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# Convolution
## Domain of definition {#domain_of_definition}
The convolution of two complex-valued functions on `{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is itself a complex-valued function on `{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, defined by:
$$(f * g )(x) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(y)g(x-y)\,dy = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x-y)g(y)\,dy,$$
and is well-defined only if `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} decay sufficiently rapidly at infinity in order for the integral to exist. Conditions for the existence of the convolution may be tricky, since a blow-up in `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} at infinity can be easily offset by sufficiently rapid decay in `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki}. The question of existence thus may involve different conditions on `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki}:
### Compactly supported functions {#compactly_supported_functions}
If `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} are compactly supported continuous functions, then their convolution exists, and is also compactly supported and continuous `{{harv|Hörmander|1983|loc=Chapter 1}}`{=mediawiki}. More generally, if either function (say `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki}) is compactly supported and the other is locally integrable, then the convolution `{{math|''f''∗''g''}}`{=mediawiki} is well-defined and continuous.
Convolution of `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} is also well defined when both functions are locally square integrable on `{{math|'''R'''}}`{=mediawiki} and supported on an interval of the form `{{math|[''a'', +∞)}}`{=mediawiki} (or both supported on `{{math|[−∞, ''a'']}}`{=mediawiki}).
### Integrable functions {#integrable_functions}
The convolution of `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} exists if `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} are both Lebesgue integrable functions in `{{math|''L''<sup>1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}(`{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}), and in this case `{{math|''f''∗''g''}}`{=mediawiki} is also integrable `{{harv|Stein|Weiss|1971|loc=Theorem 1.3}}`{=mediawiki}. This is a consequence of Tonelli\'s theorem. This is also true for functions in `{{math|''L''<sup>1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, under the discrete convolution, or more generally for the convolution on any group.
Likewise, if `{{math|''f'' ∈ ''L''<sup>1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}(`{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}) and `{{math|''g'' ∈ ''L''<sup>''p''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}(`{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}) where `{{math|1 ≤ ''p'' ≤ ∞}}`{=mediawiki}, then `{{math|''f''*''g'' ∈ ''L''<sup>''p''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}(`{{math|'''R'''<sup>''d''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}), and
$$\|{f}* g\|_p\le \|f\|_1\|g\|_p.$$
In the particular case `{{math|''p'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 1}}, this shows that `{{math|''L''<sup>1</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is a Banach algebra under the convolution (and equality of the two sides holds if `{{mvar|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|g}}`{=mediawiki} are non-negative almost everywhere).
More generally, Young\'s inequality implies that the convolution is a continuous bilinear map between suitable `{{math|''L''<sup>''p''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} spaces. Specifically, if `{{math| 1 ≤ ''p'', ''q'', ''r'' ≤ ∞}}`{=mediawiki} satisfy:
$$\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}=\frac{1}{r}+1,$$
then
$$\left\Vert f*g\right\Vert_r\le\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q,$$
so that the convolution is a continuous bilinear mapping from `{{math|''L''<sup>''p''</sup>×''L''<sup>''q''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{math|''L''<sup>''r''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}. The Young inequality for convolution is also true in other contexts (circle group, convolution on `{{math|'''Z'''}}`{=mediawiki}). The preceding inequality is not sharp on the real line: when `{{math| 1 < ''p'', ''q'', ''r'' < ∞}}`{=mediawiki}, there exists a constant `{{math|''B''<sub>''p'',''q''</sub> < 1}}`{=mediawiki} such that:
$$\left\Vert f*g\right\Vert_r\le B_{p,q}\left\Vert f\right\Vert_p\left\Vert g\right\Vert_q,\quad f\in L^p,\ g\in L^q.$$
The optimal value of `{{math|''B''<sub>''p'',''q''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} was discovered in 1975 and independently in 1976, see Brascamp--Lieb inequality.
A stronger estimate is true provided `{{math| 1 < ''p'', ''q'', ''r'' < ∞}}`{=mediawiki}:
$$\|f * g\|_r\le C_{p,q}\|f\|_p\|g\|_{q,w}$$ where $\|g\|_{q,w}$ is the weak `{{math|''L''<sup>''q''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} norm. Convolution also defines a bilinear continuous map $L^{p,w}\times L^{q,w}\to L^{r,w}$ for $1< p,q,r<\infty$, owing to the weak Young inequality:
$$\|f * g\|_{r,w}\le C_{p,q}\|f\|_{p,w}\|g\|_{r,w}.$$
### Functions of rapid decay {#functions_of_rapid_decay}
In addition to compactly supported functions and integrable functions, functions that have sufficiently rapid decay at infinity can also be convolved. An important feature of the convolution is that if *f* and *g* both decay rapidly, then *f*∗*g* also decays rapidly. In particular, if *f* and *g* are rapidly decreasing functions, then so is the convolution *f*∗*g*. Combined with the fact that convolution commutes with differentiation (see #Properties), it follows that the class of Schwartz functions is closed under convolution `{{harv|Stein|Weiss|1971|loc=Theorem 3.3}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Distributions
If *f* is a smooth function that is compactly supported and *g* is a distribution, then *f*∗*g* is a smooth function defined by
$$\int_{\mathbb{R}^d} {f}(y)g(x-y)\,dy = (f*g)(x) \in C^\infty(\mathbb{R}^d) .$$
More generally, it is possible to extend the definition of the convolution in a unique way with $\varphi$ the same as *f* above, so that the associative law
$$f* (g* \varphi) = (f* g)* \varphi$$
remains valid in the case where *f* is a distribution, and *g* a compactly supported distribution `{{harv|Hörmander|1983|loc=§4.2}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Measures
The convolution of any two Borel measures *μ* and *ν* of bounded variation is the measure $\mu*\nu$ defined by `{{harv|Rudin|1962}}`{=mediawiki}
$$\int_{\mathbf{R}^d} f(x) \, d(\mu*\nu)(x) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d}\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x+y)\,d\mu(x)\,d\nu(y).$$
In particular,
: $(\mu*\nu)(A) = \int_{\mathbf{R}^d\times\mathbf R^d}1_A(x+y)\, d(\mu\times\nu)(x,y),$
where $A\subset\mathbf R^d$ is a measurable set and $1_A$ is the indicator function of $A$.
This agrees with the convolution defined above when μ and ν are regarded as distributions, as well as the convolution of L^1^ functions when μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure.
The convolution of measures also satisfies the following version of Young\'s inequality
$$\|\mu* \nu\|\le \|\mu\|\|\nu\|$$ where the norm is the total variation of a measure. Because the space of measures of bounded variation is a Banach space, convolution of measures can be treated with standard methods of functional analysis that may not apply for the convolution of distributions.
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# Convolution
## Properties
### Algebraic properties {#algebraic_properties}
The convolution defines a product on the linear space of integrable functions. This product satisfies the following algebraic properties, which formally mean that the space of integrable functions with the product given by convolution is a commutative associative algebra without identity `{{harv|Strichartz|1994|loc=§3.3}}`{=mediawiki}. Other linear spaces of functions, such as the space of continuous functions of compact support, are closed under the convolution, and so also form commutative associative algebras.
Commutativity: $f * g = g * f$ Proof: By definition: $(f * g)(t) = \int^\infty_{-\infty} f(\tau)g(t - \tau)\, d\tau$ Changing the variable of integration to $u = t - \tau$ the result follows.
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Associativity: $f * (g * h) = (f * g) * h$ Proof: This follows from using Fubini\'s theorem (i.e., double integrals can be evaluated as iterated integrals in either order).
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Distributivity: $f * (g + h) = (f * g) + (f * h)$ Proof: This follows from linearity of the integral.
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Associativity with scalar multiplication: $a (f * g) = (a f) * g$ for any real (or complex) number $a$.
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Multiplicative identity: No algebra of functions possesses an identity for the convolution. The lack of identity is typically not a major inconvenience, since most collections of functions on which the convolution is performed can be convolved with a delta distribution (a unitary impulse, centered at zero) or, at the very least (as is the case of *L*^1^) admit approximations to the identity. The linear space of compactly supported distributions does, however, admit an identity under the convolution. Specifically, $f * \delta = f$ where *δ* is the delta distribution.
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Inverse element: Some distributions *S* have an inverse element *S*^−1^ for the convolution which then must satisfy $S^{-1} * S = \delta$ from which an explicit formula for *S*^−1^ may be obtained.`{{paragraph}}`{=mediawiki}The set of invertible distributions forms an abelian group under the convolution.
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Complex conjugation: $\overline{f * g} = \overline{f} * \overline{g}$
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Time reversal: If $q(t) = r(t)*s(t),$ then $q(-t) = r(-t)*s(-t).$
> Proof (using convolution theorem):
>
> $q(t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(f) = R(f)S(f)$
>
> $q(-t) \ \stackrel{\mathcal{F}}{\Longleftrightarrow}\ \ Q(-f) = R(-f)S(-f)$
>
> $\begin{align}
> q(-t) &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R(-f)S(-f)\bigg\}\\
> &= \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{R (-f)\bigg\} * \mathcal{F}^{-1}\bigg\{S(-f)\bigg\}\\
> &= r(-t) * s(-t)
> \end{align}$
Relationship with differentiation: $(f * g)' = f' * g = f * g'$ Proof:
:
\\begin{align} (f \* g)\' & = \\frac{d}{dt} \\int\^\\infty\_{-\\infty} f(\\tau) g(t - \\tau) \\, d\\tau \\\\ & =\\int\^\\infty\_{-\\infty} f(\\tau) \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial t} g(t - \\tau) \\, d\\tau \\\\ & =\\int\^\\infty\_{-\\infty} f(\\tau) g\'(t - \\tau) \\, d\\tau = f\* g\'. \\end{align}
Relationship with integration: If $F(t) = \int^t_{-\infty} f(\tau) d\tau,$ and $G(t) = \int^t_{-\infty} g(\tau) \, d\tau,$ then $(F * g)(t) = (f * G)(t) = \int^t_{-\infty}(f * g)(\tau)\,d\tau.$
### Integration
If *f* and *g* are integrable functions, then the integral of their convolution on the whole space is simply obtained as the product of their integrals:
: $\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}(f * g)(x) \, dx=\left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}f(x) \, dx\right) \left(\int_{\mathbf{R}^d}g(x) \, dx\right).$
This follows from Fubini\'s theorem. The same result holds if *f* and *g* are only assumed to be nonnegative measurable functions, by Tonelli\'s theorem.
### Differentiation
In the one-variable case,
: $\frac{d}{dx}(f * g) = \frac{df}{dx} * g = f * \frac{dg}{dx}$
where $\frac{d}{dx}$ is the derivative. More generally, in the case of functions of several variables, an analogous formula holds with the partial derivative:
: $\frac{\partial}{\partial x_i}(f * g) = \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} * g = f * \frac{\partial g}{\partial x_i}.$
A particular consequence of this is that the convolution can be viewed as a \"smoothing\" operation: the convolution of *f* and *g* is differentiable as many times as *f* and *g* are in total.
These identities hold for example under the condition that *f* and *g* are absolutely integrable and at least one of them has an absolutely integrable (L^1^) weak derivative, as a consequence of Young\'s convolution inequality. For instance, when *f* is continuously differentiable with compact support, and *g* is an arbitrary locally integrable function,
: $\frac{d}{dx}(f* g) = \frac{df}{dx} * g.$
These identities also hold much more broadly in the sense of tempered distributions if one of *f* or *g* is a rapidly decreasing tempered distribution, a compactly supported tempered distribution or a Schwartz function and the other is a tempered distribution. On the other hand, two positive integrable and infinitely differentiable functions may have a nowhere continuous convolution.
In the discrete case, the difference operator *D* *f*(*n*) = *f*(*n* + 1) − *f*(*n*) satisfies an analogous relationship:
: $D(f * g) = (Df) * g = f * (Dg).$
### Convolution theorem {#convolution_theorem}
The convolution theorem states that
: $\mathcal{F}\{f * g\} = \mathcal{F}\{f\}\cdot \mathcal{F}\{g\}$
where $\mathcal{F}\{f\}$ denotes the Fourier transform of $f$.
#### Convolution in other types of transformations {#convolution_in_other_types_of_transformations}
Versions of this theorem also hold for the Laplace transform, two-sided Laplace transform, Z-transform and Mellin transform.
#### Convolution on matrices {#convolution_on_matrices}
If $\mathcal W$ is the Fourier transform matrix, then
: $\mathcal W\left(C^{(1)}x \ast C^{(2)}y\right) = \left(\mathcal W C^{(1)} \bull \mathcal W C^{(2)}\right)(x \otimes y) = \mathcal W C^{(1)}x \circ \mathcal W C^{(2)}y$,
where $\bull$ is face-splitting product, $\otimes$ denotes Kronecker product, $\circ$ denotes Hadamard product (this result is an evolving of count sketch properties).
This can be generalized for appropriate matrices $\mathbf{A},\mathbf{B}$:
: $\mathcal W\left((\mathbf{A}x) \ast (\mathbf{B}y)\right) = \left((\mathcal W \mathbf{A}) \bull (\mathcal W \mathbf{B})\right)(x \otimes y) = (\mathcal W \mathbf{A}x) \circ (\mathcal W \mathbf{B}y)$
from the properties of the face-splitting product.
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# Convolution
## Properties
### Translational equivariance {#translational_equivariance}
The convolution commutes with translations, meaning that
: $\tau_x (f * g) = (\tau_x f) * g = f * (\tau_x g)$
where τ~*x*~f is the translation of the function *f* by *x* defined by
: $(\tau_x f)(y) = f(y - x).$
If *f* is a Schwartz function, then *τ~x~f* is the convolution with a translated Dirac delta function *τ*~*x*~*f* = *f* ∗ *τ*~*x*~ *δ*. So translation invariance of the convolution of Schwartz functions is a consequence of the associativity of convolution.
Furthermore, under certain conditions, convolution is the most general translation invariant operation. Informally speaking, the following holds
: Suppose that *S* is a bounded linear operator acting on functions which commutes with translations: *S*(*τ~x~f*) = *τ~x~*(*Sf*) for all *x*. Then *S* is given as convolution with a function (or distribution) *g*~*S*~; that is *Sf* = *g*~*S*~ ∗ *f*.
Thus some translation invariant operations can be represented as convolution. Convolutions play an important role in the study of time-invariant systems, and especially LTI system theory. The representing function *g*~*S*~ is the impulse response of the transformation *S*.
A more precise version of the theorem quoted above requires specifying the class of functions on which the convolution is defined, and also requires assuming in addition that *S* must be a continuous linear operator with respect to the appropriate topology. It is known, for instance, that every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on *L*^1^ is the convolution with a finite Borel measure. More generally, every continuous translation invariant continuous linear operator on *L*^*p*^ for 1 ≤ *p* \< ∞ is the convolution with a tempered distribution whose Fourier transform is bounded. To wit, they are all given by bounded Fourier multipliers.
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# Convolution
## Convolutions on groups {#convolutions_on_groups}
If *G* is a suitable group endowed with a measure λ, and if *f* and *g* are real or complex valued integrable functions on *G*, then we can define their convolution by
$$(f * g)(x) = \int_G f(y) g\left(y^{-1}x\right)\,d\lambda(y).$$
It is not commutative in general. In typical cases of interest *G* is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and λ is a (left-) Haar measure. In that case, unless *G* is unimodular, the convolution defined in this way is not the same as $\int f\left(xy^{-1}\right)g(y) \, d\lambda(y)$. The preference of one over the other is made so that convolution with a fixed function *g* commutes with left translation in the group:
$$L_h(f* g) = (L_hf)* g.$$
Furthermore, the convention is also required for consistency with the definition of the convolution of measures given below. However, with a right instead of a left Haar measure, the latter integral is preferred over the former.
On locally compact abelian groups, a version of the convolution theorem holds: the Fourier transform of a convolution is the pointwise product of the Fourier transforms. The circle group **T** with the Lebesgue measure is an immediate example. For a fixed *g* in *L*^1^(**T**), we have the following familiar operator acting on the Hilbert space *L*^2^(**T**):
$$T {f}(x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{\mathbf{T}} {f}(y) g( x - y) \, dy.$$
The operator *T* is compact. A direct calculation shows that its adjoint *T\** is convolution with
$$\bar{g}(-y).$$
By the commutativity property cited above, *T* is normal: *T*\* *T* = *TT*\* . Also, *T* commutes with the translation operators. Consider the family *S* of operators consisting of all such convolutions and the translation operators. Then *S* is a commuting family of normal operators. According to spectral theory, there exists an orthonormal basis {*h~k~*} that simultaneously diagonalizes *S*. This characterizes convolutions on the circle. Specifically, we have
$$h_k (x) = e^{ikx}, \quad k \in \mathbb{Z},\;$$
which are precisely the characters of **T**. Each convolution is a compact multiplication operator in this basis. This can be viewed as a version of the convolution theorem discussed above.
A discrete example is a finite cyclic group of order *n*. Convolution operators are here represented by circulant matrices, and can be diagonalized by the discrete Fourier transform.
A similar result holds for compact groups (not necessarily abelian): the matrix coefficients of finite-dimensional unitary representations form an orthonormal basis in *L*^2^ by the Peter--Weyl theorem, and an analog of the convolution theorem continues to hold, along with many other aspects of harmonic analysis that depend on the Fourier transform.
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# Convolution
## Convolution of measures {#convolution_of_measures}
Let *G* be a (multiplicatively written) topological group. If μ and ν are Radon measures on *G*, then their convolution *μ*∗*ν* is defined as the pushforward measure of the group action and can be written as $$(\mu * \nu)(E) = \iint 1_E(xy) \,d\mu(x) \,d\nu(y)$$
for each measurable subset *E* of *G*. The convolution is also a Radon measure, whose total variation satisfies
$$\|\mu * \nu\| \le \left\|\mu\right\| \left\|\nu\right\|.$$
In the case when *G* is locally compact with (left-)Haar measure λ, and μ and ν are absolutely continuous with respect to a λ, so that each has a density function, then the convolution μ∗ν is also absolutely continuous, and its density function is just the convolution of the two separate density functions. In fact, if *either* measure is absolutely continuous with respect to the Haar measure, then so is their convolution.
If μ and ν are probability measures on the topological group `{{nowrap|('''R''',+),}}`{=mediawiki} then the convolution *μ*∗*ν* is the probability distribution of the sum *X* + *Y* of two independent random variables *X* and *Y* whose respective distributions are μ and ν.
## Infimal convolution {#infimal_convolution}
In convex analysis, the **infimal convolution** of proper (not identically $+\infty$) convex functions $f_1,\dots,f_m$ on $\mathbb R^n$ is defined by: $(f_1*\cdots*f_m)(x)=\inf_x \{ f_1(x_1)+\cdots+f_m(x_m) | x_1+\cdots+x_m = x\}.$ It can be shown that the infimal convolution of convex functions is convex. Furthermore, it satisfies an identity analogous to that of the Fourier transform of a traditional convolution, with the role of the Fourier transform is played instead by the Legendre transform: $\varphi^*(x) = \sup_y ( x\cdot y - \varphi(y)).$ We have: $(f_1*\cdots *f_m)^*(x) = f_1^*(x) + \cdots + f_m^*(x).$
## Bialgebras
Let (*X*, Δ, ∇, *ε*, *η*) be a bialgebra with comultiplication Δ, multiplication ∇, unit η, and counit *ε*. The convolution is a product defined on the endomorphism algebra End(*X*) as follows. Let *φ*, *ψ* ∈ End(*X*), that is, *φ*, *ψ*: *X* → *X* are functions that respect all algebraic structure of *X*, then the convolution *φ*∗*ψ* is defined as the composition
$$X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\Delta}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\phi\otimes\psi}} X \otimes X \mathrel{\xrightarrow{\nabla}} X.$$
The convolution appears notably in the definition of Hopf algebras `{{harv|Kassel|1995|loc=§III.3}}`{=mediawiki}. A bialgebra is a Hopf algebra if and only if it has an antipode: an endomorphism *S* such that
$$S * \operatorname{id}_X = \operatorname{id}_X * S = \eta\circ\varepsilon.$$
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# Convolution
## Applications
Convolution and related operations are found in many applications in science, engineering and mathematics.
- Convolutional neural networks apply multiple cascaded *convolution* kernels with applications in machine vision and artificial intelligence. Though these are actually **cross-correlations** rather than convolutions in most cases.
- In non-neural-network-based image processing
- In digital image processing convolutional filtering plays an important role in many important algorithms in edge detection and related processes (see Kernel (image processing))
- In optics, an out-of-focus photograph is a convolution of the sharp image with a lens function. The photographic term for this is bokeh.
- In image processing applications such as adding blurring.
- In digital data processing
- In analytical chemistry, Savitzky--Golay smoothing filters are used for the analysis of spectroscopic data. They can improve signal-to-noise ratio with minimal distortion of the spectra
- In statistics, a weighted moving average is a convolution.
- In acoustics, reverberation is the convolution of the original sound with echoes from objects surrounding the sound source.
- In digital signal processing, convolution is used to map the impulse response of a real room on a digital audio signal.
- In electronic music convolution is the imposition of a spectral or rhythmic structure on a sound. Often this envelope or structure is taken from another sound. The convolution of two signals is the filtering of one through the other.
- In electrical engineering, the convolution of one function (the input signal) with a second function (the impulse response) gives the output of a linear time-invariant system (LTI). At any given moment, the output is an accumulated effect of all the prior values of the input function, with the most recent values typically having the most influence (expressed as a multiplicative factor). The impulse response function provides that factor as a function of the elapsed time since each input value occurred.
- In physics, wherever there is a linear system with a \"superposition principle\", a convolution operation makes an appearance. For instance, in spectroscopy line broadening due to the Doppler effect on its own gives a Gaussian spectral line shape and collision broadening alone gives a Lorentzian line shape. When both effects are operative, the line shape is a convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian, a Voigt function.
- In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is a sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
- In computational fluid dynamics, the large eddy simulation (LES) turbulence model uses the convolution operation to lower the range of length scales necessary in computation thereby reducing computational cost.
- In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions.
- In kernel density estimation, a distribution is estimated from sample points by convolution with a kernel, such as an isotropic Gaussian.
- In radiotherapy treatment planning systems, most part of all modern codes of calculation applies a convolution-superposition algorithm.`{{Clarify|date=May 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
- In structural reliability, the reliability index can be defined based on the convolution theorem.
- The definition of reliability index for limit state functions with nonnormal distributions can be established corresponding to the joint distribution function. In fact, the joint distribution function can be obtained using the convolution theory.
- In Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics, simulations of fluid dynamics are calculated using particles, each with surrounding kernels. For any given particle $i$, some physical quantity $A_i$ is calculated as a convolution of $A_j$ with a weighting function, where $j$ denotes the neighbors of particle $i$: those that are located within its kernel. The convolution is approximated as a summation over each neighbor.
- In Fractional calculus convolution is instrumental in various definitions of fractional integral and fractional derivative
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# Calico
**Calico** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|l|ɪ|k|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki}; in British usage since 1505) is a heavy plain-woven textile made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton. It may also contain unseparated husk parts. The fabric is far coarser than muslin, but less coarse and thick than canvas or denim. However, it is still very cheap owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance.
The fabric was originally from the city of Calicut in southwestern India. It was made by the traditional weavers called cāliyans. The raw fabric was dyed and printed in bright hues, and calico prints became popular in Europe.
## History
### Origins
Calico originated in Calicut, from which the name of the textile came, in South India, now Kerala, during the 11th century, where the cloth was known as \"chaliyan\". It was mentioned in Indian literature by the 12th century when the polymath and writer Hemachandra described calico fabric prints with a lotus design. Calico was woven using Gujarati cotton from Surat for both the warp and weft. By the 15th century, calico from Gujarat made its appearance in Cairo, then capital of the Egypt Eyalet under the Ottoman Empire. Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.
### Politics of cotton in the British Empire {#politics_of_cotton_in_the_british_empire}
In the 18th century, England was famous for its woollen and worsted cloth. That industry, centered in the east and south in towns such as Norwich, jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny: in 1701, only 1,985,868 lb of cottonwool was imported into England, and by 1730 this had fallen to 1,545,472 lb. This was due to commercial legislation to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from Hindustān (India), had become popular. In 1700 the first of the Calico Acts was passed to prevent the import of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused demand to switch to imported grey cloth instead --- calico that had not been finished-dyed or printed. These were printed with popular patterns in southern England.`{{who|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki} Also, Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, known as fustian, which they sent to London for finishing. Cottonwool imports recovered though, and by 1720 were almost back to their 1701 levels. Coventry woollen manufacturers claimed that the imports were taking jobs away from their workers. The Woollen, etc., Manufactures Act 1720 was passed, enacting fines against anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico muslins, but neckcloths and fustians were exempted. The Lancashire manufacturers exploited this exemption; coloured cotton weft with linen warp were specifically permitted by the 1736 Manchester Act.
In 1764, 3,870,392 lb of cottonwool was imported.
In North America, the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves in calico as Indians during the Boston Tea Party. Participants in the Anti-Rent War of the early nineteenth century used this disguise to associate land monopoly in the Hudson Valley with the trade monopoly of the East India Company.
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# Calico
## History
### Calico printing {#calico_printing}
Early Indian chintz, that is, glazed calico with a large floral pattern, was primarily produced using painting techniques. Later, the hues were applied by wooden blocks, and the cloth manufacturers in Britain printed calico using wooden block printing. Calico printers at work are depicted in one of the stained glass windows made by Stephen Adam for the Maryhill Burgh Halls, Glasgow. Confusingly, linen and silk printed this way were known as *linen calicoes* and *silk calicoes*. Early European calicoes (1680) were cheap plain weave white cotton fabric, or cream or unbleached cotton, with a design block-printed using a single alizarin dye fixed with two mordants, giving a red and black pattern. Polychromatic prints were possible, using two sets of blocks and an additional blue dye. The Indian taste was for dark printed backgrounds, while the European market preferred a pattern on a cream base. As the century progressed the European preference moved from the large chintz patterns to smaller, tighter patterns.
Thomas Bell patented a printing technique in 1783 that used copper rollers. In 1785, Livesey, Hargreaves and Company put the first machine that used this technique into operation in Walton-le-Dale, Lancashire. The production volume for printed cloth in Lancashire in 1750 was estimated at 50,000 pieces of 30 yd; in 1850, it was 20,000,000 pieces. The commercial method of calico printing using engraved rollers was invented in 1821 in New Mills, Derbyshire, in the United Kingdom. John Potts of Potts, Oliver and Potts used a copper-engraved master to produce rollers to transfer the inks. After 1888, block printing was only used for short-run specialized jobs. After 1880, profits from printing fell due to overcapacity and the firms started to form combines. In the first, three Scottish firms formed the United Turkey Red Co. Ltd in 1897, and the second, in 1899, was the much larger Calico Printers\' Association 46 printing concerns and 13 merchants combined, representing 85% of the British printing capacity. Some of this capacity was removed`{{how|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki} and in 1901 Calico had 48% of the printing trade. In 1916, they and the other printers formed and joined a trade association, which then set minimum prices for each \'price section\' of the industry.
The trade association remained in operation until 1954, when the arrangement was challenged by the government Monopolies Commission. Over the intervening period much trade had been lost overseas.
## Terminology
Printed calico was imported into the United States from Lancashire in the 1780s, and led to a linguistic separation: while Europe maintained the word calico for the `{{Em|fabric}}`{=mediawiki}, in the US it was used to refer to the `{{Em|printed design}}`{=mediawiki}, where these colourful, small-patterned printed fabrics also gave rise to the use of the word calico to describe a cat coat colour: calico cat. The patterned fabric also gave its name to common names for two North American crab species, *Ovalipes ocellatus* and *Hepatus epheliticus*
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# Cro-hook
The **cro-hook** is a special double-ended crochet hook used to make double-sided crochet. It employs the use of a long double-ended hook, which permits the maker to work stitches on or off from either end. Because the hook has two ends, two alternating colors of thread can be used simultaneously and freely interchanged, working loops over the hook. Crafts using a double-ended hook are commercially marketed as Cro-hook and Crochenit. Cro-hook is a variation of Tunisian crochet and also shows similarities with the Afghan stitch used to make Afghan scarves, but the fabric is typically softer with greater elasticity
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# Checksum
A **checksum** is a small-sized block of data derived from another block of digital data for the purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during its transmission or storage. By themselves, checksums are often used to verify data integrity but are not relied upon to verify data authenticity.
The procedure which generates this checksum is called a **checksum function** or **checksum algorithm**. Depending on its design goals, a good checksum algorithm usually outputs a significantly different value, even for small changes made to the input. This is especially true of cryptographic hash functions, which may be used to detect many data corruption errors and verify overall data integrity; if the computed checksum for the current data input matches the stored value of a previously computed checksum, there is a very high probability the data has not been accidentally altered or corrupted.
Checksum functions are related to hash functions, fingerprints, randomization functions, and cryptographic hash functions. However, each of those concepts has different applications and therefore different design goals. For instance, a function returning the start of a string can provide a hash appropriate for some applications but will never be a suitable checksum. Checksums are used as cryptographic primitives in larger authentication algorithms. For cryptographic systems with these two specific design goals`{{Clarify|reason=What two specific design goals?|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki}, see HMAC.
Check digits and parity bits are special cases of checksums, appropriate for small blocks of data (such as Social Security numbers, bank account numbers, computer words, single bytes, etc.). Some error-correcting codes are based on special checksums which not only detect common errors but also allow the original data to be recovered in certain cases.
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# Checksum
## Algorithms
### Parity byte or parity word {#parity_byte_or_parity_word}
The simplest checksum algorithm is the so-called longitudinal parity check, which breaks the data into \"words\" with a fixed number `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} of bits, and then computes the bitwise exclusive or (XOR) of all those words. The result is appended to the message as an extra word. In simpler terms, for `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki}=1 this means adding a bit to the end of the data bits to guarantee that there is an even number of \'1\'s. To check the integrity of a message, the receiver computes the bitwise exclusive or of all its words, including the checksum; if the result is not a word consisting of `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} zeros, the receiver knows a transmission error occurred.
With this checksum, any transmission error which flips a single bit of the message, or an odd number of bits, will be detected as an incorrect checksum. However, an error that affects two bits will not be detected if those bits lie at the same position in two distinct words. Also swapping of two or more words will not be detected. If the affected bits are independently chosen at random, the probability of a two-bit error being undetected is `{{math|1/''n''}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Sum complement {#sum_complement}
A variant of the previous algorithm is to add all the \"words\" as unsigned binary numbers, discarding any overflow bits, and append the two\'s complement of the total as the checksum. To validate a message, the receiver adds all the words in the same manner, including the checksum; if the result is not a word full of zeros, an error must have occurred. This variant, too, detects any single-bit error, but the pro modular sum is used in SAE J1708.
### Position-dependent {#position_dependent}
The simple checksums described above fail to detect some common errors which affect many bits at once, such as changing the order of data words, or inserting or deleting words with all bits set to zero. The checksum algorithms most used in practice, such as Fletcher\'s checksum, Adler-32, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs), address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each word but also its position in the sequence. This feature generally increases the cost of computing the checksum.
### `{{anchor|fuzzy checksum}}`{=mediawiki}Fuzzy checksum {#fuzzy_checksum}
The idea of fuzzy checksum was developed for detection of email spam by building up cooperative databases from multiple ISPs of email suspected to be spam. The content of such spam may often vary in its details, which would render normal checksumming ineffective. By contrast, a \"fuzzy checksum\" reduces the body text to its characteristic minimum, then generates a checksum in the usual manner. This greatly increases the chances of slightly different spam emails producing the same checksum. The ISP spam detection software, such as SpamAssassin, of co-operating ISPs, submits checksums of all emails to the centralised service such as DCC. If the count of a submitted fuzzy checksum exceeds a certain threshold, the database notes that this probably indicates spam. ISP service users similarly generate a fuzzy checksum on each of their emails and request the service for a spam likelihood.
### General considerations {#general_considerations}
A message that is `{{math|''m''}}`{=mediawiki} bits long can be viewed as a corner of the `{{math|''m''}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional hypercube. The effect of a checksum algorithm that yields an `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit checksum is to map each `{{math|''m''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit message to a corner of a larger hypercube, with dimension `{{math|''m'' + ''n''}}`{=mediawiki}. The `{{math|2<sup>''m'' + ''n''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} corners of this hypercube represent all possible received messages. The valid received messages (those that have the correct checksum) comprise a smaller set, with only `{{math|2<sup>''m''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} corners.
A single-bit transmission error then corresponds to a displacement from a valid corner (the correct message and checksum) to one of the `{{math|''m''}}`{=mediawiki} adjacent corners. An error which affects `{{math|''k''}}`{=mediawiki} bits moves the message to a corner which is `{{math|''k''}}`{=mediawiki} steps removed from its correct corner. The goal of a good checksum algorithm is to spread the valid corners as far from each other as possible, to increase the likelihood \"typical\" transmission errors will end up in an invalid corner
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# Camelot
**Camelot** is a legendary castle and court associated with King Arthur. Absent in the early Arthurian material, Camelot first appeared in 12th-century French romances and, since the Lancelot-Grail cycle, eventually came to be described as the fantastic capital of Arthur\'s realm and a symbol of the Arthurian world.
Medieval texts locate it somewhere in Great Britain and sometimes associate it with real cities, though more usually its precise location is not revealed. Most scholars regard it as being entirely fictional, its unspecified geography being perfect for chivalric romance writers. Nevertheless, arguments about the location of the \"real Camelot\" have occurred since the 15th century and continue today in popular works and for tourism purposes.
## Etymology
The name\'s derivation is uncertain. It has numerous different spellings in medieval French Arthurian romances, including *Camaalot*, *Camalot*, *Chamalot*, *Camehelot* (sometimes read as *Camchilot*), *Camaaloth*, *Caamalot*, *Camahaloth*, *Camaelot*, *Kamaalot*, *Kamaaloth*, *Kaamalot*, *Kamahaloth*, *Kameloth*, *Kamaelot*, *Kamelot*, *Kaamelot*, *Cameloth*, and *Gamalaot*. Arthurian scholar Ernst Brugger suggested that it was a corruption of the site of Arthur\'s final battle, the Battle of Camlann, in Welsh tradition. Roger Sherman Loomis believed it was derived from *Cavalon*, a place name that he suggested was a corruption of Avalon (under the influence of the Breton place name *Cavallon*). He further suggested that Cavalon became Arthur\'s capital due to confusion with Arthur\'s other traditional court at Caerleon (*Caer Lleon* in Welsh).
Others have suggested a derivation from the British Iron Age and Romano-British place name Camulodunum, one of the first capitals of Roman Britain and which would have significance in Romano-British culture. Indeed, John Morris, the English historian who specialized in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain, suggested in his book *The Age of Arthur* that as the descendants of Romanized Britons looked back to a golden age of peace and prosperity under Rome, the name \"Camelot\" of Arthurian legend may have referred to the capital of Britannia (Camulodunum) in Roman times. It is unclear, however, where Chrétien de Troyes would have encountered the name Camulodunum, or why he would render it as *Camaalot*, though Urban T. Holmes argued Chrétien could have had access to Book 2 of Pliny\'s *Natural History*, where it is rendered as *Camaloduno*.
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# Camelot
## Medieval literature {#medieval_literature}
Arthur\'s court at Camelot is mentioned for the first time in Chrétien\'s poem *Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart*, dating to the 1170s, though it does not appear in all the manuscripts. In the C manuscript (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fonds français 794, folio 27r), which might in fact contain the proper reading of Chretien\'s original text, instead of the place name there is the Old French phrase *con lui plot*, meaning \"as he pleased\". The other manuscripts spell the name variously as *Chamalot* (MS A, f. f. 196r), *Camehelot* (MS E, f. 1r), *Chamaalot* (MS G, f. 34f), and *Camalot* (MS T, f. 41v); the name is missing, along with the rest of the passage containing it, in MS V (Vatican, Biblioteca Vaticana, Regina 1725). Camelot is mentioned only in passing and is not described:
Nothing in Chrétien\'s poem suggests the level of importance Camelot would have in later romances. For Chrétien, Arthur\'s chief court was in Caerleon in Wales; this was the king\'s primary base in Geoffrey of Monmouth\'s *Historia Regum Britanniae* and subsequent literature. Chrétien depicts Arthur, like a typical medieval monarch, holding court at a number of cities and castles.
It is not until the 13th-century French prose romances, including the Vulgate and Post-Vulgate cycles, that Camelot began to supersede Caerleon, and even then, many descriptive details applied to Camelot derive from Geoffrey\'s earlier grand depiction of the Welsh town. Most Arthurian romances of this period produced in English or Welsh did not follow this trend; Camelot was referred to infrequently, and usually in translations from French. However, in Britain, Arthur\'s court was generally located at Caerleon, or at Carlisle, which is usually identified with the \"Carduel\" of the French romances. One exception is *Sir Gawain and the Green Knight*, which locates Arthur\'s court at Camelot.
From Geoffrey\'s grand description of Caerleon, Camelot gains its impressive architecture, its many churches and the chivalry and courtesy of its inhabitants. Geoffrey\'s description in turn drew on an already established tradition in Welsh oral tradition of the grandeur of Arthur\'s court. The tale *Culhwch and Olwen*, associated with the *Mabinogion* and perhaps first written in the 11th century, draws a dramatic picture of Arthur\'s hall and his many powerful warriors who go from there on great adventures, placing it in Celliwig, an uncertain locale in Cornwall.
The *Lancelot-Grail* cycle and the texts it influenced depict the city of Camelot as standing along a river, downstream from Astolat. It is surrounded by plains and forests, and its magnificent cathedral, St. Stephen\'s, originally established by Josephus, the son of Joseph of Arimathea, is the religious centre for Arthur\'s Knights of the Round Table. There, Arthur and Guinevere are married and there are the tombs of many kings and knights. In a mighty castle stands the Round Table, created by Merlin and Uther Pendragon; it is here that Galahad conquers the Siege Perilous, and where the knights see a vision of the Holy Grail and swear to find it. Jousts are often held in a meadow outside the city.
Its imprecise geography serves the romances well, as Camelot becomes less a literal place than a powerful symbol of Arthur\'s court and universe. There is also a Kamaalot featured as the home of Percival\'s mother in the romance *Perlesvaus*. In *Palamedes* and some other works, including the Post-Vulgate cycle, King Arthur\'s Camelot is eventually razed to the ground by the treacherous King Mark of Cornwall (who had besieged it earlier) in his invasion of Logres after the Battle of Camlann. In the *Tavola Ritonda*, Camelot is abandoned and falls to ruin after the death of Arthur.
Although the court at Celliwig is the most prominent in remaining early Welsh manuscripts, the various versions of the Welsh Triads agree in giving Arthur multiple courts, one in each of the areas inhabited by the Celtic Britons: Cornwall, Wales and the Hen Ogledd. This perhaps reflects the influence of widespread oral traditions common by the 9th century which are recorded in various place names and features such as Arthur\'s Seat, indicating Arthur was a hero known and associated with many locations across Brittonic areas of Britain as well as Brittany. Even at this stage Arthur could not be tied to one location. Many other places are listed as a location where Arthur holds court in the later romances, Carlisle and London perhaps being the most prominent.
In the 15th century, the English writer Thomas Malory created the image of Camelot most familiar today in his *Le Morte d\'Arthur*, a summary compilation work based mostly on the French romances. He firmly identifies Camelot with Winchester in England, an identification that remained popular over the centuries, though it was rejected by Malory\'s own editor, William Caxton, who preferred a Welsh location.
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# Camelot
## Identifications
Arthurian scholar Norris J. Lacy commented that \"Camelot, located nowhere in particular, can be anywhere.\" The romancers\' versions of Camelot draw on earlier traditions of Arthur\'s fabulous court. The Celliwig of *Culhwch and Olwen* appears in the Welsh Triads as well; this early Welsh material places Wales\' greatest leader outside its national boundaries. Geoffrey\'s description of Caerleon is probably based on his personal familiarity with the town and its Roman ruins; it is less clear that Caerleon was associated with Arthur before Geoffrey. Several French romances (*Perlesvaus*, the Didot *Perceval* attributed to Robert de Boron, and even the early romances of Chrétien such as *Erec and Enide* and *Yvain, the Knight of the Lion*) have Arthur hold court at \"Carduel in Wales\", a northern city based on the real Carlisle. Malory\'s identification of Camelot as Winchester was probably partially inspired by the latter city\'s history: it had been the capital of Wessex under Alfred the Great, and boasted the Winchester Round Table, an artefact constructed in the 13th century but widely believed to be the original by Malory\'s time. Caxton rejected the association, saying Camelot was in Wales and that its ruins could still be seen; this is a likely reference to the Roman ruins at Caerwent.
In 1542, John Leland reported that the locals around Cadbury Castle (formerly known as Camalet) in Somerset considered it to be the original Camelot. This theory, which was repeated by later antiquaries, is bolstered, or may have derived from, Cadbury\'s proximity to the River Cam and the villages of Queen Camel and West Camel, and remained popular enough to help inspire a large-scale archaeological dig in the 20th century. These excavations, led by archaeologist Leslie Alcock from 1966 to 1970, were titled \"Cadbury-Camelot\" and won much media attention. The dig revealed that the site seems to have been occupied as early as the 4th millennium BC and to have been refortified and occupied by a major Brittonic ruler and his war band from `{{c.|lk=no|470}}`{=mediawiki}. This early medieval settlement continued until around 580. The works were by far the largest known fortification of the period, double the size of comparative *caers* and with Mediterranean artefacts representing extensive trade and Saxon ones showing possible conquest. The use of the name Camelot and the support of Geoffrey Ashe helped ensure much publicity for the finds, but Alcock himself later grew embarrassed by the supposed Arthurian connection to the site. Following the arguments of David Dumville, Alcock felt the site was too late and too uncertain to be a tenable Camelot. Modern archaeologists follow him in rejecting the name, calling it instead Cadbury Castle hill fort. Despite this, Cadbury remains widely associated with Camelot.
The name of the Romano-British town of Camulodunum (modern Colchester) was derived from the Celtic god Camulus. However, it was located well within territory usually thought to have been conquered early in the 5th century by Saxons, so it is unlikely to have been the location of any \"true\" Camelot, as Arthur is traditionally dated to the late 5th and early 6th century. The town was definitely known as Colchester as early as the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* in 917. Even Colchester Museum argues strongly regarding the historical Arthur: \"It would be impossible and inconceivable to link him to the Colchester area, or to Essex more generally,\" pointing out that the connection between the name Camulodunum and Colchester was unknown until the 18th century. Arthurian scholar Peter Field has suggested that another Camulodunum, a former Roman fort, is a likely location of King Arthur\'s Camelot and that \"Slack, on the outskirts of Huddersfield in West Yorkshire,\" is where Arthur would have held court. This is because of the name, and also regarding its strategic location: it is but a few miles from the extreme south-west of Hen Ogledd (also making close to North Wales), and would have been a flagship point in staving off attacks to the Celtic kingdoms from the Angles and others.
Other places in Britain with names related to \"Camel\" have also been suggested, such as Camelford in Cornwall, located down the River Camel from where Geoffrey places Camlann, the scene of Arthur\'s final battle. The area\'s connections with Camelot and Camlann are merely speculative. Further north, Camelon and its connections with Arthur\'s O\'on have been mentioned in relation to Camelot, but Camelon may be an antiquarian neologism coined after the 15th century, with its earlier name being *Carmore* or *Carmure*. Graham Phillips rejected the word \"Camelot\" entirely as just Chrétien\'s invention and instead proposed the old Roman city of Viroconium (near Shrewsbury in modern England) as Arthur\'s capital, citing archaeological evidence of a grand palace having been in use around 500 AD. Alistair Moffat identified Camelot with Roxburgh in Scotland.
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# Camelot
## Modern culture {#modern_culture}
Camelot has become a permanent fixture in modern interpretations of the Arthurian legend. The symbolism of Camelot so impressed Alfred, Lord Tennyson that he wrote up a prose sketch on the castle as one of his earliest attempts to treat the legend. Modern stories typically retain Camelot\'s lack of precise location and its status as a symbol of the Arthurian world, though they typically transform the castle itself into romantically lavish visions of a High Middle Ages palace. Some writers of the \"realist\" strain of modern Arthurian fiction have attempted a more sensible Camelot. Inspired by Alcock\'s Cadbury-Camelot excavation, some authors such as Marion Zimmer Bradley and Mary Stewart place their Camelots in that place and describe it accordingly.
Camelot lends its name to the musical *Camelot*, which was adapted into a film of the same title, featuring the Castle of Coca, Segovia as Camelot. An Arthurian television series *Camelot* was also named after the castle, as were some other works including the video game *Camelot* and the comic book series *Camelot 3000*. French television series *Kaamelott* presents a humorous alternative version of the Arthurian legend; Camelot Theme Park is a now-abandoned Arthurian theme park resort located in the English county of Lancashire. The Camelot Group was the first operator of the UK National Lottery with lottery machines named after characters, places, and objects in Arthurian legend. The vast cultural impact of Camelot can be seen in numerous works, products, and organisations. [Visualizing Camelot](https://rbscpexhibits.lib.rochester.edu/exhibits/show/visualizing_camelot/welcome), a University of Rochester exhibit by Alan and Barbara Tepa Lupack offered a cross-section of 350 such items in 2024.
In strictly American contexts, Camelot era refers to the presidency of John F. Kennedy. In a 1963 *Life* interview, Jacqueline, his widow, referenced a line from the Lerner and Loewe musical to describe the Kennedy era White House: \"Don\'t let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment, that was known as Camelot.\" She indicated that it was one of Kennedy\'s favourite lyrics from the musical and added, \"there\'ll be great Presidents again \[\...\] but there\'ll never be another Camelot again
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# Christian alternative rock
**Christian alternative rock** is a form of alternative rock music that is lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview. Some critics have suggested that unlike CCM and older Christian rock, Christian alternative rock generally emphasizes musical style over lyrical content as a defining genre characteristic, though the degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist.
## History
Christian alternative music has its roots in the early 1980s, as the earliest efforts at Christian punk and new wave were recorded by artists like Andy McCarroll and Moral Support, Undercover, the 77s, Steve Scott, Adam Again, Quickflight, Daniel Amos, Youth Choir (later renamed the Choir), Lifesavers Underground, Michael Knott, the Prayer Chain, Altar Boys, Breakfast with Amy, Steve Taylor, 4-4-1, David Edwards and Vector. Early labels, most now-defunct, included Blonde Vinyl, Frontline, Exit, and Refuge.
By the 1990s, many of these bands and artists had disbanded, were no longer performing, or were being carried by independent labels because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream Christian pop. The modern market is currently supported by labels such as Tooth & Nail, Gotee and Floodgate. These companies are often children of, or partially owned, by general market labels such as Warner, EMI, and Capitol Records, giving successful artists an opportunity to \"cross over\" into mainstream markets
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# Processor design
**Processor design** is a subfield of computer science and computer engineering (fabrication) that deals with creating a processor, a key component of computer hardware.
The design process involves choosing an instruction set and a certain execution paradigm (e.g. VLIW or RISC) and results in a microarchitecture, which might be described in e.g. VHDL or Verilog. For microprocessor design, this description is then manufactured employing some of the various semiconductor device fabrication processes, resulting in a die which is bonded onto a chip carrier. This chip carrier is then soldered onto, or inserted into a socket on, a printed circuit board (PCB).
The mode of operation of any processor is the execution of lists of instructions. Instructions typically include those to compute or manipulate data values using registers, change or retrieve values in read/write memory, perform relational tests between data values and to control program flow.
Processor designs are often tested and validated on one or several FPGAs before sending the design of the processor to a foundry for semiconductor fabrication.
## Details
### Basics
CPU design is divided into multiple components. Information is transferred through datapaths (such as ALUs and pipelines). These datapaths are controlled through logic by control units. Memory components include register files and caches to retain information, or certain actions. Clock circuitry maintains internal rhythms and timing through clock drivers, PLLs, and clock distribution networks. Pad transceiver circuitry which allows signals to be received and sent and a logic gate cell library which is used to implement the logic. Logic gates are the foundation for processor design as they are used to implement most of the processor\'s components.
CPUs designed for high-performance markets might require custom (optimized or application specific (see below)) designs for each of these items to achieve frequency, power-dissipation, and chip-area goals whereas CPUs designed for lower performance markets might lessen the implementation burden by acquiring some of these items by purchasing them as intellectual property. Control logic implementation techniques (logic synthesis using CAD tools) can be used to implement datapaths, register files, and clocks. Common logic styles used in CPU design include unstructured random logic, finite-state machines, microprogramming (common from 1965 to 1985), and Programmable logic arrays (common in the 1980s, no longer common).
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# Processor design
## Details
### Implementation logic {#implementation_logic}
Device types used to implement the logic include:
- Individual vacuum tubes, individual transistors and semiconductor diodes, and transistor-transistor logic small-scale integration logic chips -- no longer used for CPUs
- Programmable array logic and programmable logic devices -- no longer used for CPUs
- Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) gate arrays -- no longer common
- CMOS gate arrays -- no longer used for CPUs
- CMOS mass-produced ICs -- the vast majority of CPUs by volume
- CMOS ASICs -- only for a minority of special applications due to expense
- Field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) -- common for soft microprocessors, and more or less required for reconfigurable computing
A CPU design project generally has these major tasks:
- Programmer-visible instruction set architecture, which can be implemented by a variety of microarchitectures
- Architectural study and performance modeling in ANSI C/C++ or SystemC`{{clarify|date=January 2013}}`{=mediawiki}
- High-level synthesis (HLS) or register transfer level (RTL, e.g. logic) implementation
- RTL verification
- Circuit design of speed critical components (caches, registers, ALUs)
- Logic synthesis or logic-gate-level design
- Timing analysis to confirm that all logic and circuits will run at the specified operating frequency
- Physical design including floorplanning, place and route of logic gates
- Checking that RTL, gate-level, transistor-level and physical-level representations are equivalent
- Checks for signal integrity, chip manufacturability
Re-designing a CPU core to a smaller die area helps to shrink everything (a \"photomask shrink\"), resulting in the same number of transistors on a smaller die. It improves performance (smaller transistors switch faster), reduces power (smaller wires have less parasitic capacitance) and reduces cost (more CPUs fit on the same wafer of silicon). Releasing a CPU on the same size die, but with a smaller CPU core, keeps the cost about the same but allows higher levels of integration within one very-large-scale integration chip (additional cache, multiple CPUs or other components), improving performance and reducing overall system cost.
As with most complex electronic designs, the logic verification effort (proving that the design does not have bugs) now dominates the project schedule of a CPU.
Key CPU architectural innovations include index register, cache, virtual memory, instruction pipelining, superscalar, CISC, RISC, virtual machine, emulators, microprogram, and stack.
### Microarchitectural concepts {#microarchitectural_concepts}
### Research topics {#research_topics}
A variety of new CPU design ideas have been proposed, including reconfigurable logic, clockless CPUs, computational RAM, and optical computing.
### Performance analysis and benchmarking {#performance_analysis_and_benchmarking}
Benchmarking is a way of testing CPU speed. Examples include SPECint and SPECfp, developed by Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation, and ConsumerMark developed by the Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium EEMBC.
Some of the commonly used metrics include:
- Instructions per second - Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally Intel IA32 architecture) to be able to run a large base of pre-existing pre-compiled software. Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks, some of them pick a particular CPU based on operating frequency (see Megahertz Myth).
- FLOPS - The number of floating point operations per second is often important in selecting computers for scientific computations.
- Performance per watt - System designers building parallel computers, such as Google, pick CPUs based on their speed per watt of power, because the cost of powering the CPU outweighs the cost of the CPU itself.
- Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar.
- System designers building real-time computing systems want to guarantee worst-case response. That is easier to do when the CPU has low interrupt latency and when it has deterministic response. (DSP)
- Computer programmers who program directly in assembly language want a CPU to support a full featured instruction set.
- Low power - For systems with limited power sources (e.g. solar, batteries, human power).
- Small size or low weight - for portable embedded systems, systems for spacecraft.
- Environmental impact - Minimizing environmental impact of computers during manufacturing and recycling as well during use. Reducing waste, reducing hazardous materials. (see Green computing).
There may be tradeoffs in optimizing some of these metrics. In particular, many design techniques that make a CPU run faster make the \"performance per watt\", \"performance per dollar\", and \"deterministic response\" much worse, and vice versa.
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# Processor design
## Markets
There are several different markets in which CPUs are used. Since each of these markets differ in their requirements for CPUs, the devices designed for one market are in most cases inappropriate for the other markets.
### General-purpose computing {#general_purpose_computing}
, in the general-purpose computing market, that is, desktop, laptop, and server computers commonly used in businesses and homes, the Intel IA-32 and the 64-bit version x86-64 architecture dominate the market, with its rivals PowerPC and SPARC maintaining much smaller customer bases. Yearly, hundreds of millions of IA-32 architecture CPUs are used by this market. A growing percentage of these processors are for mobile implementations such as netbooks and laptops.
Since these devices are used to run countless different types of programs, these CPU designs are not specifically targeted at one type of application or one function. The demands of being able to run a wide range of programs efficiently has made these CPU designs among the more advanced technically, along with some disadvantages of being relatively costly, and having high power consumption.
#### High-end processor economics {#high_end_processor_economics}
In 1984, most high-performance CPUs required four to five years to develop.
### Scientific computing {#scientific_computing}
Scientific computing is a much smaller niche market (in revenue and units shipped). It is used in government research labs and universities. Before 1990, CPU design was often done for this market, but mass market CPUs organized into large clusters have proven to be more affordable. The main remaining area of active hardware design and research for scientific computing is for high-speed data transmission systems to connect mass market CPUs.
### Embedded design {#embedded_design}
As measured by units shipped, most CPUs are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. Embedded processors sell in the volume of many billions of units per year, however, mostly at much lower price points than that of the general purpose processors.
These single-function devices differ from the more familiar general-purpose CPUs in several ways:
- Low cost is of high importance.
- It is important to maintain a low power dissipation as embedded devices often have a limited battery life and it is often impractical to include cooling fans.
- To give lower system cost, peripherals are integrated with the processor on the same silicon chip.
- Keeping peripherals on-chip also reduces power consumption as external GPIO ports typically require buffering so that they can source or sink the relatively high current loads that are required to maintain a strong signal outside of the chip.
- Many embedded applications have a limited amount of physical space for circuitry; keeping peripherals on-chip will reduce the space required for the circuit board.
- The program and data memories are often integrated on the same chip. When the only allowed program memory is ROM, the device is known as a microcontroller.
- For many embedded applications, interrupt latency will be more critical than in some general-purpose processors.
#### Embedded processor economics {#embedded_processor_economics}
The embedded CPU family with the largest number of total units shipped is the 8051, averaging nearly a billion units per year. The 8051 is widely used because it is very inexpensive. The design time is now roughly zero, because it is widely available as commercial intellectual property. It is now often embedded as a small part of a larger system on a chip. The silicon cost of an 8051 is now as low as US\$0.001, because some implementations use as few as 2,200 logic gates and take 0.4730 square millimeters of silicon.
As of 2009, more CPUs are produced using the ARM architecture family instruction sets than any other 32-bit instruction set. The ARM architecture and the first ARM chip were designed in about one and a half years and 5 human years of work time.
The 32-bit Parallax Propeller microcontroller architecture and the first chip were designed by two people in about 10 human years of work time.
The 8-bit AVR architecture and first AVR microcontroller was conceived and designed by two students at the Norwegian Institute of Technology.
The 8-bit 6502 architecture and the first MOS Technology 6502 chip were designed in 13 months by a group of about 9 people.
#### Research and educational CPU design {#research_and_educational_cpu_design}
The 32-bit Berkeley RISC I and RISC II processors were mostly designed by a series of students as part of a four quarter sequence of graduate courses. This design became the basis of the commercial SPARC processor design.
For about a decade, every student taking the 6.004 class at MIT was part of a team---each team had one semester to design and build a simple 8 bit CPU out of 7400 series integrated circuits. One team of 4 students designed and built a simple 32 bit CPU during that semester.
Some undergraduate courses require a team of 2 to 5 students to design, implement, and test a simple CPU in a FPGA in a single 15-week semester.
The MultiTitan CPU was designed with 2.5 man years of effort, which was considered \"relatively little design effort\" at the time. 24 people contributed to the 3.5 year MultiTitan research project, which included designing and building a prototype CPU.
#### Soft microprocessor cores {#soft_microprocessor_cores}
For embedded systems, the highest performance levels are often not needed or desired due to the power consumption requirements. This allows for the use of processors which can be totally implemented by logic synthesis techniques. These synthesized processors can be implemented in a much shorter amount of time, giving quicker time-to-market
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# Carinatae
**Carinatae** is the group of all birds and their extinct relatives to possess a keel, or \"carina\", on the underside of the breastbone used to anchor large flight muscles.
## Definition
Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds whose sternum (breast bone) has a keel (*carina*). The keel is a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced keel. Ratites, all of which are flightless, lack a strong keel. Thus, living birds were divided into carinatae (keeled) and ratites (from *ratis*, \"raft\", referring to the flatness of the sternum). The difficulty with this scheme phylogenetically was that some flightless birds, without strong keels, are descended directly from ordinary flying birds possessing one. Examples include the kākāpō, a flightless parrot, and the dodo, a columbiform (the pigeon family). Neither of these birds are a ratite. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenetic relationship.
Beginning in the 1980s, Carinatae was given several phylogenetic definitions. The first was as a node-based clade uniting *Ichthyornis* with modern birds. However, in many analyses, this definition would be synonymous with the more widely used name Ornithurae. An alternate definition was provided in 2001, naming Carinatae an apomorphy-based clade defined by the presence of a keeled sternum.
The most primitive known bird relative with a keeled breastbone is *Confuciusornis*. While some specimens of this stem-bird have flat breastbones, some show a small ridge that could have supported a cartilaginous keel
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# Collagen helix
In molecular biology, the **collagen triple helix** or **type-2 helix** is the main secondary structure of various types of fibrous collagen, including type I collagen. In 1954, Ramachandran & Kartha (13, 14) advanced a structure for the collagen triple helix on the basis of fiber diffraction data. It consists of a triple helix made of the repetitious amino acid sequence glycine-X-Y, where X and Y are frequently proline or hydroxyproline. Collagen folded into a triple helix is known as tropocollagen. Collagen triple helices are often bundled into fibrils which themselves form larger fibres, as in tendons.
## Structure
Glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline must be in their designated positions with the correct configuration. For example, hydroxyproline in the Y position increases the thermal stability of the triple helix, but not when it is located in the X position. The thermal stabilization is also hindered when the hydroxyl group has the wrong configuration. Due to the high abundance of glycine and proline contents, collagen fails to form a regular α-helix and β-sheet structure. Three left-handed helical strands twist to form a right-handed triple helix. A collagen triple helix has 3.3 residues per turn.
Each of the three chains is stabilized by the steric repulsion due to the pyrrolidine rings of proline and hydroxyproline residues. The pyrrolidine rings keep out of each other\'s way when the polypeptide chain assumes this extended helical form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the alpha helix. The three chains are hydrogen bonded to each other. The hydrogen bond donors are the peptide NH groups of glycine residues. The hydrogen bond acceptors are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of hydroxyproline does not participate in hydrogen bonding but stabilises the trans isomer of proline by stereoelectronic effects, therefore stabilizing the entire triple helix.
The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 2.9 Å (0.29 nm) per residue. The center of the collagen triple helix is very small and hydrophobic, and every third residue of the helix must have contact with the center. Due to the very tiny and tight space at the center, only the small hydrogen of the glycine side chain is capable of interacting with the center. This contact is impossible even when a slightly bigger amino acid residue is present other than glycine
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# Cosmic censorship hypothesis
The weak and the strong **cosmic censorship hypotheses** are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of gravitational singularities arising in general relativity.
Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein\'s equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be observed from the rest of spacetime. Singularities that are not so hidden are called *naked*. The **weak cosmic censorship hypothesis** was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969 and posits that no naked singularities exist in the universe.
## Basics
Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose--Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe, as described by the general theory of relativity, is deterministic: it is possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space hidden inside event horizons of singularities), knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a spacelike three-dimensional hypersurface, called the Cauchy surface). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is yet impossible to predict the behavior of spacetime in the causal future of a singularity. Cosmic censorship is not merely a problem of formal interest; some form of it is assumed whenever black hole event horizons are mentioned.
The hypothesis was first formulated by Roger Penrose in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable, falsifiable, and sufficiently general to be interesting. Because the statement is not a strictly formal one, there is sufficient latitude for (at least) two independent formulations: a weak form, and a strong form.
## Weak and strong cosmic censorship hypothesis {#weak_and_strong_cosmic_censorship_hypothesis}
The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes.
The **weak cosmic censorship hypothesis** asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole. Mathematically, the conjecture states that, for generic initial data, the causal structure is such that the maximal Cauchy development possesses a complete future null infinity.
The **strong cosmic censorship hypothesis** asserts that, generically, general relativity is a deterministic theory, in the same sense that classical mechanics is a deterministic theory. In other words, the classical fate of all observers should be predictable from the initial data. Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally inextendible as a regular Lorentzian manifold. Taken in its strongest sense, the conjecture suggests locally inextendibility of the maximal Cauchy development as a continuous Lorentzian manifold \[very Strong Cosmic Censorship\]. This strongest version was disproven in 2018 by Mihalis Dafermos and Jonathan Luk for the Cauchy horizon of an uncharged, rotating black hole.
The two conjectures are mathematically independent, as there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is valid but strong cosmic censorship is violated and, conversely, there exist spacetimes for which weak cosmic censorship is violated but strong cosmic censorship is valid.
## Example
The Kerr metric, corresponding to a black hole of mass $M$ and angular momentum $J$, can be used to derive the effective potential for particle orbits restricted to the equator (as defined by rotation). This potential looks like: $V_{\rm{eff}}(r,e,\ell)=-\frac{M}{r}+\frac{\ell^2-a^2(e^2-1)}{2r^2}-\frac{M(\ell-a e)^2}{r^3},~~~
a\equiv \frac{J}{M}$ where $r$ is the coordinate radius, $e$ and $\ell$ are the test-particle\'s conserved energy and angular momentum respectively (constructed from the Killing vectors).
To preserve *cosmic censorship*, the black hole is restricted to the case of $a < 1$. For there to exist an event horizon around the singularity, the requirement $a < 1$ must be satisfied. This amounts to the angular momentum of the black hole being constrained to below a critical value, outside of which the horizon would disappear.
The following thought experiment is reproduced from Hartle\'s *Gravity*:
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# Cosmic censorship hypothesis
## Problems with the concept {#problems_with_the_concept}
There are a number of difficulties in formalizing the hypothesis:
- There are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity.
- It is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not \"physically reasonable\"; the canonical example of such a spacetime is perhaps the \"superextremal\" $M<|Q|$ Reissner--Nordström solution, which contains a singularity at $r=0$ that is not surrounded by a horizon. A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations.
- Caustics may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded.
- Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypotheses.
In 1991, John Preskill and Kip Thorne bet against Stephen Hawking that the hypothesis was false. Hawking conceded the bet in 1997, due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned, which he characterized as \"technicalities\". Hawking later reformulated the bet to exclude those technicalities. The revised bet is still open (although Hawking died in 2018), the prize being \"clothing to cover the winner\'s nakedness\".
## Counter-example {#counter_example}
An exact solution to the scalar-Einstein equations $R_{ab}=2\phi_a\phi_b$ which forms a counterexample to many formulations of the cosmic censorship hypothesis was found by Mark D. Roberts in 1985: $ds^2=-(1+2\sigma)\,dv^2+2\,dv\,dr+r(r-2\sigma v)\left(d\theta^2 + \sin^2 \theta \,d\phi^2\right),\quad \varphi = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(1 - \frac{2\sigma v}{r}\right),$ where $\sigma$ is a constant
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# Christopher Alexander
**Christopher Wolfgang John Alexander** (4 October 1936 -- 17 March 2022) was an Austrian-born British-American architect and design theorist. He was an emeritus professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His theories about the nature of human-centered design have affected fields beyond architecture, including urban design, software design, and sociology. Alexander designed and personally built over 100 buildings, both as an architect and a general contractor.
In software, Alexander is regarded as the father of the pattern language movement. According to creator Ward Cunningham, the first wiki---the technology behind Wikipedia---led directly from Alexander\'s work. Alexander\'s work has also influenced the development of agile software development.
In architecture, Alexander\'s work is used by a number of different contemporary architectural communities of practice, including the New Urbanist movement, to help people to reclaim control over their own built environment. However, Alexander was controversial among some mainstream architects and critics, in part because his work was often harshly critical of much of contemporary architectural theory and practice.`{{Page needed|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
Alexander is best known for his 1977 book *A Pattern Language,* a perennial seller some four decades after publication. Reasoning that users are more sensitive to their needs than any architect could be, he collaborated with his students Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid King, and Shlomo Angel to produce a pattern language that would empower anyone to design and build at any scale.
His other books include *Notes on the Synthesis of Form, A City is Not a Tree* (first published as a paper and re-published in book form in 2015), *The Timeless Way of Building, A New Theory of Urban Design,* *The Oregon Experiment,* the four-volume *The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe,* about his theories of \"morphogenetic\" processes, and *The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth*, about the implementation of his theories in a large building project in Japan.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Alexander was born in Vienna, Austria to his Catholic father, Ferdinand Johann Alfred Alexander, and Jewish mother, Lilly Edith Elizabeth (née Deutsch) Alexander. As a young child, Alexander emigrated in fall 1938 with his parents from Austria to England, when his parents were forced to flee the Nazi regime.`{{Page needed|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In England, his parents worked as German language teachers. Alexander spent much of his childhood in Chichester and Oxford, England, where he began his education in the sciences. He moved from England to the United States in 1958 to study at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He moved to Berkeley, California in 1963 to accept an appointment as Professor of Architecture, a position he would hold for almost 40 years. In 2002, after his retirement, Alexander moved to Arundel, England, where he continued to write, teach and build up to the time of his illness and death. Alexander was married to Margaret Moore Alexander, and he had two daughters, Sophie and Lily, by his former wife Pamela Patrick. Alexander held both British and American citizenship.
On 17 March 2022, Alexander died of pneumonia in his home in Binsted, England.
## Education
Alexander attended the Dragon School in Oxford and then Oundle School. In 1954, he was awarded the top open scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in chemistry and physics, and went on to read mathematics. He earned a Bachelor\'s degree in Architecture and a master\'s degree in mathematics. He took his doctorate at Harvard (the first PhD in Architecture ever awarded at Harvard University). His dissertation \"The Synthesis of Form: Some Notes on a Theory\" was completed in 1962. He was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies.
## Honors
Alexander was elected to the Society of Fellows, Harvard University 1961--64; awarded the First Medal for Research by the American Institute of Architects, 1972; elected member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Arts, 1980; winner of the Best Building in Japan award, 1985; winner of the ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Distinguished Professor Award, 1986 and 1987; invited to present the Louis Kahn Memorial Lecture, 1992; elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996; one of the two inaugural recipients of the Athena Medal, given by the Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU), 2006;. awarded (*in absentia*) the Vincent Scully Prize by the National Building Museum, 2009; awarded the lifetime achievement award by the Urban Design Group, 2011; winner of the Global Award for Sustainable Architecture, 2014 and 1994 Seaside Prize recipient.
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# Christopher Alexander
## Career
### Author
*The Timeless Way of Building* (1979) described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire: `{{blockquote|There is one timeless way of building. It is a thousand years old, and the same today as it has ever been. The great traditional buildings of the past, the villages and tents and temples in which man feels at home, have always been made by people who were very close to the center of this way. It is not possible to make great buildings, or great towns, beautiful places, places where you feel yourself, places where you feel alive, except by following this way. And, as you will see, this way will lead anyone who looks for it to buildings which are themselves as ancient in their form, as the trees and hills, and as our faces are.}}`{=mediawiki}
*A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction* (1977), co-authored with Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein, described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a generative grammar. The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious. The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations. The book had its beginnings with an early version of Alexander\'s PhD dissertation based on fieldwork in the Bavra village in Gujarat, India.
The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project. It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe, and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs. A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality.
The book includes all needed surveying and structural calculations, and a novel simplified building system that copes with regional shortages of wood and steel, uses easily stored inexpensive materials, and produces long-lasting classic buildings with small amounts of materials, design and labor. It first has users prototype a structure on-site in temporary materials. Once accepted, these are finished by filling them with very-low-density concrete. It uses vaulted construction to build as high as three stories, permitting very high densities.
This book\'s method was adopted by the University of Oregon as described in *The Oregon Experiment* (1975), and remains the official planning instrument. It has also been adopted in part by some cities as a building code.
The idea of a pattern language appears to apply to any complex engineering task, and has been applied to some of them. It has been especially influential in software engineering where patterns have been used to document collective knowledge in the field.
*A New Theory of Urban Design* (1987) coincided with a renewal of interest in urbanism among architects, but stood apart from most other expressions of this by assuming a distinctly anti-masterplanning stance. An account of a design studio conducted with University of California Berkeley students on a site in San Francisco, it shows how convincing urban networks can be generated by requiring individual actors to respect only *local* rules, in relation to neighbours. A vastly undervalued part of the Alexander canon, *A New Theory* is important in understanding the generative processes which give rise to the shanty towns latterly championed by Stewart Brand, Robert Neuwirth, and Charles III, the then Prince of Wales (2001). There have been critical reconstructions of Alexander\'s design studio based on the theories put forward in *A New Theory of Urban Design*.
*The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe* (2003--04), which includes The *Phenomenon of Life*, *The Process of Creating Life*, *A Vision of a Living World* and *The Luminous Ground*, is Alexander\'s most comprehensive and elaborate work. In it, he put forth a new theory about the nature of space and described how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, planning, and the way in which we view the world in general. The mostly static patterns from *A Pattern Language* were amended by more dynamic sequences, which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the result of sequences). Sequences, like patterns, promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture).
The online publication *Katarxis 3* (September 2004) includes several essays by Christopher Alexander, as well as a debate between Alexander and Peter Eisenman from 1982.
Alexander\'s final book published while he was alive, *The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth: A Struggle Between Two World-Systems* (2012), is the story of the largest project he and his colleagues had ever tackled, the construction of a new High School/College campus in Japan. He also used the project to connect with themes in his four-volume series. He contrasted his approach, (System A) with the construction processes endemic in the U.S. and Japanese economies (System B). As Alexander describes it, System A is focused on enhancing the life/spirit of spaces within given constraints (land, budget, client needs, etc.) (drawings are sketches -- decisions on placing buildings, materials used, finish and such are made in the field as construction proceeds, with adjustments as needed to meet overall budget); System B ignores, and tends to diminish or destroy that quality because there is an inherent flaw: System A is a generally a product of a different Economic System than we live in now. When the architect is only responsible for concept and casual field drawings (which the builder uses to build structures at the lowest possible \[competitive\] cost), the builder finds that System A can not produce acceptable results at the lowest market cost. Except for a culture where land and material costs are low or first world clients who are sensitive, patient and wealthy. In most cases, the economically motivated builder must use a hybrid system. In the best case, System AB, the builder uses the processes of System A to differentiate, improve and inform his work. Or there are no economic considerations and the builder is the architect and is building for himself. In the last few chapters he described \"centers\" as a way of thinking about the connections among spaces, and about what brings more wholeness and life to a space.
### Works of architecture {#works_of_architecture}
Among Alexander\'s most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo (the building process of which is outlined in his 2012 book *The Battle for the Life and Beauty of the Earth*); the West Dean Visitors Centre in West Sussex, England; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in San Jose, California (both described in *Nature of Order*); the Sala House and the Martinez House (experimental houses in Albany and Martinez, California made of lightweight concrete); the low-cost housing in Mexicali, Mexico (described in *The Production of Houses*); and several private houses (described and illustrated in *The Nature of Order*). Alexander\'s built work is characterized by a special quality (which he used to call \"the quality without a name\", but named \"wholeness\" in *Nature of Order*) that relates to human beings and induces feelings of belonging to the place and structure. This quality is found in the most loved traditional and historic buildings and urban spaces, and is precisely what Alexander has tried to capture with his sophisticated mathematical design theories. Paradoxically, achieving this connective human quality has also moved his buildings away from the abstract imageability valued in contemporary architecture, and this is one reason why his buildings are under-appreciated at present.`{{Page needed|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
His former student and colleague Michael Mehaffy wrote an introductory essay on Alexander\'s built work in the online publication *Katarxis 3*, which includes a gallery of Alexander\'s major built projects through September 2004.
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# Christopher Alexander
## Career
### Teaching
In addition to his lengthy teaching career as a professor at UC Berkeley (during which a number of international students began to appreciate and apply his methods), Alexander was a key faculty member at both The Prince of Wales\'s Summer Schools in Civil Architecture (1990--1994) and The Prince\'s Foundation for the Built Environment. He also initiated the process which led to the international Building Beauty post-graduate school for architecture, which launched in Sorrento, Italy for the 2017--18 academic year.
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# Christopher Alexander
## Influence
### Architecture
Alexander\'s work has widely influenced architects; among those who acknowledge his influence are Sarah Susanka, Andres Duany, and Witold Rybczynski. Robert Campbell, the Pulitzer Prize-winning architecture critic for the *Boston Globe*, stated that Alexander \"has had an enormous critical influence on my life and work, and I think that\'s true of a whole generation of people.\"
Architecture critic Peter Buchanan, in an essay for *The Architectural Review*{{\'}}s 2012 campaign *The Big Rethink*, argues that Alexander\'s work as reflected in *A Pattern Language* is \"thoroughly subversive and forward looking rather than regressive, as so many misunderstand it to be.\" He continues: `{{blockquote|Even architects not immune to the charms of the places depicted, are loath to pursue the folksy aesthetic they see as implied and do not want to engage with such primitive construction—although the systemic collapse now unfolding may force that upon them. The daunting challenge for architects then, if such a thing is even possible to realise, would be to recreate in a more contemporary idiom both the richness and quality of experience suggested by the pattern language.<ref>[http://www.architectural-review.com/the-big-rethink/the-big-rethink-transcend-and-include-the-past/8629373.article?blocktitle=Towards-a-Complete-Architecture&contentID=4950 The Big Rethink: Transcend And include The Past], 24 April 2012 (accessed 5 January 2012)</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Many urban development projects continue to incorporate Alexander\'s ideas. For example, in the UK the developers Living Villages have been highly influenced by Alexander\'s work and used *A Pattern Language* as the basis for the design of The Wintles in Bishops Castle, Shropshire. Sarah Susanka\'s \"Not So Big House\" movement adapts and popularizes Alexander\'s patterns and outlook.
### Computer science {#computer_science}
Alexander\'s *Notes on the Synthesis of Form* was said`{{by whom|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} to be required reading for researchers in computer science throughout the 1960s. It had an influence in the 1960s and 1970s on programming language design, modular programming, object-oriented programming, software engineering and other design methodologies. Alexander\'s mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to Edsger Dijkstra\'s influential *A Discipline of Programming*.
The greatest influence of *A Pattern Language* in computer science is the design patterns movement. Alexander\'s philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design also influenced the extreme programming movement. The Wiki was invented to allow the Hillside Group to work collaboratively on programming design patterns. More recently the \"deep geometrical structures\" as discussed in *The Nature of Order* have been cited as having importance for object-oriented programming, particularly in C++.
Will Wright wrote that Alexander\'s work was influential in the origin of the *SimCity* computer games, and in his later game *Spore*.
Alexander often led his own software research, such as the 1996 Gatemaker project with Greg Bryant.
Alexander discovered and conceived a recursive structure, so called wholeness, which is defined mathematically, exists in space and matter physically, and reflects in our minds and cognition psychologically. He had his idea of wholeness back to early 1980s when he finished his first version of *The Nature of Order*. His idea of wholeness or degree of wholeness relying on a recursive structure of centers resemble aspects of Google\'s PageRank.
### Religion
The fourth volume of *The Nature of Order* approaches religious questions from a scientific and philosophical rather than mystical direction, focusing in human feelings, well-being and nature interaction rather than metaphysics. In it, Alexander describes deep ties between the nature of matter, human perception of the universe, and the geometries people construct in buildings, cities, and artifacts. He suggests a crucial link between traditional practices and beliefs, and recent scientific advances. Despite his leanings toward Deism, and his naturalistic and anthropologic approach to religion, Alexander maintained that he was a practicing member of the Catholic Church, which he believed to have accumulated, within its knowledge, a great deal of human truth.
### Design science {#design_science}
The life\'s work of Alexander is dedicated to turn design from unselfconscious behavior to selfconscious behavior, so called design science. In his very first book *Notes on the Synthesis of Forms*, he set what he wanted to do. He was inspired by traditional buildings, and tried to derive some 253 patterns for architectural design. Later on, he further distilled 15 geometric properties to characterize living structure in *The Nature of Order*. The design principles are differentiation and adaptation.
### Complex networks {#complex_networks}
In his classic A City is Not a Tree, he already had some primary ideas of complex networks, although he used semilattice rather than complex networks. In his 1964 book Notes on the Synthesis of Form (p. 65), he prefigured community structure in complex networks`{{or|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki}`{{failed verification|date=February 2025}}`{=mediawiki}, a topic that emerged around 2004
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# Clabbers
**Clabbers** is a game played by tournament Scrabble players for fun, or occasionally at Scrabble variant tournaments. The name derives from the fact that the words CLABBERS and SCRABBLE form an anagram pair.
## Rules
The rules are identical to those of Scrabble, except that valid plays are only required to form anagrams of acceptable words; in other words, the letters in a word do not need to be placed in the correct order. If a word is challenged, the player who played the word must then name an acceptable word that anagrams to the tiles played.
Because the number of \"words\" that can be formed is vastly larger than in standard English, the board usually ends up tightly packed in places, and necessarily quite empty in others. Game scores will often be much higher than in standard Scrabble, due to the relative ease of making high-scoring overlap plays and easier access to premium squares.
## Web version {#web_version}
The Internet Scrabble Club offers the ability to play Clabbers online.
## Example game (SOWPODS) {#example_game_sowpods}
**Horizontal words** from top to bottom (# denotes words that exist in the Collins English Dictionary but not the TWL)
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# Corum Jhaelen Irsei
**Corum Jhaelen Irsei** (known also as \"the Prince in the Scarlet Robe\" and \"Corum of the Silver Hand\") is a fictional fantasy hero in a series of novels written by Michael Moorcock. The character was introduced in the novel *The Knight of Swords*, published in 1971. This was followed by two other books published during the same year, *The Queen of Swords* and *The King of Swords*. The three novels are collectively known as the \"Corum Chronicles trilogy\" or \"the Chronicles of Corum\". Both *The Knight of the Swords* and *The King of the Swords* won the August Derleth Award in 1972 and 1973 respectively. The character then starred in three books making up the \"Silver Hand trilogy\", and has appeared in other stories taking place in Moorcock\'s multiverse.
Corum is a hero with disabilities, losing his left hand and right eye early in his first story. The hand and eye are later replaced by the **Eye of Rhynn** and the six-fingered **Hand of Kwll**, powerful artifacts that help Corum against his enemies. Corum is usually reluctant to use these two artifacts, as they involve methods and dark forces that conflict with his personal morality. Since the Eye of Rhynn causes Corum to see multiple planes of reality simultaneously, he often wears an eye patch over it to keep from being overwhelmed. After he loses both artifacts, Corum relies on a normal eyepatch and a silver prosthetic hand.
Corum is one of many incarnations of Michael Moorcock\'s \"**Eternal Champion**\", a soul who is reborn frequently throughout the multiverse and usually fights to restore or maintain the Cosmic Balance between Chaos and Law. In some stories, Corum\'s adventures allow him to meet other aspects of the Eternal Champion, such as Elric of Melniboné, Erekosë, and Dorian Hawkmoon. While Elric famously owes allegiance to the chaos god Arioch, Corum follows the cause of Law and begins his adventures by opposing the plans of Arioch (or his universe\'s version of the same being).
## Fictional character biography {#fictional_character_biography}
Corum lives during an age before recorded history, when human beings are rising on Earth and beginning to war with the planet\'s older societies. Corum\'s race, the **Vadhagh**, understands advanced science regarding the nature of reality. Through force of will, they are able to perceive and even shift through different dimensional planes for different purposes. The primitive humans of the age mistake these scientific tricks for sorcery and believe the Vadhagh engage in demonic rituals and witchcraft.
Corum\'s people are long-lived and believe they have nothing to fear from humans. Over the centuries, they become complacent and ignorant of the world around them. As a result, they are taken by surprise when a human tribe hunts them down and slaughters them. The last survivor as far as he knows, Corum is tortured and mutilated by the human barbarians, losing an eye and a hand before he escapes. He wants vengeance against all humanity, but later learns humans make up many societies of different beliefs and moralities. After encountering sorcerers and god-like beings, Corum learns all reality is influenced by the forces of Chaos and Law. Corum dedicates himself to maintaining balance between both forces, as disaster and death occur if either side holds too much influence.
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## Collections
### *The Swords* Trilogy {#the_swords_trilogy}
This trilogy consists of *The Knight of the Swords* (1971), *The Queen of the Swords* (1971), and *The King of the Swords* (1971). In the United Kingdom it has been collected as an omnibus edition titled *Corum*, *Swords of Corum* and most recently *Corum: The Prince in the Scarlet Robe* (vol. 30 of Orion\'s Fantasy Masterworks series). In the United States the first trilogy has been published as *Corum: The Coming of Chaos*.
#### Plot
Prince Corum is a Vadhagh, one of a race of long-lived beings with limited magical abilities dedicated to peaceful pursuits such as art and poetry. Corum\'s father sends him away from their home, Castle Erorn, on a quest to learn the fate of their kinsmen. Corum eventually discovers that a group of \"Mabden\" (men), led by the savage Earl Glandyth-a-Krae, have raided all of the Vadhaugh\'s castles, and raped and slaughtered all of the Vadhaugh therein, including Corum\'s entire family. Arming himself, Corum attacks and kills several of the Mabden before being captured and tortured. After having his left hand cut off and right eye put out, Corum escapes by moving into another plane of existence, becoming invisible to the Mabden. They depart, and Corum is found by The Brown Man, a dweller of the forest of Laahr able to see Corum while out of phase. The Brown Man takes Corum to a being called The Giant of Laahr, who treats his wounds and explains he has a higher purpose.
Travelling to Moidel\'s Castle (a likely incarnation of Mont-Saint-Michel), Corum encounters his future lover, the Margravine Rhalina, a Mabden woman of the civilized land of Lwym an Esh. Having found out Corum\'s location by torturing and killing the Brown Man of Laahr, Glandyth-a-Krae marshalled his allies to Moidel\'s Castle. Glandyth had kept Corum\'s former hand and eye as souvenirs, and showed them to Corum to provoke a reaction. Rhalina uses sorcery (a ship summoned from the depths of the ocean and manned by her drowned dead husband and crew) to ward off an attack by Glandyth-a-Krae. Determined to restore himself, Corum and Rhalina travel to the island of Shool, a near immortal and mad sorcerer. During the journey Corum observes the Wading God, a mysterious giant who trawls the ocean with a net. Upon arriving at the island, Shool takes Rhalina hostage, and then provides Corum with two artifacts to replace his lost hand and eye: the Hand of Kwll and the Eye of Rhynn. The Eye of Rhynn allows Corum to see into an undead netherworld where the last beings killed by Corum exist until summoned by the Hand of Kwll.
Shool then explains that Corum\'s ill fortune has been caused by the Chaos God Arioch, the Knight of the Swords. When Arioch and his fellow Chaos Lords conquered the Fifteen Planes, the balance between the forces of Law and Chaos tipped in favor of Chaos, and their minions - such as Glandyth-a-Krae - embarked on a bloody rampage. Shool sends Corum to Arioch\'s fortress to steal the Heart of Arioch, which the sorcerer intends to use to attain greater power. Corum confronts Arioch, and learns Shool is nothing more than a pawn of the Chaos God. Arioch then ignores Corum, who discovers the location of the Heart. Corum is then attacked by Arioch, but the Hand of Kwll crushes the Heart and banishes the Chaos God forever. Before fading from existence, Arioch warns Corum that he has now earned the enmity of the Sword Rulers. Corum then meets with The Giant of Laahr, who reveals himself to be Lord Arkyn, the godlike Lord of Law whose realm had been taken over by Arioch. Arkyn tells Corum the destruction of Arioch is the first step towards Law regaining control of the Fifteen Planes. Corum returns to the island to rescue Rhalina, and discovers Shool has become a powerless moron. Shool is devoured by his own creations soon afterwards.
On another five planes, the forces of Chaos - led by Xiombarg, Queen of the Swords - reign supreme and are on the verge on eradicating the last resistance from the forces of Law. The avatars of the Bear and Dog gods plot with Earl Glandyth-a-Krae to murder Corum and return Arioch to the Fifteen Planes. Guided by Arkyn, Corum, Rhalina and companion Jhary-a-Conel cross the planes and encounter the King Without A Country, the last of his people who in turn is seeking the City in the Pyramid. The group locate the City, which is in fact a floating arsenal powered by advanced technology and inhabited by a people originally from Corum\'s world and his distant kin.
Besieged by the forces of Chaos, the City requires certain rare minerals to continue to power their weapons. Corum and Jhary attempt to locate the minerals and also encounter Xiombarg, who learns of Corum\'s identity. Corum slows Xiombarg\'s forces by defeating their leader, Prince Gaynor the Damned. Xiombarg is goaded into attacking the City directly in revenge for Arioch\'s banishment. Arkyn provides the minerals and confronts Xiombarg, who has manifested in a vulnerable state. As Arkyn banishes Xiombarg, Corum and his allies devastate the forces of Chaos. Glandyth-a-Krae, however, escapes and seeks revenge.
A spell - determined to have been cast by the forces of Chaos - forces the inhabitants of Corum\'s plane to war with each other (including the City in the Pyramid). Desperate to stop the slaughter, Corum, Rhalina and Jhary-a-Conel travel to the last five planes, ruled by Mabelode, the King of the Swords. Rhalina is taken hostage by the forces of Chaos and Corum has several encounters with the forces of Chaos, including Earl Glandyth-a-Krae.
Corum also meets two other aspects of the Eternal Champion: Elric and Erekosë, with all three seeking the mystical city of Tanelorn for their own purposes. After a brief adventure in the \"Vanishing Tower\", the other heroes depart and Corum and Jhary arrive at their version of Tanelorn. Corum discovers one of the \"Lost Gods\", the being Kwll, who is imprisoned and cannot be freed until whole. Corum offers Kwll his hand, on the condition that he aid them against Mabelode. Kwll accepts the terms, but reneges on the bargain until persuaded to assist. Corum is also stripped of his artificial eye, which belongs to Kwll\'s brother, the Lost God Rhynn. Kwll transports Corum and Jhary to the court of Mabelode, with the pair fleeing with Rhalina when Kwll directly challenges the Chaos God. On Kwll\'s instruction, Corum tosses the eye into the sea. It is recovered by the mysterious Wading God Corum had previously encountered, who is revealed to be Rhynn, which distracts Glandyth-a-Krae during his duel with Corum.
In a final battle, Corum avenges his family by killing Glandyth-a-Krae and decimating the last of Chaos\' mortal forces. Kwll later appears to Corum and reveals that all the gods - of both Chaos and Law - have been slain in order to free humanity and allow it to shape its own destiny.
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# Corum Jhaelen Irsei
## Collections
### *The Silver Hand* Trilogy {#the_silver_hand_trilogy}
This trilogy consists of *The Bull and the Spear* (1973), *The Oak and the Ram* (1973), and *The Sword and the Stallion* (1974). It was titled *The Prince with the Silver Hand* in the United Kingdom and *The Chronicles of Corum* in the United States respectively. The previous trilogy hinted at a Celtic or proto-Celtic setting for the stories - the terms *mabden* (human beings) and *shefanhow* (demons) occurring in these books are both Cornish language words. The Silver Hand trilogy is more explicit in its Celtic connections, with overt borrowings from Celtic mythology.
#### Plot {#plot_1}
Set eighty years after the defeat of the Sword Rulers, Corum has become despondent and alone since the death of his Mabden bride Rhalina. Plagued by voices at night, Corum believes he has gone insane until old friend Jhary-a-Conel advises Corum it is in fact a summons from another world. Listening to the voices allows Corum to pass to the other world, which is in fact the distant future. The descendants of Rhalina\'s folk, the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich (see: Crom Cruach), who call Corum \"Corum Llew Ereint\" (see: Lludd Llaw Eraint), face extinction by the Fhoi Myore (Fomorians). The Fhoi Myore, seven powerful but diseased and barely sentient giants, with the aid of their allies have conquered the land and plunged it into eternal winter. Allying himself with King Mannach, ruler of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum falls in love with his daughter Medhbh (see: Medb).
Corum also hears the prophecy of a seeress, who claims Corum should fear a brother (who will apparently slay him), a harp and above all, beauty. Corum seeks the lost artifacts of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich - a sacred Bull, a spear, an oak, a ram, a sword and a stallion - which will restore the land. Corum gains new allies, Goffanon (a blacksmith and diminutive giant, a member of the Sidhe race) and Goffanon\'s cousin and true giant Illbrec. They battle the Fhoi Myore, who themselves have allies: a returned Prince Gaynor, the wizard Calatin and his clone of Corum, the Brothers of the Pine, the undead Ghoolegh and a host of giant demonic dogs. After being instrumental in the death of two of the Fhoi Myore and restoring to his senses the encircled Amergin, the High King and Chief Druid of the Tuha-na-Cremm Croich, Corum and his allies fight a final battle in which all their foes are destroyed.
Corum decides not to return his own world, and is attacked by his clone, whom he defeats with the aid of a spell placed on his silver hand by Medhbh. Medhbh, however, attacks and wounds Corum, having been told by the being the Dagdah that their world must be free of all gods and demi-gods if they are to flourish as a people. Corum is then killed with his own sword by his animated silver hand, thereby fulfilling the prophecy.
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# Corum Jhaelen Irsei
## Awards
The August Derleth Award won by:
- *The Knight of the Swords* - won in 1972
- *The King of the Swords* - won in 1973
- *The Sword and the Stallion* - won in 1975
## In other media {#in_other_media}
### Comics
First Comics published *The Chronicles of Corum*, a twelve issue limited series (Jan. 1986 - Dec. 1988) that adapted the \"Swords Trilogy\", and was followed by the four issue limited series *Corum: The Bull and the Spear* (Jan. - July (bi-monthly) 1989), which adapted the first book in the second trilogy.
These have been reprinted in 4 hardcover volumes by Titan Comics.
### Role-playing game {#role_playing_game}
Darcsyde Productions produced a supplement for use with Chaosium\'s *Stormbringer* (2001) role-playing game adapting the characters and settings from the *Corum* series for role-playing.
### eBooks
Gollancz released the entire Corum stories in both print and ebook form, commencing in 2013. The ebooks are available via Gollancz\'s SF Gateway site.
### Audiobooks
In 2016, GraphicAudio produced dramatized audiobook versions of Corum
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# Christine de Pizan
**Christine de Pizan** or **Pisan** (`{{IPA|fr|kʁistin də pizɑ̃|lang|Fr-Christine De Pisan.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|frm|krisˈtinə də piˈzã|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; born **Cristina da Pizzano**; September 1364 -- `{{c.|1430}}`{=mediawiki}), was an Italian-born French court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French royal dukes, in both prose and poetry.
Christine de Pizan served as a court writer in medieval France after the death of her husband. Christine\'s patrons included dukes Louis I of Orleans, Philip the Bold of Burgundy, and his son John the Fearless. Considered to be some of the earliest feminist writings, her work includes novels, poetry, and biography, and she also penned literary, historical, philosophical, political, and religious reviews and analyses. Her best known works are *The Book of the City of Ladies* and *The Treasure of the City of Ladies*, both prose works written when she worked for John the Fearless of Burgundy. Her books of advice to princesses, princes, and knights remained in print until the 16th century.
## Life
### Early life and family (1364--1389) {#early_life_and_family_13641389}
Christine de Pizan was born in 1364 in the Republic of Venice, Italy. She was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano. Her father became known as Thomas de Pizan, named for the family\'s origins in the village of Pizzano (currently part of the municipality of Monterenzio), southeast of Bologna. Her father worked as a physician, court astrologer and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of Charles V of France as the king\'s astrologer and in 1368 Christine moved to Paris. In 1379 Christine de Pizan married the notary and royal secretary Etienne du Castel.
She had three children. Her daughter became a nun at the Dominican convent of Poissy in 1397 as a companion to the King\'s daughter Marie. Christine\'s husband died of the plague in 1389, a year after her father had died. On 4 June 1389, in a judgment concerning a lawsuit filed against her by the archbishop of Sens and François Chanteprime, councillors of the King, Christine was called \"damoiselle\" and \"widow of Estienne du Castel\".
### Writing career (1389--1405) {#writing_career_13891405}
After her husband Etienne died, Christine was left to support her mother and her children. When she tried to collect money from her husband\'s estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salaries still owed to her husband. Through this, Christine became a court writer. By 1393, she was writing love ballads, which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court. Christine became a prolific writer. Her involvement in the production of her books and her skillful use of patronage in turbulent political times has earned her the title of the first professional woman of letters in Europe.
Although Venetian by birth, Christine expressed a fervent nationalism for France. Affectively and financially she became attached to the French royal family, donating or dedicating her early ballads to its members, including Isabeau of Bavaria, Louis I, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Berry. Patronage changed in the late Middle Ages. Texts were still produced and circulated as continuous roll manuscripts, but were increasingly replaced by the bound codex. Members of the royal family became patrons of writers by commissioning books. As materials became cheaper a book trade developed, so writers and bookmakers produced books for the French nobility, who could afford to establish their own libraries. Christine thus had no single patron who consistently supported her financially and became associated with the royal court and the different factions of the royal family -- the Burgundy, Orleans and Berry -- each having their own respective courts. Throughout her career Christine undertook concurrent paid projects for individual patrons and subsequently published these works for dissemination among the nobility of France.
France was ruled by Charles VI who since 1392 experienced a series of mental breakdowns, causing a crisis of leadership for the French monarchy. He was often absent from court and could eventually only make decisions with the approval of a royal council. Queen Isabeau was nominally in charge of governance when her husband was absent from court but could not extinguish the quarrel between members of the royal family. In the past, Blanche of Castile had played a central role in the stability of the royal court and had acted as regent of France. Christine published a series of works on the virtues of women, referencing Queen Blanche and dedicating them to Queen Isabeau. In 1402 she described Queen Isabeau as \"High, excellent crowned Queen of France, very redoubtable princess, powerful lady, born at a lucky hour\".
Christine believed that France had been founded by the descendants of the Trojans and that its governance by the royal family adhered to the Aristotelian ideal. In 1400 Christine published *L\'Épistre de Othéa a Hector* (*Letter of Othea to Hector*). When first published, the book was dedicated to Louis of Orléans, the brother of Charles VI, who was at court seen as potential regent of France. In *L\'Épistre de Othéa a Hector* Hector of Troy is tutored in statecraft and the political virtues by the goddess of wisdom Othéa. Christine produced richly illustrated luxury editions of *L\'Épistre de Othéa a Hector* in 1400. Between 1408 and 1415 Christine produced further editions of the book. Throughout her career she produced rededicated editions of the book with customised prologues for patrons, including an edition for Philip the Bold in 1403, and editions for Jean of Berry and Henry IV of England in 1404.
In 1402, Christine became involved in a renowned literary controversy, the \"Querelle du Roman de la Rose\". Christine questioned the literary merits of Jean de Meun\'s popular *Romance of the Rose*, which satirizes the conventions of courtly love while critically depicting women as nothing more than seducers. In the midst of the Hundred Years\' War between French and English kings, Christine wrote the dream allegory *Le Chemin de long estude* in 1403. Writing in the first-person, she and the Cumaean Sibyl travel together and witness a debate on the state of the world between the four allegories -- Wealth, Nobility, Chivalry and Wisdom. Christine suggests that justice could be brought to earth by a single monarch who had the necessary qualities.
In 1404, Christine chronicled the life of Charles V, portraying him as the ideal king and political leader, in *Le Livre des fais et bonnes meurs du sage roy Charles V*. The chronicle had been commissioned by Philip the Bold of Burgundy and in the chronicle, Christine passed judgment on the state of the royal court. When praising the efforts of Charles V in studying Latin, Christine lamented that her contemporaries had to resort to strangers to read the law to them. Before the book was completed, Philip the Bold died, and Christine offered the book to Jean, Duke of Berry in 1405 in an attempt to find a new patron. She was paid 100 livres for the book by Philip the Bold\'s successor John the Fearless in 1406 and would receive payments from his court for books until 1412.
In 1405, Christine published *Le Livre de la cité des dames* (*The Book of the City of Ladies*) and *Le Livre des trois vertus* (*Book of Three Virtues*, known as *The Treasure of the City of Ladies*). In *Le Livre de la cité des dames* Christine presented intellectual and royal female leaders, such as Queen Zenobia. Christine dedicated *Le Livre des trois vertus* to the dauphine Margaret of Nevers, advising the young princess on what she had to learn. As Queen Isabeau\'s oldest son Louis of Guyenne came of age Christine addressed three works to him with the intention of promoting wise and effective government. The earliest of the three works has been lost. In *Livre du Corps de policie* (*The Book of the Body Politic*), published in 1407 and dedicated to the dauphin, Christine set out a political treatise which analysed and described the customs and governments of late medieval European societies. Christine favoured hereditary monarchies, arguing in reference to Italian city-states that were governed by princes or trade guilds, that \"such governance is not profitable at all for the common good\". Christine also devoted several chapters to the duties of a king as a military leader and she described in detail the role of the military class in society.
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## Life
### Civil war (1405--1430) {#civil_war_14051430}
In the beginning of 1405, France was on the verge of a full-scale civil war. In 1407 John I of Burgundy, also known as John the Fearless, plunged France into a crisis when he ordered the assassination of Louis of Orléans. The Duke of Burgundy fled Paris when his complicity in the assassination became known, but was appointed regent of France on behalf of Charles VI in late 1408 after his military victory in the Battle of Othee. It is not certain who commissioned Christine to write a treatise on military warfare, but in 1410 Christine published the manual on chivalry, entitled *Livre des fais d\'armes et de chevalerie* (*The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry*). In early 1411, Christine was paid 200 livres from the royal reasury for the book. In the preface Christine explained that she published the manual in French so that it could be read by practitioners of war not well versed in Latin. The book opened with a discussion of the just war theory advanced by Honoré Bonet. Christine also referenced classical writers on military warfare, such as Vegetius, Frontinus and Valerius Maximus. Christine discussed contemporary matters relating to what she termed the *Laws of War*, such as capital punishment, the payment of troops, as well as the treatment of noncombatants and prisoners of war. Christine opposed trial by combat, but articulated the medieval belief that God is the lord and governor of battle and that wars are the proper execution of justice. Nevertheless, she acknowledged that in a war \"many great wrongs, extortions, and grievous deeds are committed, as well as raping, killings, forced executions, and arsons\". Christine limited the right to wage war to sovereign kings because as head of states they were responsible for the welfare of their subjects. In 1411 the royal court published an edict prohibiting nobles from raising an army.
After civil war had broken out in France, Christine in 1413 offered guidance to the young dauphin on how to govern well, publishing *Livre de la paix* (*The Book of Peace*). *Livre de la paix* was to be Christine\'s last major work and contained detailed formulations of her thoughts on good governance. The period was marked by bouts of civil war and failed attempts to bring John the Fearless to justice for assassinating his cousin. Christine addressed Louis of Guyenne directly, encouraging him to continue the quest for peace in France. She argued that \"Every kingdom divided in itself will be made desolate, and every city and house divided against itself will not stand\". Christine was acquainted with William of Tignonville, an ambassador to the royal court, and referenced Tignonville\'s speeches on the Armagnac--Burgundian Civil War. Christine drew a utopian vision of a just ruler, who could take advice from those older or wiser. In arguing that peace and justice were possible on earth as well as in heaven, Christine was influenced by Dante, whom she had referenced in *Le Chemin de long estude*. Christine encouraged the dauphin to deserve respect, by administering justice promptly and living by worthy example. Christine urged young princes to make themselves available to their subjects, avoid anger and cruelty, to act liberally, mercifully and truthfully. Christine\'s interpretation of the virtuous Christian prince built on the advice to rulers by St Benedict, Peter Abelard and Cicero.
In 1414, Christine presented Queen Isabeau with a lavishly decorated collection of her works (now known as *British Library Harley 4431*). The bound book contained 30 of Christine\'s writings and 130 miniatures. She had been asked by the queen to produce the book. The work is noted for its quality miniature illuminations; Christine herself and her past royal patrons are depicted. As a mark of ownership and authorship the opening frontispiece depicts Queen Isabeau being presented with the book by Christine.
In 1418, Christine published a consolation for women who had lost family members in the Battle of Agincourt under the title *Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine* (*Letter Concerning the Prison of Human Life*). In it, Christine did not express any optimism or hope that peace could be found on earth; instead, she expressed the view that the soul was trapped in the body and imprisoned in hell. The previous year she had presented the *Epistre de la prison de vie Humaine* to Marie of Berry, the administrator of the Duchy of Bourbon whose husband was held in English captivity.
Historians assume that Christine spent the last ten years of her life in the Dominican convent of Poissy because of the civil war and the occupation of Paris by the English. Away from the royal court her literary activity ceased. However, in 1429, after Joan of Arc\'s military victory over the English, Christine published the poem *Ditié de Jehanne d\'Arc* (*The Tale of Joan of Arc*). Published just a few days after the coronation of Charles VII, Christine expressed renewed optimism. She cast Joan as the fulfilment of prophecies by Merlin, the Cumaean Sibyl and Saint Bede, helping Charles VII to fulfill the predictions of Charlemagne.
Christine is believed to have died in 1430, before Joan was tried and executed by the English. After her death the political crisis in France was resolved when Queen Isabeau\'s only surviving son Charles VII and John the Fearless\' successor as Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, signed the Peace of Arras in 1435.
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## Works
thumb\|300px\|right\|upright=1.2\|Illumination from *The Book of the City of Ladies*. Christine is shown before the personifications of Rectitude, Reason, and Justice in her study, and working alongside Justice to build the \'Cité des dames\'. Christine produced a large number of vernacular works, in both prose and verse. Her works include political treatises, mirrors for princes, epistles, and poetry. Christine\'s book *Le Dit de la Rose* (*The Tale of the Rose*) was published in 1402 as a direct attack on Jean de Meun\'s extremely popular book *Romance of the Rose* which was a continuation of the version by Guillaume de Lorris and characterised women as seducers. Christine claimed that Meun\'s views were misogynistic, vulgar, immoral, and slanderous to women. Christine sparked a debate over the literary merits of the work when she confronted the royal secretary, Jean de Montreuil, who had written a short treatise praising the work. The debate continued between Christine and two other male royal secretaries who defended Jean in a heated exchange. At the height of the exchange Christine published *Querelle du Roman de la Rose* (*Letters on the Debate of the Rose*). In this particular apologetic response, Christine belittles her own writing style, employing a rhetorical strategy by writing against the grain of her meaning, also known as antiphrasis.
By 1405, Christine had completed her most famous literary works, *The Book of the City of Ladies* (*Le Livre de la cité des dames*) and *The Treasure of the City of Ladies* (*Le Livre des trois vertus*). The first of these shows the importance of women\'s past contributions to society, and the second strives to teach women of all estates how to cultivate useful qualities.
In *The Book of the City of Ladies* Christine created a symbolic city in which women are appreciated and defended. She constructed three allegorical figures -- Reason, Justice, and Rectitude -- in the common pattern of literature in that era when many books and poetry used stock allegorical figures to express ideas or emotions. She enters into a dialogue, a movement between question and answer, with these allegorical figures that is from a completely female perspective. Together, they create a forum to speak on issues of consequence to all women. Only female voices, examples and opinions provide evidence within this text. Through Lady Reason in particular Christine argues that stereotypes of women can be sustained only if women are prevented from entering into the conversation.
In *City of Ladies* Christine deliberated on the debate of whether the virtues of men and women differ, a frequently debated topic in late medieval Europe, particularly in the context of Aristotelian virtue ethics and his views on women. Christine repeatedly used the theological argument that men and women are created in God\'s image and both have souls capable of embracing God\'s goodness. Among the inhabitants of the *City of Ladies* are female saints, women from the Old Testament and virtuous women from the pagan antiquity as portrayed by Giovanni Boccaccio. Within her allegorical city of illustrious ladies, she reimagines the mythological figure, Medusa. Christine de Pizan\'s Medusa, in stark contrast to the typical portrayal in classical texts, is not a monstrous and deadly creature, but a woman deserving of safety from male harm. De Pizan is the first to provide a feminist revisionist perspective of the ancient myth.
In *The Treasure of the City of Ladies* Christine addressed the \"community\" of women with the stated objective of instructing them on the means of achieving virtue. She took the position that all women were capable of humility, diligence and moral rectitude, and that duly educated women could become worthy residents of the imaginary *City of Ladies*. Drawing on her own life, Christine advised women on how to navigate the perils of early 15th-century French society. She was a strong advocate of education for women, having said \"If it were customary to send little girls to school and to teach them the same subjects as are taught boys, they would learn just as fully and would understand the subtleties of all arts and sciences\". With reference to Augustine of Hippo and other saints Christine offered advice on how the noble lady could achieve the love of God. Christine speaks through the allegorical figures of God\'s daughters -- Reason, Rectitude and Justice -- who represent the Three Virtues most important to women\'s success. Through secular examples of these three virtues, Christine urged women to discover meaning and achieve worthy acts in their lives. Christine argued that women\'s success depends on their ability to manage and mediate by speaking and writing effectively.
Christine specifically sought out other women to collaborate in the creation of her work. She makes special mention of a manuscript illustrator we know only as Anastasia, whom she described as the most talented of her day.
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# Christine de Pizan
## Legacy
### Early French influence {#early_french_influence}
Christine published 41 known pieces of poetry and prose in her lifetime and she gained fame across Europe as the first professional woman writer. She achieved such credibility that royalty commissioned her prose and contemporary intellectuals kept copies of her works in their libraries.
After her death in 1430, Christine\'s influence was acknowledged by a variety of authors and her writings remained popular. While de Pizan\'s mixture of classical philosophy and humanistic ideals was in line with the style of other popular authors at the time, her outspoken defence of women was an anomaly. In her works she vindicated women against popular misogynist texts, such as Ovid\'s *Art of Love*, Jean de Meun\'s *Romance of the Rose* and Matheolus\'s *Lamentations*. Her book *Le Livre de la cité des dames* remained in print. Christine\'s *Le Livre des trois vertus* (*The Treasure of the City of Ladies*) became an important reference point for royal women in the 15th and 16th centuries; French editions were still being printed in 1536. Anne of France, who acted as regent of France, used it as a basis for her 1504 book of *Enseignemens*, written for her daughter Suzanne Duchess of Bourbon, who as agnatic heir to the Bourbon lands became co-regent. Christine\'s advice to princesses was translated and circulated as manuscripts or printed books among the royal families of France and Portugal. The *City of Ladies* was acknowledged and referenced by 16th century French women writers, including Anne de Beaujeu, Gabrielle de Bourbon, Marguerite de Navarre and Georgette de Montenay.
Christine\'s political writings received some attention too. *Livre de la paix* was referenced by the humanist Gabriel Naudé and Christine was given large entries in encyclopedias by Denis Diderot, Louis Moréri and Prosper Marchand. In 1470 Jean V de Bueil reproduced Christine\'s detailed accounts of the armies and material needed to defend a castle or town against a siege in *Le Jouvence*. *Livre des fais d\'armes et de chevalerie* was published in its entirety by the book printer Antoine Vérard in 1488, but Vérard claimed that it was his translation of Vegetius. Philippe Le Noir authored an abridged version of Christine\'s book in 1527 under the title *L\'Arbre des Batailles et fleur de chevalerie* (*The tree of battles and flower of chivalry*).
### Outside France {#outside_france}
A Dutch edition of *Le Livre de la cité des dames* exists from the 15th century. In 1521 *The Book of the City of Ladies* was published in English. *Livre des fais d\'armes et de chevalerie* was translated into English by William Caxton for Henry VII in 1489 and was published under the title *The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry* as print one year later, attributing Christine as author. English editions of *The Book of the City of Ladies* and *Livre du corps de policie* (*The Book of the Body Politic*) were printed in 1521 without referencing Christine as the author. Elizabeth I had in her court library copies of *The Book of the City of Ladies*, *L\'Épistre de Othéa a Hector* (*Letter of Othea to Hector*) and *The Book of Feats of Arms and of Chivalry*. Among the possessions of the English queen were tapestries with scenes from the *City of Ladies*.
### 19th to 21st centuries {#th_to_21st_centuries}
In the early 19th century Raimond Thomassy published an overview of Christine\'s political writings and noted that modern editions of these writings were not published and that as a political theorist Christine was descending into obscurity. Similarly, Mathilde Laigle and Marie-Josephe Pinet are credited with reviving the work of de Pizan in the early 20th century, as a writer who had been forgotten in France but noted elsewhere. Laigle noticed for instance that Spanish writers had borrowed extensively from de Pizan\'s work, even though it had not been translated into that language.
Her activism has also drawn the fascination of modern feminists. Simone de Beauvoir wrote in 1949 that *Épître au Dieu d\'Amour* was \"the first time we see a woman take up her pen in defence of her sex\". Beginning in the 1950s, scholarly work by Suzanne Solente further bolstered Christine\'s reputation.
Judy Chicago\'s 1979 artwork *The Dinner Party* features a place setting for Christine de Pizan. In the 1980s Sandra Hindman published a study of the political events referenced in the illuminations of Christine\'s published works. In recent decades, Christine\'s work has continued to grow in reputation by the efforts of scholars such as Charity Cannon Willard and Earl Jeffrey Richards.
In the opening cermenony of the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris, Christine was one of the 10 pioneering female contributors to French history honoured by gold-coloured statues which rose from giant pedestals along the river Seine
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# Charles F. Hockett
**Charles Francis Hockett** (January 17, 1916 -- November 3, 2000) was an American linguist who developed many influential ideas in American structuralist linguistics. He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism often referred to as \"distributionalism\" or \"taxonomic structuralism\". His academic career spanned over half a century at Cornell and Rice universities. Hockett was also a firm believer of linguistics as a branch of anthropology, making contributions that were significant to the field of anthropology as well.
## Professional and academic career {#professional_and_academic_career}
### Education
At the age of 16, Hockett enrolled at Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio where he received a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in ancient history. While enrolled at Ohio State, Hockett became interested in the work of Leonard Bloomfield, a leading figure in the field of structural linguistics. Hockett continued his education at Yale University where he studied anthropology and linguistics and received his PhD in anthropology in 1939. While studying at Yale, Hockett studied with several other influential linguists such as Edward Sapir, George P. Murdock, and Benjamin Whorf. Hockett\'s dissertation was based on his fieldwork in Potawatomi; his paper on Potawatomi syntax was published in *Language* in 1939. In 1948 his dissertation was published as a series in the International Journal of American Linguistics. Following fieldwork in Kickapoo and Michoacán, Mexico, Hockett did two years of postdoctoral study with Leonard Bloomfield in Chicago and Michigan.
### Career
Hockett began his teaching career in 1946 as an assistant professor of linguistics in the Division of Modern Languages at Cornell University where he was responsible for directing the Chinese language program. In 1957, Hockett became a member of Cornell\'s anthropology department and continued to teach anthropology and linguistics until he retired to emeritus status in 1982. In 1986, he took up an adjunct post at Rice University in Houston, Texas, where he remained active until his death in 2000.
### Achievements
Charles Hockett held membership among many academic institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Society of Fellows at Harvard University. He served as president of both the Linguistic Society of America and the Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States.
In addition to making many contributions to the field of structural linguistics, Hockett also considered such things as Whorfian Theory, jokes, the nature of writing systems, slips of the tongue, and animal communication and their relativeness to speech.
Outside the realm of linguistics and anthropology, Hockett practiced musical performance and composition. Hockett composed a full-length opera called *The Love of Doña Rosita* which was based on a play by Federico García Lorca and premiered at Ithaca College by the Ithaca Opera.
Hockett and his wife Shirley were vital leaders in the development of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra in Ithaca, New York. In appreciation of the Hocketts\' hard work and dedication to the Ithaca community, Ithaca College established the Charles F. Hockett Music Scholarship, the Shirley and Chas Hockett Chamber Music Concert Series, and the Hockett Family Recital Hall.
## View on linguistics {#view_on_linguistics}
In his paper \"A Note on Structure\", he proposes that linguistics can be seen as \"a game and as a science.\" A linguist as a player in the game of languages has the freedom to experiment on all utterances of a language, but must ensure that \"all the utterances of the corpus must be taken into account.\" Late in his career, he was known for his stinging criticism of Chomskyan linguistics.
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# Charles F. Hockett
## Key contributions {#key_contributions}
### Criticisms of Noam Chomsky and the Generative Programme {#criticisms_of_noam_chomsky_and_the_generative_programme}
Hockett was initially receptive to Generative grammar, hailing Chomsky\'s Syntactic Structures as \"one of only four major breakthroughs in the history of modern linguistics\" (1965). After carefully examining the generative school\'s proposed innovations in Linguistics, Hockett decided that this approach was of little value. His book *The State of the Art* outlined his criticisms of the generative approach. In his paraphrase a key principle of the Chomskyan paradigm is that there are an infinite number of grammatical sentences in any particular language.
> The grammar of a language is a finite system that characterizes an infinite set of (well-formed) sentences. More specifically, the grammar of a language is a *well-defined system* by definition not more powerful than a universal Turing machine (and, in fact, surely a great deal weaker).
The crux of Hockett\'s rebuttal is that the set of grammatical sentences in a language is not infinite, but rather ill-defined. Hockett proposes that \"no physical system is well-defined\".
Later in \"Where the tongue slips, there slip I\" he writes as follows.
> It is currently fashionable to assume that, underlying the actual more or less bumbling speech behavior of any human being, there is a subtle and complicated but determinate linguistic \"competence\": a sentence-generating device whose design can only be roughly guessed at by any techniques so far available to us. This point of view makes linguistics very hard and very erudite, so that anyone who actually does discover facts about underlying \"competence\" is entitled to considerable kudos.
>
> Within this popular frame of reference, a theory of \"performance\" \-- of the \"generation of speech\" \-- must take more or less the following form. If a sentence is to be uttered aloud, or even thought silently to oneself, it must first be built by the internal \"competence\" of the speaker, the functioning of which is by definition such that the sentence will be legal (\"grammatical\") in every respect. But that is not enough; the sentence as thus constructed must then be *performed*, either overtly so that others may hear it, or covertly so that it is perceived only by the speaker himself. It is in this second step that blunders may appear. That which is generated by the speaker\'s internal \"competence\"is what the speaker \"intends to say,\" and is the only real concern of linguistics: blunders in actually performed speech are instructions from elsewhere. Just if there are no such intrusions is what is performed an instance of \"smooth speech\".
>
> I believe this view is unmitigated nonsense, unsupported by any empirical evidence of any sort. In its place, I propose the following.
>
> *All* speech, smooth as well as blunderful, can be and must be accounted for essentially in terms of the three mechanisms we have listed: analogy, blending, and editing. An individual\'s language, at a given moment, is a set of habits\--that is, of analogies, where different analogies are in conflict, one may appear as a constraint on the working of another. Speech actualizes habits\--and changes the habits as it does so. Speech reflects awareness of norms; but norms are themselves entirely a matter of analogy (that is, of habit), not some different kind of thing.
Despite his criticisms, Hockett always expressed gratitude to the generative school for seeing real problems in the preexisting approaches.
> There are many situations in which bracketing does not serve to disambiguate. As already noted, words that belong together cannot always be spoken together, and when they are not, bracketing is difficult or impossible. In the 1950s this drove some grammarians to drink and other to transformations, but both are only anodynes, not answers
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# Charles F. Hockett
## Key contributions {#key_contributions}
### Design features of language {#design_features_of_language}
One of Hockett\'s most important contributions was his development of the design-feature approach to comparative linguistics. He attempted to distinguish the similarities and differences among animal communication systems and human language.
Hockett initially developed seven features, which were published in the 1959 paper "Animal 'Languages' and Human Language." However, after many revisions, he settled on 13 design-features in the *Scientific American* \"The Origin of Speech.\"
Hockett argued that while every communication system has some of the 13 design features, only human, spoken language has all 13 features. In turn, that differentiates human spoken language from animal communication and other human communication systems such as written language.
#### Hockett\'s 13 design features of language {#hocketts_13_design_features_of_language}
1. Vocal-Auditory Channel: Much of human language is performed using the vocal tract and auditory channel. Hockett viewed this as an advantage for human primates because it allowed for the ability to participate in other activities while simultaneously communicating through spoken language.
2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception: All human language can be heard if it is within range of another person\'s auditory channel. Additionally, a listener has the ability to determine the source of a sound by binaural direction finding.
3. Rapid Fading (transitoriness): Wave forms of human language dissipate over time and do not persist. A hearer can receive specific auditory information only at the time it is spoken.
4. Interchangeability: A person has the ability to speak and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to hear can be reproduced in spoken language.
5. Total Feedback: Speakers can hear themselves speak and monitor their speech production and internalize what they are producing by language.
6. Specialization: Human language sounds are specialized for communication. When dogs pant it is to cool themselves off. When humans speak, it is to transmit information.
7. Semanticity: Specific signals can be matched with a specific meaning.
8. Arbitrariness: There is no limitation to what can be communicated about and no specific or necessary connection between the sounds used and the message being sent.
9. Discreteness: Phonemes can be placed in distinct categories which differentiate them from one another, like the distinct sound of /p/ versus /b/.
10. Displacement: People can refer to things in space and time and communicate about things that are not present.
11. Productivity: People can create new and unique meanings of utterances from previously existing utterances and sounds.
12. Traditional Transmission: Human language is not completely innate, and acquisition depends in part on the learning of a language.
13. Duality of patterning: Meaningless phonic segments (phonemes) are combined to make meaningful words, which, in turn, are combined again to make sentences.
While Hockett believed that all communication systems, animal and human alike, share many of these features, only human language contains all 13 design features. Additionally, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning are key to human language.
#### Design feature representation in other communication systems {#design_feature_representation_in_other_communication_systems}
Honeybees
Foraging honey bees communicate with other members of their hive when they have discovered a relevant source of pollen, nectar, or water. In an effort to convey information about the location and the distance of such resources, honeybees participate in a particular figure-eight dance known as the waggle dance.
In Hockett\'s \"The Origin of Speech\", he determined that the honeybee communication system of the waggle dance holds the following design features:
1. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: By the use of this dance, honeybees are able to send out a signal that informs other members of the hive as to what direction the source of food, or water can be located.
2. Semanticity: Evidence that the specific signals of a communication system can be matched with specific meanings is apparent because other members of the hive are able to locate the food source after a performance of the waggle dance.
3. Displacement: Foraging honeybees can communicate about a resource that is not currently present within the hive.
4. Productivity: Waggle dances change based on the direction, amount, and type of resource.
Gibbons are small apes in the family Hylobatidae. While they share the same kingdom, phylum, class, and order of humans and are relatively close to man, Hockett distinguishes between the gibbon communication system and human language by noting that gibbons are devoid of the last four design features.
Gibbons possess the first nine design features, but do not possess the last four (displacement, productivity, traditional transmission, and duality of patterning).
1. Displacement, according to Hockett, appears to be lacking in the vocal signaling of apes.
2. Productivity does not exist among gibbons because if any vocal sound is produced, it is one of a finite set of repetitive and familiar calls.
3. Hockett supports the idea that humans learn language extra genetically through the process of traditional transmission. Hockett distinguishes gibbons from humans by stating that despite any similarities in communication among a species of apes, one cannot attribute these similarities to acquisition through the teaching and learning (traditional transmission) of signals; the only explanation must be a genetic basis.
4. Finally, duality of patterning explains a human\'s ability to create multiple meanings from somewhat meaningless sounds. For example, the phonemes /t/, /a/, /c/ can be used to create the words \"cat,\" \"tack,\" and \"act.\" Hockett states that no other Hominoid communication system besides human language maintains this ability.
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# Charles F. Hockett
## Key contributions {#key_contributions}
### Later additions to the features {#later_additions_to_the_features}
In a report published in 1968 with anthropologist and scientist Stuart A. Altmann, Hockett derived three more Design Features, bringing the total to 16. These are the additional three:
1. **Prevarication**: A speaker can say falsehoods, lies, and meaningless statements.
2. **Reflexiveness**: Language can be used communicate about the very system it is, and language can discuss language
3. **Learnability**: A speaker of a language can learn another language
Cognitive scientist and linguist at the University of Sussex Larry Trask offered an alternative term and definition for number 14, **Prevarication**:
: 14\. (a) **Stimulus Freedom**: One can choose to say anything nothing in any given situation
#### Relationship between design features and animal communication {#relationship_between_design_features_and_animal_communication}
Chomsky theorized that humans are unique in the animal world because of their ability to utilize Design Feature 5: Total Feedback, or recursive grammar. This includes being able to correct oneself and insert explanatory or even non sequitur statements into a sentence, without breaking stride, and keeping proper grammar throughout.
While there have been studies attempting to disprove Chomsky, Marcus states that, \"An intriguing possibility is that the capacity to recognize recursion might be found only in species that can acquire new patterns of vocalization, for example, songbirds, humans and perhaps some cetaceans.\" This is in response to a [study performed](https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/starlings-sing-a-grammatical-tune-1.619082) by psychologist Timothy Gentner of the University of California at San Diego. Gentner\'s study found that starling songbirds use recursive grammar to identify "odd" statements within a given "song." However, the study does not necessarily debunk Chomsky\'s observation because it has not yet been proven that songbirds have the semantic ability to generalize from patterns.
[There is also thought](http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~johnson/articles.chimp.html) that symbolic thought is necessary for grammar-based speech, and thus Homo Erectus and all preceding "humans" would have been unable to comprehend modern speech. Rather, their utterances would have been halting and even quite confusing to us, today.
The [1](http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/jcoleman/design_features.htm): Phonetics Laboratory Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics published the following chart, detailing how Hockett\'s (and Altmann\'s) Design Features fit into other forms of communication, in animals:
Feature Crickets Bee dancing Western meadowlark song Gibbon calls Signing apes Alex, a grey parrot Paralinguistic phenomena Human sign languages Spoken language
-------------------------------------------------- --------------------- -------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------ -------------- --------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------- -----------------
Vocal-Auditory Channel Auditory, not vocal No Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Rapid Fading Yes (repeating) ? Yes Yes (repeating) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interchangeability Limited Limited ? Yes Yes Yes Largely Yes Yes Yes
Total Feedback Yes ? Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
Specialization Yes? ? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes? Yes Yes
Semanticity No? Yes In Part Yes Yes Yes Yes? Yes Yes
Arbitrariness ? No If semantic, Yes Yes Largely Yes Yes In Part Largely Yes Yes
Discreteness Yes? No ? Yes Yes Yes Largely No Yes Yes
Displacement -- Yes, always ? No Yes No In Part Yes, often Yes, often
Productivity No Yes ? No Debatable Limited Yes Yes Yes
Traditional Transmission No? Probably not ? ? Limited Limited Yes Yes Yes
Duality of Patterning ? No ? No (Cotton-top Tamarin: Yes) Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Prevarication -- -- -- -- Yes No -- Yes Yes
Reflexiveness -- -- -- -- No? No -- Yes Yes
Learnability -- -- -- -- Yes Yes -- Yes Yes
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# Charles F. Hockett
## Selected works {#selected_works}
- 1939: \"Potowatomi Syntax\", *Language* 15: 235--248.
- 1942: \"A System of Descriptive Phonology\", *Language* 18: 3-21.
- 1944: *Spoken Chinese; Basic Course*. With C. Fang. Holt, New York.
- 1947: \"Peiping phonology\", in: *Journal of the American Oriental Society*, 67, pp. 253--267. \[= Martin Joos (ed.), *Readings in Linguistics*, vol. I, 4th edition. Chicago and London 1966, pp. 217--228\].
- 1947: \"Problems of morphemic analysis\", in: *Language*, 24, pp. 414--41. \[= *Readings in Linguistics*, vol. I, pp. 229--242\].
- 1948: \"Biophysics, linguistics, and the unity of science\", in: *American Scientist*, 36, pp. 558--572.
- 1950: \"Peiping morphophonemics\", in: *Language*, 26, pp. 63--85. \[= *Readings in Linguistics*, vol. I, pp. 315--328\].
- 1954: \"Two models of grammatical description\", in: *Word*, 10, pp. 210--234. \[= *Readings in Linguistics*, vol. I, pp. 386--399\].
- 1955: *A Manual of Phonology*. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics 11.
- 1958: *A Course in Modern Linguistics*. The Macmillan Company: New York.
- 1960: \"The Origin of Speech\". in *Scientific American*, 203, pp. 89--97.
- 1961: \"Linguistic Elements and Their Relation\" in *Language*, 37: 29--53.
- 1967: *The State of the Art*. The Haag: Mouton
- 1973: Man\'s Place in Nature. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- 1977: The View From Language. Athens: The University of Georgia Press.
- 1987: Refurbishing Our Foundations. Amsterdam: John Benjamins
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# Clarence Brown
**Clarence Leon Brown** (May 10, 1890 -- August 17, 1987) was an American film director.
## Early life {#early_life}
Born in Clinton, Massachusetts, to Larkin Harry Brown, a cotton manufacturer, and Katherine Ann Brown (née Gaw), Brown moved to Tennessee when he was 11 years old. He attended Knoxville High School And the University of Tennessee, both in Knoxville, Tennessee, graduating from the university at the age of 19 with two degrees in engineering. An early fascination in automobiles led Brown to a job with the Stevens-Duryea Company, then to his own Brown Motor Car Company in Alabama. He later abandoned the car dealership after developing an interest in motion pictures around 1913. He was hired by the Peerless Studio at Fort Lee, New Jersey, and became an assistant to the French-born director Maurice Tourneur.
## Career
After serving as a fighter pilot and flight instructor in the United States Army Air Service during World War I, Brown was given his first co-directing credit (with Tourneur) for *The Great Redeemer* (1920). Later that year, he directed a major portion of *The Last of the Mohicans* after Tourneur was injured in a fall.
Brown moved to Universal in 1924, and then to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where he remained until the mid-1950s. At MGM he was one of the main directors of their major female stars, he directed Joan Crawford six times and Greta Garbo seven.
Brown was nominated five times for six films (see below) for an Academy Award as a director, but he never received an Oscar. However, he won Best Foreign Film for *Anna Karenina*, starring Garbo at the 1935 Venice International Film Festival.
Brown\'s films gained a total of 38 Academy Award nominations and earned nine Oscars. Brown himself received five Academy Award nominations for six films and in 1949, he won the British Academy Award for the film version of William Faulkner\'s *Intruder in the Dust*.
In 1957, Brown was awarded The George Eastman Award, given by George Eastman House for distinguished contribution to the art of film. Brown retired a wealthy man due to his real estate investments, but refused to watch new movies. He feared they might cause him to restart his career.
The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the University of Tennessee, is named in his honor. He holds the record for most nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director without a win, with six.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Clarence Brown was married four times. His first marriage was to Paula Herndon Pratt in 1913, which lasted until their divorce in 1920. The couple produced a daughter, Adrienne Brown.
His second marriage was to Ona Wilson, which lasted from 1922 until their divorce in 1927.
He was engaged to Dorothy Sebastian and Mona Maris, although he did not marry either of them, with Maris later saying she ended their relationship because she had her \"own ideas of marriage then.\"
He married his third wife, Alice Joyce, in 1933 and they divorced in 1945.
His last marriage was to Marian Spies in 1946, which lasted until his death in 1987.
## Death
Brown died at the Saint John\'s Health Center in Santa Monica, California from kidney failure on August 17, 1987, at the age of 97. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.
On February 8, 1960, Brown received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1752 Vine Street, for his contributions to the motion pictures industry.
## Selected filmography {#selected_filmography}
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Journalist Dorothy Thompson is entertained on the set of *The Rains Came* (1939) by director Clarence Brown (left) and Louis Bromfield, author of the novel on which the film was based.
### Director
- *The Law of the Land* (1917)
- *The Great Redeemer* (1920)
- *The Last of the Mohicans* (1920)
- *The Foolish Matrons* (1921)
- *The Light in the Dark* (1922)
- *Don\'t Marry for Money* (1923)
- *The Acquittal* (1923)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- *The Signal Tower* (1924)
- *Butterfly* (1924)
- *The Eagle* (1925)
- *The Goose Woman* (1925)
- *Smouldering Fires* (1925)
- *Flesh and the Devil* (1926)
- *Kiki* (1926)
- *A Woman of Affairs* (1928)
- *The Trail of \'98* (1929)
- *Navy Blues* (1929)
- *Wonder of Women* (1929)
- *Anna Christie* (1930) -- Academy Award nomination for Best Director
- *Romance* (1930) -- Academy Award nomination for Best Director
- *Inspiration* (1931)
- *Possessed* (1931)
- *A Free Soul* (1931) -- Academy Award nomination for Best Director
- *Emma* (1932)
- *Letty Lynton* (1932)
- *The Son-Daughter* (1932)
- *Looking forward* (1933)
- *Night Flight* (1933)
- *Sadie McKee* (1934)
- *Chained* (1934)
- *Anna Karenina* (1935)
- *Ah, Wilderness!* (1935)
- *Wife vs
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# Cyclone (programming language)
The **Cyclone** programming language was intended to be a safe dialect of the C language. It avoids buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities that are possible in C programs by design, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for system programming. It is no longer supported by its original developers, with the reference tooling not supporting 64-bit platforms. The Rust language is mentioned by the original developers for having integrated many of the same ideas Cyclone had.
Cyclone development was started as a joint project of Trevor Jim from AT&T Labs Research and Greg Morrisett\'s group at Cornell University in 2001. Version 1.0 was released on May 8, 2006.
## Language features {#language_features}
Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of C, while still maintaining its look and performance. To this end, Cyclone places the following limits on programs:
- `NULL` checks are inserted to prevent segmentation faults
- Pointer arithmetic is limited
- Pointers must be initialized before use (this is enforced by definite assignment analysis)
- Dangling pointers are prevented through region analysis and limits on `free()`
- Only \"safe\" casts and unions are allowed
- `goto` into scopes is disallowed
- `switch` labels in different scopes are disallowed
- Pointer-returning functions must execute `return`
- `setjmp` and `longjmp` are not supported
To maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions:
- Never-`NULL` pointers do not require `NULL` checks
- \"Fat\" pointers support pointer arithmetic with run-time bounds checking
- Growable regions support a form of safe manual memory management
- Garbage collection for heap-allocated values
- Tagged unions support type-varying arguments
- Injections help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers
- Polymorphism replaces some uses of `void *`
- varargs are implemented as fat pointers
- Exceptions replace some uses of `setjmp` and `longjmp`
For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, see [this paper](http://www.cs.umd.edu/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf).
Cyclone looks, in general, much like C, but it should be viewed as a C-like language.
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# Cyclone (programming language)
## Language features {#language_features}
### Pointer types {#pointer_types}
Cyclone implements three kinds of pointer:
- `*` (the normal type)
- `@` (the never-`NULL` pointer), and
- `?` (the only type with pointer arithmetic allowed, \"fat\" pointers).
The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for instance a function, called `foo` that takes a pointer to an int:
``` C
int foo(int *);
```
Although the person who wrote the function `foo` could have inserted `NULL` checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling `foo(NULL);` will result in undefined behavior (typically, although not necessarily, a SIGSEGV signal being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the `@` pointer type, which can never be `NULL`. Thus, the \"safe\" version of `foo` would be:
``` C
int foo(int @);
```
This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to `foo` should never be `NULL`, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of `*` to `@` saves the programmer from having to write `NULL` checks and the operating system from having to trap `NULL` pointer dereferences. This extra limit, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to buffer overflows and other \"off-by-one\"-style mistakes. To avoid this, the `?` pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) `strlen` function, written in C:
``` C
int strlen(const char *s)
{
int i = 0;
if (s == NULL)
return 0;
while (s[i] != '\0') {
i++;
}
return i;
}
```
This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by `'\0'`. However, what would happen if `{{code|style=white-space:nowrap|2=c|1=char buf[6] = {'h','e','l','l','o','!'};}}`{=mediawiki} were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause `strlen` to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string `s`. There are functions, such as `strnlen` which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of ANSI C. The Cyclone version of `strlen` is not so different from the C version:
``` C
int strlen(const char ? s)
{
int i, n = s.size;
if (s == NULL)
return 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++, s++)
if (*s == '\0')
return i;
return n;
}
```
Here, `strlen` bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automatically cast to `?` by the compiler. (Casting from `?` to `*` invokes a bounds check, and casting from `?` to `@` invokes both a `NULL` check and a bounds check. Casting from `*` to `?` results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting `?` pointer has a size of 1.)
### Dangling pointers and region analysis {#dangling_pointers_and_region_analysis}
Consider the following code, in C:
``` C
char *itoa(int i)
{
char buf[20];
sprintf(buf,"%d",i);
return buf;
}
```
The function `itoa` allocates an array of chars `buf` on the stack and returns a pointer to the start of `buf`. However, the memory used on the stack for `buf` is deallocated when the function returns, so the returned value cannot be used safely outside of the function. While GNU Compiler Collection and other compilers will warn about such code, the following will typically compile without warnings:
``` C
char *itoa(int i)
{
char buf[20], *z;
sprintf(buf,"%d",i);
z = buf;
return z;
}
```
GNU Compiler Collection can produce warnings for such code as a side-effect of option `{{code|-O2}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{code|-O3}}`{=mediawiki}, but there are no guarantees that all such errors will be detected. Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of `itoa`. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing `itoa`, the Cyclone compiler would see that `z` is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error
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# Clay Mathematics Institute
The **Clay Mathematics Institute** (**CMI**) is a private, non-profit foundation dedicated to increasing and disseminating mathematical knowledge. Formerly based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, the corporate address is now in Denver, Colorado. CMI\'s scientific activities are managed from the President\'s office in Oxford, United Kingdom. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 through the sponsorship of Boston businessman Landon T. Clay. Harvard mathematician Arthur Jaffe was the first president of CMI.
While the institute is best known for its Millennium Prize Problems, it carries out a wide range of activities, including conferences, workshops, summer schools, and a postdoctoral program supporting Clay Research Fellows.
## Governance
The institute is run according to a standard structure comprising a scientific advisory committee that decides on grant-awarding and research proposals, and a board of directors that oversees and approves the committee\'s decisions. `{{As of|September 2024}}`{=mediawiki}, the board is made up of members of the Clay family, whereas the scientific advisory committee is composed of Simon Donaldson, Michael Hopkins, Andrei Okounkov, Gigliola Staffilani, Andrew Wiles, and Martin R. Bridson. Bridson is the current president of CMI.
## 2024 updates
### 2024 Clay Research Fellows {#clay_research_fellows}
The Clay Mathematics Institute has announced that Ishan Levy and Mehtaab Sawhney have been awarded the 2024 Clay Research Fellowships. Both are completing their PhDs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and will start their five-year fellowships on July 1, 2024.
### 2024 Clay Research Conference and Workshops {#clay_research_conference_and_workshops}
The 2024 Clay Research Conference was held on October 2, 2024, at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford. The conference was accompanied by workshops from September 30 to October 4, 2024. Notable workshops include:
- New Advances in the Langlands Program: Geometry and Arithmetic
- New Frontiers in Probabilistic and Extremal Combinatorics
- The P=W Conjecture in Non Abelian Hodge Theory
### Awards and recognitions {#awards_and_recognitions}
Daniel Graham from the University of Surrey won the Gold Medal for Mathematical Sciences at the 2024 STEM for Britain competition for his work on quantum authentication methods.
## Millennium Prize Problems {#millennium_prize_problems}
The institute is best known for establishing the Millennium Prize Problems on May 24, 2000. These seven problems are considered by CMI to be \"important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years.\" For each problem, the first person to solve it will be awarded US\$1,000,000 by the CMI. In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to Hilbert\'s problems, which were proposed in 1900, and had a substantial impact on 20th century mathematics. Of the initial 23 Hilbert problems, most of which have been solved, only the Riemann hypothesis (formulated in 1859) is included in the seven Millennium Prize Problems.
For each problem, the Institute had a professional mathematician write up an official statement of the problem, which will be the main standard against which a given solution will be measured. The seven problems are:
- P versus NP
- The Hodge conjecture
- The Poincaré conjecture -- solved, by Grigori Perelman
- The Riemann hypothesis
- Yang--Mills existence and mass gap
- Navier--Stokes existence and smoothness
- The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture
Some of the mathematicians who were involved in the selection and presentation of the seven problems were Michael Atiyah, Enrico Bombieri, Alain Connes, Pierre Deligne, Charles Fefferman, John Milnor, David Mumford, Andrew Wiles, and Edward Witten.
## Other awards {#other_awards}
### The Clay Research Award {#the_clay_research_award}
In recognition of major breakthroughs in mathematical research, the institute has an annual prize -- the Clay Research Award. Its recipients to date are Ian Agol, Manindra Agrawal, Yves Benoist, Manjul Bhargava, Tristan Buckmaster, Danny Calegari, Alain Connes, Nils Dencker, Alex Eskin, David Gabai, Ben Green, Mark Gross, Larry Guth, Christopher Hacon, Richard S. Hamilton, Michael Harris, Philip Isett, Jeremy Kahn, Nets Katz, Laurent Lafforgue, Gérard Laumon, Aleksandr Logunov, Eugenia Malinnikova, Vladimir Markovic, James McKernan, Jason Miller, Maryam Mirzakhani, Ngô Bảo Châu, Rahul Pandharipande, Jonathan Pila, Jean-François Quint, Peter Scholze, Oded Schramm, Scott Sheffield, Bernd Siebert, Stanislav Smirnov, Terence Tao, Clifford Taubes, Richard Taylor, Maryna Viazovska, Vlad Vicol, Claire Voisin, Jean-Loup Waldspurger, Andrew Wiles, Geordie Williamson, Edward Witten and Wei Zhang.
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# Clay Mathematics Institute
## Other activities {#other_activities}
Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute supports mathematics via the awarding of research fellowships (which range from two to five years and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing. The institute also has a yearly Clay Research Award, recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research. Finally, the institute organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to the postdoctoral level). CMI publications are available in PDF form at most six months after they appear in print
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# Council of Constance
The **Council of Constance** (*Concilium Constantiense*; *Konzil von Konstanz*) was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church that was held from 1414 to 1418 in the Bishopric of Constance (Konstanz) in present-day Germany. This was the first time that an ecumenical council was convened in the Holy Roman Empire. The council ended the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants and by electing Pope Martin V. It was the last papal election to take place outside of Italy.
The council also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic and facilitated his execution; and it ruled on issues of national sovereignty and the rights of pagans and just war in response to a conflict between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland and the Order of the Teutonic Knights.
The council is also important for its role in the debates over ecclesial conciliarism and papal supremacy. Constance issued two particularly significant decrees regarding the constitution of the Catholic Church: *Haec sancta* (1415), which asserted the superiority of ecumenical councils over popes in at least certain situations, and *Frequens* (1417), which provided for councils to be held automatically every ten years. The status of these decrees proved controversial in the centuries after the council, and *Frequens* was never put into practice. Though *Haec sancta*, at least, continued to be accepted as binding by much of the church up to the 19th century, present-day Catholic theologians generally regard these decrees as either invalid or as practical responses to a particular situation without wider implications.
## Origin and background {#origin_and_background}
The council\'s main purpose was to end the Papal schism that had resulted from the confusion following the Avignon Papacy. Pope Gregory XI\'s return to Rome in 1377, followed by his death (in 1378) and the controversial election of his successor, Pope Urban VI, resulted in the defection of a number of cardinals and the election of a rival pope based at Avignon in 1378. After thirty years of schism, the rival courts convened the Council of Pisa, seeking to resolve the situation by deposing the two claimant popes and electing a new one. The council claimed that, in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he were the bishop of Rome. Though the elected Antipope Alexander V and his successor, Antipope John XXIII (not to be confused with the 20th-century Pope John XXIII), gained widespread support, especially at the cost of the Avignon antipope, the schism remained, now involving not two but three claimants: Gregory XII at Rome, Benedict XIII at Avignon, and John XXIII.
Therefore, many voices, including Sigismund, King of the Romans and of Hungary (and later Holy Roman Emperor), pressed for another council to resolve the issue. That council was called by John XXIII and was held from 16 November 1414 to 22 April 1418 in Constance, Germany. The council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals, 100 \"learned doctors of law and divinity\", 134 abbots, and 183 bishops and archbishops.
## Participants
Sigismund arrived on Christmas Eve 1414 and exercised a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his capacity of imperial protector of the church. An innovation at the council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs. The vote by nations was in great measure the initiative of the English, German, and French members. The legality of this measure, in imitation of the \"nations\" of the universities, was more than questionable,`{{according to whom|date=January 2023}}`{=mediawiki} but during February 1415 it carried and thenceforth was accepted in practice, though never authorized by any formal decree of the council. The four \"nations\" consisted of England, France, Italy, and Germany, with Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scandinavians counted with the Germans. While the Italian representatives made up half of those in attendance, they were equal in influence to the English, who sent twenty deputies and three bishops. The Spanish deputies (from Portugal, Castile, Navarre and Aragon), initially absent, joined the council at the twenty-first session, constituting upon arrival the fifth nation.
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# Council of Constance
## Decrees and doctrinal status {#decrees_and_doctrinal_status}
Many members of the new assembly (comparatively few bishops, but many doctors of theology and of canon and civil law, procurators of bishops, deputies of universities, cathedral chapters, provosts, etc., agents and representatives of princes, etc.) strongly favored the voluntary abdication of all three popes, as did King Sigismund.
Although the Italian bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers supported his legitimacy, he grew increasingly more suspicious of the council. Partly in response to a fierce anonymous attack on his character from an Italian source, on 2 March 1415 he promised to resign. However, on 20 March he secretly fled the city and took refuge at Schaffhausen in territory of his friend Frederick, Duke of Austria-Tyrol.
The famous decree *Haec sancta synodus*, which gave primacy to the authority of the council and thus became a source for ecclesial conciliarism, was promulgated in the fifth session, 6 April 1415:
*Haec sancta synodus* marks the high-water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform.
The acts of the council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the Council of Basel; they were printed in 1500. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, and thus written in 1415 under the title *Ars moriendi*.
*Haec sancta* is today generally considered invalid by the Catholic Church, on the basis that Gregory XII was the legitimate pope at the time and the decree was passed by the council in a session before his confirmation. On this reading, the first sessions of the Council of Constance represented an invalid and illicit assembly of bishops, gathered under the authority of an antipope. This historiography is of much later provenance than the council itself, however: the Pisan line represented by John XXIII had been considered legitimate not just by most of the Latin church at the time of the council, but also subsequently by Pope Martin V, who referred to John as \"our predecessor\" in contrast to the other two claimants, who were merely \"popes so-called in their obediences\". The specific argument distinguishing two parts in the council was seemingly first made by the 17th-century Sorbonne theologian André Duval, and remained a fringe view for some time before its vindication within the Catholic Church under the influence of 19th-century ultramontanism.
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# Council of Constance
## Ending the Western Schism {#ending_the_western_schism}
With the support of King Sigismund, enthroned before the high altar of the cathedral of Constance, the Council of Constance recommended that all three papal claimants abdicate, and that another be chosen. In part because of the constant presence of the King, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope.
Gregory XII then sent representatives to Constance, whom he granted full powers to summon, open, and preside over an Ecumenical Council; he also empowered them to present his resignation of the papacy. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism.
The legates were received by King Sigismund and by the assembled Bishops, and the King yielded the presidency of the proceedings to the papal legates, Cardinal Giovanni Dominici of Ragusa and Prince Carlo Malatesta. On 4 July 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Dominici and Malatesta as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts. Thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesta immediately informed the council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiff\'s behalf. He asked the council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately. Thereupon the commission by Gregory XII authorizing his proxy to resign the Papacy on his behalf was read and Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the papacy by Gregory XII and handed a written copy of the resignation to the assembly.
Former Pope Gregory XII was then created titular Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina by the council, with rank immediately below the Pope (which made him the highest-ranking person in the church, since, due to his abdication, the See of Peter in Rome was vacant). Gregory XII\'s cardinals were accepted as true cardinals by the council, but the members of the council delayed electing a new pope for fear that a new pope would restrict further discussion of pressing issues in the church.
By the time the anti-popes were all deposed and the new Pope, Martin V, was elected, two years had passed since Gregory XII\'s abdication, and Gregory was already dead. The council took great care to protect the legitimacy of the succession, ratified all his acts, and a new pontiff was chosen. The new pope, Martin V, elected November 1417, soon asserted the absolute authority of the papal office.
## Condemnation of Jan Hus {#condemnation_of_jan_hus}
A second goal of the council was to continue the reforms begun at the Council of Pisa (1409). The reforms were largely directed against John Wycliffe, mentioned in the opening session and condemned in the eighth on 4 May 1415, and Jan Hus, along with their followers. Hus, summoned to Constance under a letter of safe conduct, was found guilty of heresy by the council and turned over to the secular court. \"This holy synod of Constance, seeing that God\'s church has nothing more that it can do, relinquishes Jan Hus to the judgment of the secular authority and decrees that he is to be relinquished to the secular court.\" (Council of Constance Session 15 -- 6 July 1415). The secular court sentenced him to be burned to death at the stake.
Jerome of Prague, a supporter of Hus, came to Constance to offer assistance but was similarly arrested, judged, found guilty of heresy and turned over to the same secular court, with the same outcome as Hus. Poggio Bracciolini attended the council and related the unfairness of the process against Jerome.
Paweł Włodkowic and the other Polish representatives to the Council of Constance publicly defended Hus.
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# Council of Constance
## Polish--Lithuanian--Teutonic conflict {#polishlithuanianteutonic_conflict}
In 1411, the First Peace of Thorn ended the Polish--Lithuanian--Teutonic War, in which the Teutonic Knights fought the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the peace was not stable and further conflicts arose regarding demarcation of the Samogitian borders. The tensions erupted into the brief Hunger War in summer 1414. It was concluded that the disputes would be mediated by the Council of Constance.
The Polish-Lithuanian position was defended by Paulus Vladimiri, rector of the Jagiellonian University, who challenged legality of the Teutonic crusade against Lithuania. He argued that a forced conversion was incompatible with free will, which was an essential component of a genuine conversion. Therefore, the Knights could only wage a defensive war if pagans violated natural rights of the Christians. Vladimiri further stipulated that infidels had rights which had to be respected, and neither the Pope nor the Holy Roman Emperor had the authority to violate them. Lithuanians also brought a group of Samogitian representatives to testify to atrocities committed by the Knights.
The Dominican theologian John of Falkenberg proved to be the fiercest opponent of the Poles. In his *Liber de doctrina*, Falkenberg argued that
> the Emperor has the right to slay even peaceful infidels simply because they are pagans. \... The Poles deserve death for defending infidels, and should be exterminated even more than the infidels; they should be deprived of their sovereignty and reduced to slavery.
In *Satira*, he attacked Polish-Lithuanian King Jogaila, calling him a \"mad dog\" unworthy to be king. Falkenberg was condemned and imprisoned for such libel. Other opponents included Grand Master\'s proctor Peter Wormditt, Dominic of San Gimignano, John Urbach, Ardecino de Porta of Novara, and Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo Andrew Escobar. They argued that the Knights were perfectly justified in their crusade as it was a sacred duty of Christians to spread the true faith. Cardinal Pierre d\'Ailly published an independent opinion that attempted to somewhat balance both Polish and Teutonic positions.
The council established the Diocese of Samogitia, with its seat in Medininkai and subordinated to Lithuanian dioceses, and appointed Matthias of Trakai as the first bishop. Pope Martin V appointed the Lithuanians Jogaila and Vytautas, who were respectively King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, as vicars general in Pskov and Veliky Novgorod in recognition of their Catholicism. After another round of futile negotiations, the Gollub War broke out in 1422. It ended with the Treaty of Melno. Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic wars continued for another hundred years.
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# Council of Constance
## Later status {#later_status}
Although Pope Martin V did not directly challenge the decrees of the council, his successor Eugene IV repudiated an attempt by a faction at the Council of Basel to declare the provisions of *Haec sancta* and *Frequens* a matter of faith. His 1439 bull on the matter, *Moyses vir Dei*, was underwritten by the Council of Florence. In convening the Fifth Lateran Council (1512--17), Pope Julius II further pronounced that *Frequens* had lost its force; Lateran V is sometimes seen as having itself abrogated *Haec sancta*, though the reading is controversial. Either way, while Rome itself came to reject the provisions made by the council, significant parts of the Church, notably in France, continued to uphold the validity of its decisions long after the event: *Haec sancta* was reaffirmed in the Gallican Articles of 1682, and even during the First Vatican Council of 1869--70 the French-American bishop of St. Augustine, Florida, Augustin Vérot, attempted to read *Haec sancta* into the record of deliberations.
Despite the apparently definitive rejection of conciliarism at the First Vatican Council, the debate over the status of Constance was renewed in the 20th century. In the 1960s, in the context of the Second Vatican Council, the reformist Catholic theologian Hans Küng and the historian Paul de Vooght argued in defense of the dogmatic character of *Haec sancta*, suggesting that its terms could be reconciled with the definition of papal supremacy at Vatican I. Küng\'s argument received support from prelates such as Cardinal Franz König. Other Catholic historians adopted different views: Hubert Jedin considered *Haec sancta* to be an emergency measure with no binding validity beyond its immediate context, while Joseph Gill rejected the validity of the session that passed the decree altogether. The debate over *Haec sancta* subsided in the 1970s, however, without resolution
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# Churches Uniting in Christ
**Churches Uniting in Christ** (**CUIC**) is an ecumenical organization that brings together mainline American denominations (including both predominantly white and predominantly black churches), and was inaugurated on January 20, 2002, in Memphis, Tennessee on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel. It is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union.
## History
### Origins
CUIC is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union (COCU), which had been founded in 1962. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a consensus between its nine (originally four) member communions (it also included three \"advisory participant\" churches). However, it never succeeded in this goal, despite making progress on several ecumenical fronts. At COCU\'s 18th plenary meeting in St. Louis, Missouri (January 1999), CUIC was proposed as a new relationship among the nine member communions. Each member communion voted to join CUIC over the next few years.
### Inauguration
Heads of communion from each member of COCU (as well as the ELCA, a partner in mission and dialogue) inaugurated the group on the day before Martin Luther King Jr. Day in 2002 at the motel where he was killed. This particular location highlighted the group\'s focus on racism as a major dividing factor between and among churches.
### Task forces {#task_forces}
The Coordinating Council of CUIC created several task forces: Racial and Social Justice, Ministry, Young Adult and Local and Regional Ecumenism. Each task force represented an important part of early CUIC work. Local ecumenical liturgies were encouraged, and excitement initially built around \"pilot programs\" in Denver, Los Angeles, and Memphis. The Racial and Social Justice task force created gatherings and discussions on racial justice. The Ministry task force received much of the attention from church structures, however. The group had been given a mandate to complete work on reconciliation by 2007, and in 2003 began working on a document entitled \"Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries.\"
### Mutual Recognition and Mutual Reconciliation of Ministries (MRMRM) {#mutual_recognition_and_mutual_reconciliation_of_ministries_mrmrm}
One of the most difficult issues concerning recognition and reconciliation of ministries was that of the historic episcopate. This was one of the issues that defeated proposals for union by COCU as well. The group approached this problem through dialogue, soliciting information from each member communion on the particularities of their theology and ecclesiology in order to come to a mutually acceptable conclusion.
CUIC released the seventh and final draft of the MRMRM document in June 2005. Much work was done in 2006 on this document, which focused on \"Episkope,\" the oversight of ministry. The work culminated in a consultation on episkope in St. Louis in October 2006 involving the heads of communion of the members of CUIC. At this consultation, the MRMRM document was met with resistance, and concern was raised in particular that CUIC was focusing too narrowly on reconciliation of ministries and \"not taking seriously our commitment to working on those issues of systemic racism that remain at the heart of our continuing and separated life as churches here in the United States.\"
### Moravian Church (Northern Province) {#moravian_church_northern_province}
The nine churches which inaugurated CUIC in 2002 were joined by the Moravian Church, Northern Province. The Moravians had been partners in mission and dialogue since 2002, but joined as a member communion after the October 2006 consultation on episcope.
### Suspension of activities {#suspension_of_activities}
In 2007, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Church withdrew from CUIC. Neither body sent representatives to the CUIC plenary on January 11--14, 2008, though the AME Council of Bishops never voted to suspend membership officially. They felt the other churches were not doing enough to counter the history of racial injustice between black and white churches. In response to this, the remaining churches in CUIC decided in 2008 to suspend their work while they seek reconciliation with these churches. This work began with a group of representatives who revisited the 1999 document \"Call to Christian Commitment and Action to Combat Racism,\" which is available on the current CUIC website. This also meant eliminating the position of Director as well as the suspension of the work of the CUIC task forces. As of 2012, CUIC no longer has physical offices, opting instead for a virtual office and storing the archives of both CUIC and COCU at Princeton Seminary\'s Henry Luce III Library.
### Reconciliation efforts {#reconciliation_efforts}
The African Methodist Episcopal Church resumed its participation by the February 2010 plenary meeting, where CUIC moved to refocus on its eight marks of commitment and a shared concern for racial justice as a major dividing factor facing ecumenism. Although the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church has not rejoined the group, efforts have continued to bring this communion back into membership. The Rev. Staccato Powell, an AMEZ pastor, preached at the 2011 CUIC plenary in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida as a part of these reconciliation efforts. Combating racism has again become a priority of CUIC. Concerns over the historic episcopate have been sidelined since 2008, though they may re-emerge. The group\'s focus on mutual reconciliation of ministries has been revisited in the light of racism and the impact that racism may have on exchanging ministers between denominations. Therefore, the coordinating council of CUIC created a consultation on race and ministry while also choosing to partner with the Samuel Dewitt Proctor Conference, a social justice organization involved in African American faith communities.
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# Churches Uniting in Christ
## Purpose
The purpose of CUIC has always been unity (as reflected in their current slogan, \"reconciling the baptized, seeking unity with justice\"). This reflects one of the core scripture passages in the ecumenical movement, Jesus\' prayer in John 17:21, \"That they all may be one\". CUIC has approached this goal of unity in various ways throughout its history.
### Racism
Racism has been a primary focus of CUIC since 2002 (and, indeed, a primary focus of COCU alongside other forms of exclusion and prejudice, such as sexism and ableism). According to Dan Krutz, former president of CUIC, \"Overcoming racism has been a focal point of CUIC since its beginning\... Racism may be the biggest sin that divides churches.\" Even before the absence of the AME and AMEZ churches at the January 2011 plenary, some in CUIC had noticed the lack of commitment to racial reconciliation. Since 2008, however, racism has become an even more pressing concern. This has led CUIC to address issues of racism in the public sphere, including the killing of Trayvon Martin and the recovery from the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
### Marks of Commitment {#marks_of_commitment}
According to their website, one of the reasons for transitioning from COCU to CUIC is so that member churches \"stop \'consulting\' and start living their unity in Christ more fully.\" This means that each member communion in CUIC agrees to abide by the eight Marks of Commitment, which are summarized as follows:
- Receive each other as Christ\'s church
- Mutually recognize baptisms & members
- Affirm apostolic creeds
- Celebrate Eucharist together
- Engage in mission & anti-racism
- Promote wholeness & inclusion
- Structure accountability, consultation & decision-making
- Support ongoing theological dialogue
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# Churches Uniting in Christ
## Membership
### Full members {#full_members}
- African Methodist Episcopal Church
- African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
- Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
- Christian Methodist Episcopal Church
- Episcopal Church (United States)
- International Council of Community Churches
- Moravian Church in North America
- Presbyterian Church (USA)
- United Church of Christ
- United Methodist Church
### Partners in mission and dialogue {#partners_in_mission_and_dialogue}
- Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
## Leadership
### Presidents
President Denomination Tenure
------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- --------------------
Bishop Melvin Talbert United Methodist Church 2002--2004
The Rev. C. Dana Krutz Episcopal Church (United States) 2004--2006
Suzanne Webb Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 2006--2011
Bishop Ronald Cunningham Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Jan 2011--Oct 2011
The Rev. Robina M. Winbush Presbyterian Church (USA) Oct 2011--2019
Bishop Teresa E. Jefferson-Snorton Christian Methodist Episcopal Church 2019--2023
Rev. Dr. Jean Hawxhurst United Methodist Church 2023-- Current
### Vice Presidents {#vice_presidents}
President Denomination Tenure
------------------------- ------------------------------------ ------------
Jacquelyn DuPont Walker African Methodist Episcopal Church ?--present
### Directors
Director Denomination Tenure
--------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------
Bertrice Wood \| 2002--2005
Thomas Dipko United Church of Christ 2005--2006
Rev
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# Canadian Unitarian Council
The **Canadian Unitarian Council** (*Conseil unitarien du Canada*) (**CUC**) is a liberal religious association of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist congregations in Canada. It was formed on May 14, 1961, initially to be the national organization for Canadians belonging to the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) which formed a day later on May 15, 1961. Between 1961 and 2002, almost all member congregations of the CUC were also members of the UUA and most services to congregations in Canada were provided by the UUA. However, in 2002, the CUC formally became a separate entity from the UUA, although the UUA continues to provide ministerial settlement services and remains the primary source for education and theological resources. Some Canadian congregations have continued to be members of both the CUC and the UUA, while most congregations are only members of the CUC.
The Canadian Unitarian Council is the only national body for Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist congregations in Canada and was one of the seventeen members of the now defunct International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (1995--2021).
## Organization
The CUC is made up of 43 member congregations and emerging groups, who are the legal owners of the organization, and who are, for governance and service delivery, divided into four regions: \"BC\" (British Columbia), \"Western\" (Alberta to Thunder Bay), \"Central\" (between Thunder Bay and Kingston), and \"Eastern\" (Kingston, Ottawa and everything east of that). However, for youth ministry, the \"Central\" and \"Eastern\" regions are combined to form a youth region known as \"QuOM\" (Quebec, Ontario and the Maritimes), giving the youth only three regions for their activities. The organization as a whole is governed by the CUC Board of Trustees (Board), whose mandate it is to govern in the best interests of the CUC\'s owners. The Board is made up of eight members who are elected by congregational delegates at the CUC\'s Annual General Meeting. This consists of two Trustees from each region, who are eligible to serve a maximum of two three-year terms. Board meetings also include Official Observers to the Board, who participate without a vote and represent UU Youth and Ministers.
### Service delivery {#service_delivery}
As members of the CUC, congregations and emerging groups are served by volunteer Service Consultants, Congregational Networks, and a series of other committees. There are two directors of regional services, one for the Western two regions, and one for the Eastern two regions. Youth and young adults are served by a Youth and Young Adult Ministry Development staff of two.
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# Canadian Unitarian Council
## Organization
### Annual conference and meeting {#annual_conference_and_meeting}
Policies and business of the CUC are determined at the **Annual Conference and Meeting** (ACM), consisting of the **Bi-Annual Conference**, in which workshops are held, and the **Annual General Meeting**, in which business matters and plenary meetings are performed. The ACM features two addresses, a **Keynote** and a **Confluence Lecture**. The Confluence Lecture is comparable to the UUA\'s Ware Lecture in prestige. In early days this event simply consisted of the Annual General Meeting component as the Annual Conference component was not added to much later. And starting in 2017 the conference portion will only take place every second year. Past ACMs have been held in the following locations:
Date Location Theme Keynote Confluence Lecturer
------------------------ ----------------- ----------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ------------------------------------------
1985 London, ON
1986
1987
1988 Saskatoon, SK
1989 Hamilton, ON
1990 Vancouver, BC
1991 Winnipeg, MB
1992 Montreal, QC
1993 Ottawa, ON
1994 Edmonton, AB
1995 Toronto, ON
1996 Halifax, NS
1997 Thunder Bay, ON
1998 Victoria, BC
1999 Mississauga, ON
2000 Calgary, AB
May 18--21, 2001 Montreal, QC Growing Together In Diversity and Strength
May 17--20, 2002 Kelowna, BC Widening Our Vision \| Renewing Our Strength David Crawley
May 16--19, 2003 Winnipeg, MB Getting to the Heart of It Rabbi Neal Rose and Carol Rose Rev. Dr. John W. Baros-Johnson
May 21--24, 2004 Edmonton, AB We Are the New Pioneers Honourable Lois Hole Rev. Ray Drennan
May 20--23, 2005 Hamilton, ON Getting To Know UU Susan Walsh Rev. Susan Van Dreser
May 19--22, 2006 Saint John, NB Riding the UU Tide Dr. Allan Sharp Rev. Peter Boulatta
May 18--21, 2007 Vancouver, BC Diversity in Community Rev. Bill Phipps Rev. Christine E. Hillman
May 16--19, 2008 Ottawa, ON The Web of Life -- In our Hands Will Brewer and Allison Brewer Rev. Meg Roberts and Rev. Brian Kiely
May 15--18, 2009 Thunder Bay, ON Answering the Call Rev. Chris Buice Rev. Dr. Stephen
May 21--24, 2010 Victoria, BC How Shall We Live? Dr. Paul Bramadat Rev. Jane Bramadat and Rev. Wayne Walder
May 20--23, 2011 Toronto, ON Trust the Dawning Future David K. Foot Rev. Diane Rollert
May 18--20, 2012**\^** Ottawa, ON Spiritual Leadership Symposium Rev. Erik Walker Wikstrom
May 17--19, 2013 Calgary, AB Diversity: Creating a Shared Understanding Rev. Mark Morrison-Reed Rev. Shawn Newton
May 16--18, 2014 Montreal, QC Building Beloved CommUUnities: Sacred Spaces Beyond Walls Rev. Meg Riley Rev. Carly Gaylor and Rev. Jeffrey Brown
May 15--17, 2015 Ottawa, ON Seeking Justice in a Changing Land Matt Meyer Rev. Stephen Atkinson
May 20--22, 2016 Vancouver, BC Bolder Ways of Being Rev. Melora Lyngood
May, 2018 Hamilton, ON
May, 2019 Toronto, ON
May, 2020 Virtual
May, 2021 Virtual
May 19--21, 2023 Ottawa, ON Living into the 8th Principle Albert Dumont Rev. Julie Stoneberg
:
: **\^**Not an ACM, but an \"Annual General Meeting\" and \"Symposium\", and unlike ACMs it was organized by the CUC and the Unitarian Universalist Ministers of Canada instead of a local congregation. **\#**Not a keynote presenter or lecturer, rather a symposium \"provocateur\". **\***Upcoming locations
### Principles and sources {#principles_and_sources}
The CUC does not have a central creed in which members are required to believe, but they have found it useful to articulate their common values in what has become known as *The Principles and Sources of our Religious Faith*, which are currently based on the UUA\'s former Principles and Sources with the addition of an 8th principle adopted by CUC members at a special meeting on November 27, 2021. The CUC had a task force whose mandate was to consider revising them.
The principles and sources as published in church literature and on the CUC website:
### Formation and relationship to the Unitarian Universalist Association {#formation_and_relationship_to_the_unitarian_universalist_association}
The CUC formed on May 14, 1961, to be the national organization for Canadians within the about-to-form UUA (it formed a day later on May 15, 1961). And until 2002, almost all member congregations of the CUC were also members of the UUA and most services to CUC member congregations were provided by the UUA. However, after an agreement between the UUA and the CUC, since 2002 most services have been provided by the CUC to its own member congregations, with the UUA continuing to provide ministerial settlement services. And also since 2002, some Canadian congregations have continued to be members of both the UUA and CUC while others are members of only the CUC.
The Canadian Unitarian Universalist youth of the day disapproved of the 2002 change in relationship between the CUC and UUA. It is quite evident in the words of this statement, which was adopted by the attendees of the 2001 youth conference held at the Unitarian Church of Montreal:
> We the youth of Canada are deeply concerned about the direction the CUC seems to be taking. As stewards of our faith, adults have a responsibility to take into consideration the concerns of youth. We are opposed to making this massive jump in our evolutionary progress.
### Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women\'s Association {#canadian_unitarian_universalist_womens_association}
The Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women\'s Association (CUUWA), established in May 2011, is a women\'s rights organization associated with the CUC. The CUUWA gained initial support from Prairie Women\'s Gathering and the Vancouver Island Women\'s retreat, and has since become a nationally recognized organization.
#### Mission
Originally called the Canadian Unitarian Universalist Women\'s Federation, the organization aims to raise awareness for women\'s education, rights, and equality of income. The association also aims to change societal attitudes about women and inform society of the issues women have faced locally and internationally. As a part of their mission, the CUUWA circulates educational materials that highlight women\'s contributions to society. The organization hosts an annual general meeting during the Canadian Unitarian Council Annual Conference.
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# Canadian Unitarian Council
## Organization
### Name of CUC and playful abbreviation of Unitarian Universalist {#name_of_cuc_and_playful_abbreviation_of_unitarian_universalist}
While the name of the organization is the Canadian Unitarian Council, the CUC includes congregations with Unitarian, Universalist, Unitarian Universalist, and Universalist Unitarian in their names. Changing the name of the CUC has occasionally been debated, but there have been no successful motions. To recognize this diversity, some members of the CUC abbreviate Unitarian Universalist as U\*U (and playfully read it as \"You star, you\"). Note, not all CUC members like this playful reading and so when these people write the abbreviation they leave out the star (\*), just writing UU instead
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# Computer monitor
A **computer monitor** is an output device that displays information in pictorial or textual form. A discrete monitor comprises a visual display, support electronics, power supply, housing, electrical connectors, and external user controls.
The display in modern monitors is typically an LCD with LED backlight, having by the 2010s replaced CCFL backlit LCDs. Before the mid-2000s, most monitors used a cathode-ray tube (CRT) as the image output technology. A monitor is typically connected to its host computer via DisplayPort, HDMI, USB-C, DVI, or VGA. Monitors sometimes use other proprietary connectors and signals to connect to a computer, which is less common.
Originally computer monitors were used for data processing while television sets were used for video. From the 1980s onward, computers (and their monitors) have been used for both data processing and video, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. Since 2010, the typical display aspect ratio of both televisions and computer monitors changed from 4:3 to 16:9
Modern computer monitors are often functionally interchangeable with television sets and vice versa. As most computer monitors do not include integrated speakers, TV tuners, or remote controls, external components such as a DTA box may be needed to use a computer monitor as a TV set.
## History
Early electronic computer front panels were fitted with an array of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the on/off state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the engineers operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine, so this panel of lights came to be known as the \'monitor\'. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a very limited amount of information and were very transient, they were rarely considered for program output. Instead, a line printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the program\'s operation.
Computer monitors were formerly known as **visual display units** (**VDU**), particularly in British English. This term mostly fell out of use by the 1990s.
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# Computer monitor
## Technologies
Multiple technologies have been used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode-ray tubes but they have largely been superseded by LCD monitors.
### Cathode-ray tube {#cathode_ray_tube}
The first computer monitors used cathode-ray tubes (CRTs). Prior to the advent of home computers in the late 1970s, it was common for a video display terminal (VDT) using a CRT to be physically integrated with a keyboard and other components of the workstation in a single large chassis, typically limiting them to emulation of a paper teletypewriter, thus the early epithet of \'glass TTY\'. The display was monochromatic and far less sharp and detailed than on a modern monitor, necessitating the use of relatively large text and severely limiting the amount of information that could be displayed at one time. High-resolution CRT displays were developed for specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use; wider commercial use became possible after the release of a slow, but affordable Tektronix 4010 terminal in 1972.
Some of the earliest home computers (such as the TRS-80 and Commodore PET) were limited to monochrome CRT displays, but color display capability was already a possible feature for a few MOS 6500 series-based machines (such as introduced in 1977 Apple II computer or Atari 2600 console), and the color output was a specialty of the more graphically sophisticated Atari 8-bit computers, introduced in 1979. Either computer could be connected to the antenna terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution and color quality. Lagging several years behind, in 1981 IBM introduced the Color Graphics Adapter, which could display four colors with a resolution of `{{resx|320 x 200}}`{=mediawiki} pixels, or it could produce `{{resx|640 x 200}}`{=mediawiki} pixels with two colors. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of `{{resx|640 x 350}}`{=mediawiki}.
By the end of the 1980s color progressive scan CRT monitors were widely available and increasingly affordable, while the sharpest prosumer monitors could clearly display high-definition video, against the backdrop of efforts at HDTV standardization from the 1970s to the 1980s failing continuously, leaving consumer SDTVs to stagnate increasingly far behind the capabilities of computer CRT monitors well into the 2000s. During the following decade, maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall as CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium, partly because it remained cheaper to produce. CRTs still offer color, grayscale, motion, and latency advantages over today\'s LCDs, but improvements to the latter have made them much less obvious. The dynamic range of early LCD panels was very poor, and although text and other motionless graphics were sharper than on a CRT, an LCD characteristic known as pixel lag caused moving graphics to appear noticeably smeared and blurry.
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# Computer monitor
## Technologies
### Liquid-crystal display`{{anchor|Liquid Crystal}}`{=mediawiki} {#liquid_crystal_display}
There are multiple technologies that have been used to implement liquid-crystal displays (LCD). Throughout the 1990s, the primary use of LCD technology as computer monitors was in laptops where the lower power consumption, lighter weight, and smaller physical size of LCDs justified the higher price versus a CRT. Commonly, the same laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points: (active or passive) monochrome, passive color, or active matrix color (TFT). As volume and manufacturing capability have improved, the monochrome and passive color technologies were dropped from most product lines.
TFT-LCD is a variant of LCD which is now the dominant technology used for computer monitors.
The first standalone LCDs appeared in the mid-1990s selling for high prices. As prices declined they became more popular, and by 1997 were competing with CRT monitors. Among the first desktop LCD computer monitors were the Eizo FlexScan L66 in the mid-1990s, the SGI 1600SW, Apple Studio Display and the ViewSonic VP140 in 1998. In 2003, LCDs outsold CRTs for the first time, becoming the primary technology used for computer monitors. The physical advantages of LCD over CRT monitors are that LCDs are lighter, smaller, and consume less power. In terms of performance, LCDs produce less or no flicker, reducing eyestrain, sharper image at native resolution, and better checkerboard contrast. On the other hand, CRT monitors have superior blacks, viewing angles, and response time, can use arbitrary lower resolutions without aliasing, and flicker can be reduced with higher refresh rates, though this flicker can also be used to reduce motion blur compared to less flickery displays such as most LCDs. Many specialized fields such as vision science remain dependent on CRTs, the best LCD monitors having achieved moderate temporal accuracy, and so can be used only if their poor spatial accuracy is unimportant.
High dynamic range (HDR) has been implemented into high-end LCD monitors to improve grayscale accuracy. Since around the late 2000s, widescreen LCD monitors have become popular, in part due to television series, motion pictures and video games transitioning to widescreen, which makes squarer monitors unsuited to display them correctly.
### Organic light-emitting diode {#organic_light_emitting_diode}
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) monitors provide most of the benefits of both LCD and CRT monitors with few of their drawbacks, though much like plasma panels or very early CRTs they suffer from burn-in, and remain very expensive.
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# Computer monitor
## Measurements of performance {#measurements_of_performance}
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following parameters:
- Display geometry:
- Viewable image size -- is usually measured diagonally, but the actual widths and heights are more informative since they are not affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For CRTs, the viewable size is typically 1 in smaller than the tube itself.
- Aspect ratio -- is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
- Radius of curvature (for curved monitors) -- is the radius that a circle would have if it had the same curvature as the display. This value is typically given in millimeters, but expressed with the letter \"R\" instead of a unit (for example, a display with \"3800R curvature\" has a 3800 mm radius of curvature.
- Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed natively. For a given display size, maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch or DPI.
- Dot pitch represents the distance between the primary elements of the display, typically averaged across it in nonuniform displays. A related unit is pixel pitch, In LCDs, pixel pitch is the distance between the center of two adjacent pixels. In CRTs, pixel pitch is defined as the distance between subpixels of the same color. Dot pitch is the reciprocal of pixel density.
- Pixel density is a measure of how densely packed the pixels on a display are. In LCDs, pixel density is the number of pixels in one linear unit along the display, typically measured in pixels per inch (px/in or ppi).
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- Color characteristics:
- Luminance -- measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m`{{sup|2}}`{=mediawiki}, also called a *nit*).
- Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing simultaneously. For example, a ratio of `{{ratio|20,000:1}}`{=mediawiki} means that the brightest shade (white) is 20,000 times brighter than its darkest shade (black). Dynamic contrast ratio is measured with the LCD backlight turned off. ANSI contrast is with both black and white simultaneously adjacent onscreen.
- Color depth -- measured in bits per primary color or bits for all colors. Those with 10 bpc (bits per channel) or more can display more shades of color (approximately 1 billion shades) than traditional 8 bpc monitors (approximately 16.8 million shades or colors), and can do so more precisely without having to resort to dithering.
- Gamut -- measured as coordinates in the CIE 1931 color space. The names sRGB or Adobe RGB are shorthand notations.
- Color accuracy -- measured in ΔE (delta-E); the lower the ΔE, the more accurate the color representation. A ΔE of below 1 is imperceptible to the human eye. A ΔE of 2`{{ndash}}`{=mediawiki}4 is considered good and requires a sensitive eye to spot the difference.
- Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the monitor can be viewed, without subjectively excessive degradation to the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
- Input speed characteristics:
- Refresh rate is (in CRTs) the number of times in a second that the display is illuminated (the number of times a second a raster scan is completed). In LCDs it is the number of times the image can be changed per second, expressed in hertz (Hz). Determines the maximum number of frames per second (FPS) a monitor is capable of showing. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.
- Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to change between two shades. The particular shades depend on the test procedure, which differs between manufacturers. In general, lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts such as ghosting. Grey to grey (GtG), measured in milliseconds (ms).
- Input latency is the time it takes for a monitor to display an image after receiving it, typically measured in milliseconds (ms).
- Power consumption is measured in watts.
### Size
thumb\|right\|upright=1.2\|The area, height and width of displays with identical diagonal measurements vary dependent on aspect ratio. On two-dimensional display devices such as computer monitors the display size or viewable image size is the actual amount of screen space that is available to display a picture, video or working space, without obstruction from the bezel or other aspects of the unit\'s design. The main measurements for display devices are width, height, total area and the diagonal.
The size of a display is usually given by manufacturers diagonally, i.e. as the distance between two opposite screen corners. This method of measurement is inherited from the method used for the first generation of CRT television when picture tubes with circular faces were in common use. Being circular, it was the external diameter of the glass envelope that described their size. Since these circular tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement of the rectangular image was smaller than the diameter of the tube\'s face (due to the thickness of the glass). This method continued even when cathode-ray tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles; it had the advantage of being a single number specifying the size and was not confusing when the aspect ratio was universally 4:3.
With the introduction of flat-panel technology, the diagonal measurement became the actual diagonal of the visible display. This meant that an eighteen-inch LCD had a larger viewable area than an eighteen-inch cathode-ray tube.
Estimation of monitor size by the distance between opposite corners does not take into account the display aspect ratio, so that for example a 16:9 21 in widescreen display has less area, than a 21 in 4:3 screen. The 4:3 screen has dimensions of 16.8 × and an area 211 sqin, while the widescreen is 18.3 ×, 188 sqin.
### Aspect ratio {#aspect_ratio}
Until about 2003, most computer monitors had a 4:3 aspect ratio and some had 5:4. Between 2003 and 2006, monitors with 16:9 and mostly 16:10 (8:5) aspect ratios became commonly available, first in laptops and later also in standalone monitors. Reasons for this transition included productive uses (i.e. field of view in video games and movie viewing) such as the word processor display of two standard letter pages side by side, as well as CAD displays of large-size drawings and application menus at the same time. In 2008 16:10 became the most common sold aspect ratio for LCD monitors and the same year 16:10 was the mainstream standard for laptops and notebook computers.
In 2010, the computer industry started to move over from 16:10 to 16:9 because 16:9 was chosen to be the standard high-definition television display size, and because they were cheaper to manufacture.
In 2011, non-widescreen displays with 4:3 aspect ratios were only being manufactured in small quantities. According to Samsung, this was because the \"Demand for the old \'Square monitors\' has decreased rapidly over the last couple of years,\" and \"I predict that by the end of 2011, production on all 4:3 or similar panels will be halted due to a lack of demand.\"
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# Computer monitor
## Measurements of performance {#measurements_of_performance}
### Resolution
The resolution for computer monitors has increased over time. From `{{resx|280x192}}`{=mediawiki} during the late 1970s, to `{{resx|1024x768}}`{=mediawiki} during the late 1990s. Since 2009, the most commonly sold resolution for computer monitors is `{{resx|1920x1080}}`{=mediawiki}, shared with the 1080p of HDTV. Before 2013 mass market LCD monitors were limited to `{{resx|2560x1600}}`{=mediawiki} at 30 in, excluding niche professional monitors. By 2015 most major display manufacturers had released `{{resx|3840x2160}}`{=mediawiki} (4K UHD) displays, and the first `{{resx|7680x4320}}`{=mediawiki} (8K) monitors had begun shipping.
### Gamut
Every RGB monitor has its own color gamut, bounded in chromaticity by a color triangle. Some of these triangles are smaller than the sRGB triangle, some are larger. Colors are typically encoded by 8 bits per primary color. The RGB value \[255, 0, 0\] represents red, but slightly different colors in different color spaces such as Adobe RGB and sRGB. Displaying sRGB-encoded data on wide-gamut devices can give an unrealistic result. The gamut is a property of the monitor; the image color space can be forwarded as Exif metadata in the picture. As long as the monitor gamut is wider than the color space gamut, correct display is possible, if the monitor is calibrated. A picture that uses colors that are outside the sRGB color space will display on an sRGB color space monitor with limitations. Still today, many monitors that can display the sRGB color space are not factory nor user-calibrated to display it correctly. Color management is needed both in electronic publishing (via the Internet for display in browsers) and in desktop publishing targeted to print.
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# Computer monitor
## Additional features {#additional_features}
### Universal features {#universal_features}
: **Power saving**
Most modern monitors will switch to a power-saving mode if no video-input signal is received. This allows modern operating systems to turn off a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. This also extends the monitor\'s service life. Some monitors will also switch themselves off after a time period on standby.
Most modern laptops provide a method of screen dimming after periods of inactivity or when the battery is in use. This extends battery life and reduces wear.
: **Indicator light**
Most modern monitors have two different indicator light colors wherein if video-input signal was detected, the indicator light is green and when the monitor is in power-saving mode, the screen is black and the indicator light is orange. Some monitors have different indicator light colors and some monitors have a blinking indicator light when in power-saving mode.
: **Integrated accessories**
Many monitors have other accessories (or connections for them) integrated. This places standard ports within easy reach and eliminates the need for another separate hub, camera, microphone, or set of speakers. These monitors have advanced microprocessors which contain codec information, Windows interface drivers and other small software which help in proper functioning of these functions.
: **Ultrawide screens**
Monitors that feature an aspect ratio greater than 2:1 (for instance, 21:9 or 32:9, as opposed to the more common 16:9, which resolves to 1.7`{{overline|7}}`{=mediawiki}:1).Monitors with an aspect ratio greater than 3:1 are marketed as super ultrawide monitors. These are typically massive curved screens intended to replace a multi-monitor deployment.
: **Touch screen**
These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. The screen will need frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.
: **Sensors**
- Ambient light for automatically adjusting screen brightness and/or color temperature
- Infrared camera for biometrics, eye and/or face recognition. Eye tracking as user input device. As lidar receiver for 3D scanning.
### Consumer features {#consumer_features}
: **Glossy screen**
Some displays, especially newer flat-panel monitors, replace the traditional anti-glare matte finish with a glossy one. This increases color saturation and sharpness but reflections from lights and windows are more visible. Anti-reflective coatings are sometimes applied to help reduce reflections, although this only partly mitigates the problem.
: **Curved designs**
Most often using nominally flat-panel display technology such as LCD or OLED, a concave rather than convex curve is imparted, reducing geometric distortion, especially in extremely large and wide seamless desktop monitors intended for close viewing range.
: **3D**
Newer monitors are able to display a different image for each eye, often with the help of special glasses and polarizers, giving the perception of depth. An autostereoscopic screen can generate 3D images without headgear.
### Professional features {#professional_features}
: **Anti-glare and anti-reflection screens**
Features for medical using or for outdoor placement.
: **Directional screen**
Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security-conscious applications.
: **Integrated professional accessories**
Integrated screen calibration tools, screen hoods, signal transmitters; Protective screens.
: **Tablet screens**
A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more special tools\' pressure. Newer models however are now able to detect touch from any pressure and often have the ability to detect tool tilt and rotation as well.
Touch and tablet sensors are often used on sample and hold displays such as LCDs to substitute for the light pen, which can only work on CRTs.
: **Integrated display LUT** and **3D LUT tables**
The option for using the display as a reference monitor; these calibration features can give an advanced color management control for take a near-perfect image.
: **Local dimming backlight**
Option for professional LCD monitors, inherent to OLED & CRT; professional feature with mainstream tendency.
: **Backlight brightness/color uniformity compensation**
Near to mainstream professional feature; advanced hardware driver for backlit modules with local zones of uniformity correction.
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# Computer monitor
## Mounting
Computer monitors are provided with a variety of methods for mounting them depending on the application and environment.
### Desktop
A desktop monitor is typically provided with a stand from the manufacturer which lifts the monitor up to a more ergonomic viewing height. The stand may be attached to the monitor using a proprietary method or may use, or be adaptable to, a VESA mount. A VESA standard mount allows the monitor to be used with more after-market stands if the original stand is removed. Stands may be fixed or offer a variety of features such as height adjustment, horizontal swivel, and landscape or portrait screen orientation.
### VESA mount {#vesa_mount}
The Flat Display Mounting Interface (FDMI), also known as VESA Mounting Interface Standard (MIS) or colloquially as a VESA mount, is a family of standards defined by the Video Electronics Standards Association for mounting flat-panel displays to stands or wall mounts. It is implemented on most modern flat-panel monitors and TVs.
For computer monitors, the VESA Mount typically consists of four threaded holes on the rear of the display that will mate with an adapter bracket.
### Rack mount {#rack_mount}
Rack mount computer monitors are available in two styles and are intended to be mounted into a 19-inch rack:
thumb\|upright=1.0\|A fixed 19 in, 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor
Fixed
A fixed rack mount monitor is mounted directly to the rack with the flat-panel or CRT visible at all times. The height of the unit is measured in rack units (RU) and 8U or 9U are most common to fit 17-inch or 19-inch screens. The front sides of the unit are provided with flanges to mount to the rack, providing appropriately spaced holes or slots for the rack mounting screws. A 19-inch diagonal screen is the largest size that will fit within the rails of a 19-inch rack. Larger flat-panels may be accommodated but are \'mount-on-rack\' and extend forward of the rack. There are smaller display units, typically used in broadcast environments, which fit multiple smaller screens side by side into one rack mount.
thumb\|upright=1.0\|A 1U stowable clamshell 19 in, 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor with keyboard
Stowable
A stowable rack mount monitor is 1U, 2U or 3U high and is mounted on rack slides allowing the display to be folded down and the unit slid into the rack for storage as a drawer. The flat display is visible only when pulled out of the rack and deployed. These units may include only a display or may be equipped with a keyboard creating a KVM (Keyboard Video Monitor). Most common are systems with a single LCD but there are systems providing two or three displays in a single rack mount system.
thumb\|upright=1.0\|A panel mount 19 in, 4:3 rack mount LCD monitor
### Panel mount {#panel_mount}
A panel mount computer monitor is intended for mounting into a flat surface with the front of the display unit protruding just slightly. They may also be mounted to the rear of the panel. A flange is provided around the screen, sides, top and bottom, to allow mounting. This contrasts with a rack mount display where the flanges are only on the sides. The flanges will be provided with holes for thru-bolts or may have studs welded to the rear surface to secure the unit in the hole in the panel. Often a gasket is provided to provide a water-tight seal to the panel and the front of the screen will be sealed to the back of the front panel to prevent water and dirt contamination.
### Open frame {#open_frame}
An open frame monitor provides the display and enough supporting structure to hold associated electronics and to minimally support the display. Provision will be made for attaching the unit to some external structure for support and protection. Open frame monitors are intended to be built into some other piece of equipment providing its own case. An arcade video game would be a good example with the display mounted inside the cabinet. There is usually an open frame display inside all end-use displays with the end-use display simply providing an attractive protective enclosure. Some rack mount monitor manufacturers will purchase desktop displays, take them apart, and discard the outer plastic parts, keeping the inner open-frame display for inclusion into their product.
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# Computer monitor
## Security vulnerabilities {#security_vulnerabilities}
According to an NSA document leaked to *\[\[Der Spiegel\]\]*, the NSA sometimes swaps the monitor cables on targeted computers with a bugged monitor cable to allow the NSA to remotely see what is being displayed on the targeted computer monitor.
Van Eck phreaking is the process of remotely displaying the contents of a CRT or LCD by detecting its electromagnetic emissions. It is named after Dutch computer researcher Wim van Eck, who in 1985 published the first paper on it, including proof of concept. While most effective on older CRT monitors due to their strong electromagnetic emissions, it can potentially apply to LCDs as well, although modern shielding techniques significantly mitigate the risk. Phreaking more generally is the process of exploiting telephone networks
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# List of cartographers
Cartography is the study of map making and **cartographers** are map makers.
## Before 1400 {#before_1400}
- Anaximander, Greek Anatolia (610 BC--546 BC), first to attempt making a map of the known world
- Hecataeus of Miletus, Greek Anatolia (550 BC--476 BC), geographer, cartographer, and early ethnographer
- Dicaearchus, Magna Graecia (c. 350 BC--285 BC), philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician, author
- Ende, Spain (c. 1000 AD), illustrator, cartographer, nun
- Eratosthenes, Ptolemaic Egypt (276 BC--194 BC), Greek scientist, mathematician, geographer, and cartographer
- Gyōki, Japan (668--749), Buddhist monk, cartographer, surveyor, and civil engineer,
- Hipparchus, Greek Anatolia (190 BC--120 BC), astronomer, cartographer, geographer
- Liu An, China (179 BC--122 BC), geographer, cartographer, author of the *Huainanzi*
- Marinus of Tyre, Roman Syria (c. AD 70--130), Greek geographer, cartographer and mathematician, who founded mathematical geography
- Ptolemy, Ptolemaic Egypt (c. 85--165), Greek astronomer, cartographer, and geographer
- Pei Xiu (224--271), Chinese geographer and cartographer
- Isidore of Seville, Hispania (560--636)
- al-Khwārazmī, Caliphate (9th century), Persian cartographer, geographer, and polymath.
- Su Song, China (1020--1101), horologist and engineer; as a Song dynasty diplomat, he used his knowledge of cartography and map-making to solve territorial border disputes with the rival Liao dynasty
- Shen Kuo, China (1031--1095), polymath scientist and statesman, author of the *Dream Pool Essays*, which included a large atlas of China and foreign regions, and also made a three-dimensional raised-relief map
- al-Idrisi, Sicily (1100--1166), Arab cartographer, geographer and traveller
- Maximus Planudes, Byzantine Empire (13th century), a monk credited with restoring the texts and maps of Ptolemy
- Petrus Vesconte, Genoese cartographer, author of the oldest signed Portolan chart (1311)
- Angelino Dulcert (14th century), author of the earliest known Majorcan portolan charts of the Mediterranean
## 15th century {#th_century}
- Jacobus Angelus, Florence, translated Ptolemy into Latin `{{c.|lk=no|1406}}`{=mediawiki}
- Martin Behaim (Germany, 1436--1507)
- Benedetto Bordone (Venetian Republic 1460--1551)
- Sebastian Cabot (1476--1557), Venetian explorer
- Erhard Etzlaub (1460--1532)
- Leonardo da Vinci (Italy, 1452--1519)
- Henricus Martellus Germanus (Germany, fl. 1480--1496)
- Donnus Nicholas Germanus (Germany, fl. 1460--1475)
- Fra Mauro (Venice, c. 1459)
- Piri Reis (Dardanelles, Ottoman Empire, 1465--1554/1555), author of the *Kitab-ı Bahriye*
- Johannes Ruysch (Netherlands, c. 1466--1530), explorer, cartographer, astronomer, manuscript illustrator and painter
- Hartmann Schedel (Germany, 1440--1514)
- Amerigo Vespucci (Republic of Florence, 1454--1512)
- Johannes Werner (Germany, 1466--1528), refined and promoted the Werner map projection
- Martin Waldseemüller (Germany, c. 1470--c. 1521/1522)
- Olaus Magnus (Olof Månsson) (Sweden, 1490--1557), published Carta Marina in 1539
- Gabriel de Valseca (15th century), Majorcan, author of several portolan charts of the Mediterranean
- (15th century), from Ancona, author of several portolan charts of the Mediterranean
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# List of cartographers
## 16th century {#th_century_1}
- Giovanni Battista Agnese (c. 1500--1564), Genoese, cartographer, author of numerous nautical atlases
- Hacı Ahmet, Ottoman Tunisian cartographer, translated 16th c. map into Turkish for the Ottoman Empire.
- Peter Apian (1495--1552), also known as Peter Bienewitz, German geographer and astronomer, author of the Apianus projection
- Philipp Apian (1531--1589)
- Joost Janszoon Bilhamer (Netherlands, 1541--1590)
- Hernando de los Ríos Coronel (1559--1621?), cosmographer and cartographer, mapped Taiwan (Isla Hermosa), Luzon and part of the Chinese coast.
- Willem Janszoon Blaeu (Netherlands, 1571--1638), father of Joan Blaeu
- Giovanni Battista Boazio, mapped Sir Francis Drake\'s voyage to the West Indies and America
- Anders Bure (Sweden, 1571 -- 1646), founder of Swedish cartography
- Jacob Roelofs van Deventer (Netherlands, c. 1510/15--1575)
- Fernão Vaz Dourado (India, c. 1520--c. 1580), Portuguese cartographer of the school initiated by Lopo Homem
- Oronce Finé (France, 1494--1555)
- Gemma Frisius (or Reiner Gemma) (Netherlands, 1508--1555)
- Jan Van Hanswijk (Netherlands, fl. 1594)
- Martin Helwig (Germany, 1516--1574)
- Augustin Hirschvogel (Germany, 1503--1553)
- Lopo Homem (Portugal?--1565), co-author, with the Reinel family, of the well-known Miller Atlas
- Diogo Homem (Portugal 1521--1576), cartographer, son of Lopo Homem
- Jodocus Hondius (Netherlands, 1563--1612)
- Johannes Honterus (Transylvania, 1498--1549)
- Gerard de Jode (Netherlands, 1509--1591)
- Urbano Monti (Italy, 1544--1613)
- Jacques le Moyne (France, c. 1533--1588)
- Guillaume Le Testu (France, c. 1509--1573)
- Jacobus Pentius de Leucho (Italy)
- Gerardus Mercator (Netherlands, 1512--1594)
- Sebastian Münster (Germany, 1488--1552)
- Abraham Ortelius (France, 1527--1598), generally recognized as the creator of the first modern atlas
- Petrus Plancius (Netherlands, 1552--1622)
- Diego Gutiérrez (Spain, ?) published a map entitled *Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio* with printer Hieronymus Cock. First map with toponym \"California\" and first appearance of a word for \"Appalachia,\" as the term \"Apalchen.\"
- Timothy Pont (Scotland, 1565--1614)
- Pedro Reinel (Portugal ?--c. 1542), author of the oldest signed Portuguese nautical chart
- Jorge Reinel (Portugal c. 1502--c. 1572), Portuguese cartographer, son of Pedro Reinel
- Diogo Ribeiro (Portugal, ?--Sevilha, 1533), author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527)
- Sebastião Lopes (Portugal 16th century), Portuguese cartographer and cosmographer
- Christopher Saxton (England, born c. 1540)
- John Speed (England, 1542--1629)
- Fernando Álvares Seco (Portugal?--?), signed the oldest known map of Portugal, reproduced in various editions of Abraham Ortelius\'s Theatrum Orbis Terrarum
- Bernardus Sylvanus (Italy)
- Luís Teixeira (Portugal ?--?), author of an important atlas of Brazil
- Bartolomeu Velho (Portugal ?--1568), cosmographer and cartographer
- Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer (Netherlands, 1533/34--1605/06), driver, cartographer
- Edward Wright (mathematician) (England, 1561--1615), mathematician and cartographer
- Georg Braun (Germany, 1541--1622), cartographer
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# List of cartographers
## 17th century {#th_century_2}
- Pieter van der Aa (Netherlands, 1659--1733)
- João Teixeira Albernaz I (Portugal, died c. 1664), prolific cartographer, son of Luís Teixeira
- João Teixeira Albernaz II (Portugal, died c. 1699), Portuguese cartographer
- Pedro Teixeira Albernaz (Portugal, c. 1595--1662), Portuguese cartographer author of an important atlas of the Iberian Peninsula and a map of Portugal (1656)
- Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan (France, c. 1600--1673), French cartographer who created first descriptive map of Ukraine
- François Berthelot (France), cartographer of the Mediterranean Sea
- Johannes Blaeu (Netherlands, 1596--1673)
- Emanuel Bowen (1693/4--1767), engraver and map maker
- Greenville Collins (British, 1643--1694)
- Vincenzo Coronelli (Venetian, 1650--1718)
- Guillaume Delisle (French, 1675--1726)
- Petter Gedda (Sweden, 1661--1697)
- Hessel Gerritsz (Netherlands, 1581--1632), cartographer for the VOC
- Isaak de Graaff (Netherlands, 1668--1743), cartographer for the VOC
- Johann Homann (Germany, 1664--1724), geographer
- Henricus Hondius (Netherlands, 1597--1651)
- Willem Hondius (Netherlands, 1598--1652/58)
- Johannes Janssonius (Netherlands, 1588--1664)
- Johannes van Keulen (Netherlands, 1654--1715)
- Joannes de Laet (Netherlands, 1581--1649)
- Michael van Langren (Netherlands, 1600--1675)
- Alain Manesson Mallet (France, 1630--1706)
- Matthäus Merian Sr. (Switzerland, 1593--1650) and Jr. (Switzerland, 1621--1687)
- David de Meyne (Netherlands, c. 1569--1620)
- Herman Moll (Germany?/England, 1654--1732)
- Robert Morden (England, 1650--1703)
- Giovan Battista Nicolosi (Italy, 1610--1670)
- Dirck Rembrantsz van Nierop (Netherlands, 1610--1682), cartographer, mathematician and astronomist
- Jean-Baptiste Nolin (France, c.1657--1708)
- John Ogilby (Scotland, 1600--1676)
- (England, 16xx--1743)
- Nicolas Sanson (France, 1600--1667)
- Peter Schenk the Elder (Germany, 1660--1718/19)
- Johannes Vingboons (Netherlands, 1616/17--1670), cartographer and aquarellist
- Georg Matthäus Vischer (Austria, 1628--1696), cartographer, topographer and engraver
- Claes Jansz Visscher (Netherlands, 1587--1652)
- Nicolaes Visscher I (Netherlands, 1618--1679)
- Frederik de Wit (Netherlands, 1610/16--1698)
- Nicolaes Witsen (Netherlands, 1641--1717), diplomat, cartographer, writer and mayor of Amsterdam
- Giovanni Cassini (`{{aka}}`{=mediawiki} Cassini I, Italy & France, 1625--1712)
- Jacques Cassini (a.k.a. Cassini II, France, 1677--1756)
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# List of cartographers
## 18th century {#th_century_3}
- John James Abert (United States, 1788--1863), headed the Corps of Topographical Engineers for 32 years and organized the mapping of the American West
- Anders Åkerman (Sweden, 1721/23--1778), first globemaker in Sweden
- John Arrowsmith (England, 1790--1873), member of the Arrowsmith family of geographers
- Louis Albert Guislain Bacler d\'Albe (France, 1761--1824), also artist and longtime strategic advisor to Napoleon
- John Senex (1690--1740), engraver, publisher, surveyor and geographer to Queen Anne
- John Lodge Cowley, cartographer, mathematician and geographer
- Agostino Codazzi (Italy, 1793--1858)
- Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres (1721--1824), created Atlantic Neptune
- Giambattista (Giovanni Battista) Albrizzi (Venice, 1698--1777), publisher of illustrated books and maps
- Sieur le Rouge map c. 1740
- John Gibson (cartographer), map c. 1758
- Jacques-Nicolas Bellin (1703--1772), chief cartographer to the French navy
- William Bligh (England, 1754--57 December 1817), Ships Master during the infamous Bounty mutiny and noted free-hand cartographer
- Rigobert Bonne (France, 1727--1795), Royal Cartographer to France in the office of the Hydrographer at Depot de la Marine
- Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d\'Anville (France, 1697--1782)
- Don Tomas Lopez de Vargas Machuca (Spain, 1730--1802)
- Lourenco Homem da Cunha d'Eca, created *Carta militar das principaes estradas de Portugal*, 1808
- Abel Buell (1742--1822), published the first map of the new United States created by an American
- Catharina Buijs (1714--1781), Dutch cartographer for the Dutch East India Company
- Dimitrie Cantemir (Moldavia and Russia, 1673--1723)
- César-François Cassini de Thury (a.k.a. Cassini III, France, 1714--1784)
- Jean-Dominique Cassini (a.k.a. Cassini IV, France, 1748--1845)
- Edme Mentelle (France, 1730--1816)
- Pierre Gilles Chanlair (France, 1758--1817)
- James Cook (Captain RN) (1728--1779), navigator and naval chart maker
- Simeon De Witt (1756--1834), successor to Robert Erskine and Surveyor-General of the State of New York
- Louis Isidore Duperrey (French, 1786--1865)
- Johann Friedrich Endersch (Germany, fl. 1755)
- Colonel Robert Erskine (1735--1780), geographer and Surveyor-General of the Continental Army during the American Revolution
- Joseph de Ferraris (1726--1814), Austrian cartographer of the Austrian Netherlands
- Matthew Flinders (British, 1774--1814), Royal Navy officer; circumnavigated Australia and made exploration of the Australian coastline
- Joseph Marx Baron von Liechtenstern (Austria, 1765--1828)
- Louis Feuillée (France, 1660--1732)
- Björn Gunnlaugsson (Iceland, 1788--1876)
- Fielding Lucas, Jr. (c. 1781--1854), of the Lucas Brothers, Baltimore, US
- J. Flyn \"New and Correct Plan of London\", 1770
- Samuel Gustaf Hermelin (Sweden, 1744--1820)
- Thomas Jefferys (England, c. 1710--1771), geographer of King George III of the United Kingdom
- William Faden (England, 1749--1836), successor to Thomas Jefferys
- Pierre Jacotin (France, 1765--1829)
- Murdoch McKenzie (Scotland, died 1797)
- John Mitchell (1711--1768), colonial British American mapmaker
- Thomas Livingstone Mitchell (England, 1792--1855)
- Robert Moresby (England, 1794--1863)
- Thomas Moule (England, 1784--1851)
- Carlton Osgood (United States, †1816)
- Adriaan Reland (Netherlands, 1676--1718), linguist and cartographer
- Thomas Richardson (Scotland)
- Dider Robert de Vaugondy (France, 1688--1766)
- John Rocque (England, 1709--1762)
- David Watson, surveyed Scotland post 1747 to produce *The Duke of Cumberland\'s Map*
- William Roy (England, 1726--1790)
- William Mudge (England, 1762--1820)
- Thomas Frederick Colby (England, 1784--1852)
- Matthäus Seutter (Germany, 1678--1757)
- Friedrich Wilhelm Carl von Schmettau (1743--1806)
- Matthias Seutter (Germany, 1678--1757)
- Jacob Swart (Netherlands, 1796--1866)
- Inō Tadataka (Japan, 1745--1818), Surveyor and cartographer who completed the first surveyed map of Japan
- David Thompson (British--Canadian, 1770--1857)
- Daniel-Charles Trudaine (France, 1703--1769)
- Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (1676--1747)
- Thomas Kitchin (1718--1784), London-based cartographer and engraver of maps of England, greater Europe, and parts of the British Empire.; at one time held the titles \"Senior Hydrographer to His Majesty\" and \"Senior Engraver to His Royal Highness the Duke of York\"
- Friedrich Christoph Müller (Germany, 1751--1808)
- Philippe Vandermaelen (Belgium, 1795--1869)
- Alexander Wilbrecht (Russia, 1757--1823), geographer of the Geographic Department of the Cabinet of Her Imperial Majesty
- Emma Willard (United States, 1787--1870), women\'s rights activist and education reformer
- James Wilson (United States, 1763--1835), first maker of globes in the United States
- George Washington (United States of America, 1732--1799), first president of the United States; cartographer
- Henri Michelot (France, born c. 1664), Marseilles, France, hydrographer and pilot of the Royal Galley
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# List of cartographers
## 19th century {#th_century_4}
- Robert Aitken of Beith. born c. 1786
- Carlo de Candia (1803--1862), Italian cartographer, created the large maritime map of Sardinia in 1: 250,000 scale, travel version.
- John Bartholomew the elder(26 April 1805 -- 8 April 1861), Scottish cartographer and engraver.
- Henry Peter Bosse (Germany/United States, 1844--1903), also photographer and civil engineer
- Abraham Bradley Jr. (1767--1838), created first postal road maps of the United States
- George Bradshaw (England, 1801--1853)
- Eugenia Wheeler Goff (United States, 1844--1922), combined history, resources, and geography
- Leslie George Bullock (1895--1971)
- Bernard J. S. Cahill (1867--1944), inventor of octahedral \"Butterfly Map\" of the world
- George Comer (1858--1937)
- John Paul Goode (1862--1932), created the \"Evil Mercator\" and *Goode's World Atlas*
- Hermann Haack (Germany, 1872--1966)
- Eduard Imhof (1895--1986), oversaw the Schweizerischer Mittelschulatlas, the atlas used in Swiss
- James Ireland Craig (1868--1952), inventor of the Craig retroazimuthal projection, otherwise known as the *Mecca projection*
- J. H. Colton (United States, 1800--1893)
- Carl Diercke (1842--1913)
- Max Eckert-Greifendorff (Germany, 1868--1938)
- Percy Fawcett (1867--1925), British explorer of South America
- Matthew Fontaine Maury (United States, 1806--1873), U.S. Navy officer; also oceanographer, meteorologist, cartographer, author, geologist, and educator
- Matsuura Takeshirō (Japan, 1818--1888), explorer, cartographer, writer, painter, priest, and antiquarian.
- Thaddeus Mortimer Fowler (1842--1922), American producer of pictorial maps
- Charles F. Hoffmann (Germany/United States, 1838--1913)
- James Gardner
- Charles E. Goad (1848 -- 1910), English Canadian cartographer and pioneer of insurance maps
- William Hughes (geographer) FRGS (1818 -- 21 May 1876), English geographer, mapmaker, cartographer and author.
- Gwynneth de Candia Vaughan (England 1879 - ?), British cartographer, mapmaker in the Australian territories.
- Felix Jones (England, 1813--1878)
- Florence Kelley (United States, 1859--1932), political reformer, director of the Chicago portion of the Hull House Maps and Papers
- Peter Kozler (Slovenia, 1824--1879), lawyer, geographer, politician, manufacturer
- Lilian Lancaster (1852--1939), British creator of anthropomorphic maps
- Rudolf Leuzinger (Switzerland, 1826--1896), known for mountain landscapes and geologic forms and the first to produce terrain maps in color lithography.
- Victor Adolphe Malte-Brun (France, 1816--1889)
- Heinrich Theodor Menke (Germany, 1819--1892)
- August Heinrich Petermann (18 April 1822 -- 25 September 1878), German cartographer
- George Philip (1800--1882), cartographer, map publisher and founder of the publishing house George Philip & Son Ltd.
- Erwin Raisz (1893--1968)
- Daniel Alfred Sanborn (United States, 1827--1883), founder of the prolific insurance map provider Sanborn Map Company
- William Schmollinger (*fl*. 1830s)
- William R. Shepherd (1871--1934)
- Yuly Shokalsky (Russia, 1856--1940), also oceanographer and geographer
- Karl Spruner von Merz (Germany, 1803--1892)
- John Tallis and Company (England, 1838--1851)
- Nicolas Auguste Tissot (France, 1824--1897), devised Tissot\'s indicatrix
- Shanawdithit (Canada, c. 1801--1829), created maps depicting the movement Beothuk people in Newfoundland
- Edward A. Vincent (England/United States, c. 1825--27 November 1856), cartographer, civil engineer, architect
- Nain Singh Rawat (India, 1830--1882), Cartographer and explorer
- Cope, Emmor B: Gettysburg Battlefield cartographer and first Gettysburg National Military Park superintendent
- Alexandre Vuillemin (France, 1812--1880)
- Ruth Taylor White (United States 1899 -- ?), creator of pictorial maps of the United States
- John Francon Williams FRGS (1854--4 September 1911), editor, journalist, writer, geographer, historian, cartographer and inventor.
- Fanny Bullock Workman (United States, 1859--1925), geographer, cartographer, explorer, travel writer, and mountaineer
- James Wyld (England, 1812--1887)
- Hatsusaburō Yoshida (Japan, 1884--1955)
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# List of cartographers
## 20th century {#th_century_5}
- Regina Araújo de Almeida (Brazil, 1949-- ), professor of geography at the University of São Paulo, tactile cartographer
- Jacques Bertin (France, 1918--2010)
- Josef Breu (Austria, 1914--1998)
- Cynthia Brewer (United States, 1957-- ), developed ColorBrewer, professor at Penn State University
- Roger Brunet (1931-- )
- Emanuela Casti (1950-- ), formalized a semiotic theory of geographic maps
- Danny Dorling (1968-- ), developed circular cartograms
- Marion A. Frieswyk (United States, 1922--2021), first female intelligence cartographer in the Central Intelligence Agency
- Ruth Rhoads Lepper Gardner (United States, 1905--2011), cartographer of the Maine coast
- Emily Garfield, (1987-- ), cartographic artist
- Günther Hake (1922--2000)
- Richard Edes Harrison (1901--1994)
- Tom Harrisson (1911--1976)
- George F. Jenks (1916--1996)
- Elrey Borge Jeppesen (1907--1996)
- Ingrid Kretschmer (1939--2011)
- Toy Lasker (United States, 1919--2011), creator and editor of Flashmaps guidebooks
- Edgar Lehmann (1905--1990)
- Samuel Herbert Maw (1881--1952), architect, delineator and cartographer of Canada
- Kate McLean (United Kingdom) Best known for creating olfactory maps of cities
- Jess Miller (United States, 1988-- ), artist, photographer, and cartographer of rural Arkansas
- Mark Monmonier (United States, 1943-- ), wrote *How to Lie with Maps* and created the Monmonier Algorithm. Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Syracuse University
- Mark Newman (1968-- ), developed area contiguous cartograms using a diffusion-based method
- Rudi Ogrissek (1926--1999)
- Rafael Palacios (1905--1993), prolific map-drawer for major US publishers
- Phyllis Pearsall (England, 1906--1996), creator of the Geographers\' A--Z Street Atlas
- Jacques Pervititch (Turkey, 1877--1945), creator of series of insurance maps of Istanbul
- Barbara Petchenik (1939--1992), first woman to serve as Vice President of the International Cartographic Association
- Edward Ayearst Reeves (1862--1945), British geographer, astronomer, and cartographer
- Arthur H. Robinson (1915--2004), wrote the influential textbook *Elements of Cartography* and developed the Robinson projection
- Abbas Sahab (1921--2000), Iranian cartographer, produced the first atlas of the Persian Gulf
- Paula Scher (United States, 1948-- ), graphic designer, painter
- Joni Seagar (United States 1954-- ), professor of geography at the University of Vermont
- Nikolas Schiller (1980-- ), Arabesque maps composed of kaleidoscopic aerial photographs
- John C. Sherman (1916--1996)
- Jessamine Shumate (1902--1990)
- Kira B. Shingareva (Russia, 1938--2013), first person to successfully map the dark side of the moon
- John P. Snyder (1926--1997), developed the space oblique Mercator projection
- Dr. E. Lee Spence (1947-- ), pioneer underwater archaeologist, decorative, historical maps showing shipwreck locations
- Marie Tharp (1920--2006), oceanographic cartographer, co-created the first scientific map of the ocean floor with Bruce Heezen
- Norman J. W. Thrower (1919--2002), professor at UCLA and author who was known for work in geography, surveying practices, and history
- Waldo R
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# Commodore 1570
The **Commodore 1570** is a 5¼\" floppy disk drive for the Commodore 128 home/personal computer. It is a single-sided, 170 kB version of the Commodore 1571, released as a stopgap measure when Commodore International was unable to provide sufficient quantities of 1571s due to a shortage of double-sided drive mechanisms (which were supplied by an outside manufacturer). Like the 1571, it can read and write both GCR and MFM disk formats. The 1570 utilizes a 1571 logic board in a cream-colored original-1541-like case with a drive mechanism similar to the 1541\'s except that it was equipped with track-zero detection. Like the 1571, its built-in DOS provides a data burst mode for transferring data to the C128 computer at a faster speed than a 1541 can. Its ROM also contains some DOS bug fixes that didn\'t appear in the 1571 until much later. The 1570 can read and write all single-sided CP/M-format disks that the 1571 can access.
Although the 1570 is compatible with the Commodore 64, the C64 isn\'t capable of taking advantage of the drive\'s higher-speed operation, and when used with the C64 it is little more than a pricier 1541. Also, many early buyers of the C128 chose to temporarily make do with a 1541 drive, perhaps owned as part of a previous C64 setup, until the 1571 became more widely available.
The drive uses the CPU MOS 6502, floppy controller WD1770 or WD1772, I/O controllers 2x MOS Technology 6522 and 1x MOS Technology 6526
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# Commodore 1571
The **Commodore 1571** is Commodore\'s high-end 5¼\" floppy disk drive, announced in the summer of 1985. With its double-sided drive mechanism, it has the ability to use double-sided, double-density (DS/DD) floppy disks, storing a total of 360 kB per floppy. It also implemented a \"burst mode\" that improved transfer speeds, helping address the very slow performance of previous Commodore drives.
Earlier Commodore drives used a custom group coded recording format that stored 170 kB per side of a disk. This made it fairly competitive in terms of storage, but limited it to only reading and writing disks from other Commodore machines. The 1571 was designed to partner with the new Commodore 128 (C128), which introduced support for CP/M. Adding double-density MFM encoding allowed the drive to read and write contemporary CP/M disks (and many others).
In contrast to its single-sided predecessors, the 1541 and the briefly-available 1570, the 1571 can use both sides of the disk at the same time. Previously, users could only use the second side by manually flipping them over. Because flipping the disk also reverses the direction of rotation, the two methods are not interchangeable; disks which had their back side created in a 1541 by flipping them over would have to be flipped in the 1571 too, and the back side of disks written in a 1571 using the native support for two-sided operation could not be read in a 1541.
## Release and features {#release_and_features}
The 1571 was released to match the Commodore 128, both design-wise and feature-wise. It was announced in the summer of 1985, at the same time as the C128, and became available in quantity later that year. The later C128D had a 1571 drive built into the system unit. A double-sided disk on the 1571 would have a capacity of 340 kB (70 tracks, 1,360 disk blocks of 256 bytes each); as 8 kB are reserved for system use (directory and block availability information) and, under `{{nowrap|[[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]],}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|2 bytes}}`{=mediawiki} of each block serve as pointers to the next logical block, `{{nowrap|254 x 1,328}}`{=mediawiki} = 337,312 B or about `{{nowrap|329.4 kB}}`{=mediawiki} were available for user data. (However, with a program organizing disk storage on its own, all space could be used, e.g. for data disks.)
The 1571 was designed to accommodate the C128\'s \"burst\" mode for faster disk access, however the drive cannot use it if connected to older Commodore machines. This mode replaced the slow bit-banging serial routines of the 1541 with a true serial shift register implemented in hardware, thus dramatically increasing the drive speed. Although this originally had been planned when Commodore first switched from the parallel IEEE-488 interface to the CBM-488 custom serial interface, hardware bugs in the VIC-20\'s 6522 VIA shift register prevented it from working properly.
When connected to a C128, the 1571 would default to double-sided mode, which allowed the drive to read its own 340k disks as well as single-sided 170 kB 1541 disks. If the C128 was switched into C64 mode by typing GO 64 from BASIC, the 1571 will stay in double-sided mode. If C64 mode was activated by holding down the C= key on power-up, the drive would automatically switch to single-sided mode, in which case it is unable to read 340 kB disks (also the default if a 1571 is used with a C64, Plus/4, VIC-20, or PET). A manual command can also be issued from BASIC to switch the 1571 between single and double sided mode. There is also an undocumented command which allows the user to independently control either of the read/write heads of the 1571, making it possible to format both sides of a diskette separate from each other, however the resultant disk cannot be read in a 1541 as it would be spinning in reverse direction when flipped upside down. In the same vein, \"flippy\" disks created with a 1541 cannot be read on a 1571 with this feature; they must be inserted upside down.
The 1571 is not 100% low-level compatible with the 1541; however, this isn\'t a problem except in some software that uses advanced copy protections such as the RapidLok system found on MicroProse and Accolade games.
The 1571 was noticeably quieter than its predecessor and tended to run cooler as well, even though, like the 1541, it had an internal power supply (later Commodore drives, like the 1541-II and the 3½\" 1581, came with external power supplies). The 1541-II/1581 power supply makes mention of a 1571-II, hinting that Commodore may have intended to release a version of the 1571 with an external power supply. However, no 1571-IIs are known to exist. The embedded OS in the 1571 was `{{nowrap|[[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]]}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|V3.0 1571,}}`{=mediawiki} an improvement over the `{{nowrap|1541's V2.6.}}`{=mediawiki}
Early 1571s had a bug in the ROM-based disk operating system that caused relative files to corrupt if they occupied both sides of the disk. A version 2 ROM was released, but though it cured the initial bug, it introduced some minor quirks of its own -- particularly with the 1541 emulation. Curiously, it was also identified as V3.0.
As with the 1541, Commodore initially could not meet demand for the 1571, and that lack of availability and the drive\'s relatively high price (about US\$300) presented an opportunity for cloners. Two 1571 clones appeared, one from Oceanic and one from Blue Chip, but legal action from Commodore quickly drove them from the market.
Commodore announced at the 1985 Consumer Electronics Show a dual-drive version of the 1571, to be called the **Commodore 1572**, but quickly canceled it, reportedly due to technical difficulties with the 1572 DOS. It would have had four times as much RAM as the 1571 (8 kB), and twice as much ROM (64 kB). The 1572 would have allowed for fast disk backups of non-copy-protected media, much like the old 4040, 8050, and 8250 dual drives.
The 1571 built into the European plastic-case C128*D* computer is electronically identical to the stand-alone version, but 1571 version integrated into the later metal-case C128D (often called C128 DCR, for D Cost-Reduced) differs a lot from the stand-alone 1571. It includes a newer DOS, version 3.1, replaces the MOS Technology CIA interface chip, of which only a few features were used by the 1571 DOS, with a very much simplified chip called 5710, and has some compatibility issues with the stand-alone drive. Because this internal 1571 does not have an unused 8-bit input/output port on any chip, unlike most other Commodore drives, it is not possible to install a parallel cable in this drive, such as that used by SpeedDOS, DolphinDOS and some other fast third-party Commodore DOS replacements.
## Technical design {#technical_design}
The drive detects the motor speed and generates an internal data sampling clock signal that matches with the motor speed.
The 1571 uses a saddle canceler when reading the data stream. A correction signal is generated when the raw data pattern on the disk consists of two consecutive zeros. With the GCR recording format a problem occurs in the read signal waveform. The worst case pattern 1001 may cause a saddle condition where a false data bit may occur. The original 1541 drives uses a one-shot to correct the condition. The 1571 uses a gate array to correct this digitally.
The drive uses the MOS 6502 CPU, WD1770 or WD1772 floppy controller, 2x MOS Technology 6522 I/O controllers and 1x MOS Technology 6526.
| 1,238 |
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| 0 |
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# Commodore 1571
## Disk format {#disk_format}
Unlike the 1541, which was limited to GCR formatting, the 1571 could read both GCR and MFM disk formats. The version of CP/M included with the C128 supported the following formats:
- IBM PC CP/M-86
- Osborne 1 (double density upgrade)
- Epson QX10
- Kaypro II, IV
- CBM CP/M FORMAT SS
- CBM CP/M FORMAT DS
The 1571 can read any of the many CP/M `{{frac|5|1|4}}`{=mediawiki}-disk formats. If the CP/M BIOS is modified, it is possible to read any soft sector 40-track MFM format. Single density (FM) formats are not supported because the density selector pin on the MFM controller chip in the drive is disabled (wired to ground).
A 1571 cannot boot from MFM disks; the user must boot CP/M from a GCR disk and then switch to MFM disks.
With additional software, it was possible to read and write to MS-DOS-formatted floppies as well. Numerous commercial and public-domain programs for this purpose became available, the best-known being SOGWAP\'s \"Big Blue Reader\". Although the C128 could not run any MS-DOS-based software, this capability allowed data files to be exchanged with PC users. Reading `{{nowrap|[[Atari 8-bit computers|Atari 8-bit]]}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|130 kB}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nowrap|180 kB}}`{=mediawiki} disks was possible as well with special software, but the standard `{{nowrap|Atari 8-bit}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap|90 kB}}`{=mediawiki} format, which used FM rather than MFM encoding, could not be handled by the 1571 hardware without modifying the drive circuitry as the control line that determines if FM or MFM encoding is used by the disc controller chip was permanently wired to ground (MFM mode) rather than being under software control.
In the 1541 format, while 40 tracks are possible for a `{{nowrap|5.25" DD}}`{=mediawiki} drive like the 154x/157x, only `{{nowrap|35 tracks}}`{=mediawiki} are used. Commodore chose not to use the upper five tracks by default (or at least to use more than 35) due to the bad quality of some of the drive mechanisms, which did not always work reliably on those tracks.
For compatibility and ease of implementation, the 1571\'s double-sided format of one logical disk side with `{{nowrap|70 tracks}}`{=mediawiki} was created by putting together the lower 35 physical tracks on each of the physical sides of the disk rather than using two times `{{nowrap|40 tracks,}}`{=mediawiki} even though there were no more quality problems with the mechanisms of the 1571 drives
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# Commandant of the United States Marine Corps
The **commandant of the Marine Corps** (**CMC**) is normally the highest-ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps. It is a four-star general position and a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CMC reports directly to the secretary of the Navy and is responsible for ensuring the organization, policy, plans, and programs for the Marine Corps as well as advising the president, the secretary of defense, the National Security Council, the Homeland Security Council, and the secretary of the Navy on matters involving the Marine Corps. Under the authority of the secretary of the Navy, the CMC designates Marine personnel and resources to the commanders of unified combatant commands. The commandant performs all other functions prescribed in Section 8043 in Title 10 of the United States Code or delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in his administration in his name. As with the other joint chiefs, the commandant is an administrative position and has no operational command authority over United States Marine Corps forces.
The commandant is nominated for appointment by the president, for a four-year term of office, and must be confirmed by the Senate. The commandant can be reappointed to serve one additional term, but only during times of war or national emergency declared by Congress. By statute, the commandant is appointed as a four-star general while serving in office. \"The commandant is directly responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the total performance of the Marine Corps. This includes the administration, discipline, internal organization, training, requirements, efficiency, and readiness of the service. The Commandant is also responsible for the operation of the Marine Corps material support system.\" Since 1806, the official residence of the commandant has been located in the Marine Barracks in Washington, D.C., and his main offices are in Arlington County, Virginia.
The 39th and current commandant is General Eric M. Smith.
## Responsibilities
The responsibilities of the commandant are outlined in Title 10, Section 5043, the United States Code and the position is \"subject to the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of the Navy\". As stated in the U.S. Code, the commandant \"shall preside over the Headquarters, Marine Corps, transmit the plans and recommendations of the Headquarters, Marine Corps, to the Secretary and advise the Secretary with regard to such plans and recommendations, after approval of the plans or recommendations of the Headquarters, Marine Corps, by the Secretary, act as the agent of the Secretary in carrying them into effect, exercise supervision, consistent with the authority assigned to commanders of unified or specified combatant commands under chapter 6 of this title, over such of the members and organizations of the Marine Corps and the Navy as the Secretary determines, perform the duties prescribed for him by section 171 of this title and other provisions of law and perform such other military duties, not otherwise assigned by law, as are assigned to him by the President, the Secretary of Defense, or the Secretary of the Navy\".
| 506 |
Commandant of the United States Marine Corps
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# Commandant of the United States Marine Corps
## List of commandants {#list_of_commandants}
Thirty-nine men have served as the commandant of the Marine Corps. The first commandant was Samuel Nicholas, who took office as a captain, though there was no office titled \"Commandant\" at the time, and the Second Continental Congress had authorized that the senior-most Marine could take a rank up to Colonel. The longest-serving was Archibald Henderson, sometimes referred to as the \"*Grand old man of the Marine Corps*\" due to his 39-year tenure. In the history of the United States Marine Corps, only one commandant has ever been fired from the job: Anthony Gale, as a result of a court-martial in 1820.
\|- \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align=\"center\" \| - \| rowspan=\"2\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"Smith, Eric\" style=\"text-align:center\" rowspan=\"2\" \| General\
**Eric M. Smith**\
`{{small|(born {{circa|1964}})}}`{=mediawiki} \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align=\"center\" \| 10 July 2023 \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align=\"center\" \| 22 September 2023 \| style=background:#e6e6aa; align=\"center\" \| `{{ayd|2023|07|10|2023|09|22}}`{=mediawiki} \| rowspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:center\" \| `{{small|Served as acting commandant after Berger's retirement amid Senator [[Tommy Tuberville]]'s hold on military nominations, and sworn in following confirmation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gould|first=Joe|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2023/09/21/senate-confirms-george-to-lead-army-bucking-tuberville-logjam-00117394|title=Senate confirms Army and Marine chiefs, bucking Tuberville logjam|date=2023-09-21|access-date=2023-09-22|website=[[Politico]]|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922162227/https://www.politico.com/news/2023/09/21/senate-confirms-george-to-lead-army-bucking-tuberville-logjam-00117394|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Loewenson|first=Irene|url=https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/your-marine-corps/2023/09/22/top-marine-leader-sworn-in-1-day-after-senate-confirmation/|title=Top Marine leader sworn in 1 day after Senate confirmation|date=2023-09-23|access-date=2023-09-23|website=[[Marine Corps Times]]|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922171712/https://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/your-marine-corps/2023/09/22/top-marine-leader-sworn-in-1-day-after-senate-confirmation/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />During his hospitalization after suffering a heart attack, Lieutenant General [[Karsten Heckl]] (30 October – 3 November 2023) and General [[Christopher J. Mahoney]] (3 November 2023 – 5 March 2024) served as acting commandants.}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| style=\"text-align:center \| 39 \| style=\"text-align:center \| 22 September 2023 \| style=\"text-align:center \| *Incumbent* \| style=\"text-align:center \| `{{ayd|2023|09|22}}`{=mediawiki} \|}
### Timeline
{{#tag:timeline\| ImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:10 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20 AlignBars = late
DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1770 till:2070 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1770
Define \$now = `{{CURRENTYEAR}}`{=mediawiki}
Colors =
` id:cmc value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: CMC`\
` id:acmc value:rgb(0,0,1) legend: ACMC`\
` id:time value:rgb(0.9,0.9,0.9)`
Legend = orientation:vertical position:right
LineData =
` layer:back`\
` width:0
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# California Department of Transportation
The **California Department of Transportation** (**Caltrans**) is an executive department of the U.S. state of California. The department is part of the cabinet-level California State Transportation Agency (CalSTA). Caltrans is headquartered in Sacramento.
Caltrans manages the state\'s highway system, which includes the California Freeway and Expressway System, supports public transportation systems throughout the state and provides funding and oversight for three state-supported Amtrak intercity rail routes (*Capitol Corridor*, *Pacific Surfliner* and *San Joaquins*) which are collectively branded as *Amtrak California*.
In 2015, Caltrans released a new mission statement: \"Provide a safe, sustainable, integrated and efficient transportation system to enhance California\'s economy and livability.\"
## History
The earliest predecessor of Caltrans was the Bureau of Highways, which was created by the California Legislature and signed into law by Governor James Budd in 1895. This agency consisted of three commissioners who were charged with analyzing the roads of the state and making recommendations for their improvement. At the time, there was no state highway system, since roads were purely a local responsibility. California\'s roads consisted of crude dirt roads maintained by county governments, as well as some paved streets in certain cities, and this ad hoc system was no longer adequate for the needs of the state\'s rapidly growing population. After the commissioners submitted their report to the governor on November 25, 1896, the legislature replaced the Bureau with the Department of Highways.
Due to the state\'s weak fiscal condition and corrupt politics, little progress was made until 1907, when the legislature replaced the Department of Highways with the Department of Engineering, within which there was a Division of Highways. California voters approved an \$18 million bond issue for the construction of a state highway system in 1910, and the first California Highway Commission was convened in 1911. On August 7, 1912, the department broke ground on its first construction project, the section of El Camino Real between South San Francisco and Burlingame, which later became part of California State Route 82. The year 1912 also saw the founding of the Transportation Laboratory and the creation of seven administrative divisions, which are the predecessors of the 12 district offices in use `{{Asof|2018|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}. The original seven division headquarters were located in:
- Willits Mercantile Building for Del Norte, Humboldt, Lake, and Mendocino counties
- Redding C.R.Briggs Building for Lassen, Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama, and Trinity counties
- Sacramento Forum Building for Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Sierra, Solano, Stanislaus, Sutter, Tuolumne, Yolo, and Yuba counties
- San Francisco Rialto Building for Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Mateo, and Sonoma counties
- San Luis Obispo Union National Bank Building for Monterey, San Benito, Santa Barbara, and San Luis Obispo counties
- Fresno Forsythe Building for Fresno, Inyo, Kern, Kings, Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Mono, and Tulare counties
- Los Angeles Union Oil Building for Imperial, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, and Ventura counties
In 1913, the California State Legislature began requiring vehicle registration and allocated the resulting funds to support regular highway maintenance, which began the next year.
In 1921, the state legislature turned the Department of Engineering into the Department of Public Works, which continued to have a Division of Highways. That same year, three additional divisions (now districts) were created, in Stockton, Bishop, and San Bernardino.
In 1933, the state legislature enacted an amendment to the State Highway Classification Act of 1927, which added over 6,700 miles of county roads to the state highway system. To help manage all the additional work created by this massive expansion, an eleventh district office was founded that year in San Diego.
The enactment of the Collier--Burns Highway Act of 1947 after \"a lengthy and bitter legislative battle\" was a watershed moment in Caltrans history. The act \"placed California highway\'s program on a sound financial basis\" by doubling vehicle registration fees and raising gasoline and diesel fuel taxes from 3 cents to 4.5 cents per gallon. All these taxes were again raised further in 1953 and 1963. The state also obtained extensive federal funding from the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 for the construction of its portion of the Interstate Highway System. Over the next two decades after Collier-Burns, the state \"embarked on a massive highway construction program\" in which nearly all of the now-extant state highway system was either constructed or upgraded. In hindsight, the period from 1940 to 1969 can be characterized as the \"Golden Age\" of California\'s state highway construction program.
The history of Caltrans and its predecessor agencies during the 20th century was marked by many firsts. It was one of the first agencies in the United States to paint centerlines on highways statewide; the first to build a freeway west of the Mississippi River; the first to build a four-level stack interchange; the first to develop and deploy non-reflective raised pavement markers, better known as Botts\' dots; and one of the first to implement dedicated freeway-to-freeway connector ramps for high-occupancy vehicle lanes.
In 1967, Governor Ronald Reagan formed a Task Force Committee on Transportation to study the state transportation system and recommend major reforms. One of the proposals of the task force was the creation of a State Transportation Board as a permanent advisory board on state transportation policy; the board would later merge into the California Transportation Commission in 1978. In September 1971, the State Transportation Board proposed the creation of a state department of transportation charged with responsibility \"for performing and integrating transportation planning for all modes.\" Governor Reagan mentioned this proposal in his 1972 State of the State address, and Assemblyman Wadie P. Deddeh introduced Assembly Bill 69 to that effect, which was duly passed by the state legislature and signed into law by Reagan later that same year. AB 69 merged three existing departments to create the Department of Transportation, of which the most important was the Department of Public Works and its Division of Highways. The California Department of Transportation began official operations on July 1, 1973. The new agency was organized into six divisions: Highways, Mass Transportation, Aeronautics, Transportation Planning, Legal, and Administrative Services.
Caltrans went through a difficult period of transformation during the 1970s, as its institutional focus shifted from highway construction to highway maintenance. The agency was forced to contend with declining revenues, increasing construction and maintenance costs (especially the skyrocketing cost of maintaining the vast highway system built over the past three prior decades), widespread freeway revolts, and new environmental laws. In 1970, the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act and the California Environmental Quality Act forced Caltrans to devote significant time, money, people, and other resources to confronting issues such as \"air and water quality, hazardous waste, archaeology, historic preservation, and noise abatement.\" The devastating 1971 San Fernando earthquake compelled the agency to recognize that its existing design standards had not adequately accounted for earthquake stress and that numerous existing structures needed expensive seismic retrofitting. Maintenance and construction costs grew at twice the inflation rate in this era of high inflation; the reluctance of one governor after another to raise fuel taxes in accordance with inflation meant that California ranked dead last in the United States in per-capita transportation spending by 1983. During the 1980s and 1990s, Caltrans concentrated on \"the upgrading, rehabilitation, and maintenance of the existing system,\" plus occasional gap closure and realignment projects.
## Administration
For administrative purposes, Caltrans divides the State of California into 12 districts, supervised by district offices. Most districts cover multiple counties; District 12 (Orange County) is the only district with one county. The largest districts by population are District 4 (San Francisco Bay Area) and District 7 (Los Angeles and Ventura counties). Like many state agencies, Caltrans maintains its headquarters in Sacramento, which is covered by District 3.
| 1,309 |
California Department of Transportation
| 0 |
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# California Department of Transportation
## Districts
District{{cite web url = <http://www.buildcalifornia.org/html/caltrans_district_offices.html> title = Caltrans District Offices access-date = 2010-02-13 publisher = California Department of Transportation archive-url = <https://web.archive.org/web/20100211193159/http://www.buildcalifornia.org/html/caltrans_district_offices.html> archive-date = 2010-02-11 url-status = dead }} Area (Counties) Headquarters
-------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------- ----------------- --------------
1 Del Monte, Humboldt, Lake, Mendocino Eureka
2 Lassen, Modoc, Plumas, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama, Trinity; portions of Butte and Sierra Redding
3 Butte, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, Sierra, Sutter, Yolo, Yuba Marysville
4 Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, Sonoma Oakland
5 Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz San Luis Obispo
6 Madera, Fresno, Tulare, Kings, Kern (west) Fresno
7 Los Angeles, Ventura Los Angeles
8 Riverside, San Bernardino San Bernardino
9 Inyo, Mono, Kern (east) Bishop
10 Alpine, Amador, Calaveras, Mariposa, Merced, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Tuolumne Stockton
11 Imperial, San Diego San Diego
12 Orange Santa Ana{{cite web archive-url=<https://web.archive.org/web/20161221183527/http://www.dot.ca.gov/d12/news/News%20Release%20D12%20Move%20to%20Santa%20Ana%20October%202016
| 162 |
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# Compactron
**Compactrons** are a type of vacuum tube, which contain multiple electrode structures packed into a single enclosure. They were designed to compete with early transistor electronics and were used in televisions, radios, and similar roles.
## History
The **Compactron** was a trade name applied to multi-electrode structure tubes specifically constructed on a 12-pin Duodecar base. This vacuum tube family was introduced in 1961 by General Electric in Owensboro, Kentucky to compete with transistorized electronics during the solid state transition. Television sets were a primary application. The idea of multi-electrode tubes itself was far from new and indeed the Loewe company of Germany was producing multi-electrode tubes as far back as 1926, and they even included all of the required passive components as well.
Use was prevalent in televisions because transistors were slow to achieve the high power and frequency capabilities needed particularly in color television sets. The first portable color television, the General Electric Porta-Color, was designed using 13 tubes, 10 of which were Compactrons. Even before the compactron design was unveiled, nearly all tube based electronic equipment used multi-electrode tubes of one type or another. Virtually every AM/FM radio receiver of the 1950s and 60\'s used a 6AK8 (EABC80) tube (or equivalent) consisting of three diodes and a triode which was designed in 1954.
Compactron\'s integrated valve design helped lower power consumption and heat generation (they were to tubes what integrated circuits were to transistors). Compactrons were also used in a few high end Hi-Fi stereos. They were also used by Ampeg and Fender in some of their guitar amplifiers. No modern tube based Hi-Fi systems are known to use this tube type, as simpler and more readily available tubes have again filled this niche. One tube, the 7868, is used in some Hi-Fi systems made today. This tube is a Novar tube. It has the same physical dimensions as the compactron, but a 9 pin base. The exhaust tip is on the top or bottom of the tube, depending on the manufacturer\'s preference. It is currently in production by Electro-Harmonix.(The new power amp, Linear Tube Audio\'s Ultralinear, uses 4 17JN6 compactron tubes as the power tube in the amp.) The amp generates 20 watts of power with these inexpensive TV tubes.
## Notable features {#notable_features}
A distinguishing feature of most Compactrons is the placement of the evacuation tip on the bottom end, rather than the top end as was customary with \"miniature\" tubes, and a characteristic 3/4\" diameter circle pin pattern.
- Most Compactrons ranged in glass envelope diameter from 28 to 70 mm depending upon the internal configuration. Variations of the Compactron design were made by Sylvania and by some Japanese firms.
## Examples
Examples of Compactrons type types include:
- [6AG11](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6ag11.html) double diode similar to 6AL5, double triode high-mu similar to 12AT7. Designed for FM stereo multiplex service.
- [6BK11](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6bk11.html) triple triode. Two of the triodes are similar to 12AX7 and one of them is similar to 5751.
- [6C10](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6c10.html) high-mu triple triode, all three being similar to 12AX7, used for audio amplifiers, and as color matrix amplifiers in television by Sylvania, etc\.... *not related to the Edison Swan (later Mazda) 6C10 triode-hexode*
- [6M11](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6m11.html) twin triode - pentode. Designed for sync separators and AGC amplifier circuits.
- [6K11](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6k11.html) triple triode. Designed for sync separators and AGC amplifier circuits.
- [6LF6](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_6lf6.html) beam power pentode with anode cap. Designed for horizontal output service.
- [8B10](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_8b10.html) twin triode - twin diode. Designed for horizontal phase detector service, and horizontal oscillator service.
- [12AE10](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_12ae10.html) twin pentode. Designed for FM discriminator/detector, and audio output.
- [38HK7](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_38hk7.html) pentode diode. Designed for horizontal output service and as a damper diode
- [1AD2](https://www.radiomuseum.org/tubes/tube_1ad2.html) diode high voltage, used in flyback transformer rectification
Due to their specific applications in television circuits, many different Compactron types were produced. Almost all were assigned using standard US tube numbers.
## Technological obsolescence {#technological_obsolescence}
Integrated circuits (of the analogue and digital type) gradually took over all of the functions that the Compactron was designed for. \"Hybrid\" television sets produced in the early to mid-1970s made use of a combination of tubes (typically Compactrons), transistors, and integrated circuits in the same set. By the mid-1980s this type of tube was functionally obsolete. Compactrons simply don\'t exist in any TV sets designed after 1986. Other specialist uses of the tube declined in parallel with the television set manufacture. Manufacture of Compactrons ceased in the early 1990s. New old stock replacements for almost all Compactron types produced are easily found for sale on the Internet
| 755 |
Compactron
| 0 |
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# Claude Piron
**Claude Piron**, also known by the pseudonym **Johán Valano**, was a Swiss psychologist, Esperantist, translator, and writer. He worked as a translator for the United Nations from 1956 to 1961 and then for the World Health Organization.
He was a prolific author of Esperanto works. He spoke Esperanto from childhood and used it in Japan, China, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, in Africa and Latin America, and in nearly all the countries of Europe.
## Life
Piron was a psychotherapist and taught from 1973 to 1994 in the psychology department at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. His French-language book *Le défi des langues -- Du gâchis au bon sens* (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense, 1994) is a kind of psychoanalysis of international communication. A Portuguese version, *O desafio das linguas*, was published in 2002 (Campinas, São Paulo, Pontes).
In a lecture on the current system of international communication Piron argued that \"Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes\" and \"differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns\... The same neuropsychological law\...---called by Jean Piaget *generalizing assimilation*---applies to word formation as well as to grammar.\"
His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books. His most famous works are *Gerda malaperis!* and *La Bona Lingvo* (The Good Language).
*Gerda malaperis!* is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so that beginners may easily follow along.
In *La Bona Lingvo*, Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto. He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word-formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages. He also presents the idea that, once one has learned enough vocabulary to express himself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages.
Piron is the author of a book in French, *Le bonheur clés en main* (The Keys to Happiness), which distinguishes among pleasure, happiness and joy. He showed how one may avoid contributing to his own \"anti-happiness\" (*l\'anti-bonheur*) and how one may expand the areas of happiness in his life. Piron\'s view was that, while one may desire happiness, desire is not enough. He said that just as people must do certain things in order to become physically stronger, they must do certain things in order to become happier
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# Central Pacific Railroad
The **Central Pacific Railroad** (**CPRR**) was a rail company chartered by U.S. Congress in 1862 to build a railroad eastwards from Sacramento, California, to complete most of the western part of the \"First transcontinental railroad\" in North America. Incorporated in 1861, CPRR ceased independent operations in 1885 when the railroad was leased to the Southern Pacific Railroad Company. Its assets were formally merged into Southern Pacific in 1959.
Following the completion of the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855, several national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South in 1861, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation in 1862 authorizing the central rail route with financing in the form of land grants and government railroad bond, which were all eventually repaid with interest. The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed. The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical \"safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores\".
## History
### Authorization and construction {#authorization_and_construction}
In the fall of 1860, Charles Marsh, a surveyor, civil engineer and water company owner, met with Theodore Judah, a civil engineer, who had recently built the Sacramento Valley Railroad from Sacramento to Folsom, California and was working on the California Central Railroad to extend the former from Folsom to Marysville. Marsh, who had already surveyed a potential railroad route between Sacramento and Nevada City, California, a decade earlier, went with Judah into the Sierra Nevada Mountains. There they examined the Henness Pass Turnpike Company\'s route (Marsh was a founding director of that company). They measured elevations and distances, and discussed the possibility of a transcontinental railroad. Both were convinced that it could be done.
In December 1860 or early January 1861, Marsh met with Judah and Daniel Strong in Strong\'s drug store in Dutch Flat, California, to discuss the project, which they called the Central Pacific Railroad of California. James Bailey, a friend of Judah, told Leland Stanford that Judah had a feasible route for a railroad across the Sierras, and urged Stanford to meet with Judah. In early 1861, Marsh, Judah and Strong met with Collis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford, Mark Hopkins Jr. and Charles Crocker to obtain financial backing. Papers were filed to incorporate the new company, and on April 30, 1861, the eight of them, along with Lucius Anson Booth, became the first board of directors of the Central Pacific Railroad.
Planned by Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was promoted by Congress by the Pacific Railway Act of 1862 which authorized the issuance of government bonds and land grants for each mile that was constructed. Stanford served as president (at the same time he was elected governor of California), Huntington served as vice-president in charge of fundraising and purchasing, Hopkins was treasurer and Crocker was in charge of construction. They called themselves \"The Associates\", but became known as \"The Big Four\". Construction began in 1863 when the first rails were laid in Sacramento.
Construction proceeded in earnest in 1865 when James Harvey Strobridge, the head of the construction work force, hired the first Cantonese emigrant workers at Crocker\'s suggestion. The construction crew grew to include 12,000 Chinese laborers by 1868, when they breached Donner summit and constituted eighty percent of the entire work force. The \"Golden spike\", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.
In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was acquired by the Southern Pacific Company as a leased line. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific \"Railway\".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.
The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) main line followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco Bay.
Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Most of the railroad workers in the west were Chinese, as they could be hired at a lower cost to do the difficult work. Fifty Cantonese emigrant workers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865 on a trial basis, and soon more and more Cantonese emigrants were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese were compensated less than their white counterparts, leading to far less white workers being hired. Chinese laborers were paid thirty-one dollars each month `{{USDCY|31|1885}}`{=mediawiki}, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board. In time, CPRR came to see the advantage of good workers employed at low wages: \"Chinese labor proved to be Central Pacific\'s salvation.\"
The difficulties faced by the Central Pacific in the Sierra Nevada -- particularly the extensive tunneling required -- were far more formidable than those encountered by the Union Pacific Railroad in the Rocky Mountains. The story that Chinese workers were suspended in wicker baskets over vertical granite cliffs at Cape Horn, California, to drill and blast a ledge for the Central Pacific has been repeated and exaggerated by uncritical historians.
There is reliable, primary-source evidence stating that surveyors used safety ropes while staking out the route, but nothing about construction workers using ropes. Digging the cut was done downward from the top, and from each horizontal end of the cut. It is conceivable that a safety rope would have been useful when digging an initial footpath, that could then be enlarged into a shelf, but there was no reason to be suspended by ropes to dig or drill into the face of the cut. It wasn\'t done that way. And, most of the Chinese labor was not hired until later. So, the gangs that did the digging at Cape Horn may have been Irish.
Central Pacific Director Charles Marsh had extensive civil engineering experience in projects of this nature, both from planning an earlier proposed railroad into the Sierras, and from building ditches and flumes through those mountains for his water company.
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# Central Pacific Railroad
## History
### Financing
`{{multiple image
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|footer = (Left): The Central Pacific built trestles initially in order to expedite construction of the railroad. Later, many of the trestles were filled in with dirt, such as this one near [[Secret Town, California|Secret Town]], [[Placer County, California]]. Photo: [[Carleton Watkins]](1876); (right): ''The Last Spike'', painting by [[Thomas Hill (American painter)|Thomas Hill]] (1881). Some of the Central Pacific officials depicted in the painting were not actually at the Gold Spike ceremony in Utah.<ref name="auto8"/>
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Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of \$16,000 (\$265,000 in 2017 dollars) per mile of tracked grade completed east of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras\' foothills. Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds \"shall be treble the number per mile\" (to \$48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 mi at this rate), and \"doubled\" (to \$32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges. The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.
Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own \"First Mortgage Bonds\" in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds. (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 sqmi of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 mi by 10 mi. These grants were later doubled to 20 sqmi per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.
Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863--1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, \"An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto\" (which was later amended by Section Five of the \"Compromise Act\" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.
The City and County\'s financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (*The People of the State of California*ex rel*the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco.* 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (*The People*ex rel*The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk* 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered.
In 1863 the State legislature\'s forcing of City and County action became known as the \"Dutch Flat Swindle\". Critics claimed the CPRR\'s Big Four intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, California, to connect to the Dutch Flat-Donner Pass Wagon Road to monopolize the lucrative mining traffic, and not push the track east of Dutch Flat into the more challenging and expensive High Sierra effort. CPRR\'s chief engineer, Theodore Judah, also argued against such a road and hence against the Big Four, fearing that its construction would siphon money from CPRR\'s paramount trans-Sierra railroad effort. Despite Judah\'s strong objection, the Big Four incorporated in August 1863 the Dutch Flat-Donner Lake Wagon Road Company. Frustrated, Judah headed off for New York via Panama to raise funds to buy out the Big Four from CPRR and build his trans-Sierra railroad. Unfortunately, Judah contracted yellow fever in Panama and died in New York in November 1863.
## Museums and archives {#museums_and_archives}
A replica of the Sacramento, California, Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.
Most of Collis P. Huntington\'s correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels) and is available at numerous other academic institutions across the country. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners\' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.
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# Central Pacific Railroad
## Locomotives
The Central Pacific\'s first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad\'s opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased from builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four-month journey that went around South America\'s Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.
Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. The railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific\'s dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.
In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific\'s 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP\'s engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.
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# Central Pacific Railroad
## Preserved locomotives {#preserved_locomotives}
The following CP engines have been preserved:
- Central Pacific 1, *Gov. Stanford*
- CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum.
- Central Pacific 3, *C. P. Huntington*, later purchased by the Southern Pacific Transportation Company.
- Former Western Pacific *Mariposa*, Central Pacific\'s second number 31. Built in 1864, it helped build the first transcontinental railroad, and later was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914 and renumbered 1. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles.
- *Virginia and Truckee 18 Dayton* was built for the Virginia and Truckee Railroad and never served on the Central Pacific, but the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP\'s Sacramento shops in preservation (the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine\'s design.
- Central Pacific\'s numbers 60 *Jupiter*, and 63 *Leviathan*. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there are exact, full-size operating replicas built in recent years. The *Jupiter* was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific\'s 119 for use at the Golden Spike National Historical Park. *Leviathan* was finished in 2009, and was privately owned, traveling to various railroads to operate, until sold in 2018 to Stone Gable Estates of Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. Stone Gable relettered the locomotive as Pennsylvania Railroad No. 331, a now-scrapped steam locomotive that pulled Abraham Lincoln\'s funeral train, and operates on the estate\'s Harrisburg, Lincoln and Lancaster Railroad.
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# Central Pacific Railroad
## Timeline
**1861**
- June 28, 1861: \"Central Pacific Rail Road of California\" incorporated; name changed to \"Central Pacific Railroad of California\" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.
**1862**
- July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean.
**1863**
- January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of \"K\" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.
- October 26, 1863: First rail of the Pacific Railroad laid at Sacramento.
**1864**
- April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 mi, where it makes a junction with the California Central Railroad, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
- June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California
- October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company\'s name is changed to \"Central Pacific Railroad of California\", a new corporation.
**1865**
- February 1865: Central Pacific hired its first 50 Cantonese emigrant laborers on a trial basis.
- May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened 36 mi to Auburn, California.
- September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened 54 mi to Colfax, California (formerly known as \"Illinoistown\".)
**1866**
- December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened 92 mi to Cisco, California.
**1867**
- June 25, 1867: 5,000 Chinese railroad workers went on strike in protest against the longer hours and wage inequality they were facing.
- August 28, 1867: The Sierra Nevadas were finally \"conquered\" by the Central Pacific Railroad, after almost five years of sustained construction effort by its mainly Chinese crew about 10,000 strong, with the successful completion at Donner Pass of its 1,659-foot (506 m) Tunnel No. 6 (a.k.a. the \"Summit Tunnel\").
- December 1, 1867: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, 105 mi.
**1868**
- June 18, 1868: The first passenger train crosses the Sierra Nevada to Lake\'s Crossing (modern day Reno, Nevada) at the eastern foot of the Sierra in Nevada.
**1869**
- April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 mi of track in one day. To date, this is the longest stretch of track to have been built in one day.
- May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah, connecting Omaha, Nebraska with Sacramento, California.
- May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento, California.
- September 6, 1869: The first transcontinental train reaches the San Francisco Bay at Alameda Terminal, achieving the first Pacific Railroad from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean.
- November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries, Western Pacific Railroad (1862--1870) and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad, complete the final leg of the route, connecting Omaha, Nebraska to Oakland, California.
**1870**
- June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862--1870), San Francisco and Alameda Railroad and San Francisco and Oakland Railroad to form the \"Central Pacific Railroad Co.\" (of June 1870).
- August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the \"Central Pacific Railroad Co.\", a new corporation.
**1876**
- April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below).
**1877**
- July 16, 1877: Start of the Great railroad strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike.
**1883**
- November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities in total, were using standard time.
**1885**
- April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific.
**1888**
- June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a \"non-operating\" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.
**1899**
- July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the \"Central Pacific Railway\".
**1959**
- June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific
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# Clairvoyance
*Clairvoyance* (album)\|the book\|Clairvoyance (book){{!}}*Clairvoyance* (book)}} `{{redirect|Clairvoyant|other uses|Clairvoyant (disambiguation)}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Paranormal|main}}`{=mediawiki}
**Clairvoyance** (`{{IPAc-en|k|l|ɛər|ˈ|v|ɔɪ|.|ə|n|s}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{etymology|fr|{{wikt-lang|fr|clair}}|clear||{{wikt-lang|fr|voyance}}|vision}}`{=mediawiki}) is the claimed ability to acquire information that would be considered impossible to get through scientifically proven sensations, thus classified as extrasensory perception, or \"sixth sense\". Any person who is claimed to have such ability is said to be a **clairvoyant** (`{{IPAc-en|k|l|ɛər|ˈ|v|ɔɪ|.|ə|n|t}}`{=mediawiki}) (`{{gloss|one who sees clearly}}`{=mediawiki}).
Claims for the existence of paranormal and psychic abilities such as clairvoyance have not been supported by scientific evidence. Parapsychology explores this possibility, but the existence of the paranormal is not accepted by the scientific community.
- Bunge, Mario. (1983). *Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World*. Springer. p. 226. `{{ISBN|90-277-1635-8}}`{=mediawiki} \"Despite being several thousand years old, and having attracted a large number of researchers over the past hundred years, we owe no single firm finding to parapsychology: no hard data on telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, or psychokinesis.\"
- Stenger, Victor. (1990). *Physics and Psychics: The Search for a World Beyond the Senses*. Prometheus Books. p. 166. `{{ISBN|0-87975-575-X}}`{=mediawiki} \"The bottom line is simple: science is based on consensus, and at present a scientific consensus that psychic phenomena exist is still not established.\"
- Zechmeister, Eugene; Johnson, James. (1992). *Critical Thinking: A Functional Approach*. Brooks/Cole Pub. Co. p. 115. `{{ISBN|0534165966}}`{=mediawiki} \"There exists no good scientific evidence for the existence of paranormal phenomena such as ESP. To be acceptable to the scientific community, evidence must be both valid and reliable.\"
- Hines, Terence. (2003). *Pseudoscience and the Paranormal*. Prometheus Books. p. 144. `{{ISBN|1-57392-979-4}}`{=mediawiki} \"It is important to realize that, in one hundred years of parapsychological investigations, there has never been a single adequate demonstration of the reality of any psi phenomenon.\"
The scientific community widely considers parapsychology, including the study of clairvoyance, a pseudoscience.
-
-
-
## Usage
Pertaining to the ability of clear-sightedness, clairvoyance refers to the paranormal ability to see persons and events that are distant in time or space. It can be divided into roughly three classes: precognition, the ability to perceive or predict future events, retrocognition, the ability to see past events, and remote viewing, the perception of contemporary events happening outside the range of normal perception.
## In history and religion {#in_history_and_religion}
Throughout history, there have been numerous places and times in which people have claimed themselves, or others, to be clairvoyant. In several religions, stories of certain individuals being able to see things far removed from their immediate sensory perception are commonplace, especially within pagan religions where oracles were used. Prophecy often involved some degree of clairvoyance, especially when future events were predicted. This ability is sometimes attributed to a higher power rather than the person performing it.
### Christianity
A number of Christian saints were said to be able to see or know things that were far removed from their immediate sensory perception as a kind of gift from God, including Charbel Makhlouf, Padre Pio, and Anne Catherine Emmerich in Catholicism and Gabriel Urgebadze, Paisios Eznepidis and John Maximovitch in Eastern Orthodoxy. Jesus in the Gospels is also recorded as being able to know things far removed from his immediate human perception. Some Christians today also share the same claim.
### Jainism
In Jainism, clairvoyance is regarded as one of the five kinds of knowledge. The beings of hell and heaven (devas) are said to possess clairvoyance by birth. According to Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi, \"this kind of knowledge has been called *avadhi* as it ascertains matter in downward range or knows objects within limits\".
### Anthroposophy
Rudolf Steiner, famous as a clairvoyant himself, claimed that it is easy for a clairvoyant to confuse their own emotional and spiritual being with the objective spiritual world.
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# Clairvoyance
## Parapsychology
### Early research {#early_research}
The earliest record of somnambulist clairvoyance is credited to the Marquis de Puységur, a follower of Franz Mesmer, who in 1784 was treating a local dull-witted peasant named Victor Race. During treatment, Race reportedly went into a trance and underwent a personality change, becoming fluent and articulate, and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of others. Clairvoyance was a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day.
Early researchers of clairvoyance included William Gregory, Gustav Pagenstecher, and Rudolf Tischner. Clairvoyance experiments were reported in 1884 by Charles Richet. Playing cards were enclosed in envelopes and a subject under hypnosis attempted to identify them. The subject was reported to have been successful in a series of 133 trials but the results dropped to chance level when performed before a group of scientists in Cambridge. J. M. Peirce and E. C. Pickering reported a similar experiment in which they tested 36 subjects over 23,384 trials. They did not find above chance scores.
Ivor Lloyd Tuckett (1911) and Joseph McCabe (1920) analyzed early cases of clairvoyance and concluded they were best explained by coincidence or fraud. In 1919, the magician P. T. Selbit staged a séance at his flat in Bloomsbury. The spiritualist Arthur Conan Doyle attended and declared the clairvoyance manifestations genuine.
A significant development in clairvoyance research came when J. B. Rhine, a parapsychologist at Duke University, introduced a standard methodology, with a standard statistical approach to analyzing data, as part of his research into extrasensory perception. A number of psychological departments attempted and failed to repeat Rhine\'s experiments. At Princeton University, W. S. Cox (1936) produced 25,064 trials with 132 subjects in a playing card ESP experiment. Cox concluded: \"There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the \'average man\' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects.\" Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine\'s results.Hansel, C. E. M. *The Search for a Demonstration of ESP*. In Paul Kurtz. (1985). *A Skeptic\'s Handbook of Parapsychology*. Prometheus Books. pp. 105--127. `{{ISBN|0-87975-300-5}}`{=mediawiki}
-
- Crumbaugh, J. C. (1938). *An experimental study of extra-sensory perception*. Masters thesis. Southern Methodist University.
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- Willoughby, R. R. (1938). *Further card-guessing experiments*. *Journal of Psychology* 18: 3--13.
It was revealed that Rhine\'s experiments contained methodological flaws and procedural errors.
Eileen Garrett was tested by Rhine at Duke University in 1933 with Zener cards. Certain symbols were placed on the cards and sealed in an envelope, and she was asked to guess their contents. She performed poorly and later criticized the tests by claiming the cards lacked a psychic energy called \"energy stimulus\" and that she could not perform clairvoyance on command. The parapsychologist Samuel Soal and his colleagues tested Garrett in May 1937. Most of the experiments were carried out in the Psychological Laboratory at the University College London. A total of over 12,000 guesses were recorded but Garrett failed to produce above chance level. Soal wrote: \"In the case of Mrs. Eileen Garrett we fail to find the slightest confirmation of Dr. J. B. Rhine\'s remarkable claims relating to her alleged powers of extra-sensory perception. Not only did she fail when I took charge of the experiments, but she failed equally when four other carefully trained experimenters took my place.\"
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# Clairvoyance
## Parapsychology
### Remote viewing {#remote_viewing}
Remote viewing, also known as remote sensing, remote perception, telesthesia and travelling clairvoyance, is the alleged paranormal ability to perceive a remote or hidden target without support of the senses.
A well-known recent study of remote viewing is the US government-funded project at the Stanford Research Institute from the 1970s through the mid-1990s. In 1972, Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ initiated a series of human subject studies to determine whether participants (the *viewers* or *percipients*) could reliably identify and accurately describe salient features of remote locations (*targets*). In the early studies, a human *sender* was typically present at the remote location as part of the experiment protocol. A three-step process was used. First, target conditions to be experienced by the senders were randomly selected. Second, in the viewing step, participants were asked to verbally express or sketch their impressions of the remote scene. Third, these descriptions were matched by separate judges, as closely as possible, with the intended targets. The term remote viewing was coined to describe this overall process. The first paper by Puthoff and Targ on remote viewing was published in *Nature* in March 1974; in it, the team reported some degree of remote viewing success. After the publication of these findings, other attempts to replicate the experiments were carried out with remotely linked groups using computer conferencing.
The psychologists David Marks and Richard Kammann attempted to replicate Targ and Puthoff\'s remote viewing experiments at the Stanford Research Institute. In a series of 35 studies, they could not do so, so they investigated the original experiments\' procedure. Marks and Kammann discovered that the notes given to the judges in Targ and Puthoff\'s experiments contained clues as to which order they were carried out, such as referring to yesterday\'s two targets, or the date of the session at the top of the page. They concluded that these clues explained the experiment\'s high hit rates. Marks achieved 100% accuracy without visiting any of the sites but by using cues. James Randi has written that controlled tests by several other researchers, eliminating several sources of cuing and extraneous evidence present in the original tests, produced negative results. Students were also able to solve Puthoff and Targ\'s locations from the clues inadvertently included in the transcripts.
In 1980, Charles Tart claimed that a rejudging of the transcripts from one of Targ and Puthoff\'s experiments revealed an above-chance result. Targ and Puthoff again refused to provide copies of the transcripts, and they were not made available for study until July 1985, when it was discovered they still contained sensory cues. Marks and Christopher Scott (1986) wrote: \"considering the importance for the remote viewing hypothesis of adequate cue removal, Tart\'s failure to perform this basic task seems beyond comprehension. As previously concluded, remote viewing has not been demonstrated in the experiments conducted by Puthoff and Targ, only the repeated failure of the investigators to remove sensory cues.\"
In 1982, Robert G. Jahn, then Dean of the School of Engineering at Princeton University, wrote a comprehensive review of psychic phenomena from an engineering perspective. His paper included numerous references to remote viewing studies at the time. Statistical flaws in his work have been proposed by others in the parapsychological community and the general scientific community.
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# Clairvoyance
## Scientific reception {#scientific_reception}
According to scientific research, clairvoyance is generally explained as the result of confirmation bias, expectancy bias, fraud, hallucination, self-delusion, sensory leakage, subjective validation, wishful thinking or failures to appreciate the base rate of chance occurrences and not as a paranormal power. Parapsychology is generally regarded by the scientific community as a pseudoscience. In 1988, the US National Research Council concluded \"The committee finds no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years, for the existence of parapsychological phenomena.\"
Skeptics say that if clairvoyance were a reality, it would have become abundantly clear. They also contend that those who believe in paranormal phenomena do so for merely psychological reasons. According to David G. Myers (*Psychology,* 8th ed.):
> The search for a valid and reliable test of clairvoyance has resulted in thousands of experiments. One controlled procedure has invited \'senders\' to telepathically transmit one of four visual images to \'receivers\' deprived of sensation in a nearby chamber (Bem & Honorton, 1994). The result? A reported 32 percent accurate response rate, surpassing the chance rate of 25 percent. But follow-up studies have (depending on who was summarizing the results) failed to replicate the phenomenon or produced mixed results (Bem & others, 2001; Milton & Wiseman, 2002; Storm, 2000, 2003).\
> \
> One skeptic, magician James Randi, had a longstanding offer of U.S. \$1 million---\"to anyone who proves a genuine psychic power under proper observing conditions\" (Randi, 1999). French, Australian, and Indian groups have parallel offers of up to 200,000 euros to anyone with demonstrable paranormal abilities (CFI, 2003). Large as these sums are, the scientific seal of approval would be worth far more to anyone whose claims could be authenticated. To refute those who say there is no ESP, one need only produce a single person who can demonstrate a single, reproducible ESP phenomenon. So far, no such person has emerged. Randi\'s offer has been publicized for three decades and dozens of people have been tested, sometimes under the scrutiny of an independent panel of judges. Still, nothing. \"People\'s desire to believe in the paranormal is stronger than all the evidence that it does not exist.\" Susan Blackmore, \"Blackmore\'s first law\", 2004.
Clairvoyance is considered a hallucination by mainstream psychiatry.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- In the 1979 novel *The Dead Zone* by Stephen King, the protagonist Johnny Smith gains the ability of clairvoyance working through simple touch after awakening from a coma that has lasted nearly five years
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# Carbide
In chemistry, a **carbide** usually describes a compound composed of carbon and a metal. In metallurgy, **carbiding** or carburizing is the process for producing carbide coatings on a metal piece.
## Interstitial / Metallic carbides {#interstitial_metallic_carbides}
The carbides of the group 4, 5 and 6 transition metals (with the exception of chromium) are often described as interstitial compounds. These carbides have metallic properties and are refractory. Some exhibit a range of stoichiometries, being a non-stoichiometric mixture of various carbides arising due to crystal defects. Some of them, including titanium carbide and tungsten carbide, are important industrially and are used to coat metals in cutting tools.
The long-held view is that the carbon atoms fit into octahedral interstices in a close-packed metal lattice when the metal atom radius is greater than approximately 135 pm:
- When the metal atoms are cubic close-packed, (ccp), then filling all of the octahedral interstices with carbon achieves 1:1 stoichiometry with the rock salt structure.
- When the metal atoms are hexagonal close-packed, (hcp), as the octahedral interstices lie directly opposite each other on either side of the layer of metal atoms, filling only one of these with carbon achieves 2:1 stoichiometry with the CdI~2~ structure.
The following table shows structures of the metals and their carbides. (N.B. the body centered cubic structure adopted by vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten is not a close-packed lattice.) The notation \"h/2\" refers to the M~2~C type structure described above, which is only an approximate description of the actual structures. The simple view that the lattice of the pure metal \"absorbs\" carbon atoms can be seen to be untrue as the packing of the metal atom lattice in the carbides is different from the packing in the pure metal, although it is technically correct that the carbon atoms fit into the octahedral interstices of a close-packed metal lattice.
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| Metal | Structure of pure metal | Metallic\ | MC\ | MC structure | M~2~C\ | M~2~C structure | Other carbides |
| | | radius (pm) | metal atom packing | | metal atom packing | | |
+============+=========================+=============+====================+==============+====================+=================+======================+
| titanium | hcp | 147 | ccp | rock salt | | | |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| zirconium | hcp | 160 | ccp | rock salt | | | |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| hafnium | hcp | 159 | ccp | rock salt | | | |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| vanadium | bcc | 134 | ccp | rock salt | hcp | h/2 | V~4~C~3~ |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| niobium | bcc | 146 | ccp | rock salt | hcp | h/2 | Nb~4~C~3~ |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| tantalum | bcc | 146 | ccp | rock salt | hcp | h/2 | Ta~4~C~3~ |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| chromium | bcc | 128 | | | | | Cr~23~C~6~, Cr~3~C,\ |
| | | | | | | | Cr~7~C~3~, Cr~3~C~2~ |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| molybdenum | bcc | 139 | | hexagonal | hcp | h/2 | Mo~3~C~2~ |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
| tungsten | bcc | 139 | | hexagonal | hcp | h/2 | |
+------------+-------------------------+-------------+--------------------+--------------+--------------------+-----------------+----------------------+
For a long time the non-stoichiometric phases were believed to be disordered with a random filling of the interstices, however short and longer range ordering has been detected.
Iron forms a number of carbides, `{{chem2|Fe3C}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{chem2|Fe7C3}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{chem2|Fe2C}}`{=mediawiki}. The best known is cementite, Fe~3~C, which is present in steels. These carbides are more reactive than the interstitial carbides; for example, the carbides of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni are all hydrolysed by dilute acids and sometimes by water, to give a mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbons. These compounds share features with both the inert interstitials and the more reactive salt-like carbides.
Some metals, such as lead and tin, are believed not to form carbides under any circumstances. There exists however a mixed titanium-tin carbide, which is a two-dimensional conductor.
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# Carbide
## Chemical classification of carbides {#chemical_classification_of_carbides}
Carbides can be generally classified by the chemical bonds type as follows:
1. salt-like (ionic),
2. covalent compounds,
3. interstitial compounds, and
4. \"intermediate\" transition metal carbides.
Examples include calcium carbide (CaC~2~), silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten carbide (WC; often called, simply, *carbide* when referring to machine tooling), and cementite (Fe~3~C), each used in key industrial applications. The naming of ionic carbides is not systematic.
### Salt-like / saline / ionic carbides {#salt_like_saline_ionic_carbides}
Salt-like carbides are composed of highly electropositive elements such as the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, actinides, and group 3 metals (scandium, yttrium, and lutetium). Aluminium from group 13 forms carbides, but gallium, indium, and thallium do not. These materials feature isolated carbon centers, often described as \"C^4−^\", in the methanides or methides; two-atom units, \"`{{chem2|C2(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}\", in the acetylides; and three-atom units, \"`{{chem2|C3(4-)}}`{=mediawiki}\", in the allylides. The graphite intercalation compound KC~8~, prepared from vapour of potassium and graphite, and the alkali metal derivatives of C~60~ are not usually classified as carbides.
#### Methanides
Methanides are a subset of carbides distinguished by their tendency to decompose in water producing methane. Three examples are aluminium carbide `{{chem2|Al4C3}}`{=mediawiki}, magnesium carbide `{{chem2|Mg2C}}`{=mediawiki} and beryllium carbide `{{chem2|Be2C}}`{=mediawiki}.
Transition metal carbides are not saline: their reaction with water is very slow and is usually neglected. For example, depending on surface porosity, 5--30 atomic layers of titanium carbide are hydrolyzed, forming methane within 5 minutes at ambient conditions, following by saturation of the reaction.
Note that methanide in this context is a trivial historical name. According to the IUPAC systematic naming conventions, a compound such as NaCH~3~ would be termed a \"methanide\", although this compound is often called methylsodium. See Methyl group#Methyl anion for more information about the `{{chem2|CH3-}}`{=mediawiki} anion.
#### Acetylides/ethynides
Several carbides are assumed to be salts of the acetylide anion `{{chem2|C2(2–)}}`{=mediawiki} (also called percarbide, by analogy with peroxide), which has a triple bond between the two carbon atoms. Alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and lanthanoid metals form acetylides, for example, sodium carbide Na~2~C~2~, calcium carbide CaC~2~, and LaC~2~. Lanthanides also form carbides (sesquicarbides, see below) with formula M~2~C~3~. Metals from group 11 also tend to form acetylides, such as copper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide. Carbides of the actinide elements, which have stoichiometry MC~2~ and M~2~C~3~, are also described as salt-like derivatives of `{{chem2|C2(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}.
The C--C triple bond length ranges from 119.2 pm in CaC~2~ (similar to ethyne), to 130.3 pm in LaC~2~ and 134 pm in UC~2~. The bonding in LaC~2~ has been described in terms of La^III^ with the extra electron delocalised into the antibonding orbital on `{{chem2|C2(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}, explaining the metallic conduction.
#### Allylides
The polyatomic ion `{{chem2|C3(4−)}}`{=mediawiki}, sometimes called **allylide**, is found in `{{chem2|Li4C3}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{chem2|Mg2C3}}`{=mediawiki}. The ion is linear and is isoelectronic with `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki}. The C--C distance in `{{chem2|Mg2C3}}`{=mediawiki} is 133.2 pm. `{{chem2|Mg2C3}}`{=mediawiki} yields methylacetylene, `{{chem2|CH3CCH}}`{=mediawiki}, and propadiene, `{{chem2|CH2CCH2}}`{=mediawiki}, on hydrolysis, which was the first indication that it contains `{{chem2|C3(4−)}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Covalent carbides {#covalent_carbides}
Carbides of silicon and boron are described as \"covalent carbides\", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character. Silicon carbide has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure. Boron carbide, B~4~C, on the other hand, has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms. In this respect boron carbide is similar to the boron rich borides. Both silicon carbide (also known as *carborundum*) and boron carbide are very hard materials and refractory. Both materials are important industrially. Boron also forms other covalent carbides, such as B~25~C.
### Molecular carbides {#molecular_carbides}
Metal complexes containing C are known as metal carbido complexes. Most common are carbon-centered octahedral clusters, such as `{{chem2|[Au6C(P[[Ph]]3)6](2+)}}`{=mediawiki} (where \"Ph\" represents a phenyl group) and `{{chem2|[Fe6C(CO)6](2−)}}`{=mediawiki}. Similar species are known for the metal carbonyls and the early metal halides. A few terminal carbides have been isolated, such as `{{chem2|[CRuCl2(P(C6H11)3)2]}}`{=mediawiki}.
Metallocarbohedrynes (or \"met-cars\") are stable clusters with the general formula `{{chem2|M8C12}}`{=mediawiki} where M is a transition metal (Ti, Zr, V, etc.).
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# Carbide
## Related materials {#related_materials}
In addition to the carbides, other groups of related carbon compounds exist:
- graphite intercalation compounds
- alkali metal fullerides
- endohedral fullerenes, where the metal atom is encapsulated within a fullerene molecule
- metallacarbohedrenes (met-cars) which are cluster compounds containing C~2~ units.
- tunable nanoporous carbon, where gas chlorination of metallic carbides removes metal molecules to form a highly porous, near-pure carbon material capable of high-density energy storage.
- transition metal carbene complexes
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# Charles C. Krulak
border
`| image_size = `\
`| alt = `\
`| caption = Official portrait, 1995`\
`| nickname = Chuck`\
`| birth_date = ``{{birth date and age|1942|03|04|mf=y}}`{=mediawiki}\
`| birth_place = ``Quantico, Virginia``, U.S.`\
`| death_date = `\
`| death_place = `\
`| placeofburial = `\
`| allegiance = United States `\
`| branch = ``United States Marine Corps`\
`| serviceyears = 1963–1999`\
`| rank = ``General`\
`| unit = `\
`| commands = ``Commandant of the Marine Corps`\
`Marine Corps Combat Development Command`\
`Marine Forces Pacific`\
`2nd Force Service Support Group`\
`3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines`\
`| battles = ``{{Tree list}}`{=mediawiki}
- Vietnam War
- Persian Gulf War
- Operation Desert Shield
- Operation Desert Storm
`| awards = ``Defense Distinguished Service Medal`` (2)`\
`Navy Distinguished Service Medal`` (2)`\
`Army Distinguished Service Medal`\
`Air Force Distinguished Service Medal`\
`Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal`\
`Silver Star`\
`Bronze Star Medal`` (3)`\
`Purple Heart`` (2)`\
`| relations = Lieutenant General ``Victor H. Krulak`` (father)`\
`| laterwork = `
}}
**Charles Chandler Krulak** (born March 4, 1942) is a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1, 1995, to June 30, 1999. He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. \"Brute\" Krulak, who served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. He was the 13th President of Birmingham-Southern College after his stint as a non-executive director of English association football club Aston Villa.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Krulak was born in Quantico, Virginia, on March 4, 1942, the son of Amy (`{{nee}}`{=mediawiki} Chandler) and Victor H. Krulak. He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1960, where he was classmates with novelist John Irving. Krulak then attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1964 with a bachelor\'s degree. Krulak also holds a master\'s degree in labor relations from George Washington University (1973). He is a graduate of the Amphibious Warfare School (1968); the Army Command and General Staff College (1976); and the National War College (1982).
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# Charles C. Krulak
## Marine career {#marine_career}
After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions. His command positions included: commanding officer of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in Vietnam; commanding officer of Special Training Branch and Recruit Series at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California (1966--1968); commanding officer of Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, Northern Training Area on Okinawa (1970), Company officer at the United States Naval Academy (1970--1973); commanding officer of the Marine Barracks at Naval Air Station North Island, California (1973--1976), and commanding officer, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines (1983--1985).
Krulak\'s staff assignments included: operations officer, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines (1977--1978); chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. (1978--1979); executive assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps (1979--1981); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, Camp H.M. Smith, Hawaii (1982--1983); executive officer, 3rd Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; assistant chief of staff, maritime pre-positioning ships, 1st MEB; assistant chief of staff for operations, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; and the military assistant to the assistant secretary of defense for command, control, communications and intelligence, Office of the Secretary of Defense.
Krulak was assigned duty as the deputy director of the White House Military Office in September 1987. While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November 1988. He was advanced to that grade on June 5, 1989, and assigned duties as the commanding general, 10th MEB/Assistant division commander, 2nd Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic, at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on July 10, 1989. On June 1, 1990, he assumed duties as the commanding general, 2nd Force Service Support Group Group/Commanding general, 6th Marine Expeditionary Brigade, Fleet Marine Force Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the Gulf War. He served in this capacity until July 12, 1991, and was assigned duty as assistant deputy chief of staff for manpower and reserve affairs (personnel Management/Personnel Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on August 5, 1991. He was advanced to major general on March 20, 1992. Krulak was assigned as commanding general, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on August 24, 1992, and was promoted to lieutenant general on September 1, 1992. On July 22, 1994, he was assigned as commander of Marine Forces Pacific/commanding general, Fleet Marine Force Pacific, and in March 1995 he was nominated to serve as the Commandant of the Marine Corps.
On June, 29, he was promoted to general and assumed duties as the 31st commandant on June 30, 1995. He was relieved on June 30, 1999, by General James L. Jones.
In 1997, Krulak became a Life Member of the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California.
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# Charles C. Krulak
## Marine career {#marine_career}
### Silver Star citation {#silver_star_citation}
**Citation:**
> The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Captain Charles Chandler Krulak, United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action while serving as Commanding Officer of Company L, Third Battalion, Third Marines, Third Marine Division, during combat operations against the enemy in the Republic of Vietnam. On 3 June 1969, during Operation Virginia Ridge, Company L was occupying ambush positions near the Demilitarized Zone west of Con Thien when the Marines came under a heavy volume of mortar fire and sustained several casualties. Although seriously wounded himself, Captain Krulak unhesitatingly left his covered position and, thinking only of the welfare of his men, fearlessly maneuvered across the fire-swept terrain to ensure that his Marines were in effective defensive locations and capable of repelling an expected ground attack. Shortly after the initial mortar attack, the Company was subjected to a second intense mortar barrage. Realizing that the determined enemy soldiers had accurate range on the Marine emplacements, and unwilling to incur additional casualties, he commenced maneuvering his men to an alternate location. Simultaneously, undaunted by the fierce barrage, Captain Krulak fearlessly moved to a dangerously exposed vantage point from which he pinpointed the principal sources of hostile fire and skillfully coordinated fixed-wing air strikes and supporting artillery fire on the enemy positions, silencing the fire. By this time, both the platoon commander and a platoon sergeant of one of his platoons had been seriously wounded. After repeatedly exposing himself to the relentless fire to supervise the evacuation of the casualties, he then personally led the platoon back to the main body of his Company across 3,000 meters of rugged mountain terrain to another patrol base and, although weak from loss of blood and the pain of his injuries, steadfastly refused medical evacuation until the arrival of another officer on the following morning. By his courage, dynamic leadership, and inspiring devotion to duty in the face of grave personal danger, Captain Krulak minimized Marine casualties and upheld the highest traditions of the Marine Corps and of the United States Naval Service.
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# Charles C. Krulak
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Krulak received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1996. The Golden Plate was presented by Awards Council member and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John M. Shalikashvili, USA.
Krulak joined MBNA America in September 1999 as chief administrative officer, responsible for personnel, benefits, compensation, education, and other administrative services. Krulak has served as the Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of MBNA Europe (2001--2005) and was based at the Chester campus in the UK. He was the executive vice chairman and chief administration officer of MBNA Corporation (2004--2005). He retired from MBNA in 2005.
Following the takeover of English football club Aston Villa by MBNA Chairman Randy Lerner in August 2006 and as of September 19, 2006, Krulak joined the board of Aston Villa as non-executive director where he posted on several fans forums. Krulak was generally referred to as \"The General\" by fans on these boards.
Krulak also serves on the boards of ConocoPhillips, Freeport-McMoran (formerly known as Phelps Dodge Corporation) and Union Pacific Corporation. In addition, he serves on the advisory council of Hope For The Warriors, a national non-profit dedicated to provide a full cycle of non-medical care to combat wounded service members, their families, and families of the fallen from each military branch.
Krulak was elected as the 13th President of Birmingham--Southern College in Birmingham, Alabama on March 21, 2011, and retired June 1, 2015. He received an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters from Birmingham-Southern College. The Krulak Institute for Leadership, Experiential Learning, and Civic Engagement at Birmingham-Southern College is named for him.
Krulak was the Vice Chair of the Sweet Briar College Board of Directors. He joined the Board in the Summer of 2015.
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# Charles C. Krulak
## Awards and decorations {#awards_and_decorations}
General Krulak\'s decorations and medals include:
----
----
------------------------------------------------------------------
Defense Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 bronze oak leaf cluster
Navy Distinguished Service Medal w/ 1 gold award star
Silver Star
Navy Commendation Medal
Meritorious Unit Commendation
Sea Service Deployment Ribbon w/ 2 service stars
Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation
Presidential Service Badge
------------------------------------------------------------------
## Legacy
Krulak famously referred to the \"Strategic Corporal\" and the Three Block War as two of the key lessons identified from the deployments in Somalia, Haiti and Bosnia. These concepts are still considered vital in understanding the increasing complexity of modern battlefields.
Krulak explained some of his warfighting philosophy in an interview with Tom Clancy in Clancy\'s nonfiction book *Marine*. Clancy referred to Krulak as \"Warrior Prince of the Corps.\" Krulak also rewrote the Marine Corps\' basic combat study text, *MCDP 1: Warfighting*, incorporating his theories on operations in the modern battlefield.
## Family
Krulak is married to Zandi Meyers from Annapolis. They have two sons: Dr. David C. Krulak, a former U.S. Navy captain and the current Director of the TRICARE Health Plan at the Defense Health Agency and Dr. Todd C. Krulak, PhD., a retired freelance rave DJ who is a professor at Samford University; and five grandchildren: Capt Brian Krulak (USMC), Katie, Mary, Matthew, and Charles. He is the son of Lieutenant General Victor H. Krulak Sr., and the younger brother of Commander Victor H. Krulak Jr, Navy Chaplain Corps and Colonel William Krulak, United States Marine Corps Reserve. Krulak\'s godfather was USMC General Holland \"Howlin\' Mad\" Smith
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# Cluny
**Cluny** (`{{IPA|fr|klyni}}`{=mediawiki}) is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is 20 km northwest of Mâcon.
The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 910. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The abbey was sacked by the Huguenots in 1562, and many of its valuable manuscripts were destroyed or removed.
## Geography
The river Grosne flows northward through the commune and crosses the town
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# Cahiers du Cinéma
***Cahiers du Cinéma*** (`{{IPA|fr|kaje dy sinema}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{literal translation|notebooks on cinema}}`{=mediawiki}) is a French film magazine co-founded in 1951 by André Bazin, Jacques Doniol-Valcroze, and Joseph-Marie Lo Duca. It developed from the earlier magazine *Revue du Cinéma* (`{{literal translation|review of cinema|lk=no}}`{=mediawiki} established in 1928) involving members of two Paris film clubs{{\--}} Objectif 49 (Objective 49) (Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, and Alexandre Astruc, among others) and the Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin (Latin Quarter Cinema Club).
Initially edited by Doniol-Valcroze and, after 1957, by Éric Rohmer (aka, Maurice Scherer), it included amongst its writers Jacques Rivette, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol, and François Truffaut, who went on to become highly influential filmmakers. It is the oldest French-language film magazine in publication.
## History
The first issue of *Cahiers* appeared in April 1951. Much of its head staff, including Bazin, Doniol-Valcroze, Lo Duca, and the various younger, less-established critics, had met and shared their beliefs about film through their involvement in the publication of *Revue du Cinéma* from 1946 until its final issue in 1948; *Cahiers* was created as a successor to this earlier magazine.
Early issues of *Cahiers* were small journals of thirty pages which bore minimalist covers, distinctive for their lack of headlines in favor of film stills on a distinctive bright yellow background. Each issue contained four or five articles (with at least one piece by Bazin in most issues), most of which were reviews of specific films or appreciations of directors, supplemented on occasion by longer theoretical essays. The first few years of the magazine\'s publication were dominated by Bazin, who was the *de facto* head of the editorial board.
Bazin intended *Cahiers* to be a continuation of the intellectual form of criticism that *Revue* had printed, which prominently featured his articles advocating for realism as the most valuable quality of cinema. As more issues of *Cahiers* were published, however, Bazin found that a group of young proteges and critics serving as editors underneath him were beginning to disagree with him in the pages of the magazine. Godard would voice his discontent with Bazin as early as 1952, when he challenged Bazin\'s views on editing in an article for the September issue of *Cahiers.* Gradually, the tastes of these young critics drifted away from those of Bazin, as members of the group began to write critical appreciations of more commercial American filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks rather than the canonized French and Italian filmmakers that interested Bazin.
The younger critics broke completely with Bazin by 1954, when an article in the January issue by Truffaut attacked what he called *La qualité française* (`{{literal translation| the French quality}}`{=mediawiki}, usually translated as \"The Tradition of Quality\"), denouncing many critically respected French films of the time as being unimaginative, oversimplified, and even immoral adaptations of literary works. The article became the manifesto for the *politique des auteurs* (`{{literal translation| the policy of the authors |lk=no}}`{=mediawiki}), which became the label for *Cahiers* younger critics\' emphasis on the importance of the director in the creation of a film{{\--}}as a film\'s \"author\"{{\--}}and their re-evaluation of Hollywood films and directors such as Hitchcock, Hawks, Jerry Lewis, Robert Aldrich, Nicholas Ray, and Fritz Lang. Subsequently, American critic Andrew Sarris latched onto the word, \"auteur\", and paired it with the English word, \"theory\"; hence coining the phrase the \"auteur theory\" by which this critical approach is known in English-language film criticism.
After the publication of Truffaut\'s article, Doniol-Valcroze and most of the *Cahiers* editors besides Bazin and Lo Duca rallied behind the rebellious authors; Lo Duca left *Cahiers* a year later, while Bazin, in failing health, gave editorial control of the magazine to Rohmer and largely left Paris, though he continued to write for the magazine. Now with control over the magazine\'s ideological approaches to film, the younger critics (minus Godard, who had left Paris in 1952, not to return until 1956) changed the format of *Cahiers* somewhat, frequently conducting interviews with directors deemed \"auteurs\" and voting on films in a \"Council\" of ten core critics. These critics came to champion non-American directors as well, writing on the *mise en scène* (the \"dominant object of study\" at the magazine) of such filmmakers as Jean Renoir, Roberto Rossellini, Kenji Mizoguchi, Max Ophüls, and Jean Cocteau, many of whom Bazin had introduced them to.
By the end of the 1950s, many of the remaining editors of *Cahiers*, however, were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the mere act of writing film criticism. Spurred on by the return of Godard to Paris in 1956 (who in the interim had made a short film himself), many of the younger critics became interested in making films themselves. Godard, Truffaut, Chabrol, Doniol-Valcroze, and even Rohmer, who had officially succeeded Doniol-Valcroze as head editor in 1958, began to divide their time between making films and writing about them. The films that these critics made were experimental explorations of various theoretical, artistic, and ideological aspects of the film form, and would, along with the films of young French filmmakers outside the *Cahiers* circle, form the basis for the cinematic movement known as the French New Wave. Meanwhile, *Cahiers* underwent staff changes, as Rohmer hired new editors such as Jean Douchet to fill the roles of those editors who were now making films, while other existing editors, particularly Jacques Rivette, began to write even more for the magazine. Many of the newer critical voices (except for Rivette) largely ignored the films of the New Wave for Hollywood when they were not outright criticizing them, creating friction between much of the directorial side of the younger critics and the head editor Rohmer. A group of five *Cahiers* editors, including Godard and Doniol-Valcroze and led by Rivette, urged Rohmer to refocus the magazine\'s content on newer films such as their own. When he refused, the \"gang of five\" forced Rohmer out and installed Rivette as his replacement in 1963.
Rivette shifted political and social concerns farther to the left, and began a trend in the magazine of paying more attention to non-Hollywood films. The style of the journal moved through literary modernism in the early 1960s to radicalism and dialectical materialism by 1970. Moreover, during the mid-1970s the magazine was run by a Maoist editorial collective. In the mid-1970s, a review of the American film *Jaws* marked the magazine\'s return to more commercial perspectives, and an editorial turnover: (Serge Daney, Serge Toubiana, Thierry Jousse, Antoine de Baecque, and Charles Tesson). It led to the rehabilitation of some of the old *Cahiers* favourites, as well as some new film makers like Manoel de Oliveira, Raoul Ruiz, Hou Hsiao-hsien, Youssef Chahine, and Maurice Pialat. Recent writers have included Daney, André Téchiné, Léos Carax, Olivier Assayas, Danièle Dubroux, and Serge Le Péron.
In 1998, the Editions de l\'Etoile (the company publishing *Cahiers*) was acquired by the press group *\[\[Le Monde\]\]*. Traditionally losing money, the magazine attempted a make-over in 1999 to gain new readers, leading to a first split among writers and resulting in a magazine addressing all visual arts in a post-modernist approach. This version of the magazine printed ill-received opinion pieces on reality TV or video games that confused the traditional readership of the magazine.
took full editorial control of the magazine in 2003, appointing Jean-Michel Frodon as editor-in-chief. In February 2009, *Cahiers* was acquired from *Le Monde* by Richard Schlagman, also owner of Phaidon Press, a worldwide publishing group which specialises in books on the visual arts. In July 2009, Stéphane Delorme and Jean-Philippe Tessé were promoted respectively to the positions of editor-in-chief and deputy chief editor.
In February 2020, the magazine was bought by several French entrepreneurs, including Xavier Niel and Alain Weill. The entire editorial staff resigned, saying the change posed a threat to their editorial independence.
## Annual top 10 films list {#annual_top_10_films_list}
The magazine has compiled a list of the top 10 films of each year for much of its existence
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# Crete Senesi
The **Crete Senesi** refers to an area of the Italian region of Tuscany immediately to the south of Siena. It consists of a range of hills and woods among villages and includes the *comuni* of Asciano, Buonconvento, Monteroni d\'Arbia, Rapolano Terme and San Giovanni d\'Asso, all within the province of Siena. They border to the north with the Chianti Senese area, to the east with Val di Chiana and to the south-west with Val d\'Orcia. Nearby is also the semi-arid area known as the Accona Desert.
*Crete Senesi* are literally the \"clays of Siena\": the distinctive grey colouration of the soil gives the landscape an appearance often described as lunar. This characteristic clay, known as *mattaione*, represents the sediments of the Pliocene sea which covered the area between 2.5 and 4.5 million years ago. The landscape is characterized by barren and gently undulating hills, solitary oaks and cypresses, isolated farms at the top of the heights, stretches of wood and ponds of rainwater (commonly referred as *fontoni,* literally \"big springs\") in the valleys*.* Badlands and `{{Interlanguage link|Biancane|lt=biancane|it|Biancane|WD=|italic=yes}}`{=mediawiki} are typical conformations of the land. Perhaps the most notable edifice of this area is the Abbey of Monte Oliveto Maggiore, located 10 km south of Asciano.
The region is known for its production of white truffles, and hosts a festival and a museum dedicated to the rare fungus (genus Tuber). `{{Wide image|Crete_Senesi_-_panoramio_%282%29.jpg|800|Landscape of Crete Senesi in [[Asciano]].}}`{=mediawiki}
## Gallery
<File:In> Val d\'Orcia.jpg\|Cereal crops are cultivated with the aid of irrigation <File:Crete> senesi presso asciano, 09.JPG\|Crete Senesi in Asciano area <File:Cretesenesi> panorama.jpg\|Panorama with *fontoni* <File:Crete> Senesi Calanchi.jpg\|Badlands of Accona desert <File:Crete> Senesi Sunset - Saltafabbro, Asciano, Siena, Italy - July 4, 2010 01
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