there was not a succession of dynasties ruled the same unitary China, but there were different states in certain regions of East Asia, some of which have been termed by later historiographers as the Empire ruled by the Son of the Heaven.
As early as the 1930s, the American scholar Owen Lattimore argued that China was the product of the interaction of farming and pastoral societies, rather than simply the expansion of the Han people. Lattimore did not accept the more extreme Sino-Babylonian theories that the essential elements of early Chinese technology and religion had come from Western Asia, but he was among the scholars to argue against the assumption they had all been indigenous.
Both the Republic of China and the People\'s Republic of China hold the view that Chinese history should include all the ethnic groups of the lands held by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak, with these ethnicities forming part of the *Zhonghua minzu* (Chinese nation). This view is in contrast with Han chauvinism promoted by the Qing-era Tongmenghui. This expanded view encompasses internal and external tributary lands, as well as conquest dynasties in the history of a China seen as a coherent multi-ethnic nation since time immemorial, incorporating and accepting the contributions and cultures of non-Han ethnicities.
The acceptance of this view by ethnic minorities sometimes depends on their views on present-day issues. The 14th Dalai Lama, long insistent on Tibet\'s history being separate from that of China, conceded in 2005 that Tibet \"is a part of\" China\'s \"5,000-year history\" as part of a new proposal for Tibetan autonomy. Korean nationalists have virulently reacted against China\'s application to UNESCO for recognition of the Goguryeo tombs in Chinese territory. The absolute independence of Goguryeo is a central aspect of Korean identity, because, according to Korean legend, Goguryeo was independent of China and Japan, compared to subordinate states such as the Joseon dynasty and the Korean Empire. The legacy of Genghis Khan has been contested between China, Mongolia, and Russia, all three states having significant numbers of ethnic Mongols within their borders and holding territory that was conquered by the Khan.
The Jin dynasty tradition of a new dynasty composing the official history for its preceding dynasty/dynasties has been seen to foster an ethnically inclusive interpretation of Chinese history. The compilation of official histories usually involved monumental intellectual labor. The Yuan and Qing dynasties, ruled by the Mongols and Manchus, faithfully carried out this practice, composing the official Chinese-language histories of the Han-ruled Song and Ming dynasties, respectively.
Recent Western scholars have reacted against the ethnically inclusive narrative in traditional and Chinese Communist Party (CCP)-sponsored history, by writing revisionist histories of China such as the New Qing History that feature, according to James A. Millward, \"a degree of \'partisanship\' for the indigenous underdogs of frontier history\". Scholarly interest in writing about Chinese minorities from non-Chinese perspectives is growing. So too is the rejection of a unified cultural narrative in early China. Historians engaging with archaeological progress find increasingly demonstrated a rich amalgam of diverse cultures in regions the received literature positions as homogeneous.
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# Chinese historiography
## Key organizing concepts {#key_organizing_concepts}
### Marxism
Most Chinese history that is published in the People\'s Republic of China is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo, and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are:
- Slave society
- Feudal society
- Capitalist society
- Socialist society
- The world communist society
The official historical view within the People\'s Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history.
- Slave society -- Xia to Zhou
- Feudal society (decentralized) -- Qin to Sui
- Feudal society (bureaucratic) -- Tang to the First Opium War
- Feudal society (semi-colonial) -- First Opium War to end of Qing dynasty
- Semi-feudal and Semi-capitalist society -- Republican era
- Socialist society -- PRC 1949 to present
Because of the strength of the CCP and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.
Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them.
There are several problems associated with imposing Marx\'s European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China\'s history but never as the primary form of labor. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analyzed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term \"bureaucratic feudalism\". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed.
The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that \"Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West\" and assumed that China existed in a \"qualitatively different historical world from Western society\". That is, there is an argument between those who see \"unilinear, monistic world history\" and those who conceive of a \"two-tracked or multi-tracked world history\". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analyzing the Six Dynasties 220--589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. His conclusion was that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China\'s history from that point on.
There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian\'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism\'s ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics.
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# Chinese historiography
## Key organizing concepts {#key_organizing_concepts}
### Modernization
This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society as a traditional society needing to become modern, usually with the implicit assumption of Western society as the model. Such a view was common amongst European and American historians during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now criticized for being a Eurocentric viewpoint, since such a view permits an implicit justification for breaking the society from its static past and bringing it into the modern world under European direction.
By the mid-20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the notion of \"changeless China\" was untenable. A new concept, popularized by John Fairbank, was the notion of \"change within tradition\", which argued that China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change existed within certain cultural traditions. This notion has also been subject to the criticism that to say \"China has not changed fundamentally\" is tautological, since it requires that one look for things that have not changed and then arbitrarily define those as fundamental.
Nonetheless, studies seeing China\'s interaction with Europe as the driving force behind its recent history are still common. Such studies may consider the First Opium War as the starting point for China\'s modern period. Examples include the works of H.B. Morse, who wrote chronicles of China\'s international relations such as *Trade and Relations of the Chinese Empire*. The Chinese convention is to use the word *jindai* (\"modern\") to refer to a timeframe for modernity which begins with the Opium wars and continues through the May Fourth period.
In the 1950s, several of Fairbank\'s students argued that Confucianism was incompatible with modernity. Joseph Levenson and Mary C. Wright, and Albert Feuerwerker argued in effect that traditional Chinese values were a barrier to modernity and would have to be abandoned before China could make progress. Wright concluded, \"The failure of the \[\[Tongzhi Restoration\|T\'ung-chih \[*Tongzhi*\] Restoration\]\] demonstrated with a rare clarity that even in the most favorable circumstances there is no way in which an effective modern state can be grafted onto a Confucian society. Yet in the decades that followed, the political ideas that had been tested and, for all their grandeur, found wanting, were never given a decent burial.\"
In a different view of modernization, the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro argued that China reached modernity during its mid-Imperial period, centuries before Europe. He believed that the reform of the civil service into a meritocratic system and the disappearance of the ancient Chinese nobility from the bureaucracy constituted a modern society. The problem associated with this approach is the subjective meaning of modernity. The Chinese nobility had been in decline since the Qin dynasty, and while the exams were largely meritocratic, performance required time and resources that meant examinees were still typically from the gentry. Moreover, expertise in the Confucian classics did not guarantee competent bureaucrats when it came to managing public works or preparing a budget. Confucian hostility to commerce placed merchants at the bottom of the four occupations, itself an archaism maintained by devotion to classic texts. The social goal continued to be to invest in land and enter the gentry, ideas more like those of the physiocrats than those of Adam Smith.
### Hydraulic despotism {#hydraulic_despotism}
With ideas derived from Marx and Max Weber, Karl August Wittfogel argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems. Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture. Yu the Great, one of China\'s legendary founders, is known for his control of the floods of the Yellow River. The hydraulic empire produces wealth from its stability; while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers. In Europe abundant rainfall meant less dependence on irrigation. In the Orient natural conditions were such that the bulk of the land could not be cultivated without large-scale irrigation works. As only a centralized administration could organize the building and maintenance of large-scale systems of irrigation, the need for such systems made bureaucratic despotism inevitable in Oriental lands.
When Wittfogel published his *Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power*, critics pointed out that water management was given the high status China accorded to officials concerned with taxes, rituals, or fighting off bandits. The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern.
While Wittfogel\'s theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch\'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, *Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control*. The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability.
### Convergence
Convergence theory, including Hu Shih and Ray Huang\'s involution theory, holds that the past 150 years have been a period in which Chinese and Western civilization have been in the process of converging into a world civilization. Such a view is heavily influenced by modernization theory but, in China\'s case, it is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of *Shijie Datong* or \"Great Unity\". It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians, as postmodern Western historians discount overarching narratives, and nationalist Chinese historians feel similar about narratives failing to account for some special or unique characteristics of Chinese culture.
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# Chinese historiography
## Key organizing concepts {#key_organizing_concepts}
### Anti-imperialism {#anti_imperialism}
Closely related are colonial and anti-imperialist narratives. These often merge or are part of Marxist critiques from within China or the former Soviet Union, or are postmodern critiques such as Edward Said\'s *Orientalism*, which fault traditional scholarship for trying to fit West, South, and East Asia\'s histories into European categories unsuited to them. With regard to China particularly, T.F. Tsiang and John Fairbank used newly opened archives in the 1930s to write modern history from a Chinese point of view. Fairbank and Teng Ssu-yu then edited the influential volume *China\'s Response to the West* (1953). This approach was attacked for ascribing the change in China to outside forces. In the 1980s, Paul Cohen, a student of Fairbank\'s, issued a call for a more \"China-Centered history of China\".
### Republican
The schools of thought on the 1911 Revolution have evolved from the early years of the Republic. The Marxist view saw the events of 1911 as a bourgeois revolution. In the 1920s, the Nationalist Party issued a theory of three political stages based on Sun Yatsen\'s writings:
- Military unification -- 1923 to 1928 (Northern Expedition)
- Political tutelage -- 1928 to 1947
- Constitutional democracy -- 1947 onward
The most obvious criticism is the near-identical nature of \"political tutelage\" and of a \"constitutional democracy\" consisting only of the one-party rule until the 1990s. Against this, Chen Shui-bian proposed his own four-stage theory.
### Postmodernism
Postmodern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject narrative history and instead focus on a small subset of Chinese history, particularly the daily lives of ordinary people in particular locations or settings.
### Long-term political economy {#long_term_political_economy}
Zooming out from the dynastic cycle but maintaining focus on power dynamics, the following general periodization, based on the most powerful groups and the ways that power is used, has been proposed for Chinese history:
- The aristocratic settlement state (to c. 550 BCE)
- Centralization of power with military revolution (c. 550 BCE -- c. 25 CE)
- Landowning families competing for central power and integrating the South (c. 25 -- c. 755)
- Imperial examination scholar-officials and commercialization (c. 755 -- c. 1550)
- Commercial interests with global convergence (since c. 1550)
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# Chinese historiography
## Recent trends {#recent_trends}
From the beginning of CCP rule in 1949 until the 1980s, Chinese historical scholarship focused largely on the officially sanctioned Marxist theory of class struggle. From the time of Deng Xiaoping (1978--1992) on, there has been a drift towards a Marxist-inspired Chinese nationalist perspective, and consideration of China\'s contemporary international status has become of paramount importance in historical studies. The current focus tends to be on specifics of civilization in ancient China, and the general paradigm of how China has responded to the dual challenges of interactions with the outside world and modernization in the post-1700 era. Long abandoned as a research focus among most Western scholars due to postmodernism\'s influence, this remains the primary interest for most historians inside China.
The late 20th century and early 21st century have seen numerous studies of Chinese history that challenge traditional paradigms. The field is rapidly evolving, with much new scholarship, often based on the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial. For example, an active topic concerns whether the typical Chinese peasant in 1900 was seeing his life improve. In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous quantities of primary source material that have not yet been analyzed. Scholars are using previously overlooked documentary evidence, such as masses of government and family archives, and economic records such as census tax rolls, price records, and land surveys. In addition, artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to manuals, and children\'s books are analyzed for clues about day-to-day life.
Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by postmodernism, and has questioned modernist narratives of China\'s backwardness and lack of development. The desire to challenge the preconception that 19th-century China was weak, for instance, has led to a scholarly interest in Qing expansion into Central Asia. Postmodern scholarship largely rejects grand narratives altogether, preferring to publish empirical studies on the socioeconomics, and political or cultural dynamics, of smaller communities within China.
As of at least 2023, there has been a surge of historical writing about key leaders of the Nationalist period. A significant amount of new writing includes texts written for a general (as opposed to only academic) audience. There has been an increasingly nuanced portrayal of Chiang Kai-shek, particularly in more favorably evaluating his leadership during the Second Sino-Japanese War and highlighting his position as one of the Big Four allied leaders. Recently released archival sources on the Nationalist era, including the Chiang Kai-shek diaries at Stanford University\'s Hoover Institution, have contributed to a surge in academic publishing on the period.
### Nationalism
In China, historical scholarship remains largely nationalist and modernist or even traditionalist. The legacies of the modernist school (such as Lo Hsiang-lin) and the traditionalist school (such as Qian Mu (Chien Mu)) remain strong in Chinese circles. The more modernist works focus on imperial systems in China and employ the scientific method to analyze epochs of Chinese dynasties from geographical, genealogical, and cultural artifacts. For example, using radiocarbon dating and geographical records to correlate climates with cycles of calm and calamity in Chinese history. The traditionalist school of scholarship resorts to official imperial records and colloquial historical works, and analyzes the rise and fall of dynasties using Confucian philosophy, albeit modified by an institutional administration perspective.
After 1911, writers, historians and scholars in China and abroad generally deprecated the late imperial system and its failures. However, in the 21st century, a highly favorable revisionism has emerged in the popular culture, in both the media and social media. Florian Schneider argues that nationalism in China in the early twenty-first century is largely a product of the digital revolution and that a large fraction of the population participates as readers and commentators who relate ideas to their friends over the internet
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# C*-algebra
In mathematics, specifically in functional analysis, a **C^∗^-algebra** (pronounced \"C-star\") is a Banach algebra together with an involution satisfying the properties of the adjoint. A particular case is that of a complex algebra *A* of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties:
- *A* is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.
- *A* is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators.
Another important class of non-Hilbert C\*-algebras includes the algebra $C_0(X)$ of complex-valued continuous functions on *X* that vanish at infinity, where *X* is a locally compact Hausdorff space.
C\*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in quantum mechanics to model algebras of physical observables. This line of research began with Werner Heisenberg\'s matrix mechanics and in a more mathematically developed form with Pascual Jordan around 1933. Subsequently, John von Neumann attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras, which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators. These papers considered a special class of C\*-algebras that are now known as von Neumann algebras.
Around 1943, the work of Israel Gelfand and Mark Naimark yielded an abstract characterisation of C\*-algebras making no reference to operators on a Hilbert space.
C\*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics. Another active area of research is the program to obtain classification, or to determine the extent of which classification is possible, for separable simple nuclear C\*-algebras.
## Abstract characterization {#abstract_characterization}
We begin with the abstract characterization of C\*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gelfand and Naimark.
A C\*-algebra, *A*, is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map $x \mapsto x^*$ for $x\in A$ with the following properties:
- It is an involution, for every *x* in *A*:
$$x^{**} = (x^*)^* = x$$
- For all *x*, *y* in *A*:
$$(x + y)^* = x^* + y^*$$
$$(x y)^* = y^* x^*$$
- For every complex number $\lambda\in\mathbb{C}$ and every *x* in *A*:
$$(\lambda x)^* = \overline{\lambda} x^* .$$
- For all *x* in *A*:
$$\|x x^* \| = \|x\|\|x^*\|.$$
**Remark.** The first four identities say that *A* is a \*-algebra. The last identity is called the **C\* identity** and is equivalent to:
$\|xx^*\| = \|x\|^2,$
which is sometimes called the B\*-identity. For history behind the names C\*- and B\*-algebras, see the history section below.
The C\*-identity is a very strong requirement. For instance, together with the spectral radius formula, it implies that the C\*-norm is uniquely determined by the algebraic structure:
$$\|x\|^2 = \|x^* x\| = \sup\{|\lambda| : x^* x - \lambda \,1 \text{ is not invertible} \}.$$
A bounded linear map, *π* : *A* → *B*, between C\*-algebras *A* and *B* is called a **\*-homomorphism** if
- For *x* and *y* in *A*
$$\pi(x y) = \pi(x) \pi(y) \,$$
- For *x* in *A*
$$\pi(x^*) = \pi(x)^* \,$$
In the case of C\*-algebras, any \*-homomorphism *π* between C\*-algebras is contractive, i.e. bounded with norm ≤ 1. Furthermore, an injective \*-homomorphism between C\*-algebras is isometric. These are consequences of the C\*-identity.
A bijective \*-homomorphism *π* is called a **C\*-isomorphism**, in which case *A* and *B* are said to be **isomorphic**.
## Some history: B\*-algebras and C\*-algebras {#some_history_b_algebras_and_c_algebras}
The term B\*-algebra was introduced by C. E. Rickart in 1946 to describe Banach \*-algebras that satisfy the condition:
- $\lVert x x^* \rVert = \lVert x \rVert ^2$ for all *x* in the given B\*-algebra. (B\*-condition)
This condition automatically implies that the \*-involution is isometric, that is, $\lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert$. Hence, $\lVert xx^*\rVert = \lVert x \rVert \lVert x^*\rVert$, and therefore, a B\*-algebra is also a C\*-algebra. Conversely, the C\*-condition implies the B\*-condition. This is nontrivial, and can be proved without using the condition $\lVert x \rVert = \lVert x^* \rVert$. For these reasons, the term B\*-algebra is rarely used in current terminology, and has been replaced by the term \'C\*-algebra\'.
The term C\*-algebra was introduced by I. E. Segal in 1947 to describe norm-closed subalgebras of *B*(*H*), namely, the space of bounded operators on some Hilbert space *H*. \'C\' stood for \'closed\'. In his paper Segal defines a C\*-algebra as a \"uniformly closed, self-adjoint algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space\".
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# C*-algebra
## Structure of C\*-algebras {#structure_of_c_algebras}
C\*-algebras have a large number of properties that are technically convenient. Some of these properties can be established by using the continuous functional calculus or by reduction to commutative C\*-algebras. In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the Gelfand isomorphism.
### Self-adjoint elements {#self_adjoint_elements}
Self-adjoint elements are those of the form $x = x^*$. The set of elements of a C\*-algebra *A* of the form $x^*x$ forms a closed convex cone. This cone is identical to the elements of the form $xx^*$. Elements of this cone are called *non-negative* (or sometimes *positive*, even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of $\mathbb{R}$)
The set of self-adjoint elements of a C\*-algebra *A* naturally has the structure of a partially ordered vector space; the ordering is usually denoted $\geq$. In this ordering, a self-adjoint element $x \in A$ satisfies $x \geq 0$ if and only if the spectrum of $x$ is non-negative, if and only if $x = s^*s$ for some $s \in A$. Two self-adjoint elements $x$ and $y$ of *A* satisfy $x \geq y$ if $x - y \geq 0$.
This partially ordered subspace allows the definition of a positive linear functional on a C\*-algebra, which in turn is used to define the states of a C\*-algebra, which in turn can be used to construct the spectrum of a C\*-algebra using the GNS construction.
### Quotients and approximate identities {#quotients_and_approximate_identities}
Any C\*-algebra *A* has an approximate identity. In fact, there is a directed family {*e*~λ~}~λ∈I~ of self-adjoint elements of *A* such that
:
: $x e_\lambda \rightarrow x$
: $0 \leq e_\lambda \leq e_\mu \leq 1\quad \mbox{ whenever } \lambda \leq \mu.$
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
: In case *A* is separable, *A* has a sequential approximate identity. More generally, *A* will have a sequential approximate identity if and only if *A* contains a **strictly positive element**, i.e. a positive element *h* such that *hAh* is dense in *A*.
Using approximate identities, one can show that the algebraic quotient of a C\*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided ideal, with the natural norm, is a C\*-algebra.
Similarly, a closed two-sided ideal of a C\*-algebra is itself a C\*-algebra.
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# C*-algebra
## Examples
### Finite-dimensional C\*-algebras {#finite_dimensional_c_algebras}
The algebra M(*n*, **C**) of *n* × *n* matrices over **C** becomes a C\*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space, **C**^*n*^, and use the operator norm \|\|·\|\| on matrices. The involution is given by the conjugate transpose. More generally, one can consider finite direct sums of matrix algebras. In fact, all C\*-algebras that are finite dimensional as vector spaces are of this form, up to isomorphism. The self-adjoint requirement means finite-dimensional C\*-algebras are semisimple, from which fact one can deduce the following theorem of Artin--Wedderburn type:
> **Theorem.** A finite-dimensional C\*-algebra, *A*, is canonically isomorphic to a finite direct sum
>
> $$A = \bigoplus_{e \in \min A } A e$$ where min *A* is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of *A*.
Each C\*-algebra, *Ae*, is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M(dim(*e*), **C**). The finite family indexed on min *A* given by {dim(*e*)}~*e*~ is called the *dimension vector* of *A*. This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C\*-algebra. In the language of K-theory, this vector is the positive cone of the *K*~0~ group of *A*.
A **†-algebra** (or, more explicitly, a *†-closed algebra*) is the name occasionally used in physics for a finite-dimensional C\*-algebra. The dagger, †, is used in the name because physicists typically use the symbol to denote a Hermitian adjoint, and are often not worried about the subtleties associated with an infinite number of dimensions. (Mathematicians usually use the asterisk, \*, to denote the Hermitian adjoint.) †-algebras feature prominently in quantum mechanics, and especially quantum information science.
An immediate generalization of finite dimensional C\*-algebras are the approximately finite dimensional C\*-algebras.
### C\*-algebras of operators {#c_algebras_of_operators}
The prototypical example of a C\*-algebra is the algebra *B(H)* of bounded (equivalently continuous) linear operators defined on a complex Hilbert space *H*; here *x\** denotes the adjoint operator of the operator *x* : *H* → *H*. In fact, every C\*-algebra, *A*, is \*-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of *B*(*H*) for a suitable Hilbert space, *H*; this is the content of the Gelfand--Naimark theorem.
### C\*-algebras of compact operators {#c_algebras_of_compact_operators}
Let *H* be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra *K*(*H*) of compact operators on *H* is a norm closed subalgebra of *B*(*H*). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a C\*-algebra.
Concrete C\*-algebras of compact operators admit a characterization similar to Wedderburn\'s theorem for finite dimensional C\*-algebras:
> **Theorem.** If *A* is a C\*-subalgebra of *K*(*H*), then there exists Hilbert spaces {*H~i~*}~*i*∈*I*~ such that
>
> $$A \cong \bigoplus_{i \in I } K(H_i),$$ where the (C\*-)direct sum consists of elements (*T~i~*) of the Cartesian product Π *K*(*H~i~*) with \|\|*T~i~*\|\| → 0.
Though *K*(*H*) does not have an identity element, a sequential approximate identity for *K*(*H*) can be developed. To be specific, *H* is isomorphic to the space of square summable sequences *l*^2^; we may assume that *H* = *l*^2^. For each natural number *n* let *H~n~* be the subspace of sequences of *l*^2^ which vanish for indices *k* ≥ *n* and let *e~n~* be the orthogonal projection onto *H~n~*. The sequence {*e~n~*}~*n*~ is an approximate identity for *K*(*H*).
*K*(*H*) is a two-sided closed ideal of *B*(*H*). For separable Hilbert spaces, it is the unique ideal. The quotient of *B*(*H*) by *K*(*H*) is the Calkin algebra.
### Commutative C\*-algebras {#commutative_c_algebras}
Let *X* be a locally compact Hausdorff space. The space $C_0(X)$ of complex-valued continuous functions on *X* that *vanish at infinity* (defined in the article on local compactness) forms a commutative C\*-algebra $C_0(X)$ under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. $C_0(X)$ has a multiplicative unit element if and only if $X$ is compact. As does any C\*-algebra, $C_0(X)$ has an approximate identity. In the case of $C_0(X)$ this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of $X$, and for each compact $K$ let $f_K$ be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on $K$. Such functions exist by the Tietze extension theorem, which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. Any such sequence of functions $\{f_K\}$ is an approximate identity.
The Gelfand representation states that every commutative C\*-algebra is \*-isomorphic to the algebra $C_0(X)$, where $X$ is the space of characters equipped with the weak\* topology. Furthermore, if $C_0(X)$ is isomorphic to $C_0(Y)$ as C\*-algebras, it follows that $X$ and $Y$ are homeomorphic. This characterization is one of the motivations for the noncommutative topology and noncommutative geometry programs.
### C\*-enveloping algebra {#c_enveloping_algebra}
Given a Banach \*-algebra *A* with an approximate identity, there is a unique (up to C\*-isomorphism) C\*-algebra **E**(*A*) and \*-morphism π from *A* into **E**(*A*) that is universal, that is, every other continuous \*-morphism `{{nowrap|π ' : ''A'' → ''B''}}`{=mediawiki} factors uniquely through π. The algebra **E**(*A*) is called the **C\*-enveloping algebra** of the Banach \*-algebra *A*.
Of particular importance is the C\*-algebra of a locally compact group *G*. This is defined as the enveloping C\*-algebra of the group algebra of *G*. The C\*-algebra of *G* provides context for general harmonic analysis of *G* in the case *G* is non-abelian. In particular, the dual of a locally compact group is defined to be the primitive ideal space of the group C\*-algebra. See spectrum of a C\*-algebra.
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# C*-algebra
## Examples
### Von Neumann algebras {#von_neumann_algebras}
Von Neumann algebras, known as W\* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C\*-algebra. They are required to be closed in the weak operator topology, which is weaker than the norm topology.
The Sherman--Takeda theorem implies that any C\*-algebra has a universal enveloping W\*-algebra, such that any homomorphism to a W\*-algebra factors through it.
## Type for C\*-algebras {#type_for_c_algebras}
A C\*-algebra *A* is of type I if and only if for all non-degenerate representations π of *A* the von Neumann algebra π(*A*)`{{pprime}}`{=mediawiki} (that is, the bicommutant of π(*A*)) is a type I von Neumann algebra. In fact it is sufficient to consider only factor representations, i.e. representations π for which π(*A*)`{{pprime}}`{=mediawiki} is a factor.
A locally compact group is said to be of type I if and only if its group C\*-algebra is type I.
However, if a C\*-algebra has non-type I representations, then by results of James Glimm it also has representations of type II and type III. Thus for C\*-algebras and locally compact groups, it is only meaningful to speak of type I and non type I properties.
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# C*-algebra
## C\*-algebras and quantum field theory {#c_algebras_and_quantum_field_theory}
In quantum mechanics, one typically describes a physical system with a C\*-algebra *A* with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of *A* (elements *x* with *x\** = *x*) are thought of as the *observables*, the measurable quantities, of the system. A *state* of the system is defined as a positive functional on *A* (a **C**-linear map φ : *A* → **C** with φ(*u\*u*) ≥ 0 for all *u* ∈ *A*) such that φ(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable *x*, if the system is in state φ, is then φ(*x*).
This C\*-algebra approach is used in the Haag--Kastler axiomatization of local quantum field theory, where every open set of Minkowski spacetime is associated with a C\*-algebra
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# Contempt of court
**Contempt of court**, often referred to simply as \"**contempt**\", is the crime of being disobedient to or disrespectful toward a court of law and its officers in the form of behavior that opposes or defies the authority, justice, and dignity of the court. A similar attitude toward a legislative body is termed contempt of Parliament or contempt of Congress. The verb for \"to commit contempt\" is **contemn** (as in \"to contemn a court order\") and a person guilty of this is a **contemnor** or **contemner**.
There are broadly two categories of contempt: being disrespectful to legal authorities in the courtroom, or willfully failing to obey a court order. Contempt proceedings are especially used to enforce equitable remedies, such as injunctions. In some jurisdictions, the refusal to respond to subpoena, to testify, to fulfill the obligations of a juror, or to provide certain information can constitute contempt of the court.
When a court decides that an action constitutes contempt of court, it can issue an order in the context of a court trial or hearing that declares a person or organization to have disobeyed or been disrespectful of the court\'s authority, called \"found\" or \"held\" in contempt. That is the judge\'s strongest power to impose sanctions for acts that disrupt the court\'s normal process.
A finding of being in contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a court, showing disrespect for the judge, disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material or non-disclosure of material, which in doing so is deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a fine, jail or social service for someone found guilty of contempt of court, which makes contempt of court a process crime. Judges in common law systems usually have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in civil law systems.
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# Contempt of court
## In use today {#in_use_today}
Contempt of court is essentially seen as a form of disturbance that may impede the functioning of the court. The judge may impose fines and/or jail time upon any person committing contempt of court. The person is usually let out upon an agreement to fulfill the wishes of the court. Civil contempt can involve acts of omission. The judge will make use of warnings in most situations that may lead to a person being charged with contempt if the warnings are ignored. It is relatively rare that a person is charged for contempt without first receiving at least one warning from the judge. Constructive contempt, also called *consequential contempt*, is when a person fails to fulfill the will of the court as it applies to outside obligations of the person. In most cases, constructive contempt is considered to be in the realm of civil contempt due to its passive nature.
Indirect contempt is something that is associated with civil and constructive contempt and involves a failure to follow court orders. Criminal contempt includes anything that could be considered a disturbance, such as repeatedly talking out of turn, bringing forth previously banned evidence, or harassment of any other party in the courtroom, including committing an assault against the defendant in a criminal case. There have been instances during murder trials that grieving family members of murder victims have attacked the defendants in courtrooms in plain view of judges, bailiffs, and jurors, leading to said family members to be charged with contempt. Direct contempt is an unacceptable act in the presence of the judge (*in facie curiae*), and generally begins with a warning; it may be accompanied by the immediate imposition of a punishment.
### Australia
In Australia, a judge may impose a fine or jail for contempt of court.
### Belgium
A Belgian correctional or civil judge may immediately try the person for insulting the court.
### British West Indies {#british_west_indies}
In 1888, Louis de Souza, a young barrister in British Guiana was fined \$500 and imprisoned for six months for contempt of court for publicly criticising judicial decisions. De Souza applied for special leave to appeal his case to the Privy Council as the decisions that he had criticised were not ongoing or cases in which he appeared and, therefore, broader than disrespect to legal authorities in a courtroom. A few years earlier, in Grenada, a newspaper had also been sanctioned for defaming a judge by printing remarks about a case.
The Privy Council granted De Souza\'s leave, with the judges apparently remarking that judges in England are subjected to far worse. De Souza, however, contracted tuberculosis while in jail and died 3 months after his release. His imprisonment was reported across the West Indies and his death elicited outrage. Valence Gale, a Barbadian journalist, wrote passionately about the events leading up De Souza\'s death. One of his articles is credited with paving the way for the passage of Barbados\' Contempt of Court Act 1891, the first of many across the West Indies.
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# Contempt of court
## In use today {#in_use_today}
### Canada
#### Common law offense {#common_law_offense}
In Canada, contempt of court is an exception to the general principle that all criminal offences are set out in the federal *Criminal Code*. Contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.
Contempt of court includes the following behaviors:
- Failing to maintain a respectful attitude, failing to remain silent or failing to refrain from showing approval or disapproval of the proceeding
- Refusing or neglecting to obey a subpoena
- Willfully disobeying a process or order of the court
- Interfering with the orderly administration of justice or impairing the authority or dignity of the court
- Failing to perform duties as an officer of the court
- A sheriff or bailiff not executing a writ of the court forthwith or not making a return thereof
#### Canadian Federal courts {#canadian_federal_courts}
*This section applies only to the Federal Court of Appeal and Federal Court.*
Under Federal Court Rules, Rules 466, and Rule 467 a person who is accused of Contempt needs to be first served with a contempt order and then appear in court to answer the charges. Convictions can only be made when proof beyond a reasonable doubt is achieved.
If it is a matter of urgency or the contempt was done in front of a judge, that person can be punished immediately. Punishment can range from the person being imprisoned for a period of less than five years or until the person complies with the order or fine.
#### Tax Court of Canada {#tax_court_of_canada}
Under Tax Court of Canada Rules of *Tax Court of Canada Act*, a person who is found to be in contempt may be imprisoned for a period of less than two years or fined. Similar procedures for serving an order first is also used at the Tax Court.
#### Provincial courts {#provincial_courts}
Different procedures exist for different provincial courts. For example, in British Columbia, a justice of the peace can only issue a summons to an offender for contempt, which will be dealt with by a judge, even if the offence was done in the face of the justice.
### Hong Kong {#hong_kong}
Judges from the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, High Court of Hong Kong, District Court along with members from the various tribunals and Coroner\'s Court all have the power to impose immediate punishments for contempt in the face of the court, derived from legislation or through common law:
- Insult a judge or justice, witness or officers of the court
- Interrupts the proceedings of the court
- Interfere with the course of justice
- Misbehaves in court (e.g., use of mobile phone or recording devices without permission)
- Juror who leaves without permission of the court during proceedings
- Disobeying a judgment or court order
- Breach of undertaking
- Breach of a duty imposed upon a solicitor by rules of court
The use of insulting or threatening language in the magistrates\' courts or against a magistrate is in breach of section 99 of the Magistrates Ordinance (Cap 227) which states the magistrate can \'summarily sentence the offender to a fine at level 3 and to imprisonment for 6 months.\'
In addition, certain appeal boards are given the statutory authority for contempt by them (e.g., Residential Care Home, Hotel and Guesthouse Accommodation, Air Pollution Control, etc.). For contempt in front of these boards, the chairperson will certify the act of contempt to the Court of First Instance who will then proceed with a hearing and determine the punishment.
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# Contempt of court
## In use today {#in_use_today}
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In England and Wales (a common law jurisdiction), the law on contempt is partly set out in case law (common law), and partly codified by the Contempt of Court Act 1981. Contempt may be classified as *criminal* or *civil*. The maximum penalty for criminal contempt under the 1981 Act is committal to prison for two years.
Disorderly, contemptuous or insolent behaviour toward the judge or magistrates while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as \"direct\" contempt. The term \"direct\" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behaviour observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.
There are limits to the powers of contempt created by rulings of European Court of Human Rights. Reporting on contempt of court, the Law Commission commented that \"punishment of an advocate for what he or she says in court, whether a criticism of the judge or a prosecutor, amounts to an interference with his or her rights under article 10 of the ECHR\" and that such limits must be \"prescribed by law\" and be \"necessary in a democratic society\", citing Nikula v Finland.
#### Criminal contempt {#criminal_contempt}
The Crown Court is a superior court according to the Senior Courts Act 1981 and as such has the power to punish contempt. The Divisional Court as part of the High Court has ruled that this power can apply in these three circumstances:
1. Contempt \"in the face of the court\" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
2. Disobedience of a court order; and
3. Breaches of undertakings to the court.
Where it is necessary to act quickly, a judge may act to impose committal (to prison) for contempt.
Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the Attorney General can intervene and the Crown Prosecution Service will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before a Divisional Court of the King\'s Bench Division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. For example, in January 2012, Theodora Dallas, a juror who had researched information on the internet was jailed for contempt of court. Initially searching for the meaning of the term \"grievous bodily harm\", she added search criteria which localised her search and brought to light another charge against the defendant. Because she then shared this information with the other jurors, the judge stated that she had compromised the defendant\'s right to a fair trial and the prosecution was abandoned.
Magistrates\' courts also have powers under the 1981 Act to order to detain any person who \"insults the court\" or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon contempt being admitted or proved the (invariably) District Judge (sitting as a magistrate) may order committal to prison for a maximum of one month, impose a fine of up to £2,500, or both.
It will be contempt to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.
It will not be contempt according to section 10 of the Act for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is \"necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime\".
#### Strict liability contempt {#strict_liability_contempt}
Under the Contempt of Court Act it is criminal contempt to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the Attorney General has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial or linked trials are over and the juries have given their verdicts.
Section 2 of the Act defines and limits the previous common law definition of contempt (which was previously based upon a presumption that any conduct could be treated as contempt, regardless of intent), to only instances where there can be proved an intent to cause a substantial risk of serious prejudice to the administration of justice (i.e./e.g., the conduct of a trial).
#### Civil contempt {#civil_contempt}
In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:
1. Failure to attend at court despite a summons requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a writ of latitat would have been issued, but now a bench warrant is issued, authorizing the tipstaff to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally \"backed for bail\"---i.e., bail will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
2. Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a \"penal notice\"---i.e., notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment---is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claimant of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.
### India
In India, contempt of court is of two types:
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# Contempt of court
## In use today {#in_use_today}
### Pakistan
### Singapore
### United States {#united_states}
In United States jurisprudence, acts of contempt are generally divided into direct or indirect, and civil or criminal. Direct contempt occurs in the presence of a judge; civil contempt is \"coercive and remedial\" as opposed to punitive. In the United States, relevant statutes include `{{usc|18|401|403}}`{=mediawiki} and Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 42.
1. Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (*in facie curiae*) and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
2. Indirect contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court and consists of disobedience of a court\'s prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt and, since there is no written procedure, may or may not be allowed to present evidence in rebuttal.
Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court.
Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a fine or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court\'s order continues: once the party complies with the court\'s order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to \"hold the keys\" to their own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. In federal and most state courts, the burden of proof for civil contempt is clear and convincing evidence, a lower standard than in criminal cases.
In civil contempt cases there is no principle of proportionality. In *Chadwick v. Janecka* (3d Cir. 2002), a U.S. court of appeals held that H. Beatty Chadwick could be held indefinitely for his failure to produce \$2.5 million as a state court ordered in a civil trial. Chadwick had been imprisoned for nine years at that time and continued to be held in prison until 2009, when a state court set him free after 14 years, making his imprisonment the longest on a contempt charge to date.
Civil contempt is only appropriate when the imposed party has the power to comply with the underlying order. Controversial contempt rulings have periodically arisen from cases involving asset protection trusts, where the court has ordered a settlor of an asset protection trust to repatriate assets so that the assets may be made available to a creditor. A court cannot maintain an order of contempt where the imposed party does not have the ability to comply with the underlying order. This claim when made by the imposed party is known as the \"impossibility defense\".
Contempt of court is considered a prerogative of the court, and \"the requirement of a jury does not apply to \'contempts committed in disobedience of any lawful writ, process, order, rule, decree, or command entered in any suit or action brought or prosecuted in the name of, or on behalf of, the United States.{{\'\"}} This stance is not universally agreed with by other areas of the legal world, and there have been many calls to have contempt cases to be tried by jury, rather than by judge, as a potential conflict of interest rising from a judge both accusing and sentencing the defendant. At least one Supreme Court justice has made calls for jury trials to replace bench trials on contempt cases.
The United States Marshals Service is the agency component that first holds all federal prisoners. It uses the Prisoner Population Management System / Prisoner Tracking System. The only types of records that are disclosed as being in the system are those of \"federal prisoners who are in custody pending criminal proceedings.\" The records of \"alleged civil contempors\" are not listed in the Federal Register as being in the system leading to a potential claim for damages under The Privacy Act, `{{usc|5|552a(e)(4)(I)}}`{=mediawiki}.
In *Ex parte Grossman* (1925), the U.S. Supreme Court held that the U.S. President may pardon criminal contempt of court.
#### News media in the United States {#news_media_in_the_united_states}
In the United States, because of the broad protections granted by the First Amendment, with extremely limited exceptions, unless the media outlet is a party to the case, a media outlet cannot be found in contempt of court for reporting about a case because a court cannot order the media in general not to report on a case or forbid it from reporting facts discovered publicly. Newspapers cannot be closed because of their content.
#### Criticism
There have been criticisms over the practice of trying contempt from the bench. In particular, Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black wrote in a dissent, \"It is high time, in my judgment, to wipe out root and branch the judge-invented and judge-maintained notion that judges can try criminal contempt cases without a jury
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# Corroborating evidence
**Corroborating evidence**, also referred to as **corroboration**, is a type of evidence in lawful command.
## Types and uses {#types_and_uses}
Corroborating evidence tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some initial evidence, therefore confirming the proposition. For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car. Meanwhile, Y, another witness, *corroborates* the proposition by testifying that when he examined X\'s car, later that day, he noticed green paint on its fender. There can also be corroborating evidence related to a certain source, such as what makes an author think a certain way due to the evidence that was supplied by witnesses or objects.
Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the Baconian method, i.e., the method of agreement, method of difference, and method of concomitant variations.
These methods are followed in experimental design. They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables, in turn, to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations, and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.
In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as in Scots law, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source (see Corroboration in Scots law).
## An example of corroboration {#an_example_of_corroboration}
Defendant says, \"It was like what he/she (a witness) said but\...\". This is Corroborative evidence from the defendant that the evidence the witness gave is true and correct.
Corroboration is not needed in certain instances. For example, there are certain statutory exceptions. In the Education (Scotland) Act, it is only necessary to produce a register as proof of lack of attendance. No further evidence is needed.
## England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
**Perjury**
See section 13 of the Perjury Act 1911.
**Speeding offences**
See section 89(2) of the Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984.
**Sexual offences**
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
**Confessions by mentally handicapped persons**
See section 77 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.
**Evidence of children**
See section 34 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.
**Evidence of accomplices**
See section 32 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
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# Cross-examination
`{{Evidence law}}`{=mediawiki} In law, **cross-examination** is the interrogation of a witness by one\'s opponent. It is preceded by direct examination (known as examination-in-chief in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, India and Pakistan) and may be followed by a redirect (known as re-examination in the aforementioned countries). A redirect examination, performed by the attorney or pro se individual who performed the direct examination, clarifies the witness\' testimony provided during cross-examination including any subject matter raised during cross-examination but not discussed during direct examination. Recross examination addresses the witness\' testimony discussed in redirect by the opponent. Depending on the judge\'s discretion, opponents are allowed multiple opportunities to redirect and recross examine witnesses (this may vary by jurisdiction).
## Variations by jurisdiction {#variations_by_jurisdiction}
In the United States federal courts, a cross-examining attorney is generally limited by Rule 611 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to the \"subject matter of the direct examination and matters affecting the witness\'s credibility\". The rule also permits the trial court, in its discretion, to \"allow inquiry into additional matters as if on direct examination\". Many state courts do permit a lawyer to cross-examine a witness on matters not raised during direct examination, though California restricts cross-examination to \"any matter within the scope of the direct examination\". Similarly, courts in England, South Africa, Australia, and Canada allow a cross-examiner to exceed the scope of direct examination.
Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, leading questions are allowed on cross-examination. A witness called by a direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the party that called them.
## Affecting the outcome of jury trials {#affecting_the_outcome_of_jury_trials}
Cross-examination is a key component of a trial and the topic is given substantial attention during courses on trial advocacy. The opinions of a jury or judge are often changed if cross-examination casts doubt on the witness. On the other hand, a credible witness may reinforce the substance of their original statements and enhance the judge\'s or jury\'s belief. Though the closing argument is often considered the deciding moment of a trial, effective cross-examination wins trials.
Attorneys anticipate hostile witnesses\' responses during pretrial planning, and often attempt to shape the witnesses\' perception of the questions to draw out information helpful to the attorney\'s case. Typically during an attorney\'s closing argument, they will repeat any admissions made by witnesses that favor their case. In the United States, cross-examination is seen as a core part of the entire adversarial system of justice, in that it \"is the principal means by which the believability of a witness and the truth of his testimony are tested.\" Another key component affecting a trial outcome is jury selection, in which attorneys will attempt to include jurors from whom they feel they can get a favorable response or at the least an unbiased fair decision. So while there are many factors affecting the outcome of a trial, the cross-examination of a witness will often influence an open-minded unbiased jury searching for the certainty of facts upon which to base their decision
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# Charles d'Abancourt
**Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d\'Abancourt** (4 July 1758`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}9 September 1792) was a French statesman, minister to Louis XVI.
## Biography
D\'Abancourt was born in Douai, and was the nephew of Charles Alexandre de Calonne. He was Louis XVI\'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organised the defence of the Tuileries Palace during the 10 August attack. Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss Guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to Orléans to be tried.
At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude Fournier, nicknamed *l\'Americain*. At Versailles they learned of the massacres at Paris. Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood during the 9 September massacres (9 September 1792) at Versailles. Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime
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# Cookie
A **cookie** is a sweet biscuit with high sugar and fat content. Cookie dough is softer than that used for other types of biscuit, and they are cooked longer at lower temperatures. The dough typically contains flour, sugar, egg, and some type of oil or fat. It may include other ingredients such as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, or nuts. Cookie texture varies from crisp and crunchy to soft and chewy, depending on the exact combination of ingredients and methods used to create them.
People in the United States and Canada typically refer to all sweet biscuits as \"cookies\". People in most other English-speaking countries call crunchy cookies \"biscuits\" but may use the term \"cookies\" for chewier biscuits and for certain types, such as chocolate-chip cookies.
Cookies are often served with beverages such as milk, coffee, or tea and sometimes dunked, which releases more flavour by dissolving the sugars, while also softening their texture. Factory-made cookies are sold in grocery stores, convenience stores, and vending machines. Fresh-baked cookies are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses.
## Terminology
In many English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is \"biscuit\". Where biscuit is the most common term, \"cookie\" often only refers to one type of biscuit, a chocolate chip cookie. However, in some regions both terms are used. The container used to store cookies may be called a cookie jar.
In Scotland, the term \"cookie\" is sometimes used to describe a plain bun.
Cookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called **bar cookies** in American English or **traybakes** in British English.
## Etymology
The word *cookie* dates from at least 1701 in Scottish usage where the word meant \"plain bun\", rather than thin baked good, and so it is not certain whether it is the same word. From 1808, the word \"cookie\" is attested \"\...in the sense of \"small, flat, sweet cake\" in American English. The American use is derived from Dutch *koekje* \"little cake\", which is a diminutive of \"*koek*\" (\"cake\"), which came from the Middle Dutch word \"*koke*\" with an informal, dialect variant *koekie*. According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name may derive from the diminutive form (+ suffix *-ie*) of the word *cook*, giving the Middle Scots *cookie*, *cooky* or *cu(c)kie*. There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf.
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# Cookie
## Description
Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or else for just long enough to ensure a soft interior. Other types of cookies are not baked at all, such as varieties of peanut butter cookies that use solidified chocolate rather than set eggs and wheat gluten as a binder. Cookies are produced in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits.
A general theory of cookies may be formulated in the following way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the batter as thin as possible, the better to allow bubbles---responsible for a cake\'s fluffiness---to form. In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a far higher temperature. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs in place of water is much denser after removal from the oven.
Rather than evaporating as water does in a baking cake, oils in cookies remain. These oils saturate the cavities created during baking by bubbles of escaping gases. These gases are primarily composed of steam vaporized from the egg whites and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not render soggy the food it has soaked into.
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# Cookie
## History
Cookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking has been documented, in part because they survive travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies by modern standards.
Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain.`{{Dubious|Cookies from Persia|date=March 2025}}`{=mediawiki} By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors. The first documented instance of the figure-shaped gingerbread man was at the court of Elizabeth I of England in the 16th century. She had the gingerbread figures made and presented in the likeness of some of her important guests.
With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water.
Cookies came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s. The Dutch word \"*koekje*\" was Anglicized to \"cookie\" or cooky. The earliest reference to cookies in America is in 1703, when \"The Dutch in New York provided\...\'in 1703\...at a funeral 800 cookies\...{{\'\"}}
The modern form of cookies, which is based on creaming butter and sugar together, did not appear commonly until the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution in Britain and the consumers it created saw cookies (biscuits) become products for the masses, and firms such as Huntley & Palmers (formed in 1822), McVitie\'s (formed in 1830) and Carr\'s (formed in 1831) were all established. The decorative biscuit tin, invented by Huntley & Palmers in 1831, saw British cookies exported around the world. In 1891, Cadbury filed a patent for a chocolate-coated cookie.
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## Classification
Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed or made, including at least these categories:
- *Bar cookies* consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. In British English, bar cookies are known as \"tray bakes\". Examples include brownies, fruit squares, and bars such as date squares.
- *Drop cookies* are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include *thumbprint cookies*, for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip. In the UK, the term \"cookie\" often refers only to this particular type of product.
- *Filled cookies* are made from a rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit, jam or confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.
- *Molded cookies* are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller cookies.
- *No-bake cookies* are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal clusters and rum balls are no-bake cookies.
- *Pressed cookies* are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.
- *Refrigerator cookies* (also known as *icebox cookies*) are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Pinwheel cookies and those made by Pillsbury are representative.
- *Rolled cookies* are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.
- *Sandwich cookies* are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet filling. Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing. The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate cookies with a vanilla icing filling, is an example.
Other types of cookies are classified for other reasons, such as their ingredients, size, or intended time of serving:
- *Breakfast cookies* are typically larger, lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\" that are eaten as a quick breakfast snack.
- *Low-fat cookies* or *diet cookies* typically have lower fat than regular cookies.
- *Raw cookie dough* is served in some restaurants, though the eggs may be omitted since the dough is eaten raw, which could pose a salmonella risk if eggs were used. Cookie Dough Confections in New York City is a restaurant that has a range of raw cookie dough flavors, which are scooped into cups for customers like ice cream.
- *Skillet cookies* are big cookies that are cooked in a cast-iron skillet and served warm, while they are still soft and chewy. They are either eaten straight from the pan or cut into wedges, often with vanilla ice cream on top.
- *Supersized cookies* are large cookies such as the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie. These very large cookies are sold at grocery stores, restaurants and coffeeshops.
- *Vegan cookies* can be made with flour, sugar, nondairy milk, and nondairy margarine. Aquafaba icing can be used to decorate the cookies.
- *Cookie cakes* are made in a larger circular shape usually with writing made of frosting.
## Reception
Leah Ettman from Nutrition Action has criticized the high-calorie count and fat content of supersized cookies, which are extra large cookies; she cites the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie, a supersized chocolate chip cookie, which measures `{{frac|5|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} inches in diameter and has 800 calories. For busy people who eat breakfast cookies in the morning, Kate Bratskeir from the *Huffington Post* recommends lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\". A book on nutrition by Paul Insel et al. notes that \"low-fat\" or \"diet cookies\" may have the same number of calories as regular cookies, due to added sugar.
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# Cookie
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
There are a number of slang usages of the term \"cookie\". The slang use of \"cookie\" to mean a person, \"especially an attractive woman\" is attested to in print since 1920. The catchphrase \"that\'s the way the cookie crumbles\", which means \"that\'s just the way things happen\" is attested to in print in 1955. Other slang terms include \"smart cookie\" and \"tough cookie.\" According to *The Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms*, a smart cookie is \"someone who is clever and good at dealing with difficult situations.\" The word \"cookie\" has been vulgar slang for \"vagina\" in the US since 1970. The word \"cookies\" is used to refer to the contents of the stomach, often in reference to vomiting (e.g., \"pop your cookies\", a 1960s expression, or \"toss your cookies\", a 1970s expression). The expression \"cookie cutter\", in addition to referring literally to a culinary device used to cut rolled cookie dough into shapes, is also used metaphorically to refer to items or things \"having the same configuration or look as many others\" (e.g., a \"cookie cutter tract house\") or to label something as \"stereotyped or formulaic\" (e.g., an action movie filled with \"generic cookie cutter characters\"). \"Cookie duster\" is a whimsical expression for a mustache.
Cookie Monster is a Muppet on the children\'s television show *Sesame Street.* He is best known for his voracious appetite for cookies and his famous eating phrases, such as \"Me want cookie!\", \"Me eat cookie!\" (or simply \"COOKIE!\"), and \"Om nom nom nom\" (said through a mouth full of food).
Cookie Clicker is a game where players click a cookie to buy upgrades to make more cookies.
## Notable varieties {#notable_varieties}
- Alfajor
- Angel Wings (Chruściki)
- Animal cracker
- Anzac biscuit
- Berger cookie
- Berner Haselnusslebkuchen
- Biscotti
- Biscuit rose de Reims
- Black and white cookie
- Blondie
- Bourbon biscuit
- Brownie
- Butter cookie
- Chocolate chip cookie
- Chocolate-coated marshmallow treat
- Congo bar
- Digestive biscuit
- Fat rascal
- Fattigmann
- Flies graveyard
- Florentine biscuit
- Fortune cookie
- Fruit squares and bars (date, fig, lemon, raspberry, etc.)
- Ginger snap
- Gingerbread house
- Gingerbread man
- Graham cracker
- Hamentashen
- Hobnob biscuit
- Joe Frogger
- Jumble
- Kifli
- Koulourakia
- Krumkake
- Linzer cookie
- Macaroon
- Meringue
- Nice biscuit
- Oatmeal raisin cookie
- Pastelito
- Peanut butter blossom cookie
- Peanut butter cookie
- Pepparkakor
- Pfeffernüsse
- Pizzelle
- Polvorón
- Qurabiya
- Rainbow cookie
- Ranger Cookie
- Rich tea
- Riposteria
- Rosette
- Rum ball
- Rusk
- Russian tea cake
- Rock cake
- Sablé
- Sandbakelse
- Şekerpare
- Shortbread
- Snickerdoodle
- Speculoos
- Springerle
- Spritzgebäck (Spritz)
- Stroopwafel
- Sugar cookie
- Tea biscuit
- Toruń gingerbread
- Tuile
- Wafer
- Windmill cookie
## Gallery
<File:Maple> spice cookies and thumbprint cookies.jpg\|A variety of Maple spice cookies and thumbprint cookies <File:Cookie> Cake.JPG\|A cookie cake is a large cookie that can be decorated with icing or fondant like a cake. This is made by Mrs. Fields. <File:Heart> shaped cookies.jpg\|Hearts shaped Valentine\'s Day cookies adorned with icing <File:McVitie's> chocolate digestive biscuit.jpg\|A McVitie\'s chocolate digestive, a popular biscuit to dunk in tea/coffee in the UK <File:Fortune> cookie.png\|A fortune cookie <File:Meringue> cookies.jpg\|Meringue cookies <File:Oreo-Two-Cookies.jpg%7CCommercially> sold Oreo cookies <File:Cookie> stack.jpg\|Choc-chip cookies <File:Cookies> being sold.jpg\|A cookie shop, filled with a wide range of cookies <File:CookieCuttersAl.jpg%7CCookie> cutters <File:Chef's> Cookie Deep Dish - 27682832174.jpg\|A cookie dessert, topped with ice cream <File:Chocolate> chip cookies.jpg\|A plate of chocolate chip cookies <File:Algerian_cookies.jpg%7CAlgerian> cookies <File:Little> heart-shaped cookies in West Bengal, India.jpg\|Little heart-shaped cookies from India
## Related pastries and confections {#related_pastries_and_confections}
- Acıbadem kurabiyesi
- Animal crackers
- Berliner (pastry)
- Bun
- Candy
- Cake
- Churro
- Cracker (food)
- Cupcake
- Danish pastry
- Doughnut
- Funnel cake
- Galette
- Graham cracker
- Hershey\'s Cookies \'n\' Creme
- Kit Kat
- Halvah
- Ladyfinger (biscuit)
- Lebkuchen
- Mille-feuille
- Marzipan
- Mille-feuille (Napoleon)
- Moon pie
- Pastry
- Palmier
- Petit four
- Rum ball
- S\'more
- Snack cake
- Tartlet
- Teacake
- Teething biscuit
- Whoopie pie
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## Manufacturers
- Arnott\'s Biscuits
- Bahlsen
- Burton\'s Foods
- D.F. Stauffer Biscuit Company
- DeBeukelaer
- Famous Amos (division of Ferrero)
- Fazer
- Fox\'s Biscuits
- Interbake Foods
- Jules Destrooper
- Keebler
- Lance
- Lotte Confectionery (division of Lotte)
- Lotus Bakeries
- McKee Foods
- Meiji Seika Kaisha Ltd.
- Mrs
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# Common Gateway Interface
thumb\|The official CGI logo from the spec announcement
In computing, **Common Gateway Interface** (**CGI**) is an interface specification that enables web servers to execute an external program to process HTTP or HTTPS user requests.
Such programs are often written in a scripting language and are commonly referred to as *CGI scripts*, but they may include compiled programs.`{{ref RFC|3875|section=1.4}}`{=mediawiki}
A typical use case occurs when a web user submits a web form on a web page that uses CGI. The form\'s data is sent to the web server within a HTTP request with a URL denoting a CGI script. The web server then launches the CGI script in a new computer process, passing the form data to it. The CGI script passes its output, usually in the form of HTML, to the Web server, and the server relays it back to the browser as its response to the browser\'s request.`{{ref RFC|3875}}`{=mediawiki}
Developed in the early 1990s, CGI was the earliest common method available that allowed a web page to be interactive. Due to a necessity to run CGI scripts in a separate process every time the request comes in from a client, various alternatives were developed.
## History
In 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) team wrote the specification for calling command line executables on the www-talk mailing list. The other Web server developers adopted it, and it has been a standard for Web servers ever since. A work group chaired by Ken Coar started in November 1997 to get the NCSA definition of CGI more formally defined. This work resulted in RFC 3875, which specified CGI Version 1.1. Specifically mentioned in the RFC are the following contributors:
- Rob McCool (author of the NCSA HTTPd Web server)
- John Franks (author of the GN Web server)
- Ari Luotonen (the developer of the CERN httpd Web server)
- Tony Sanders (author of the Plexus Web server)
- George Phillips (Web server maintainer at the University of British Columbia)
Historically CGI programs were often written using the C programming language. RFC 3875 \"The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)\" partially defines CGI using C, in saying that environment variables \"are accessed by the C library routine getenv() or variable environ\".
The name CGI comes from the early days of the Web, where *webmasters* wanted to connect legacy information systems such as databases to their Web servers. The CGI program was executed by the server and provided a common \"gateway\" between the Web server and the legacy information system.
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# Common Gateway Interface
## Purpose
Traditionally a Web server has a directory which is designated as a document collection, that is, a set of files that can be sent to Web browsers connected to the server. For example, if a web server has the fully-qualified domain name `www.example.com`, and its document collection is stored at `/usr/local/apache/htdocs/` in the local file system (its *document root*), then the web server will respond to a request for `http://www.example.com/index.html` by sending to the browser a copy of the file `/usr/local/apache/htdocs/index.html` (if it exists).
For pages constructed on the fly, the server software may defer requests to separate programs and relay the results to the requesting client (usually, a Web browser that displays the page to the end user).
Such programs usually require some additional information to be specified with the request, such as query strings or cookies. Conversely, upon returning, the script must provide all the information required by HTTP for a response to the request: the HTTP status of the request, the document content (if available), the document type (e.g. HTML, PDF, or plain text), et cetera.
Initially, there were no standardized methods for data exchange between a browser, the HTTP server with which it was communicating and the scripts on the server that were expected to process the data and ultimately return a result to the browser. As a result, mutual incompatibilities existed between different HTTP server variants that undermined script portability.
Recognition of this problem led to the specification of how data exchange was to be carried out, resulting in the development of CGI. Web page-generating programs invoked by server software that adheres to the CGI specification are known as *CGI scripts*, even though they may actually have been written in a non-scripting language, such as C.
The CGI specification was quickly adopted and continues to be supported by all well-known HTTP server packages, such as Apache, Microsoft IIS, and (with an extension) Node.js-based servers.
An early use of CGI scripts was to process forms. In the beginning of HTML, HTML forms typically had an \"action\" attribute and a button designated as the \"submit\" button. When the submit button is pushed the URI specified in the \"action\" attribute would be sent to the server with the data from the form sent as a query string. If the \"action\" specifies a CGI script then the CGI script would be executed, the script in turn generating an HTML page.
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# Common Gateway Interface
## Deployment
A Web server that supports CGI can be configured to interpret a URL that it serves as a reference to a CGI script. A common convention is to have a `cgi-bin/` directory at the base of the directory tree and treat all executable files within this directory (and no other, for security) as CGI scripts. When a Web browser requests a URL that points to a file within the CGI directory (e.g., `http://example.com/cgi-bin/printenv.pl/with/additional/path?and=a&query=string`), then, instead of simply sending that file (`/usr/local/apache/htdocs/cgi-bin/printenv.pl`) to the Web browser, the HTTP server runs the specified script and passes the output of the script to the Web browser. That is, anything that the script sends to standard output is passed to the Web client instead of being shown in the terminal window that started the web server. Another popular convention is to use filename extensions; for instance, if CGI scripts are consistently given the extension `.cgi`, the Web server can be configured to interpret all such files as CGI scripts. While convenient, and required by many prepackaged scripts, it opens the server to attack if a remote user can upload executable code with the proper extension.
The CGI specification defines how additional information passed with the request is passed to the script. The Web server creates a subset of the environment variables passed to it and adds details pertinent to the HTTP environment. For instance, if a slash and additional directory name(s) are appended to the URL immediately after the name of the script (in this example, `/with/additional/path`), then that path is stored in the `PATH_INFO` environment variable before the script is called. If parameters are sent to the script via an HTTP GET request (a question mark appended to the URL, followed by param=value pairs; in the example, `?and=a&query=string`), then those parameters are stored in the `QUERY_STRING` environment variable before the script is called. Request HTTP message body, such as form parameters sent via an HTTP POST request, are passed to the script\'s standard input. The script can then read these environment variables or data from standard input and adapt to the Web browser\'s request.
## Uses
CGI is often used to process input information from the user and produce the appropriate output. An example of a CGI program is one implementing a wiki. If the user agent requests the name of an entry, the Web server executes the CGI program. The CGI program retrieves the source of that entry\'s page (if one exists), transforms it into HTML, and prints the result. The Web server receives the output from the CGI program and transmits it to the user agent. Then if the user agent clicks the \"Edit page\" button, the CGI program populates an HTML `textarea` or other editing control with the page\'s contents. Finally if the user agent clicks the \"Publish page\" button, the CGI program transforms the updated HTML into the source of that entry\'s page and saves it.
## Security
CGI programs run, by default, in the security context of the Web server. When first introduced a number of example scripts were provided with the reference distributions of the NCSA, Apache and CERN Web servers to show how shell scripts or C programs could be coded to make use of the new CGI. One such example script was a CGI program called PHF that implemented a simple phone book.
In common with a number of other scripts at the time, this script made use of a function: `escape_shell_cmd()`. The function was supposed to sanitize its argument, which came from user input and then pass the input to the Unix shell, to be run in the security context of the Web server. The script did not correctly sanitize all input and allowed new lines to be passed to the shell, which effectively allowed multiple commands to be run. The results of these commands were then displayed on the Web server. If the security context of the Web server allowed it, malicious commands could be executed by attackers.
This was the first widespread example of a new type of Web-based attack called code injection, where unsanitized data from Web users could lead to execution of code on a Web server. Because the example code was installed by default, attacks were widespread and led to a number of security advisories in early 1996.
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# Common Gateway Interface
## Alternatives
For each incoming HTTP request, a Web server creates a new CGI process for handling it and destroys the CGI process after the HTTP request has been handled. Creating and destroying a process can consume more CPU time and memory resources than the actual work of generating the output of the process, especially when the CGI program still needs to be interpreted by a virtual machine. For a high number of HTTP requests, the resulting workload can quickly overwhelm the Web server.
The computational overhead involved in CGI process creation and destruction can be reduced by the following techniques:
- CGI programs precompiled to machine code, e.g. precompiled from C or C++ programs, rather than CGI programs executed by an interpreter, e.g. Perl, PHP or Python programs.
- Web server extensions such as Apache modules (e.g. `mod_perl`, `mod_php` and `mod_python` ), NSAPI plugins, and ISAPI plugins which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request and hosted within the Web server.
- FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP which allow long-running application processes handling more than one request to be hosted externally; i.e., separately from the Web server. Each application process listens on a socket; the Web server handles an HTTP request and sends it via another protocol (FastCGI, SCGI or AJP) to the socket only for dynamic content, while static content is usually handled directly by the Web server. This approach needs fewer application processes so consumes less memory than the Web server extension approach. And unlike converting an application program to a Web server extension, FastCGI, SCGI, and AJP application programs remain independent of the Web server.
- Jakarta EE runs Jakarta Servlet applications in a Web container to serve dynamic content and optionally static content which replaces the overhead of creating and destroying processes with the much lower overhead of creating and destroying threads. It also exposes the programmer to the library that comes with Java SE on which the version of Jakarta EE in use is based.
- Standalone HTTP Server
- Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a modern approach written in the Python programming language. It is defined by PEP 3333 and implemented via various methods like `mod_wsgi` (Apache module), Gunicorn web server (in between of Nginx & Scripts/Frameworks like Django), UWSGI, etc.
The optimal configuration for any Web application depends on application-specific details, amount of traffic, and complexity of the transaction; these trade-offs need to be analyzed to determine the best implementation for a given task and time budget. Web frameworks offer an alternative to using CGI scripts to interact with user agents
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# Chemical affinity
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, **chemical affinity** is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
## History
### Early theories {#early_theories}
The idea of *affinity* is extremely old. Many attempts have been made at identifying its origins. The majority of such attempts, however, except in a general manner, end in futility since \"affinities\" lie at the basis of all magic, thereby pre-dating science. Physical chemistry, however, was one of the first branches of science to study and formulate a \"theory of affinity\". The name *affinitas* was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher Albertus Magnus near the year 1250. Later, those as Robert Boyle, John Mayow, Johann Glauber, Isaac Newton, and Georg Stahl put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how heat is evolved during combustion reactions.
The term *affinity* has been used figuratively since c. 1600 in discussions of structural relationships in chemistry, philology, etc., and reference to \"natural attraction\" is from 1616. \"Chemical affinity\", historically, has referred to the \"force\" that causes chemical reactions. as well as, more generally, and earlier, the ″tendency to combine″ of any pair of substances. The broad definition, used generally throughout history, is that chemical affinity is that whereby substances enter into or resist decomposition.
The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor \"elective affinity\" or elective attractions, a term that was used by the 18th century chemistry lecturer William Cullen. Whether Cullen coined the phrase is not clear, but his usage seems to predate most others, although it rapidly became widespread across Europe, and was used in particular by the Swedish chemist Torbern Olof Bergman throughout his book *De attractionibus electivis* (1775). Affinity theories were used in one way or another by most chemists from around the middle of the 18th century into the 19th century to explain and organise the different combinations into which substances could enter and from which they could be retrieved. Antoine Lavoisier, in his famed 1789 *Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry)*, refers to Bergman\'s work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions.
According to chemistry historian Henry Leicester, the influential 1923 textbook *Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Reactions* by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall led to the replacement of the term \"affinity\" by the term \"free energy\" in much of the English-speaking world.
According to Prigogine, the term was introduced and developed by Théophile de Donder.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe used the concept in his novel *Elective Affinities* (1809).
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# Chemical affinity
## History
### Visual representations {#visual_representations}
thumb\|500px\|Geoffroy\'s *Affinity Table* (1718): At the head of the column is a substance with which all the substances below can combine, where each column below the header is ranked by degrees of \"affinity\"
The affinity concept was very closely linked to the visual representation of substances on a table. The first-ever *affinity table*, which was based on displacement reactions, was published in 1718 by the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy. Geoffroy\'s name is best known in connection with these tables of \"affinities\" (*tables des rapports*), which were first presented to the French Academy of Sciences in 1718 and 1720.
During the 18th century many versions of the table were proposed with leading chemists like Torbern Bergman in Sweden and Joseph Black in Scotland adapting it to accommodate new chemical discoveries. All the tables were essentially lists, prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by analogous bodies for different reagents.
Crucially, the table was the central graphic tool used to teach chemistry to students and its visual arrangement was often combined with other kinds diagrams. Joseph Black, for example, used the table in combination with chiastic and circlet diagrams to visualise the core principles of chemical affinity. Affinity tables were used throughout Europe until the early 19th century when they were displaced by affinity concepts introduced by Claude Berthollet.
## Modern conceptions {#modern_conceptions}
In chemical physics and physical chemistry, chemical affinity is the electronic property by which dissimilar chemical species are capable of forming chemical compounds. Chemical affinity can also refer to the tendency of an atom or compound to combine by chemical reaction with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
In modern terms, we relate affinity to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond. For example, in the 1919 book *Chemistry of Human Life* physician George W. Carey states that, \"Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe~3~(PO~4~)~2~ in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.\" In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term \"magnetic attraction\". Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a \"law of chemical affinity\".
Ilya Prigogine summarized the concept of affinity, saying, \"All chemical reactions drive the system to a state of equilibrium in which the *affinities* of the reactions vanish.\"
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# Chemical affinity
## Thermodynamics
The present IUPAC definition is that affinity *A* is the negative partial derivative of Gibbs free energy *G* with respect to extent of reaction *ξ* at constant pressure and temperature. That is,
$$A = -\left(\frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi}\right)_{P,T}.$$
It follows that affinity is positive for spontaneous reactions.
In 1923, the Belgian mathematician and physicist Théophile de Donder derived a relation between affinity and the Gibbs free energy of a chemical reaction. Through a series of derivations, de Donder showed that if we consider a mixture of chemical species with the possibility of chemical reaction, it can be proven that the following relation holds:
$$A = -\Delta_rG. \,$$
With the writings of Théophile de Donder as precedent, Ilya Prigogine and Defay in *Chemical Thermodynamics* (1954) defined chemical affinity as the rate of change of the uncompensated heat of reaction *Q*\' as the reaction progress variable or reaction extent *ξ* grows infinitesimally:
$$A = \frac{{\mathrm d}Q'}{{\mathrm d}\xi}. \,$$
This definition is useful for quantifying the factors responsible both for the state of equilibrium systems (where `{{nowrap|1=''A'' = 0}}`{=mediawiki}), and for changes of state of non-equilibrium systems (where *A* ≠ 0)
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# Conspiracy
A **conspiracy**, also known as a **plot**, **ploy**, or **scheme**, is a secret plan or agreement between people (called **conspirers** or **conspirators**) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with a political motivation, while keeping their agreement secret from the public or from other people affected by it. In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of people united in the goal of subverting established political power structures. This can take the form of usurping or altering them, or even continually illegally profiteering from certain activities in a way that weakens the establishment with help from various political authorities. Depending on the circumstances, a conspiracy may also be a crime or a civil wrong. The term generally connotes, or implies, wrongdoing or illegality on the part of the conspirators, as it is commonly believed that people would not need to conspire to engage in activities that were lawful and ethical, or to which no one would object.
There are some coordinated activities that people engage in with secrecy that are not generally thought of as conspiracies. For example, intelligence agencies such as the American CIA and the British MI6 necessarily make plans in secret to spy on suspected enemies of their respective countries and the general populace of its home countries, but this kind of activity is generally not considered to be a conspiracy so long as their goal is to fulfill their official functions, and not something like improperly enriching themselves. Similarly, the coaches of competing sports teams routinely meet behind closed doors to plan game strategies and specific plays designed to defeat their opponents, but this activity is not considered a conspiracy because this is considered a legitimate part of the sport. Furthermore, a conspiracy must be engaged in knowingly. The continuation of social traditions that work to the advantage of certain groups and to the disadvantage of certain other groups, though possibly unethical, is not a conspiracy if participants in the practice are not carrying it forward for the purpose of perpetuating this advantage.
On the other hand, if the intent of carrying out a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations, for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively, but research into the agency\'s work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. During the Cold War, the United States tried to covertly change other nations\' governments 66 times, succeeding in 26 cases.
A \"conspiracy theory\" is a belief that a conspiracy has actually been decisive in producing a political event of which the theorists strongly disapprove. Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them. Political scientist Michael Barkun has described conspiracy theories as relying on the view that the universe is governed by design, and embody three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected. Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them, so that they become, as Barkun writes, a closed system that is unfalsifiable, and therefore \"a matter of faith rather than proof.\"
## Etymology
*Conspiracy* comes from the Latin word *conspiratio*. While *conspiratio* can mean \"plot\" or \"conspiracy\", it can also be translated as \"unity\" and \"agreement\", in the context of a group an example of this \"Kirri and Adele commenced the conspiracy at the secret thursday gin meeting\". *Conspiratio* comes from *conspiro* which, while still meaning \"conspiracy\" in the modern sense, also means \"I sing in unison\", as *con*- means \"with\" or \"together\", and *spiro* means \"I breathe\", literally meaning \"I breathe together with others\".
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# Conspiracy
## Types of conspiracies {#types_of_conspiracies}
- Conspiracy (civil), an agreement between people to deceive, mislead, or defraud others of their legal rights or to gain an unfair advantage.
- Conspiracy (criminal), an agreement between people to break the law in the future, in some cases having committed an act to further that agreement.
- Conspiracy (political), an agreement between people with the goal of gaining political power or meeting a political objective.
- Hub-and-spoke conspiracy, a conspiracy in which one or more principal conspirators (the \"hub\") enter into several similar agreements with others (the \"spokes\") who know concerted action is contemplated, usually where the success of the concerted action depends on the participation of the other spokes
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# Constantine II (emperor)
**Constantine II** (*Flavius Claudius Constantinus*; 316--340) was Roman emperor from 337 to 340. The son of the emperor Constantine I, he was proclaimed *caesar* by his father shortly after his birth. He was associated with military victories over the Sarmatians, Alamanni and Goths during his career, for which he was granted a number of victory titles. He held the consulship four times -- in 320, 321, 324, and 329.
Constantine I had arranged for his sons to share power with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, but this was not accepted by Constantine II and his brothers. As a result, Constantine II\'s brother Constantius II ordered the killings of numerous male relatives following Constantine I\'s death, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, thus eliminating any possible opponents to the succession of Constantine I\'s sons. Constantine II then ascended to the throne alongside his two younger brothers, ruling Gaul, Hispania, and Britain. However, his belief in his rights of primogeniture and attempts to exert them over his youngest brother Constans caused conflict, which ended with his death in a failed invasion of Italy in 340. Constans subsequently took control of Constantine\'s territories, with the latter being subjected to *damnatio memoriae*.
## Life
Born in Arles in 316, Constantine II was the second son of the Roman emperor Constantine I, and probably the eldest with his wife Fausta, the daughter of the emperor Maximian.
### Caesar
On 1 March 317, he was made *caesar* at Serdica. After accompanying his father on his campaign against the Sarmatians in 323, he was commemorated on coinage produced to recognize the ensuing victory. Constantine II usually resided with his father until 328, when his own court was installed at Trier. An inscription dated to 328--330 records the title of *Alamannicus*, indicating that his generals won a victory over the Alamanni. His military career continued when Constantine I made him field commander during the 332 winter campaign against the Goths. As a result of his leadership, the military operation concluded with 100,000 Goths reportedly slain and the surrender of the ruler Ariaric. Festival games were initiated in Rome to celebrate the *caesar*\'s role in the successful military campaigns, in a public advertisement of his capability to rule. He was married prior to 336, although his wife\'s identity remains unknown. David Woods has theorized that she may have been a half-cousin, possibly a daughter of Julius Constantius, as Constantine minted coins of his grandfather\'s second wife Flavia Maximiana Theodora. Another sugestion by Barnes is that she could have been a daughter of Flavius Optatus.
While Constantine I had intended for his sons to rule together with their cousins Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, soon after his death in May 337 the army murdered several of their male relatives, including Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, on the orders of Constantine II\'s younger brother Constantius II. Although Constantine himself appears to not have been directly involved, Burgess observed from numismatic evidence that he and his brothers \"not only seem not to have fully accepted the legitimacy of Dalmatius and viewed him as an interloper, but also appear to have communicated with one another on this point and agreed on a common response.\"
In what seemed to be an attempt to distance themselves from the massacre, the three brothers proceeded to print coins of Theodora, whom their murdered relatives had been descended from. Most of the coins were generated at Constantine II\'s capital, Trier, indicating that he was the one responsible for designing and producing the coinage at the start, as well as convincing his brothers to do the same. Woods considered it to suggest that he was more sympathetic to Theodora\'s memory than his brothers, possibly because his wife may have been a granddaughter of Theodora.
In June 337, before he was named emperor, Constantine had already begun attempting to assert his seniority. He issued an order allowing the exiled bishop Athanasius to return to Alexandria, which was under the control of Constantius II, claiming to be carrying out the unfulfilled intentions of his father. While Constantine\'s motives remain unclear, suggested explanations include him truly believing in the bishop\'s innocence, him wanting to get rid of a religious nuisance, or him wanting to cause trouble for Constantius, who would oust Athanasius from Alexandria only two years later.
### Augustus
The three brothers were not named as *Augusti* until 9 September 337, when they gathered together in Pannonia and divided the Roman territories among themselves. Constantine received Gaul, Britannia and Hispania. Unlike his younger brothers, he gained little from Dalmatius\'s removal.
Constantine was evidently left unsatisfied with the results of their meeting, seemingly believing that his age granted him some sort of seniority in the imperial college and, by extension, control over the dominion of his youngest brother Constans, who was still a teenager in 337. Even after campaigning successfully against the Alamanni in 338, Constantine continued to maintain his position. The Theodosian Code recorded his legislative intervention in Constans\'s territory through issuing an edict to the proconsul of Africa in 339.
In April 340, Constantine launched an invasion into Italy to claim territory from Constans. Constans, at that time in Naissus, sent a number of troops to confront him, and Constantine was killed in an ambush near Aquileia. Constans then took control of his brother\'s realm, whose inhabitants seem to have been largely unaffected by their change in ruler.
After his death, Constantine was subjected to *damnatio memoriae*. Constans issued legislation repealing Constantine\'s acts shortly after his death, where the deceased emperor was branded as \"the public enemy and our own enemy.\" Years later, when Libanius delivered a panegyric for both Constans and Constantius, Constantine was completely omitted from the narrative, as if he had never existed.
## Gallery
<File:INC-2046-a> Ауреус. Константин II. Ок. 337---340 гг. (аверс).png\|Coin of Constantine II as *caesar* (aged 1--7), marked: `{{Smallcaps|{{Abbreviation|d·n·|DOMINUS NOSTER}} {{Abbreviation|fl·|FLAVIUS}} {{Abbreviation|cl·|CLAVDIUS}} constantinus {{Abbreviation|nob·|NOBILISSIMUS}} {{Abbreviation|c·|CAESAR}}}}`{=mediawiki} (*Our Lord Flavius Claudius Constantine, Noblest Caesar*) <File:Constantineii90010167.jpg>\|*Aureus* of Constantine II as *caesar* (aged 8), marked: `{{Smallcaps|constantinus {{abbreviation|iun·|IUNIOR}} {{abbreviation|nob·|NOBILISSIMUS}} {{abbreviation|c·|CAESAR}}}}`{=mediawiki} (\"*Constantine Junior, Noblest Caesar*\") on the obverse <File:Constantine> II as Caesar
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# Constantine II of Scotland
**Causantín mac Áeda** (Modern Gaelic: *Còiseam mac Aoidh*, anglicised **Constantine II**; born no later than 879; died 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name *Alba*. The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine\'s lifetime, was situated in what is now Northern Scotland.
The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay. Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine\'s grandfather Kenneth I (Cináed mac Ailpín, died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine\'s lifetime.
His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Norse rulers in the British Isles, particularly the Uí Ímair (\'Grandsons/Descendants of Ímar\', or Ivar the Boneless). During Constantine\'s reign, the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the Kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria. At first, the southern rulers allied with him against the Vikings, but in 934, Æthelstan, unprovoked, invaded Scotland both by sea and land with a huge host that included four Welsh kings. He ravaged southern Alba, but there is no record of any battles. He had withdrawn by September. Three years later, in 937, probably in retaliation for the invasion of Alba, King Constantine allied with Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, and Owain ap Dyfnwal, King of Strathclyde, but they were defeated at the battle of Brunanburh. In 943, Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952. He was succeeded by his predecessor\'s son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill).
Constantine\'s reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the Gaelicisation of Pictland, in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor. During his reign, the words \"Scots\" and \"Scotland\" (*Scottas, Scotland*) were first used to mean part of what is now Scotland. The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until the Davidian Revolution also appears at this time.
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# Constantine II of Scotland
## Pictland from Constantín mac Fergusa to Constantine I {#pictland_from_constantín_mac_fergusa_to_constantine_i}
The dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth. By the 9th century, the Gaels of Dál Riata (Dalriada) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Causantín mac Fergusa (Constantine son of Fergus). Constantín\'s family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps, if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts (Óengus son of Fergus), from around 730. The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the *Annals of Ulster* in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran, Constantín\'s nephews, together with the king of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, \"and others almost innumerable\" were killed. These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland. By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner.
Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the Kingdom of Scotland, the founding of which was dated from 843, the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era. The historical record for 9th century Scotland is meagre, but the Irish annals and the 10th century *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king, and call him \"king of the Picts\" at his death. The same style is used of Kenneth\'s brother Donald I (Domnall mac Ailpín) and sons Constantine I (Constantín mac Cináeda) and Áed (Áed mac Cináeda).
The kingdom ruled by Kenneth\'s descendants --- older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor, Irish sources referring to *Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín* (\"the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin\") --- lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu, centred in the lands around the River Tay. The extent of Kenneth\'s nameless kingdom is uncertain, but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north. Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain --- Druim Alban --- is unclear. The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns, Forfarshire, Forfar, Perth, Fife, and Kinross. Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld, probably the seat of the bishop of the kingdom, and *Cell Rígmonaid* (modern St Andrews).
Kenneth\'s son Constantine died in 876, probably killed fighting against a Viking army that had come north from Northumbria in 874. According to the king lists, he was counted as the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times.
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# Constantine II of Scotland
## Britain and Ireland at the end of the 9th century {#britain_and_ireland_at_the_end_of_the_9th_century}
In 899 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of England south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son-in-law Æthelred ruling the western, English part of Mercia. The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern England is less clear. King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia, but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria. It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Siefredus and Cnut, although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain. Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers, perhaps represented by Eadulf, based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north.
In Ireland, Flann Sinna, married to Constantine\'s aunt Máel Muire, was dominant. The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse--Gaels of Dublin. They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders. In 894 one group left Dublin, perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde. The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna\'s son-in-law Cerball mac Muirecáin, and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain.
To the southwest of Constantine\'s lands lay the Kingdom of Strathclyde. This extended north into The Lennox, east to the River Forth, and south into the Southern Uplands. In 900 it was probably ruled by King Dyfnwal.
The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain. No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta. The Frankish *Annales Bertiniani* may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides, the seaward part of Dál Riata, by Northmen in 849. In addition to these, the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace. Whether there were Viking or Norse-Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated.
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# Constantine II of Scotland
## Early life {#early_life}
Áed, Constantine\'s father, succeeded Constantine\'s uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878. Áed\'s short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists. Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded, Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father\'s death, *i.e.*, 879. His name may suggest that he was born a few years earlier, during the reign of his uncle Constantine I.
After Áed\'s death, there is a two-decade gap until the death of Donald II (Domnall mac Constantín) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals. The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba*, and in this case, the *Chronicle* is at variance with every other king list. According to the *Chronicle*, Áed was followed by Eochaid, a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin, who is somehow connected with Giric, but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him. Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth\'s, although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage. The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric\'s reign.
Woolf suggests that Constantine and his younger brother Donald may have passed Giric\'s reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland, Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna. Giric died in 889. If he had been in exile, Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king. Donald\'s reputation is suggested by the epithet *dasachtach*, a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls, attached to him in the 11th-century writings of Flann Mainistrech, echoed by his description in *The Prophecy of Berchán* as \"the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth\". Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald\'s reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900. Constantine succeeded him as king.
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# Constantine II of Scotland
## Vikings and bishops {#vikings_and_bishops}
The earliest event recorded in the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* in Constantine\'s reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld \"and all Albania\" in his third year. This is the first use of the word Albania, the Latin form of the Old Irish *Alba*, in the *Chronicle* which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia.
These Norsemen could have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902 or were the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900. The *Chronicle* states that the Northmen were killed in *Srath Erenn*, which is confirmed by the *Annals of Ulster* which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904. This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair, the grandsons of Ímar, to be reported; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín\'s reign. The *Fragmentary Annals of Ireland* contain an account of the battle, and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer. An entry in the *Chronicon Scotorum* under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle.
The next event reported by the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* is dated to 906. This records that: `{{blockquote|King Constantine and Bishop [[Cellach I|Cellach]] met at the ''Hill of Belief'' near the royal city of [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]] and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith, and the laws of churches and gospels, should be kept ''pariter cum Scottis''.<ref>After Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 445.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The meaning of this entry, and its significance, have been the subject of debate.
The phrase *pariter cum Scottis* in the Latin text of the *Chronicle* has been translated in several ways. William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as \"in conformity with the customs of the Gaels\", relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs. It has been read as \"together with the Gaels\", suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast. Finally, it is suggested that it was the ceremony that followed \"the custom of the Gaels\" and not the agreements.
The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban. Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine\'s kingship, prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone. Alternatively, if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric, it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church.
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# Constantine II of Scotland
## Return of the Uí Ímair {#return_of_the_uí_ímair}
Following the events at Scone, there is little of substance reported for a decade. A story in the *Fragmentary Annals of Ireland*, perhaps referring to events sometime after 911, claims that Æthelflæd, who ruled in Mercia, allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria. The *Annals of Ulster* record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings \"on the coast of England\" at about this time.
In this period the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster, in the eighth year of Constantine\'s reign. This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as \"In his time Domnall \[i.e. Dyfnwal\], king of the \[Strathclyde\] Britons died, and Domnall son of Áed was elected\". This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba. The entry in question is now read as \"\... Dyfnwal \... and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died\", this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 21 March 915. Finally, the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded.
There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards. By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall, said to be grandsons of Ímar (that is, they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904), were very active in Ireland. Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917. The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish Sea intent on establishing himself as king at York. The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Æthelflæd of Mercia on 12 June 918 at Tamworth, Staffordshire. Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission, but her death put an end to this and her successor, her brother Edward the Elder, was occupied with securing control of Mercia.
The northern part of Northumbria, and perhaps the whole kingdom, had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913. Faced with Ragnall\'s invasion, Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine. The two advanced south to face Ragnall, and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne, probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river. The Battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive; the *Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* is alone in giving Constantine the victory.
The report of the battle in the *Annals of Ulster* says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed. This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer; other than the knowledge that Constantine\'s kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas, this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom.
After Corbridge, Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite. In the south, Alfred\'s son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north. An army from Dublin led by Ragnall\'s kinsman Sihtric struck at north-western Mercia in 919, but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* states that these kings \"chose Edward as father and lord\". Among the other kings present were Constantine, Ealdred son of Eadwulf, and the king of Strathclyde, Owain ap Dyfnwal. Here, again, a new term appears in the record, the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* for the first time using the word *scottas*, from which Scots derives, to describe the inhabitants of Constantine\'s kingdom in its report of these events.
Edward died in 924. His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd\'s court. Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward\'s lands in 925.
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