id
int64 39
11.1M
| section
stringlengths 3
4.51M
| length
int64 2
49.9k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
7,954 |
# Dead Kennedys
## Conflicts between members {#conflicts_between_members}
### Royalties lawsuit {#royalties_lawsuit}
In the late 1990s, former band members discovered they were being underpaid in terms of royalties from Alternative Tentacles. East Bay Ray, Klaus Flouride, and D. H. Peligro claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay them lower royalty rates and then attempted to disguise the precise nature of the money owed. Biafra claimed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake.
In 1998, the other three members of the band sued Biafra over these allegedly unpaid royalties. A jury ruled in their favor in May 2000, finding Biafra and Alternative Tentacles \"guilty of malice, oppression and fraud\". Malice was defined for the jury as \"conduct which is intended to cause injury or despicable conduct which is carried with a willful and conscious disregard for the rights of others\". Biafra\'s appeal was denied in June 2003; he had to pay the outstanding royalties as well as punitive damages, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys\' back catalogue to the Decay Music partnership.
This dispute caused minor waves within punk circles. Biafra claims that East Bay Ray had long expressed displeasure with Alternative Tentacles and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments. It was found out that Alternative Tentacles was paying Dead Kennedys less per CD than all the other bands, including Biafra himself, and not informing his other bandmates, which was the fraud. Biafra accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song \"Holiday in Cambodia\" for use in a Levi\'s jeans commercial, which the band denied. However, an instrumental loop from \"Holiday in Cambodia\" was part of the 1981 black comedy feature film *Neighbors*, though it was not included on the soundtrack. The band maintains that the Levi\'s story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them.
### Disputes over new commercial activities {#disputes_over_new_commercial_activities}
Matters were stirred up even further when the three bandmates invited Jello Biafra to \"bury the hatchet\" in the form of a band reunion. Jello Biafra felt it was unprofessional because no one contacted him directly. In addition, Biafra was dismissive of the reunion, and having long expressed his disdain for nostalgia and rock reunion/oldies tours in particular, argued that the whole affair was motivated by greed.
Several DVDs, re-issues, and live albums have been released since the departure of Biafra most recently on Manifesto Records. According to Biafra, the live albums are \"cash-ins\" on Dead Kennedys\' name and his music. Biafra also accused the releases of the new live material of having poor sound quality. Furthermore, he has stated he is not receiving any royalties from the sale of any Manifesto Records releases. Consequently, he has discouraged fans from buying any Dead Kennedy reissues. The other band members denied Biafra\'s accusations regarding the live releases, and have defended the mixes as an effort of hard work. Biafra dismissed the new group as \"the world\'s greediest karaoke band.\" Nevertheless, in 2003, Klaus Flouride said of performances without the band\'s former frontman: \"There hasn\'t been a show yet that people didn\'t really like.\"
Biafra further criticized them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 1980s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising. He attacked the reformed Dead Kennedys in a song called \"Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)\", which appears on his second collaboration with sludge metal band the Melvins, *Sieg Howdy!*
Biafra told an audience at a speaking gig in Trenton, New Jersey, that the remaining Dead Kennedys have licensed their single \"Too Drunk to Fuck\" to be used in a rape scene in a Robert Rodriguez movie. The reference is to a lounge cover of the song, recorded by the band Nouvelle Vague, played during a scene in the *Planet Terror* segment of *Grindhouse*, although no rape takes place, and in fact the would-be rapist is killed by the would-be victim. The scene in *Planet Terror* has would-be rapist, \"Rapist No. 1\" (Quentin Tarantino) order one-legged stripper \"Cherry Darlin\" (Rose McGowan) to get up off the floor and dance. At this point Tarantino hits play on a cassette recorder and Nouvelle Vague\'s cover of \"Too Drunk To Fuck\" plays. Biafra, disapproving of the situation, later wrote, \"This is their lowest point since Levi\'s\... This goes against everything the Dead Kennedys stands for in spades\... The terrified woman later \'wins\' by killing Tarantino, but that excuse does not rescue this at all. I wrote every note of that song and this is not what it was meant for\.... Some people will do anything for money. I can\'t help but think back to how prudish Klaus Flouride was when he objected to H. R. Giger\'s painting on the \"Frankenchrist\" (sic) poster, saying he couldn\'t bear to show it to his parents. I\'d sure love to be a fly on the wall when he tries to explain putting a song in a rape scene for money to his teenage daughter\... The deal was pushed through by a new business manager the other three hired.\"
The reformed Dead Kennedys followed their court victory by releasing reissues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except *Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables*, to which they did not have the rights until 2005), releasing several new archival concert DVDs, and licensing several songs to *The Manchurian Candidate* remake and the *Tony Hawk\'s Pro Skater* video game. East Bay Ray claims he received a fax from Alternative Tentacles purporting Biafra approved the licensing for the game.
The band claims on their website that they still pay close attention to an anti-corporate ideology, despite performing on September 5, 2003, at a festival in Turkey that was sponsored by Coca-Cola, noting that they have since pulled out of a show in Los Angeles when they found that it was being sponsored by Coors. However, Biafra claims the previous licensing deals prove otherwise.
In a May 2025 interview with Guitar World, East Bay Ray discussed a potential reunion with Jello Biafra saying that he and Klaus Fluoride were open to a reunion however it would never happen and that Biafra was to blame. He said that over the years lucrative offers such as one in 2017 from Riot Fest were proposed to the band but Biafra was against it. "It's not an issue for me or Klaus. It's Biafra that turns down any offers for us to do something; we don't have any problem." East Bay Ray went on criticize Biafra\'s post Dead Kennedys career and how Biafra took credit for writing most of the band\'s songs in which he took exception to Biafra\'s claims by saying "We actually wrote as a band, where in effect, due to the chemistry between us, it was a case of two and two equaling five. None of us has had a solo career that was bigger than Dead Kennedys, which, to me, shows the power of a bunch of talented people getting together and creating something that was far greater than the sum of its parts. Jello didn't bring in the songs. I know he's created the myth that he wrote them all, but the question here is that if he did, why didn't he ever do anything significant after leaving the band?," adding, "Iggy left the Stooges and had a career; ditto Lou Reed with the Velvet Underground or Morrissey with the Smiths. Where's Biafra's solo career with a bunch of great songs? The songs were written in numerous different ways. "Holiday in Cambodia" started as a jam in the rehearsal studio" he said.
Biafra, in a 2012 interview with the *Tampa Bay Times*, stated he was not happy with the current direction of his former bandmates, nor did he want to restart the Dead Kennedys for nostalgia purposes:
> \"We haven\'t talk in a dozen years. In their hearts they\'ve become Republicans and I just wouldn\'t do something like that unless we can bring back the real thing. In a way getting me back into the band would be their worst nightmare, like make them rehearse. When people tell me that I owe it to the fans to regurgitate nothing but old music with the people I used to play with, that\'s totally the opposite of what punk and Dead Kennedys means to me. The true spirit of the whole thing is to keep going, keep moving and make more new stuff. Nobody was more cynical than the original punks about nostalgia and retro because of all the rage on TV and people started to get nostalgic in goofy ass ways for the sixties and they were thinking, \'\'Yeah, that will never happen to us. That\'s not what I\'m here for, sorry. It\'s not as if the people who come to the Guantanamo School of Medicine shows wanting nothing but old Dead Kennedys songs don\'t leave with a smile on their face once they\'ve heard the new songs. It\'s not like I\'ve forgot how to write this shit.\"
| 1,517 |
Dead Kennedys
| 5 |
7,954 |
# Dead Kennedys
## Artistry
### Music and lyrics {#music_and_lyrics}
Dead Kennedys have been described as one of the first hardcore punk bands. They were noted for the harshness of their lyrics, which generally combined biting social satire while expressing a staunchly left-wing view of contemporary America. Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, Dead Kennedys\' lyrics were often snide. For example, \"Holiday in Cambodia\" is a multi-layered satire targeting both yuppies and Cambodia\'s recently deposed Khmer Rouge regime. Or, on \"Jock-O-Rama\", featured on *Frankenchrist*, they mock southern small towns whose residents' lives revolve around high school football.
### Logo
The original logo was created by Winston Smith. He later contributed artwork for the covers of *In God We Trust, Inc.*, *Plastic Surgery Disasters*, *Frankenchrist*, *Bedtime for Democracy*, *Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death*, the back cover of the \"Kill the Poor\" single and the Alternative Tentacles logo. When asked about the \"DK\" logo in an interview, Jello Biafra explained, \"\...I wanted to make sure it was something simple and easy to spray-paint so people would graffiti it all over the place, and then I showed it to Winston Smith. He played around with it, came back with a bunch of designs that had the circle and slightly 3-D looking letters and he had ones with different patterns behind it. I liked the one with bricks, but ultimately I thought simple red behind it was the boldest and the best.\"
### Influence
Dead Kennedys have influenced multiple acts such as System of a Down, Green Day, Faith No More, Rage Against the Machine, Sepultura, Descendents, Bad Religion, Slayer, X, Minutemen, The Hives, Saves the Day and Screeching Weasel among others.
| 284 |
Dead Kennedys
| 6 |
7,954 |
# Dead Kennedys
## Members
**Current members**
- East Bay Ray (Raymond Pepperell) -- guitars (1978--1986, 2001--present)
- Klaus Flouride (Geoffrey Lyall) -- bass, backing vocals (1978--1986, 2001--2010, 2011--present)
- Ron \"Skip\" Greer -- lead vocals (2008--present)
- Steve Wilson -- drums, backing vocals (2023--present)
**Former members**
- Jello Biafra (Eric Boucher) -- lead vocals (1978--1986)
- 6025 (Carlo Cadona) -- rhythm guitar (1978--1979)
- Ted (Bruce Slesinger) -- drums (1978--1981)
- D.H. Peligro (Darren Henley) -- drums, backing vocals (1981--1986, 2001--2008, 2009--2022; his death)
- Brandon Cruz -- lead vocals (2001--2003)
- Jeff Penalty (Jeff Alulis) -- lead vocals (2003--2008)
- Dave Scheff -- drums (2008)
- Greg Reeves -- bass (2010--2011)
- Santi Guardiola -- drums (2023)
### Timeline
{{#tag:timeline\| ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20 PlotArea = left:90 bottom:80 top:05 right:20 Alignbars = justify DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy Period = from:01/06/1978 till:{{#time:d/m/Y}} TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:4 ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1979 ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1979
Colors =
` id:Vocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals`\
` id:BVocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals`\
` id:Guitar value:green legend:Guitar`\
` id:Bass value:blue legend:Bass`\
` id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums`\
` id:studio value:black legend:Studio_album`\
` id:other value:gray(0.7) legend:Other_release`\
` id:bars value:gray(0.95)`
BackgroundColors = bars:bars
LineData =
`layer:back`\
` at:01/09/1980 color:studio`\
` at:01/12/1981 color:other`\
` at:01/11/1982 color:studio`\
` at:01/10/1985 color:studio`\
` at:01/11/1986 color:studio`\
` at:01/06/1987 color:other`\
` at:24/04/2001 color:other`\
` at:27/01/2004 color:other`\
` at:09/10/2007 color:other`
BarData =
` bar:Biafra text:"Jello Biafra"`\
` bar:Cruz text:"Brandon Cruz"`\
` bar:Penalty text:"Jeff Penalty"`\
` bar:Greer text:"Ron Greer"`\
` bar:Ray text:"East Bay Ray"`\
` bar:6025 text:"6025"`\
` bar:Flouride text:"Klaus Flouride"`\
` bar:Reeves text:"Greg Reeves"`\
` bar:Slesinger text:"Ted"`\
` bar:Peligro text:"D. H
| 267 |
Dead Kennedys
| 7 |
7,963 |
# Disjunctive syllogism
In classical logic, **disjunctive syllogism** (historically known as ***modus tollendo ponens*** (**MTP**), Latin for \"mode that affirms by denying\") is a valid argument form which is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement for one of its premises.
An example in English:
1. I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
2. I will not choose soup.
3. Therefore, I will choose salad.
## Propositional logic {#propositional_logic}
In propositional logic, **disjunctive syllogism** (also known as **disjunction elimination** and **or elimination**, or abbreviated **∨E**), is a valid rule of inference. If it is known that at least one of two statements is true, and that it is not the former that is true; we can infer that it has to be the latter that is true. Equivalently, if *P* is true or *Q* is true and *P* is false, then *Q* is true. The name \"disjunctive syllogism\" derives from its being a syllogism, a three-step argument, and the use of a logical disjunction (any \"or\" statement.) For example, \"P or Q\" is a disjunction, where P and Q are called the statement\'s *disjuncts*. The rule makes it possible to eliminate a disjunction from a logical proof. It is the rule that
$$\frac{P \lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q}$$
where the rule is that whenever instances of \"$P \lor Q$\", and \"$\neg P$\" appear on lines of a proof, \"$Q$\" can be placed on a subsequent line.
Disjunctive syllogism is closely related and similar to hypothetical syllogism, which is another rule of inference involving a syllogism. It is also related to the law of noncontradiction, one of the three traditional laws of thought.
## Formal notation {#formal_notation}
For a logical system that validates it, the *disjunctive syllogism* may be written in sequent notation as
: $P \lor Q, \lnot P \vdash Q$
where $\vdash$ is a metalogical symbol meaning that $Q$ is a syntactic consequence of $P \lor Q$, and $\lnot P$.
It may be expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem in the object language of propositional logic as
$$((P \lor Q) \land \neg P) \to Q$$
where $P$, and $Q$ are propositions expressed in some formal system.
## Natural language examples {#natural_language_examples}
Here is an example:
1. It is red or it is blue.
2. It is not blue.
3. Therefore, it is red.
Here is another example:
1. The breach is a safety violation, or it is not subject to fines.
2. The breach is not a safety violation.
3. Therefore, it is not subject to fines.
## Strong form {#strong_form}
*Modus tollendo ponens* can be made stronger by using exclusive disjunction instead of inclusive disjunction as a premise:
$$\frac{P \underline\lor Q, \neg P}{\therefore Q}$$
## Related argument forms {#related_argument_forms}
Unlike *modus ponens* and *modus ponendo tollens*, with which it should not be confused, disjunctive syllogism is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a combination of reductio ad absurdum and disjunction elimination.
Other forms of syllogism include:
- hypothetical syllogism
- categorical syllogism
Disjunctive syllogism holds in classical propositional logic and intuitionistic logic, but not in some paraconsistent logics
| 525 |
Disjunctive syllogism
| 0 |
7,964 |
# Definition
Wiktionary\|other uses of the word \"definition\" itself}} `{{pp|small=yes}}`{=mediawiki}
A **definition** is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories: intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term), and extensional definitions (which try to list the objects that a term describes). Another important category of definitions is the class of ostensive definitions, which convey the meaning of a term by pointing out examples. A term may have many different senses and multiple meanings, and thus require multiple definitions.
In mathematics, a definition is used to give a precise meaning to a new term, by describing a condition which unambiguously qualifies what the mathematical term is and is not. Definitions and axioms form the basis on which all of modern mathematics is to be constructed.
## Basic terminology {#basic_terminology}
In modern usage, a definition is something, typically expressed in words, that attaches a meaning to a word or group of words. The word or group of words that is to be defined is called the *definiendum*, and the word, group of words, or action that defines it is called the *definiens*. For example, in the definition *\"An elephant is a large gray animal native to Asia and Africa\"*, the word \"elephant\" is the *definiendum*, and everything after the word \"is\" is the *definiens*.
The *definiens* is not *the meaning* of the word defined, but is instead something that *conveys the same meaning* as that word.
There are many sub-types of definitions, often specific to a given field of knowledge or study. These include, *lexical definitions*, or the common dictionary definitions of words already in a language; *demonstrative definitions*, which define something by pointing to an example of it (*\"This,\" \[said while pointing to a large grey animal\], \"is an Asian elephant.\"*); and *precising definitions*, which reduce the vagueness of a word, typically in some special sense (*\"\'Large\', among female Asian elephants, is any individual weighing over 5,500 pounds.\"*).
| 337 |
Definition
| 0 |
7,964 |
# Definition
## Intensional definitions vs extensional definitions {#intensional_definitions_vs_extensional_definitions}
An *intensional definition*, also called a *connotative* definition, specifies the necessary and sufficient conditions for a thing to be a member of a specific set. Any definition that attempts to set out the essence of something, such as that by genus and differentia, is an intensional definition.
An *extensional definition*, also called a *denotative* definition, of a concept or term specifies its *extension*. It is a list naming every object that is a member of a specific set.
Thus, the \"seven deadly sins\" can be defined *intensionally* as those singled out by Pope Gregory I as particularly destructive of the life of grace and charity within a person, thus creating the threat of eternal damnation. An *extensional* definition, on the other hand, would be the list of wrath, greed, sloth, pride, lust, envy, and gluttony. In contrast, while an intensional definition of \"prime minister\" might be \"the most senior minister of a cabinet in the executive branch of parliamentary government\", an extensional definition is not possible since it is not known who the future prime ministers will be (even though all prime ministers from the past and present can be listed).
### Classes of intensional definitions {#classes_of_intensional_definitions}
A *genus--differentia definition* is a type of intensional definition that takes a large category (the *genus*) and narrows it down to a smaller category by a distinguishing characteristic (i.e. the *differentia*).
More formally, a genus--differentia definition consists of:
- *a genus* (or family): An existing definition that serves as a portion of the new definition; all definitions with the same genus are considered members of that genus.
- *the differentia*: The portion of the new definition that is not provided by the genus.
For example, consider the following genus--differentia definitions:
- *a triangle*: A plane figure that has three straight bounding sides.
- *a quadrilateral*: A plane figure that has four straight bounding sides.
Those definitions can be expressed as a genus (\"a plane figure\") and two *differentiae* (\"that has three straight bounding sides\" and \"that has four straight bounding sides\", respectively).
It is also possible to have two different genus--differentia definitions that describe the same term, especially when the term describes the overlap of two large categories. For instance, both of these genus--differentia definitions of \"square\" are equally acceptable:
- *a square*: a rectangle that is a rhombus.
- *a square*: a rhombus that is a rectangle.
Thus, a \"square\" is a member of both genera (the plural of *genus*): the genus \"rectangle\" and the genus \"rhombus\".
### Classes of extensional definitions {#classes_of_extensional_definitions}
One important form of the extensional definition is *ostensive definition*. This gives the meaning of a term by pointing, in the case of an individual, to the thing itself, or in the case of a class, to examples of the right kind. For example, one can explain who *Alice* (an individual) is, by pointing her out to another; or what a *rabbit* (a class) is, by pointing at several and expecting another to understand. The process of ostensive definition itself was critically appraised by Ludwig Wittgenstein.
An *enumerative definition* of a concept or a term is an *extensional definition* that gives an explicit and exhaustive listing of all the objects that fall under the concept or term in question. Enumerative definitions are only possible for finite sets (and only practical for small sets).
### *Divisio* and *partitio* {#divisio_and_partitio}
*Divisio* and *partitio* are classical terms for definitions. A *partitio* is simply an intensional definition. A *divisio* is not an extensional definition, but an exhaustive list of subsets of a set, in the sense that every member of the \"divided\" set is a member of one of the subsets. An extreme form of *divisio* lists all sets whose only member is a member of the \"divided\" set. The difference between this and an extensional definition is that extensional definitions list *members*, and not *subsets*.
| 652 |
Definition
| 1 |
7,964 |
# Definition
## Intensional definitions vs extensional definitions {#intensional_definitions_vs_extensional_definitions}
### Nominal definitions vs real definitions {#nominal_definitions_vs_real_definitions}
In classical thought, a definition was taken to be a statement of the essence of a thing. Aristotle had it that an object\'s essential attributes form its \"essential nature\", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes.
The idea that a definition should state the essence of a thing led to the distinction between *nominal* and *real* essence---a distinction originating with Aristotle. In the Posterior Analytics, he says that the meaning of a made-up name can be known (he gives the example \"goat stag\") without knowing what he calls the \"essential nature\" of the thing that the name would denote (if there were such a thing). This led medieval logicians to distinguish between what they called the *quid nominis*, or the \"whatness of the name\", and the underlying nature common to all the things it names, which they called the *quid rei*, or the \"whatness of the thing\". The name \"hobbit\", for example, is perfectly meaningful. It has a *quid nominis*, but one could not know the real nature of hobbits, and so the *quid rei* of hobbits cannot be known. By contrast, the name \"man\" denotes real things (men) that have a certain *quid rei*. The meaning of a name is distinct from the nature that a thing must have in order that the name apply to it.
This leads to a corresponding distinction between *nominal* and *real* definitions. A nominal definition is the definition explaining what a word means (i.e., which says what the \"nominal essence\" is), and is definition in the classical sense as given above. A real definition, by contrast, is one expressing the real nature or *quid rei* of the thing.
This preoccupation with essence dissipated in much of modern philosophy. Analytic philosophy, in particular, is critical of attempts to elucidate the essence of a thing. Russell described essence as \"a hopelessly muddle-headed notion\".
More recently Kripke\'s formalisation of possible world semantics in modal logic led to a new approach to essentialism. Insofar as the essential properties of a thing are *necessary* to it, they are those things that it possesses in all possible worlds. Kripke refers to names used in this way as rigid designators.
## Operational vs. theoretical definitions {#operational_vs._theoretical_definitions}
A definition may also be classified as an operational definition or theoretical definition.
| 400 |
Definition
| 2 |
7,964 |
# Definition
## Terms with multiple definitions {#terms_with_multiple_definitions}
### Homonyms
A homonym is, in the strict sense, one of a group of words that share the same spelling and pronunciation but have different meanings. Thus homonyms are simultaneously homographs (words that share the same spelling, regardless of their pronunciation) *and* homophones (words that share the same pronunciation, regardless of their spelling). The state of being a homonym is called *homonymy*. Examples of homonyms are the pair *stalk* (part of a plant) and *stalk* (follow/harass a person) and the pair *left* (past tense of leave) and *left* (opposite of right). A distinction is sometimes made between \"true\" homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, such as *skate* (glide on ice) and *skate* (the fish), and polysemous homonyms, or polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as *mouth* (of a river) and *mouth* (of an animal).
### Polysemes
Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings (that is, multiple semes or sememes and thus multiple senses), usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated.
## In logic, mathematics and computing {#in_logic_mathematics_and_computing}
In mathematics, definitions are generally not used to describe existing terms, but to describe or characterize a concept. For naming the object of a definition mathematicians can use either a neologism (this was mainly the case in the past) or words or phrases of the common language (this is generally the case in modern mathematics). The precise meaning of a term given by a mathematical definition is often different from the English definition of the word used, which can lead to confusion, particularly when the meanings are close. For example, a set is not exactly the same thing in mathematics and in common language. In some case, the word used can be misleading; for example, a real number has nothing more (or less) real than an imaginary number. Frequently, a definition uses a phrase built with common English words, which has no meaning outside mathematics, such as primitive group or irreducible variety.
In first-order logic definitions are usually introduced using extension by definition (so using a metalogic). On the other hand, lambda-calculi are a kind of logic where the definitions are included as the feature of the formal system itself.
### Classification
Authors have used different terms to classify definitions used in formal languages like mathematics. Norman Swartz classifies a definition as \"stipulative\" if it is intended to guide a specific discussion. A stipulative definition might be considered a temporary, working definition, and can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction. In contrast, a \"descriptive\" definition can be shown to be \"right\" or \"wrong\" with reference to general usage.
Swartz defines a *precising definition* as one that extends the descriptive dictionary definition (lexical definition) for a specific purpose by including additional criteria. A precising definition narrows the set of things that meet the definition.
C.L. Stevenson has identified *persuasive definition* as a form of stipulative definition which purports to state the \"true\" or \"commonly accepted\" meaning of a term, while in reality stipulating an altered use (perhaps as an argument for some specific belief). Stevenson has also noted that some definitions are \"legal\" or \"coercive\" -- their object is to create or alter rights, duties, or crimes.
| 570 |
Definition
| 3 |
7,964 |
# Definition
## In logic, mathematics and computing {#in_logic_mathematics_and_computing}
### Recursive definitions {#recursive_definitions}
A recursive definition, sometimes also called an *inductive* definition, is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way. Normally this consists of three steps:
1. At least one thing is stated to be a member of the set being defined; this is sometimes called a \"base set\".
2. All things bearing a certain relation to other members of the set are also to count as members of the set. It is this step that makes the definition recursive.
3. All other things are excluded from the set
For instance, we could define a natural number as follows (after Peano):
1. \"0\" is a natural number.
2. Each natural number has a unique successor, such that:
- the successor of a natural number is also a natural number;
- distinct natural numbers have distinct successors;
- no natural number is succeeded by \"0\".
3. Nothing else is a natural number.
So \"0\" will have exactly one successor, which for convenience can be called \"1\". In turn, \"1\" will have exactly one successor, which could be called \"2\", and so on. The second condition in the definition itself refers to natural numbers, and hence involves self-reference. Although this sort of definition involves a form of circularity, it is not vicious, and the definition has been quite successful.
In the same way, we can define ancestor as follows:
1. A parent is an ancestor.
2. A parent of an ancestor is an ancestor.
3. Nothing else is an ancestor.
Or simply: an ancestor is a parent or a parent of an ancestor.
## In medicine {#in_medicine}
In medical dictionaries, guidelines and other consensus statements and classifications, definitions should as far as possible be:
- simple and easy to understand, preferably even by the general public;
- useful clinically or in related areas where the definition will be used;
- specific (that is, by reading the definition only, it should ideally not be possible to refer to any other entity than that being defined);
- measurable;
- a reflection of current scientific knowledge.
| 361 |
Definition
| 4 |
7,964 |
# Definition
## Problems
Certain rules have traditionally been given for definitions (in particular, genus-differentia definitions).
- A definition must set out the essential attributes of the thing defined.
- Definitions should avoid circularity. To define a horse as \"a member of the species *equus*\" would convey no information whatsoever. For this reason, Locke adds that a definition of a term must not consist of terms which are synonymous with it. This would be a circular definition, a *circulus in definiendo*. Note, however, that it is acceptable to define two relative terms in respect of each other. Clearly, we cannot define \"antecedent\" without using the term \"consequent\", nor conversely.
- The definition must not be too wide or too narrow. It must be applicable to everything to which the defined term applies (i.e. not miss anything out), and to nothing else (i.e. not include any things to which the defined term would not truly apply).
- The definition must not be obscure. The purpose of a definition is to explain the meaning of a term which may be obscure or difficult, by the use of terms that are commonly understood and whose meaning is clear. The violation of this rule is known by the Latin term *obscurum per obscurius*. However, sometimes scientific and philosophical terms are difficult to define without obscurity.
- A definition should not be negative where it can be positive. We should not define \"wisdom\" as the absence of folly, or a healthy thing as whatever is not sick. Sometimes this is unavoidable, however. For example, it appears difficult to define blindness in positive terms rather than as \"the absence of sight in a creature that is normally sighted\".
### Fallacies of definition {#fallacies_of_definition}
### Limitations of definition {#limitations_of_definition}
Given that a natural language such as English contains, at any given time, a finite number of words, any comprehensive list of definitions must either be circular or rely upon primitive notions. If every term of every *definiens* must itself be defined, \"where at last should we stop?\" A dictionary, for instance, insofar as it is a comprehensive list of lexical definitions, must resort to circularity.
Many philosophers have chosen instead to leave some terms undefined. The scholastic philosophers claimed that the highest genera (called the ten *generalissima*) cannot be defined, since a higher genus cannot be assigned under which they may fall. Thus being, unity and similar concepts cannot be defined. Locke supposes in *An Essay Concerning Human Understanding* that the names of simple concepts do not admit of any definition. More recently Bertrand Russell sought to develop a formal language based on logical atoms. Other philosophers, notably Wittgenstein, rejected the need for any undefined simples. Wittgenstein pointed out in his *Philosophical Investigations* that what counts as a \"simple\" in one circumstance might not do so in another. He rejected the very idea that every explanation of the meaning of a term needed itself to be explained: \"As though an explanation hung in the air unless supported by another one\", claiming instead that explanation of a term is only needed to avoid misunderstanding.
Locke and Mill also argued that individuals cannot be defined. Names are learned by connecting an idea with a sound, so that speaker and hearer have the same idea when the same word is used. This is not possible when no one else is acquainted with the particular thing that has \"fallen under our notice\". Russell offered his theory of descriptions in part as a way of defining a proper name, the definition being given by a definite description that \"picks out\" exactly one individual. Saul Kripke pointed to difficulties with this approach, especially in relation to modality, in his book *Naming and Necessity*.
There is a presumption in the classic example of a definition that the *definiens* can be stated. Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case. The examples he used include *game*, *number* and *family*. In such cases, he argued, there is no fixed boundary that can be used to provide a definition. Rather, the items are grouped together because of a family resemblance. For terms such as these it is not possible and indeed not necessary to state a definition; rather, one simply comes to understand the *use* of the term
| 714 |
Definition
| 5 |
7,973 |
# Donegal fiddle tradition
The **Donegal fiddle tradition** is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within Irish traditional music. The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between County Donegal and Scotland, and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from Scottish fiddle music. For example, in addition to the "universally known" standard Irish dance tunes, there is an added volume of Scottish and Nova Scotia tunes played, with even some tunes from Shetland and Orkney. This includes standard tune types such as double jigs (`{{music|time|6|8}}`{=mediawiki}), slip jigs (`{{music|time|9|8}}`{=mediawiki}), reels (`{{music|time|4|4}}`{=mediawiki}), and hornpipes (swung `{{music|time|4|4}}`{=mediawiki}). It has been claimed that Donegal musicians play more slip jigs than any other region of Ireland. This is potentially due to the geographical borders/mountains (as well as national borders with Northern Ireland) keeping Donegal\'s repertoire more locally-known for decades. There is also a prevalence of mazurka playing. Mazurkas are historically mainland-European tunes very similar to a waltz, in its `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki} meter, though generally livelier and with more emphasis being placed on the second beat of each measure. Another uniquely Donegal tune is called the barndance, stemming from the Germanic schottische (essentially meaning 'Scottish'), also similar to the Norwegian reinlander. The barndance is very similar to a hornpipe, but slower than a reel; typically they are played with less of a hornpipe\'s "swing" and more of the "drive" of a reel.
In stark contrast to other Irish musical styles, the Donegal tradition also has the Scottish strathspey, a traditional dance from Scotland, played a bit like a hornpipe but with emphasis on the semi-quaver; this dotted rhythm gives the strathspey its distinct "Scotch Snap" sound. While strathspeys are definitely known in Donegal (albeit played slightly slower and with less "snap" than Scottish fiddlers), more common is the highland. Very rarely referred to as a "highland fling", these quintessentially Donegal tunes are influenced by the Scottish strathspey, but played a bit smoother, as a sort of "strathspey-reel". Some Scotch Snaps will be played, but highlands tend to be more akin to a slower reel, overall. Reels, themselves, are said to have originated in Scottish music. The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict, between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition, when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s.
The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the Sliabh Luachra style of southern Ireland, most of which involves styles of bowing and the ornamentation of the music, and rhythm. Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the Cape Breton tradition. Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed. Modern players, such as the fiddle group Altan, continue to be popular due to a variety of reasons.
Among the most famous Donegal style players are John Doherty from the early twentieth century and James Byrne, Paddy Glackin, Tommy Peoples and Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh in recent decades.
| 498 |
Donegal fiddle tradition
| 0 |
7,973 |
# Donegal fiddle tradition
## History
The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland, the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the Book of Leinster (ca. 1160). The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s. However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper Arthur O\'Neill who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in Ardara as having \"plenty of pipers and fiddlers\". Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms. However, Donegal musicians, many of them being fishermen, also frequently travelled to Scotland, where they acquired tune types from the Scottish repertoire such as the Strathspey which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as \"Highland\" tunes. The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires. Aoidh notes however that while different types of art music were commonly played among the upper classes of Scottish society in the 18th century, the Donegal tradition drew exclusively from the popular types of Scottish music. Like some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the bagpipes. Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch. Lilting, unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes, was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings. Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances: \"The Sets, the Lancers, the Maggie Pickie \[i.e., Maggie Pickins\] the Donkey, the Mazurka and the Barn dances\". Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley, Anthony Hilferty, the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known. As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy\'s, Connie Haughey, Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar. These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music.
The influences between Scotland and Donegal went both ways and were furthered by a wave of immigration from Donegal to Scotland in the 19th century (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, schottisches, marches, and Donegal\'s own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Píob Mhór, the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland. There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland. Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times. Traditionally the píob mór and the fiddle were the only instruments used and the use of pipe or fiddle music was common in old wedding customs. Migrant workers carried their music to Scotland and also brought back a number of tunes of Scottish origin. The Donegal fiddlers may well have been the route by which Scottish tunes such as Lucy Campbell, Tarbolton Lodge (Tarbolton) and The Flagon (The Flogging Reel), that entered the Irish repertoire. These players prided themselves on their technical abilities, which included playing in higher positions (fairly uncommon among traditional Irish fiddlers), and sought out material which would demonstrate their skills.
As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann movement in the 1960s, both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions. The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms. Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player, often not himself a musician, in charge. Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition, with its Scottish flavour, as being un-Irish, and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the \"Highlands\" at Comhaltas sessions. This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of traditional music in Ireland.
Outside of the Comhaltas movement however, Donegal fiddling stood strong with Paddy Glackin of Ceoltorí Laighean and the Bothy Band and later Tommy Peoples also with the Bothy Band and Mairead Ni Mhaonaigh with Altan, who all drew attention and prestige to the Donegal tradition within folk music circles throughout Ireland.
## Description of style {#description_of_style}
The Donegal style of fiddling is a label often applied to music from this area, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county. To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterised by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more un-swung in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reel and jigs); short (non-slurred), aggressive bowing, sparse ornamentation, the use of bowed triplets more often than trills as ornaments, the use of double stops and droning; and the occurrence of \"playing the octave\", with one player playing the melody and the other playing the melody an octave lower. None of these characteristics are universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all. In general, however, the style is rather aggressive.
Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played. Highlands, a type of tune in `{{music|time|4|4}}`{=mediawiki} time with some similarities to Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county. Other tune types common solely in the county include barndances, also called \"Germans,\" and mazurkas.
| 1,017 |
Donegal fiddle tradition
| 1 |
7,973 |
# Donegal fiddle tradition
## Fiddlers of the Donegal tradition {#fiddlers_of_the_donegal_tradition}
### Historical
There are a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal. Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family. Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty. John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded. John\'s older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John\'s.
There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including Inishowen, eastern Donegal, The Rosses and Gweedore, Croaghs, Teelin, Kilcar, Glencolmcille, Ballyshannon and Bundoran. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh (\"Neilly\") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, Frank Cassidy, James Byrne (1946--2008), P.V. O\'Donnell (2011), and Tommy Peoples (1948--2018). Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, and Danny O\'Donnell.
### Modern
Fiddle playing continues to be popular in Donegal. The three fiddlers of the Donegal \"supergroup\" Altan, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O\'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal. An example of another fiddler-player from Donegal is Liz Doherty. Another well regarded fiddle player hailing from Donegal is Aidan O\'Donnell. TG4 Young Musician of the Year 2010 Aidan O\'Donnell has been described as one of the finest young Irish musicians at present. He began his music making at the age of 12, and since then has performed with some of traditional music\'s finest artists, including Donal Lunny, Micheal Ó\'Suilleabháin and the Chieftains. In 2007, he won the prestigious 'Oireachtas na Geailge\' fiddle title, and has been a regular tutor at the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, at the University of Limerick for the past number of years.
The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists but because of local pride in the music. Traditional music *Seisiúns* are still common place both in pubs and in houses. The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by recorded music, but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition. Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums
| 458 |
Donegal fiddle tradition
| 2 |
7,975 |
# Double-barreled shotgun
A **double-barreled shotgun**, also known as a **double shotgun**, is a break-action shotgun with two parallel barrels, allowing two single shots that can be fired simultaneously or sequentially in quick succession.
## Construction
Modern double-barreled shotguns, often known as *doubles*, are almost universally break action, with the barrels hinge down at the rear to expose the breech ends for unloading and reloading. Since there is no reciprocating action needed to eject and reload the shells, doubles are more compact than repeating designs such as pump action, lever action, bolt action, or self-loading shotguns.
### Barrel configuration {#barrel_configuration}
Double-barreled shotguns (specifically break-action), come in two basic configurations:
- **side-by-side** (S×S) --- the two barrels are arranged horizontally;
- **over-and-under** (O/U) --- the two barrels are arranged vertically.
The original double-barreled guns were commonly all side-by-side designs, which was a more practical design for muzzleloaders. Early cartridge-firing shotguns also used the side-by-side action, because they kept the exposed hammers of the earlier muzzleloading shotguns from which they evolved. When hammerless designs started to become common, the over-and-under design was introduced, and most modern sporting doubles are over-and-under designs.
One significant advantage that doubles have over single-barrel repeating shotguns is the ability to have more than one choke at a time. Some shotgun shooting sports, such as skeet shooting, use crossing targets presented in a narrow range of distance, and only require one level of choke. Other sports, like sporting clays, give the shooter targets at differing ranges, and targets that might approach or recede from the shooter, and so must be engaged at differing ranges. Having two barrels lets the shooter use a more open choke for near targets, and a tighter choke for distant targets, providing the optimal shot pattern for each distance.
The disadvantage lies in the fact that the barrels of a double-barreled shotgun, whether over-and-under or side-by-side, are not parallel, but slightly angled, so that shots from the barrels converge, usually at \"40 yards out\". For the side-by-side configuration, the shotstring continues on its path to the opposite side of the rib after the converging point; for example, the left barrel\'s discharge travels on the left of the rib till it hits dead center at 40 yards (36.58 m) out, after that, the discharge continues on to the right. In the over-and-under configuration with a parallel rib, both barrels\' discharges will keep to the dead center, but the discharge from the \"under\" barrel will shoot higher than the discharge from the \"over\" barrel after 40 yards (36.58 m). Thus, double-barreled shotguns are accurate only at practical shotgun ranges, though the range of their ammunition easily exceeds four to six times that distance.
Side-by-side shotguns are often more expensive, and may take more practice to aim effectively than an over-and-under. The off-center nature of the recoil in a side-by-side gun may make shooting the body-side barrel slightly more painful by comparison to an over-and-under, single-shot, or pump-action, lever-action shotgun. Gas-operated and Recoil-operated, designs will recoil less than either. More side-by-side than over-and-under guns have traditional \"cast-off\" stocks, where the end of the buttstock veers slightly to the right, allowing a right-handed user to point the gun more easily.
Double-barreled shotguns are also inherently more safe, as whether the shotgun is loaded or can be fired can be ascertained by anyone present if the action is broken open, for instance on a skeet, trap or hunting clays course when another shooter is firing; if the action is open, the gun cannot fire. Similarly, doubles are more easily examined to see if loaded than pump-action or semi-automatic shotguns, whose bolt must be opened and chamber closely examined or felt to make sure it is unloaded; with a double gun (or a break-action single gun), whether the gun is loaded, i.e., has cartridges in any chamber, is easily and immediately seen with a glance (and just as easily unloaded).
| 650 |
Double-barreled shotgun
| 0 |
7,975 |
# Double-barreled shotgun
## Construction
### Trigger mechanism {#trigger_mechanism}
The early doubles used two triggers, one for each barrel, located front to back inside the trigger guard. The index finger was used to pull either trigger, as having two fingers inside the trigger guard can cause a very undesirable recoil-induced double-discharge. Double-trigger designs are typically set up for right-handed users. In double-trigger designs, it is often possible to pull both triggers at once, firing both barrels simultaneously, though this is generally not recommended as it doubles the recoil, battering both shotgun and shooter, particularly if it was unanticipated or unintended. Discharging both barrels at the same time has long been a hunting trick employed by hunters using 8 gauge \"elephant\" shotguns, firing the two 875 gr slugs for sheer stopping power at close range.
Later models use a single trigger that alternately fires both barrels, called a *single selective trigger* or *SST*. The single selective trigger does not allow firing both barrels at once, since the single trigger must be pulled twice in order to fire both barrels. The change from one barrel to the other may be done by a clockwork type system, where a cam alternates between barrels, or by an inertial system where the recoil of firing the first barrel toggles the trigger to the next barrel. A double-barreled shotgun with an inertial trigger works best with full power shotshells; shooting low recoil shotshells often will not reliably toggle the inertial trigger, causing an apparent failure to fire occasionally when attempting to depress the trigger a second time to fire the second barrel (this also can happen if the first shell fails to fire). Generally there is a method of selecting the order in which the barrels of a single selective trigger shotgun fire; commonly this is done through manipulation of the safety, pushing to one side to select top barrel first and the other side to select bottom barrel first. In the event that an inertial trigger does not toggle to the second barrel when firing low recoil shotshells, manually selecting the order to the second barrel will enable the second barrel to fire when the trigger is depressed again.
One of the advantages of double-barreled shotgun with double triggers or single selective trigger, is that the second shot can be taken almost immediately after the first with merely a second trigger pull, without needing to manually operate the action (which will inevitably destabilize the gun from the shoulder position and affect aim), and can utilize different chokes for the two shots (assuming, of course, that full power shotshells are fired, at least for a double-barreled shotgun with an inertial type single selective trigger, as needed to toggle the inertial trigger). This can be noticeably faster than a pump-action shotgun, which requires manually pumping the fore-end to eject and reload for the second shot, and may be faster, or not slower, than a semi-automatic shotgun (as there are no bolt movements to delay the rechambering of a second shell). Note, however, in neither the pump-action or semi-automatic will the second shot be a different choke pattern from the first shot, whereas for a double, the two shots are usually with different chokes. Thus, depending on the nature of the hunt, the appropriate choke for the shot is always at hand. For example, while field hunting flushing birds, the first shot is usually closer than the second because the bird flies away from the shooter; so, the more open choke (and barrel) would be better for the first shot, and if a second shot is needed, as the bird is flying away, the more closed (and thus longer distance of an effective shot pattern) choke (and barrel) is then appropriate. Conversely, on a driven hunt, where the birds are driven towards the shooter, the closed (longer effective distance) choke (and barrel) should be fired first, saving the open (closer effective distance) choke (and barrel) for the now-closer incoming bird. None of this is possible with single-barrel shotguns, only with a double, either a side-by-side (S×S) or over-and-under (O/U).
### Regulation
*Regulation* is a term used for multi-barreled firearms (most commonly found in rifles and shotguns) that indicates how close to the same point of aim the barrels will shoot. A poorly regulated gun may hit consistently with one barrel but miss consistently with the other, making the gun nearly useless for anything requiring two shots. However, the short ranges and spread of shot provide a significant overlap, so a small error in regulation in a double is often too small to be noticed. Generally, the shotguns are regulated to hit the point of aim at a given distance usually the maximum expected range since that is the range at which a full choke is used and where precise regulation matters most. The regulation is usually more important in side-by-side rather than in over-and-under shotguns, as felt recoil differs
| 821 |
Double-barreled shotgun
| 1 |
7,983 |
# Double-hulled tanker
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Plan of a double-hulled tanker A **double-hulled tanker** refers to an oil tanker which has a double hull. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring compared to single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. After the *Exxon Valdez* oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.
## Reasons for use {#reasons_for_use}
A number of manufacturers have embraced oil tankers with a double hull because it strengthens the hull of ships, reducing the likelihood of oil disasters in low-impact collisions and groundings over single-hull ships. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring at low speed impacts in port areas when the ship is under pilotage. Research of impact damage of ships has revealed that double-hulled tankers are unlikely to perforate both hulls in a collision, preventing oil from seeping out. However, for smaller tankers, U-shaped tanks might be susceptible to \"free flooding\" across the double bottom and up to the outside water level each side of the cargo tank. Salvors prefer to salvage doubled-hulled tankers because they permit the use of air pressure to vacuum out the flood water. In the 1960s, collision proof double hulls for nuclear ships were extensively investigated, due to escalating concerns over nuclear accidents.
The ability of double-hulled tankers to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. In 1992, MARPOL was amended, making it \"mandatory for tankers of 5,000 dwt and more ordered after 6 July 1993 to be fitted with double hulls, or an alternative design approved by IMO\". However, in the aftermath of the Erika incident of the coast off France in December 1999, members of IMO adopted a revised schedule for the phase-out of single-hull tankers, which came into effect on 1 September 2003, with further amendments validated on 5 April 2005.
After the *Exxon Valdez* oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska in 1989, the US government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull. However, the damage to the Exxon Valdez penetrated sections of the hull (the slops oil tanks, or slop tanks) that were protected by a double bottom, or partial double hull.
| 446 |
Double-hulled tanker
| 0 |
7,983 |
# Double-hulled tanker
## Maintenance issues {#maintenance_issues}
Although double-hulled tankers reduce the likelihood of ships grazing rocks and creating holes in the hull, a double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. Double-hulled tankers, if poorly designed, constructed, maintained and operated can be as problematic, if not more problematic than their single-hulled counterparts. Double-hulled tankers have a more complex design and structure than their single-hulled counterparts, which means that they require more maintenance and care in operating, which if not subject to responsible monitoring and policing, may cause problems. Double hulls often result in the weight of the hull increasing by at least 20%, and because the steel weight of doubled-hulled tanks should not be greater than that of single-hulled ships, the individual hull walls are typically thinner and theoretically less resistant to wear. Double hulls by no means eliminate the possibility of the hulls breaking apart. Due to the air space between the hulls, there is also a potential problem with volatile gases seeping out through worn areas of the internal hull, increasing the risk of an explosion.
Although several international conventions against pollution are in place, as of 2003 there was still no formal body setting international mandatory standards, although the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) does provide guidelines giving advice on optimum use and safety, such as recommending that ballast tanks are not entered while loaded with cargo, and that weekly samples are made of the atmosphere inside for hydrocarbon gas. Due to the difficulties of maintenance, ship builders have been competitive in producing double-hulled ships which are easier to inspect, such as ballast and cargo tanks which are easily accessible and easier to spot corrosion in the hull. The Tanker Structure Cooperative Forum (TSCF) published the *Guide to Inspection and Maintenance of Double-Hull Tanker Structures* in 1995 giving advice based on experience of operating double-hulled tankers
| 339 |
Double-hulled tanker
| 1 |
7,991 |
# Disperser
A **disperser** is a one-sided extractor. Where an extractor requires that every event gets the same probability under the uniform distribution and the extracted distribution, only the latter is required for a disperser. So for a disperser, an event $A \subseteq \{0,1\}^{m}$ we have: $Pr_{U_{m}}[A] > 1 - \epsilon$
**Definition (Disperser):** *A* $(k, \epsilon)$*-disperser is a function*
$Dis: \{0,1\}^{n}\times \{0,1\}^{d}\rightarrow \{0,1\}^{m}$
*such that for every distribution* $X$ *on* $\{0,1\}^{n}$ *with* $H_{\infty}(X) \geq k$ *the support of the distribution* $Dis(X,U_{d})$ *is of size at least* $(1-\epsilon)2^{m}$.
## Graph theory {#graph_theory}
An **(*N*, *M*, *D*, *K*, *e*)-disperser** is a bipartite graph with *N* vertices on the left side, each with degree *D*, and *M* vertices on the right side, such that every subset of *K* vertices on the left side is connected to more than (1 − *e*)*M* vertices on the right.
An extractor is a related type of graph that guarantees an even stronger property; every **(*N*, *M*, *D*, *K*, *e*)-extractor** is also an **(*N*, *M*, *D*, *K*, *e*)-disperser**.
## Other meanings {#other_meanings}
A disperser is a high-speed mixing device used to disperse or dissolve pigments and other solids into a liquid
| 193 |
Disperser
| 0 |
7,995 |
# Dioscoreales
The **Dioscoreales** are an order of monocotyledonous flowering plants, organized under modern classification systems, such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group or the Angiosperm Phylogeny Web. Among monocot plants, Dioscoreales are grouped with the lilioid monocots, wherein they are a sister group to the Pandanales. In total, the order Dioscoreales comprises three families, 22 genera and about 850 species.
Dioscoreales contains the family Dioscoreaceae, which notably includes the yams (*Dioscorea*) and several other bulbous and tuberous plants, some of which are heavily cultivated as staple food sources in certain countries.
Certain species are found solely in arid climates (incl. parts of Southern Africa), and have adapted to this harsh environment as caudex-forming, perennial caudiciformes, including *Dioscorea elephantipes*, the \"elephant\'s foot\" or \"elephant-foot yam\".
Older systems tended to place all lilioid monocots with reticulate veined leaves (such as Smilacaceae and Stemonaceae together with Dioscoraceae) in Dioscoreales; as currently circumscribed by phylogenetic analysis, using combined morphology and molecular methods, Dioscreales now contains many reticulate-veined vines within the Dioscoraceae, as well as the myco-heterotrophic Burmanniaceae and the autotrophic Nartheciaceae.
## Description
Dioscoreales are vines or herbaceous forest floor plants. They may be achlorophyllous or saprophytic. Synapomorphies include tuberous roots, glandular hairs, seed coat characteristics and the presence of calcium oxalate crystals. Other characteristics of the order include the presence of saponin steroids, annular vascular bundles that are found in both the stem and leaf. The leaves are often unsheathed at the base, have a distinctive petiole and reticulate veined lamina. Alternatively they may be small and scale-like with a sheathed base. The flowers are actinomorphic, and may be bisexual or dioecious, while the flowers or inflorescence bear glandular hairs. The perianth may be conspicuous or reduced and the style is short with well developed style branches. The tepals persist in the development of the fruit, which is a dry capsule or berry. In the seed, the endotegmen is tanniferous and the embryo short.
All of the species except the genera placed in Nartheciaceae express simultaneous microsporogenesis. Plants in Nartheciaceae show successive microsporogenesis which is one of the traits indicating that the family is sister to all the other members included in the order.
| 361 |
Dioscoreales
| 0 |
7,995 |
# Dioscoreales
## Taxonomy
### Pre-Darwinian {#pre_darwinian}
For the early history from Lindley (1853) onwards, see Caddick *et al.* (2000) Table 1, Caddick et al. (2002a) Table 1 and Table 2 in Bouman (1995). The taxonomic classification of Dioscoreales has been complicated by the presence of a number of morphological features reminiscent of the dicotyledons, leading some authors to place the order as intermediate between the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons.
While Lindley did not use the term \"Dioscoreales\", he placed the family Dioscoraceae together with four other families in what he referred to as an Alliance (the equivalent of the modern Order) called Dictyogens. He reflected the uncertainty as to the place of this Alliance by placing it as a class of its own between Endogens (monocots) and Exogens (dicots) The botanical authority is given to von Martius (1835) by APG for his description of the family Dioscoreae or *Ordo*, while other sources cite Hooker (Dioscoreales Hook.f.) for his use of the term \"Dioscorales\" in 1873 with a single family, Dioscoreae. However, in his more definitive work, the *Genera plantara* (1883), he simply placed Dioscoraceae in the Epigynae \"Series\".
### Post-Darwinian {#post_darwinian}
Although Charles Darwin\'s Origin of Species (1859) preceded Bentham and Hooker\'s publication, the latter project was commenced much earlier and George Bentham was initially sceptical of Darwinism. The new phyletic approach changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata, but this did little to further define the circumscription of Dioscoreaceae. The major works in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century employing this approach were in the German literature. Authors such as Eichler, Engler and Wettstein placed this family in the Liliiflorae, a major subdivision of monocotyledons. it remained to Hutchinson (1926) to resurrect the Dioscoreales to group Dioscoreaceae and related families together. Hutchinson\'s circumscription of Dioscoreales included three other families in addition to Dioscoreaceae, Stenomeridaceae, Trichopodaceae and Roxburghiaceae. Of these only Trichopodaceae was included in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification (see below), but was subsumed into Dioscoraceae. Stenomeridaceae, as *Stenomeris* was also included in Dioscoreaceae as subfamily Stenomeridoideae, the remaining genera being grouped in subfamily Dioscoreoideae. Roxburghiaceae on the other hand was segregated in the sister order Pandanales as Stemonaceae. Most taxonomists in the twentieth century (the exception was the 1981 Cronquist system which placed most such plants in order Liliales, subclass Liliidae, class Liliopsida=monocotyledons, division Magnoliophyta=angiosperms) recognised Dioscoreales as a distinct order, but demonstrated wide variations in its composition.
Dahlgren, in the second version of his taxonomic classification (1982) raised the Liliiflorae to a superorder and placed Dioscoreales as an order within it. In his system, Dioscoreales contained only three families, Dioscoreaceae, Stemonaceae (*i.e.* Hutchinson\'s Roxburghiaceae) and Trilliaceae. The latter two families had been treated as a separate order (Stemonales, or Roxburghiales) by other authors, such as Huber (1969). The APG would later assign these to Pandanales and Liliales respectively. Dahlgren\'s construction of Dioscoreaceae included the Stenomeridaceae and Trichopodaceae, doubting these were distinct, and Croomiaceae in Stemonaceae. Furthermore, he expressed doubts about the order\'s homogeneity, especially Trilliaceae. The Dioscoreales at that time were marginally distinguishable from the Asparagales. In his examination of Huber\'s Stemonales, he found that the two constituent families had as close an affinity to Dioscoreaceae as to each other, and hence included them. He also considered closely related families and their relationship to Dioscoreales, such as the monogeneric Taccaceae, then in its own order, Taccales. Similar considerations were discussed with respect to two Asparagales families, Smilacaceae and Petermanniaceae.
In Dahlgren\'s third and final version (1985) that broader circumscription of Dioscoreales was created within the superorder Lilianae, subclass Liliidae (monocotyledons), class Magnoliopsida (angiosperms) and comprised the seven families Dioscoreaceae, Petermanniaceae, Smilacaceae, Stemonaceae, Taccaceae, Trichopodaceae and Trilliaceae. Thismiaceae has either been treated as a separate family closely related to Burmanniaceae or as a tribe (Thismieae) within a more broadly defined Burmanniaceae, forming a separate order, Burmanniales, in the Dahlgren system. The related Nartheciaceae were treated as tribe Narthecieae within the Melanthiaceae in a third order, the Melanthiales, by Dahlgren. Dahlgren considered the Dioscoreales to most strongly resemble the ancestral monocotyledons, and hence sharing \"dicotyledonous\" characteristics, making it the most central monocotyledon order. Of these seven families, Bouman considered Dioscoreaceae, Trichopodaceae, Stemonaceae and Taccaceae to represent the \"core\" families of the order. However, that study also indicated both a clear delineation of the order from other orders particularly Asparagales, and a lack of homogeneity within the order.
### Molecular phylogenetics and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group {#molecular_phylogenetics_and_the_angiosperm_phylogeny_group}
The increasing availability of molecular phylogenetics methods in addition to morphological characteristics in the 1990s led to major reconsiderations of the relationships within the monocotyledons. In that large multi-institutional examination of the seed plants using the plastid gene *rbc*L the authors used Dahlgren\'s system as their basis, but followed Thorne (1992) in altering the suffixes of the superorders from \"*-iflorae*\" to \"*-anae*\". This demonstrated that the Lilianae comprised three lineages corresponding to Dahlgren\'s orders Dioscoreales, Liliales, and Asparagaless.
Under the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system of 1998, which took Dahlgren\'s system as a basis, the order was placed in the monocot clade and comprised the five families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Taccaceae, Thismiaceae and Trichopodaceae.
In APG II (2003), a number of changes were made to Dioscoreales, as a result of an extensive study by Caddick and colleagues (2002), using an analysis of three genes, *rbc*L, *atp*B and 18S rDNA, in addition to morphology. These studies resulted in a re-examination of the relationships between most of the genera within the order. Thismiaceae was shown to be a sister group to Burmanniaceae, and so was included in it. The monotypic families Taccaceae and Trichopodaceae were included in Dioscoreaceae, while Nartheciaceae could also be grouped within Dioscoreales. APG III (2009) did not change this, so the order now comprises three families Burmanniaceae, Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae.
Although further research on the deeper relationships within Dioscoreales continues, the APG IV (2016) authors felt it was still premature to propose a restructuring of the order. Specifically these issues involve conflicting information as to the relationship between *Thismia* and Burmanniaceae, and hence whether Thismiaceae should be subsumed in the latter, or reinstated.
| 1,020 |
Dioscoreales
| 1 |
7,995 |
# Dioscoreales
## Taxonomy
### Phylogeny
Molecular phylogenetics in Dioscoreales poses special problems due to the absence of plastid genes in mycoheterotrophs. Dioscoreales is monophyletic and is placed as a sister order to Pandanales, as shown in Cladogram I.
### Evolution
The data for the evolution of the order is collected from molecular analyses since there are no such fossils found. It is estimated that Dioscoreales and its sister clade Pandanales split up around 121 million years ago during Early Cretaceous when the stem group was formed. Then it took 3 to 6 million years for the crown group to differentiate in Mid Cretaceous.
### Subdivision
The three families of Dioscreales constitutes about 22 genera and about 849 species making it one of the smaller monocot orders. Of these, the largest group is *Dioscorea* (yams) with about 450 species. By contrast the second largest genus is *Burmannia* with about 60 species, and most have only one or two.
Some authors, preferring the original APG (1998)families, continue to treat Thismiaceae separately from Burmanniaceae and Taccaceae from Dioscoreaceae. But in the 2015 study of Hertwerk and colleagues, seven genera representing all three families were examined with an eight gene dataset. Dioscoreales was monophyletic and three subclades were represented corresponding to the APG families. Dioscoreaceae and Burmanniaceae were in a sister group relationship.
### Etymology
Named after the type genus *Dioscorea*, which in turn was named by Linnaeus in 1753 to honour the Greek physician and botanist Dioscorides.
## Distribution and habitat {#distribution_and_habitat}
Species from this order are distributed across all of the continents except Antarctica. They are mainly tropical or subtropical representatives, but some members of families Dioscoreaceae and Nartheciaceae are found in cooler regions of Europe and North America. Order Dioscoreales contains plants that are able to form an underground organ for reservation of nutritions as many other monocots. An exception is the family Burmanniaceae which is entirely myco-heterotrophic and contains species that lack photosynthetic abilities.
| 325 |
Dioscoreales
| 2 |
7,995 |
# Dioscoreales
## Ecology
The three families included in order Dioscoreales also represent three different ecological groups of plants. Dioscoreaceae contains mainly vines (*Dioscorea*) and other crawling species (*Epipetrum*). Nartheciaceae on the other hand is a family composed of herbaceous plants with a rather lily-like appearance (*Aletris*) while Burmanniaceae is entirely myco-heterotrophic group.
## Uses
Many members of Dioscoreaceae produce tuberous starchy roots (yams) which form staple foods in tropical regions. They have also been the source of steroids for the pharmaceutical industry, including the production of oral contraceptives
| 89 |
Dioscoreales
| 3 |
8,007 |
# Diameter
`{{General geometry}}`{=mediawiki} In geometry, a **diameter** of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the centre of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere.
In more modern usage, the length $d$ of a diameter is also called the diameter. In this sense one speaks of `{{em|the}}`{=mediawiki} diameter rather than `{{em|a}}`{=mediawiki} diameter (which refers to the line segment itself), because all diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length, this being twice the radius $r.$
$$d = 2r \qquad\text{or equivalently}\qquad r = \frac{d}{2}.$$
The word \"diameter\" is derived from *διάμετρος* (`{{Transliteration|grc|diametros}}`{=mediawiki}), \"diameter of a circle\", from *διά* (`{{Transliteration|grc|dia}}`{=mediawiki}), \"across, through\" and *μέτρον* (`{{Transliteration|grc|metron}}`{=mediawiki}), \"measure\". It is often abbreviated $\text{DIA}, \text{dia}, d,$ or $\varnothing.$
## Constructions
With straightedge and compass, a diameter of a given circle can be constructed as the perpendicular bisector of an arbitrary chord. Drawing two diameters in this way can be used to locate the center of a circle, as their crossing point. To construct a diameter parallel to a given line, choose the chord to be perpendicular to the line.
The circle having a given line segment as its diameter can be constructed by straightedge and compass, by finding the midpoint of the segment and then drawing the circle centered at the midpoint through one of the ends of the line segment.
## Symbol
thumb\|upright 0.5\|Sign ⌀ in a technical drawing The symbol or variable for diameter, `{{char|⌀}}`{=mediawiki}, is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g. \"⌀ 55 mm\"), indicating that it represents diameter. Photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way.
The symbol has a code point in Unicode at `{{unichar|2300|Diameter sign|html=}}`{=mediawiki}, in the Miscellaneous Technical set. It should not be confused with several other characters (such as `{{unichar|00D8|nlink=}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{unichar|2205|nlink=Null sign}}`{=mediawiki}) that resemble it but have unrelated meanings. It has the compose sequence `{{key press|[[Compose key|Compose]]|d|i|chain=}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Generalizations
The definitions given above are only valid for circles and spheres. However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of $n$-dimensional object, or a set of scattered points. The *diameter of a set* is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset.
A different and incompatible definition is sometimes used for the diameter of a conic section. In this context, a diameter is any chord which passes through the conic\'s centre. A diameter of an ellipse is any line passing through the centre of the ellipse. Half of any such diameter may be called a ***semidiameter***, although this term is most often a synonym for the radius of a circle or sphere. The longest and shortest diameters are called the *major axis* and *minor axis*, respectively. *Conjugate diameters* are a pair of diameters where one is parallel to a tangent to the ellipse at the endpoint of the other diameter.
Several kinds of object can be measured by *equivalent diameter*, the diameter of a circular or spherical approximation to the object. This includes hydraulic diameter, the equivalent diameter of a channel or pipe through which liquid flows, and the Sauter mean diameter of a collection of particles.
The diameter of a circle is exactly twice its radius. However, this is true only for a circle, and only in the Euclidean metric. Jung\'s theorem provides more general inequalities relating the diameter to the radius
| 596 |
Diameter
| 0 |
8,008 |
# Direct examination
The **direct examination** or **examination-in-chief** is one stage in the process of adducing evidence from witnesses in a court of law. Direct examination is the questioning of a witness by the lawyer/side/party that called such witness in a trial. Direct examination is usually performed to elicit evidence in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party\'s claim or defense.
In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking leading questions. This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness. An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood or becomes clear, that the witness is hostile to the calling lawyer\'s side of the controversy, the lawyer who called the witness may then ask the court to declare the person on the stand a hostile witness. If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ask witness leading questions during direct examination.
The techniques of direct examination are taught in courses on trial advocacy. Each direct examination is integrated with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or, with more advanced strategies, a line of effort
| 196 |
Direct examination
| 0 |
8,027 |
# Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
**Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations:
- Two state-owned radio stations are supplemented by more than 100 private radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007);
- 27 stations (2005);
- 13 stations: 3 AM, 11 FM, and 2 shortwave (2001);
- 16 stations: 3 AM, 12 FM, and 1 shortwave (1999).
- Radios: 18.0 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|25}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations:
- One state-owned TV broadcast station with near national coverage; more than a dozen privately owned TV stations with two having near national coverage (2007);
- 23 stations (2005);
- 4 stations (2001);
- 20 stations (1999).
- Television sets: 6.5 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|25}}`{=mediawiki}
Radio is the dominant medium; a handful of stations, including state-run Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC), broadcast across the country. The United Nations Mission (MONUSCO) and a Swiss-based NGO, Fondation Hirondelle, operate one of country\'s leading stations, Radio Okapi. The network employs mostly-Congolese staff and aims to bridge political divisions. Radio France Internationale (RFI), which is widely available on FM, is the most popular news station. The BBC broadcasts on FM in Kinshasa (92.7), Lubumbashi (92.0), Kisangani (92.0), Goma (93.3) and Bukavu (102.2).
### Radio Okapi {#radio_okapi}
Radio Okapi was first established in February 2002 by the United Nations Mission in the Democratic of Republic of Congo (MONUC). Radio Okapi provides news, music, and political information to all corners of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The major purpose behind Radio Okapi is to provide all DRC citizens with radio services regardless of political affiliation. The FM waves Radio Okapi provided were aimed to be free of hate speech. Most importantly, Radio Okapi caters to the various different ethnicities within the DRC. This is done through the broadcasting of content in 5 of major languages spoken in the DRC. These five languages are French, Lingala, Swahili, Tshiluba, and Kikongo.
## Political uses of media {#political_uses_of_media}
### Hate Speech {#hate_speech}
Specific media platforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo have used its platforms for the dissemination of hate speech. Media in the DRC has propagated hatred and ethnic divisions by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments. Numerous media outlets are owned by presidential candidates and their supporters. This increases the probability that news will tend to favor the political base of these presidential candidates. These presidential candidates use their media platforms to attack political opponents which include ethnically charged hate speech. The result of such propaganda is evident in recent conflicts between ethnic groups, Hema and Lendu. The conflict was fueled by hate speech on media platforms. As a result, the conflict between these ethnic groups has transformed to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +243
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines:
- 58,200 lines in use, 161st in the world (2012);
- 20,000 lines in use (2000);
- 36,000 lines in use (1995).
- Mobile cellular:
- 19.5 million lines, 52nd in the world (2012);
- 2.6 million lines (2005);
- 15,000 lines (2000);
- 10,000 lines (1995).
- Telephone system: barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations; inadequate fixed line infrastructure, state-owned operator providing less than 1 fixed-line connection per 1000 persons; given the inadequate fixed-line infrastructure, the use of mobile-cellular services has surged and mobile teledensity is roughly 20 per 100 persons (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .cd (formerly .zr).
- Internet users:
- 1.2 million users, 110th in the world; 1.7% of the population, 202nd in the world (2012); In 2023 22.9% of the population had Internet access, which is about 23 million people.
- 290,000 users, 132nd in the world (2008);
- 50,000 users (2002).
- Internet hosts: 2,515 hosts, 159th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 21,248 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.3 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet Service Providers: 188 ISPs (2005); 1 ISP (1999).
### Internet cables {#internet_cables}
- List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa
- West Africa Cable System (WACS), a fibre optic submarine communications cable linking countries along the west coast of Africa with the United Kingdom, was connected in early 2013.
| 738 |
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 0 |
8,027 |
# Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
## Internet Censorship and Surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
After the First Congo War (1996--1997) and Second Congo War (1998--2003), the nation transitioned to a renewed national unity under the rule of President Joseph Kabila and 4 vice presidents, all from former rebel and political opposition groups. The establishment of a democratic model required checks on corruption in public finance and natural resources, executive political parties, and hyperlocal militias and bandits. Peace agreements, in turn, did not end state violence, hence the need for absolute clarity to the public. The right to report on hostile resolutions was adopted in a 2002 resolution as a part of the eventual Inter-Congolese Dialogue. This accord declared that "independent, free, responsible and efficient media are a guarantee for public freedoms, the smooth running of democracy and social cohesion", giving the voters direct insight into public figures, programs, and overall transparency. Article 27, 28, and Clause 29 established individual freedom of expression, moral press freedom, and the public right to information, respectively. During the time of continuing 2002 conflict, radios served as stages for peace songs and "come-home" messaging. Hosts had conversations with military and government officials, army members, and rebels to discuss the challenges of peace talks and demobilization. Censorship was lenient as long as radio personnel covered both sides.
Major exceptions to the right of free press imminently ensued. In 1996, censorship had begun to target Congo\'s artistic freedoms. Beyond broadcasts and news, the nation began to censor those who expressed political sentiments through music. The National Censorship Commission banned six songs that mentioned common opposition outcries relating to employment opportunities, civilian killings, corruption, and faltering human rights. If these songs are played on the radio, the artists may be fined up to \$500 per song in accordance with a 1996 censorship decree. Freedom of the press was restricted for artists offending political elites or speaking against Congolese leaders and parties. For those using telecommunications as an outlet, interference was backed by such legislation. Open discussion about political corruption or unmentioned events, such as riots or uprisings against the ruling party, are avoided in news media but continuously active on pavement radio.
| 365 |
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 1 |
8,027 |
# Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
## Intentional Shutdowns {#intentional_shutdowns}
The Congolese government performed a series of intentional internet shutdowns. The first was conducted in December 2011 and lasted approximately 25 days. During the 25 days, Short Message Service otherwise known as SMS was the only one affected by the shutdown. According to an article by CIPESA, \"One of the reasons cited by the government for blocking communication was to prevent the spread of fake results over the internet before the electoral commission announced official results\"
Unlike the first shutdown the second intentional shutdown had a broader range of impact.The second intentional shutdown occurred in January 2015. The Congolese government directed telecommunication companies within the country to halt all its services. Not only was SMS affected, but the entire internet itself. This action by the government came on the eve of political protest on a proposed electoral bill.
The most recent government shutdown occurred on December 19, 2016. This was an important date as President Joseph Kabila was supposed to step down as head of state. In order to quell, political upheaval the Congolese government ordered telecom operators to block social media in the country.
In September 2016, the government cut the signals of the Radio France Internationale (RFI) and United Nations Radio Okapi (UNRO). Later, the general and program director of the Radio-Télévision Manika de Kolwezi was arrested after intentionally broadcasting a phone interview with Katumbi, the opposition leader. The censorship of human freedoms of expression to information was condemned by the Congo\'s United Nations on Human Rights. Kabila was given until December 19, 2016, to step down. If he decided not to, precautionary measures were set to counter organization and public protests. The government ordered a temporary blocking of images, videos, and voiceovers on social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and WhatsApp right after Kabila was to step down. Digital media was the central counter to government oversight and regulation seen in other telecommunication outlets. Media was used in lieu of radio broadcasting to avoid self-censorship, financial restraints that may affect networks, or news station shutdowns. Removing the intermediary for independent journalism and coverage prevented communication among those who wanted to organize and speak out against Kabila. Black-outs were utilized to prevent anticipated politically motivated violence. Additionally, the then Telecommunications Minister Thomas Luhaka was "not informed" of such interference by the government.
## Images
<File:1955> telecommunications map Atlas General du Congo 742
| 409 |
Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 2 |
8,028 |
# Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
`{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=March 2013}}
{{Tone|date=May 2025}}
}}`{=mediawiki}
Ground **transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo** has always been problematic. Despite other countries being able to conquer terrain and climate similar to that of the Congo Basin it is chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict that has led to serious under-investment over many years.
On the other hand, the DRC has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways. Historically water transport has been the dominant means of moving around a large part of the country.
## Transport problems {#transport_problems}
As an illustration of transport difficulties in the DRC, even before wars damaged the infrastructure, the so-called \"national\" route, used to get supplies to Bukavu from the seaport of Matadi, consisted of the following:
- Matadi to Kinshasa -- rail
- Kinshasa to Kisangani -- river boat
- Kisangani to Ubundu -- rail
- Ubundu to Kindu -- river boat
- Kindu to Kalemie -- rail
- Kalemie to Kalundu (the lake port at Uvira) -- boat on Lake Tanganyika
- Kalundu to Bukavu -- road
In other words, goods had to be loaded and unloaded eight times and the total journey would take many months. Many of the routes listed below are in poor condition and may be operating at only a fraction of their original capacity (if at all), despite recent attempts to make improvements. Up to 2006 the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) had an operation in Congo to support humanitarian relief agencies working there, and its bulletins and maps about the transport situation are archived on ReliefWeb.
The First and Second Congo Wars saw great destruction of transport infrastructure from which the country has not yet recovered. Many vehicles were destroyed or commandeered by militias, especially in the north and east of the country, and the fuel supply system was also badly affected. Consequently, outside of Kinshasa, Matadi and Lubumbashi, private and commercial road transport is almost non-existent and traffic is scarce even where roads are in good condition. The few vehicles in use outside these cities are run by the United Nations, aid agencies, the DRC government, and a few larger companies such as those in the mining and energy sectors. High-resolution satellite photos on the Internet show large cities such as Bukavu, Butembo and Kikwit virtually devoid of traffic, compared to similar photos of towns in neighbouring countries.
Air transport is the only effective means of moving between many places within the country. The Congolese government, the United Nations, aid organisations and large companies use air rather than ground transport to move personnel and freight. The UN operates a large fleet of aircraft and helicopters, and compared to other African countries the DRC has a large number of small domestic airlines and air charter companies. The transport (and smuggling) of minerals with a high value for weight is also carried out by air, and in the east, some stretches of paved road isolated by destroyed bridges or impassable sections have been turned into airstrips.
For the ordinary citizen though, especially in rural areas, often the only options are to cycle, walk or go by dugout canoe.
Some parts of the DRC are more accessible from neighbouring countries than from Kinshasa. For example, Bukavu itself and Goma and other north-eastern towns are linked by paved road from the DRC border to the Kenyan port of Mombasa, and most goods for these cities have been brought via this route in recent years. Similarly, Lubumbashi and the rest of Katanga Province is linked to Zambia, through which the paved highway and rail networks of Southern Africa can be accessed. Such links through neighbouring countries are generally more important for the east and south-east of the country, and are more heavily used, than surface links to the capital.
## Major infrastructure programs {#major_infrastructure_programs}
In 2007 China agreed to lend the DRC US\$5bn for two major transport infrastructure projects to link mineral-rich Katanga, specifically Lubumbashi, by rail to an ocean port (Matadi) and by road to the Kisangani river port, and to improve its links to the transport network of Southern Africa in Zambia. The two projects would also link the major parts of the country not served by water transport, and the main centres of the economy. Loan repayments will be from concessions for raw materials which China desperately needs: copper, cobalt, gold and nickel, as well as by toll revenues from the road and railway. In the face of reluctance by the international business community to invest in DRC, this represents a revitalisation of DRC\'s infrastructure much needed by its government.
The China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd were in charge of the contract, under signed by the China Railway Engineering Corporation, with construction to be started from June 2008.
| 803 |
Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 0 |
8,028 |
# Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
## Railways
Rail transport is provided in the Democratic Republic of the Congo by the *Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo* (SNCC), the Société commerciale des transports et des ports (SCTP) *(previously Office National des Transports* (ONATRA) until 2011), and the *Office des Chemins de fer des Ueles* (CFU).
The national system is mostly operated by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo, SNCC. Not all rail lines link up, but they are generally connected by river transport.
## Highways
The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa --- a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (e.g. Matadi to Lubumbashi, 2700 km by road). The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia and Botswana are 721 km and 3427 km respectively.
### Categories
The road network is theoretically divided into four categories (national roads, priority regional roads, secondary regional roads and local roads), however, the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) reports that this classification is of little practical use because some roads simply do not exist. For example, National Road 9 is not operational and cannot be detected by remote sensing methods.
The two principal highways are:
- National Road No. 1 connecting the Atlantic seaports with Kinshasa and southeast Katanga, the most important economic area of the country due to its copper and other mines.
- National Road No. 2, Mbuji-Mayi--Bukavu--Goma--Beni
- Note that the so-called Kinshasa Highway is not a physical road but a metaphor applied to the route by which AIDS is believed to have been spread east through Uganda and Kenya and neighbouring countries by truck drivers from the Congo. In the DR Congo the only highway which physically matches the route is National Road No. 2,`{{original research inline|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} and most passengers and freight moving between Kinshasa and that road go by boat along the Congo River.
### Inventory
The total road network in 2005, according to the UNJLC, consisted of:
- *paved:* 2,801 km
- *unpaved:* 15,000 km
- *tracks* 43,000 km
- *country roads* 21,000 km
- *local roads or footpaths* 90,000 km
- *total:* 171,250 km
The UNJLC also points out that the pre-Second Congo War network no longer exists, and is dependent upon 20,000 bridges and 325 ferries, most of which are in need of repair or replacement. In contrast, a Democratic Republic of the Congo government document shows that, also in 2005, the network of main highways in good condition was as follows:
- *paved: 1,226 km*
- *unpaved: 607 km*
The 2000 Michelin *Motoring and Tourist Map 955 of Southern and Central Africa*, which categorizes roads as \"surfaced\", \"improved\" (generally unsurfaced but with gravel added and graded), \"partially improved\" and \"earth roads\" and \"tracks\" shows that there were 2694 km of paved highway in 2000. These figures indicate that, compared to the more recent figures above, there has been a deterioration this decade, rather than improvement.
### International highways {#international_highways}
Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo:
- Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition.
- Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east--west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function.
- Beira-Lobito Highway: this east--west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border.
| 675 |
Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 1 |
8,028 |
# Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
## Waterways
The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa. Kinshasa, with 7 km of river frontage occupied by wharfs and jetties, is the largest inland waterways port on the continent. However, much of the infrastructure --- vessels and port handling facilities --- has, like the railways, suffered from poor maintenance and internal conflict.
The total length of waterways is estimated at 16,238 km including the Congo River, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes.
The 1000-kilometre Kinshasa-Kisangani route on the Congo River is the longest and best-known. It is operated by river tugs pushing several barges lashed together, and for the hundreds of passengers and traders these function like small floating towns. Rather than mooring at riverside communities along the route, traders come out by canoe and small boat alongside the river barges and transfer goods on the move.
Most waterway routes do not operate to regular schedules. It is common for an operator to moor a barge at a riverside town and collect freight and passengers over a period of weeks before hiring a river tug to tow or push the barge to its destination.
- [Description of Inland Waterways in the Congo from the UN Joint Logistics Centre](https://web.archive.org/web/20110809065420/http://www.logcluster.org/ops/sudan/DRC/rivers/unjlcarticle.2005-10-19.0866864829/view)
### International links via inland waterways {#international_links_via_inland_waterways}
- Kinshasa is linked to Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo) by regular boat and ferry services 3.5 km across the Congo River.
- Kinshasa and other river ports via the Ubangui River to Bangui (Central African Republic).
- Goma and Bukavu on Lake Kivu to Gisenyi, Kibuye and Cyangugu in Rwanda.
- Kalemie, Kulundu-Uvira and Moba on Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma (Tanzania), Bujumbura (Burundi) and Mpulungu (Zambia).
- Kasenga and Pweto on the Luapula River-Lake Mweru system to Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Kashiba in Zambia.
- Lake Albert: two small ports on the DRC side, Kisenye near Bunia and Mahadi-Port in the north can link to Ugandan ports at Butiaba and Pakwach (served by Uganda Railways) on the Albert Nile, which is navigable as far as Nimule in southern Sudan. Water transport is conducted principally in small craft, and commercial water transport is relatively absent.
- Lake Edward: located within national parks, settlements are small, water transport is conducted principally in small craft, commercial water transport is absent.
### Domestic links via inland waterways {#domestic_links_via_inland_waterways}
The middle Congo River and its tributaries from the east are the principal domestic waterways in the DRC. The two principal river routes are:
- Kinshasa to Mbandaka and Kisangani on the River Congo
- Kinshasa to Ilebo on the Kasai River
See the diagrammatic transport map above for other river waterways.
The most-used domestic lake waterways are:
- Kalemie to Kalundu-Uvira on Lake Tanganyika
- Bukavu to Goma on Lake Kivu
- Fimi River to Inongo on Lake Mai-Ndombe
- Irebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake Tumba
- Kasenga to Pweto on the Luapula-Mweru system
- Kisenye to Mahadi-Port on Lake Albert.
Most large Congo river ferry boats were destroyed during the civil war. Only smaller boats are running and they are irregular.
### Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
#### Atlantic Ocean {#atlantic_ocean}
- Matadi - largest port, and railhead for portage railway to Kinshasa - draft: 6.4 m
- Banana - oil terminal for pipeline to Kinshasa
- Boma - second-largest port
#### Inland river ports {#inland_river_ports}
- Bumba
- Ilebo - railhead
- Kindu - railhead
- Kinshasa - railhead
- Kisangani - railhead
- Mbandaka
- N\'dangi - former military harbor
#### Lake Tanganyika {#lake_tanganyika}
- Kalemie - railhead
- Kalundu-Uvira
- Moba
#### Lake Kivu {#lake_kivu}
- Bukavu
- Idjwi
- Goma
| 621 |
Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 2 |
8,028 |
# Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
## Pipelines
petroleum products 390 km
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
1 petroleum tanker
## Airports
Due to the lack of roads, operating railroads and ferry transportation many people traveling around the country fly on aircraft. As of 2016 the country does not have an international passenger airline and relies on foreign-based airlines for international connections. Congo Airways provides domestic flights and are based at Kinshasa\'s N\'djili Airport which serves as the country\'s main international airport. Lubumbashi International Airport in the country\'s south-east is also serviced by several international airlines.
### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
\
*total:* 24\
*over 3,047 m:* 4\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 2\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 16\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 2 (2002 est.)
### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
\
*total:* 205\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 19\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 95\
*under 914 m:* 91 (2002 est.)
## Transport safety and incidents {#transport_safety_and_incidents}
All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from operating at airports in the European Community by the European Commission because of inadequate safety standards.
### 2010
- Kasai River disaster. A passenger ferry capsized on the Kasai River in July with at least 80 dead.
### 2008 {#section_1}
- 2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash - April 15 plane crash killed at least 18 people after taking off from the Goma International Airport, tearing the roofs off houses as it plowed through a densely populated marketplace near the runway.
### 2007 {#section_2}
- August 1 train derailment killed 100, many riding on roof
| 270 |
Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
| 3 |
8,032 |
# Geography of Denmark
Denmark is a Nordic country located in Northern Europe. It consists of the Jutland Peninsula and several islands in the Baltic Sea, referred to as the Danish Archipelago. Denmark is located southwest of Sweden and due south of Norway and is bordered by the German state (and former possession) Schleswig-Holstein to the south, with a 68-kilometre (42-mile) long land border.
Denmark borders both the Baltic and North seas along its 8,750 km tidal shoreline. Denmark\'s general coastline is much shorter, at 1,701 km, as it would not include most of the 1,419 offshore islands (each defined as exceeding 100 m2 in area) and the 180 km Limfjorden, which separates Denmark\'s second largest island, North Jutlandic Island, 4,686 km2 in size, from the rest of Jutland. No location in Denmark is further from the coast than 52 km. The land area of Denmark is estimated to be 43094 km2. However, it cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and there are human land reclamation projects. On the southwest coast of Jutland, the tide is between 1 and, and the tideline moves outward and inward on a 10 km stretch. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 607 km2 of tidal flats in Denmark, making it the 42nd ranked country in terms of tidal flat extent. Denmark has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 105,989 km2. When including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, the EEZ is the 15th largest in the world with 2,220,093 km2.
A circle enclosing the same total area as Denmark would have a diameter of 234 km (146 miles). Denmark has 443 named islands (1,419 islands above 100 m2), of which 72 are inhabited (`{{as of|2007|01|01|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki}, Statistics Denmark). The largest islands are Zealand *(Sjælland)* and Funen *(Fyn)*. The island of Bornholm is located east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; the Øresund Bridge connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Bridge connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands. Main cities are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Århus, Aalborg and Esbjerg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen.
Denmark experiences a temperate climate, with mild, windy winters and cool summers. The local terrain is generally flat with a few gently rolling plains. The territory of Denmark includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Its position gives Denmark complete control of the Danish straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking the Baltic and North Seas. The country\'s natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel, and sand.
| 465 |
Geography of Denmark
| 0 |
8,032 |
# Geography of Denmark
## Environment
### Climate
<File:Climate> chart of Copenhagen.svg\|Climate chart of Copenhagen. <File:Koppen-Geiger> Map DNK present.svg\|Climate of Denmark according to the Köppen climate classification.
### Land use {#land_use}
: **Arable land:** 55.99% **Permanent crops:** 0.14% **Other:** 42.87% (2012)
**Irrigated land:** 4,354 km2 (2007)
**Total renewable water resources:** 6 km3 (2011) **Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):**\
*total:* 0.66 km3/year (58%/5%/36%)\
*per capita:* 118.4 m3/yr (2009)
### Land reclamation {#land_reclamation}
In 2019, the government proposed building 9 new artificial islands, named project Holmene, which would create 3 km2 of reclaimed land, to be built from 2022 to 2040.
In June 2021, lawmakers approved the construction of a 3 km2 island, named Lynetteholm, in the Copenhagen Harbor. A spokesperson for the Climate Movement in Denmark ([Klimabevægelsen i Danmark](https://www.klimabevaegelsen.dk/)) said the organization would sue the government over environmental concerns.`{{Update needed|date=July 2024|reason=What has happened since 2021?}}`{=mediawiki}
### Agriculture
Denmark has plenty of rain, flat landscape, and moderate climate. With 55.99% of its land considered as arable, Denmark has model characteristics for agriculture. 61% of the country\'s total area is cultivated Farms in Denmark are remarkably large, averaging 172.9 acre per farm. Additionally, homesteads exceeding 247 acre make up more than 20% in Denmark. Many of these large farms harvest fruits and vegetables, the leading exports from Denmark are meat, fur, and dairy products. The animal\'s diets in Denmark consist of mainly cereals since they are the dominant field crop. 75% of all cereal produced in Denmark is feed to the four most produced animals which are pigs, cattle, chicken and mink. Denmark overproduces about 66% of food production compared to their own population size (5.7 million) being that they are able to feed 15 million people. This is a byproduct of being highly productive within the Danish agricultural production.
In 1961, Denmark\'s Agricultural land represented 74.5% of land area. Fifty-six years later to 2015, Denmark has decreased its amount of Agricultural land down to 62.1% then to 61% one year later in reference to \"Facts and Figures - Danish Agriculture and Food\" The decrease in agricultural land comes as farmers are being well educated and the intensive amount of research and development is being implemented. It begins with advancements in agro-technology. The results have improved fertilization and nutrient use on arable land. Digestibility and nutrient uptake are developing from the improvements of new methods that are being implemented. Examples of these new methods are the addition of enzymes and microbial cultures.
### Natural hazards {#natural_hazards}
:\*Flooding is a threat in some areas of the country
### Current issues {#current_issues}
:\*Air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions
:\*Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea
:\*Drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides. Drinking water is very safe to drink, even though Denmark, unlike most countries, has almost no cleaning of drinking water
### International agreements {#international_agreements}
:\* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides,\
Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
:\* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
## Transnational issues {#transnational_issues}
### Maritime claims {#maritime_claims}
:\***Contiguous zone:** 24 nmi
:\***Continental shelf:** 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
:\***Exclusive economic zone:** 105,989 km2 (excludes Greenland and Faroe Islands). 200 nmi
:\***Territorial sea:** 12 nmi
### Other issues {#other_issues}
:\*Iceland disputes the Faroe Islands\' fisheries median line.
:\*Iceland, Ireland and the United Kingdom dispute Denmark\'s claim that the Faroe Islands\' continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles or about 370 km.
:\*The Faroe Islands continue to study proposals for full independence.
:\*Denmark is currently investigating the extent of the continental shelf of Greenland, in the hope that Greenland\'s Exclusive Economic Zone can be expanded. One of the areas investigated is the geographical North Pole.
| 664 |
Geography of Denmark
| 1 |
8,032 |
# Geography of Denmark
## Population
### Urban population {#urban_population}
- Denmark\'s urban population accounts for 87.9% of its total population, with a 0.51% rate of change in urbanization. Copenhagen remains the largest city in Denmark with a population of 1.2 million people and a metro population of 1.99 million. Copenhagen became Denmark\'s capital in 1443 and now currently sits with a population density of 6,800 /km2.
- About a quarter of Danes live in the capital Copenhagen
| 78 |
Geography of Denmark
| 2 |
8,037 |
# Transport in Denmark
**Transport in Denmark** is developed and modern.`{{clarify|date=November 2017}}`{=mediawiki} The motorway network covers 1,111 km while the railway network totals 2,667 km of operational track. The Great Belt Fixed Link (opened in 1997) connecting the islands of Zealand and Funen and the New Little Belt Bridge (opened in 1970) connecting Funen and Jutland greatly improved the traffic flow across the country on both motorways and rail. The two largest airports of Copenhagen and Billund provide a variety of domestic and international connections, while ferries provide services to the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Germany, Sweden, and Norway, as well as domestic routes servicing most Danish islands.
## Air
In 2011, a total of appr. 28 million passengers used Danish airports.
Copenhagen Airport is the largest airport in Scandinavia, handling approximately 29m passengers per year (2016). It is located at Kastrup, 8 km south-east of central Copenhagen. It is connected by train to Copenhagen Central Station and beyond as well as to Malmö and other towns in Sweden.
For the west of the country, the major airport is Billund (3m passengers in 2016) although both Aalborg (1.4m passengers in 2011) and Aarhus (591.000 passengers in 2011) have smaller airports with regular connections to Copenhagen.
### List of airports {#list_of_airports}
Denmark\'s main airports are:
- Copenhagen Airport (CPH), Scandinavia\'s busiest passenger airport located at Kastrup to the south-east of Copenhagen city and handling over 29 million passengers a year.
- Billund Airport (BLL), in central Jutland, one of Denmark\'s busiest cargo centres as well as a popular charter airline destination and an airport for regular flights serving 3 million passengers a year, mainly from the western part of the country.
- Aalborg Airport (AAL), located 5 km northwest of Aalborg, is Denmark\'s third busiest airport serving around 1,4 million passengers a year in connections with 25 European destinations and one of Europes busiest domestic lines to Copenhagen.
- Aarhus Airport (AAR), located 39 km northeast of Århus, serves some 540,000 passengers a year.
Other airports include:
- Karup Airport (KRP) near Viborg in the west of Jutland, mainly serving Copenhagen with some 200,000 passengers a year.
- Bornholm Airport (RNN) 5 km from the centre of Rønne in the southwest of the island of Bornholm, with several regular flights to Copenhagen a day.
- Esbjerg Airport (EBJ), a small airport in the west of Jutland with regular flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger (although primarily serving North Sea Oilrigs).
- Sønderborg Airport (SGD), in the very south of Jutland with connections to Copenhagen.
- Roskilde Airport (RKE), 7 km southeast of Roskilde and some 38 km southwest of Copenhagen, serves mainly airtaxi and private business traffic.
| 445 |
Transport in Denmark
| 0 |
8,037 |
# Transport in Denmark
## Sea
Being an island state with a long coastline and always close to the sea, maritime transport has always been important in Denmark. From the primitive dugouts of the Stone Age to the complex designs of the Viking ships in the Viking Age, often built to exactly facilitate large scale cargo and passenger transportation. Denmark also engaged in the large scale cargo freights and slave transports of the European colonization endeavours in the Middle Ages and operated several smaller colonies of its own across the globe by the means of seafaring.
Today Denmark\'s ports handle some 48 million passengers and 109 million tonnes of cargo per year.
### Passenger traffic {#passenger_traffic}
Passenger traffic is made up partly of ferry crossings within Denmark, partly of international ferry crossings and partly of cruise ship passengers. Some short ferry routes are being electrified and several more may be eligible, as in Norway. `{{location map many|Denmark|width=300
| label1 = [[Helsingør]] | coordinates1 = {{coord|56.036111|12.608333}}
| label2 = [[Rødbyhavn]] | coordinates2 = {{coord|54.65|11.35}} | position2 = left
| label3 = [[Frederikshavn]] | coordinates3 = {{coord|57.441|10.534}} | position3 = top
| label4 = {{lower|0.5em|{{nowrap|[[Sjællands Odde]]}}}} | coordinates4 = {{coord|55.95|11.466667}}|position4=left
| label5 = [[Esbjerg]] | coordinates5 = {{coord|55.483333|8.45}} | position5 = bottom
| label6 = [[Gedser]] | coordinates6 = {{coord|54.583333|11.933333}}
| label7 = [[Aarhus]] | coordinates7 = {{coord|56.1572|10.2107}}|position7=left
| label8 = [[Rønne]] | coordinates8 = {{coord|55.098611|14.701389}}
| label9 = [[Ebeltoft]] | coordinates9 = {{coord|56.193611|10.678056}}|position9 = top
| label10= [[Port of Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] | coordinates10 = {{coord|55.6718|12.5817}}
| caption = Map of Denmark showing the locations of the major ports
}}`{=mediawiki} Among the most important ports for passenger traffic (thousands of passengers per year in 2007) are:
- Helsingør 10,967
- Rødbyhavn 7,058
- Frederikshavn 2,894
- Sjællands Odde 2,233
- Esbjerg 1,827
- Gedser 1,612
- Aarhus 1,583
- Rønne 1,522
- Ebeltoft 962
- Copenhagen 872
In 2007, 288 cruise ships visited Copenhagen, rising to 376 in 2011 before returning to around 300 the following years. Around 800,000 cruise passengers and 200,000 crew visit Copenhagen each year.
### Cargo traffic {#cargo_traffic}
Among the most important ports for cargo traffic (millions of tonnes per year in 2007) are:
- Fredericia 15,327
- Aarhus 12,189
- Copenhagen 7,379
- Helsingør 4,480
- Esbjerg 4,476
- Kalundborg 3,714
- Frederikshavn 3,200
- Aalborg Portland 2,999
- Aalborg 2,749
- Odense 2,616
### Waterways
Waterways have historically and traditionally been crucial to local transportation in Denmark proper. Especially the Gudenå river-system in central Jutland, has played an important role. The waterways were navigated by wooden barges and later on steamboats. A few historical steamboats are still in operation, like the SS Hjejlen from 1861 at Silkeborg.
There is a 160 km natural canal through the shallow Limfjorden in northern Jutland, linking the North Sea to the Kattegat.
Many waterways has formerly been redirected and led through manmade canals in the 1900s, but mainly for agricultural purposes and not to facilitate transportation on any major scale. Several cities have manmade canals used for transportation and traffic purposes. Of special mention are the canals of Copenhagen and the Odense Canal, ferrying large numbers of both tourists and local citizens.
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
{{ external media \|float=right \| image1 =[Traffic and protected areas around Denmark](http://ing.dk/sites/ing/files/nordsoeen.png) }} Denmark has a large merchant fleet relative to its size. In 2018, the fleet surpassed 20 million gt as the government sought to repatriate Danish-owned tonnage registered abroad, with measures including removal of the registration fee.
Denmark has created its own international register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS), open to commercial vessels only. DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations.
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in Denmark* The largest railway operator in Denmark is Danske Statsbaner (DSB) --- Danish State Railways. Arriva operates some routes in Jutland, and several other smaller operators provide local services.
The total length of operational track is 3,476 km standard gauge, with 1,756 km electrified.
The railway system is connected to Sweden by bridge in Copenhagen and ferry in Helsingør and Frederikshavn, by land to Germany in Padborg and ferry in Rødby and to Norway by ferry in Hirtshals.
| 698 |
Transport in Denmark
| 1 |
8,037 |
# Transport in Denmark
## Roads
The road network in 2017 totalled 74,558 km of paved road. Motorways are toll-free except for the Great Belt Bridge joining Zealand and Funen and the Øresund Bridge linking Copenhagen to Malmö in Sweden.
Motorway map Denmark.svg\|Motorways in Denmark.
## Cycling
Bicycling in Denmark is a common and popular utilitarian and recreational activity. Bicycling infrastructure is a dominant feature of both city and countryside infrastructure, with bicycle paths and bicycle ways in many places and an extensive network of bicycle routes, extending more than 12000 km nationwide. In comparison, Denmark\'s coastline is 7314 km. As a unique feature, Denmark has a VIN-system for bicycles which is mandatory by law. Often bicycling and bicycle culture in Denmark is compared to the Netherlands as a bicycle-nation.
Bikecultureincopenhagen.jpg\|Bicycle rush hour in Copenhagen. Cycle counter.jpg\|Heavily trafficked roads in the inner cities, often have cycle lanes. Frederiksgade (Aarhus).JPG\|A bike road in central Aarhus. Egådalen.jpg\|A cross country bikeway route
| 159 |
Transport in Denmark
| 2 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by Somalia to the east, Eritrea to west and the Red Sea to the north, Ethiopia to the west and south, and the Gulf of Aden to the east.
In antiquity, the territory was part of the Land of Punt. Djibouti gained its independence on June 27, 1977. The Djibouti area, along with other localities in the Horn region, was later the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established following treaties signed by the ruling Somali and Afar Sultans with the French. It was subsequently renamed to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence, officially marking the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti.
## Prehistory
The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered a primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South Arabia and Southeast Asia.
Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family\'s proposed urheimat (\"original homeland\") in the Nile Valley, or the Near East. Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.
The cut stones 3 million years old, collected in the area of Lake Abbe. In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of an Palaeoloxodon recki elephant were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BC. Subsequently identified other sites of these cuts, probably the work of Homo ergaster. An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BC), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada, 15 km south of Djibouti. Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BC. AD On Devil\'s Island, tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were no doubt used to open shells. In the area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil\'s Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to \~250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain. The site\'s ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma\'layba in Southern Arabia. Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho. Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BP, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle.
The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region, which was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma. The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region.
Up to 4000 years BC. AD, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate. The water resources were numerous: lakes in the Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region was populated by a very rich fauna: felines, buffaloes, elephants, rhinos, etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho. In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. A few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed. About 1500 BC. AD, the climate is already changing, water is scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. Sedentary peoples return to Nomadic life. A stone tumuli (of various shapes), sheltering graves and dating from this period, have been unearthed all over the territory.
## Antiquity
Together with Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as *Punt* (or \"Ta Netjeru\", meaning \"God\'s Land\"). The old territory\'s first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty and Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty. They \"traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins.\" According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt at the time of Hatshepsut was ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati.
| 966 |
History of Djibouti
| 0 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
## Macrobians
The Macrobians (Μακροβίοι) were a legendary people and kingdom positioned in the Horn of Africa mentioned by Herodotus. Later authors (such as Pliny on the authority of Ctesias\' *Indika*) place them in India instead. It is one of the legendary peoples postulated at the extremity of the known world (from the perspective of the Greeks), in this case in the extreme south, contrasting with the Hyperboreans in the extreme east.
Their name is due to their legendary longevity; an average person supposedly living to the age of 120. They were said to be the \"tallest and handsomest of all men\". Historical accounts of the Macrobians also have much in common with the pastoral Somali figures who are similarly known to be tall, handsome warriors, that sustained themselves with a diet mainly composed of meat and milk. In addition, Somalis have a rich maritime culture that dates back centuries. This perspective that places the Macrobians in Somali territory was suggested by the German historian Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren in the 1800s, and later affirmed by Indian scholar, Mamta Agarwal, who wrote \"these people were none other than the inhabitants of Somalia, opposite the Red Sea.\"
According to Herodotus\' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II upon his conquest of Egypt (525 BC) sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based at least in part on stature, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in the form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to string it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire.
## Kingdom of Aksum {#kingdom_of_aksum}
The rule of the Aksumite Kingdom may have at times extended to areas that are now within Djibouti, though the nature and extent of its control are not clear.
## Ifat Sultanate {#ifat_sultanate}
The Ifat Sultanate was a medieval kingdom in the Horn of Africa. Founded in 1285 by the Walashma dynasty, it was centered in Zeila. Ifat established bases in Djibouti and Somaliland, and from there expanded southward to the Ahmar Mountains. Its Sultan Umar Walashma (or his son Ali, according to another source) is recorded as having conquered the Sultanate of Shewa in 1285. Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Umar\'s military expedition as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn, in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to unite the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. These two states inevitably came into conflict over Shewa and territories further south. A lengthy war ensued, but the Muslim sultanates of the time were not strongly unified. Ifat was finally defeated by Emperor Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia in 1332, and withdrew from Shewa.
## Adal Sultanate {#adal_sultanate}
Islam was introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila\'s two-mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in the city. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Horn seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila, a port city in the northwestern Awdal region abutting Djibouti. This suggests that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal\'s history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia. At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Djibouti, Somaliland, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae. The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol. Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs. As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area.
## Egypt Eyalet {#egypt_eyalet}
Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila. The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction. On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L'Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura. Emperor Johannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with the United Kingdom to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and the Somali Coast ports. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night.
| 851 |
History of Djibouti
| 1 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
## French Somaliland {#french_somaliland}
The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti nation state were established during the Scramble for Africa. It was Rochet d\'Hericourt\'s exploration into Shoa (1839--42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the Djiboutian coast of the Red Sea. Further exploration by Henri Lambert, French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain Fleuriot de Langle led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of Raheita, Tadjoura, and Gobaad, from whom the French purchased the anchorage of Obock in 1862.
Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. Between 1883 and 1887, France signed various treaties with the then ruling Somali and Afar Sultans, which allowed it to expand the protectorate to include the Gulf of Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde was subsequently installed as the protectorate\'s governor. In 1894, he established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region *Côte française des Somalis* (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967. The territory\'s border with Ethiopia, marked out in 1897 by France and Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, was later reaffirmed by agreements with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1945 and 1954.
In 1889, a Russian by the name of Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov (b. 1856), arrived with settlers, infantry and an Orthodox priest to Sagallo on the Gulf of Tadjoura. The French considered the presence of the Russians as a violation of their territorial rights and dispatched two gunboats. The Russians were bombarded and after some loss of life, surrendered. The colonists were deported to Odessa and the dream of Russian expansion in East Africa came to an end in less than one year.
The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896. The city of Djibouti, which had a harbor with good access that attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa, became the new administrative capital. The Franco-Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, began in 1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port.
### World War II {#world_war_ii}
After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa. In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II, France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro-Axis Vichy (French) government while the Italians occupied some areas of the French Somaliland.
Indeed, the Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June 1940, occupying nearly one third of French Somaliland in a few days. From Harrar Governorate, troops under General Guglielmo Nasi attacked the fort of Ali-Sabieh in the south and Dadda\'to in the north. There were also skirmishes in the area of Dagguirou and around the lakes Abbe and Ally. Near Ali-Sabieh, there was some skirmishing over the Djibouti--Addis Ababa railway. In the first week of war, the Italian Navy sent the submarines *Torricelli* and *Perla* to patrol French territorial waters in the Gulf of Tadjoura in front of the ports of Djibouti, Tadjoura and Obock.
By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of Magdoul, Daimoli, Balambolta, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba, Alailou, Madda and Rahale.
Later, British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign. In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied the city. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944.
| 655 |
History of Djibouti
| 2 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
## French Somaliland {#french_somaliland}
### Referendums
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia\'s independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to be an independent country or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There were also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi died in a plane crash two years later under mysterious circumstances.
In 1960, with the fall of the ruling Dini administration, Ali Aref Bourhan, a Harbist politician, assumed the seat of Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland, representing the UNI party. He would hold that position until 1966.
That same year, France rejected the United Nations\' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August, an official visit to the territory by then French President, General Charles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting. In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum.
On 19 March 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual reunion with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France. However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities, with some 10,000 Somalis deported under the pretext that they did not have valid identity cards. According to official figures, although the territory was at the time inhabited by 58,240 Somali and 48,270 Afar, only 14,689 Somali were allowed to register to vote versus 22,004 Afar. Somali representatives also charged that the French had simultaneously imported thousands of Afar nomads from neighboring Ethiopia to further tip the odds in their favor, but the French authorities denied this, suggesting that Afars already greatly outnumbered Somalis on the voting lists. Announcement of the plebiscite results sparked civil unrest, including several deaths. France also increased its military force along the frontier.
| 407 |
History of Djibouti
| 3 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
## French Territory of the Afars and Issas {#french_territory_of_the_afars_and_issas}
In 1967, shortly after the second referendum was held, the former *Côte française des Somalis* (French Somaliland) was renamed to *Territoire français des Afars et des Issas*. This was both in acknowledgement of the large Afar constituency and to downplay the significance of the Somali composition (the Issa being a Somali sub-clan). The French Territory of Afars and Issas also differed from French Somaliland in terms of government structure, as the position of governor changed to that of high commissioner. A nine-member council of government was also implemented. During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by the Front for the Liberation of the Somali Coast (FLCS), who waged an armed struggle for independence with much of its violence aimed at French personnel. FLCS used to initiate few mounting cross-border operations into French Somaliland from Somalia and Ethiopia to attacks on French targets. On 24 March 1975 the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis kidnapped the French Ambassador to Somalia, Jean Guery, to be exchanged against two activists of FLCS members who were both serving life terms in mainland France. He was exchanged for the two FLCS members in Aden, South Yemen. With a steadily enlarging Somali population, the likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful had grown even more dim. The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony and the fact that after 1975, France found itself to be the last remaining colonial power in Africa was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory.
In 1976, the French garrison, centered on the 13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13 DBLE), had to be reinforced to contain Somali irredentist aspirations, revolting against the French-engineered Afar domination of the emerging government. In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti\'s independence from France, also clashed with the Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada.
The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between the request of integration in a possible \"Greater Somalia\" influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People\'s League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala, Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia.
A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967, which rejected independence. This referendum backed independence from France. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti\'s independence.
After independence the new government signed an agreement calling for a strong French garrison, though the 13 DBLE was envisaged to be withdrawn. While the unit was reduced in size, a full withdrawal never actually took place.
| 508 |
History of Djibouti
| 4 |
8,041 |
# History of Djibouti
## Djibouti Republic {#djibouti_republic}
In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) (People\'s Rally for Progress), was the sole legal one. Clayton writes that the French garrison played the major role in suppressing further minor unrest about this time, during which Djibouti became a one-party state on a much broader ethnic and political basis.
A civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP.
Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997. His successor was his nephew, Ismail Omar Guelleh.
On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD, led by Ahmed Dini Ahmed, an Afar nationalist and former Gouled political ally. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD.
In the presidential election held 8 April 2005, Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties. A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided. However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party. That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars. In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan. The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation. In the 2008 elections, the opposition Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) party boycotted the election, leaving all 65 seats to the ruling RPP. Voter turnout figures were disputed. Guelleh was re-elected in the 2011 presidential election.
Due to its strategic location at the mouth of the Bab el Mandeb gateway to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, Djibouti also hosts various foreign military bases. Camp Lemonnier is a United States Naval Expeditionary Base, situated at Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport and home to the Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) of the U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM). In 2011, Japan also opened a local naval base staffed by 180 personnel to assist in marine defense. This initiative is expected to generate \$30 million in revenue for the Djiboutian government.
In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term
| 527 |
History of Djibouti
| 5 |
8,042 |
# Geography of Djibouti
**Djibouti** is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Rainfall is sparse, and most of the territory has a semi-arid to arid environment. Lake Assal is a saline lake which lies 155 m below sea level, making it the lowest point on land in Africa and the third-lowest point on Earth after the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. Djibouti has the fifth smallest population in Africa. Djibouti\'s major settlements include the capital Djibouti City, the port towns of Tadjoura and Obock, and the southern cities of Ali Sabieh and Dikhil. It is the forty-sixth country by area in Africa and 147st largest country in the world by land area, covering a total of 23,200 km2, of which 23,180 km2 is land and 20 km2 is water.
## Location
Djibouti shares 125 km of border with Eritrea, 390 km with Ethiopia, and 60 km with Somalia (total 575 km). It has a strategic location on the Horn of Africa and the Bab el Mandeb, along a route through the Red Sea and Suez Canal. Djibouti\'s coastline serves as a commercial gateway between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn region\'s interior. The country is also the terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia.
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
Djibouti can be divided into three physiographic regions
1. The Northern Mountains
2. Grand Bara
3. The Southern Mountains
### Mountains
A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Mousa Ali, Goda Mountains, and Arrei Mountains surrounds Djibouti.
Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over 1,000 m.
- The Mousa Ali range is considered the country\'s highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has an elevation of 2,063 m.
- The Goda Mountains lie northwest of the Gulf of Tadjoura in Tadjoura Region. They rise to 1,783 m above sea level and are the nation\'s largest heavily vegetated area.
- Garbi is a mountain in the west of Tadjourah Region. It has an elevation of 1,680 m.
- The Mabla Mountains are located in Obock Region. At 1,780 m above sea level, the mountains are situated behind the coastal plain where the Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden, on the northern side of the Gulf of Tadjoura.
- The Arrei Mountains are in the southern Ali Sabieh Region. The mountain range has an elevation of 1,301 m above sea level, and is situated near the border with Ethiopia.
- The Dagouein Mountain sit at an elevation of 1,124 m above sea level.
- Hemed is a mountain in the western part of the Arta Region in south-central Djibouti. The summit is 1,103 m above sea level.
- The Boura Mountains\' highest peak has an elevation of 1,003 m. The ecology of this landform is semi-desert. The altitude and size of the range affects its weather, with precipitation levels varying greatly and climatic conditions consisting of distinct zones.
### Grand Bara {#grand_bara}
The Grand Bara Desert covers parts of southern Djibouti in the Arta Region, Ali Sabieh Region and Dikhil Region. The majority of the Grand Bara Desert lies at a relatively low elevation, below 1,700 ft. Home of the popular Grand Bara footrace.
### Coasts
Most of Djibouti has been described as part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion. The exception is a strip along the Red Sea coast, which is part of the Eritrean coastal desert; it is noted as an important migration route for birds of prey.
## Regions
The area of the regions of Djibouti is set out in the table below.
Rank Name Area
------ ------------------- -------------
1 Dikhil Region 7,200 km^2^
2 Tadjourah Region 7,100 km^2^
3 Obock Region 4,700 km^2^
4 Ali Sabieh Region 2,200 km^2^
5 Arta Region 1,800 km^2^
6 Djibouti Region 200 km^2^
| 669 |
Geography of Djibouti
| 0 |
8,042 |
# Geography of Djibouti
## Climate
There is not much seasonal variation in Djibouti\'s climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with winter rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 32 to, except at high elevations. In Djibouti City, for instance, afternoon highs in April typically range from 28 to in April. Nationally, mean daily minima generally vary between sites from about 15 to. The greatest range in climate occurs in eastern Djibouti, where temperatures sometimes surpass 41 °C in July on the littoral plains and fall below freezing point during December in the highlands. In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season. Djibouti has 988,000 people living there. Djibouti has either a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh*) or a hot desert climate (*BWh*), although temperatures are much moderated at the high elevations. On the coastal seaboard, annual rainfall is less than 5 in; in the highlands, it is about 8 to. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically hot and dry. The climate conditions are highly variable within the country and vary locally by altitude. Summers are very humid along the coast but dry in the highlands. Heat waves are frequent. Annual precipitation amounts vary greatly from one year to another. In general, rain falls more frequently and extensively in the mountains. Sudden and brutal storms are also known to occur. Wadis turn for a few hours into raging torrents tearing everything in their path, and their course is regularized`{{clarify|date=September 2013}}`{=mediawiki}. Rainwater serves as an additional water supply for livestock and plants alongside seasonal watercourses. The highlands have temperate climate throughout the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid.
The climate of the interior shows notable differences from the coastline. Especially in the mornings, the temperature is pleasant: it is so in Arta, Randa and Day (where temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius have been recorded).
### Climate charts of different locations in Djibouti {#climate_charts_of_different_locations_in_djibouti}
Graphically the seasons can be represented this way:
Month Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
------------- -------------------- ----- ----- ----- -------------- ------------------ ----- ----- ----- -------------------- ---------- -----
Season **Winter\|Jilaal** **Summer/Hagaa** **Winter\|Jilaal**
Temperature **Cool** **Very Hot** **Cool**
## Selected elevations of notable locations {#selected_elevations_of_notable_locations}
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Location | Region | Elevation\ | Elevation\ |
| | | (feet) | (metres) |
+===================+============+============+============+
| Mousa Ali | Tadjourah | 6,631 ft | 2,028 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Goda Mountains | Tadjourah | 5,840 ft | 1,780 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Garbi | Tadjourah | 5,512 ft | 1,680 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Yaguer | Dikhil | 4,524 ft | 1,379 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Mabla Mountains | Obock | 4,511 ft | 1,375 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Arrei Mountains | Ali Sabieh | 4,268 ft | 1,301 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Dagouein Mountain | Ali Sabieh | 3,688 ft | 1,124 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Hemed | Arta | 3,619 ft | 1,103 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Boura Mountains | Ali Sabieh | 3,291 ft | 1,003 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Arta Mountains | Arta | 2,477 ft | 755 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Lake Assal | Tadjourah | -- 509 ft | -- 155 m |
+-------------------+------------+------------+------------+
Lake Assal is the lowest point in Africa.
## Environment
Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains, and flash floods. Natural resources include geothermal energy. Inadequate supplies of potable water, limited arable land and desertification are current issues.
Djibouti is a party to international agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands.
| 625 |
Geography of Djibouti
| 1 |
8,042 |
# Geography of Djibouti
## Coastline
Djibouti has a coastline which measures about 314 km. Much of the coastline is accessible and quite varied in geography and habitats.
### Inlets
- Gulf of Tadjoura
- Ghoubbet-el-Kharab
### Maritime claims {#maritime_claims}
- *Territorial sea:* 12 nmi
- *Contiguous zone:* 24 nmi
- *Exclusive economic zone:* 200 nmi
## Human geography {#human_geography}
The population of Djibouti in 2015 was 846,000.
For statistical purposes, the country has three areas; Djibouti City (population 529,000), Ali Sabieh (population 55,000), and Dikhil (population 54,000). Djibouti\'s population is diverse demographically; 60% Somali, 35% Afar, and 3% Arabs. In terms of religion, 94% Muslim, 6% Christian.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Djibouti, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
| 136 |
Geography of Djibouti
| 2 |
8,044 |
# Politics of Djibouti
**Politics of Djibouti** takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and the National Assembly. The party system and legislature are dominated by the socialist People\'s Rally for Progress. In April 2010, a new constitutional amendment was approved. The President serves as both the head of state and head of government, and is directly elected for single six-year term. Government is headed by the President, who appoints the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers on the proposal of the latter. There is also a 65-member chamber of deputies, where representatives are popularly elected for terms of five years. Administratively, the country is divided into five regions and one city, with eleven additional sub-prefecture subdivisions. Djibouti is also part of various international organisations, including the United Nations and Arab League.
## History
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia\'s independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined \"yes\" vote by the sizeable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who had voted \"no\" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. In 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France. However, the referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the referendum was held, the former *Côte française des Somalis* (French Somaliland) was renamed to *Territoire français des Afars et des Issas*.
In 1977, a third referendum took place. A landslide 98.8% of the electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti\'s independence.
Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a \"yes\" vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation\'s first president (1977--1999). He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections. The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992. Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect. In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified. They are the *Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres* (People\'s Rally for Progress) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the *Parti du Renouveau Démocratique* (The Party for Democratic Renewal) (PRD), and the *Parti National Démocratique* (National Democratic Party) (PND). Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud. The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate.
In 1999, President Aptidon\'s chief of staff, head of security, and key adviser for over 20 years, Ismail Omar Guelleh was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate. He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate Moussa Ahmed Idriss, of the Unified Djiboutian Opposition (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election \"irregularities\" and the assertion that \"foreigners\" had voted in various sub-prefectures of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognised section of the Afar-led FRUD. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali Issa president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars.
The government is dominated by the Somali Issa Mamasen, who enjoy the support of the Somali clans, especially the Isaaq (the clan of the current president\'s wife) and the Gadabuursi Dir (who are the second most prominent Somali clan in Djibouti politics). In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were subsequently made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The treaty successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris, with Ahmed Dini Ahmed representing the FRUD.
On 8 April 2005, President Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after a one-man election. He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout.
In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. Guelleh was re-elected to a third term later that year, with 80.63% of the vote in a 75% turnout. Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office, international observers generally described the election as free and fair.
On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime Minister Dilleita Mohamed Dilleita with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed.
In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh, the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977, was re-elected for his fifth term.
## Head of state and government {#head_of_state_and_government}
\|President \|Ismail Omar Guelleh \|RPP \|8 May 1999 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed \|RPP \|1 April 2013 \|}
The President is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, and the Council of Ministers is solely responsible to the President, as specified in Articles 21 and 23 of the Constitution of Djibouti.
| 1,194 |
Politics of Djibouti
| 0 |
8,044 |
# Politics of Djibouti
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2016 Djiboutian presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
{{#section-h:2018 Djiboutian parliamentary election\|Results}}
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Djibouti is sectioned into five administrative regions and one city:
Ali Sabieh Region, Arta Region, Dikhil Region, Djibouti Region, Obock Region and Tadjourah Region.
The country is further sub-divided into eleven sub-prefectures
| 62 |
Politics of Djibouti
| 1 |
8,047 |
# Transport in Djibouti
*Pandoc failed*: ```
Error at (line 16, column 1):
unexpected '<'
<caption>'''Airport and airbase technical data'''<br /></caption>
^
``
| 23 |
Transport in Djibouti
| 0 |
8,054 |
# Politics of Dominica
The **politics of Dominica** takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Dominica is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Sylvanie Burton \|Labour Party \|2 October 2023 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Roosevelt Skerritt \|Labour Party \|8 January 2004 \|}
A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a five-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the person who command the majority of elected representatives in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister\'s recommendation, members of the parliament as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The House of Assembly has 32 members. Twenty-one members are elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. Nine members are senators appointed by the President; five on the advice of the Prime Minister and four on the advice of the leader of the opposition. The Speaker is elected by the elected members after an election. There is also one ex officio member, the clerk of the house. The head of state -- the president -- is elected by the House of Assembly. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every five years, although the prime minister can call elections at any time.
Dominica has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the Dominica Labour Party and the greatly diminished Dominica Freedom Party have built a coalition.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
Dominica\'s legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate\'s courts and a High Court of Justice. Appeals can be made to the Eastern Caribbean Court of Appeal and, ultimately, to the Caribbean Court of Justice.
The Court of Appeal of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one of its 16 High Court judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the High Court of Justice. Dominica\'s current High Court judges are The Hon. Brian Cottle and The Hon. M. E. Birnie Stephenson-Brooks.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, and Saint Peter
| 565 |
Politics of Dominica
| 0 |
8,056 |
# Telecommunications in Dominica
**Telecommunications in Dominica** comprises telephone, radio, television and internet services. The primary regulatory authority is the National Telecommunication Regulatory Commission which regulates all related industries to comply with The Telecommunications Act 8 of 2000.
## Telephony
Calls from Dominica to the US, Canada, and other NANP Caribbean nations, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number. Calls from Dominica to non-NANP countries are dialed as 011 + country code + phone number with local area code.
Telephone system:
- Domestic: fully automatic network
- International: microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia
Number formatting:
- Telephone code: 767
- Number Format: nxx-xxxx
- Country Code: +1767
- International Call Prefix: 011 (outside NANP)
Mobile cellular service providers:
- Digicel
- FLOW
## Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
- Cable & Wireless Dominica Ltd (DSL)
- Digicel Play (Cable & FTTP)
- Marpin Telecoms (Cable)
Internet code: .dm
## Radio
Dominica\'s radio stations include the government-owned DBS Radio, as well as privately owned competitors Kairi FM and Q95; a religious service called Voice of Life also operates there. DBS was founded in 1971 as Radio Dominica (supplanting material provided by Grenada\'s Windward Islands Broadcasting Service, WIBS), while Voice of Life was established in 1974 by two North American missionaries and began transmissions in 1976. In 1997, the island had 46,000 radio receivers.`{{update needed|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
## Television
During the 1970s, relay services from Barbados\' Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) represented the earliest attempts to bring television to Dominica; these were also provided to Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. The experiment ceased after Hurricane David devastated the country in 1979; at the time, transmission was served from the Morne Bruce locality.
In lieu of a national television broadcast service, Dominica received cable service through the Marpin company in 1983. By 2017, it was acquired by the local division of Flow, whose name it was rebranded under. As of the early 2020s, Flow mainly carried North American and British programming, and broadcast a weekday-morning programme entitled *Good Morning Dominica*. The country\'s other cable system, the later SAT Telecommunications, was similarly renamed Digicel Play in October 2014.`{{better source needed|reason=Press release|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
Dominica had 11,000 television sets in 2007
| 384 |
Telecommunications in Dominica
| 0 |
8,062 |
# Deutsches Institut für Normung
****Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.**** (**DIN**; in English, the **German Institute for Standardisation**) is a German non-profit organization and acting as national organization for standardization. DIN is the German ISO member body. DIN is headquartered in Berlin. There are around thirty thousand DIN Standards, covering nearly every field of technology.
## History
Founded in 1917 as the **Normenausschuß der deutschen Industrie** (NADI, \"Standardisation Committee of German Industry\"), the NADI was renamed **Deutscher Normenausschuß** (DNA, \"German Standardisation Committee\") in 1926 to reflect that the organization now dealt with standardization issues in many fields; viz., not just for industrial products. In 1975 it was renamed again to **Deutsches Institut für Normung**, or \'DIN\' and is recognised by the German government as the official national-standards body, representing German interests at the international and European levels.
The acronym, \'DIN\' is often incorrectly expanded as **Deutsche Industrienorm** (\"German Industry Standard\"). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as \"NADI\". The NADI indeed published their standards as **DI-Norm** (**Deutsche Industrienorm**). For example, the first published standard was \'*DI-Norm 1*\' (about tapered pins) in 1918. Many people still mistakenly associate DIN with the old **DI-Norm** naming convention.
One of the earliest, and probably the best known, is DIN 476 --- the standard that introduced the A-series paper sizes in 1922 --- adopted in 1975 as International Standard ISO 216. Common examples in modern technology include DIN and mini-DIN connectors for electronics, and the DIN rail.
DIN SPEC 3105, published in 2020, is \"the first German standard to be published under an open license (CC-BY-SA 4.0) \[\...\] to implement an open standardisation process\".
## DIN organisation {#din_organisation}
DIN is a nonprofit organization by German law. The nonprofit owns *DIN Solutions GmbH*, which produces the DIN contents and *DIN Media* (formerly *Beuth Verlag*), which sells the DIN-standard manuals. DIN is shareholder of *DIN Bauportal GmbH* and *DQS Holding GmbH*.
## DIN standard designation {#din_standard_designation}
The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number):
- *DIN \#* is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. *E DIN \#* is a draft standard and *DIN V \#* is a preliminary standard.
- *DIN EN \#* is used for the German edition of European standards.
- *DIN ISO \#* is used for the German edition of ISO standards.
- *DIN EN ISO \#* is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard.,
Some of the DIN standards date back to the time of Nazi Germany. For example, standard DIN 5009, which describes the German Phonetic spelling code, is based on the postal spelling table, that was heavily edited by the Nazis. Until 1934 it specified \"D\" for David, \"S\" for Samuel, \"Z\" for Zacharias and \"N\" for Nathan. However, this went against the Nazis\' ethnic-racial ideology and they decided to revise the letter board. The postal spelling table was partially revised in 1950 and formed the basis for the first version of the standard in 1983. The standard was revised again in 2022, using city names instead of person names.
## Examples of DIN standards {#examples_of_din_standards}
- DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216)
- DIN 1451: typeface used by German railways and on traffic signs
- DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language
- DIN 41612: mechanical standard for backplane electrical connection
- DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles
## Access to standards {#access_to_standards}
DIN standards are not freely accessible to the public. DIN sells subscriptions with the descriptions of the DIN-standards via DIN *Solutions GmbH* and *DIN Media*.
For four EN standards, which are available as DIN-EN standards for a fee from DIN Media GmbH (formerly Beuth Verlag), the European Court of Justice (ECJ) decided on March 5, 2024 in the Malamud decision, that these must be made available free of charge because these standards are part of European Union law.
| 665 |
Deutsches Institut für Normung
| 0 |
8,062 |
# Deutsches Institut für Normung
## Critics
How DIN creates standards is not transparent. The majority of the standardization committees consist of representatives of the companies that are affected by the standards. DIN does not publish the names of committee members.
In 2023, the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building launched an initiative to question DIN standards because they are considered a cost driver. "A central goal is to speed up planning and construction and reduce construction costs in order to create more affordable housing. "The building standards are now being reviewed," said a spokesman for Klara Geywitz\'s (SPD) ministry in 2023
| 104 |
Deutsches Institut für Normung
| 1 |
8,064 |
# Geography of the Dominican Republic
The **Dominican Republic** (Spanish: *República Dominicana*) is a country in the West Indies that occupies the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola. It has an area of 48,670 km^2^, including offshore islands. The land border shared with Haiti, which occupies the western three-eighths of the island, is 376 km long. The maximum length, east to west, is 390 km from Punta de Agua to Las Lajas, on the border with Haiti. The maximum width, north to south, is 265 km from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The capital, Santo Domingo, is located on the south coast.
The Dominican Republic\'s shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south. The Mona Passage, a channel about 130 km wide, separates the country (and Hispaniola) from Puerto Rico.
## Physical features {#physical_features}
The Dominican Republic is a country with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are found here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest--southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west--east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.
From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are:
- *Cordillera Septentrional* (in English, \"Northern Range\"). It runs parallel to the north coast, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its *Sierra de Samaná*). Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m. There are several small plains between this range and the Atlantic Ocean. Rivers are short and most of them flow to the north.
- The *Cibao* Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest and the most important valley of the country. This long valley stretches from North Haiti, where is called *Plaine du Nord*, to Samaná Bay. It can be divided in two sections: the northwestern part is the *Yaque del Norte Valley* (or *Línea Noroeste*) and the eastern *Yuna Valley* (or *Vega Real*, English: *Royal Valley*). The *Vega Real* is the most fertile area in the country, with a high population density.
- The *Cordillera Central* (also called *Sierra del Cibao*) is the island\'s most rugged and imposing feature and is known in Haiti as the *Massif du Nord* (\"Northern Massif\"). The highest mountains of the West Indies are in this range: Pico Duarte, 3,098 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range turns southward and is called *Sierra de Ocoa*, finishing near the city of Azua de Compostela, on the Caribbean coast. Another branch, *Cordillera Oriental* or *Sierra del Seibo*, is separated from the main chain by a karstic region (*Los Haitises*) and with a west--east direction; it is located south of Samaná Bay.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- The *San Juan Valley* and *Plain of Azua* are big valleys south of the *Cordillera Central* with altitude from 0 to 600 m.
- The *Sierra de Neiba*, with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of *Sierra de Neiba* is the *Sierra Martín García* (*Loma Busú*, 1,350 m).
- The *Hoya de Enriquillo* or *Neiba Valley* is a remarkable valley, with a west--east direction, of low altitude (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with a great salt lake: the *Enriquillo Lake*.
- The *Sierra de Bahoruco*, called *Massif de la Selle* in Haiti. This southern group of mountains have a geology very different from the rest of the island.
- *Llano Costero del Caribe* (in English, \"Caribbean Coastal Plain\") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic). It is a large savanna east of Santo Domingo.
| 618 |
Geography of the Dominican Republic
| 0 |
8,064 |
# Geography of the Dominican Republic
## Climate
The Dominican Republic is a tropical, maritime nation. Owing to its diverse mountainous topography, the country\'s climate shows considerable variation for its size, and has the most diverse climate zones of all the Caribbean islands, including subtropical highland climates (*Cwb*), oceanic climates (*Cfb*) and hot semi-arid climates (*BSh*) along the usual tropical savanna (*Aw*), monsoon (*Am*), and rainforest (*Af*) climates typical of a Caribbean nation. Conditions are ameliorated in many areas by elevation and by the northeast trade winds, which blow steadily from the Atlantic all year long. The annual mean temperature is 25 °C; regional mean temperatures range from 18 °C in the heart of the Cordillera Central (Constanza) to as high as 27 °C in arid regions. Temperatures rarely rise above 32 °C, and freezing temperatures only occur in winter in the highest mountains. The average temperature in Santo Domingo in January is 24 °C, and 27 °C in July.
The rain season for the northern coast is from November to January. For the rest of the country, the rain season is from May to November. The average annual rainfall is 1346 mm, with extremes of 2500 mm or more in the mountainous northeast (the windward side of the island) and 500 mm in the southwestern valleys. The western valleys, along the Haitian border, remain relatively dry, with less than 760 mm of annual precipitation, due to the rain shadow effect caused by the central and northern mountain ranges. The northwestern and southeastern extremes of the country are also arid.
The Dominican Republic is occasionally damaged by tropical storms and hurricanes, which originate in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern Caribbean from June until November (mainly from August to October) each year.
<File:Cabo> Cabrón, (Rincón Beach) Samaná, DR.JPG\|Tropical rainforest climate in Samana. <File:Constanza>, valle nuevo, clima invierno..jpg\|Frosted alpine forest in Constanza. <File:Jaragua> National Park (Road2).JPG\|Semi-arid climate in Pedernales. <File:Dunas> de Baní 1.jpg\|Desert sand dunes of Bani.
| 324 |
Geography of the Dominican Republic
| 1 |
8,064 |
# Geography of the Dominican Republic
## Islands
There are several smaller islands and cays that are part of Dominican territory. The largest islands are:
1. *Saona*, close to the southeastern coast of Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 117 km^2^. Its Taíno name was *Iai* or *Adamanay*. Columbus named this island as Savona, after the Italian city of the same name, but the use during years has eliminated the letter *v*.
2. *Beata*, also on the southern coast. It has an area of 27 km^2^. Its Taíno name is unknown. Columbus named this island *Madama Beata*.
3. *Catalina*, very close to the southeastern coast. It has an area of 9.6 km^2^. Its Taíno name was *Iabanea* but some writers, including poets, say that it was called *Toeya* or *Toella*.
## Rivers and lakes {#rivers_and_lakes}
The 8 longest rivers of the Dominican Republic are:
1. *Yaque del Norte*. At 296 km, it is the longest river in the Dominican Republic. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km^2^.
2. *Yuna*. It is 185 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay. Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km^2^.
3. *Yaque del Sur*. It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central. It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km^2^.
4. *Ozama*. It is 148 km long. Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central). It flows into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km^2^.
5. *Camú*. It is 137 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River. Its watershed has 2,655 km^2^.
6. *Nizao*. It is 133 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 974 km^2^.
7. *San Juan*. It is 121 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River. Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km^2^.
8. *Mao*. It is 105 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River. Its watershed has an area of 864 km^2^.
The Artibonite River is the longest river of the island, but only 68 km flows through the Dominican Republic.
The largest lake of Hispaniola, and of the Caribbean, is Lake Enriquillo. It is located in the *Hoya de Enriquillo* with an area of 265 km^2^. There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level, and is a hypersaline lake, with a higher concentration of salt than seawater.
Other lakes are *Rincón* (fresh water, area of 28.2 km^2^), *Oviedo* (brackish water, area of 28 km^2^), *Redonda*, and *Limón*.
## Statistics
Location:
: Caribbean, it occupies five-eighths of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti
Geographic coordinates:
:
Area:
:\* Total: 48,670 km²
:\* Land: 48,320 km²
:\* Water: 350 km²
Land boundaries:
:\* Total: 376 km
:\* Border countries: Haiti 360 km
Coastline:
: 1,288 km
Maritime claims:
:\* Territorial sea: 6 nmi
:\* Contiguous zone: 24 nmi
:\* Exclusive economic zone: 255,898 km2 with 200 nmi
:\* Continental shelf: 200 nmi or to the edge of the continental margin
Climate:
: Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall
Rivers:
: Significant rivers include the Jimani River, Río Yaque del Norte, Río Jamao del Norte, Río Isabela and the Ozama River
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Terrain:
: Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed
Geographical extremes
:\* Northernmost point -- Cabo Isabela
:\* Southernmost point -- Alto Velo Island, Jaragua National Park
:\* Southernmost point (mainland) -- south of Oviedo, Pedernales in Jaragua National Park
:\* Westernmost point -- Las Lajas, border with Haiti, Independencia Province
:\* Easternmost point -- Punta de Agua, La Altagracia Province
Elevation extremes
:\* Lowest point -- Lago Enriquillo: -46 m
:\* Highest point -- Pico Duarte: 3,098 m
Natural resources:
: Nickel, bauxite, gold, silver
Land use:
:\* Arable land: 16.56%
:\* Permanent crops: 10.35%
:\* Other: 73.10% (2012 est.)
Irrigated land:
: 3,241 km² (2018)
Total renewable water resources:
: 21 km^3^ (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
:\* total: 5.47 km^3^/yr (26%/1%/72%)
:\* per capita: 574
| 757 |
Geography of the Dominican Republic
| 2 |
8,068 |
# Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
**Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
Numerous television channels are available. Tricom, S.A, WIND Telecom, S.A., Viva (network operator), and Claro Codetel provide television services digitally, with channels from Latin America and elsewhere in the world. There are extensive mobile phone and land-line services. Internet access is available as Cable Internet, ADSL, WiMAX, EDGE, EV-DO and UMTS/HSDPA in most parts of the country. Projects to extend Wi-Fi (wireless internet) hot spots have been undertaken in Santo Domingo. Since 2015 the country has been actively extending its fiber optics network, to provide faster and more reliable internet to business and private users.
The Instituto Dominicano De Telecomunicaciones (INDOTEL) regulates and supervises the development of the country\'s telecommunications market.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations: AM 146, FM 233, shortwave 14 (2013). A combination of state-owned and privately owned radio stations with more than 300 radio stations operating (2007).
- Radios: 1.44 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|10}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations: 46 (2012). A combination of state-owned and privately owned broadcast media; 1 state-owned and a number of private TV networks; networks operate repeaters to extend signals throughout country (2007).
- Pay TV: 49,010 subscribers (2010).
- Television sets: 770,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|10}}`{=mediawiki}
Cable television in the Dominican Republic is provided by a variety of companies. These companies offer both English and Spanish language television, plus a range of channels in other languages, high definition channels, pay-per-view movies and events, sports packages, premium movies channels and adult channels such as HBO, Playboy TV, Cinecanal, MLB Extra Innings, etc. The channels are not only from the Dominican Republic, but also the United States and Europe.
In the Dominican Republic there are 46 in VHF and UHF channels free-to-air channels. The programming on the free of charge channels consists mainly of locally produced entertainment shows, news, and comedy shows; and foreign sitcoms, soap operas, movies, cartoons, and sports programs.
The main service provider in the Dominican Republic is Tricom. Aster is concentrated in Santo Domingo, but is expanding its service throughout the Dominican Republic. There are new companies using new technologies that are expanding quickly such as Claro TV (IPTV and Satellite TV), Wind Telecom (MMDS) and SKY (Satellite TV).
On election day in May 2012 government broadcast regulators took two popular national television channels (11 and 33) off the air on the grounds that they violated an electoral law prohibiting distribution of exit poll or other unofficial information regarding the final results of the electoral process. Both channels were closed on the afternoon of 20 May and reopened the next morning.
## Telephones
- Area codes: 809, 829, and 849.
- International call prefix: +1
- Fixed lines: 1.14 million lines in use, 70th in the world (2022).
- Fixed line teledensity: 10 per 100 people (2011).
- Mobile cellular: 9.0 million lines (2012).
- Mobile cellular teledensity: 90 per 100 people (2011).
- VoIP: 45,328 lines (2012).
- Domestic system: Relatively efficient system based on island-wide microwave radio relay network (2011) and fiber optics lines that cover many of the main cities.
- Communications cables: Landing point for the Americas Region Caribbean Ring System (ARCOS-1), ANTILLAS I, and the Fibralink submarine cables that provide links to South and Central America, parts of the Caribbean, and the US (2011).
- Satellite earth station: 1, Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
| 568 |
Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
| 0 |
8,068 |
# Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .do
- Internet users: 9.35 million users, 62nd in the world; 85.0% of the population (2021).
- Fixed broadband: 446,420 subscriptions, 72nd in the world; 4.4% of the population, 108th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: 1.6 million subscriptions, 65th in the world; 15.4% of the population, 80th in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 404,500 hosts, 55th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 857,600 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 85 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet service providers (ISPs): 8: Claro (Fiber, ADSL and wireless), Tricom (Fiber, WiMAX, ADSL, and Cable), Aster (CABLE), VIVA (wireless), Orange (wireless), ONEMAX (Fiber GPON, Wireless PTP, Data Center), Wind Telecom (WiMAX) (2008).
### Broadband Internet access {#broadband_internet_access}
The Dominican Republic is considered one of the countries with the most advanced telecommunications infrastructures in Latin America, with over 8.9 million cell phones connected (on just about 10 million populants, with 3.5 million of them on extreme poverty conditions) and large companies like Codetel and Orange (FR) on the telecommunications market. Broadband Internet access is growing, with over 622,931 Internet accounts globally and 3,851,278 Internet users as of December 2010 according to INDOTEL (DR Telecommunications Institute). Broadband DSL represents about 56% of the total Internet subscribers. There is access to regular ADSL, G.SHDSL, and services only on metropolitan areas, costs are high and service is decent. Cable Internet is offered by a couple of cable companies at lower costs than ADSL but the service is very deficient and unreliable. WiFi is becoming more common. It is available in some universities. Most hotels also offer wi-fi internet. The implementation of the WiMAX and HSPA technology by some of the Cellphone service providers are resulting in the rapid investment by other providers in the market to match the new and faster platform of services. Mobile broadband users have seen their percentage grow from 14% in 2007 all the way to 39% in 2010, and will continue to grow as more and more users are opting for this type of technology in a country where Home Broadband speeds are more expensive and slower. Also the ongoing installation of a Fiber-Optic network structure in the National District and the City of Santiago (second largest in the country) will force other competitors into upgrading theirs to be able to compete in the markets they now lead.
| 403 |
Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
| 1 |
8,068 |
# Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
## Internet
### Pricing
As of October 2018, not including taxes.
Key: DOP: Dominican peso, USD: United States dollar. Exchange rate ( \$50 DOP : US\$1 )
Pricing -- Home Internet Access (By ISP)
The following table shows the speeds/prices\* available and designed for home usage.
Download Speeds Claro República Dominicana Altice Dominicana S.A. WIND Telecom, S.A. Viva (network operator)
----------------- ---------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- -------------------------
1 Mbit/s -- -- \$790 DOP (US\$15.80) --
2 Mbit/s \$750 DOP (US\$15) -- \$990 DOP (US\$19.80) --
3 Mbit/s \$895 DOP (US\$17.90) \$890 DOP (US\$17.80) \$1,290 DOP (US\$25.80) \$699 DOP (US\$13.98)
5 Mbit/s \$1,045 DOP (US\$20.90) \$1,049 DOP (US\$20.98) \$1,490 DOP (US\$29.80) \$899 DOP (US\$17.98)
10 Mbit/s \$1,345 DOP (US\$26.90) -- -- --
15 Mbit/s -- \$1,499 DOP (US\$29.98) -- --
20 Mbit/s \$1,595 DOP (US\$34.67) -- -- --
30 Mbit/s -- \$1,949 DOP (US\$38.98) -- --
40 Mbit/s \$1,945 DOP (US\$38.90) -- -- --
100 Mbit/s \$2,645 DOP (US\$52.90) \$2,799 DOP (US\$55.98) -- --
\*Note: The pricing and speeds are subject to change since Altice, Claro and Wind have multi plans (Two or Three services combined), those plans have a discount on all services. Up to 25% discount for combined services.
Pricing -- Mobile Broadband (By ISP)
Currently the mobile internet market is governed by three aspects:
1. The first is based on a contract where you are granted a certain amount of data (MB/GB) per month, after having consumed the data you can continue browsing at 512 kbit/s.
2. Second option is a monthly income (postpaid) for the acquisition of a speed package with \"unlimited data\" (is subject to fair use policies with unlimited browsing at 512 kbit/s after you surpass the monthly capacity).
3. Third group belongs to the prepaid modality, in this option the client determines the number of days or amount of data he needs to navigate.
Data Caps Claro (Dominican Republic) Altice Dominicana S.A. WIND Telecom, S.A.
----------- ---------------------------- ------------------------- -------------------------
5MB \$115 DOP (US\$2.30) -- --
50MB \$175 DOP (US\$3.50) -- --
250MB \$295 DOP (US\$5.90) -- --
2GB \$395 DOP (US\$7.90) -- --
5GB \$695 DOP (US\$13.90) \$790 DOP (US\$15.80) \$590 DOP (US\$11.80)
10GB \$995 DOP (US\$19.90) \$999 DOP (US\$19.98) --
15GB \$1,195 DOP (US\$23.90) \$1,199 DOP (US\$23.98) \$790 DOP (US\$15.80)
20GB \$1,495 DOP (US\$29.89) \$1,499 DOP (US\$29.97) --
25GB \$1,795 DOP (US\$35.89) \$1,799 DOP (US\$35.97) \$990 DOP (US\$19.80)
40GB -- -- \$1,490 DOP (US\$29.79)
50GB \$3,895 DOP (US\$77.88) \$3,590 DOP (US\$71.79) --
60GB -- -- \$1,690 DOP (US\$33.79)
Postpaid Speeds Altice Dominicana S.A. WIND Telecom, S.A.
----------------- ------------------------- -------------------------
1 Mbit/s \$799 DOP (US\$15.80) \$790 DOP (US\$15.80)
2 Mbit/s -- \$990 DOP (US\$19.80)
3 Mbit/s \$999 DOP (US\$19.98) \$1,290 DOP (US\$25.79)
5 Mbit/s \$1,499 DOP (US\$29.97) \$1,490 DOP (US\$29.79)
10 Mbit/s \$1,999 DOP (US\$39.97) --
Prepaid Navigation Days
------------------------- ---------------------
1 2
Viva (network operator) \$45 DOP (US\$0.90)
WIND Telecom, S.A. \$35 DOP (US\$0.70)
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system ensure freedom of speech and press. The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction. Individuals and groups are generally able to criticize the government publicly and privately without reprisal, although there have been incidents in which authorities intimidated journalists or other news professionals. Local journalists engage in self-censorship, particularly when coverage could adversely affect the economic or political interests of media owners. The government denies using unauthorized wiretapping or other surreptitious methods to interfere with the private lives of individuals and families, however, human rights groups and opposition politicians allege that such interference does occur
| 647 |
Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic
| 2 |
8,069 |
# Transport in the Dominican Republic
**Transport in the Dominican Republic** utilizes a system of roads, airports, ports, harbours, and an urban railway.
## Roadways
Five main highways (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3, DR-4, DR-5) connect the Dominican Republic\'s biggest cities and tourist centers; they are in good condition. There are nearly 19705 km of highways and roads, 9,872 being paved and 9833 km (2002 est.) unpaved. Like any underdeveloped nation, the Dominican Republic suffers from a lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas, though work on paving them proceeds. Major town roads are kept in good condition.
## Public transportation {#public_transportation}
### Mass transit {#mass_transit}
The Santo Domingo Metro is the first mass transit system in the country, and the second among Caribbean & Central American nations. It is the most extensive metro system in the region by length and total number of stations. On February 27, 2008, the incumbent president Leonel Fernández test-rode the system for the first time, and thereafter free service was offered several times. Commercial service began on January 30, 2009. Several additional lines are currently planned.
Santiago Light Rail is a planned light rail system, still at the development stage, in the Dominican Republic\'s second-largest city Santiago de los Caballeros. Construction was slated to begin in mid-2008 but is currently on hold, due to lack of approval and of central government funds.
### Buses
The Dominican Republic has a bus system that is rather reliable, and most of these public transportation vehicles are fairly comfortable. The fare is generally inexpensive, and there are bus terminals and stops in most of the island\'s major cities.
### Public Cars (*Carros Públicos*) {#public_cars_carros_públicos}
The Public Cars (*Carros Públicos--Conchos*) are privately owned passenger cars that transit a specific route daily Passengers may request a stop anywhere along the route. Carros Públicos carry a significant portion of commuters in Santo Domingo and other major cities. The system is not very reliable and lacks oversight and regulation which leads to congestion and other issues. They may also be somewhat uncomfortable, since drivers try to fit as many people as possible inside the vehicles. Carros Públicos are often standard sedans, but can be packed with as many as six passengers.
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in the Dominican Republic* Rail operations are provided by one state-owned operator and several private operators (mainly for sugar mills). There are no rail connections with neighboring Haiti.
- Central Romana Railroad was established in 1911 in the sugarcane fields. The total length of the line is 757 km, 375 km being the `{{RailGauge|1435mm|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki} standard gauge.
- The Dominican Republic Government Railway (United Dominican Railways or *Ferrocarriles Unidos Dominicanos*) was a 139 km `{{RailGauge|1067mm|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki} narrow gauge railway.
- There are 240 km operated by other sugarcane companies in various gauges: `{{RailGauge|557mm|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{RailGauge|762mm|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{RailGauge|1067mm|lk=on}}`{=mediawiki} gauges (1995).
| 474 |
Transport in the Dominican Republic
| 0 |
8,069 |
# Transport in the Dominican Republic
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
Major ports and harbours in the Dominican Republic:
### Ports
- The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location in the Caribbean, is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road, and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls.
- Haina Occidental Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important ports in the Dominican Republic. About 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port.
- DP World\'s terminal Multimodal Caucedo Port maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime. Actually 85% of Free Zone exports to the United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal. Multimodal Caucedo port is also able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean and Latin America for Asia specifically Japan as a door to the American market.
- Port of Puerto Plata is the main commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic.
- Port of Boca Chica is located about 20 miles east of the capital city and five miles from the International airport Las Americas. Currently the port is almost exclusively used for containers and some lumber, newsprint and homogeneous cargoes.
- Port of San Pedro de Macoris is located on the Higuamo river. This port is mainly used to discharge bulk fertilizer. Cement clinker, coal, wheat, diesel and LPG. It is also used to export sugar and molasses produced by several sugar cane mills in the region.
- Central Romana Port, located in La Romana, belong to Central Romana Corporation which is a private company established in 1912 and has the largest sugar mill in the country.
The following six local ports are a single pier with berth facility:
- Cayo Levantado Port or (Arroyo Barruk/Puerto Duarte) is located in the Samaná Bay.
- Manzanillo Port is located very close to the Haitian border.
- Port of Cabo Rojo is located in Cabo Rojo, southeast to the border.
- Port of Barahona is located in Barahona, in the bay of Neyba.
- Port of Azua in Azua, also called Puerto Viejo is located at Ocoa Bay.
- Palenque Port is located southwest of Santo Domingo.
A local ferry service runs daily between the Samaná and Sabana del Mar ports.
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
- Total:
- 1 ship (1,000 GT or over) totaling 1,587 GT/`{{DWT|1,165|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}
- Ships by type:
- cargo 1 (1999 est.)
### Entering the ports {#entering_the_ports}
Boaters and sailors who wish to dock in any of the Dominican Republic\'s ports must follow certain entry requirements:
- Upon approaching the port, ships must display a quarantine flag, which has the letter \'Q\' on it, and wait for admittance into the port.
- The passengers of the vessel must pay a fee, get a tourist card, and show proper identification including a valid passport.
- Military officials must sometimes grant the passengers clearance to come ashore.
- For entering or leaving the Dominican Republic, the [Dominican e-Ticket](https://www.dominicanrepubliceticket.com) is required. It is an electronic system designed to streamline immigration procedures and enhance border security.
## Airports
In 2009, there were seven major and 31 minor airports in the Dominican Republic. The major ones were:
- Las Américas International Airport, Santo Domingo City, Santo Domingo
- Punta Cana International Airport, Punta Cana / Higüey
- Cibao International Airport, Santiago City, Santiago
- Gregorio Luperón International Airport, Puerto Plata
- La Romana International Airport, La Romana City, La Romana
- Samana El Catey International Airport, Sanchez, Samana
- María Montez International Airport, Barahona City, Barahona
### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
- Total: 10 (1999 est.)
- *Over 3,047 m*: 3
- *2,438 to 3,047 m*: 1
- *1,524 to 2,437 m*: 4
- *914 to 1,523 m*: 3
- *under 913 m*: 2
### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
- Total: 15 (1999 est.)
- *1,524 to 2,437 m:* 2
- *914 to 1,523 m:* 4
- *under 914 m:* 9
### National airlines {#national_airlines}
- Dominicana de Aviación was the national airline of the Dominican Republic for more than 50 years. This title was passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying.
- After operations at Dominicana de Aviación ceased, PAWA Dominicana became the flag carrier of the country in 2015. However, the airline ceased operation in January 2018.
#### Flights
There are direct flights to and from the Dominican Republic from the United States, Cuba, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Europe and the Caribbean
| 777 |
Transport in the Dominican Republic
| 1 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
**Douglas Carl Engelbart** (January 30, 1925 -- July 2, 2013) was an American engineer, inventor, and a pioneer in many aspects of computer science. He is best known for his work on founding the field of human--computer interaction, particularly while at his Augmentation Research Center Lab in SRI International, which resulted in creation of the computer mouse, and the development of hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to graphical user interfaces. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968. Engelbart\'s law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him.
The \"oN-Line System\" (NLS) developed by the Augmentation Research Center under Engelbart\'s guidance with funding mostly from the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), later renamed Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), demonstrated many technologies, most of which are now in widespread use; it included the computer mouse, bitmapped screens, word processing, and hypertext; all of which were displayed at \"The Mother of All Demos\" in 1968. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, and NLS was renamed Augment (now the Doug Engelbart Institute). At both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them and retired in 1986.
In 1988, Engelbart and his daughter Christina launched the Bootstrap Institute -- later known as The Doug Engelbart Institute -- to promote his vision, especially at Stanford University; this effort did result in some DARPA funding to modernize the user interface of Augment. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the U.S.\'s highest technology award. In December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th anniversary of the \"Mother of All Demos\".
| 304 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 0 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon, on January 30, 1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and Gladys Charlotte Amelia Munson Engelbart. His ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent.
He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne (three years older), and a brother David (14 months younger). The family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later. He graduated from Portland\'s Franklin High School in 1942.
Midway through his undergraduate years at Oregon State University, he served two years in the United States Navy as a radio and radar technician in the Philippines. It was there, on the remote island of Leyte in a small traditional hut on stilts, that he read Vannevar Bush\'s article \"As We May Think\", which would have a large influence on his thinking and work. He returned to Oregon State and completed his bachelor\'s degree in electrical engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity. He was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing. It was there he met Ballard Fish (August 18, 1928 -- June 18, 1997), who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married in Portola State Park on May 5, 1951. Soon after, Engelbart left Ames to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley. At Berkeley, he studied electrical engineering with a specialty in computers, earning his Master of Science (MS) in 1953 and his Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in 1955.
| 301 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 1 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
## Career and accomplishments {#career_and_accomplishments}
### Guiding philosophy {#guiding_philosophy}
Engelbart\'s career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no career goals other than \"a steady job, getting married and living happily ever after\". Over several months he reasoned that:
1. he would focus his career on making the world a better place
2. any serious effort to make the world better would require some kind of organized effort that harnessed the collective human intellect of all people to contribute to effective solutions.
3. if you could dramatically improve how we do that, you\'d be boosting every effort on the planet to solve important problems -- the sooner the better
4. computers could be the vehicle for dramatically improving this capability.
In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bush\'s article \"As We May Think\", a call to action for making knowledge widely available as a national peacetime grand challenge. He had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen. He envisioned intellectual workers sitting at display \"working stations\", flying through information space, harnessing their collective intellectual capacity to solve important problems together in much more powerful ways. Harnessing collective intellect, facilitated by interactive computers, became his life\'s mission at a time when computers were viewed as number crunching tools.
As a graduate student at Berkeley, he assisted in the construction of CALDIC. His graduate work led to eight patents. After completing his doctorate, Engelbart stayed on at Berkeley as an assistant professor for a year before departing when it became clear that he could not pursue his vision there. Engelbart then formed a startup company, Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctoral research on storage devices, but after a year decided instead to pursue the research he had been dreaming of since 1951.
### SRI and the Augmentation Research Center {#sri_and_the_augmentation_research_center}
Engelbart took a position at SRI International (known then as Stanford Research Institute) in Menlo Park, California in 1957. He worked for Hewitt Crane on magnetic devices and miniaturization of electronics; Engelbart and Crane became close friends. At SRI, Engelbart soon obtained a dozen patents, and by 1962 produced a report about his vision and proposed research agenda titled *Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework*. The research was funded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, where Rowena Swanson took an active interest in Engelbart\'s work. Among other highlights, this paper introduced \"Building Information Modelling\", which architectural and engineering practice eventually adopted (first as \"parametric design\") in the 1990s and after.
This led to funding from ARPA to launch his work. Engelbart recruited a research team in his new Augmentation Research Center (ARC, the lab he founded at SRI). Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed \"bootstrapping strategy\". He designed the strategy to accelerate the rate of innovation of his lab.
The ARC became the driving force behind the design and development of the oN-Line System (NLS). He and his team developed computer interface elements such as bitmapped screens, the mouse, hypertext, collaborative tools, and precursors to the graphical user interface. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most computers were inaccessible to individuals who could only use computers through intermediaries (see batch processing), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems.
Engelbart applied for a patent in 1967 and received it in 1970, for the wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse -- `{{US patent |3541541}}`{=mediawiki}), which he had developed with Bill English, his lead engineer, sometime before 1965. In the patent application it is described as an \"X-Y position indicator for a display system\". Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the \"mouse\" because the tail came out the end. His group also called the on-screen cursor a \"bug\", but this term was not widely adopted. Engelbart\'s original cursor was displayed as an arrow pointing upward, but was slanted to the left upon its deployment in the XEROX PARC machine to better distinguish between on-screen text and the cursor in the machine\'s low-resolution interface. The now-familiar cursor arrow is characterized by a vertical left side and a 45-degree angle on the right.
He never received any royalties for the invention of the mouse. During an interview, he said, \"SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple Computer for something like \$40,000.\" Engelbart showcased the chorded keyboard and many more of his and ARC\'s inventions in 1968 at The Mother of All Demos.
| 806 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 2 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
## Career and accomplishments {#career_and_accomplishments}
### Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas {#tymshare_and_mcdonnell_douglas}
Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity by the mid-1970s. As early as 1970, several of his researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for Xerox PARC, in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing. Engelbart saw the future in collaborative, networked, timeshare (client-server) computers, which younger programmers rejected in favor of personal computers. The conflict was both technical and ideological: the younger programmers came from an era where centralized power was highly suspect, and personal computing was just barely on the horizon.
Beginning in 1972, several key ARC personnel were involved in Erhard Seminars Training (EST), with Engelbart ultimately serving on the corporation\'s board of directors for many years. Although EST had been recommended by other researchers, the controversial nature of EST and other social experiments reduced the morale and social cohesion of the ARC community. The 1969 Mansfield Amendment, which ended military funding of non-military research, the end of the Vietnam War, and the end of the Apollo program gradually reduced ARC\'s funding from ARPA and NASA throughout the early 1970s.
SRI\'s management, which disapproved of Engelbart\'s approach to running the center, placed the remains of ARC under the control of artificial intelligence researcher Bertram Raphael, who negotiated the transfer of the laboratory to Tymshare in 1976. Engelbart\'s house in Atherton, California burned down during this period, causing him and his family further problems. Tymshare took over NLS and the lab that Engelbart had founded, hired most of the lab\'s staff (including its creator as a Senior Scientist), renamed the software *Augment*, and offered it as a commercial service via its new Office Automation Division. Tymshare was already somewhat familiar with NLS; when ARC was still operational, it had experimented with its own local copy of the NLS software on a minicomputer called OFFICE-1, as part of a joint project with ARC.
At Tymshare, Engelbart soon found himself further marginalized. Operational concerns at Tymshare overrode Engelbart\'s desire to conduct ongoing research. Various executives, first at Tymshare and later at McDonnell Douglas, which acquired Tymshare in 1984, expressed interest in his ideas, but never committed the funds or the people to further develop them. His interest inside of McDonnell Douglas was focused on the enormous knowledge management and IT requirements involved in the life cycle of an aerospace program, which served to strengthen Engelbart\'s resolve to motivate the information technology arena toward global interoperability and an open hyperdocument system. Engelbart retired from McDonnell Douglas in 1986, determined to pursue his work free from commercial pressure.
| 439 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 3 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
## Career and accomplishments {#career_and_accomplishments}
### Bootstrap and the Doug Engelbart Institute {#bootstrap_and_the_doug_engelbart_institute}
Teaming with his daughter, Christina Engelbart, he founded the Bootstrap Institute in 1988 to coalesce his ideas into a series of three-day and half-day management seminars offered at Stanford University from 1989 to 2000. By the early 1990s there was sufficient interest among his seminar graduates to launch a collaborative implementation of his work, and the Bootstrap Alliance was formed as a non-profit home base for this effort. Although the invasion of Iraq and subsequent recession spawned a rash of belt-tightening reorganizations which drastically redirected the efforts of their alliance partners, they continued with the management seminars, consulting, and small-scale collaborations. In the mid-1990s they were awarded some DARPA funding to develop a modern user interface to Augment, called Visual AugTerm (VAT), while participating in a larger program addressing the IT requirements of the Joint Task Force.
Engelbart was Founder Emeritus of the Doug Engelbart Institute, which he founded in 1988 with his daughter Christina Engelbart, who is executive director. The Institute promotes Engelbart\'s philosophy for boosting Collective IQ---the concept of dramatically improving how we can solve important problems together---using a strategic *bootstrapping* approach for accelerating our progress toward that goal. In 2005, Engelbart received a National Science Foundation grant to fund the open source HyperScope project. The Hyperscope team built a browser component using Ajax and Dynamic HTML designed to replicate Augment\'s multiple viewing and jumping capabilities (linking within and across various documents).
### Later years and death {#later_years_and_death}
Engelbart attended the Program for the Future 2010 Conference where hundreds of people convened at The Tech Museum in San Jose and online to engage in dialog about how to pursue his vision to augment collective intelligence.
The most complete coverage of Engelbart\'s bootstrapping ideas can be found in *Boosting Our Collective IQ*, by Douglas C. Engelbart, 1995. This includes three of Engelbart\'s key papers, edited into book form by Yuri Rubinsky and Christina Engelbart to commemorate the presentation of the 1995 SoftQuad Web Award to Doug Engelbart at the World Wide Web conference in Boston in December 1995. Only 2,000 softcover copies were printed, and 100 hardcover, numbered and signed by Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee. The book was re-published and has been available since 2008.
Two comprehensive history of Engelbart\'s laboratory and work are in *What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry* by John Markoff and *A Heritage of Innovation: SRI\'s First Half Century* by Donald Neilson. Other books on Engelbart and his laboratory include *Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing* by Thierry Bardini and *The Engelbart Hypothesis: Dialogs with Douglas Engelbart*, by Valerie Landau and Eileen Clegg. All four of these books are based on interviews with Engelbart as well as other contributors in his laboratory.
Engelbart served on the Advisory Boards of the University of Santa Clara Center for Science, Technology, and Society, Foresight Institute, Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, The Technology Center of Silicon Valley, and The Liquid Information Company.
Engelbart had four children, Gerda, Diana, Christina and Norman with his first wife Ballard, who died in 1997 after 47 years of marriage. He remarried on January 26, 2008, to writer and producer Karen O\'Leary Engelbart. An 85th birthday celebration was held at The Tech Museum of Innovation.
Engelbart died at his home in Atherton, California, on July 2, 2013, due to kidney failure. A close friend and fellow computer scientist, Ted Nelson, delivered the eulogy at his funeral. According to the Doug Engelbart Institute, his death came after a long battle with Alzheimer\'s disease, which he was diagnosed with in 2007. Engelbart was 88 and was survived by his second wife, four children from his first marriage, and nine grandchildren.
### Anecdotal notes {#anecdotal_notes}
Historian of science Thierry Bardini argues that Engelbart\'s complex personal philosophy (which drove all his research) foreshadowed the modern application of the concept of coevolution to the philosophy and use of technology. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the principle of linguistic relativity developed by Benjamin Lee Whorf. Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies. He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work.
| 766 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 4 |
8,081 |
# Douglas Engelbart
## Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors}
Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart\'s contributions. In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. In 1997, he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of \$500,000, the world\'s largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the ACM Turing Award. To mark the 30th anniversary of Engelbart\'s 1968 demo, in 1998 the Stanford Silicon Valley Archives and the Institute for the Future hosted *Engelbart\'s Unfinished Revolution*, a symposium at Stanford University\'s Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas. He was inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998.
Engelbart was awarded the Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1998.
Also in 1998, Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) SIGCHI awarded Engelbart the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award. ACM SIGCHI later inducted Engelbart into the CHI Academy in 2002. Engelbart was awarded The Franklin Institute\'s Certificate of Merit in 1996 and the Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1999 in Computer and Cognitive Science. In early 2000 Engelbart produced, with volunteers and sponsors, what was called *The Unfinished Revolution -- II*, also known as the *Engelbart Colloquium* at Stanford University, to document and publicize his work and ideas to a larger audience (live, and online).
In December 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the country\'s highest technology award. In 2001 he was awarded the British Computer Society\'s Lovelace Medal. In 2005, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum \"for advancing the study of human--computer interaction, developing the mouse input device, and for the application of computers to improving organizational efficiency.\" He was honored with the Norbert Wiener Award, which is given annually by Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility. Robert X. Cringely did an hour-long interview with Engelbart on December 9, 2005, in his NerdTV video podcast series.
On December 9, 2008, Engelbart was honored at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 \"Mother of All Demos\". The event was produced by SRI International and held at Memorial Auditorium at Stanford University. Speakers included several members of Engelbart\'s original Augmentation Research Center (ARC) team including Don Andrews, Bill Paxton, Bill English, and Jeff Rulifson, Engelbart\'s chief government sponsor Bob Taylor, and other pioneers of interactive computing, including Andy van Dam and Alan Kay. In addition, Christina Engelbart spoke about her father\'s early influences and the ongoing work of the Doug Engelbart Institute.
In June 2009, the New Media Consortium recognized Engelbart as an NMC Fellow for his lifetime of achievements. In 2011, Engelbart was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems\' AI\'s Hall of Fame. Engelbart received the first honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University in May 2011
| 472 |
Douglas Engelbart
| 5 |
8,085 |
# Delicate Arch
**Delicate Arch** is a 52 ft freestanding natural arch located in Arches National Park, near Moab in Grand County, Utah, United States. The arch is the most widely recognized landmark in Arches National Park and is depicted on Utah license plates and a postage stamp commemorating Utah\'s centennial anniversary of admission to the Union in 1896. The Olympic torch relay for the 2002 Winter Olympics passed through the arch.
## History
Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as \"the Chaps\" and \"the Schoolmarm\'s Bloomers\" by local cowboys. Many other names have been applied to this arch including \"Bloomers Arch\", \"Marys Bloomers\", \"Old Maids Bloomers\", \"Pants Crotch\", \"Salt Wash Arch\", and \"School Marms Pants\". The arch was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933--1934. Although there is a rumor that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertently exchanged due to a signage mixup by the National Park Service (NPS), this is false.
This arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a national monument (Arches National Monument) in 1929 and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938.
In the 1950s, the NPS investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles.
Nature photographer Michael Fatali started a fire under the arch in September 2000 to demonstrate nighttime photography techniques to a group of amateur photographers. The fire discolored portions of the sandstone near the arch. Fatali was placed on probation and fined \$10,900 in restitution to the NPS for the cost of cleanup efforts.
In 2017, the United Utah Party was founded, and chose Delicate Arch as its official party logo.
## Geology
Delicate Arch is formed of Entrada Sandstone. The original sandstone fin was gradually worn away by weathering and erosion, leaving the arch. Other arches in the park were formed the same way but, due to placement and less dramatic shape, are not as famous.
## Ecology
During the summer, white-throated swifts (*Aeronautes saxatalis*) nest in the top of the arch.
## Climbing
In May 2006, climber Dean Potter performed as many as six free solo ascents of the arch. Climbing Delicate Arch was not explicitly forbidden under the rules in force at the time, which only stated that routes \"may be closed\" on any named arch; however, most climbers accepted that the named arch formations should not be climbed. The NPS has since closed the loophole by disallowing climbs on any named arch within the park year-round. Slacklining and the placement of new fixed anchors on new climbs are also prohibited.
Controversy ensued when photographs taken after Potter\'s climb appeared to show damage caused by a climbing technique called top roping. Potter stated on several occasions that he never damaged the arch, and no photos exist of Potter using a top rope setup on the arch. Previous climbers may have top-roped the arch, leaving the existing rope scars. Potter did admit to using a counterweighted rope over the top of the arch, within a natural groove, as well as four cams in a horizontal crack of harder rock at the summit. He used the rope and cams for protection while rehearsing his free solo route and to rappel back down after the free solos. Two fellow climbers also ascended via fixed ropes, one of whom recorded video of Potter from the top.
## Tourism
Delicate Arch is one of the main tourist draws in Arches National Park. The parking lot at the Delicate Arch Trailhead, although large, fills up quickly on most days. The trail to Delicate Arch is 3 miles (4.8 kilometer) round trip with an elevation change of 480 feet (146 meters). The trail is well defined for the first 1/2 mile, then does a steep incline over open rock. There is a narrow ledge for the last 200 yards (183 meter) before reaching the arch
| 694 |
Delicate Arch
| 0 |
8,086 |
# Deed poll
A **deed poll** (plural: **deeds poll**) is a legal document binding on a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an intention or create an obligation. It is a deed, and not a contract, because it binds only one party.
## Etymology
The term \"deed\", also known in this context as a \"specialty\", is common to signed written undertakings not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, \"signed, sealed and delivered\", or even merely \"executed as a deed\") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the obligation. \"Poll\" is an archaic legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an \"indenture\", so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet, then the copies separated by being irregularly torn or cut, i.e. \"indented\", so that each party had a document with corresponding tears, to discourage forgery).
## Use for changing name {#use_for_changing_name}
The most common use is a name change through a deed of change of name (often referred to simply as a *deed poll*). Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries and regions including in the United Kingdom (except in Scotland), Ireland, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In the UK, a deed poll can also be used to change a child\'s name, as long as everyone with parental responsibility for the child consents to it and the child does not object to it. The child\'s parents execute the deed poll on the child\'s behalf. In some other jurisdictions, a person may simply start using a new name without any formal legal process. The usual requirements are that the new name must be used exclusively and that the change must not be made with the intent to defraud. In English law, a person must notify every creditor of a change of name by deed poll.
In Australia, prior to 1 November 2000, name change was accomplished by deed poll but now is done by completing a Change of Name form.
## Other uses {#other_uses}
Another common use is to partition land. This form of deed poll is commonly used in Hong Kong.
A deed poll may also be used (in England and Wales) for clergy of the Church of England to relinquish their holy orders.
Bonds and powers of attorney are examples of deeds poll. A will is not a deed poll, not being made under seal, and being subject to separate statutory requirements
| 441 |
Deed poll
| 0 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
A **documentary film** (often described simply as a **documentary**) is a nonfiction motion picture intended to \"document reality, primarily for instruction, education or maintaining a historical record\". The American author and media analyst Bill Nichols has characterized the documentary in terms of \"a filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception \[that remains\] a practice without clear boundaries\".
Research into information gathering, as a behavior, and the sharing of knowledge, as a concept, has noted how documentary movies were preceded by the notable practice of documentary photography. This has involved the use of singular photographs to detail the complex attributes of historical events and continues to a certain degree to this day, with an example being the conflict-related photography achieved by popular figures such as Mathew Brady during the American Civil War. Documentary movies evolved from the creation of singular images in order to convey particular types of information in depth, using film as a medium.
Early documentary films, originally called \"actuality films\", briefly lasted for one minute or less in most cases. While faithfully depicting true events, these releases possessed no narrative structure per se and were of limited interest. Over time, documentaries have evolved to become longer in length and to include more categories of information. Some examples are explicitly educational, while others serve as observational works; docufiction movies notably include aspects of dramatic storytelling that are clearly fictional. Documentaries are informative at times, and certain types are often used within schools as a resource to teach various principles. Documentary filmmakers have a responsibility to be truthful to their vision of the world without intentionally misrepresenting a topic.
Social media organizations such as Dailymotion and YouTube, with many of these platforms receiving popular interest, have provided an avenue for the growth of documentaries as a particular film genre. Such platforms have increased the distribution area and ease-of-accessibility given the ability of online video sharing to spread to multiple audiences at once as well as to work past certain socio-political hurdles such as censorship.
| 340 |
Documentary film
| 0 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## Definition
Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film. He wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema, *Une nouvelle source de l\'histoire* (\"A New Source of History\") and *La photographie animée* (\"Animated photography\"). Both were published in 1898 in French and were among the earliest written works to consider the historical and documentary value of the film. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect and keep safe visual materials.
The word \"documentary\" was coined by Scottish documentary filmmaker John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty\'s film *Moana* (1926), published in the *New York Sun* on 8 February 1926, written by \"The Moviegoer\" (a pen name for Grierson).
Grierson\'s principles of documentary were that cinema\'s potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the \"original\" actor and \"original\" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts for interpreting the modern world; and that materials \"thus taken from the raw\" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson\'s definition of documentary as \"creative treatment of actuality\" has gained some acceptance; however, this position is at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov\'s credos of provocation to present \"life as it is\" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously), and \"life caught unawares\" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as \"a factual film which is dramatic.\" Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents. Scholar Betsy McLane asserted that documentaries are for filmmakers to convey their views about historical events, people, and places which they find significant. Therefore, the advantage of documentaries lies in introducing new perspectives which may not be prevalent in traditional media such as written publications and school curricula.
Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, or personal expression.
| 385 |
Documentary film
| 1 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## History
### Pre-1900 {#pre_1900}
Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. Single-shot moments were captured on film, such as a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called \"actuality\" films; the term \"documentary\" was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations. Examples can be viewed on YouTube.
Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, *The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight*. Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States.
In May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film a few surgical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Matuszewski and Clément Maurice to record his surgical operations. They started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906, Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series *Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées* (1906), and the four-film *Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne* (1911). These and five other of Doyen\'s films survive.
Between July 1898 and 1901, the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest: *Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy* (1898), *The Walking Troubles of Organic Paraplegies* (1899), *A Case of Hysteric Hemiplegy Healed Through Hypnosis* (1899), *The Walking Troubles of Progressive Locomotion Ataxy* (1900), and *Illnesses of the Muscles* (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works \"studies with the help of the cinematograph,\" and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of *La Semaine Médicale* magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902. In 1924, Auguste Lumière recognized the merits of Marinescu\'s science films: \"I\'ve seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving *La Semaine Médicale*, but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way.\"
### 1900--1920
thumb\|upright=1.15\|Geoffrey Malins with an aeroscope camera during World War I Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to by distributors as \"scenics\". Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time. An important early film which moved beyond the concept of the scenic was *In the Land of the Head Hunters* (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.
Contemplation is a separate area.`{{Explain|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} Pathé was the best-known global manufacturer of such films in the early 20th century. A vivid example is *Moscow Clad in Snow* (1909).
Biographical documentaries appeared during this time, such as the feature *Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă* (1914) on the relationship between the writers Mihai Eminescu, Veronica Micle and Ion Creangă (all deceased at the time of the production), released by the Bucharest chapter of Pathé.
Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor (known for the feature *With Our King and Queen Through India* (1912)) and Prizma Color (known for *Everywhere With Prizma* (1919) and the five-reel feature *Bali the Unknown* (1921)) used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fiction feature films.
Also during this period, Frank Hurley\'s feature documentary film, *South* (1919) about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released. The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.
| 700 |
Documentary film
| 2 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## History
### 1920s
#### Romanticism
With Robert J. Flaherty\'s *Nanook of the North* in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism. Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic documentary films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in *Nanook of the North*, Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty\'s staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.
Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty\'s *Nanook* and *Moana* with two romanticized documentaries, *Grass* (1925) and *Chang* (1927), both directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.
#### City symphony {#city_symphony}
The \"*city symphony*\" sub film genre consisted of avant-garde films during the 1920s and 1930s. These films were particularly influenced by modern art, namely Cubism, Constructivism, and Impressionism. According to art historian and author Scott MacDonald, city symphony films can be described as, \"An intersection between documentary and avant-garde film: an *avant-doc*\"; however, A.L. Rees suggests regarding them as avant-garde films.
Early titles produced within this genre include: *Manhatta* (New York; dir. Paul Strand, 1921); *Rien que les heures/Nothing But The Hours* (France; dir. Alberto Cavalcanti, 1926); *Twenty Four Dollar Island* (dir. Robert J. Flaherty, 1927); *Moscow* (dir. Mikhail Kaufman, 1927); *Études sur Paris* (dir. André Sauvage, 1928); *The Bridge* (1928) and *Rain* (1929), both by Joris Ivens; *São Paulo, Sinfonia da Metrópole* (dir. Adalberto Kemeny, 1929), *Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis* (dir. Walter Ruttmann, 1927); *Man with a Movie Camera* (dir. Dziga Vertov, 1929); *Douro, Faina Fluvial* (dir. Manoel de Oliveira, 1931); and *Rhapsody in Two Languages* (dir. Gordon Sparling, 1934).
A city symphony film, as the name suggests, is most often based around a major metropolitan city area and seeks to capture the life, events and activities of the city. It can use abstract cinematography (Walter Ruttman\'s *Berlin*) or may use Soviet montage theory (Dziga Vertov\'s, *Man with a Movie Camera*). Most importantly, a city symphony film is a form of cinepoetry, shot and edited in the style of a \"symphony\".
The European continental tradition (*See:* Realism) focused on humans within human-made environments, and included the so-called city symphony films such as Walter Ruttmann\'s, *Berlin: Symphony of a Metropolis* (of which Grierson noted in an article that *Berlin,* represented what a documentary should not be); Alberto Cavalcanti\'s, *Rien que les heures;* and Dziga Vertov\'s *Man with a Movie Camera*. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde.
#### *Kino-Pravda* {#kino_pravda}
Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet *Kino-Pravda* (literally, \"cinematic truth\") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camera`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motion`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}could render reality more accurately than the human eye, and created a film philosophy from it.
#### Newsreel tradition {#newsreel_tradition}
The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film. Newsreels at this time were sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.
| 573 |
Documentary film
| 3 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## History
### 1930s--1940s
The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most celebrated and controversial propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl\'s film *Triumph of the Will* (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler. Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed *Borinage* (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a \"surrealist\" documentary *Las Hurdes* (1933).
Pare Lorentz\'s *The Plow That Broke the Plains* (1936) and *The River* (1938) and Willard Van Dyke\'s *The City* (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra\'s *Why We Fight* (1942--1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature-length documentaries, *Legong: Dance of the Virgins* (1935) filmed in Bali, and *Kilou the Killer Tiger* (1936) filmed in Indochina.
In Canada, the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was set up for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels.
In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include *Drifters* (John Grierson), *Song of Ceylon* (Basil Wright), *Fires Were Started*, and *A Diary for Timothy* (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are *Night Mail* and *Coal Face*.
*Calling Mr. Smith* (1943) is an anti-Nazi color film created by Stefan Themerson which is both a documentary and an avant-garde film against war. It was one of the first anti-Nazi films in history.
| 365 |
Documentary film
| 4 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## History
### 1950s--1970s
#### Cinéma-vérité {#cinéma_vérité}
Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.
Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American \"direct cinema\", pioneered by, among others, Canadians Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault and Allan King, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.
The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.
The films *Chronicle of a Summer* (Jean Rouch), *Dont Look Back* (D. A. Pennebaker), *Grey Gardens* (Albert and David Maysles), *Titicut Follies* (Frederick Wiseman), *Primary* and *Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment* (both produced by Robert Drew), *Harlan County, USA* (directed by Barbara Kopple), *Lonely Boy* (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}such as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Meyer, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}are often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.
Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include *Les Raquetteurs*, *Showman*, *Salesman*, *Near Death*, and *The Children Were Watching*.
#### Political weapons {#political_weapons}
In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often regarded as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing society. *La Hora de los hornos* (*The Hour of the Furnaces*, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was \"Chile: A Special Report\", public television\'s first in-depth expository look at the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.
A June 2020 article in *The New York Times* reviewed the political documentary *And She Could Be Next*, directed by Grace Lee and Marjan Safinia. The *Times* described the documentary not only as focusing on women in politics, but more specifically on women of color, their communities, and the significant changes they have wrought upon America.
| 518 |
Documentary film
| 5 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## History
### Modern documentaries {#modern_documentaries}
Box office analysts have noted that the documentary film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as *Fahrenheit 9/11*, *Super Size Me*, *Food, Inc.*, *Earth*, *March of the Penguins*, and *An Inconvenient Truth* among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.
The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 30 years from the cinéma vérité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as Marlon Riggs\'s *Tongues Untied* (1989) and *Black Is\...Black Ain\'t* (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.
Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour *Eyes on the Prize: America\'s Civil Rights Years* (1986`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Part 1 and 1989`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Part 2) by Henry Hampton, *4 Little Girls* (1997) by Spike Lee, *The Civil War* by Ken Burns, and UNESCO-awarded independent film on slavery *500 Years Later*, express not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such as *The Thin Blue Line* by Errol Morris incorporate stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore\'s *Roger & Me* place far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as \"mondo films\" or \"docu-ganda.\" However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations.
Documentary filmmakers are increasingly using social impact campaigns with their films. Social impact campaigns seek to leverage media projects by converting public awareness of social issues and causes into engagement and action, largely by offering the audience a way to get involved. Examples of such documentaries include *Kony 2012*, *Salam Neighbor, Gasland*, *Living on One Dollar*, and *Girl Rising*.
Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade, the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.
Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of \"reality television\" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The \"making-of\" documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes\' *Voices of Iraq*, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.
#### Documentaries without words {#documentaries_without_words}
Films in the documentary form without words have been made. *Listen to Britain*, directed by Humphrey Jennings and Stuart McAllister in 1942, is a wordless meditation on wartime Britain. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar *Baraka* could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content. *Koyaanisqatsi* (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States. *Baraka* tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies.
*Bodysong* was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for \"Best British Documentary.\"
The 2004 film *Genesis* shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with some, but little, narration.
#### Narration styles {#narration_styles}
Voice-over narrator
The traditional style for narration is to have a dedicated narrator read a script which is dubbed onto the audio track. The narrator never appears on camera and may not necessarily have knowledge of the subject matter or involvement in the writing of the script.
Silent narration
This style of narration uses title screens to visually narrate the documentary. The screens are held for about 5--10 seconds to allow adequate time for the viewer to read them. They are similar to the ones shown at the end of movies based on true stories, but they are shown throughout, typically between scenes.
Hosted narrator
In this style, there is a host who appears on camera, conducts interviews, and who also does voice-overs.
| 813 |
Documentary film
| 6 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## Other forms {#other_forms}
### Hybrid documentary {#hybrid_documentary}
The release of *The Thin Blue Line* (1988) directed by Errol Morris introduced possibilities for emerging forms of the hybrid documentary. Indeed, it was disqualified for an Academy Award because of the stylized recreations. Traditional documentary filmmaking typically removes signs of fictionalization to distinguish itself from fictional film genres. Audiences have recently become more distrustful of the media\'s traditional fact production, making them more receptive to experimental ways of telling facts. The hybrid documentary implements truth games to challenge traditional fact production. Although it is fact-based, the hybrid documentary is not explicit about what should be understood, creating an open dialogue between subject and audience. Clio Barnard\'s *The Arbor* (2010), Joshua Oppenheimer\'s *The Act of Killing* (2012), Mads Brügger\'s *The Ambassador*, and Alma Har\'el\'s *Bombay Beach* (2011) are a few notable examples.
### Docufiction
Docufiction is a hybrid genre from two basic ones, fiction film and documentary, practiced since the first documentary films were made.
### Fake-fiction {#fake_fiction}
Fake-fiction is a genre which deliberately presents real, unscripted events in the form of a fiction film, making them appear as staged. The concept was introduced by Pierre Bismuth to describe his 2016 film *Where is Rocky II?*
### DVD documentary {#dvd_documentary}
A DVD documentary is a documentary film of indeterminate length that has been produced with the sole intent of releasing it for direct sale to the public on DVD, which is different from a documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a. theatrical release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption.
This form of documentary release is becoming more popular and accepted as costs and difficulty with finding TV or theatrical release slots increases. It is also commonly used for more \"specialist\" documentaries, which might not have general interest to a wider TV audience. Examples are military, cultural arts, transport, sports, animals, etc.
### Compilation films {#compilation_films}
Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with *The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty*. More recent examples include *Point of Order!* (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings. Similarly, *The Last Cigarette* combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.
Poetic documentaries, which first appeared in the 1920s, were a sort of reaction against both the content and the rapidly crystallizing grammar of the early fiction film. The poetic mode moved away from continuity editing and instead organized images of the material world by means of associations and patterns, both in terms of time and space. Well-rounded characters`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}\"lifelike people\"`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}were absent; instead, people appeared in these films as entities, just like any other, that are found in the material world. The films were fragmentary, impressionistic, lyrical. Their disruption of the coherence of time and space`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}a coherence favored by the fiction films of the day`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}can also be seen as an element of the modernist counter-model of cinematic narrative. The \"real world\"`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Nichols calls it the \"historical world\"`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}was broken up into fragments and aesthetically reconstituted using film form. Examples of this style include Joris Ivens\' *Rain* (1928), which records a passing summer shower over Amsterdam; László Moholy-Nagy\'s *Play of Light: Black, White, Grey (1930)*, in which he films one of his own kinetic sculptures, emphasizing not the sculpture itself but the play of light around it; Oskar Fischinger\'s abstract animated films; Francis Thompson\'s *N.Y., N.Y.* (1957), a city symphony film; and Chris Marker\'s *Sans Soleil* (1982).
Expository documentaries speak directly to the viewer, often in the form of an authoritative commentary employing voiceover or titles, proposing a strong argument and point of view. These films are rhetorical, and try to persuade the viewer. (They may use a rich and sonorous male voice.) The (voice-of-God) commentary often sounds \"objective\" and omniscient. Images are often not paramount; they exist to advance the argument. The rhetoric insistently presses upon us to read the images in a certain fashion. Historical documentaries in this mode deliver an unproblematic and \"objective\" account and interpretation of past events.
Examples: TV shows and films like *Biography*, *America\'s Most Wanted*, many science and nature documentaries, Ken Burns\' *The Civil War* (1990), Robert Hughes\' *The Shock of the New* (1980), John Berger\'s *Ways of Seeing* (1972), Frank Capra\'s wartime *Why We Fight* series, and Pare Lorentz\'s *The Plow That Broke the Plains* (1936).
### Observational
Observational documentaries attempt to spontaneously observe their subjects with minimal intervention. Filmmakers who worked in this subgenre often saw the poetic mode as too abstract and the expository mode as too didactic. The first observational docs date back to the 1960s; the technological developments which made them possible include mobile lightweight cameras and portable sound recording equipment for synchronized sound. Often, this mode of film eschewed voice-over commentary, post-synchronized dialogue and music, or re-enactments. The films aimed for immediacy, intimacy, and revelation of individual human character in ordinary life situations.
| 822 |
Documentary film
| 7 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## Other forms {#other_forms}
### Types
**Participatory documentaries** believe that it is impossible for the act of filmmaking to not influence or alter the events being filmed. What these films do is emulate the approach of the anthropologist: participant-observation. Not only is the filmmaker part of the film, we also get a sense of how situations in the film are affected or altered by their presence. Nichols: \"The filmmaker steps out from behind the cloak of voice-over commentary, steps away from poetic meditation, steps down from a fly-on-the-wall perch, and becomes a social actor (almost) like any other. (Almost like any other because the filmmaker retains the camera, and with it, a certain degree of potential power and control over events.)\" The encounter between filmmaker and subject becomes a critical element of the film. Rouch and Morin named the approach cinéma vérité, translating Dziga Vertov\'s kinopravda into French; the \"truth\" refers to the truth of the encounter rather than some absolute truth.
**Reflexive documentaries** do not see themselves as a transparent window on the world; instead, they draw attention to their own constructedness, and the fact that they are representations. How does the world get represented by documentary films? This question is central to this subgenre of films. They prompt us to \"question the authenticity of documentary in general.\" It is the most self-conscious of all the modes, and is highly skeptical of \"realism\". It may use Brechtian alienation strategies to jar us, in order to \"defamiliarize\" what we are seeing and how we are seeing it.
**Performative documentaries** stress subjective experience and emotional response to the world. They are strongly personal, unconventional, perhaps poetic and/or experimental, and might include hypothetical enactments of events designed to make us experience what it might be like for us to possess a certain specific perspective on the world that is not our own, e.g. that of black, gay men in Marlon Riggs\'s *Tongues Untied* (1989) or Jenny Livingston\'s *Paris Is Burning* (1991). This subgenre might also lend itself to certain groups (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, etc.) to \"speak about themselves\". Often, a battery of techniques, many borrowed from fiction or avant-garde films, are used. Performative docs often link up personal accounts or experiences with larger political or historical realities.
### Educational films {#educational_films}
Documentaries are shown in schools around the world in order to educate students. Used to introduce various topics to children, they are often used with a school lesson or shown many times to reinforce an idea.
| 422 |
Documentary film
| 8 |
8,088 |
# Documentary film
## Translation
There are several challenges associated with translation of documentaries. The main two are working conditions and problems with terminology.
### Working conditions {#working_conditions}
Documentary translators very often have to meet tight deadlines. Normally, the translator has between five and seven days to hand over the translation of a 90-minute programme. Dubbing studios typically give translators a week to translate a documentary, but in order to earn a good salary, translators have to deliver their translations in a much shorter period, usually when the studio decides to deliver the final programme to the client sooner or when the broadcasting channel sets a tight deadline, e.g. on documentaries discussing the latest news.
Another problem is the lack of postproduction script or the poor quality of the transcription. A correct transcription is essential for a translator to do their work properly, however many times the script is not even given to the translator, which is a major impediment since documentaries are characterised by \"the abundance of terminological units and very specific proper names\". When the script is given to the translator, it is usually poorly transcribed or outright incorrect making the translation unnecessarily difficult and demanding because all of the proper names and specific terminology have to be correct in a documentary programme in order for it to be a reliable source of information, hence the translator has to check every term on their own. Such mistakes in proper names are for instance: \"Jungle Reinhard instead of Django Reinhart, Jorn Asten instead of Jane Austen, and Magnus Axle instead of Aldous Huxley\".
### Terminology
The process of translation of a documentary programme requires working with very specific, often scientific terminology. Documentary translators are not usually specialists in a given field. Therefore, they are compelled to undertake extensive research whenever asked to make a translation of a specific documentary programme in order to understand it correctly and deliver the final product free of mistakes and inaccuracies. Generally, documentaries contain a large number of specific terms, with which translators have to familiarise themselves on their own, for example:
> The documentary *Beetles, Record Breakers* makes use of 15 different terms to refer to beetles in less than 30 minutes (longhorn beetle, cellar beetle, stag beetle, burying beetle or gravediggers, sexton beetle, tiger beetle, bloody nose beetle, tortoise beetle, diving beetle, devil\'s coach horse, weevil, click beetle, malachite beetle, oil beetle, cockchafer), apart from mentioning other animals such as horseshoe bats or meadow brown butterflies.
This poses a real challenge for the translators because they have to render the meaning, i.e. find an equivalent, of a very specific, scientific term in the target language and frequently the narrator uses a more general name instead of a specific term and the translator has to rely on the image presented in the programme to understand which term is being discussed in order to transpose it in the target language accordingly. Additionally, translators of minorised languages often have to face another problem: some terms may not even exist in the target language. In such cases, they have to create new terminology or consult specialists to find proper solutions. Also, sometimes the official nomenclature differs from the terminology used by actual specialists, which leaves the translator to decide between using the official vocabulary that can be found in the dictionary, or rather opting for spontaneous expressions used by real experts in real life situations
| 569 |
Documentary film
| 9 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
***Day of the Tentacle***, also known as ***Maniac Mansion II: Day of the Tentacle***, is a 1993 graphic adventure game developed and published by LucasArts. It is the sequel to the 1987 game *Maniac Mansion*. The plot follows Bernard Bernoulli and his friends Hoagie and Laverne as they attempt to stop the evil Purple Tentacle - a sentient, disembodied tentacle - from taking over the world. The player takes control of the trio and solves puzzles while using time travel to explore different periods of history.
Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer co-led the game\'s development, their first time in such a role. The pair carried over a limited number of elements from *Maniac Mansion* and forwent the character selection aspect to simplify development. Inspirations included Chuck Jones cartoons and the history of the United States. *Day of the Tentacle* was the eighth LucasArts game to use the SCUMM engine.
The game was released simultaneously on floppy disk and CD-ROM to critical acclaim and commercial success. Critics focused on its cartoon-style visuals and comedic elements. *Day of the Tentacle* has featured regularly in lists of \"top\" games published more than two decades after its release, and has been referenced in popular culture. A remastered version of *Day of the Tentacle* was developed by Schafer\'s current studio, Double Fine Productions, and released in March 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with an iOS and Linux port released in July the same year, and then later for Xbox One in October 2020.
## Gameplay
*Day of the Tentacle* follows the point-and-click two-dimensional adventure game formula, first established by the original *Maniac Mansion*. Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse. To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of nine commands arrayed on the screen (such as \"pick up\", \"use\", or \"talk to\") and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, *Sam & Max Hit the Road*, the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen.
*Day of the Tentacle* uses time travel extensively; early in the game, the three main protagonists are separated across time by the effects of a faulty time machine. The player, after completing certain puzzles, can then freely switch between these characters, interacting with the game\'s world in separate time periods. Certain small inventory items can be shared by placing the item into the \"Chron-o-Johns\", modified portable toilets that instantly transport objects to one of the other time periods, while other items are shared by simply leaving the item in a past time period to be picked up by a character in a future period. Changes made to a past time period will affect a future one, and many of the game\'s puzzles are based on the effect of time travel, the aging of certain items, and alterations of the time stream. For example, one puzzle requires the player, while in the future era where Purple Tentacle has succeeded, to send a medical chart of a Tentacle back to the past, having it used as the design of the American flag, then collecting one such flag in the future to be used as a Tentacle disguise to allow that character to roam freely.
The whole original *Maniac Mansion* game can be played on a computer resembling a Commodore 64 inside the *Day of the Tentacle* game; this practice has since been repeated by other game developers, but at the time of *Day of the Tentacle\'s* release, it was unprecedented.
| 644 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 0 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
## Plot
Five years after the events of *Maniac Mansion*, Purple Tentacle---a mutant monster and lab assistant created by mad scientist Dr. Fred Edison---drinks toxic sludge from a river behind Dr. Fred\'s laboratory. The sludge causes him to grow a pair of flipper-like arms, develop vastly increased intelligence, and have a thirst for global domination. Dr. Fred plans to resolve the issue by killing Purple Tentacle and his harmless, friendly brother Green Tentacle, but Green Tentacle sends a plea of help to his old friend, the nerd Bernard Bernoulli. Bernard travels to the Edison family motel with his two housemates, deranged medical student Laverne and roadie Hoagie, and frees the tentacles. Purple Tentacle escapes to resume his quest to take over the world.
Since Purple Tentacle\'s plans are flawless and unstoppable, Dr. Fred decides to use his Chron-o-John time machines to send Bernard, Laverne, and Hoagie to the day before to turn off his Sludge-o-Matic machine, thereby preventing Purple Tentacle\'s exposure to the sludge. However, because Dr. Fred used an imitation diamond rather than a real diamond as a power source for the time machine, the Chron-o-Johns break down in operation. Laverne is sent 200 years in the future, where humanity has been enslaved and Purple Tentacle rules the world from the Edison mansion, while Hoagie is dropped 200 years in the past, where the motel is being used by the Founding Fathers as a retreat to write the United States Constitution. Bernard is returned to the present. To salvage Dr. Fred\'s plan, Bernard must acquire a replacement diamond for the time machine, while both Hoagie and Laverne must restore power to their respective Chron-o-John pods by plugging them in. To overcome the lack of electricity in the past, Hoagie recruits the help of Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Fred\'s ancestor, Red Edison, to build a superbattery to power his pod, while Laverne evades capture by the tentacles long enough to run an extension cord to her unit. The three send small objects back and forth in time through the Chron-o-Johns and make changes to history to help the others complete their tasks.
Eventually, Bernard uses Dr. Fred\'s family fortune of royalties from the use of their likeness in *Maniac Mansion* to purchase a real diamond, while his friends manage to power their Chron-o-Johns. Soon, the three are reunited in the present. Purple Tentacle arrives, hijacks a Chron-o-John, and takes it to the previous day to prevent them from turning off the sludge machine; he is pursued by Green Tentacle in another pod. With only one Chron-o-John pod left, Bernard, Hoagie, and Laverne use it to pursue the tentacles to the previous day, while Dr. Fred uselessly tries to warn them of using the pod together, referencing the film *The Fly*. Upon arriving, the trio exit the pod only to discover that they have been turned into a three-headed monster, their bodies merging into one during the transfer. Meanwhile, Purple Tentacle has used the time machine to bring countless versions of himself from different moments in time to the same day to prevent the Sludge-o-Matic from being deactivated. Bernard and his friends defeat the Purple Tentacles guarding the Sludge-o-Matic, turn off the machine, and prevent the whole series of events from ever happening. Returning to the present, Dr. Fred discovers that the three have not been turned into a monster at all but have just gotten stuck in the same set of clothes; they are then ordered by Dr. Fred to get out of his house. The game ends with the credits rolling over a tentacle-shaped American flag, one of the more significant results of their tampering in history.
| 613 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 1 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
## Development
Following a string of successful adventure games, LucasArts assigned Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer to lead development of a new game. The two had previously assisted Ron Gilbert with the creation of *The Secret of Monkey Island* and *Monkey Island 2: LeChuck\'s Revenge*, and the studio felt that Grossman and Schafer were ready to manage a project. The company believed that the pair\'s humor matched well with that of *Maniac Mansion* and suggested working on a sequel. The two developers agreed and commenced production. Gilbert and Gary Winnick, the creators of *Maniac Mansion*, collaborated with Grossman and Schafer on the initial planning and writing. The total budget for the game was about \$600,000, according to Schafer.
### Creative design {#creative_design}
In planning the plot, the four designers considered a number of concepts, eventually choosing an idea of Gilbert\'s about time travel that they believed was the most interesting. The four discussed what time periods to focus on, settling on the Revolutionary War and the future. The Revolutionary War offered opportunities to craft many puzzles around that period, such as changing the Constitution to affect the future. Grossman noted the appeal of the need to make wide-sweeping changes such as the Constitution just to achieve a small personal goal, believing this captured the essence of adventure games. The future period allowed them to explore the nature of cause and effect without any historical bounds. Grossman and Schafer decided to carry over previous characters that they felt were the most entertaining. The two considered the Edison family \"essential\" and chose Bernard because of his \"unqualified nerdiness\". Bernard was considered \"everyone\'s favorite character\" from *Maniac Mansion*, and was the clear first choice for the protagonists. The game\'s other protagonists, Laverne and Hoagie, were based on a Mexican ex-girlfriend of Grossman\'s and a Megadeth roadie named Tony that Schafer had met, respectively. Schafer and Grossman planned to use a character selection system similar to the first game but felt that it would have complicated the design process and increased production costs. Believing that it added little to the gameplay, they removed it early in the process and reduced the number of player characters from six to three. The dropped characters included Razor, a female musician from the previous game; Moonglow, a short character in baggy clothes; and Chester, a black beat poet. Ideas for Chester, however, morphed into new twin characters in the Edison family. The smaller number of characters reduced the strain on the game\'s engine in terms of scripting and animation.
The staff collaboratively designed the characters. They first discussed the character personalities, which Larry Ahern used to create concept art. Ahern wanted to make sure that the art style was consistent and the character designs were established early, in contrast to what had happened with *Monkey Island 2*, in which various artists came in later to help fill in art assets as necessary, creating a disjointed style. Looney Tunes animation shorts, particularly the Chuck Jones-directed *Rabbit of Seville*, *What\'s Opera, Doc?*, and *Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century* inspired the artistic design. The cartoonish style also lent itself to providing larger visible faces to enable more expressive characters. Peter Chan designed backgrounds, spending around two days to progress from concept sketch to final art for each background. Chan too used Looney Tunes as influence for the backgrounds, trying to emulate the style of Jones and Maurice Noble. Ahern and Chan went back and forth with character and background art to make sure both styles worked together without too much distraction. They further had Jones visit their studio during development to provide input into their developing art. The choice of art style inspired further ideas from the designers. Grossman cited cartoons featuring Pepé Le Pew, and commented that the gag involving a painted white stripe on Penelope Pussycat inspired a puzzle in the game. The artists spent a year creating the in-game animations.
The script was written in the evening when fewer people were in the office. Grossman considered it the easiest aspect of production, but encountered difficulties when writing with others around.
Grossman and Schafer brainstormed regularly to devise the time travel puzzles and collaborated with members of the development team as well as other LucasArts employees. They would identify puzzle problems and work towards a solution similar to how the game plays. Most issues were addressed prior to programming, but some details were left unfinished to work on later. The staff conceived puzzles involving the U.S.\'s early history based on their memory of their compulsory education, and using the more legendary aspects of history, such as George Washington cutting down a cherry tree to appeal to international audiences. To complete the elements, Grossman researched the period to maintain historical accuracy, visiting libraries and contacting reference librarians. The studio, however, took creative license towards facts to fit them into the game\'s design.
*Day of the Tentacle* features a four-minute-long animated opening credit sequence, the first LucasArts game to have such. Ahern noted that their previous games would run the credits over primarily still shots which would only last for a few minutes, but with *Tentacle*, the team had grown so large that they worried this approach would be boring to players. They assigned Kyle Balda, an intern at CalArts, to create the animated sequence, with Chan helping to create minimalist backgrounds to aid in the animation. Originally this sequence was around seven minutes long, and included the three characters arriving at the mansion and releasing Purple Tentacle. Another LucasArts designer, Hal Barwood, suggested they cut it in half, leading to the shortened version as in the released game, and having the player take over when they arrive at the mansion.
| 956 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 2 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
## Development
### Technology and audio {#technology_and_audio}
*Day of the Tentacle* uses the SCUMM engine developed for *Maniac Mansion*. LucasArts had gradually modified the engine since its creation. For example, the number of input verbs was reduced and items in the character\'s inventory are represented by icons rather than text. While implementing an animation, the designers encountered a problem later discovered to be a limitation of the engine. Upon learning of the limitation, Gilbert reminisced about the file size of the first game. The staff then resolved to include it in the sequel.
*Day of the Tentacle* was the first LucasArts adventure game to feature voice work on release. The game was not originally planned to include voice work, as at the time, the install base for CD-ROM was too low. As they neared the end of 1992, CD-ROM sales grew significantly. The general manager of LucasArts, Kelly Flock, recognizing that the game would not be done in time by the end of the year to make the holiday release, suggested that the team include voice work for the game, giving them more time.
Voice director Tamlynn Barra managed that aspect of the game. Schafer and Grossman described how they imagined the characters\' voices and Barra sought audition tapes of voice actors to meet the criteria. She presented the best auditions to the pair. Schafer\'s sister Ginny was among the auditions, and she was chosen for Nurse Edna. Schafer opted out of the decision for her selection to avoid nepotism. Grossman and Schafer encountered difficulty selecting a voice for Bernard. To aid the process, Grossman commented that the character should sound like Les Nessman from the television show *WKRP in Cincinnati*. Barra responded that she knew the agent of the character\'s actor, Richard Sanders, and brought Sanders on the project. Denny Delk and Nick Jameson were among those hired, and provided voice work for around five characters each. Recording for the 4,500 lines of dialog occurred at Studio 222 in Hollywood. Barra directed the voice actors separately from a sound production booth. She provided context for each line and described aspects of the game to aid the actors. The voice work in Day of the Tentacle was widely praised for its quality and professionalism in comparison to Sierra\'s talkie games of the period which suffered from poor audio quality and limited voice acting (some of which consisted of Sierra employees rather than professional talent).
The game\'s music was composed by Peter McConnell, Michael Land, and Clint Bajakian. The three had worked together to share the duties equally of composing the music for *Monkey Island 2* and *Fate of Atlantis*, and continued this approach for *Day of the Tentacle*. According to McConnell, he had composed most of the music taking place in the game\'s present, Land for the future, and Bajakian for the past, outside of Dr. Fred\'s theme for the past which McConnell had done. The music was composed around the cartoonish nature of the gameplay, further drawing on Looney Tunes\' use of parodying classical works of music, and playing on set themes for all of the major characters in the game. Many of these themes had to be composed to take into account different processing speeds of computers at the time, managed by the iMUSE music interface; such themes would include shorter repeating patterns that would play while the game\'s screen scrolled across, and then once the screen was at the proper place, the music would continue on to a more dramatic phrase.
*Day of the Tentacle* was one of the first games concurrently released on CD-ROM and floppy disk. A floppy disk version was created to accommodate consumers that had yet to purchase CD-ROM drives. The CD-ROM format afforded the addition of audible dialog. The capacity difference between the two formats necessitated alterations to the floppy disk version. Grossman spent several weeks reducing files sizes and removing files such as the audio dialog to fit the game onto six diskettes.
| 667 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 3 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
## Reception
*Day of the Tentacle* was a moderate commercial success; according to *Edge*, it sold roughly 80,000 copies by 2009. Tim Schafer saw this as an improvement over his earlier projects, the *Monkey Island* games, which had been commercial flops. The game was critically acclaimed. Charles Ardai of *Computer Gaming World* wrote in September 1993: \"Calling *Day of the Tentacle* a sequel to *Maniac Mansion* \... is a little like calling the space shuttle a sequel to the slingshot\". He enjoyed the game\'s humor and interface, and praised the designers for removing \"dead end\" scenarios and player character death. Ardai lauded the voice acting, writing that it \"would have done the late Mel Blanc proud\", and compared the game\'s humor, animation, and camera angles to \"Looney Toons `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} gems from the 40s and 50s\". He concluded: \"I expect that this game will keep entertaining people for quite some time to come\". In April 1994 the magazine said of the CD version that Sanders\'s Bernard was among \"many other inspired performances\", concluding that \"Chuck Jones would be proud\". In May 1994 the magazine said of one multimedia kit bundling the CD version that \"it packs more value into the kit than the entire software packages of some of its competitors\". Sandy Petersen of *Dragon* stated that its graphics \"are in a stupendous cartoony style\", while praising its humor and describing its sound and music as \"excellent\". Although the reviewer considered it \"one of the best\" graphic adventure games, he noted that, like LucasArts\' earlier *Loom*, it was extremely short; he wrote that he \"felt cheated somehow when I finished the game\". He ended the review, \"Go, Lucasfilm! Do this again, but do make the next game longer!\".
Phil LaRose of *The Advocate* called it \"light-years ahead of the original\", and believed that its \"improved controls, sound and graphics are an evolutionary leap to a more enjoyable gaming experience\". He praised the interface, and summarized the game as \"another of the excellent LucasArts programs that place a higher premium on the quality of entertainment and less on the technical knowledge needed to make it run\". The *Boston Herald*{{\'}}s Geoff Smith noted that \"the animation of the cartoonlike characters is of TV quality\", and praised the removal of dead ends and character death. He ended: \"It\'s full of lunacy, but for anyone who likes light-hearted adventure games, it\'s well worth trying\". Vox Day of *The Blade* called its visuals \"well done\" and compared them to those of *The Ren & Stimpy Show*. The writer praised the game\'s humor, and said that \"both the music and sound effects are hilarious\"; he cited the voice performance of Richard Sanders as a high point. He summarized the game as \"both a good adventure and a funny cartoon\".
Lim Choon Wee of the *New Straits Times* highly praised the game\'s humor, which he called \"brilliantly funny\". The writer commented that the game\'s puzzles relied on \"trial and error\" with \"no underlying logic\", but opined that the game \"remains fun\" despite this issue, and concluded that *Day of the Tentacle* was \"definitely the comedy game of the year\". Daniel Baum of *The Jerusalem Post* called it \"one of the funniest, most entertaining and best-programmed computer games I have ever seen\", and lauded its animation. He wrote that the game provided \"a more polished impression\" than either *The Secret of Monkey Island* or *Monkey Island 2: LeChuck\'s Revenge*. The writer claimed that its high system requirements were its only drawback, and believed that a Sound Blaster card was required to fully appreciate the game. In a retrospective review, Adventure Gamers\' Chris Remo wrote: \"If someone were to ask for a few examples of games that exemplify the best of the graphic adventure genre, *Day of the Tentacle* would certainly be near the top\".
*Day of the Tentacle* has been featured regularly in lists of \"top\" games. In 1994, *PC Gamer US* named *Day of the Tentacle* the 46th best computer game ever. In June 1994 it and *Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers* won *Computer Gaming World*{{\'}}s Adventure Game of the Year award. The editors wrote that \"*Day of the Tentacle*{{\'}}s fluid animation sequences underscore a strong script and solid game play \... story won out over technological innovation in this genre\". In 1996, the magazine ranked it as the 34th best game of all time, writing: \"*DOTT* completely blew away its ancestor, *Maniac Mansion*, with its smooth animated sequences, nifty plot and great voiceovers\". Adventure Gamers included the game as the top entry on its 20 Greatest Adventure Games of All Time List in 2004, and placed it sixth on its Top 100 All-Time Adventure Games in 2011. The game has appeared on several IGN lists. The website rated it number 60 and 84 on its top 100 games list in 2005 and 2007, respectively. IGN named *Day of the Tentacle* as part of their top 10 LucasArts adventure games in 2009, and ranked the Purple Tentacle 82nd in a list of top 100 videogame villains in 2010. ComputerAndVideoGames.com ranked it at number 30 in 2008, and GameSpot also listed *Day of the Tentacle* as one of the greatest games of all time.
| 871 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 4 |
8,090 |
# Day of the Tentacle
## Legacy
Fans of *Day of the Tentacle* created a webcomic, *The Day After the Day of the Tentacle*, using the game\'s graphics. The 1993 LucasArts game *Zombies Ate My Neighbors* features a stage dedicated to *Day of the Tentacle*. The artists for *Day of the Tentacle* shared office space with the *Zombies Ate My Neighbors* development team. The team included the homage after frequently seeing artwork for *Day of the Tentacle* during the two games\' productions. In describing what he considered \"the most rewarding moment\" of his career, Grossman stated that the game\'s writing and use of spoken and subtitled dialog assisted a learning-disabled child in learning how to read. Telltale Games CEO Dan Connors commented in 2009 that an episodic game based on *Day of the Tentacle* was \"feasible\", but depended on the sales of the *Monkey Island* games released that year.
In 2018, a fan-made sequel, *Return of the Tentacle*, was released free by a team from Germany. The game imitates the art style of the *Remastered* edition and features full voice acting.
## Remasters
### *Special Edition* {#special_edition}
According to Kotaku, a remastered version of *Day of the Tentacle* was in the works at LucasArts Singapore before the sale of LucasArts to Disney in 2012. Though never officially approved, the game used a pseudo-3D art style and was nearly 80% complete, according to one person close to the project, but was shelved in the days before the closure of LucasArts.
### *Remastered*
A remastered version of *Day of the Tentacle* was developed by Schafer and his studio, Double Fine Productions. The remaster was released on March 22, 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with a Linux version released at July 11 together with a mobile port for iOS. The PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions are cross-buy and also feature cross-save. An Xbox One port came in October 2020. The remastered game was released as a free PlayStation Plus title for the month of January 2017.
Schafer credited both LucasArts and Disney for help in creating the remaster, which follows from a similar remastering of *Grim Fandango*, as well by Double Fine, in January 2015. Schafer said when they originally were about to secure the rights to *Grim Fandango* from LucasArts to make the remaster, they did not originally have plans to redo the other LucasArts adventure games, but with the passionate response they got on the news of the *Grim Fandango* remaster, they decided to continue these efforts. Schafer described getting the rights to *Day of the Tentacle* a \"miracle\" though aided by the fact that many of the executives in the legal rights chain had fond memories of playing these games and helped to secure the rights. 2 Player Productions, which has worked before with Double Fine to document their game development process, also created a mini-documentary for *Day of the Tentacle Remastered*, which included a visit to the Skywalker Ranch, where LucasArts games were originally developed, where much of the original concept art and digital files for the game and other LucasArts adventure games were archived.
*Day of the Tentacle Remastered* retains its two-dimensional cartoon-style art, redrawn at a higher resolution for modern computers. The high resolution character art was updated by a team led by Yujin Keim with the consultation of Ahern and Chan. Keim\'s team used many of the original sketches of characters and assets from the two and emulated their style with improvements for modern graphics systems. Matt Hansen worked on recreating the background assets in high resolution. As with the *Grim Fandango* remaster, the player can switch back and forth between the original graphics and the high-resolution version. The game includes a more streamlined interaction menu, a command wheel akin to the approach used in *Broken Age*, but the player can opt to switch back to the original interface. The game\'s soundtrack has been redone within MIDI adapted to work with the iMUSE system. There is an option to listen to commentary from the original creators, including Schafer, Grossman, Chan, McConnell, Ahern, and Bajakian. The remaster contains the fully playable version of the original *Maniac Mansion*, though no enhancements have been made to that game-within-a-game.
*Day of the Tentacle Remastered* has received positive reviews, with the PC version having an aggregate review score of 87/100 tallied by *Metacritic*. Reviewers generally praised the game as having not lost its charm since its initial release, but found some aspects of the remastering to be lackluster. Richard Corbett for *Eurogamer* found the game \"every bit as well crafted now as it was in 1993\", but found the processes used to provide high-definition graphics from the original 16-bit graphics to making some of the required shortcuts taken in 1993 for graphics, such as background dithering and low animation framerates, more obvious on modern hardware. *IGN*{{\'}}s Jared Petty also found the remastered to still be enjoyable, and found the improvement on the graphics to be \"glorious\", but worried that the lack of a hint system, as was added in *The Secret of Monkey Island* remastered version, would put off new players to the game. Bob Mackey for *USgamer* found that while past remastered adventure games have highlighted how much has changed in gamers\' expectations since the heyday of adventure games in the 1990s, *Day of the Tentacle Remastered* \"rises above these issues to become absolutely timeless\"
| 901 |
Day of the Tentacle
| 5 |
8,117 |
# Dumbarton Bridge (California)
The **Dumbarton Bridge** is the southernmost of the highway bridges across San Francisco Bay in California. Carrying over 70,000 vehicles and about 118 pedestrian and bicycle crossings daily (384 on weekends), it is the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at 1.63 mi. Its eastern end is in Fremont, near Newark in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and its western end is in Menlo Park. Bridging State Route 84 across the bay, it has three lanes each way and a separated bike/pedestrian lane along its south side. As with the San Mateo--Hayward Bridge to the north, power lines parallel the bridge.
## History and engineering features {#history_and_engineering_features}
The bridge has never been officially named, but its commonly used name comes from Dumbarton Point near the east end of the bridge, named in 1876 after Dumbarton, Scotland. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge opened on January 17, 1927, and was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. A portion of this old drawbridge remains as a fishing pier on the east side of the Bay. The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the state for \$2.5 million in 1951 (equivalent to \$`{{Inflation|US|2.5|1951|r=2}}`{=mediawiki} million in `{{Inflation/year|US}}`{=mediawiki}).
Its age, and the two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span, led to a replacement bridge being built to the north. This bridge opened in October 1982 as a four-lane, high-level structure. The structure was re-striped to accommodate six lanes on October 18, 1989, in response to the temporary closing of the San Francisco--Oakland Bay Bridge due to the Loma Prieta earthquake, and the permanent widening of the approaches was completed by July 2003. The cost of the complete replacement project was \$200 million (equivalent to \$`{{Inflation|US|200|2003|r=2}}`{=mediawiki} million in `{{Inflation/year|US}}`{=mediawiki}). The current bridge includes a two-way bicycle and separate pedestrian path on the south-facing side. A 340 ft center span provides 85 ft of vertical clearance for shipping. The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of pre-stressed lightweight concrete girders supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck.
The center span of the original bridge was demolished in a controlled explosion in September 1984.
| 397 |
Dumbarton Bridge (California)
| 0 |
8,117 |
# Dumbarton Bridge (California)
## Roadway connections {#roadway_connections}
The bridge is part of State Route 84, and is directly connected to Interstate 880 by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end. There is no freeway connection between U.S. 101 and the southwest end of the Dumbarton Bridge. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge. These are (from northwest to southeast):
1. the Bayfront Expressway, a limited-access road linking to U.S. 101 at Marsh Road, Atherton (the official routing of SR 84)
2. Willow Road (SR 114), an approximately one-mile expressway through east Menlo Park to U.S. 101
3. University Avenue (SR 109), an arterial road and the main commercial street of East Palo Alto.
The Willow Road and University Avenue junctions with Bayfront Expressway are at-grade intersections controlled by traffic lights; there are two additional controlled intersections at Chilco Road and Marsh Road, and the Marsh Road interchange on U.S. 101 is a parclo. The result is that Bayfront Expressway is frequently congested, and when not congested is often the site of high-speed car crashes. In 2007, author David Halberstam was killed in one such crash at the Willow Road intersection.
Access to I-280 is available via State Route 84 to Woodside Road (as signed) or other arterial routes. There are no cross-Peninsula freeway connections between State Routes 92 and 84. In addition, there are no direct cross-Peninsula arterial routes between State Route 84 and Page Mill Road, a five-mile gap.
Although the present situation has resulted in severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and East Palo Alto, Caltrans has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to freeway standards for several decades, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, Atherton and Palo Alto. Freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in southern Alameda County (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area (where businesses wish to be located in order to be close to Silicon Valley), thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south and west of U.S. 101 and even along State Routes 85 and 237.
Bus service across the bridge is provided by the Dumbarton Express, run by a consortium of local transit agencies (SamTrans, AC Transit, VTA and others) which connects to BART at Union City and Caltrain at Palo Alto and California Avenue. AC Transit also runs Transbay buses U (Fremont BART and Amtrak to Stanford) and DA (Ardenwood to Oracle and Facebook headquarters) across the bridge. The free Stanford Marguerite Shuttle also runs buses AE-F and EB across the bridge.
## Environmental factors {#environmental_factors}
When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, Caltrans conducted extensive environmental research on the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Principal concerns of the public were air pollution and noise pollution impacts, particularly in some residential areas of Menlo Park and East Palo Alto. Studies were conducted to produce contour maps of projected sound levels and carbon monoxide concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme.
The area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals. The endangered species California clapper rail is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area.
Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park\'s Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto\'s Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and the Palo Alto Baylands Nature Preserve. An accessible portion of the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs.
On both sides of the east end of the bridge are large salt ponds and levee trails belonging to the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the east end of the bridge is Coyote Hills Regional Park, with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the Alameda Creek Regional Trail from the Bay to Niles Canyon. East of Coyote Hills is Ardenwood Historic Farm, a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods
| 706 |
Dumbarton Bridge (California)
| 1 |
8,117 |
# Dumbarton Bridge (California)
## Tolls
Tolls are only collected from westbound traffic headed to Menlo Park at the toll plaza on the Fremont side of the bay. All-electronic tolling has been in effect since 2020, and drivers may either pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection device or using the license plate tolling program. It remains not truly an open road tolling system until the remaining unused toll booths are removed, forcing drivers to slow substantially from freeway speeds while passing through. Effective `{{Start and end dates|2025|01|01|2025|12|31}}`{=mediawiki}, the toll rate for passenger cars is \$8. During peak traffic hours on weekdays between 5:00 am and 10:00 am, and between 3:00 pm and 7:00 pm, carpool vehicles carrying three or more people, clean air vehicles, or motorcycles may pay a discounted toll of \$4 if they have FasTrak and use the designated carpool lane. Carpools with two people may also receive the discount until 2026. Drivers without Fastrak or a license plate account must open and pay via a \"short term\" account within 48 hours after crossing the bridge or they will be sent an invoice of the unpaid toll. No additional toll violation penalty will be assessed if the invoice is paid within 21 days.
### Historical toll rates {#historical_toll_rates}
Prior to 1969, tolls on the Dumbarton Bridge were collected in both directions. When it opened, the original 1927 span had a toll of \$0.40 per car (`{{inflation|US|0.40|1927|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}) plus \$0.05 per passenger (`{{inflation|US|0.05|1927|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}). In 1959, tolls were set to \$0.35 per car (`{{inflation|US|0.35|1959|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}). It was raised to \$0.70 in 1969 (`{{inflation|US|0.70|1969|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}), then \$0.75 in 1976 (`{{inflation|US|0.75|1976|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}). The toll per car remained at \$0.75 when the replacement bridge opened in 1982 (`{{inflation|US|0.75|1982|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}).
The basic toll (for automobiles) on the seven state-owned bridges, including the Dumbarton Bridge, was standardized to \$1 by Regional Measure 1, approved by Bay Area voters in 1988 (`{{inflation|US|1|1988|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}). A \$1 seismic retrofit surcharge was added in 1998 by the state legislature, increasing the toll to \$2 (`{{inflation|US|2|1998|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}), originally for eight years, but since then extended to December 2037 (AB1171, October 2001). On March 2, 2004, voters approved Regional Measure 2 to fund various transportation improvement projects, raising the toll by another dollar to \$3 (`{{inflation|US|3.00|2004|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}). An additional dollar was added to the toll starting January 1, 2007, to cover cost overruns on the eastern span replacement of the Bay Bridge, increasing the toll to \$4 (`{{inflation|US|4|2007|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}).
The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC), a regional transportation agency, in its capacity as the Bay Area Toll Authority, administers RM1 and RM2 funds, a significant portion of which are allocated to public transit capital improvements and operating subsidies in the transportation corridors served by the bridges. Caltrans administers the \"second dollar\" seismic surcharge, and receives some of the MTC-administered funds to perform other maintenance work on the bridges. The state legislature created the Bay Area Toll Authority in 1997 to transfer the toll administration of the seven state-owned bridges to the MTC. The Bay Area Toll Authority is made up of appointed officials put in place by various city and county governments, and is not subject to direct voter oversight.
Due to further funding shortages for seismic retrofit projects, the Bay Area Toll Authority again raised tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges in July 2010. The toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was thus increased to \$5 (`{{inflation|US|5.00|2010|r=2|fmt=eq}}`{=mediawiki}).
In June 2018, Bay Area voters approved Regional Measure 3 to further raise the tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges to fund \$4.5 billion worth of transportation improvements in the area. Under the passed measure, the toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was increased to \$6 on January 1, 2019; to \$7 on January 1, 2022; and then to \$8 on January 1, 2025.
In September 2019, the MTC approved a \$4 million plan to eliminate toll takers and convert all seven of the state-owned bridges to all-electronic tolling, citing that 80 percent of drivers are now using Fastrak and the change would improve traffic flow. On March 20, 2020, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was placed in effect for all seven state-owned toll bridges. The MTC then installed new systems at all seven bridges to make them permanently cashless by the start of 2021. In April 2022, the Bay Area Toll Authority announced plans to remove all remaining unused toll booths and create an open-road tolling system which functions at highway speeds.
The Bay Area Toll Authority then approved a plan in December 2024 to implement 50-cent annual toll increases on all seven state-owned bridges between 2026 and 2030 to help pay for bridge maintenance. The standard toll rate for autos will thus rise to \$8.50 on January 1, 2026; \$9 in 2027; \$9.50 in 2028; \$10 in 2029; and then to \$10.50 in 2030. And becoming effective in 2027, a 25-cent surcharge will be added to any toll charged to a license plate account, and a 50-cent surcharge added to a toll violation invoice, due to the added cost of processing these payment methods. The carpool lane rules will also be standardized across the toll bridges in 2026, with a minimum of three people required to qualify for the discount.
| 870 |
Dumbarton Bridge (California)
| 2 |
8,117 |
# Dumbarton Bridge (California)
## Dumbarton Rail Bridge {#dumbarton_rail_bridge}
Just to the south of the car bridge lies the **Dumbarton Rail Bridge**. Built in 1910, the rail bridge has been unused since 1982 and its western approach collapsed in a fire in 1998. When the bridge was in use, boaters would signal the operator, who would start a diesel engine and rotate the bridge to the open position on a large gear. The bridge is now left in the open position as shown. There are plans for a new rail bridge and rehabilitation of the rail line to serve a commuter rail service to connect Union City, Fremont, and Newark to various Peninsula destinations. A successful March 2004 regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for the commuter rail service, but in October 2008 the Metropolitan Transportation Commission transferred \$91 million from this project to the BART Warm Springs extension in Fremont .
## Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct {#hetch_hetchy_aqueduct}
Between the Dumbarton Bridge and the Dumbarton Rail Bridge is the Bay crossing of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct. The aqueduct rises above ground in Newark at the east side of the Bay, falls below the water\'s surface at a pump station in Fremont, re-emerges in the middle of the Bay and then continues above water until it reaches the west side of the Bay at Menlo Park.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
A scene of the 1971 movie *Harold and Maude* was filmed at the original toll plaza and showed Maude speeding and disobeying a police officer
| 259 |
Dumbarton Bridge (California)
| 3 |
8,131 |
# Dendrite
A **dendrite** (from Greek δένδρον *déndron*, \"tree\") or **dendron** is a branched cytoplasmic process that extends from a nerve cell that propagates the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons (usually via their axons) via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree.
Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron.
## Structure and function {#structure_and_function}
Dendrites are one of two types of cytoplasmic processes that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an axon. Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by several features including shape, length, and function. Dendrites often taper off in shape and are shorter, while axons tend to maintain a constant radius and can be very long. Typically, axons transmit electrochemical signals and dendrites receive the electrochemical signals, although some types of neurons in certain species lack specialized axons and transmit signals via their dendrites. Dendrites provide an enlarged surface area to receive signals from axon terminals of other neurons. The dendrite of a large pyramidal cell receives signals from about 30,000 presynaptic neurons. Excitatory synapses terminate on dendritic spines, tiny protrusions from the dendrite with a high density of neurotransmitter receptors. Most inhibitory synapses directly contact the dendritic shaft.
Synaptic activity causes local changes in the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of the dendrite. This change in membrane potential will passively spread along the dendrite, but becomes weaker with distance without an action potential. To generate an action potential, many excitatory synapses have to be active at the same time, leading to strong depolarization of the dendrite and the cell body (soma). The action potential, which typically starts at the axon hillock, propagates down the length of the axon to the axon terminals where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, but also backwards into the dendrite (retrograde propagation), providing an important signal for spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP).
Most synapses are axodendritic, involving an axon signaling to a dendrite. There are also dendrodendritic synapses, signaling from one dendrite to another. An autapse is a synapse in which the axon of one neuron transmits signals to its own dendrite.
The general structure of the dendrite is used to classify neurons into multipolar, bipolar and unipolar types. Multipolar neurons are composed of one axon and many dendritic trees. Pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies and large dendrites that extend towards the surface of the cortex (apical dendrite). Bipolar neurons have two main dendrites at opposing ends of the cell body. Many inhibitory neurons have this morphology. Unipolar neurons, typical for insects, have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons. In vertebrates, sensory neurons detecting touch or temperature are unipolar. Dendritic branching can be extensive and in some cases is sufficient to receive as many as 100,000 inputs to a single neuron.
## History
The term *dendrites* was first used in 1889 by Wilhelm His to describe the number of smaller \"protoplasmic processes\" that were attached to a nerve cell. German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites.
Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axonal initial segment. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin--Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser--Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons. He also proposed that neurons were discrete cells that communicated with each other via specialized junctions, or spaces, between cells, now known as a synapse. Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process known as Golgi\'s method, which had been developed by his rival, Camillo Golgi.
| 775 |
Dendrite
| 0 |
8,131 |
# Dendrite
## Dendrite development {#dendrite_development}
During the development of dendrites, several factors can influence differentiation. These include modulation of sensory input, environmental pollutants, body temperature, and drug use. For example, rats raised in dark environments were found to have a reduced number of spines in pyramidal cells located in the primary visual cortex and a marked change in distribution of dendrite branching in layer 4 stellate cells. Experiments done in vitro and in vivo have shown that the presence of afferents and input activity per se can modulate the patterns in which dendrites differentiate.
Little is known about the process by which dendrites orient themselves in vivo and are compelled to create the intricate branching pattern unique to each specific neuronal class. One theory on the mechanism of dendritic arbor development is the Synaptotropic Hypothesis. The synaptotropic hypothesis proposes that input from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic cell (and maturation of excitatory synaptic inputs) eventually can change the course of synapse formation at dendritic and axonal arbors.
This synapse formation is required for the development of neuronal structure in the functioning brain. A balance between metabolic costs of dendritic elaboration and the need to cover the receptive field presumably determine the size and shape of dendrites. A complex array of extracellular and intracellular cues modulates dendrite development including transcription factors, receptor-ligand interactions, various signaling pathways, local translational machinery, cytoskeletal elements, Golgi outposts and endosomes. These contribute to the organization of the dendrites on individual cell bodies and the placement of these dendrites in the neuronal circuitry. For example, it was shown that β-actin zipcode binding protein 1 (ZBP1) contributes to proper dendritic branching.
Other important transcription factors involved in the morphology of dendrites include CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6/drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 etc. Secreted proteins and cell surface receptors include neurotrophins and tyrosine kinase receptors, BMP7, Wnt/dishevelled, EPHB 1--3, Semaphorin/plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 and RhoA serve as cytoskeletal regulators, and the motor protein includes KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Dendritic arborization has been found to be induced in cerebellum Purkinje cells by substance P. Important secretory and endocytic pathways controlling the dendritic development include DAR3 /SAR1, DAR2/Sec23, DAR6/Rab1 etc. All these molecules interplay with each other in controlling dendritic morphogenesis including the acquisition of type specific dendritic arborization, the regulation of dendrite size and the organization of dendrites emanating from different neurons.
| 394 |
Dendrite
| 1 |
8,131 |
# Dendrite
## Types of dendritic patterns {#types_of_dendritic_patterns}
Dendritic arborization, also known as dendritic branching, is a multi-step biological process by which neurons form new dendritic trees and branches to create new synapses. Dendrites in many organisms assume different morphological patterns of branching. The morphology of dendrites such as branch density and grouping patterns are highly correlated to the function of the neuron. Malformation of dendrites is also tightly correlated to impaired nervous system function.
Branching morphologies may assume an *adendritic* structure (not having a branching structure, or not tree-like), or a tree-like radiation structure. Tree-like arborization patterns can be *spindled* (where two dendrites radiate from opposite poles of a cell body with few branches, *see bipolar neurons* ), *spherical* (where dendrites radiate in a part or in all directions from a cell body, *see cerebellar granule cells*), *laminar* (where dendrites can either radiate planarly, offset from cell body by one or more stems, or multi-planarly, see retinal horizontal cells, retinal ganglion cells, retinal amacrine cells respectively), *cylindrical* (where dendrites radiate in all directions in a cylinder, disk-like fashion, see pallidal neurons), *conical* (dendrites radiate like a cone away from cell body, see pyramidal cells), or fanned (where dendrites radiate like a flat fan as in Purkinje cells).
## Electrical properties {#electrical_properties}
The structure and branching of a neuron\'s dendrites, as well as the availability and variation of voltage-gated ion conductance, strongly influences how the neuron integrates the input from other neurons. This integration is both temporal, involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession, as well as spatial, entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches.
Dendrites were once thought to merely convey electrical stimulation passively. This passive transmission means that voltage changes measured at the cell body are the result of activation of distal synapses propagating the electric signal towards the cell body without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels. Passive cable theory describes how voltage changes at a particular location on a dendrite transmit this electrical signal through a system of converging dendrite segments of different diameters, lengths, and electrical properties. Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron\'s dendritic morphology impact the membrane voltage at the cell body, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron. Dendrite radius has notable effects on resistance to electrical current, which in turn affects conduction time and speed. Dendrite branching optimizes of energy efficiency while maintaining functional connectivity by minimizing power and emphasizing effective signal transmission, supporting their roles in signal integration over longer times. This behavior seen in dendrites differs from that in axons, which give more priority to conduction time (and speed). Such tradeoffs influence overall neuronal structures, leading to a scaling relationship between conduction time and body size.
Action potentials initiated at the axon hillock propagate back into the dendritic arbor. These back-propagating action potentials depolarize the dendritic membrane and provide a crucial signal for synapse modulation and long-term potentiation. Back-propagation is not completely passive, but modulated by the presence of dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels. Furthermore, in certain types of neurons, a train of back-propagating action potentials can induce a calcium action potential (a dendritic spike) at dendritic initiation zones.
## Neurotransmitter Release {#neurotransmitter_release}
Dendrites release a multitude of neuroactive substances that are not confined to specific neurotransmitter class, signaling molecule, or brain area. Dendrites are seen releasing neurotransmitters such as dopamine, GABA and glutamate in a retrograde fashion. In the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial peptide system, oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone or ADH), are notable neuropeptides that are released from the dendrites of magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MCNs), allowing them to quickly enter the bloodstream. Paraventricular nuclei also release oxytocin and ADH from dendrites, allowing for the regulation of the anterior pituitary gland, as well as modulation of the parasympathetic and sympathetic changes in organs such as the heart and kidneys; this is done by Parvocellular neurosecretory and Parvocellular preautonomic neurons, respectively. In the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems, dopamine is released from dendrites in midbrain dopamine neurons, influencing reward and emotion processing, as well as learning and memory. Loss of dopamine from in the nigrostriatal pathway affects neuronal activity from the basal ganglia, therefore playing a role in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson\'s. Dendritic release of oxytocin, ADH and dopamine have been found to have both autocrine and paracrine effects on the neuron itself (and nearby glia), as well as on afferent nerve terminals.
| 744 |
Dendrite
| 2 |
8,131 |
# Dendrite
## Plasticity
Dendrites themselves appear to be capable of plastic changes during the adult life of animals, including invertebrates. Neuronal dendrites have various compartments known as functional units that are able to compute incoming stimuli. These functional units are involved in processing input and are composed of the subdomains of dendrites such as spines, branches, or groupings of branches. Therefore, plasticity that leads to changes in the dendrite structure will affect communication and processing in the cell. During development, dendrite morphology is shaped by intrinsic programs within the cell\'s genome and extrinsic factors such as signals from other cells. But in adult life, extrinsic signals become more influential and cause more significant changes in dendrite structure compared to intrinsic signals during development. In females, the dendritic structure can change as a result of physiological conditions induced by hormones during periods such as pregnancy, lactation, and following the estrous cycle. This is particularly visible in pyramidal cells of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, where the density of dendrites can vary up to 30%.
Recent experimental observations suggest that adaptation is performed in the neuronal dendritic trees, where the timescale of adaptation was observed to be as low as several seconds. Certain machine learning architectures based on dendritic trees have been shown to simplify the learning algorithm without affecting performance.
## Other Functions and Properties {#other_functions_and_properties}
Most excitatory neurons receive synaptic inputs across their dendritic branches, which results in electrical and biochemical compartmentalization, allowing for a phenomenon known as dendritic spikes, where local regenerative potentials contribute to plasticity. In pyramidal neurons dendritic trees have two main functions that allow them to demonstrate an electrical and biochemical compartmentalization that may integrate synaptic inputs prior to transmission to the soma, as well as make up computation units in the brain. The first main function allows for differential synaptic processing due to distribution of synaptic inputs across the dendritic branches. The processing of these synaptic inputs often involve feedforward or feedback mechanisms that vary based on the type of neuron or brain region. The opposite but combined functions of feedforward and feedback processes at different times is proposed to associate different information streams that determine neural selectivity to different stimuli.
The second function of dendritic trees in this regard is their ability to shape signal propagation that allows for sub-cellular compartmentalization. Large depolarizations can lead to local regenerative potentials, which may allow neurons to transition from stages of isolated dendritic events (segregation) to combined dendritic events (integration). Dendritic compartmentalization has implications in information processing, where it serves as a foundation of trans-neuron signaling, processing stimuli, computation, neuronal expressivity, and mitigating neuronal noise. Likewise, this phenomenon also underlies the storage of information by optimizing learning capacity and storage capacity. In other types of neurons, such as those of the medial superior olive, have differing dendritic properties that allow for coincidence detection. In contrast, in retinal ganglion cells, dendritic integration is used for computing directional selectivity, allowing neurons to respond to direction of movement. Therefore dendritic trees serve various purposes in integrating and processing various different types of stimuli and underly various neurological processes.
## Overview of Clinical Implications of Dendrite Dysfunction {#overview_of_clinical_implications_of_dendrite_dysfunction}
Dendrite dysfunction and alterations in dendrite morphology may contribute to many neuropathies and diseases. Changes in dendrite morphology may include alterations in branching patterns, fragmentation, loss of branching, and alterations in spine morphology and number. Such abnormalities contribute to a wide range of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), schizophrenia, down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, Alzheimer\'s disease (AD), and more. For example, subjects with ASD were observed to have reduced dendrite branching in the CA1 and CA4 regions of the hippocampus, in addition to increased spine density. In Rett Syndrome, researchers have observed less dendrite branching in the basal dendrites of the motor cortex and subiculum. In schizophrenic patients, reduced dendritic arbor (the tree-like network of dendrites) and spine density were observed. In addition to psychological and neurodevelopmental disorders, dendrite dysfunction has also been seen to have implications in onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\'s. Alzheimer\'s patients have been observed to have significant changes in dendritic arbor, as well as smaller dendrite lengths in the apical and basal trees of the CA1a and CA1b areas of the hippocampus. As such, there is much continuous research exploring the effects of dysfunction in dendritic branching and morphology, and scientists continue to expand their study in this field to better understand the basis of various neurological disorders
| 748 |
Dendrite
| 3 |
8,137 |
# Disaster
A **disaster** is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone.`{{bsn|reason=brochure type sources are not the best available|date=December 2024}}`{=mediawiki} *Natural disasters* like avalanches, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires are caused by natural hazards. *Human-made disasters* like oil spills, terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen.
Disasters usually hit people in developing countries harder than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries lose a lot more money compared to richer countries. For example, the damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries. This is because low-income countries often do not have well-built buildings or good plans to handle emergencies.
To reduce the damage from disasters, it is important to be prepared and have fit for purpose infrastructure. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. It focuses on actions to reduce risk before a disaster occurs, rather than on response and recovery after the event. DRR and climate change adaptation measures are similar in that they aim to reduce vulnerability of people and places to natural hazards.
When a disaster happens, the response includes actions like warning and evacuating people, rescuing those in danger, and quickly providing food, shelter, and medical care. The goal is to save lives and help people recover as quickly as possible. In some cases, national or international help may be needed to support recovery. This can happen, for example, through the work of humanitarian organizations.
| 300 |
Disaster
| 0 |
8,137 |
# Disaster
## Definitions
The UN defines a disaster as \"a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale\". It results from hazards in places where people live in exposed or vulnerable conditions. Some human failures make communities vulnerable to climate hazards. These are poor planning or development, or a lack of preparation.
Disasters are events that have an effect on people. A hazard that overwhelms or injures a community is considered a disaster. The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as "a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering." The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.
UNDRO (1984) defined a disaster in a more qualitative fashion as: \"an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented.\" Like other definitions this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury.
A study in 1969 defined *major disasters* as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage: At least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least \$1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms.
| 331 |
Disaster
| 1 |
8,137 |
# Disaster
## Types
The scale of a disaster matters. *Small-scale disasters* only affect local communities but need help beyond the affected community. *Large-scale disasters* affect wider society and need national or international help.
It is usual to divide disasters into natural or human-made. Recently the divide between natural, man-made and man-accelerated disasters has become harder to draw. Some manufactured disasters such as smog and acid rain have been wrongly attributed to nature.
### Related to natural hazards {#related_to_natural_hazards}
Disasters with links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters. However experts have questioned this term for a long time.
Example Profile
------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Avalanche The sudden, drastic flow of snow down a slope, occurring when either natural triggers, such as loading from new snow or rain, or artificial triggers, such as explosives or backcountry skiers.
Blizzard A severe snowstorm characterized by very strong winds and low temperatures
Earthquake The shaking of the Earth\'s crust, caused by underground volcanic forces of breaking and shifting rock beneath the Earth\'s surface
Fire (wild) Fires that originate in uninhabited areas and which pose the risk to spread to inhabited areas (see also Wildfire § Climate change effects)
Flood Flash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or even low-lying areas flood quickly (see also Effects of climate change)
Freezing rain Rain occurring when outside surface temperature is below freezing
Heat wave A prolonged period of excessively hot weather relative to the usual weather pattern of an area and relative to normal temperatures for the season (see also Effects of climate change § Heat waves and temperature extremes).
Landslide Geological phenomenon which includes a range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows
Lightning strike An electrical discharge caused by lightning, typically during thunderstorms
Limnic eruption The sudden eruption of carbon dioxide from deep lake water
Tropical cyclone Rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls (see also Tropical cyclones and climate change)
Tsunami A series of waves hitting shores strongly, mainly caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake, usually caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water
Volcanic eruption The release of hot magma, volcanic ash and/or gases from a volcano
: Disasters with links to natural hazards
### Unrelated to natural hazards {#unrelated_to_natural_hazards}
Human-made disasters are serious harmful events caused by human actions and social processes. Technological hazards also fall into this category. That is because they result in human-instigated disasters. Human-made hazards are sometimes called anthropogenic hazards. Examples include criminality, social unrest, crowd crushes, fires, transport accidents, industrial accidents, power outages, oil spills, terrorist attacks, and nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation. Catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism also fall into this category.
Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving a combination of both natural and human factors. All disasters can be regarded as human-made, because of failure to introduce the right emergency management measures.
Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed.
--------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Disaster** **Profile**
Bioterrorism The intentional release or dissemination of biological agents as a means of coercion
Civil unrest A disturbance caused by a group of people that may include sit-ins and other forms of obstructions, riots, sabotage and other forms of crime, and which is intended to be a demonstration to the public and the government, but can escalate into general chaos
Fire (urban) Even with strict building fire codes, people still perish in fires
Hazardous material spills The escape of solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property or the environment, from their intended controlled environment such as a container.
Nuclear and radiation accidents An event involving the significant release of radioactivity to the environment or a reactor core meltdown and which leads to major undesirable consequences to people, the environment, or the facility
Power failure Caused by summer or winter storms, lightning or construction equipment digging in the wrong location
--------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
: Disasters without links to natural hazards
### Others
*Complex disasters*, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific hazard may also spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami. This results in coastal flooding, damaging a nuclear power plant on the coast. The Fukushima nuclear disaster is a case in point. Experts examine these cascading events to see how risks and impacts can amplify and spread. This is particularly important given the increase in climate risks.
Some researchers distinguish between *recurring events* like seasonal flooding and *unpredictable one-off events*. Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period.
| 857 |
Disaster
| 2 |
8,137 |
# Disaster
## Impacts
The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.
The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) records statistics about disasters related to natural hazards. For 2023, EM-DAT recorded 399 disasters, which was higher than the 20-year average of 369.
### Economic losses {#economic_losses}
Between 2016 and 2020 the total reported economic losses amounted to \$293 billion. This figure is likely to be an underestimation. It is very challenging to measure the costs of disasters accurately, and many countries lack the resources and technical capacity to do so. Over the 40-year period from 1980 to 2020 losses were estimated at \$5.2 trillion.
### Human impacts {#human_impacts}
In 2023, natural hazard-related disasters resulted in 86,473 fatalities and affected 93.1 million people. Whilst the number of deaths was much higher than the 20-year average of 64,148, the number affected was much lower than the 20-year average of 175.5 million.
According to a UN report, 91% of deaths from hazards from 1970 to 2019 occurred in developing countries. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.
### Effects of climate change {#effects_of_climate_change}
Hazards such as droughts, floods, and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena. However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences. As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation.
| 273 |
Disaster
| 3 |
8,137 |
# Disaster
## Prevention and response {#prevention_and_response}
### Disaster risk reduction {#disaster_risk_reduction}
`{{excerpt|Disaster risk reduction|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}`{=mediawiki}
### Disaster response {#disaster_response}
## Etymology
The word *disaster* is derived from Middle French **désastre** which comes from Old Italian **disastro**. This in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix *italic=no*- (*`{{Transliteration|grc|dus}}`{=mediawiki}-*) \"bad\" and *italic=no* (*`{{Transliteration|grc|aster}}`{=mediawiki}*), \"star\". So the word *disaster* (\"bad star\" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets
| 75 |
Disaster
| 4 |
8,141 |
# Dipsacales
The **Dipsacales** are an order of flowering plants, included within the asterid group of dicotyledons. In the APG III system of 2009, the order includes only two families, Adoxaceae and a broadly defined Caprifoliaceae. Some well-known members of the Dipsacales order are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and valerian.
Under the Cronquist system, the order included Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae sensu stricto, Dipsacaceae, and Valerianaceae. Under the 2003 APG II system, the circumscription of the order was much the same but the system allowed either a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae including the families Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae, and Valerianaceae, or these families being kept separate. The APG III system only uses the broadly circumscribed Caprifoliceae.
The Dipsacales appear to be most closely related to the Paracryphiales
| 123 |
Dipsacales
| 0 |
8,145 |
# December 15
| 3 |
December 15
| 0 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.