Split (1)

train · ~14.6M rows (showing the first 1.54M)

id int64 39 11.1M	section stringlengths 3 4.51M	length int64 2 49.9k	title stringlengths 1 182	chunk_id int64 0 68
8,757	# Darwin's Dangerous Idea paperback) \\| pages = 586 \\| isbn = 978-0-684-80290-9 \\| isbn_note = (hardcover)\ `{{ISBN\|978-0-684-82471-0\|plainlink=yes}}`{=mediawiki} (paperback) }} *Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life* is a 1995 book by the philosopher Daniel Dennett, in which the author looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin\'s theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life. Darwin\'s discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so. Dennett says, for example, that by claiming that minds cannot be reduced to purely algorithmic processes, many of his eminent contemporaries are claiming that miracles can occur. These assertions have generated a great deal of debate and discussion in the general public. The book was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award for Nonfiction and the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction. ## Background Dennett\'s previous book was Consciousness Explained (1991). Dennett noted discomfort with Darwinism among not only lay people but also even academics and decided it was time to write a book dealing with the subject. Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea is not meant to be a work of science, but rather an interdisciplinary book; Dennett admits that he does not understand all of the scientific details himself. He goes into a moderate level of detail, but leaves it for the reader to go into greater depth if desired, providing references to this end. In writing the book, Dennett wanted to \"get thinkers in other disciplines to take evolutionary theory seriously, to show them how they have been underestimating it, and to show them why they have been listening to the wrong sirens\". To do this he tells a story; one that is mainly original but includes some material from his previous work. Dennett taught an undergraduate seminar at Tufts University on Darwin and philosophy, which included most of the ideas in the book. He also had the help of fellow staff and other academics, some of whom read drafts of the book. It is dedicated to W. V. O. Quine, \"teacher and friend\".	409	Darwin's Dangerous Idea	0
8,757	# Darwin's Dangerous Idea ## Synopsis ### Part I: Starting in the Middle {#part_i_starting_in_the_middle} \"Starting in the Middle\", Part I of Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: \"Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race.\" The first chapter \"Tell Me Why\" is named after a song. Before Charles Darwin, and still today, a majority of people see God as the ultimate cause of all design, or the ultimate answer to \'why ?\' questions. John Locke argued for the primacy of mind before matter, and David Hume, while exposing problems with Locke\'s view, could not see any alternative. Darwin provided just such an alternative: evolution. Besides providing evidence of common descent, he introduced a mechanism to explain it: natural selection. According to Dennett, natural selection is a mindless, mechanical and algorithmic process---Darwin\'s dangerous idea. The third chapter introduces the concept of \"skyhooks\" and \"cranes\" (see below). He suggests that resistance to Darwinism is based on a desire for skyhooks, which do not really exist. According to Dennett, good reductionists explain apparent design without skyhooks; greedy reductionists try to explain it without cranes. Chapter 4 looks at the tree of life, such as how it can be visualized and some crucial events in life\'s history. The next chapter concerns the possible and the actual, using the \'Library of Mendel\' (the space of all logically possible genomes) as a conceptual aid. In the last chapter of part I, Dennett treats human artifacts and culture as a branch of a unified Design Space. Descent or homology can be detected by shared design features that would be unlikely to appear independently. However, there are also \"Forced Moves\" or \"Good Tricks\" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation. ### Part II: Darwinian Thinking in Biology {#part_ii_darwinian_thinking_in_biology} The first chapter of part II, \"Darwinian Thinking in Biology\", asserts that life originated without any skyhooks, and the orderly world we know is the result of a blind and undirected shuffle through chaos. The eighth chapter\'s message is conveyed by its title, \"Biology is Engineering\"; biology is the study of design, function, construction and operation. However, there are some important differences between biology and engineering. Related to the engineering concept of optimization, the next chapter deals with adaptationism, which Dennett endorses, calling Gould and Lewontin\'s \"refutation\" of it an illusion. Dennett thinks adaptationism is, in fact, the best way of uncovering constraints . The tenth chapter, entitled \"Bully for Brontosaurus\", is an extended critique of Stephen Jay Gould, who Dennett feels has created a distorted view of evolution with his popular writings; his \"self-styled revolutions\" against adaptationism, gradualism and other orthodox Darwinism all being false alarms. The final chapter of part II dismisses directed mutation, the inheritance of acquired traits and Teilhard\'s \"Omega Point\", and insists that other controversies and hypotheses (like the unit of selection and Panspermia) have no dire consequences for orthodox Darwinism. ### Part III: Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality {#part_iii_mind_meaning_mathematics_and_morality} \"Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality\" is the name of Part III, which begins with a quote from Nietzsche. Chapter 12, \"The Cranes of Culture\", discusses cultural evolution. It asserts that the meme has a role to play in our understanding of culture, and that it allows humans, alone among animals, to \"transcend\" our selfish genes. \"Losing Our Minds to Darwin\" follows, a chapter about the evolution of brains, minds and language. Dennett criticizes Noam Chomsky\'s perceived resistance to the evolution of language, its modeling by artificial intelligence, and reverse engineering. The evolution of meaning is then discussed, and Dennett uses a series of thought experiments to persuade the reader that meaning is the product of meaningless, algorithmic processes. Chapter 15 asserts that Gödel\'s Theorem does not make certain sorts of artificial intelligence impossible. Dennett extends his criticism to Roger Penrose. The subject then moves on to the origin and evolution of morality, beginning with Thomas Hobbes (who Dennett calls \"the first sociobiologist\") and Friedrich Nietzsche. He concludes that only an evolutionary analysis of ethics makes sense, though he cautions against some varieties of \'greedy ethical reductionism\'. Before moving to the next chapter, he discusses some sociobiology controversies. The penultimate chapter, entitled \"Redesigning Morality\", begins by asking if ethics can be \'naturalized\'. Dennett does not believe there is much hope of discovering an algorithm for doing the right thing, but expresses optimism in our ability to design and redesign our approach to moral problems. In \"The Future of an Idea\", the book\'s last chapter, Dennett praises biodiversity, including cultural diversity. In closing, he uses Beauty and the Beast as an analogy; although Darwin\'s idea may seem dangerous, it is actually quite beautiful.	810	Darwin's Dangerous Idea	1
8,757	# Darwin's Dangerous Idea ## Central concepts {#central_concepts} ### Design Space {#design_space} Dennett believes there is little or no principled difference between the naturally generated products of evolution and the man-made artifacts of human creativity and culture. For this reason he indicates deliberately that the complex fruits of the tree of life are in a very meaningful sense \"designed\"---even though he does not believe evolution was guided by a higher intelligence. Dennett supports using the notion of memes to better understand cultural evolution. He also believes even human creativity might operate by the Darwinian mechanism. This leads him to propose that the \"space\" describing biological \"design\" is connected with the space describing human culture and technology. A precise mathematical definition of Design Space is not given in Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea. Dennett acknowledges this and admits he is offering a philosophical idea rather than a scientific formulation. ### Natural selection as an algorithm {#natural_selection_as_an_algorithm} Dennett describes natural selection as a substrate-neutral, mindless algorithm for moving through Design Space. ### Universal acid {#universal_acid} Dennett writes about the fantasy of a \"universal acid\" as a liquid that is so corrosive that it would eat through anything that it came into contact with, even a potential container. Such a powerful substance would transform everything it was applied to; leaving something very different in its wake. This is where Dennett draws parallels from the "universal acid" to Darwin\'s idea: > it eats through just about every traditional concept, and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view, with most of the old landmarks still recognizable, but transformed in fundamental ways. While there are people who would like to see Darwin\'s idea contained within the field of biology, Dennett asserts that this dangerous idea inevitably "leaks" out to transform other fields as well. ### Skyhooks and cranes {#skyhooks_and_cranes} Dennett uses the term \"skyhook\" to describe a source of design complexity that does not build on lower, simpler layers---in simple terms, a miracle. In philosophical arguments concerning the reducibility (or otherwise) of the human mind, Dennett\'s concept pokes fun at the idea of intelligent design emanating from on high, either originating from one or more gods, or providing its own grounds in an absurd, Munchausen-like bootstrapping manner. Dennett also accuses various competing neo-Darwinian ideas of making use of such supposedly unscientific skyhooks in explaining evolution, coming down particularly hard on the ideas of Stephen Jay Gould. Dennett contrasts theories of complexity that require such miracles with those based on \"cranes\", structures that permit the construction of entities of greater complexity but are themselves founded solidly \"on the ground\" of physical science.	433	Darwin's Dangerous Idea	2
8,757	# Darwin's Dangerous Idea ## Reception In The New York Review of Books, John Maynard Smith praised Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea: > It is therefore a pleasure to meet a philosopher who understands what Darwinism is about, and approves of it. Dennett goes well beyond biology. He sees Darwinism as a corrosive acid, capable of dissolving our earlier belief and forcing a reconsideration of much of sociology and philosophy. Although modestly written, this is not a modest book. Dennett argues that, if we understand Darwin\'s dangerous idea, we are forced to reject or modify much of our current intellectual baggage\... Writing in the same publication, Stephen Jay Gould criticised Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea for being an \"influential but misguided ultra-Darwinian manifesto\": > Daniel Dennett devotes the longest chapter in Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea to an excoriating caricature of my ideas, all in order to bolster his defense of Darwinian fundamentalism. If an argued case can be discerned at all amid the slurs and sneers, it would have to be described as an effort to claim that I have, thanks to some literary skill, tried to raise a few piddling, insignificant, and basically conventional ideas to \"revolutionary\" status, challenging what he takes to be the true Darwinian scripture. Since Dennett shows so little understanding of evolutionary theory beyond natural selection, his critique of my work amounts to little more than sniping at false targets of his own construction. He never deals with my ideas as such, but proceeds by hint, innuendo, false attribution, and error. Gould was also a harsh critic of Dennett\'s idea of the \"universal acid\" of natural selection and of his subscription to the idea of memetics; Dennett responded, and the exchange between Dennett, Gould, and Robert Wright was printed in the New York Review of Books. Biologist H. Allen Orr wrote a critical review emphasizing similar points in the Boston Review. The book has also provoked a negative reaction from creationists; Frederick Crews writes that Darwin\'s Dangerous Idea \"rivals Richard Dawkins\'s The Blind Watchmaker as the creationists\' most cordially hated text	341	Darwin's Dangerous Idea	3
8,765	# Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey (`{{IPAc-en\|d\|ə\|ˈ\|h\|oʊ\|m\|i}}`{=mediawiki}) was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional power in the 18th century by expanding south to conquer key cities like Whydah belonging to the Kingdom of Whydah on the Atlantic coast which granted it unhindered access to the tricontinental Atlantic Slave Trade. For much of the middle 19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey became a key regional state, after eventually ending tributary status to the Oyo Empire. European visitors extensively documented the kingdom, and it became one of the most familiar African nations known to Europeans. The Kingdom of Dahomey was an important regional power that had an organized domestic economy built on conquest and slave labor, significant international trade and diplomatic relations with Europeans, a centralized administration, taxation systems, and an organized military. Notable in the kingdom were significant artwork, an all-female military unit called the Dahomey Amazons by European observers, and the elaborate religious practices of Vodun. The growth of Dahomey coincided with the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, and it became known to Europeans as a major supplier of slaves. Dahomey was a highly militaristic society constantly organised for warfare; it captured captives during wars and raids against neighboring societies and sold them into the Atlantic slave trade in exchange for European goods such as rifles, gunpowder, fabrics, cowrie shells, tobacco, pipes, and alcohol. Other captives became slaves in Dahomey, where they worked on royal plantations or were killed in human sacrifices during the festival celebrations known as the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved significant collection and distribution of gifts and tribute, religious Vodun ceremonies, military parades, and discussions by dignitaries about the future for the kingdom. In the 1840s, Dahomey began to face decline with British pressure to abolish the slave trade, which included the anti-slavery blockade of Africa by the Royal Navy\'s West Africa Squadron. Dahomey was also weakened after facing crushing defeats at the hands of Abeokuta, a Yoruba city-state which was founded by the Oyo Empire refugees migrating southward. Dahomey later began experiencing territorial disputes with France which led to the war in 1890 and part of the kingdom becoming a French protectorate. The kingdom fell four years later, when renewed fighting resulted in the last king, Béhanzin, to be overthrown and the country annexed into French West Africa. French Dahomey would gain independence in 1960 as the Republic of Dahomey, which would rename itself Benin in 1975. ## Name The Kingdom of Dahomey was referred to by many different names and has been written in a variety of ways, including Danxome, Danhome, and Fon. The name Fon relates to the dominant ethnic and language group, the Fon people, of the royal families of the kingdom and is how the kingdom first became known to Europeans. The names Dahomey, Danxome, and Danhome share an origin story, which historian Edna Bay says may be a false etymology. The story goes that Dakodonu, considered the second king in modern kings lists, was granted permission by the Gedevi chiefs, the local rulers, to settle in the Abomey Plateau. Dakodonu requested additional land from a prominent chief named Dan (or Da) to which the chief responded sarcastically, \"Should I open up my belly and build you a house in it?\" For this insult, Dakodonu killed Dan and began the construction of his palace on the spot. The name of the kingdom was derived from the incident: Dan meaning \"chief\", xo meaning \"belly\", and me meaning \"inside of\", in the Fon language.	615	Dahomey	0
8,765	# Dahomey ## History The Kingdom of Dahomey was established around 1600 as an offshoot of the royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Allada. The foundational king for Dahomey is often considered to be Houegbadja (c. 1645--1685), who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey and began raiding and taking over towns outside of the Abomey Plateau. ### Kings King Start of rule End of rule ------------------------ --------------- ------------- Do-Aklin (Ganyihessou) ≈1600 1620 Dakodonou 1620 1645 Houégbadja 1645 1680 Akaba 1680 1708 Agaja 1708 1740 Tegbessou (Tegbesu) 1740 1774 Kpengla 1774 1789 Agonglo 1790 1797 Adandozan 1797 1818 Guézo (Ghézo/Gezo) 1818 1858 Glèlè 1858 1889 Gbehanzin 1889 1894 Agoli-agbo 1894 1900 Source: ### Rule of Agaja (1708--1740) {#rule_of_agaja_17081740} King Agaja, Houegbadja\'s grandson, came to the throne in 1708 and began significant expansion of the Kingdom of Dahomey. This expansion was made possible by the superior military force of King Agaja\'s Dahomey. In contrast to surrounding regions, Dahomey employed a professional standing army numbering around ten thousand. What the Dahomey lacked in numbers, they made up for in discipline and superior arms. In 1724, Agaja conquered Allada, the origin for the royal family according to oral tradition, and in 1727 he conquered Whydah. This increased size of the kingdom, particularly along the Atlantic coast, and increased power made Dahomey into a regional power. The result was near constant warfare with the main regional state, the Oyo Empire, from 1728 until 1740. The warfare with the Oyo empire resulted in Dahomey assuming a tributary status to the Oyo empire. ### Rule of Tegbesu (1740--1774) {#rule_of_tegbesu_17401774} Tegbesu, also spelled as Tegbessou, was King of Dahomey, in present-day Benin, from 1740 until 1774. Tegbesu was not the oldest son of King Agaja (1708--1740), but was selected following his father\'s death after winning a succession struggle with a brother. King Agaja had significantly expanded the Kingdom of Dahomey during his reign, notably conquering Whydah in 1727. This increased the size of the kingdom and increased both domestic dissent and regional opposition. Tegbessou ruled over Dahomey at a point where it needed to increase its legitimacy over those whom it had recently conquered. As a result, Tegbesu is often credited with a number of administrative changes in the kingdom in order to establish the legitimacy of the kingdom. The slave trade increased significantly during Tegbessou\'s reign and began to provide the largest part of the income for the king. In addition, Tegbesu\'s rule is the one with the first significant kpojito or mother of the leopard with Hwanjile in that role. The kpojito became a prominently important person in Dahomey royalty. Hwanjile, in particular, is said to have changed dramatically the religious practices of Dahomey by creating two new deities and more closely tying worship to that of the king. According to one oral tradition, as part of the tribute owed by Dahomey to Oyo, Agaja had to give to Oyo one of his sons. The story claims that only Hwanjile, of all of Agaja\'s wives, was willing to allow her son to go to Oyo. This act of sacrifice, according to the oral tradition, made Tegbesu favored by King Agaja. Agaja reportedly told Tegbesu that he was the future king, but his brother Zinga was still the official heir.	543	Dahomey	1
8,765	# Dahomey ## History ### Rule of Ghezo (1818--1859) {#rule_of_ghezo_18181859} When King Ghezo ascended the throne in 1818, he was confronted by two immediate obstacles: the Kingdom of Dahomey was in political turmoil, and it was financially unstable. First, he needed to gain political independence by removing the tributary yoke that the Yoruba empire of Oyo had over the Dahomey since 1748. Secondly, he needed to revitalize the Dahomey economy. Both of these objectives relied on the slave trade. King Ghezo implemented new military strategies, which allowed them to take a physical stand against the Oyo, who were also a major competitor in the slave trade. He also put stipulations on Dahomey\'s participation in the slave trade. Under his reign, no longer would the Dahomey be traded, as they were under the leadership of his brother, Adandozan. Dahomey would focus on capturing their enemies and trading them instead. King Ghezo sought to eventually lead his people toward the \"legitimate\" trade of palm oil. The Dahomey were soon met with victory when they brought down the Oyo Empire and its yoke at Paonignan in 1827. While Brazil\'s demand for slaves increased in 1830, the British started a campaign to abolish the slave trade in Africa. The British government began putting significant pressure on King Ghezo in the 1840s to end the slave trade in Dahomey. King Ghezo responded to these requests by emphasizing that he was unable to end the slave trade because of domestic pressure. He explained to them that the entire region had become dependent on the slave trading, so ending immediately would destabilize his kingdom and lead to anarchy. King William Dappa Pepple of Bonny and King Kosoko of Lagos took the same stance toward the British requests. Instead, King Ghezo proposed an expansion of the palm oil trade and gradual abolition of the slave trade. King Ghezo\'s reign was marked by great battles and significant changes to the empire, including the elevation of the Agojie. These \"Dahomey Amazon\" were pivotal to the defeat of Oyo Empire. His reign also cemented the Kingdom of Dahomey as one of the most powerful African kingdoms that stood against attempts by European missionaries, with Egba support, at converting people to Christianity, and maintained their traditional religion, known as Vodun. He abolished the human sacrifice of slaves and removed the death penalty for certain lesser offenses, such as adultery. Despite the kingdom\'s history of brutality, King Ghezo was often characterized as honorable and unconquerable, even by his enemies. British missionary Thomas Birch Freeman described him as \"one of the most remarkable men of his age, whether we consider him in his private capacity as a man, or as a warrior and a statesmen.\" ### End The kingdom fought the First Franco-Dahomean War and Second Franco-Dahomean War with France. The kingdom was reduced and made a French protectorate in 1894. In 1904, the area became part of a French colony, French Dahomey. In 1958, French Dahomey became the self-governing colony called the Republic of Dahomey and gained full independence in 1960. It was renamed in 1975 the People\'s Republic of Benin and in 1991 the Republic of Benin. ### Modernity Today, the kingdom continues to exist as a constituent monarchy located within Benin. Its rulers no longer hold any official powers under Benin\'s constitution, but they retain some political and economic influence. Modern kings participate in important Vodun religious festivals and other traditional ceremonies.	571	Dahomey	2
8,765	# Dahomey ## Politics Early writings often presented the kingdom as an absolute monarchy led by a despotic king. These depictions were often deployed as arguments by different sides in the slave trade debates, mainly in the United Kingdom, and as such were probably exaggerations. Recent historical work has emphasized the limits of monarchical power in the Kingdom of Dahomey. Historian John C. Yoder, with attention to the Great Council in the kingdom, argued that its activities do not \"imply that Dahomey\'s government was democratic or even that her politics approximated those of nineteenth-century European monarchies. Such evidence supports the thesis that governmental decisions were molded by conscious responses to internal political pressures as well as by executive fiat.\" The primary political divisions revolved around villages with chiefs and administrative posts appointed by the king and acting as his representatives to adjudicate disputes in the village. ### King The King of Dahomey (Ahosu in the Fon language) was the sovereign power of the kingdom. All of the kings claimed to be part of the Alladaxonou dynasty, claiming descent from the royal family in Allada. Much of the succession rules and administrative structures were created early by Kings Houegbadja, Akaba, and Agaja. Succession through the male members of the line was the norm, with the kingship typically (but not always) going to the oldest son. The king was selected largely through discussion and decision in the meetings of the Great Council, although how this operated was not always clear. The Great Council brought together a host of different dignitaries from throughout the kingdom yearly to meet at the Annual Customs of Dahomey. Discussions would be lengthy and included members, both men and women, from throughout the kingdom. At the end of the discussions, the king would declare the consensus of the group. ### Royal court {#royal_court} Key positions in the King\'s court included the migan (Prime Minister), the mehu (Finance Minister), the yovogan, the tokpo (Minister of Agriculture), the agan (general of the army), the kpojito (or queen mother), and later the chacha (or viceroy) of Whydah. Each of these cabinet positions`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}which, with the exception of the kpojito, were headed by men`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}had a female counterpart to complement them. The migan`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}a combination of mi (our) and gan (chief)`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}was a primary consul for the king, a key judicial figure, and served as the head executioner. The mehu was similarly a key administrative officer who managed the palaces and the affairs of the royal family, economic matters, and the areas to the south of Allada (making the position key to contact with Europeans).	433	Dahomey	3
8,765	# Dahomey ## Foreign relations {#foreign_relations} The relations between Dahomey and other countries were complex and heavily impacted by the transatlantic slave trade. ### Brazil In 1750, the Kingdom of Dahomey sent a diplomatic mission to Salvador, Portuguese colony of Brazil in order to strengthen diplomatic relations with this Portuguese colony following an incident which led to the expulsion of Portuguese-Brazilian diplomatic authorities in 1743. Other Dahomey missions were sent to Portuguese colony of Brazil from 1795 to 1805 with the purpose of strengthening relations with Portuguese colonial authorities and slave buyers residing in Brazilian territory, ensuring that they maintained an interest in purchasing enslaved people supplied by Dahomey rather than rival kingdoms. It is also recorded that in 1823, the Kingdom of Dahomey formally recognized Brazil\'s independence, making it one of the first political entities in the world to do so. The Atlantic slave trade between Brazil and Dahomey remained intense even under pressure from the United Kingdom for its abolition. Francisco Félix de Sousa, a former enslaved person and later a major slave trader in the Dahomey region, became a politically influential figure in that kingdom after the ascent of Guezo to the Dahomean throne. He was granted the honorary title of Chachá, vice-king of Ajudá, and a monopoly on the exportation of slaves.`{{refn\|Brazilian historiography has attributed the primacy of this recognition to the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]], also in 1823.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Antunes de Oliveira \|first1=Felipe \|last2=Pavan Lopes \|first2=Lucas \|date=2023 \|access-date=September 14, 2023 \|title=A Argentina e a independência do Brasil: o reconhecimento tardio de um reconhecimento pioneiro \|trans-title=Argentina and the Independence of Brazil: The belated recognition of an early recognition \|url=https://cebri.org/revista/br/artigo/81/a-argentina-e-a-independencia-do-brasil-o-reconhecimento-tardio-de-um-reconhecimento-pioneiro \|journal=CEBRI-Revista \|language=pt-br }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|author=RFi \|date=September 7, 2022 \|access-date=September 14, 2023 \|title=O primeiro país a reconhecer a Independência do Brasil foi também o primeiro a quem declarou guerra \|trans-title=The first country to recognize the Independence of Brazil was also the first one to declare war on it \|url=https://g1.globo.com/mundo/noticia/2022/09/07/o-primeiro-pais-a-reconhecer-a-independencia-do-brasil-foi-tambem-o-primeiro-a-quem-declarou-guerra.ghtml \|publisher=G1 \|language=pt-br }}</ref>\|group=nb}}`{=mediawiki} ### France In 1861, the kingdom of Porto-Novo, one of Dahomey\'s tributaries, was bombarded by the Royal Navy. Porto-Novo asked for protection from France and became a French protectorate as a result in 1863. This status was rejected by King Behanzin, who still declared Porto-Novo to be a tributary of Dahomey. Another issue of contention was the status of Cotonou, a port the French believed was under their control because of a treaty signed by Dahomey\'s representative in Whydah. Dahomey ignored all French claims there as well and continued to collect customs from the port. These territorial disputes escalated into the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, resulting in French victory. Dahomey was forced to sign a treaty surrendering Porto-Novo and Cotonou to the French. It later returned to raiding the area and disregarded French complaints, triggering the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892. The kingdom was defeated in 1894, it was annexed into the French colonial empire as French Dahomey, and King Behanzin was exiled to Algeria.	492	Dahomey	4
8,765	# Dahomey ## Foreign relations {#foreign_relations} ### Portugal The Portuguese fort at Ouidah was destroyed by the army of Dahomey in 1743 during its conquest of the city, so King Tegbesu desired to renew relations with Portugal. Dahomey sent at least five embassies to Portugal and Brazil during the years of 1750, 1795, 1805, 1811 and 1818, with the goal of negotiating the terms of the Atlantic slave trade. These missions created an official correspondence between the kings of Dahomey and the kings of Portugal, and gifts were exchanged between them. The Portuguese Crown paid for the expenses travel and accommodation expenses of Dahomey\'s ambassadors, who traveled between Lisbon and Salvador, Bahia. The embassies of 1805 and 1811 brought letters from King Adandozan, who had imprisoned Portuguese subjects in the Dahomean capital of Abomey and requested for Portugal to trade exclusively at Ouidah. Portugal promised to answer to his demands if he released the prisoners. A long and detailed letter from King Adandonzan dated October 9, 1810, shows that he had knowledge of the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent exile of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, and he expressed remorse that he was not able to help the Portuguese royal family during their war against France.`{{blockquote\|text=Soon the news that Your Royal Majesty and all the Royal family were made prisoners of the French, who took [[Lisbon]], as well as the King of Spain, started arriving. Some time passed and another vessel came and brought other news that Your Royal Majesty and Our Sovereign Mother Queen of Portugal had left for the City of Bahia, under the protection of the English and the Portuguese Navy. Then more time passed and another vessel brought news that you have moved to [[Rio de Janeiro]], where we know that the Duke of Cadaval deceased, for which I feel sorry and give you my condolences...what I feel the most is to no longer be the neighbour of Our Majesty, and not being able to walk on firm land to give you a help with my arm, so my wish is big, as here I have also fought many wars in the backlands.}}`{=mediawiki} After detailing how he defeated the king of the Mahi nation, Adandonzan tells the Portuguese, `{{blockquote\|text=...Give me also news about the Wars, and also give me news about the wars with the French nation and the others, it will make me happy to know about it}}`{=mediawiki} ### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom} Dahomey became a target of the British Empire\'s anti-slavery campaign during the 19th century. The British sent diplomatic missions to Dahomey in an effort to convince King Ghezo to abolish human sacrifice and slave trading. Ghezo did not immediately concede to British demands but attempted to maintain friendly relations with Britain by encouraging the growth of new trade in palm oil instead. In 1851, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade against Dahomey, forcing Ghezo to sign a treaty in 1852 that immediately abolished the export of slaves. This was broken when slave trading resumed in 1857 and 1858. Historian Martin Meredith quotes Ghezo telling the British: During a diplomatic mission to Dahomey in 1849, Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the Royal Navy received an enslaved girl (later named Sarah Forbes Bonetta) from King Ghezo as a \"gift\", who would later become a goddaughter to Queen Victoria. ### United States {#united_states} During the American Revolution, the rebelling United Colonies prohibited the international slave trade for a variety of economic, political, and moral reasons depending on the colony. Following the end of the revolution, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807, which federally outlawed the international slave trade, though domestic slavery itself would persist until the American Civil War. Thus, the United States never established any formal diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Dahomey. The last known slave ship that sailed to the United States secretly and illegally imported 110 slaves from Dahomey, purchased long after the abolition of the slave trade. The story was mentioned in the newspaper The Tarboro Southerner on July 14, 1860. Five days earlier, a schooner called Clotilda, captained by William Foster, arrived in the bay of Mobile, Alabama carrying the last known shipment of slaves to the U.S. In 1858, an American man named Timothy Meaher made a wager with acquaintances that despite the law banning the slave trade, he could safely bring a load of slaves from Africa. He built the Clotilda slave ship and sent William Foster to captain it and retrieve enslaved Africans. Captain William Foster arrived in Ouidah, a coastal port of Dahomey, and retrieved 110 slaves. Describing how he came in possession of the slaves, he wrote in his journal in 1860, Zora Neale Hurston wrote about her interviews with Oluale Kossola, who was thought to be the last survivor of the Clotilda, in her book Barracoon. Later, it was found that Matilda McCrear was the last living survivor of that atrocity. A notable descendant of a slave from this ship is Ahmir Khalib Thompson, an American music artist known as Questlove. Mr. Thompson\'s story is depicted in the PBS Television show Finding Your Roots \[Season 4, Episode 9\]. ### Yoruba The Oyo Empire engaged in frequent conflicts with the Kingdom of Dahomey and Dahomey became a tributary of the Oyo from 1732 until 1823. The city-state of Porto-Novo, under the protection of Oyo, and Dahomey had a long-standing rivalry largely over control of the slave trade along the coast. The rise of Abeokuta in the 1840s created another power rivaling Dahomey, largely by creating a safe haven for people from the slave trade. Notable Yoruba people who were captured by Dahomey in slave raids following the collapse of the Oyo Empire include Sarah Forbes Bonetta (Aina), Cudjoe Lewis (Oluale Kossola), Matilda McCrear (Abake), Redoshi, and Seriki Williams Abass (Ifaremilekun Fagbemi).	975	Dahomey	5
8,765	# Dahomey ## Military The military of the Kingdom of Dahomey was divided into two units: the right and the left. The right was controlled by the migan and the left was controlled by the mehu. At least by the time of Agaja, the kingdom had developed a standing army that remained encamped wherever the king was. Soldiers in the army were recruited as young as seven or eight years old, initially serving as shield carriers for regular soldiers. After years of apprenticeship and military experience, they were allowed to join the army as regular soldiers. To further incentivize the soldiers, each soldier received bonuses paid in cowry shells for each enemy they killed or captured in battle. This combination of lifelong military experience and monetary incentives resulted in a cohesive, well-disciplined military. One European said Agaja\'s standing army consisted of \"elite troops, brave and well-disciplined, led by a prince full of valor and prudence, supported by a staff of experienced officers\". The army consisted of 15,000 personnel which was divided into right, left, center and reserve; and in each of these was further divided into companies and platoons. In addition to being well trained, the Dahomey army under Agaja was also very well armed. The Dahomey army favored imported European weapons as opposed to traditional weapons. For example, they used European flintlock muskets in long-range combat and imported steel swords and cutlasses in close combat. The Dahomey army also possessed twenty-five cannons. By the late 19th century, Dahomey had a large arsenal of weapons. These included the Chassepot Dreyse, Mauser, Snider Enfield, Wanzel, Werndl, Peabody action, Winchester, Spencer, Albini, Robert Jones carbine, French musketoon 1882 and the Mitrailleuse Reffye 1867. Along with firearms, Dahomey employed mortars. When going into battle, the king would take a secondary position to the field commander with the reason given that if any spirit were to punish the commander for decisions it should not be the king. Dahomey units were drilled constantly. They fired on command, employed countermarch, and formed extended lines from deep columns. Tactics such as covering fire, frontal attacks and flanking movements were used in the warfare of Dahomey. The Dahomey Amazons, a unit of all-female soldiers, is one of the most unusual aspects of the military of the kingdom. Unlike other regional powers, the military of Dahomey did not have a significant cavalry (like the Oyo empire) or naval power (which prevented expansion along the coast). From the 18th century, the state could obtain naval support from Ardra where they had created a subordinate dynasty after conquering the state in the early 18th century. Dahomey enlisted the services of Ardra\'s navy against the Epe in 1778 and Badagry in 1783. ### Amazons The Dahomean state became widely known for its corps of female soldiers. Their origins are debated; they may have formed from a palace guard or from `{{transliteration\|fon\|[[gbeto]]s}}`{=mediawiki} (female hunting teams). They were organized around 1729 to fill out the army and make it look larger in battle, armed only with banners. The women reportedly behaved so courageously they became a permanent corps. In the beginning, the soldiers were criminals pressed into service rather than death. Eventually, the corps was respected enough that King Ghezo ordered every family to send him their daughters, with the fittest being chosen as soldiers.`{{dubious\|date=May 2015}}`{=mediawiki} European accounts clarified that seven distinct movements were required to load a Dane gun which took an Amazon 30 seconds in comparison to the 50 seconds it took a Dahomean male soldier to load.	586	Dahomey	6
8,765	# Dahomey ## Military ### Siege and engineering {#siege_and_engineering} In order to repress the navies of its neighbors, Dahomey built causeways starting from 1774. During a campaign against Whydah that year, Dahomey was able to force Whydah to fortify itself at an island called Foudou-Cong. Dahomey cut trees which were planted in the water to serve as a causeway and bridge the army\'s access to the fortified Whydah island. The causeway also obstructed the movement of a 700 canoe force belonging to Whydah. As a result, the Whydah army had to survive on the boats for months sustaining its forces with fish diet. According to Thornton, Dahomey used this strategy of siege causeways again in 1776 against another opponent state where it built 3 bridges to connect the island housing the opponent forces. Coastal belligerents opposing Dahomey allied with European forts against the state. Dahomey was able to capture Dutch and Portuguese forts in the 18th century through the use of ladders and sappers. Thornton writes that in 1737, Dahomey used scale ladders against the Dutch fort in Keta simultaneously as its sappers built a tunnel under the fort\'s bastion causing it to collapse when its defenders fired an artillery round within the bastion. A similar tactic was employed against a Portuguese fort with 30 mounted guns at Whydah in 1743 as its bastions collapsed enabling the Dahomey infantry to enter the fort. In 1728, Dahomey forces captured and destroyed a French fort at Whydah by blowing up the magazine that held the fort\'s ammunition and gunpowder. Another tactic for attacking coastal forts was the burning of nearby villages during a land breeze in order for the wind to carry the flames toward the fort. This tactic was first revealed by a British commander at Whydah in 1728, who countered it by burning the nearby villages during a sea breeze to prevent the Dahomeyan army from burning the villages during a land breeze. As a result of the threat posed by Oyo in the 18th century, the state built fortifications of its own with the help of a French officer from whom they learnt field fortification and artillery. According to a Dutch source in 1772, the king of Dahomey \"has made deep ditches around his entire country as well as walls and batteries mounted with cannons he captured at Fida \[Whydah\].\" Thornton suggests these fortifications were mostly built out of wood. Dahomey used a tactic of trench construction against Oyo where its forces withdrew into the trenches after confrontation with the Oyo force. Despite this, Dahomey was overwhelmed by an Oyo siege after the arrival of reinforcement. In the mid 18th century, Abomey was surrounded by a ditch accessible by bridges whiles in 1772 the royal residence was surrounded with a mud brick wall 20 feet high, \"with blockhouses on each wall.\" Dahomey also built underground chambers in Abomey which served varying functions including that of providing military installations for the army. These souterrains have been dated to the late 17th century. Wheeled vehicles are recorded to have been implemented in Dahomeyan warfare. In an operation against Abeokuta in 1864, Dahomey fielded three guns mounted on locally made carriages of which historian Robin Law adds that these weapons did not play an effective role in the battle. Some references exist about the possible production of guns and gunpowder in Dahomey. In 1880, king Béhanzin informed a French mission that firearms were manufactured in the state. Amid the war with France in 1892, a French expeditionary force discovered tools and resources such as cartridge cases, signal rockets and electric batteries which are necessary for making cartridges and repairing firearms.	608	Dahomey	7
8,765	# Dahomey ## Economy The economic structure of the kingdom was highly intertwined with the political and religious systems and these developed together significantly. The main currency was cowry shells. ### Domestic The domestic economy largely focused on agriculture and crafts for local consumption. Until the development of palm oil, very little agricultural or craft goods were traded outside of the kingdom. Markets served a key role in the kingdom and were organized around a rotating cycle of four days with a different market each day (the market type for the day was religiously sanctioned). Agriculture work was largely decentralized and done by most families. With the expansion of the kingdom, agricultural plantations began to be a common agricultural method in the kingdom. Craftwork was largely dominated by a formal guild system. Several wealthy citizens stored their cowrie wealth in a building called akueho (cowrie huts) located in the compounds of their houses. Such cowrie huts were designed to protect the cowries from fire and theft. Iroko argues that this was a form of banking in Dahomey because the owners of such akueho houses regularly kept the deposits of others in the storehouse which they used as a form of loans to 3rd parties. Guyer and Stiansen on the other hand, are skeptical of Iroko\'s theory. #### Taxation Herskovits recounts a complex tax system in the kingdom, in which officials who represented the king, the `{{transliteration\|fon\|tokpe}}`{=mediawiki}, gathered data from each village regarding their harvest. Then the king set a tax based upon the level of production and village population. In addition, the king\'s own land and production were taxed. After significant road construction undertaken by the kingdom, toll booths were also established that collected yearly taxes based on the goods people carried and their occupation. Officials also sometimes imposed fines for public nuisance before allowing people to pass. Tax officials on road tolls were provided with armed guards. Taxes were imposed on craft workers including blacksmiths, weavers and wood cutters for example. Kangaroo courts could be held at any place such as the market or on roads, presided over by officials recognized by the central government. Such courts could extract some form of tax from the litigants before judging the case. Since the 18th century, prostitution (Ko-si) was licensed by the king. Robert Norris and Archibald Dalzel documented in the late 18th century that the central government was responsible for distributing prostitutes throughout the state at a price set by civil decree. Taxes were derived from prostitutes during the annual customs. ### Royal Road {#royal_road} An unpaved road system was developed from the port of Ouidah through Cana up to Abomey. Its purpose was to improve the transportation of the king between Cana and Abomey. The Royal Road dates to the 18th century but most primary sources about the road date to the century after. The road stretched over seven miles in a near straight line, between the gates of the two towns and its width was estimated to be 20--30 meters. The road was occasionally kept weeded and cleared with cutlass. Primary sources give varying accounts that the Royal Road was kept cleared every two or three months or even six weeks. The road was shaded by tall trees. The biggest specimen was that of a bombax tree species. Surrounding the road on both sides were intensive farms which Forbes stated in the mid 19th century, to have \"rivaled that of the Chinese.\" In addition, religious shrines were lined along the road and Forbes counted 60 of them en route to Abomey. A palace was built halfway along the road by Tegbesu (1740--1774) to host the king as a resting place during transport. There is a lack of information about security provided across the Royal Road. Primary sources from the mid 19th century indicate that a large pair of carronades was placed on each side of the road near Abomey, which pointed toward Cana. A large number of cannons with diverse calibers were also placed at the road\'s end before the gates of Cana. Historian Alpern, indicates that the cannons in front of Cana might have served a ceremonial purpose because they lacked carriages to utilize. ### Slavery Both domestic slavery and the Atlantic slave trade were important to the economy of Dahomey. Men, women, and children captured by Dahomey in wars and slave raids were sold to European slave traders in exchange for various goods such as rifles, gunpowder, textiles, cowry shells, and alcohol. Dahomey used magical rituals for slave trading. Prior to being sold to Europeans, slaves were forced to march in circles around the \"Tree of Forgetfulness\" so they would lose memories of their culture, family, and homeland. The purpose of this ritual was to prevent the spirits of deceased slaves from returning and seeking revenge against the royalty of Dahomey. Other war captives who were not intended to be sold to Europeans remained in Dahomey as slaves. There, they worked on royal plantations that supplied food for the army and royal court. Some historians such as Watson and Schellinger have argued that the shift from slave trading to a plantation economy in the 19th century worsened the social perception of slaves in Dahomey. They cite reasons that slaves before then were treated as members of their master\'s family and they could attain free status after a generation or two. Following the intensification of palm oil in the state, it became common for slaves to be abused and ill treated. To solve this issue, King Ghezo declared the trial of cases involving the murder of slaves at the Judicial Court in Abomey. There was a history of large-scale human sacrifice using slaves.	946	Dahomey	8
8,765	# Dahomey ## Religion The Kingdom of Dahomey shared many religious rituals with surrounding populations. It also developed unique ceremonies, beliefs, and religious stories. These included royal ancestor worship and West African Vodun. ### Royal ancestor worship {#royal_ancestor_worship} Early kings established clear worship of royal ancestors and centralized their ceremonies in the Annual Customs of Dahomey. The spirits of the kings had an exalted position in the land of the dead and it was necessary to get their permission for many activities on earth. Ancestor worship predated the kingdom of Dahomey; under King Agaja, a cycle of ritual was created centered on first celebrating the ancestors of the king and then celebrating a family lineage. The Annual Customs of Dahomey (`{{transliteration\|fon\|xwetanu}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{transliteration\|fon\|huetanu}}`{=mediawiki} in Fon) involved multiple elaborate components and some aspects may have been added in the 19th century. In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, military parades, and political councils. Its main religious aspect was to offer thanks and gain the approval for ancestors of the royal lineage. Human sacrifice was an important part of the practice. During the Annual Custom, 500 prisoners would be sacrificed. In addition, when a ruler died, hundreds, to thousands of prisoners would be sacrificed. In 1727, an English trader alleged that he witness the Dahomey massacre 400 people during a Vodun ceremony. The number is also often reported to be 4,000. Human sacrifice was often exaggerated by contemporary anti-abolitionist Western authors, who sought to justify the continued need for slavery as a means to \"rescue\" Africans from a worse fate in Dahomey. ### Cosmology Dahomey had a unique form of West African Vodun that linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices. Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a wife of Agaja and mother of Tegbessou, brought Vodun to the kingdom and ensured its spread. The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having female characteristics and Lisa having male characteristics) and it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created by their mother Nana-Buluku. Mawu-Lisa governs the sky and is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods exist in the earth and in thunder. Religious practice organized different priesthoods and shrines for each different god and each different pantheon (sky, earth or thunder). Women made up a significant amount of the priest class and the chief priest was always a descendant of Dakodonou.	399	Dahomey	9
8,765	# Dahomey ## Arts The arts in Dahomey were unique and distinct from the artistic traditions elsewhere in Africa. The arts were substantially supported by the king and his family, had non-religious traditions, assembled multiple different materials, and borrowed widely from other peoples in the region. Common art forms included wood and ivory carving, metalwork (including silver, iron and brass, appliqué cloth, and clay bas-reliefs). The king was key in supporting the arts and many of them provided significant sums for artists resulting in the unique development, for the region, of a non-religious artistic tradition in the kingdom. Artists were not of a specific class but both royalty and commoners made important artistic contributions. Kings were often depicted in large zoomorphic forms with each king resembling a particular animal in multiple representations. Suzanne Blier identifies two unique aspects of art in Dahomey: Assemblage of different components and borrowing from other states. Assemblage of art, involving the combination of multiple components (often of different materials) combined in a single piece of art, was common in all forms and was the result of the various kings promoting finished products rather than particular styles. This assembling may have been a result of the second feature, which involved the wide borrowing of styles and techniques from other cultures and states. Clothing, cloth work, architecture, and the other forms of art all resemble other artistic representation from around the region. Much of the artwork revolved around the royalty. Each of the palaces at the Royal Palaces of Abomey contained elaborate bas-reliefs (noundidė in Fon) providing a record of the king\'s accomplishments. Each king had his own palace within the palace complex and within the outer walls of their personal palace was a series of clay reliefs designed specific to that king. These were not solely designed for royalty and chiefs, temples, and other important buildings had similar reliefs. The reliefs would present Dahomey kings often in military battles against the Oyo or Mahi tribes to the north of Dahomey with their opponents depicted in various negative depictions (the king of Oyo is depicted in one as a baboon eating a cob of corn). Historical themes dominated representation and characters were basically designed and often assembled on top of each other or in close proximity creating an ensemble effect. In addition to the royal depictions in the reliefs, royal members were depicted in power sculptures known as bocio, which incorporated mixed materials (including metal, wood, beads, cloth, fur, feathers, and bone) onto a base forming a standing figure. The bocio are religiously designed to include different forces together to unlock powerful forces. In addition, the cloth appliqué of Dahomey depicted royalty often in similar zoomorphic representation and dealt with matters similar to the reliefs, often the kings leading during warfare. Dahomey had a distinctive tradition of casting small brass figures of animals or people, which were worn as jewellery or displayed in the homes of the relatively well-off. These figures, which continue to be made for the tourist trade, were relatively unusual in traditional African art in having no religious aspect, being purely decorative, as well as indicative of some wealth. Also unusual, by being so early and clearly provenanced, is a carved wooden tray (not dissimilar to much more recent examples) in Ulm, Germany, which was brought to Europe before 1659, when it was described in a printed catalogue. Wheeled carriages were used in Dahomey after their introduction into the region of modern Benin in the late 17th century. Some carriages were manufactured indigenously while most were obtained as gifts from European allies. The carriages were often used for ceremonial purposes and were drawn mostly by men due to the small number of horses in the state. Carriages in Dahomey came in varying sizes and shapes. Some were modelled after ships, elephants and horses. Burton noted that the road between Abomey and the town of Cana, which was about six to seven miles long, was regularly kept weeded for the convenience of the royal carriages.	670	Dahomey	10
8,765	# Dahomey ## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture} The Kingdom of Dahomey has been depicted in a number of different works of fiction or creative nonfiction. ### Literature and theatre {#literature_and_theatre} - In the novel Robur the Conqueror (1886) by Jules Verne, the crew and passengers of the Albatross travel to Dahomey, where they interrupt an act of human sacrifice. - In Dahomey (1903) was a successful Broadway musical, the first full-length Broadway musical written entirely by African Americans, in the early 20th century. - Novelist Paul Hazoumé\'s first novel Doguicimi (1938) was based on decades of research into the oral traditions of the Kingdom of Dahomey during the reign of King Ghezo. - The anthropologist Judith Gleason wrote a novel, Agõtĩme: Her Legend (1970), centered on one of the wives of a king of Dahomey in the late 18th century, who offends her husband who sells her to slavery in Brazil; she makes a bargain with a vodu (deity), putting her son on the throne of Dahomey and bringing her home. - Another novel tracing the background of a slave, this time in the United States, was The Dahomean, or The Man from Dahomey (1971), by the African-American novelist Frank Yerby; its hero is an aristocratic warrior. - In the third of George McDonald Fraser\'s Flashman novels, Flash for Freedom! (1971), Flashman dabbles in the slave trade and visits Dahomey. - The Viceroy of Ouidah (1980) by Bruce Chatwin is the story of a Brazilian who, hoping to make his fortune from slave trading, sails to Dahomey in 1812, befriending its unbalanced king and coming to a bad end. - The main character of one of the two parallel stories in Will Do Magic for Small Change (2016) by Andrea Hairston is Kehinde, a Yoruba woman forced into the Dahomean army; she struggles with divided loyalty, and after the fall of Behanzin, joins a French entertainment troupe who intend to exhibit her as an Amazon at the Chicago World\'s Fair. - The Booker Prize-winning novel Girl, Woman, Other (2019) by Bernardine Evaristo features a character named Amma who writes and directs a play titled The Last Amazon of Dahomey. - Behanzin\'s resistance to the French attempt to end slave trading and human sacrifice has been central to a number of works. Jean Pliya\'s first play Kondo le requin (1967), winner of the Grand Prize for African History Literature, tells the story of Behanzin\'s struggle to maintain the old order. Maryse Condé\'s novel The Last of the African Kings (1992) similarly focuses on Behanzin\'s resistance and his exile to the Caribbean. The novel Thread of Gold Beads (2012) by Nike Campbell centers on a daughter of Behanzin; through her eyes, the end of his reign is observed. - Zora Neale Hurston\'s book Barracoon: The Story of the Last \"Black Cargo\", posthumously published May 2018. ### Film and television {#film_and_television} - Dahomey\'s role in the slave trade is the central focus of the film Cobra Verde (1987), directed by Werner Herzog and adapted from the novel The Viceroy of Ouidah (1980). The main protagonist is a fictional Brazilian slave trader who travels to the kingdom, and the character is based upon the historical Brazilian slave trader Francisco Félix de Sousa, who was politically and economically influential in Dahomey during the reigns of King Adandozan and King Ghezo. - The historical television drama Victoria (2016) portrays the real-life story of Sarah Forbes Bonetta being freed from slavery in Dahomey in season 2 episode 17 (\"Comfort and Joy\"). - The Dahomey Amazons are depicted in the film The Woman King (2022), directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood. - A documentary titled Dahomey directed by Mati Diop, an international co-production among France, Senegal and Benin, was selected in the Competition at the 74th Berlin International Film Festival to be held from February 15 to 25, 2024, where it will compete for the Golden Bear. It is about return of 26 of the royal treasures of the Kingdom of Dahomey to Benin. ### Video games {#video_games} Dahomey has been depicted in some historical war strategy video games. - The Dahomey Amazons appear in the historical strategy video game Empire: Total War (2009), developed by Creative Assembly. - In the grand strategy video games Europa Universalis IV (2013) and Victoria 3 (2022), both developed by Paradox Interactive, Dahomey appears as one of many historical nations that players can play as or interact with	734	Dahomey	11
8,768	# Dulcimer The term dulcimer refers to two families of musical string instruments. ## Hammered dulcimers {#hammered_dulcimers} The word dulcimer originally referred to a trapezoidal zither similar to a psaltery whose many strings are struck by handheld \"hammers\". Variants of this instrument are found in many cultures, including: - Hammered dulcimer (England, Scotland, United States) - Hackbrett (southern Germany, Austria, Switzerland) - Tsymbaly (Ukraine), tsimbl (Ashkenazi Jewish), țambal (Romania) and cimbalom (Hungary) may refer to either a relatively small folk instrument or a larger classical instrument. The santouri (Greece) (called \"santur\" in the Ottoman Empire) is almost identical to the Jewish and Romanian folk instruments. - Santur (Iran and Iraq) - Santoor (northern India and Pakistan) is constructed and tuned differently from the santur of Iran and Iraq - Khim (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand) - Yangqin (China), Đàn tam thập lục (Vietnam), yanggeum (Korea) ## Appalachian dulcimer and derivatives {#appalachian_dulcimer_and_derivatives} In the Appalachian region of the U.S. in the nineteenth century, hammered dulcimers were rare. There, the word dulcimer, which was familiar from the King James Version of the Bible, was used to refer to a three or four stringed fretted instrument, generally played on the lap by strumming	198	Dulcimer	0
8,777	# DNA virus thumb\\|upright=1.2\\|Orthopoxvirus particles A DNA virus is a virus that has a genome made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is replicated by a DNA polymerase. They can be divided between those that have two strands of DNA in their genome, called double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and those that have one strand of DNA in their genome, called single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. dsDNA viruses primarily belong to two realms: Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria, and ssDNA viruses are almost exclusively assigned to the realm Monodnaviria, which also includes some dsDNA viruses. Additionally, many DNA viruses are unassigned to higher taxa. Reverse transcribing viruses, which have a DNA genome that is replicated through an RNA intermediate by a reverse transcriptase, are classified into the kingdom Pararnavirae in the realm Riboviria. DNA viruses are ubiquitous worldwide, especially in marine environments where they form an important part of marine ecosystems, and infect both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They appear to have multiple origins, as viruses in Monodnaviria appear to have emerged from archaeal and bacterial plasmids on multiple occasions, though the origins of Duplodnaviria and Varidnaviria are less clear. Prominent disease-causing DNA viruses include herpesviruses, papillomaviruses, and poxviruses. ## Baltimore classification {#baltimore_classification} The Baltimore classification system is used to group viruses together based on their manner of messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis and is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. DNA viruses constitute two Baltimore groups: Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses, and Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses. While Baltimore classification is chiefly based on transcription of mRNA, viruses in each Baltimore group also typically share their manner of replication. Viruses in a Baltimore group do not necessarily share genetic relation or morphology. ### Double-stranded DNA viruses {#double_stranded_dna_viruses} The first Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a double-stranded DNA genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the site where transcription begins, allowing for the recruitment of a host RNA polymerase. Second, once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands. Third, the RNA polymerase terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site. dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. Bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions of each other, is widely used. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around the circular genome is also common. Some dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the prior synthesized strand, forming a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition whereby a viral genome in a host cell\'s DNA is replicated to another part of a host genome. dsDNA viruses can be subdivided between those that replicate in the cell nucleus, and as such are relatively dependent on host cell machinery for transcription and replication, and those that replicate in the cytoplasm, in which case they have evolved or acquired their own means of executing transcription and replication. dsDNA viruses are also commonly divided between tailed dsDNA viruses, referring to members of the realm Duplodnaviria, usually the tailed bacteriophages of the order Caudovirales, and tailless or non-tailed dsDNA viruses of the realm Varidnaviria.	579	DNA virus	0
8,777	# DNA virus ## Baltimore classification {#baltimore_classification} ### Single-stranded DNA viruses {#single_stranded_dna_viruses} The second Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a single-stranded DNA genome. ssDNA viruses have the same manner of transcription as dsDNA viruses. However, because the genome is single-stranded, it is first made into a double-stranded form by a DNA polymerase upon entering a host cell. mRNA is then synthesized from the double-stranded form. The double-stranded form of ssDNA viruses may be produced either directly after entry into a cell or as a consequence of replication of the viral genome. Eukaryotic ssDNA viruses are replicated in the nucleus. Most ssDNA viruses contain circular genomes that are replicated via rolling circle replication (RCR). ssDNA RCR is initiated by an endonuclease that bonds to and cleaves the positive strand, allowing a DNA polymerase to use the negative strand as a template for replication. Replication progresses in a loop around the genome by means of extending the 3\'-end of the positive strand, displacing the prior positive strand, and the endonuclease cleaves the positive strand again to create a standalone genome that is ligated into a circular loop. The new ssDNA may be packaged into virions or replicated by a DNA polymerase to form a double-stranded form for transcription or continuation of the replication cycle. Parvoviruses contain linear ssDNA genomes that are replicated via rolling hairpin replication (RHR), which is similar to RCR. Parvovirus genomes have hairpin loops at each end of the genome that repeatedly unfold and refold during replication to change the direction of DNA synthesis to move back and forth along the genome, producing numerous copies of the genome in a continuous process. Individual genomes are then excised from this molecule by the viral endonuclease. For parvoviruses, either the positive or negative sense strand may be packaged into capsids, varying from virus to virus. Nearly all ssDNA viruses have positive sense genomes, but a few exceptions and peculiarities exist. The family Anelloviridae is the only ssDNA family whose members have negative sense genomes, which are circular. Parvoviruses, as previously mentioned, may package either the positive or negative sense strand into virions. Lastly, bidnaviruses package both the positive and negative linear strands.	365	DNA virus	1
8,777	# DNA virus ## ICTV classification {#ictv_classification} The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) oversees virus taxonomy and organizes viruses at the basal level at the rank of realm. Virus realms correspond to the rank of domain used for cellular life but differ in that viruses within a realm do not necessarily share common ancestry, nor do the realms share common ancestry with each other. As such, each virus realm represents at least one instance of viruses coming into existence. Within each realm, viruses are grouped together based on shared characteristics that are highly conserved over time. Three DNA virus realms are recognized: Duplodnaviria, Monodnaviria, and Varidnaviria. ### Duplodnaviria Duplodnaviria contains dsDNA viruses that encode a major capsid protein (MCP) that has the HK97 fold. Viruses in the realm also share a number of other characteristics involving the capsid and capsid assembly, including an icosahedral capsid shape and a terminase enzyme that packages viral DNA into the capsid during assembly. Two groups of viruses are included in the realm: tailed bacteriophages, which infect prokaryotes and are assigned to the order Caudovirales, and herpesviruses, which infect animals and are assigned to the order Herpesvirales. Duplodnaviria is a very ancient realm, perhaps predating the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of cellular life. Its origins not known, nor whether it is monophyletic or polyphyletic. A characteristic feature is the HK97-fold found in the MCP of all members, which is found outside the realm only in encapsulins, a type of nanocompartment found in bacteria: this relation is not fully understood. The relation between caudoviruses and herpesviruses is also uncertain: they may share a common ancestor or herpesviruses may be a divergent clade from the realm Caudovirales. A common trait among duplodnaviruses is that they cause latent infections without replication while still being able to replicate in the future. Tailed bacteriophages are ubiquitous worldwide, important in marine ecology, and the subject of much research. Herpesviruses are known to cause a variety of epithelial diseases, including herpes simplex, chickenpox and shingles, and Kaposi\'s sarcoma. ### Monodnaviria Monodnaviria contains ssDNA viruses that encode an endonuclease of the HUH superfamily that initiates rolling circle replication and all other viruses descended from such viruses. The prototypical members of the realm are called CRESS-DNA viruses and have circular ssDNA genomes. ssDNA viruses with linear genomes are descended from them, and in turn some dsDNA viruses with circular genomes are descended from linear ssDNA viruses. Viruses in Monodnaviria appear to have emerged on multiple occasions from archaeal and bacterial plasmids, a type of extra-chromosomal DNA molecule that self-replicates inside its host. The kingdom Shotokuvirae in the realm likely emerged from recombination events that merged the DNA of these plasmids and complementary DNA encoding the capsid proteins of RNA viruses. CRESS-DNA viruses include three kingdoms that infect prokaryotes: Loebvirae, Sangervirae, and Trapavirae. The kingdom Shotokuvirae contains eukaryotic CRESS-DNA viruses and the atypical members of Monodnaviria. Eukaryotic monodnaviruses are associated with many diseases, and they include papillomaviruses and polyomaviruses, which cause many cancers, and geminiviruses, which infect many economically important crops. ### Varidnaviria Varidnaviria contains DNA viruses that encode MCPs that have a jelly roll fold folded structure in which the jelly roll (JR) fold is perpendicular to the surface of the viral capsid. Many members also share a variety of other characteristics, including a minor capsid protein that has a single JR fold, an ATPase that packages the genome during capsid assembly, and a common DNA polymerase. Two kingdoms are recognized: Helvetiavirae, whose members have MCPs with a single vertical JR fold, and Bamfordvirae, whose members have MCPs with two vertical JR folds. Varidnaviria is either monophyletic or polyphyletic and may predate the LUCA. The kingdom Bamfordvirae is likely derived from the other kingdom Helvetiavirae via fusion of two MCPs to have an MCP with two jelly roll folds instead of one. The single jelly roll (SJR) fold MCPs of Helvetiavirae show a relation to a group of proteins that contain SJR folds, including the Cupin superfamily and nucleoplasmins. Marine viruses in Varidnaviria are ubiquitous worldwide and, like tailed bacteriophages, play an important role in marine ecology. Most identified eukaryotic DNA viruses belong to the realm. Notable disease-causing viruses in Varidnaviria include adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the African swine fever virus. Poxviruses have been highly prominent in the history of modern medicine, especially Variola virus, which caused smallpox. Many varidnaviruses can become endogenized in their host\'s genome; a peculiar example are virophages, which after infecting a host, can protect the host against giant viruses. ### Baltimore classification {#baltimore_classification_1} dsDNA viruses are classified into three realms and include many taxa that are unassigned to a realm: - All viruses in Duplodnaviria are dsDNA viruses. - In Monodnaviria, members of the class Papovaviricetes are dsDNA viruses. - All viruses in Varidnaviria are dsDNA viruses. - The following taxa that are unassigned to a realm exclusively contain dsDNA viruses: - Orders: Ligamenvirales - Families: Ampullaviridae, Baculoviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Fuselloviridae, Globuloviridae, Guttaviridae, Halspiviridae, Hytrosaviridae, Nimaviridae, Nudiviridae, Ovaliviridae, Plasmaviridae, Polydnaviridae, Portogloboviridae, Thaspiviridae, Tristromaviridae - Genera: Dinodnavirus, Rhizidiovirus ssDNA viruses are classified into one realm and include several families that are unassigned to a realm: - In Monodnaviria, all members except viruses in Papovaviricetes are ssDNA viruses. - The unassigned families Anelloviridae and Spiraviridae are ssDNA virus families. - Viruses in the family Finnlakeviridae contain ssDNA genomes. Finnlakeviridae is unassigned to a realm but is a proposed member of Varidnaviria	902	DNA virus	2
8,785	# Fern Hill \"Fern Hill\" (1945) is a poem by the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, first published in Horizon magazine in October 1945, with its first book publication in 1946 as the last poem in Deaths and Entrances. ## Creation Thomas had started writing Fern Hill in New Quay, Cardiganshire, where he lived from 4 September 1944 to July 1945. Further work was done on the poem in July and August 1945 at Blaencwm, the family cottage in Carmarthenshire. A draft was sent to a friend in late August, and then the completed poem to his publisher on 18 September 1945. The house Fernhill is a Grade 2 listed residence just outside Llangain in Carmarthenshire. In Thomas\' day, it had an orchard and fifteen acres of farmland, most of it of poor quality. Thomas had extended stays here in the 1920s with his aunt Annie and her husband, Jim Jones. They had lived at Fernhill from about 1908 to 1928, renting it from the daughter of Robert Ricketts Evans (also known as Robert Anderson Evans), an occasional hangman and public executioner who once lived in Fernhill. Thomas\' own notes about Fernhill confirm that he knew the various stories about Evans the Hangman. Thomas wrote about Fernhill (calling it Gorsehill) in his short story, The Peaches, in which he describes it as a ramshackle house of hollow fear. Fernhill\'s dilapidated farmyard and buildings are also described in The Peaches. Jim Jones had shown little interest in farming, as his neighbours had noticed: there was \"no work in him\...left Fernhill farm to ruins.\" Jim had sold most of his farming machinery, implements and livestock before moving to Fernhill. He had also been convicted for allowing decomposing animal carcasses to lie around his fields. Fernhill, said an official survey, had an outside earth closet, water was carried in from a well in the farmyard, washing oneself was done in the kitchen, whilst meals were cooked on an open fire. Its two living rooms were lit by candles and paraffin lamps. The house, said the survey, had \"extreme rising dampness\" and smelt, wrote Thomas in The Peaches, \"of rotten wood and damp and animals\". Thomas\' holidays here have been recalled in interviews with his schoolboy friends and with Annie and Jim\'s neighbours. A further account describes both Thomas\' childhood and later years on the family farms between Llangain and Llansteffan, as well as suggesting that the poem Fern Hill was inspired not just by the house Fernhill but by another farm as well. ## Linguistic considerations {#linguistic_considerations} The poem starts as a straightforward evocation of his childhood visits to his Aunt Annie\'s farm: : Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs : About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green, : The night above the dingle starry, In the middle section, the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to Eden. : All the sun long it was running, it was lovely, the hay : Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys, it was air\... : With the dew, come back, the cock on his shoulder: it was all : Shining, it was Adam and maiden, By the end, the poet\'s older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening: : Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means, : Time held me green and dying : Though I sang in my chains like the sea. The poem uses internal half rhyme and full rhyme as well as end rhyme. Thomas was very conscious of the effect of spoken or intoned verse and explored the potentialities of sound and rhythm, in a manner reminiscent of Gerard Manley Hopkins. He always denied having conscious knowledge of Welsh, but \"his lines chime with internal consonantal correspondence, or cynghanedd, a prescribed feature of Welsh versification\". ## Legacy In 1960, American composer John Corigliano set \"Fern Hill\" to music as part of A Dylan Thomas Trilogy (1960--1976), a trilogy of choral symphony. The poem is also quoted in the title of the 1973 drama film Happy as the Grass Was Green and in the lyrics of the 2022 song \"Blacktop\" by Yeah Yeah Yeahs	718	Fern Hill	0
8,815	# Dual polyhedron thumb\\|right\\|upright=1.35\\|The dual of a cube is an octahedron. Vertices of one correspond to faces of the other, and edges correspond to each other. In geometry, every polyhedron is associated with a second dual structure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other. Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all can also be constructed as geometric polyhedra. Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron. Duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron. Therefore, for many classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries, the duals belong to a corresponding symmetry class. For example, the regular polyhedra`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}the (convex) Platonic solids and (star) Kepler--Poinsot polyhedra`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}form dual pairs, where the regular tetrahedron is self-dual. The dual of an isogonal polyhedron (one in which any two vertices are equivalent under symmetries of the polyhedron) is an isohedral polyhedron (one in which any two faces are equivalent \[\...\]), and vice versa. The dual of an isotoxal polyhedron (one in which any two edges are equivalent \[\...\]) is also isotoxal. Duality is closely related to polar reciprocity, a geometric transformation that, when applied to a convex polyhedron, realizes the dual polyhedron as another convex polyhedron. ## Kinds of duality {#kinds_of_duality} There are many kinds of duality. The kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality. ### Polar reciprocation {#polar_reciprocation} In Euclidean space, the dual of a polyhedron $P$ is often defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a sphere. Here, each vertex (pole) is associated with a face plane (polar plane or just polar) so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. When the sphere has radius $r$ and is centered at the origin (so that it is defined by the equation $x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = r^2$), then the polar dual of a convex polyhedron $P$ is defined as `{{Block indent\|left=1.6\|<math>P^\circ = \{ q~\big\|~q \cdot p \leq r^2</math> for all <math>p</math> in <math>P \} ,</math>}}`{=mediawiki} where $q \cdot p$ denotes the standard dot product of $q$ and $p$. Typically when no sphere is specified in the construction of the dual, then the unit sphere is used, meaning $r=1$ in the above definitions. For each face plane of $P$ described by the linear equation $x_0x + y_0y + z_0z = r^2,$ the corresponding vertex of the dual polyhedron $P^\circ$ will have coordinates $(x_0,y_0,z_0)$. Similarly, each vertex of $P$ corresponds to a face plane of $P^\circ$, and each edge line of $P$ corresponds to an edge line of $P^\circ$. The correspondence between the vertices, edges, and faces of $P$ and $P^\circ$ reverses inclusion. For example, if an edge of $P$ contains a vertex, the corresponding edge of $P^\circ$ will be contained in the corresponding face. For a polyhedron with a center of symmetry, it is common to use a sphere centered on this point, as in the Dorman Luke construction (mentioned below). Failing that, for a polyhedron with a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents), this can be used. However, it is possible to reciprocate a polyhedron about any sphere, and the resulting form of the dual will depend on the size and position of the sphere; as the sphere is varied, so too is the dual form. The choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has a face plane, edge line, or vertex lying on the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will go to infinity. Since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required \'plane at infinity\'. Some theorists prefer to stick to Euclidean space and say that there is no dual. Meanwhile, `{{harvtxt\|Wenninger\|1983}}`{=mediawiki} found a way to represent these infinite duals, in a manner suitable for making models (of some finite portion). The concept of duality here is closely related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged. Projective polarity works well enough for convex polyhedra. But for non-convex figures such as star polyhedra, when we seek to rigorously define this form of polyhedral duality in terms of projective polarity, various problems appear. Because of the definitional issues for geometric duality of non-convex polyhedra, `{{harvtxt\|Grünbaum\|2007}}`{=mediawiki} argues that any proper definition of a non-convex polyhedron should include a notion of a dual polyhedron. #### Canonical duals {#canonical_duals} Any convex polyhedron can be distorted into a canonical form, in which a unit midsphere (or intersphere) exists tangent to every edge, and such that the average position of the points of tangency is the center of the sphere. This form is unique up to congruences. If we reciprocate such a canonical polyhedron about its midsphere, the dual polyhedron will share the same edge-tangency points, and thus will also be canonical. It is the canonical dual, and the two together form a canonical dual compound. #### Dorman Luke construction {#dorman_luke_construction} For a uniform polyhedron, each face of the dual polyhedron may be derived from the original polyhedron\'s corresponding vertex figure by using the Dorman Luke construction. ### Topological duality {#topological_duality} Even when a pair of polyhedra cannot be obtained by reciprocation from each other, they may be called duals of each other as long as the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges of one correspond to the edges of the other, in an incidence-preserving way. Such pairs of polyhedra are still topologically or abstractly dual. The vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron form a graph (the 1-skeleton of the polyhedron), embedded on the surface of the polyhedron (a topological sphere). This graph can be projected to form a Schlegel diagram on a flat plane. The graph formed by the vertices and edges of the dual polyhedron is the dual graph of the original graph. More generally, for any polyhedron whose faces form a closed surface, the vertices and edges of the polyhedron form a graph embedded on this surface, and the vertices and edges of the (abstract) dual polyhedron form the dual graph of the original graph. An abstract polyhedron is a certain kind of partially ordered set (poset) of elements, such that incidences, or connections, between elements of the set correspond to incidences between elements (faces, edges, vertices) of a polyhedron. Every such poset has a dual poset, formed by reversing all of the order relations. If the poset is visualized as a Hasse diagram, the dual poset can be visualized simply by turning the Hasse diagram upside down. Every geometric polyhedron corresponds to an abstract polyhedron in this way, and has an abstract dual polyhedron. However, for some types of non-convex geometric polyhedra, the dual polyhedra may not be realizable geometrically.	1,180	Dual polyhedron	0
8,815	# Dual polyhedron ## Self-dual polyhedra {#self_dual_polyhedra} Topologically, a polyhedron is said to be self-dual if its dual has exactly the same connectivity between vertices, edges, and faces. Abstractly, they have the same Hasse diagram. Geometrically, it is not only topologically self-dual, but its polar reciprocal about a certain point, typically its centroid, is a similar figure. For example, the dual of a regular tetrahedron is another regular tetrahedron, reflected through the origin. Every polygon is topologically self-dual, since it has the same number of vertices as edges, and these are switched by duality. But it is not necessarily self-dual (up to rigid motion, for instance). Every polygon has a regular form which is geometrically self-dual about its intersphere: all angles are congruent, as are all edges, so under duality these congruences swap. Similarly, every topologically self-dual convex polyhedron can be realized by an equivalent geometrically self-dual polyhedron, its canonical polyhedron, reciprocal about the center of the midsphere. There are infinitely many geometrically self-dual polyhedra. The simplest infinite family is the pyramids. Another infinite family, elongated pyramids, consists of polyhedra that can be roughly described as a pyramid sitting on top of a prism (with the same number of sides). Adding a frustum (pyramid with the top cut off) below the prism generates another infinite family, and so on. There are many other convex self-dual polyhedra. For example, there are 6 different ones with 7 vertices and 16 with 8 vertices. A self-dual non-convex icosahedron with hexagonal faces was identified by Brückner in 1900. Other non-convex self-dual polyhedra have been found, under certain definitions of non-convex polyhedra and their duals.	270	Dual polyhedron	1
8,815	# Dual polyhedron ## Dual polytopes and tessellations {#dual_polytopes_and_tessellations} Duality can be generalized to n-dimensional space and dual polytopes; in two dimensions these are called dual polygons. The vertices of one polytope correspond to the (n − 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the j points that define a (j − 1)-dimensional element will correspond to j hyperplanes that intersect to give a (n − j)-dimensional element. The dual of an n-dimensional tessellation or honeycomb can be defined similarly. In general, the facets of a polytope\'s dual will be the topological duals of the polytope\'s vertex figures. For the polar reciprocals of the regular and uniform polytopes, the dual facets will be polar reciprocals of the original\'s vertex figure. For example, in four dimensions, the vertex figure of the 600-cell is the icosahedron; the dual of the 600-cell is the 120-cell, whose facets are dodecahedra, which are the dual of the icosahedron. ### Self-dual polytopes and tessellations {#self_dual_polytopes_and_tessellations} The primary class of self-dual polytopes are regular polytopes with palindromic Schläfli symbols. All regular polygons, {a} are self-dual, polyhedra of the form {a,a}, 4-polytopes of the form {a,b,a}, 5-polytopes of the form {a,b,b,a}, etc. The self-dual regular polytopes are: - All regular polygons, {a}. - Regular tetrahedron: {3,3} - In general, all regular n-simplexes, {3,3,\...,3} - The regular 24-cell in 4 dimensions, {3,4,3}. - The great 120-cell {5,5/2,5} and the grand stellated 120-cell {5/2,5,5/2} The self-dual (infinite) regular Euclidean honeycombs are: - Apeirogon: {∞} - Square tiling: {4,4} - Cubic honeycomb: {4,3,4} - In general, all regular n-dimensional Euclidean hypercubic honeycombs: {4,3,\...,3,4}. The self-dual (infinite) regular hyperbolic honeycombs are: - Compact hyperbolic tilings: {5,5}, {6,6}, \... {p,p}	278	Dual polyhedron	2
8,826	# Davy lamp The Davy lamp is a safety lamp used in flammable atmospheres, invented in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy. It consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen. It was created for use in coal mines, to reduce the danger of explosions due to the presence of methane and other flammable gases, called firedamp or minedamp. ## History German polymath Alexander von Humboldt, working for the German Bureau of Mines, had concerns for the health and welfare of the miners and invented a kind of respirator and \"four lamps of different construction suitable for employment in various circumstances. The respirator was to prevent the inhaling of injurious gases, and to supply the miner with good air; the lamps were constructed to burn in the most inflammable kind of fire-damp without igniting the gas. They were the forerunners of Davy\'s later invention, and were frequently made use of by the miners.\" Davy\'s invention was preceded by that of William Reid Clanny, an Irish doctor at Bishopwearmouth, who had read a paper to the Royal Society in May 1813. The more cumbersome Clanny safety lamp was successfully tested at Herrington Mill, and he won medals, from the Royal Society of Arts. Despite his lack of scientific knowledge, engine-wright George Stephenson devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes, through which the flames of the lamp could not pass. A month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society, Stephenson demonstrated his own lamp to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth Colliery and holding it in front of a fissure from which firedamp was issuing. The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at Hebburn Colliery on 9 January 1816. A letter from Davy (which he intended to be kept private) describing his findings and various suggestions for a safety lamp was made public at a meeting in Newcastle on 3 November 1815, and a paper describing the lamp was formally presented at a Royal Society meeting in London on 9 November. For it, Davy was awarded the society\'s Rumford Medal. Davy\'s lamp differed from Stephenson\'s in that the flame was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson\'s prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder (a design mentioned in Davy\'s Royal Society paper as an alternative to his preferred solution). For his invention Davy was given £2,000 worth of silver (the money being raised by public subscription), whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy, because the fully developed \'Geordie lamp\' had not been demonstrated by Stephenson until after Davy had presented his paper at the Royal Society, and (it was held) previous versions had not actually been safe. A local committee of enquiry gathered in support of Stephenson exonerated him, showing that he had been working separately to create the Geordie lamp, and raised a subscription for him of £1,000. Davy and his supporters refused to accept their findings, and would not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution he had: Stephenson himself freely admitted that he had arrived at a practical solution on the basis of an erroneous theory. In 1833, a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp. Davy went to his grave claiming that Stephenson had stolen his idea. The Stephenson lamp was used almost exclusively in North East England, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else. The experience gave Stephenson a lifelong distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts. ## Design and theory {#design_and_theory} The lamp consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen. The screen acts as a flame arrestor; air (and any firedamp present) can pass through the mesh freely enough to support combustion, but the holes are too fine to allow a flame to propagate through them and ignite any firedamp outside the mesh. The Davy lamp was fueled by oil or naphtha (lighter fluid). The lamp also provided a test for the presence of gases. If flammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge. Lamps were equipped with a metal gauge to measure the height of the flame. Miners could place the safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as carbon dioxide, that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine; if the mine air was oxygen-poor (asphyxiant gas), the lamp flame would be extinguished (black damp or chokedamp). A methane-air flame is extinguished at about 17% oxygen content (which will still support life), so the lamp gave an early indication of an unhealthy atmosphere, allowing the miners to get out before they died of asphyxiation.	803	Davy lamp	0
8,826	# Davy lamp ## Impact In 1816, the Cumberland Pacquet reported a demonstration of the Davy lamp at William Pit, Whitehaven. Placed in a blower \"\... the effect was grand beyond description. At first a blue flame was seen to cap the flame of the lamp, -- then succeeded a lambent flame, playing in the cylinder; and shortly after, the flame of the firedamp expanded, so as to completely fill the wire gauze. For some time, the flame of the lamp was seen through that of the firedamp, which became ultimately extinguished without explosion. Results more satisfactory were not to be wished\...\" Another correspondent to the paper commented \"The Lamp offers absolute security to the miner\... With the excellent ventilation of the Whitehaven Collieries and the application of Sir HUMPHRY\'s valuable instrument, the accidents from the explosion of\' (carbureted) \'hydrogene which have occurred (although comparatively few for such extensive works) will by this happy invention be avoided\". However, this prediction was not fulfilled: in the next thirty years, firedamp explosions in Whitehaven pits killed 137 people. More generally, the Select Committee on Accidents in Mines reported in 1835 that the introduction of the Davy lamp had led to an increase in mine accidents; the lamp encouraged the working of mines and parts of mines that had previously been closed for safety reasons. For example, in 1835, 102 men and boys were killed by a firedamp explosion in a Wallsend colliery working the Bensham seam, described at the subsequent inquest by John Buddle as \"a dangerous seam, which required the utmost care in keeping in a working state\", which could only be worked with the Davy lamp. The coroner noted that a previous firedamp explosion in 1821 had killed 52, but directed his jury that any finding on the wisdom of continuing to work the seam was outside their province. The lamps had to be provided by the miners themselves, not the owners, as traditionally the miners had bought their own candles from the company store. Miners still preferred the better illumination from a naked light, and mine regulations insisting that only safety lamps be used were draconian in principle, but in practice neither observed nor enforced. After two accidents in two years (1838--39) in Cumberland pits, both caused by safety checks being carried out by the light of a naked flame, the Royal Commission on Children\'s Employment commented both on the failure to learn from the first accident, and on the \"further absurdity\" of \"carrying a Davy lamp in one hand for the sake of safety, and a naked lighted candle in the other, as if for the sake of danger. Beyond this there can be no conceivable thoughtlessness and folly; and when such management is allowed in the mine of two of the most opulent coal-proprietors in the kingdom, we cease to wonder at anything that may take place in mines worked by men equally without capital and science\" Another reason for the increase in accidents was the unreliability of the lamps themselves. The bare gauze was easily damaged, and once just a single wire broke or rusted away, the lamp became unsafe. Work carried out by a scientific witness and reported by the committee showed that the Davy lamp became unsafe in airflows so low that a Davy lamp carried at normal walking pace against normal airflows in walkways was only safe if provided with a draught shield (not normally fitted), and the committee noted that accidents had happened when the lamp was \"in general and careful use; no one survived to tell the tale of how these occurrences took place; conjecture supplied the want of positive knowledge most unsatisfactorily; but incidents are recorded which prove what must follow unreasonable testing of the lamp; and your Committee are constrained to believe that ignorance and a false reliance upon its merits, in cases attended with unwarrantable risks, have led to disastrous consequences\" The \"South Shields Committee\", a body set up by a public meeting there (in response to an explosion at the St Hilda pit in 1839) to consider the prevention of accidents in mines had shown that mine ventilation in the North-East was generally deficient, with an insufficient supply of fresh air giving every opportunity for explosive mixtures of gas to accumulate. A subsequent select committee in 1852 concurred with this view; firedamp explosions could best be prevented by improving mine ventilation (by the use of steam ejectors: the committee specifically advised against fan ventilation), which had been neglected because of over-reliance on the safety of the Davy lamp. The practice of using a Davy lamp and a candle together was not entirely absurd, however, if the Davy lamp is understood to be not only a safe light in an explosive atmosphere, but also a gauge of firedamp levels. In practice, however, the warning from the lamp was not always noticed in time, especially in the working conditions of the era. The Mines Regulation Act 1860 therefore required coal mines to have an adequate amount of ventilation, constantly produced, to dilute and render harmless noxious gases so that work areas were -- under ordinary circumstances -- in a fit state to be worked (areas where a normally safe atmosphere could not be ensured were to be fenced off \"as far as possible\"): it also required safety lamps to be examined and securely locked by a duly authorized person before use. Even when new and clean, illumination from the safety lamps was very poor, and the problem was not fully resolved until electric lamps became widely available in the late 19th century. ## Successors A modern-day equivalent of the Davy lamp has been used in the Olympic flame torch relays. It was used in the relays for the Sydney, Athens, Turin, Beijing, Vancouver and Singapore Youth Olympic Games. It was also used for the Special Olympics Shanghai, Pan American and Central African games and for the London 2012 Summer Olympics relay. Lamps are still made in Eccles, Greater Manchester; in Aberdare, South Wales; and in Kolkata, India. A replica of a Davy lamp is located in front of the ticket office at the Stadium of Light (Sunderland AFC) which is built on a former coal mine. In 2015, the bicentenary of Davy\'s invention, the former Bersham Colliery, in Wrexham, Wales, now a mining museum, hosted an event for members of the public to bring in their Davy lamps for identification. The National Mining Museum Scotland at Newtongrange, Scotland, also celebrated the 200th anniversary of the invention. In 2016, the Royal Institution of Great Britain, where the Davy lamp prototype is displayed, decided to have the invention 3D scanned, reverse engineered and presented to the museum visitors in a more accessible digital format via a virtual reality cabinet. At first sight it appears to be a traditional display cabinet but has a touch screen with various options for visitors to view and reference the virtual exhibits inside	1,157	Davy lamp	1
8,829	# Do Not Adjust Your Set *Do Not Adjust Your Set* is a British television series produced originally by Rediffusion, London, and then by the fledgling Thames Television for British commercial television channel ITV from 26 December 1967 to 14 May 1969. The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) that was displayed when there was a problem with transmission or technical difficulties. It helped launch the careers of Denise Coffey, David Jason, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin; the last three became members of the Monty Python comedy troupe soon afterwards. Although originally conceived as a children\'s programme, it quickly acquired a fandom amongst adults, including future Python members John Cleese and Graham Chapman. The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, a satirical comedy/art/pop group, also performed songs in each programme and frequently appeared as extras in sketches. The programme itself comprised a series of satirical sketches, often presented in a surreal, absurd and discontinuous style -- anticipating Monty Python\'s Flying Circus, which began five months after the last episode of Do Not Adjust Your Set. Several surreal animations between sketches were crafted for the second series by Terry Gilliam, who soon graduated to Python along with Palin, Jones and Idle. One recurring feature of the show was Captain Fantastic, a superhero parody featuring David Jason in farcical and morbid adventures against villainess Mrs. Black (Coffey). These segments were shot entirely on location in London. The feature was so popular with the young audience that after Do Not Adjust Your Set itself ended, Captain Fantastic briefly continued in its own capacity in the children\'s magazine show Magpie. Only 14 of the original 29 episodes currently exist. ## Awards In June 1968, an episode of Do Not Adjust Your Set was submitted to the 1968 Prix Jeunesse International Television Festival in Munich. It won first prize in the 12--15 years category.	319	Do Not Adjust Your Set	0
8,829	# Do Not Adjust Your Set ## Home media {#home_media} Nine of the 14 episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series were released on DVD in the UK and the US on 25 August 2005. Both releases use the same NTSC Region 0 discs made from telerecordings of the original videotapes. In this DVD release, the episodes are numbered 1 to 9, although, in fact, they are episodes 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 from series 1 (a similar fault was made on the release of At Last the 1948 Show). The sole surviving episode from series 2 and Do Not Adjust Your Stocking were not included. Contrary to claims on the packaging, Terry Gilliam\'s animations also do not appear on this release, although Gilliam does appear as one of the additional writers in the credits for episodes 3 and 4. The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band was seen playing their song \"Death Cab for Cutie\" (also performed in the Beatles\' film Magical Mystery Tour) on the DVD in episode 7. On 16 September 2019, the British Film Institute released a comprehensive DVD set of the surviving videos and animations from both series. It includes the previously missing fourth episode of the first series, which was rediscovered (but only after the earlier DVD release) when it was noticed that a copy had been sent to the jury of the Prix de Jeunesse award. This edition survives as a domestic recording on a Phillips 1500 cassette made by Thames Television in 1976, which was discovered by Kaleidoscope in 2015, when a copy was returned from Munich. It is thus the only series 1 episode with magnetic rather than optical sound quality. The BFI release features episodes with their original numbering. They include the Christmas special and some Terry Gilliam animations (restored from his own masters) that appeared in otherwise lost episodes.	313	Do Not Adjust Your Set	1
8,829	# Do Not Adjust Your Set ## Episodes ### Christmas Special (1967) {#christmas_special_1967} The very first episode, an introductory special meant for Boxing Day 1967, was accidentally switched with the first regular episode in all regions except for London. ### Series 1 (1968) {#series_1_1968} The first series was produced by Rediffusion, thirteen episodes were broadcast from 26 December 1967 to 28 March 1968, on Thursdays at 17:25. Three episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, nine episodes survive as telerecordings and a further edition (Episode 4) survives on a domestic tape recording. Several cast changes occurred over the course of this series, Tim Brooke-Taylor filled in for Michael Palin for the studio recording for Episode 9, as the latter was having his appendix removed. The following edition, Neil Innes was absent from the taping since he had the flu, so Eric Idle filled in for him when performing the vocals/ piano parts for the Bonzo\'s musical number \'Love is a Cylindrical Piano\'. `{{Episode table \|background=#FFA500 \|overall=5 \|series=5 \|title=46 \|aux2=22 \|aux2T=Archival Status \|airdate=22 \|episodes= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 2 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 1 \| Title = Episode 1 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|1\|4\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 3 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 2 \| Title = Episode 2 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|1\|11\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 4 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 3 \| Title = Episode 3 \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|1\|18\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 5 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 4 \| Title = Episode 4 \| Aux2 = Exists <ref>This episode survives as a domestic Philips 1500 recording.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|1\|25\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 6 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 5 \| Title = Episode 5 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|2\|1\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 7 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 6 \| Title = Episode 6 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|2\|8\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 8 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 7 \| Title = Episode 7 \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|2\|15\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 9 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 8 \| Title = Episode 8 \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|2\|22\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 10 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 9 \| Title = Episode 9 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|2\|29\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 11 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 10 \| Title = Episode 10 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|3\|7\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 12 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 11 \| Title = Episode 11 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|3\|14\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 13 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 12 \| Title = Episode 12 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|3\|21\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 14 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 13 \| Title = Episode 13 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|3\|28\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #FFA500 }} }}`{=mediawiki} ### Specials (1968) {#specials_1968} A summer special was broadcast on 29 July 1968. It was the last episode to be produced by Rediffusion, since it was transmitted on their final day of broadcasting before Thames Television took over as the franchise holder for the London region (weekdays only) the following day. The Christmas special was the first episode to be produced by Thames. For a 1986 repeat, David Jason demanded to be removed from the show, thus creating an abridged version of 25 minutes. This edition was also notable for featuring the first animated sketch by Terry Gilliam, who would go on to contribute further material for the subsequent series. `{{Episode table \|background=#483D8B \|overall=5 \|series=5 \|title=46 \|aux2=22 \|aux2T=Archival Status \|airdate=22 \|episodes= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 15 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 1 \| Title = Special \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|7\|29\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #483D8B }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 16 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 2 \| Title = Do Not Adjust Your Stocking \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1968\|12\|25\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #483D8B }} }}`{=mediawiki}	790	Do Not Adjust Your Set	2
8,829	# Do Not Adjust Your Set ## Episodes ### Series 2 (1969) {#series_2_1969} The second and final series, thirteen episodes were broadcast from 19 February 1969 to 14 May 1969, on Wednesdays at 17:20. Most of the episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, although audio recordings survive from several missing episodes Only Episode 2 survives intact, it\'s also the only episode from the entire series run to exist on its original 2\" master videotape. Animated sequences by Terry Gilliam including \'Beware of the Elephants\' and \'Learning to Live with an Elephant\' also exist on b&w 35mm film. `{{Episode table \|background=#3CB371 \|overall=5 \|series=5 \|title=46 \|aux2=22 \|aux2T=Archival Status \|airdate=22 \|episodes= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 17 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 1 \| Title = Episode 1 \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A short audio clip survives but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|2\|19\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 18 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 2 \| Title = Episode 2 \| Aux2 = Exists \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|2\|26\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 19 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 3 \| Title = Episode 3 \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|3\|5\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 20 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 4 \| Title = The Loose Denture Show \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A domestic audio recording of the soundtrack survives, but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|3\|12\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 21 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 5 \| Title = Your Permanent Wave Looks OK to Me \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A domestic audio recording of the soundtrack survives, but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|3\|19\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 22 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 6 \| Title = It's Sundown at the Usual Time \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|3\|26\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 23 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 7 \| Title = The Show with Knobs On \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A short audio clip survives but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|4\|2\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 24 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 8 \| Title = N.U.T.S. \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A short audio clip survives but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|4\|9\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 25 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 9 \| Title = The Original Broadway (Ealing) Cast \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A short audio clip survives but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|4\|16\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 26 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 10 \| Title = Episode 10 \| Aux2 = Missing \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|4\|23\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 27 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 11 \| Title = The Whizzo-Eazi-Probe \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A domestic audio recording of the soundtrack survives, but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|4\|30\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 28 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 12 \| Title = The Interplanetary Crossword Puzzlers \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A short audio clip survives but the complete episode is missing from the archives.</ref> \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1969\|5\|7\|df=y}} \| ShortSummary = \| LineColor = #3CB371 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 29 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 13 \| Title = The Last Post \| Aux2 = Missing <ref>A domestic audio recording of the soundtrack survives, but the complete episode is missing from the archives	672	Do Not Adjust Your Set	3
8,835	# Digimon , short for \"Digital Monsters\" (`{{Nihongo2\|デジタルモンスター}}`{=mediawiki} Dejitaru Monsutā), is a Japanese media franchise, which encompasses virtual pet toys, anime, manga, video games, films, and a trading card game. The franchise focuses on the eponymous creatures who inhabit a digital world, a parallel universe which originated from Earth\'s various communication networks. The franchise was created in 1997 as Digital Monster, a series of digital pets, and it was intended as the masculine counterpart to Tamagotchi. The creatures were designed to look cute and iconic on the devices\' small screens. Later developments had them created with a harder-edged style, which was influenced by American comics. The franchise gained momentum with an early video game, Digimon World, originally released in Japan in January 1999. Several anime series and films have been released; the video game series has expanded into various genres, such as role-playing, racing, fighting, and MMORPGs. The franchise generated over \$500 million in sales by 2000. ## Conception and creation {#conception_and_creation} The Digimon franchise began as a series of virtual pets created by WiZ and Bandai, intended as a masculine counterpart to the more female-oriented Tamagotchi pets. It was released in June 1997 with the name Digital Monster, shortened for Digimon. This device shows to players a virtual pet composed entirely of data and designed to play and fight. In February 1998, the DigiMon fighting game was announced. It was developed by Rapture Technologies. The one-shot manga C\'mon Digimon, designed by Tenya Yabuno, was published in the Japanese magazine V-Jump by Shueisha in 1997. A second generation of virtual pets was marketed six months after the launch of the first, followed by a third in 1998. Each player starts with a baby-level digital creature that has a limited number of attacks and transformations and to make the creature stronger by training and nourishing the creature; when the player is successful in a workout, the Digimon becomes strong, when the player fails, the Digimon becomes weak. Two devices can be connected, allowing two players to battle with their respective creatures, an innovation at the time, however, the battle is only possible from the moment the creature is in the child level or bigger. Playgrounds and subways were where the majority of users of the apparatus were concentrated; the virtual pet was banned in some Asian schools, being considered by parents and teachers as very noisy and violent. The first Digimon were created by Japanese designer Kenji Watanabe, influenced by American comics, which were beginning to gain popularity in Japan, and as such began to make his characters look stronger and \"cool.\" Other types of Digimon, which until the year 2000 totalled 279, came from extensive discussions and collaborations between the Bandai company members. The original Digital Monster model that was released in 1997 sold `{{nowrap\|14 million}}`{=mediawiki} units worldwide, including `{{formatnum:13}}`{=mediawiki} million units in Japan and `{{formatnum:1}}`{=mediawiki} million overseas, up until March 2004. By 2005, more than `{{nowrap\|24 million}}`{=mediawiki} Digital Monster units had been sold worldwide. ## Premise Several media in the franchise are contained within their own continuity; however, they all share a similar setting and premise. For instance, most Digimon stories begin with a human child, who comes into contact with a Digimon. This generally occurs either through an accidental entrance into the so-called Digital World or an encounter with a Digimon who has come into the human world. The child or children then often find themselves equipped with a \"digivice\", which is a device modelled after the series\' virtual pets; this device enables them to empower their partner Digimon. While some Digimon act like wild beasts, there are many who form small societies and follow governing bodies. Digimon can change through evolution (or \"digivolution\" in most English-language dubs), where they absorb additional data that allows them to change forms. This process is normally linear, but there are other methods, depending upon the media within the franchise. For example, \"Jogress\" (a portmanteau of \"joint progress\"; \"DNA Digivolution\" in most English-language dubs) is when two or more Digimon combine into a single being. Though evolution can occur naturally, Digimon can progress into stronger forms more quickly, when they are partnered with a human.	693	Digimon	0
8,835	# Digimon ## Media ### Anime #### Television series {#television_series} Multiple Digimon anime series have been produced by Toei Animation since 1999. The first of these was Digimon Adventure; it began as a short film, but after its storyboard was finished, a request for the film to become a television series was made. The film debuted in theaters a day before the series debuted on TV. There are seven Digimon series were adapted into English for release in Western markets, with the first four treated as a single show under the collective title Digimon: Digital Monsters. The sixth series, Digimon Fusion, was only partially dubbed; its third season was never dub into English. No. Title Episodes Originally aired ------------- ------------ ---------------------------------- -------------- ------------------ First aired Last aired 1 Digimon Adventure (1999) 54 2 Digimon Adventure 02 50 3 Digimon Tamers 51 4 Digimon Frontier 50 5 Digimon Data Squad 48 6 Digimon Fusion 79 7 Digimon Universe: App Monsters 52 8 Digimon Adventure: (2020) 67 9 Digimon Ghost Game 67+1 special 10 Digimon Beatbreak Total 519 episodes #### Films Several Digimon films were released in Japan, with some of them seasonal tie-ins for their respective television series. Footage from the first three films was used for the American-produced Digimon: The Movie. +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Title \| Originally released \| +===+===============================================================================================+===========================+ \| \| Digimon Adventure \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure: Our War Game! \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| \'\'\[\[Digimon Adventure 02#Films\\|Digimon Adventure 02: Part 1: Digimon Hurricane Touchdown \| /\ \| \| \| \| Part 2: Supreme Evolution \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure 3D: Digimon Grand Prix! \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon: The Movie \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure 02: Revenge of Diaboromon \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Tamers: Battle of Adventurers \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Tamers: Runaway Locomon \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Frontier: Island of Lost Digimon \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digital Monster X-Evolution \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Savers 3D: The Digital World in Imminent Danger! \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| \'\'\[\[Digimon Data Squad#Film\\|Digimon Savers: Ultimate Power! Activate Burst Mode \| \]\]\'\' \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 1: Reunion \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 2: Determination \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 3: Confession \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 4: Loss \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 5: Coexistence \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure tri. Chapter 6: Future \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure: Last Evolution Kizuna \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ \| \| Digimon Adventure 02: The Beginning \| \| +---+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+ #### OVA No. Title Episodes First aired ------------------------------ --- ----------------------------------------- ---------- ------------- style=\"background:#FFA040\\| 1 Digimon Adventure 20th Memorial Story 5 style=\"background:#FFA040\\| 2 Digimon Adventure -BEYOND- 1 #### Distribution and localization {#distribution_and_localization} In the United States, the first three series that made up Digimon: Digital Monsters first aired on Fox Kids from August 14, 1999 to June 8, 2002. The localized series was produced by Saban Entertainment, which was acquired by The Walt Disney Company during the show\'s Fox Kids run. Some scenes from the original shows were modified or omitted in order to comply with Fox\'s standards and practices. The show also featured more jokes and added dialogue, along with a completely different musical score. As a cross-promotional stunt, 2001 and 2002 saw Digi-Bowl specials co-produced with Fox Sports; NFL on Fox commentator Terry Bradshaw provided interstitial segments in-between episodes as if the episodes were actually a football game. Disney\'s acquisition of Saban resulted in Digimon airing on Disney\'s TV networks and programming blocks. Reruns of the show began airing on the cable network ABC Family on March 4, 2002, while the fourth series, Digimon Frontier, premiered on UPN\'s Disney\'s One Too block. UPN aired the series until late August 2003, when they severed their ties to Disney. Frontier also aired in reruns on ABC Family and on Toon Disney under the Jetix branding. An English version of Digimon Data Squad, produced by Studiopolis, premiered October 1, 2007, on Toon Disney. Around this time, the remaining Digimon Adventure 02 movie, both Tamers movies and the Frontier movie were dubbed and aired on Toon Disney in the US, with most actors from the TV series reprising their roles. The Data Squad/Savers movie however have not had a North American localised English dub produced. In September 2012, Saban Brands, a successor to Saban Entertainment, announced it had acquired the Digimon anime franchise. Saban announced an English dub for Digimon Xros Wars, retitled Digimon Fusion, for broadcast on Nickelodeon in the United States starting September 7, 2013. Saban Capital Group sold most of Saban Brands\' entertainment properties to Hasbro in 2018 and shutter the division in July of that year. The Digimon Adventure tri. series were distributed in North America by Eleven Arts. The English dub utilized localized names from Saban\'s original dub, reunite several voice actors from the original cast, and feature a remixed version of the English opening theme, while retaining the original Japanese score. Shout! Factory acquired the broadcast and home media distribution rights for the films. #### International In Canada, the English versions of Digimon were broadcast on YTV, with the exception of Data Squad, which aired in Family Channel\'s Jetix block. YTV acquired Digimon Fusion, but only the first 26 episodes were shown. In the United Kingdom, Digimon first aired on Fox Kids. ITV\'s children\'s slot CITV broadcast Adventure, Adventure 02 and several episodes of Tamers during after school hours from 2001--2002. The rest of Tamers aired on Fox Kids from 2002--03. Digimon Frontier was originally announced to be broadcast on Jetix, but the series was later dropped. The series eventually saw a release on October 29, 2018. In 2011, Digimon Data Squad aired on Kix!. According to Fox Kids\' (2000--03) and Kix\'s (2010--) BARB Television ratings, Adventure, Adventure 02 and Tamers have been the most popular series\'/seasons in the United Kingdom and was consistently in the weekly top 10 broadcasts for both channels for new episodes. Broadcast rights and merchandising sub-licensing rights for Digimon Fusion in the UK have been acquired by ITV Studios Global Entertainment. Digimon Fusion had aired since Spring 2014 on digital terrestrial channel, CITV. In the Philippines, Digimon was first aired on ABS-CBN in Filipino English language from June 2, 2000 to October 21, 2001. And later, it was shift to Filipino in April 6, 2002.	1,077	Digimon	1
8,835	# Digimon ## Media ### Manga Digimon first appeared in narrative form in the one-shot manga C\'mon Digimon, released in the summer of 1997. C\'mon Digimon spawned the popular Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 manga, written by Hiroshi Izawa, which began serialization on November 21, 1998. #### Digimon Next {#digimon_next} Written by Tatsuya Hamazaki and illustrated by Takeshi Okano, `{{Nihongo\|''Digimon Next''\|デジモンネクスト\|Dejimon Nekusuto}}`{=mediawiki} was serialized in Shueisha\'s magazine V Jump from 2005 to 2008. Shueisha collected its chapters in four tankōbon volumes, released from July 4, 2006, to February 4, 2008. The story follow Tsurugi Tatsuno and his digimon partner, Greymon (later Agumon). Tsurugi makes contact with the Digital World through his virtual pet device called Digimon Mini and a \"Battle Terminal\", a virtual reality interface. Digimon can use the technology to materialize in the human world as well. #### Digimon Dreamers {#digimon_dreamers} In 2021, a manga called Digimon Dreamers was announced. #### Yuen Wong Yu manhua {#yuen_wong_yu_manhua} A Chinese manhua was written and drawn by Yuen Wong Yu (余遠鍠 Yu Yuen-wong), who based its storyline on the television series. This adaptation covers Digimon Adventure in five volumes, Digimon Adventure 02 in two, Digimon Tamers in four, and Digimon Frontier in three. The original stories are heavily abridged, though on rare occasions events play out differently from the anime. The Chinese-language version was published by Rightman Publishing Ltd. in Hong Kong. Yu also wrote D-Cyber. Two English versions were also released. The first one was published by Chuang Yi in Singapore. The second one, which was adapted by Lianne Sentar, was released by Tokyopop in North America.\ The three volumes for Digimon Frontier have been released by Chuang Yi in English. These have not been released by TOKYOPOP in North America or Europe. However, the Chuang Yi releases of Digimon Frontier were distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australia. #### Dark Horse {#dark_horse} Dark Horse Comics published American-style Digimon comic books, adapting the first thirteen episodes of the English dub of Digimon Adventure in 2001. The story was written by Daniel Horn and Ryan Hill, and illustrated by Daniel Horn and Cara L. Niece. #### Panini The Italian publishing company Panini published Digimon titles in several ways in different countries. Germany had their own adaptations of episodes, the UK reprinted the Dark Horse titles and translated some of the German adaptations of Adventure 02 episodes. Eventually the UK comics had their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK\'s Digimon Magazine and the UK Fox Kids companion magazine Wickid. These original stories roughly followed the continuity of Adventure 02. When the comic switched to the Tamers series the storylines adhered to continuity more strictly; sometimes it expanded on subject matter not covered by the original Japanese anime (such as Mitsuo Yamaki\'s past) or the English adaptations of the television shows and movies (such as Ryo\'s story or the movies that remained undubbed until 2005). In a money saving venture, the original stories were later removed from Digimon Magazine, which returned to printing translated German adaptations of Tamers episodes. Eventually, both magazines were cancelled.	512	Digimon	2
8,835	# Digimon ## Media ### Video games {#video_games} The Digimon series has inspired various video games, including the Digimon World and Digimon Story sub-series of role-playing video games. Other genres have included life simulation, adventure, video card game, strategy, and racing games. By March 2001, Bandai had sold approximately `{{Nowrap\|1 million}}`{=mediawiki} video games worldwide, including 400,000 in Japan. In February 2010, a website for the MMORPG Digimon Battle Online was launched. On September 22, 2011, online game publisher Joymax announced the release of an MMORPG game called Digimon Masters, which was developed by the Korean publisher DIGITALIC. In June 2021 it was announced that they were developing a new MMORPG titled Digimon Super Rumble. In 2011, a new entry in the Digimon World series was announced after a seven-year hiatus, titled Digimon World Re:Digitize. The game was released in Japan on July 19, 2012, followed by an enhanced version for Nintendo 3DS released in 2013. Digimon Story: Cyber Sleuth was first released in Japan in 2015. It is the first game in the Digimon Story series to be released in North America under its original title; Digimon World DS and Digimon World Dawn and Dusk were originally marketed as entries in the Digimon World series, with the latter game being the last to be released in the West for nine years until Cyber Sleuth\'s release on February 2, 2016. There have been several mobile games. Digimon Links was active from March 2016 to July 2019, and was similar to the Story games in that the player raised digimon in a farm and fought enemies using a team of three of their Digimon. It was succeeded by Digimon ReArise, which launched June 2018 in Japan and October 2019 in America. ### Web novel {#web_novel} In February 2023, Bandai announced a web novel titled `{{Nihongo\|''[[Digimon Seekers]]''\|デジモンシーカーズ\|Dejimon Shīkāzu}}`{=mediawiki} to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the franchise. The novel will serialize on the Digimon Web website for about a year, starting on April 3, simultaneously in English, Chinese, and Japanese. ### Webcomic In December 2023, Bandai announced a webcomic titled Digimon Liberator for Spring 2024. ### Card game {#card_game} The Digimon Collectible Card Game is a card game based on Digimon, first introduced in Japan in 1997 and published by Bandai. The third season (Digimon Tamers) utilized this aspect of the franchise by making the card game an integral part of the season. Versions of the card game are also included in some of the Digimon video games including Digital Card Battle and Digimon World 3. During the fourth anime (Digimon Frontier), Bandai created the D-Tector Card Game to tie in to their own D-Tector virtual pet toys. This was a West-only card game. From February 25, 2011 to September 28, 2012, Digimon Jintrix was an online card game supported by physical card releases. It was followed up by the mobile game Digimon Crusader, which lasted from December 2012 to December 2017. In 2020 a new card game was launched to coincide with Digimon Adventure: using a new system, this was released in the West in January 2021	514	Digimon	3
8,838	# Dictum of Kenilworth The Dictum of Kenilworth (Dictum de Kenilworth), issued on 31 October 1266, was a pronouncement designed to reconcile the rebels of the Second Barons\' War with the royal government of England. After the baronial victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, Simon de Montfort took control of royal government, but at the Battle of Evesham the next year Montfort was killed, and King Henry III restored to power. A group of rebels held out in the stronghold of Kenilworth Castle, however, and their resistance proved difficult to crush. A siege of the castle was started, but through papal intervention King Henry later entered on a more conciliatory path. A commission was appointed to draw up an arrangement that would be acceptable to both sides. The resulting Dictum of Kenilworth offered the rebels the right to buy back forfeited estates, at prices depending on their level of involvement in the rebellion. After initial resistance, the terms were eventually accepted. By the summer of 1267, the country was pacified, and this spirit of reconciliation would last until the 1290s. The Dictum of Kenilworth was later incorporated into the Statute of Marlborough. ## Background At the Battle of Lewes in 1264, the rebellious barons, led by Simon de Montfort, had defeated the royal army and taken King Henry III captive. For the next year, the reins of government were in Montfort\'s hands, but his support soon began to crumble. On 4 August 1265, Montfort faced an army led by Prince Edward (later King Edward I) and the powerful Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the royalist side, at the Battle of Evesham. The battle resulted in a complete royal victory; Montfort was killed, and King Henry III was restored to full power. Part of the rebellious forces held out, however, and their stronghold was the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle. In the summer of 1266, a siege of the castle was initiated, but the effort proved futile. There were rumours that Montfort\'s son Simon the Younger was planning an invasion of England from Normandy, and this was the hope that the rebels hung on to. It was in this situation that the papal legate Ottobuono Fieschi exerted his influence, to make the king pursue a more conciliatory policy. In August, the king summoned a parliament at Kenilworth, where the siege was ongoing. He commissioned a number of earls, barons and bishops to draft a treaty of reconciliation.	410	Dictum of Kenilworth	0
8,838	# Dictum of Kenilworth ## The Dictum of Kenilworth {#the_dictum_of_kenilworth} The commission was created by parliament appointing three bishops and three barons, who then selected one more bishop, two earls, and three more barons. The final committee consisted of the bishops of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Worcester and St. David\'s, the earls of Gloucester and Hereford, and six barons (Philip Basset, John Balliol, Robert Walerand, Alan la Zouche, Roger de Somery and Warin Basingbourne). This committee was given until All Saints Day (1 November) to come up with provisions for a settlement. The result, known as the Dictum of Kenilworth, was made public on 31 October 1266. The primary point of the Dictum was the re-establishment of royal authority. The Provisions of Oxford, that had been forced on the king were repudiated, and it was made clear that the appointment of ministers was entirely a royal prerogative. King Henry in turn reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest. At the same time, Henry was faced with the increasing veneration of the fallen Simon de Montfort, whom some were already starting to consider a martyr and a possible saint. The rebels had previously been completely disinherited, and their land taken into the king\'s hands. The Dictum instead extended a pardon, and restored land to their previous owners, contingent on payment of certain penalties that were proportional to the level of involvement in the rebellion. It was traditional to value land at ten times its annual yield, and most of the rebels were subsequently fined at half of this amount: five times the annual yield of their lands. Robert Ferrers, Earl of Derby, was singled out in particular for his central involvement in the rebellion, and for him the multiple was seven rather than five. The same was the case for Henry de Hastings, who was the commander of Kenilworth Castle. Those who had not taken part in the fighting themselves, but had incited others to rise up against the king, were fined at two years\' value, while those who had been compelled to fight, or played only a minor part, had to pay one year\'s value of their land. The proceedings from the fines were awarded to royal supporters, some of whom had already been awarded parts of the rebels\' land, and now had to give it back.	389	Dictum of Kenilworth	1
8,838	# Dictum of Kenilworth ## Aftermath Hostilities did not end with the publication of the Dictum. The garrison at Kenilworth refused to accept the terms given, and held out until 14 December, when deprivation forced them to surrender. In April 1267, the earl of Gloucester`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}who had been central both to the royal victory at Evesham and to the drafting of the Dictum`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}turned against the king. He occupied the city of London, and set himself up as the champion of the disinherited. After negotiations involving both Edward and Ottobuono, Gloucester relented, and by June a settlement was reached. Gloucester had forced a change to the conditions of the Dictum, whereby the disinherited were allowed to recover their lands before they had paid their fines rather than after; an arrangement that made repayment much easier. In the summer of that year, Prince Edward moved at the Isle of Ely, where the last of the rebels still held out, and forced them into submission under terms favourable to the rebels. In November 1267, parliament met at Marlborough in Wiltshire. Here an important provision was issued that would become known to history as the Statute of Marlborough. This statute incorporated the clauses of the Dictum of Kenilworth that dealt with the restoration of royal power, and reconciliation between the loyalists and the rebels. The Statute of Marlborough became a basis for royal government, and the relationship between the king and his subjects, and as such the Dictum lived on in English constitutional history. The spirit of peace and reconciliation established by the Dictum of Kenilworth lasted for the remainder of Henry III\'s reign and into the 1290s. In 1270, Prince Edward left the country to go on crusade in the Holy Land. When his father died in 1272, Edward felt in a safe enough position to wait until 1274 before returning home to claim the throne	314	Dictum of Kenilworth	2
8,839	# London Docklands thumb\\|upright=1.4\\|Modern Docklands, showing Canary Wharf thumb\\|upright=1.4\\|Map of the Docklands London Docklands is an area of London encompassing the city's former docks. It is located in inner east and southeast London, in the boroughs of Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Lewisham, Newham and Greenwich. The docks were formerly part of the Port of London, at one time the world\'s largest port. After the docks closed, the area had become derelict and poverty-ridden by the 1980s. The Docklands\' regeneration began later that decade; it has been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name \"London Docklands\" was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in 1971 and has since been almost universally adopted. The redevelopment created wealth, but also led to some conflict between the new and old communities in the area. ## Establishment In Roman and medieval times, ships arriving in the River Thames tended to dock at small quays in the present-day City of London or Southwark, an area known as the Pool of London. However, these gave no protection against the elements, were vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The Howland Great Dock in Rotherhithe (built in 1696, and later to form the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success, and provided for two phases of expansion during the Georgian and Victorian eras. The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened in 1802), followed by the London (1805), the East India (also 1805), the Surrey (1807), the Regent\'s Canal Dock (1820), St Katharine (1828) and the West India South (1829). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria (1855), Millwall (1868) and Royal Albert (1880). The King George V Dock (1921) was a late addition.	320	London Docklands	0
8,839	# London Docklands ## Development Three principal kinds of docks existed. Wet docks were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded. Dry docks, which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing. Ships were built at dockyards along the riverside. In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points). The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce. The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on. The docks required an army of workers, chiefly lightermen (who carried loads between ships and quays aboard small barges called lighters) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore. Some of the workers were highly skilled: the lightermen had their own livery company or guild, while the deal porters (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills. Most were unskilled and worked as casual labourers. They assembled at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, where they were selected more or less at random by foremen. For these workers, it was effectively a lottery whether they would get work on any particular day. This arrangement continued until as late as 1965, although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the National Dock Labour Scheme in 1947. The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and lightly populated. With the establishment of the docks, the dock workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang. Due to poor communications with other parts of London, they tended to develop in some isolation. Road access to the Isle of Dogs, for example, was only via two swing bridges. Local sentiment there was so strong that Ted Johns, a local community campaigner, and his supporters, in protest at the lack of social provision from the state, unilaterally declared independence for the area, set up a so-called \"Island Council\" with Johns himself as its elected leader, and blocked off the two access roads. ## 20th century {#th_century} The docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private companies. From 1909, they were managed by the Port of London Authority (PLA) which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve labour relations. The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks. German bombing during the Second World War caused massive damage to the docks, with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night. Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the 1950s. Before the later Docklands\' redevelopment and gentrification, the dock workers often made ends meet with petty and not so petty criminality, such as theft from the not yet containerized cargo, smuggling and fencing. As a result, the docks became \"centres of excellence for criminal practice\". Many of Britain\'s most proficient criminals learnt their trade here, including those behind the Hatton Garden heist, the Great Train Robbery, the Brink\'s-Mat robbery, the Security Express robbery and the Tonbridge cash depot robbery. The end came suddenly, between approximately 1960 and 1970, when the shipping industry adopted the newly invented container system of cargo transportation. London\'s docks were unable to accommodate the much larger vessels needed by containerization, and the shipping industry moved to deep-water ports such as Tilbury and Felixstowe. Between 1960 and 1980, all of London\'s docks were closed, leaving around eight square miles (21 km^2^) of derelict land in East London.	605	London Docklands	1
8,839	# London Docklands ## Redevelopment Efforts to redevelop the docks began almost as soon as they were closed, although it took a decade for most plans to move beyond the drawing board and another decade for redevelopment to take full effect. The situation was greatly complicated by the large number of landowners involved: the PLA, the Greater London Council (GLC), the British Gas Corporation, five borough councils, British Rail and the Central Electricity Generating Board. To address this problem, in 1981 the Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, formed the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to redevelop the area. This was a statutory body appointed and funded by central government (a quango), with wide powers to acquire and dispose of land in the Docklands. It also served as the development planning authority for the area. Another important government intervention was the designation in 1982 of an enterprise zone, an area in which businesses were exempt from property taxes and had other incentives, including simplified planning and capital allowances. This made investing in the Docklands a significantly more attractive proposition and was instrumental in starting a property boom in the area. The LDDC was controversial; it was accused of favouring elitist luxury developments rather than affordable housing, and it was unpopular with the local communities, who felt that their needs were not being addressed. Nonetheless, the LDDC was central to a remarkable transformation in the area, although how far it was in control of events is debatable. It was wound up in 1998 when control of the Docklands area was handed back to the respective local authorities. The massive development programme managed by the LDDC during the 1980s and 1990s saw a huge area of the Docklands converted into a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial space. The clearest symbol of the whole effort was the ambitious Canary Wharf project that constructed Britain\'s tallest building at the time and established a second business district (CBD) in London. However, there is no evidence that the LDDC foresaw this scale of development; nearby Heron Quays had already been developed as low-density offices when Canary Wharf was proposed, and similar development was already underway on Canary Wharf itself, Limehouse Studios being the most famous occupant. Canary Wharf was far from trouble-free; the property slump of the early 1990s halted further development for several years. Developers found themselves, for a time, saddled with property that they were unable to sell or let.	410	London Docklands	2
8,839	# London Docklands ## Transport The Docklands historically had poor transport connections. This was addressed by the LDDC with the construction of the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which connected the Docklands with the city. According to Transport for London, the owner of the project, it was a remarkably inexpensive development, costing only £77 million in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length. The LDDC originally requested a full London Underground line, but the Government refused to fund it. The LDDC also built the Limehouse Link tunnel, a cut and cover road tunnel linking the Isle of Dogs to The Highway (the A1203 road) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built. The LDDC also contributed to the development of London City Airport (IATA airport code LCY), opened in October 1987 on the spine of the Royal Docks. The London Underground\'s Jubilee line was extended eastwards in 1999; it now serves Rotherhithe/Surrey Quays at Canada Water station, the Isle of Dogs at Canary Wharf tube station, Greenwich at North Greenwich tube station and the nearby Royal Docks at Canning Town station. The DLR was extended in 1994 to serve much of the Royal Docks area when the Beckton branch was opened. The Isle of Dogs branch was extended further south, and in 1999 it began serving Greenwich town centre---including the Cutty Sark museum---Deptford and finally Lewisham. In 2005, a new branch of the DLR opened from Canning Town to serve what used to be the eastern terminus of the North London Line, including a station at London City Airport. It was then further extended to Woolwich Arsenal in 2009. ### Future developments {#future_developments} Further development projects are being proposed and put into practice within the London Dockland area, such as: - Extensions of the DLR, possibly to Dagenham. - Further development of Canada Water. - Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and Wood Wharf, east of Canary Wharf. - New skyscrapers to be built at Canary Wharf, including the Riverside South towers, the Heron Quays West double-skyscraper development and the North Quay project, consisting of three towers. In the early 21st century, redevelopment is spreading into the more suburban parts of east and southeast London, and into the parts of the counties of Kent and Essex that abut the Thames Estuary. See Thames Gateway and Lower Lea Valley for further information on this trend. ### Docklands series buses {#docklands_series_buses} #### History The numbers of several London Buses routes are prefixed D for Docklands; all run on the north bank of the River Thames as part of the London bus network, and act as feeder buses to the DLR. The D network was developed in the early stages of Docklands redevelopment; it was originally much larger, but as transport rapidly improved across east London, the need for the D routes reduced. Today only four remain, running primarily in Tower Hamlets and briefly into Newham and Hackney. Stagecoach London operate routes D6, D7 and D8, and Blue Triangle operate route D3.	519	London Docklands	3
8,839	# London Docklands ## 21st century {#st_century} The population of the Docklands has more than doubled during the last 30 years, and the area has become a major business centre. Canary Wharf has emerged as one of Europe\'s biggest clusters of skyscrapers and a major extension to the financial services district of the City of London. Although most of the old wharfs and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats. Many of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres; a major exception is the Surrey Commercial Docks, which are now largely filled in. Although large ships can---and occasionally still do---visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved downriver further east. The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in other run-down surrounding areas. Greenwich and Deptford are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters. The Docklands\' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects. The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out. It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates. The Docklands\' status as a symbol of Margaret Thatcher\'s Britain has also made it a target for terrorists. After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf in 1992, a large IRA bomb exploded at South Quay on 9 February 1996. Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150 million of damage was caused. This bombing ended an IRA ceasefire. James McArdle was sentenced to 25 years of jail time but released in 2000 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement and royal prerogative of mercy officially signed by Queen Elizabeth II. In a further sign of regeneration in the area, the Docklands now has its own symphony orchestra, Docklands Sinfonia; which was formed in January 2009 and is based at St Anne\'s Limehouse. ### Economy The offices of The Independent group of publications were at one time situated in the Docklands. In 2008, Independent News & Media announced that The Independent would be moving its offices to Northcliffe House in Kensington. London\'s Docklands has become one of the world\'s leading global internet hubs since the opening in 1990 of the carrier-neutral Telehouse campus, which hosts the vast majority of LINX\'s internet peering traffic, occupying over 73,000 square metres. In August 2016, Telehouse Europe opened the \$177 million North Two data centre of 24,000 square metres that became the only UK data centre to own a 132 kV on-campus grid substation that is directly connected to the National Grid, reducing transmission losses and improving power density and service continuity	482	London Docklands	4
8,847	# Commutator subgroup In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, the commutator subgroup or derived subgroup of a group is the subgroup generated by all the commutators of the group. The commutator subgroup is important because it is the smallest normal subgroup such that the quotient group of the original group by this subgroup is abelian. In other words, $G/N$ is abelian if and only if $N$ contains the commutator subgroup of $G$. So in some sense it provides a measure of how far the group is from being abelian; the larger the commutator subgroup is, the \"less abelian\" the group is. ## Commutators For elements $g$ and $h$ of a group G, the commutator of $g$ and $h$ is $[g,h] = g^{-1}h^{-1}gh$. The commutator $[g,h]$ is equal to the identity element e if and only if $gh = hg$ , that is, if and only if $g$ and $h$ commute. In general, $gh = hg[g,h]$. However, the notation is somewhat arbitrary and there is a non-equivalent variant definition for the commutator that has the inverses on the right hand side of the equation: $[g,h] = ghg^{-1}h^{-1}$ in which case $gh \neq hg[g,h]$ but instead $gh = [g,h]hg$. An element of G of the form $[g,h]$ for some g and h is called a commutator. The identity element e = \[e,e\] is always a commutator, and it is the only commutator if and only if G is abelian. Here are some simple but useful commutator identities, true for any elements s, g, h of a group G: - $[g,h]^{-1} = [h,g],$ - $[g,h]^s = [g^s,h^s],$ where $g^s = s^{-1}gs$ (or, respectively, $g^s = sgs^{-1}$) is the conjugate of $g$ by $s,$ - for any homomorphism $f: G \to H$, $f([g, h]) = [f(g), f(h)].$ The first and second identities imply that the set of commutators in G is closed under inversion and conjugation. If in the third identity we take H = G, we get that the set of commutators is stable under any endomorphism of G. This is in fact a generalization of the second identity, since we can take f to be the conjugation automorphism on G, $x \mapsto x^s$, to get the second identity. However, the product of two or more commutators need not be a commutator. A generic example is \[a,b\]\[c,d\] in the free group on a,b,c,d. It is known that the least order of a finite group for which there exists two commutators whose product is not a commutator is 96; in fact there are two nonisomorphic groups of order 96 with this property.	429	Commutator subgroup	0
8,847	# Commutator subgroup ## Definition This motivates the definition of the commutator subgroup $[G, G]$ (also called the derived subgroup, and denoted $G'$ or $G^{(1)}$) of G: it is the subgroup generated by all the commutators. It follows from this definition that any element of $[G, G]$ is of the form $$[g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n]$$ for some natural number $n$, where the g~i~ and h~i~ are elements of G. Moreover, since $([g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n])^s = [g_1^s,h_1^s] \cdots [g_n^s,h_n^s]$, the commutator subgroup is normal in G. For any homomorphism f: G → H, $$f([g_1,h_1] \cdots [g_n,h_n]) = [f(g_1),f(h_1)] \cdots [f(g_n),f(h_n)]$$, so that $f([G,G]) \subseteq [H,H]$. This shows that the commutator subgroup can be viewed as a functor on the category of groups, some implications of which are explored below. Moreover, taking G = H it shows that the commutator subgroup is stable under every endomorphism of G: that is, \[G,G\] is a fully characteristic subgroup of G, a property considerably stronger than normality. The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements g of the group that have an expression as a product g = g~1~ g~2~ \... g~k~ that can be rearranged to give the identity. ### Derived series {#derived_series} This construction can be iterated: $$G^{(0)} := G$$ $$G^{(n)} := [G^{(n-1)},G^{(n-1)}] \quad n \in \mathbf{N}$$ The groups $G^{(2)}, G^{(3)}, \ldots$ are called the second derived subgroup, third derived subgroup, and so forth, and the descending normal series $$\cdots \triangleleft G^{(2)} \triangleleft G^{(1)} \triangleleft G^{(0)} = G$$ is called the derived series. This should not be confused with the lower central series, whose terms are $G_n := [G_{n-1},G]$. For a finite group, the derived series terminates in a perfect group, which may or may not be trivial. For an infinite group, the derived series need not terminate at a finite stage, and one can continue it to infinite ordinal numbers via transfinite recursion, thereby obtaining the transfinite derived series, which eventually terminates at the perfect core of the group. ### Abelianization Given a group $G$, a quotient group $G/N$ is abelian if and only if $[G, G]\subseteq N$. The quotient $G/[G, G]$ is an abelian group called the abelianization of $G$ or $G$ made abelian. It is usually denoted by $G^{\operatorname{ab}}$ or $G_{\operatorname{ab}}$. There is a useful categorical interpretation of the map $\varphi: G \rightarrow G^{\operatorname{ab}}$. Namely $\varphi$ is universal for homomorphisms from $G$ to an abelian group $H$: for any abelian group $H$ and homomorphism of groups $f: G \to H$ there exists a unique homomorphism $F: G^{\operatorname{ab}}\to H$ such that $f = F \circ \varphi$. As usual for objects defined by universal mapping properties, this shows the uniqueness of the abelianization $G^{\operatorname{ab}}$ up to canonical isomorphism, whereas the explicit construction $G\to G/[G, G]$ shows existence. The abelianization functor is the left adjoint of the inclusion functor from the category of abelian groups to the category of groups. The existence of the abelianization functor Grp → Ab makes the category Ab a reflective subcategory of the category of groups, defined as a full subcategory whose inclusion functor has a left adjoint. Another important interpretation of $G^{\operatorname{ab}}$ is as $H_1(G, \mathbb{Z})$, the first homology group of $G$ with integral coefficients. ### Classes of groups {#classes_of_groups} A group $G$ is an abelian group if and only if the derived group is trivial: \[G,G\] = {e}. Equivalently, if and only if the group equals its abelianization. See above for the definition of a group\'s abelianization. A group $G$ is a perfect group if and only if the derived group equals the group itself: \[G,G\] = G. Equivalently, if and only if the abelianization of the group is trivial. This is \"opposite\" to abelian. A group with $G^{(n)}=\{e\}$ for some n in N is called a solvable group; this is weaker than abelian, which is the case n = 1. A group with $G^{(n)} \neq \{e\}$ for all n in N is called a non-solvable group. A group with $G^{(\alpha)}=\{e\}$ for some ordinal number, possibly infinite, is called a hypoabelian group; this is weaker than solvable, which is the case α is finite (a natural number). ### Perfect group {#perfect_group} Whenever a group $G$ has derived subgroup equal to itself, $G^{(1)} =G$, it is called a perfect group. This includes non-abelian simple groups and the special linear groups $\operatorname{SL}_n(k)$ for a fixed field $k$. ## Examples - The commutator subgroup of any abelian group is trivial. - The commutator subgroup of the general linear group $\operatorname{GL}_n(k)$ over a field or a division ring k equals the special linear group $\operatorname{SL}_n(k)$ provided that $n \ne 2$ or k is not the field with two elements. - The commutator subgroup of the alternating group A~4~ is the Klein four group. - The commutator subgroup of the symmetric group S~n~ is the alternating group A~n~. - The commutator subgroup of the quaternion group Q = {1, −1, i, −i, j, −j, k, −k} is \[Q,Q\] = {1, −1}. ### Map from Out {#map_from_out} Since the derived subgroup is characteristic, any automorphism of G induces an automorphism of the abelianization	844	Commutator subgroup	1
8,849	# December 20	3	December 20	0
8,850	# December 21	3	December 21	0
8,858	# Digital compositing Digital compositing is the process of digitally assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, motion pictures or screen display. It is the digital analogue of optical film compositing. It\'s part of VFX processing. ## Mathematics The basic operation used in digital compositing is known as alpha blending, where an opacity value, \'α\', is used to control the proportions of two input pixel values that end up a single output pixel. As a simple example, suppose two images of the same size are available and they are to be composited. The input images are referred to as the foreground image and the background image. Each image consists of the same number of pixels. Compositing is performed by mathematically combining information from the corresponding pixels from the two input images and recording the result in a third image, which is called the composited image. Consider three pixels; - a foreground pixel, f - a background pixel, b - a composited adetpixel, c and - α, the opacity value of the foreground pixel. (α = 1 for an opaque foreground, α = 0 for a completely transparent foreground). A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a matte. Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a γ=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have: : c~r~ = α f~r~ + (1 − α) b~r~ : c~g~ = α f~g~ + (1 − α) b~g~ : c~b~ = α f~b~ + (1 − α) b~b~ Note that if the operations are performed in a colour space where γ is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as aliasing artifacts (or \"jaggies\") along sharp edges in the matte. More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as \"halos\" around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear. It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space. Performing alpha blending is an expensive operation if performed on an entire image or 3D scene. If this operation has to be done in real time video games, there is an easy trick to boost performance. : c~out~ = α f~in~ + (1 − α) b~in~ : c~out~ = α f~in~ + b~in~ − α b~in~ : c~out~ = b~in~ + α (f~in~ − b~in~) By simply rewriting the mathematical expression, one can save 50% of the multiplications required.	435	Digital compositing	0
8,858	# Digital compositing ## Mathematics ### Algebraic properties {#algebraic_properties} When many partially transparent layers need to be composited together, it is worthwhile to consider the algebraic properties of compositing operators used. Specifically, the associativity and commutativity determine when repeated calculation can or cannot be avoided. Consider the case when we have four layers to blend to produce the final image: F=A\(B\(C\D)) where A, B, C, D are partially transparent image layers and \"\\" denotes a compositing operator (with the left layer on top of the right layer). If only layer C changes, we should find a way to avoid re-blending all of the layers when computing F. Without any special considerations, four full-image blends would need to occur. For compositing operators that are commutative, such as additive blending, it is safe to re-order the blending operations. In this case, we might compute T=A\(B\D) only once and simply blend T\C to produce F, a single operation. Unfortunately, most operators are not commutative. However, many are associative, suggesting it is safe to re-group operations to F=(A\B)\(C\D), i.e. without changing their order. In this case, we may compute S:=A\B once and save this result. To form F with an associative operator, we need only do two additional compositing operations to integrate the new layer S, by computing F:=S\(C\D). This expression indicates compositing C with all of the layers below it in one step, and then blending all of the layers on top of it with the previous result to produce the final image in the second step. If all layers of an image change regularly but many layers still need to be composited (such as in distributed rendering), the commutativity of a compositing operator can still be exploited to speed up computation through parallelism even when there is no gain from pre-computation. Again, consider the image F=A\(B\(C\D)). Each compositing operation in this expression depends on the next, leading to serial computation. However, associativity can allow us to rewrite F=(A\B)\(C\*D) where there are clearly two operations that do not depend on each other that may be executed in parallel. In general, we can build a tree of pair-wise compositing operations with a height that is logarithmic in the number of layers.	367	Digital compositing	1
8,858	# Digital compositing ## Software The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the Cineon, which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon System, made by Kodak, is no longer in production). Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps. Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space. Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images. ### Node-based and layer-based compositing {#node_based_and_layer_based_compositing} There are two radically different digital compositing workflows: node-based compositing and layer-based compositing. Node-based compositing represents an entire composite as a directed acyclic graph, linking media objects and effects in a procedural map, intuitively laying out the progression from source input to final output, and is in fact the way all compositing applications internally handle composites. This type of compositing interface allows great flexibility, including the ability to modify the parameters of an earlier image processing step \"in context\" (while viewing the final composite). Node-based compositing packages often handle keyframing and time effects poorly, as their workflow does not stem directly from a timeline, as do layer-based compositing packages. Software which incorporates a node based interface include Natron, Shake, Blender, Blackmagic Fusion, and Nuke. Nodes are a great way to organize the effects in a complex shot while maintaining a grip on the smaller details. Layer-based compositing represents each media object in a composite as a separate layer within a timeline, each with its own time bounds, effects, and keyframes. All the layers are stacked, one above the next, in any desired order; and the bottom layer is usually rendered as a base in the resultant image, with each higher layer being progressively rendered on top of the previously composited of layers, moving upward until all layers have been rendered into the final composite. Layer-based compositing is very well suited for rapid 2D and limited 3D effects, such as in motion graphics, but becomes awkward for more complex composites entailing numerous layers. A partial solution to this is some programs\' ability to view the composite-order of elements (such as images, effects, or other attributes) with a visual diagram called a flowchart to nest compositions, or \"comps,\" directly into other compositions, thereby adding complexity to the render-order by first compositing layers in the beginning composition, then combining that resultant image with the layered images from the proceeding composition, and so on	445	Digital compositing	2
8,864	# Delaunay triangulation In computational geometry, a Delaunay triangulation or Delone triangulation of a set of points in the plane subdivides their convex hull into triangles whose circumcircles do not contain any of the points; that is, each circumcircle has its generating points on its circumference, but all other points in the set are outside of it. This maximizes the size of the smallest angle in any of the triangles, and tends to avoid sliver triangles. The triangulation is named after Boris Delaunay for his work on it from 1934.`{{r\|Delaunay1934}}`{=mediawiki} If the points all lie on a straight line, the notion of triangulation becomes degenerate and there is no Delaunay triangulation. For four or more points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: each of the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfies the \"Delaunay condition\", i.e., the requirement that the circumcircles of all triangles have empty interiors. By considering circumscribed spheres, the notion of Delaunay triangulation extends to three and higher dimensions. Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean distance. However, in these cases a Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique. ## Relationship with the Voronoi diagram {#relationship_with_the_voronoi_diagram} The Delaunay triangulation of a discrete point set `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} in general position corresponds to the dual graph of the Voronoi diagram for `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki}. The circumcenters of Delaunay triangles are the vertices of the Voronoi diagram. In the 2D case, the Voronoi vertices are connected via edges, that can be derived from adjacency-relationships of the Delaunay triangles: If two triangles share an edge in the Delaunay triangulation, their circumcenters are to be connected with an edge in the Voronoi tesselation. Special cases where this relationship does not hold, or is ambiguous, include cases like: - Three or more collinear points, where the circumcircles are of infinite radii. - Four or more points on a perfect circle, where the triangulation is ambiguous and all circumcenters are trivially identical. In this case the Voronoi diagram contains vertices of degree four or greater and its dual graph contains polygonal faces with four or more sides. The various triangulations of these faces complete the various possible Delaunay triangulations. - Edges of the Voronoi diagram going to infinity are not defined by this relation in case of a finite set `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki}. If the Delaunay triangulation is calculated using the Bowyer--Watson algorithm then the circumcenters of triangles having a common vertex with the \"super\" triangle should be ignored. Edges going to infinity start from a circumcenter and they are perpendicular to the common edge between the kept and ignored triangle. ## d-dimensional Delaunay {#d_dimensional_delaunay} For a set `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} of points in the (`{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional) Euclidean space, a Delaunay triangulation is a triangulation `{{math\|DT('''P''')}}`{=mediawiki} such that no point in `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} is inside the circum-hypersphere of any `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-simplex in `{{math\|DT('''P''')}}`{=mediawiki}. It is known`{{r\|Delaunay1934}}`{=mediawiki} that there exists a unique Delaunay triangulation for `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} if `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} is a set of points in general position; that is, the affine hull of `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional and no set of `{{math\|''d'' + 2}}`{=mediawiki} points in `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki} lie on the boundary of a ball whose interior does not intersect `{{math\|'''P'''}}`{=mediawiki}. The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in (`{{math\|''d'' + 1}}`{=mediawiki})-dimensional space. This may be done by giving each point `{{mvar\|p}}`{=mediawiki} an extra coordinate equal to `{{math\|{{abs\|''p''}}<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, thus turning it into a hyper-paraboloid (this is termed \"lifting\"); taking the bottom side of the convex hull (as the top end-cap faces upwards away from the origin, and must be discarded); and mapping back to `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate. As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are simplices. Nonsimplicial facets only occur when `{{math\|''d'' + 2}}`{=mediawiki} of the original points lie on the same `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-hypersphere, i.e., the points are not in general position.`{{r\|Fukuda}}`{=mediawiki}	670	Delaunay triangulation	0
8,864	# Delaunay triangulation ## Properties Let `{{mvar\|n}}`{=mediawiki} be the number of points and `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki} the number of dimensions. - The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points. - The Delaunay triangulation contains `{{tmath\|\textstyle O\bigl(n^{\lceil d/2 \rceil}\bigr) }}`{=mediawiki} simplices.`{{r\|Seidel1995}}`{=mediawiki} - In the plane (`{{math\|1=''d'' = 2}}`{=mediawiki}), if there are `{{mvar\|b}}`{=mediawiki} vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most `{{math\|2''n'' – 2 – ''b''}}`{=mediawiki} triangles, plus one exterior face (see Euler characteristic). - If points are distributed according to a Poisson process in the plane with constant intensity, then each vertex has on average six surrounding triangles. More generally for the same process in `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki} dimensions the average number of neighbors is a constant depending only on `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{r\|Meijering}}`{=mediawiki} - In the plane, the Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle. Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other. However, the Delaunay triangulation does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle.`{{r\|ETW1992}}`{=mediawiki} The Delaunay triangulation also does not necessarily minimize the length of the edges. - A circle circumscribing any Delaunay triangle does not contain any other input points in its interior. - If a circle passing through two of the input points doesn\'t contain any other input points in its interior, then the segment connecting the two points is an edge of a Delaunay triangulation of the given points. - Each triangle of the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional spaces corresponds to a facet of convex hull of the projection of the points onto a (`{{math\|''d'' + 1}}`{=mediawiki})-dimensional paraboloid, and vice versa. - The closest neighbor `{{mvar\|b}}`{=mediawiki} to any point `{{mvar\|p}}`{=mediawiki} is on an edge `{{mvar\|bp}}`{=mediawiki} in the Delaunay triangulation since the nearest neighbor graph is a subgraph of the Delaunay triangulation. - The Delaunay triangulation is a geometric spanner: In the plane (`{{math\|1=''d'' = 2}}`{=mediawiki}), the shortest path between two vertices, along Delaunay edges, is known to be no longer than 1.998 times the Euclidean distance between them.`{{r\|Xia}}`{=mediawiki}	350	Delaunay triangulation	1
8,864	# Delaunay triangulation ## Visual Delaunay definition: Flipping {#visual_delaunay_definition_flipping} From the above properties an important feature arises: Looking at two triangles `{{math\|△''ABD'', △''BCD''}}`{=mediawiki} with the common edge `{{mvar\|{{overline\|BD}}}}`{=mediawiki} (see figures), if the sum of the angles `{{mvar\|α + γ ≤ 180°}}`{=mediawiki}, the triangles meet the Delaunay condition. This is an important property because it allows the use of a flipping technique. If two triangles do not meet the Delaunay condition, switching the common edge `{{mvar\|{{overline\|BD}}}}`{=mediawiki} for the common edge `{{mvar\|{{overline\|AC}}}}`{=mediawiki} produces two triangles that do meet the Delaunay condition: <File:Delaunay> geometry.png\\|This triangulation does not meet the Delaunay condition (the sum of `{{mvar\|α}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar\|γ}}`{=mediawiki} is bigger than 180°). <File:Point> inside circle - Delaunay condition broken.svg\\|This pair of triangles does not meet the Delaunay condition (there is a point within the interior of the circumcircle). <File:Edge> Flip - Delaunay condition ok.svg\\|Flipping the common edge produces a valid Delaunay triangulation for the four points. This operation is called a flip, and can be generalised to three and higher dimensions.`{{r\|DRS}}`{=mediawiki} ## Algorithms Many algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle\'s circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges. In two dimensions, one way to detect if point `{{mvar\|D}}`{=mediawiki} lies in the circumcircle of `{{mvar\|A, B, C}}`{=mediawiki} is to evaluate the determinant:`{{r\|GS1985}}`{=mediawiki} : \\begin{align} & \\begin{vmatrix} A_x & A_y & A_x\^2 + A_y\^2 & 1\\\\ B_x & B_y & B_x\^2 + B_y\^2 & 1\\\\ C_x & C_y & C_x\^2 + C_y\^2 & 1\\\\ D_x & D_y & D_x\^2 + D_y\^2 & 1 \\end{vmatrix} \\\\\[8pt\] = {} & \\begin{vmatrix} A_x - D_x & A_y - D_y & (A_x - D_x)\^2 + (A_y - D_y)\^2 \\\\ B_x - D_x & B_y - D_y & (B_x - D_x)\^2 + (B_y - D_y)\^2 \\\\ C_x - D_x & C_y - D_y & (C_x - D_x)\^2 + (C_y - D_y)\^2 \\end{vmatrix} \> 0 \\end{align} When `{{mvar\|A, B, C}}`{=mediawiki} are sorted in a counterclockwise order, this determinant is positive only if `{{mvar\|D}}`{=mediawiki} lies inside the circumcircle. ### Flip algorithms {#flip_algorithms} As mentioned above, if a triangle is non-Delaunay, we can flip one of its edges. This leads to a straightforward algorithm: construct any triangulation of the points, and then flip edges until no triangle is non-Delaunay. Unfortunately, this can take `{{math\|Ω(''n''<sup>2</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki} edge flips.`{{r\|Hurtado}}`{=mediawiki} While this algorithm can be generalised to three and higher dimensions, its convergence is not guaranteed in these cases, as it is conditioned to the connectedness of the underlying flip graph: this graph is connected for two-dimensional sets of points, but may be disconnected in higher dimensions.`{{r\|DRS}}`{=mediawiki} ### Incremental The most straightforward way of efficiently computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph. When a vertex `{{mvar\|v}}`{=mediawiki} is added, we split in three the triangle that contains `{{mvar\|v}}`{=mediawiki}, then we apply the flip algorithm. Done naïvely, this will take `{{math\|O(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} time: we search through all the triangles to find the one that contains `{{mvar\|v}}`{=mediawiki}, then we potentially flip away every triangle. Then the overall runtime is `{{math\|O(''n''<sup>2</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki}. If we insert vertices in random order, it turns out (by a somewhat intricate proof) that each insertion will flip, on average, only `{{math\|O(1)}}`{=mediawiki} triangles -- although sometimes it will flip many more.`{{r\|GKS1992}}`{=mediawiki} This still leaves the point location time to improve. We can store the history of the splits and flips performed: each triangle stores a pointer to the two or three triangles that replaced it. To find the triangle that contains `{{mvar\|v}}`{=mediawiki}, we start at a root triangle, and follow the pointer that points to a triangle that contains `{{mvar\|v}}`{=mediawiki}, until we find a triangle that has not yet been replaced. On average, this will also take `{{math\|O(log ''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} time. Over all vertices, then, this takes `{{math\|O(''n'' log ''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} time.`{{r\|deBerg}}`{=mediawiki} While the technique extends to higher dimension (as proved by Edelsbrunner and Shah`{{r\|ES1996}}`{=mediawiki}), the runtime can be exponential in the dimension even if the final Delaunay triangulation is small. The Bowyer--Watson algorithm provides another approach for incremental construction. It gives an alternative to edge flipping for computing the Delaunay triangles containing a newly inserted vertex. Unfortunately the flipping-based algorithms are generally hard to parallelize, since adding some certain point (e.g. the center point of a wagon wheel) can lead to up to `{{math\|O(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} consecutive flips. Blelloch et al.`{{r\|Parallel}}`{=mediawiki} proposed another version of incremental algorithm based on rip-and-tent, which is practical and highly parallelized with polylogarithmic span. ### Divide and conquer {#divide_and_conquer} A divide and conquer algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions was developed by Lee and Schachter and improved by Guibas and Stolfi`{{r\|GS1985}}`{=mediawiki}`{{r\|Peterson}}`{=mediawiki} and later by Dwyer.`{{r\|Dwyer1987}}`{=mediawiki} In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets. The Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line. Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time `{{math\|O(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}, so the total running time is `{{math\|O(''n'' log ''n'')}}`{=mediawiki}.`{{r\|Leach1992}}`{=mediawiki} For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to `{{math\|O(''n'' log log ''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} while still maintaining worst-case performance. A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in `{{mvar\|d}}`{=mediawiki} dimensions is presented in \"DeWall: A fast divide and conquer Delaunay triangulation algorithm in E^d^\" by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno.`{{r\|CMS1998}}`{=mediawiki} The divide and conquer algorithm has been shown to be the fastest DT generation technique sequentially.	914	Delaunay triangulation	2
8,864	# Delaunay triangulation ## Algorithms ### Sweephull Sweephull is a hybrid technique for 2D Delaunay triangulation that uses a radially propagating sweep-hull, and a flipping algorithm. The sweep-hull is created sequentially by iterating a radially-sorted set of 2D points, and connecting triangles to the visible part of the convex hull, which gives a non-overlapping triangulation. One can build a convex hull in this manner so long as the order of points guarantees no point would fall within the triangle. But, radially sorting should minimize flipping by being highly Delaunay to start. This is then paired with a final iterative triangle flipping step.	102	Delaunay triangulation	3
8,864	# Delaunay triangulation ## Applications The Euclidean minimum spanning tree of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points,`{{r\|AK2013}}`{=mediawiki} and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently. For modelling terrain or other objects given a point cloud, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model. In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area). See triangulated irregular network. Delaunay triangulations can be used to determine the density or intensity of points samplings by means of the Delaunay tessellation field estimator (DTFE). Delaunay triangulations are often used to generate meshes for space-discretised solvers such as the finite element method and the finite volume method of physics simulation, because of the angle guarantee and because fast triangulation algorithms have been developed. Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse simplicial complex; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using Ruppert\'s algorithm. The increasing popularity of finite element method and boundary element method techniques increases the incentive to improve automatic meshing algorithms. However, all of these algorithms can create distorted and even unusable grid elements. Fortunately, several techniques exist which can take an existing mesh and improve its quality. For example, smoothing (also referred to as mesh refinement) is one such method, which repositions nodes to minimize element distortion. The stretched grid method allows the generation of pseudo-regular meshes that meet the Delaunay criteria easily and quickly in a one-step solution. Constrained Delaunay triangulation has found applications in path planning in automated driving and topographic surveying	277	Delaunay triangulation	4
8,873	# Gnaeus Domitius Afer Gnaeus Domitius Afer (died 59) was a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nîmes) in Gallia Narbonensis. He flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. He was suffect consul in the nundinium of September to December 39 as the colleague of Aulus Didius Gallus. ## Life Afer became praetor in 25 AD, and gained the favor of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulchra, the second cousin of Agrippina, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor, in 26 AD. From this time he became one of the most celebrated orators in Rome, but sacrificed his character by conducting accusations for the government. In the following year, 27 AD, he is again mentioned by Tacitus as the accuser of Quinctilius Varus, the son of Claudia Pulchra. In consequence of the accusation of Claudia Pulchra, and of some offense which he had given to Caligula, he was accused by the emperor in the senate, but by concealing his own skill in speaking, and pretending to be overpowered by the eloquence of Caligula, Afer not only escaped the danger, but was made consul suffectus in 39 AD. In his old age Afer lost much of his reputation by continuing to speak in public, when his powers were exhausted. During the reign of Nero he became curator aquarum, or superintendent of the city\'s water supply, but died not long afterwards, in 59 AD, having eaten himself to death, according to Jerome in the Chronicon of Eusebius. Quintilian, when a young man, heard Afer, and frequently speaks of him as the most distinguished orator of his age. He says that Afer and Julius Africanus were the best orators he had heard, and that he prefers the former to the latter, Quintilian refers to a work of his On Testimony, to one entitled Dicta, and to some of his orations, of which those on behalf of Domitilla, or Cloantilla, and Lucius Volusenus Catulus seem to have been the most celebrated. According to Pliny the Younger, in his will Afer had made Titius Marcellus Curvius Lucanus and Titius Marcellus Curvius Tullus his heirs on the condition that they take on his name. He had prosecuted their father, Sextus Curvius Tullus, stripping him of his wealth and citizenship. Pliny comments that Afer\'s will had been drawn up 18 years previously, suggesting that Afer and Tullus the elder had once been friends	403	Gnaeus Domitius Afer	0
8,880	# Dryope In Greek mythology, Dryope (`{{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|d\|r\|aɪ\|.\|ə\|p\|iː}}`{=mediawiki}; Ancient Greek: Δρυόπη derived from δρῦς drys, \"oak\"; dryope \"woodpecker\") is the name attributed to several distinct figures: - Dryope, daughter of Dryops and mother of Amphissus by Apollo. She was the wife of Andraemon. - Dryope, mother of Tarquitus by Faunus, the god of the woods. Tarquitus was slain by Aeneas. - Dryope, a nymph responsible for kidnapping Hylas, which she did in accord with Hera\'s will. Her name may have to do with the fact that Hylas was the son of Theiodamas, the king of the Dryopes. - Dryope, a Theban woman of Phoenician origin, mother of Chromis. She joined the Maenads disregarding her pregnancy, and went into labor when she was dragging a sacrificial bull by the horns. - Dryope, a Lemnian. - Dryope, mother of the Oenotropae by Anius	140	Dryope	0
8,882	# Domnall mac Ailpín Domnall mac Ailpín (Modern Gaelic: Dòmhnall mac Ailpein), anglicised sometimes as Donald MacAlpin and known in most modern regnal lists as Donald I (812 -- 13 April 862), was King of the Picts from 858 to 862. He followed his brother Kenneth I to the Pictish throne. ## Reign The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says that Domnall reigned for four years, matching the notices in the Annals of Ulster of his brother\'s death in February 858 and his own in April 862. The Chronicle notes: The laws of Áed Find are entirely lost, but it has been assumed that, like the laws attributed to Giric of Scotland and Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda), these related to the church and in particular to granting the privileges and immunities common elsewhere. The significance of Forteviot as the site of this law-making, along with Kenneth\'s death there and Constantine\'s later gathering at nearby Scone, may point to this as being the heartland of the sons of Alpín\'s support. The Chronicle of Melrose says of Domnall, \"in war he was a vigorous soldier \... he is said to have been assassinated at Scone.\" No other source reports Domnall\'s death by violence. The Prophecy of Berchán may refer to Domnall in stanzas 123--124: Although Domnall is generally supposed to have been childless, it has been suggested that Giric was a son of Domnall, reading his patronym as mac Domnaill rather than the commonly supposed mac Dúngail. This, however, is not widely accepted. Domnall died, either at the palace of Cinnbelachoir (location unknown), or at Rathinveralmond (also unknown, and maybe the same place, presumed to be near the junction of the Almond and the Tay, near Scone). He was buried on Iona	292	Domnall mac Ailpín	0
8,885	# David Abercromby David Abercromby was a 17th-century Scottish physician and writer, thought to have died in 1702. Brought up at Douai as a Roman Catholic by Jesuit priests, he was converted to Protestantism in 1682 and came to abjure popery, and published Protestancy proved Safer than Popery (1686). ## Works His medical reputation was based on his Tuta ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684) which was translated into French, Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus Variatione (1685), and Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore (1688); his Opuscula were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in Albrecht von Haller, Bibliotheca Medicinae Practicae (1779). According to Haller he was alive early in the 18th century. He also wrote some books in theology and philosophy, controversial in their time but little remembered today. But the most noticeable of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (1685), which contains some of the most characteristic metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum (1687), and by A Moral Discourse of the Power of Interest (1690), dedicated to Robert Boyle, Abercromby\'s patron in the 1680s. He later wrote Reasons Why A Protestant Should not Turn Papist (1687), which has often wrongly been attributed to Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines, by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James Maidment	247	David Abercromby	0
8,904	# Double-ended queue In computer science, a double-ended queue (abbreviated to deque, `{{IPAc-en\|d\|ɛ\|k}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Respell\|DEK}}`{=mediawiki}) is an abstract data type that generalizes a queue, for which elements can be added to or removed from either the front (head) or back (tail). It is also often called a head-tail linked list, though properly this refers to a specific data structure implementation of a deque (see below). ## Naming conventions {#naming_conventions} Deque is sometimes written dequeue, but this use is generally deprecated in technical literature or technical writing because dequeue is also a verb meaning \"to remove from a queue\". Nevertheless, several libraries and some writers, such as Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman in their textbook Data Structures and Algorithms, spell it dequeue. John Mitchell, author of Concepts in Programming Languages, also uses this terminology. ## Distinctions and sub-types {#distinctions_and_sub_types} This differs from the queue abstract data type or first in first out list (FIFO), where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other. This general data class has some possible sub-types: - An input-restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but insertion can be made at one end only. - An output-restricted deque is one where insertion can be made at both ends, but deletion can be made from one end only. Both the basic and most common list types in computing, queues and stacks can be considered specializations of deques, and can be implemented using deques. A deque is a data structure that allows users to perform push and pop operations at both ends, providing flexibility in managing the order of elements. ## Operations The basic operations on a deque are enqueue and dequeue on either end. Also generally implemented are peek operations, which return the value at that end without dequeuing it. Names vary between languages; major implementations include: operation common name(s) Ada C++ Java Perl PHP Python Ruby Rust JavaScript ------------------------- -------------------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------- -------------- ----------- -------------- ------------ insert element at back inject, snoc, push `Append` `push_back` `offerLast` `push` `array_push` `append` `push` `push_back` `push` insert element at front push, cons `Prepend` `push_front` `offerFirst` `unshift` `array_unshift` `appendleft` `unshift` `push_front` `unshift` remove last element eject `Delete_Last` `pop_back` `pollLast` `pop` `array_pop` `pop` `pop` `pop_back` `pop` remove first element pop `Delete_First` `pop_front` `pollFirst` `shift` `array_shift` `popleft` `shift` `pop_front` `shift` examine last element peek `Last_Element` `back` `peekLast` `$array[-1]` `end` `[-1]` `last` `back` `.at(-1)` examine first element `First_Element` `front` `peekFirst` `$array[0]` `reset` `[0]` `first` `front` `[0]`	413	Double-ended queue	0
8,904	# Double-ended queue ## Implementations There are at least two common ways to efficiently implement a deque: with a modified dynamic array or with a doubly linked list. The dynamic array approach uses a variant of a dynamic array that can grow from both ends, sometimes called array deques. These array deques have all the properties of a dynamic array, such as constant-time random access, good locality of reference, and inefficient insertion/removal in the middle, with the addition of amortized constant-time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end. Three common implementations include: - Storing deque contents in a circular buffer, and only resizing when the buffer becomes full. This decreases the frequency of resizings. - Allocating deque contents from the center of the underlying array, and resizing the underlying array when either end is reached. This approach may require more frequent resizings and waste more space, particularly when elements are only inserted at one end. - Storing contents in multiple smaller arrays, allocating additional arrays at the beginning or end as needed. Indexing is implemented by keeping a dynamic array containing pointers to each of the smaller arrays. ### Purely functional implementation {#purely_functional_implementation} Double-ended queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure. Two versions of the implementation exist. The first one, called \'real-time deque, is presented below. It allows the queue to be persistent with operations in `{{math\|''O''(1)}}`{=mediawiki} worst-case time, but requires lazy lists with memoization. The second one, with no lazy lists nor memoization is presented at the end of the sections. Its amortized time is `{{math\|''O''(1)}}`{=mediawiki} if the persistency is not used; but the worst-time complexity of an operation is `{{math\|''O''(''n'')}}`{=mediawiki} where `{{mvar\|n}}`{=mediawiki} is the number of elements in the double-ended queue. Let us recall that, for a list `l`, `\|l\|` denotes its length, that `NIL` represents an empty list and `CONS(h, t)` represents the list whose head is `h` and whose tail is `t`. The functions `drop(i, l)` and `take(i, l)` return the list `l` without its first `i` elements, and the first `i` elements of `l`, respectively. Or, if `\|l\| < i`, they return the empty list and `l` respectively. #### Real-time deques via lazy rebuilding and scheduling {#real_time_deques_via_lazy_rebuilding_and_scheduling} A double-ended queue is represented as a sextuple `(len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)` where `front` is a linked list which contains the front of the queue of length `len_front`. Similarly, `rear` is a linked list which represents the reverse of the rear of the queue, of length `len_rear`. Furthermore, it is assured that `\|front\| ≤ 2\|rear\|+1` and `\|rear\| ≤ 2\|front\|+1` - intuitively, it means that both the front and the rear contains between a third minus one and two thirds plus one of the elements. Finally, `tail_front` and `tail_rear` are tails of `front` and of `rear`, they allow scheduling the moment where some lazy operations are forced. Note that, when a double-ended queue contains `n` elements in the front list and `n` elements in the rear list, then the inequality invariant remains satisfied after `i` insertions and `d` deletions when `(i+d) ≤ n/2`. That is, at most `n/2` operations can happen between each rebalancing. Let us first give an implementation of the various operations that affect the front of the deque - cons, head and tail. Those implementations do not necessarily respect the invariant. In a second time we\'ll explain how to modify a deque which does not satisfy the invariant into one which satisfies it. However, they use the invariant, in that if the front is empty then the rear has at most one element. The operations affecting the rear of the list are defined similarly by symmetry. ``` sml empty = (0, NIL, NIL, 0, NIL, NIL) fun insert'(x, (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front+1, CONS(x, front), drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear)) fun head((_, CONS(h, _), _, _, _, _)) = h fun head((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = h fun tail'((len_front, CONS(head_front, front), tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front - 1, front, drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear)) fun tail'((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = empty ``` It remains to explain how to define a method `balance` that rebalance the deque if `insert'` or `tail` broke the invariant. The method `insert` and `tail` can be defined by first applying `insert'` and `tail'` and then applying `balance`. ``` sml fun balance(q as (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = let floor_half_len = (len_front + len_rear) / 2 in let ceil_half_len = len_front + len_rear - floor_half_len in if len_front > 2len_rear+1 then let val front' = take(ceil_half_len, front) val rear' = rotateDrop(rear, floor_half_len, front) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else if len_front > 2len_rear+1 then let val rear' = take(floor_half_len, rear) val front' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else q ``` where `rotateDrop(front, i, rear))` return the concatenation of `front` and of `drop(i, rear)`. That is`front' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear)` put into `front'` the content of `front` and the content of `rear` that is not already in `rear'`. Since dropping `n` elements takes $O(n)$ time, we use laziness to ensure that elements are dropped two by two, with two drops being done during each `tail'` and each `insert'` operation. ``` sml fun rotateDrop(front, i, rear) = if i < 2 then rotateRev(front, drop(i, rear), NIL) else let CONS(x, front') = front in CONS(x, rotateDrop(front', j-2, drop(2, rear))) ``` where `rotateRev(front, middle, rear)` is a function that returns the front, followed by the middle reversed, followed by the rear. This function is also defined using laziness to ensure that it can be computed step by step, with one step executed during each `insert'` and `tail'` and taking a constant time. This function uses the invariant that `\|rear\|-2\|front\|` is 2 or 3. ``` sml fun rotateRev(NIL, rear, a) = reverse(rear)++a fun rotateRev(CONS(x, front), rear, a) = CONS(x, rotateRev(front, drop(2, rear), reverse(take(2, rear))++a)) ``` where `++` is the function concatenating two lists. #### Implementation without laziness {#implementation_without_laziness} Note that, without the lazy part of the implementation, this would be a non-persistent implementation of queue in `{{math\|''O''(1)}}`{=mediawiki} amortized time. In this case, the lists `tail_front` and `tail_rear` could be removed from the representation of the double-ended queue.	1,039	Double-ended queue	1
8,904	# Double-ended queue ## Language support {#language_support} Ada\'s containers provides the generic packages `Ada.Containers.Vectors` and `Ada.Containers.Doubly_Linked_Lists`, for the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. C++\'s Standard Template Library provides the class templates `std::deque` and `std::list`, for the multiple array and linked list implementations, respectively. As of Java 6, Java\'s Collections Framework provides a new `{{Javadoc:SE\|java/util\|Deque}}`{=mediawiki} interface that provides the functionality of insertion and removal at both ends. It is implemented by classes such as `{{Javadoc:SE\|java/util\|ArrayDeque}}`{=mediawiki} (also new in Java 6) and `{{Javadoc:SE\|java/util\|LinkedList}}`{=mediawiki}, providing the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively. However, the `ArrayDeque`, contrary to its name, does not support random access. Javascript\'s [Array prototype](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Array) & Perl\'s arrays have native support for both removing ([shift](http://perldoc.perl.org/functions/shift.html) and [pop](http://perldoc.perl.org/functions/pop.html)) and adding ([unshift](http://perldoc.perl.org/functions/unshift.html) and [push](http://perldoc.perl.org/functions/push.html)) elements on both ends. Python 2.4 introduced the `collections` module with support for [deque objects](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#deque-objects). It is implemented using a doubly linked list of fixed-length subarrays. As of PHP 5.3, PHP\'s SPL extension contains the \'SplDoublyLinkedList\' class that can be used to implement Deque datastructures. Previously to make a Deque structure the array functions array_shift/unshift/pop/push had to be used instead. GHC\'s [Data.Sequence](http://hackage.haskell.org/package/containers-0.6.0.1/docs/Data-Sequence.html) module implements an efficient, functional deque structure in Haskell. The implementation uses 2--3 finger trees annotated with sizes. There are other (fast) possibilities to implement purely functional (thus also persistent) double queues (most using heavily lazy evaluation). Kaplan and Tarjan were the first to implement optimal confluently persistent catenable deques. Their implementation was strictly purely functional in the sense that it did not use lazy evaluation. Okasaki simplified the data structure by using lazy evaluation with a bootstrapped data structure and degrading the performance bounds from worst-case to amortized. Kaplan, Okasaki, and Tarjan produced a simpler, non-bootstrapped, amortized version that can be implemented either using lazy evaluation or more efficiently using mutation in a broader but still restricted fashion. Mihaescu and Tarjan created a simpler (but still highly complex) strictly purely functional implementation of catenable deques, and also a much simpler implementation of strictly purely functional non-catenable deques, both of which have optimal worst-case bounds. Rust\'s `std::collections` includes [VecDeque](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/collections/struct.VecDeque.html) which implements a double-ended queue using a growable ring buffer.	355	Double-ended queue	2
8,904	# Double-ended queue ## Complexity - In a doubly-linked list implementation and assuming no allocation/deallocation overhead, the time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle, given an iterator, is O(1); however, the time complexity of random access by index is O(n). - In a growing array, the amortized time complexity of all deque operations is O(1). Additionally, the time complexity of random access by index is O(1); but the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle is O(n). ## Applications One example where a deque can be used is the work stealing algorithm. This algorithm implements task scheduling for several processors. A separate deque with threads to be executed is maintained for each processor. To execute the next thread, the processor gets the first element from the deque (using the \"remove first element\" deque operation). If the current thread forks, it is put back to the front of the deque (\"insert element at front\") and a new thread is executed. When one of the processors finishes execution of its own threads (i.e. its deque is empty), it can \"steal\" a thread from another processor: it gets the last element from the deque of another processor (\"remove last element\") and executes it. The work stealing algorithm is used by Intel\'s Threading Building Blocks (TBB) library for parallel programming	230	Double-ended queue	3
8,905	# Diene In organic chemistry, a diene (`{{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|d\|aɪ\|iː\|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|DY\|een}}`{=mediawiki}); also diolefin, `{{IPAc-en\|d\|aɪ\|ˈ\|oʊ\|l\|ə\|f\|ᵻ\|n}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell\|dy\|OH\|lə\|fin}}`{=mediawiki}) or alkadiene) is a covalent compound that contains two double bonds, usually among carbon atoms. They thus contain two alkene units, with the standard prefix di of systematic nomenclature. As a subunit of more complex molecules, dienes occur in naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals and are used in organic synthesis. Conjugated dienes are widely used as monomers in the polymer industry. Polyunsaturated fats are of interest to nutrition. ## Classes Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds: 1. Cumulated dienes have the double bonds sharing a common atom. The result is more specifically called an allene. 2. Conjugated dienes have conjugated double bonds separated by one single bond. Conjugated dienes are more stable than other dienes because of resonance. 3. Unconjugated dienes have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds. They are usually less stable than isomeric conjugated dienes. This can also be known as an isolated diene. According to the Gold Book definition, a \"diene\" could include one or more heteroatoms which replace unsaturated carbon atoms, giving structures that could more specifically be called heterodienes. Compounds that contain more than two double bonds are called polyenes. Polyenes and dienes share many properties. ## Synthesis of dienes {#synthesis_of_dienes} On an industrial scale, butadiene is prepared by thermal cracking of butanes. In a similarly non-selective process, dicyclopentadiene is obtained from coal tars. In the laboratory, more directed and more delicate processes are employed such as dehydrohalogenations and condensations. Myriad methods have been developed, such as the Whiting reaction. Families of nonconjugated dienes are derived from the oligomerization and dimerization of conjugated dienes. For example, 1,5-cyclooctadiene and 4-vinylcyclohexene are produced by dimerization of 1,3-butadiene. Diene-containing fatty acids are biosynthesized from acetyl CoA. α,ω-Dienes have the formula (CH~2~)~n~(CH=CH~2~)~2~. They are prepared industrially by ethenolysis of cyclic dienes. For example, 1,5-hexadiene and 1,9-decadiene, useful crosslinking agents and synthetic intermediates, are produced from 1,5-cyclooctadiene and cyclooctene, respectively. The catalyst is derived from Re~2~O~7~ on alumina.	345	Diene	0
8,905	# Diene ## Reactivity and uses {#reactivity_and_uses} ### Polymerization The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is polymerization. 1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber used in tires, and isoprene is the precursor to natural rubber. Chloroprene is related but it is a synthetic monomer. ### Cycloadditions An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels--Alder reaction. Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products (e.g., Danishefsky\'s diene). ### Other addition reactions {#other_addition_reactions} Conjugated dienes add reagents such as bromine and hydrogen by both 1,2-addition and 1,4-addition pathways. Addition of polar reagents can generate complex architectures: : : ### Metathesis reactions {#metathesis_reactions} Nonconjugated dienes are substrates for ring-closing metathesis reactions. These reactions require a metal catalyst: : : ### Acidity The position adjacent to a double bond is acidic because the resulting allyl anion is stabilized by resonance. This effect becomes more pronounced as more alkenes are involved to create greater stability. For example, deprotonation at position 3 of a 1,4-diene or position 5 of a 1,3-diene give a pentadienyl anion. An even greater effect is seen if the anion is aromatic, for example, deprotonation of cyclopentadiene to give the cyclopentadienyl anion. ### As ligands {#as_ligands} Dienes are widely used chelating ligands in organometallic chemistry. In some cases they serve as placeholder ligands, being removed during a catalytic cycle. For example, the cyclooctadiene (\"cod\") ligands in bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) are labile. In some cases, dienes are spectator ligands, remaining coordinated throughout a catalytic cycle and influencing the product distributions. Chiral dienes have also been described. Other diene complexes include (butadiene)iron tricarbonyl, cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl, and cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer	275	Diene	1
8,940	# David Huffman David Oliver Huffman (May 10, 1945 -- February 27, 1985) was an American actor and producer. ## Personal life {#personal_life} Huffman was born on May 10, 1945, in Berwyn, Illinois, to Clarence and Opal Huffman (née Dippel). Huffman married casting director Phyllis Huffman (nee Grennan) in 1967, whom he had met as a student at Webster University in St. Louis, Missouri. The couple had two sons and remained married until Huffman\'s death in 1985. Huffman was an avid sailor, recreational painter, and country‐and‐western guitarist. ## Murder On the morning of February 27, 1985, 16-year-old Genaro Samano Villanueva was taken into San Diego police custody after attempting to steal a radio from a car near his home. Released into the custody of his high school vice principal, Villanueva left school and went to Balboa Park. There he was spotted by Canadian tourist Jack Beamer prowling around inside the motor home of Beamer\'s friends. After Beamer accosted him, Villanueva fled the scene. Huffman, who was cast in the play Of Mice and Men at the Old Globe Theatre and was set to begin work on the television miniseries North and South the following week, had visited the theatre shortly before noon to share cookies with the cast and crew and was sitting in his van near the theatre playing his bagpipes when he saw Beamer confront Villanueva. He gave chase in his vehicle, parking the van near the Spreckels Organ Pavilion and following Villanueva into the park. When he caught up with Villanueva, the two became involved in a physical altercation, during which Villanueva stabbed Huffman twice in the chest with a screwdriver. Huffman died of exsanguination, likely within 30 to 45 seconds. His body was found less than an hour later in a Palm Canyon crevice by a group of children, although it was not positively identified until later that night. On March 2 and 3, Crime Stoppers produced a reenactment of the crime that was shown on San Diego television and published in several national newspapers. The Canadian tourists whose motor home was burglarized saw Huffman\'s photo and death announcement in the newspaper and called police. Villanueva was arrested on March 12 after a police officer recognized Villanueva from a composite sketch given to police by the Canadian tourist. On June 24, 1986, Villanueva was sentenced to 26 years to life in prison and admitted to the California State Prison, Centinela. On December 9, 2011, he was denied parole for 15 years. ## Broadway stage credits {#broadway_stage_credits} - Butterflies Are Free as Don Baker (October 21, 1969 -- July 2, 1972)	434	David Huffman	0
8,940	# David Huffman ## Filmography Year Title Role Notes ------ ------------------- ------------------------------- ------- 1978 F.I.S.T. Abe Belkin 1978 Ice Castles Brian Dockett 1979 The Onion Field District Attorney Phil Halpin 1980 Wolf Lake David 1980 Leo and Loree Dennis 1981 Blood Beach Harry Caulder 1981 St Helens David Jackson 1982 Firefox Captain Buckholz 1983 Last Plane Out Jim Conley : Film +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| Year \| Title \| Role \| Notes \| +======+======================================================+===============================+=====================================+ \| 1973 \| Pueblo \| Seaman \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1973 \| Love Story \| David Ross \| Episode: \"Mirabelle\'s Summer\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| F. Scott Fitzgerald and \'The Last of the Belles\' \| Andy McKenna \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| The Yanks Are Coming \| Unknown \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| Lincoln \| Elmer E. Ellsworth \| Miniseries \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| Police Story \| T. Byron Bentley \| Episode: \"A Dangerous Age\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| Nakia \| Unknown \| Episode: \"The Hostage\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1974 \| The Gun \| Wayne \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Eleanor and Franklin \| Elliott Roosevelt (socialite) \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Baretta \| Jesse Bryant \| Episode: \"The Blood Bond\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Bert D\'Angelo/Superstar \| Unknown \| Episode: \"A Noise in the Street\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Amelia Earhart \| Radio Operator \| Miniseries \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Look What\'s Happened to Rosemary\'s Baby \| Peter Simon \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1976 \| Captains and the Kings \| Sean Armagh \| Miniseries \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1977 \| Play of the Month \| Chadwick Newsome \| Episode: \"The Ambassadors\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1977 \| Testimony of Two Men \| Harold Ferrier \| Miniseries \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1977 \| In the Matter of Karen Ann Quinlan \| Paul Armstrong \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1978 \| The Winds of Kitty Hawk \| Orville Wright \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1979 \| Tom Edison: The Boy Who Lit Up the World \| Tom Edison \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1979 \| Lou Grant \| Daniel Todson \| Episode: \"Hype\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1980 \| Baby Comes Home \| Jeff Winston \| Television movie\ \| \| \| \| \| Producer \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1981 \| The Million Dollar Face \| Christopher Ward \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1981 \| Sidney Shorr: A Girl\'s Best Friend \| Jimmy \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1982 \| Little House on the Prairie \| Reverend Addison Hale \| Episode: \"Alden\'s Dilemma\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1983 \| Jane Doe \| David \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1983 \| Remington Steele \| Wilson Jeffries \| Episode: \"Vintage Steele\" \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1983 \| Trapper John, M.D. \| Barry Laughton / Frank Maxwyn \| 2 episodes \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1983 \| Sparkling Cyanide \| Stephan Farraday \| Television movie \| +------+------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ \| 1984 \| T. J. Hooker \| Dr	501	David Huffman	1
8,941	# Dagome iudex *Dagome iudex* is one of the earliest historical documents relating to Poland. Although Poland is not mentioned by name, it refers to Dagome and Ote (Mieszko I and his wife, Oda von Haldensleben) and their sons in 991, placing their land (called \"Civitas Schinesghe\") under the protection of the Apostolic See. The document\'s name derives from its opening words. ## History The Dagome iudex survives in the form of a summary, completed c. 1080. It was found in a register compiled by a curial cardinal during the papacy of Gregory VII. Most historians believe that the word \"Dagome\" is a melding of two names: the Christian \"Dago\", for \"Dagobert\" (Mieszko\'s hypothetical baptismal name), and the \"Me,\" for pagan \"Mieszko.\" The Latin word iudex (\"judge\") could refer to \"prince.\" Another interpretation is that \"Dagome iudex\" is a corruption of \"Ego Mesco dux\" (\"I, Prince Mieszko\"). In the Vatican copy, the e of Dagome might have an s adscriptum (similar to cedilla), although the Vatican copyist read iudex literally, relating it to Sardinia and its four \"judges\". Place names are misspelled by the writer who made the summary. He was apparently unaware that the document related to territory later called Poland. The boundaries of the \"Gniezno\" state are described as those that extended to the \"Long Sea\" (the Baltic), Prussia, Rus\', Kraków, Moravia and the Oder River. Lesser Poland is included by the mention of its capital, Kraków (\"craccoa\"). Between alemura, probably Olomouc and Upper Lusatia region of the Milceni (terra mileze)`{{Ref label\|a\|a\|none}}`{=mediawiki} a straightened border could include Silesia. The text seems to use civitas schinesghe as a synonym of Greater Poland. Otherwise, the boundary description would be more logical if schenisghe meant the city of Szczecin. Of the other regions and places in Mieszko\'s territory, it mentioned only Kraków and Lusatia, both without fines (border). The regions outside Mieszko\'s rule, pruzze (Prussia) and russe (Ruthenia) were mentioned with the word fines. The Dagome iudex is of critical importance to Polish history, since it provided a general description of the future Polish state in that period. It, however, left many questions unanswered. First, it did not explain why Mieszko I placed his state under the Pope\'s protection. Also, it is unclear why the document did not mention Mieszko\'s eldest son, Bolesław I the Brave. Instead, his sons by his second wife (except the third), Oda, were mentioned instead. Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as \"Dagome\" in any other document. Historians suppose that Bolesław\'s absence from the document might be explained by an old custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the age of majority. Thus, Bolesław the Brave might have received Kraków as his part of his father\'s legacy before the Dagome iudex was written. ## Text of the Dagome iudex {#text_of_the_dagome_iudex} - In Latin: : - In English translation: : \"Also in another volume from the times of Pope John XV, Dagome,`{{Ref label\|b\|b\|none}}`{=mediawiki} lord,`{{Ref label\|c\|c\|none}}`{=mediawiki} and Ote, lady,`{{Ref label\|d\|d\|none}}`{=mediawiki} and their sons Misico and Lambert`{{Ref label\|e\|e\|none}}`{=mediawiki} (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are Sardinians, for those are ruled by four judges`{{Ref label\|f\|f\|none}}`{=mediawiki}) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe,`{{Ref label\|g\|g\|none}}`{=mediawiki} with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea,`{{Ref label\|h\|h\|none}}`{=mediawiki} along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to Kraków and from said Kraków to the River Oder, straight to a place called Alemure,`{{Ref label\|i\|i\|none}}`{=mediawiki} and from said Alemure to the land of Milczanie, and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe	617	Dagome iudex	0
8,946	# Decipherment In philology and linguistics, decipherment is the discovery of the meaning of the symbols found in extinct languages and/or alphabets. Decipherment is possible with respect to languages and scripts. One can also study or try to decipher how spoken languages that no longer exist were once pronounced, or how living languages used to be pronounced in prior eras. Notable examples of decipherment include the decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts and the decipherment of cuneiform. A notable decipherment in recent years is that of the Linear Elamite script. Today, at least a dozen languages remain undeciphered. Historically speaking, decipherments do not come suddenly through single individuals who \"crack\" ancient scripts. Instead, they emerge from the incremental progress brought about by a broader community of researchers. Decipherment should not be confused with cryptanalysis, which aims to decipher special written codes or ciphers used in intentionally concealed secret communication (especially during war). It should also not be confused with determining the meaning of ambiguous text in a known language (interpretation). ## Categories Gelb and Whiting classify the four situations of an undeciphered language and how difficult decipherment will be in each of them: - Type O: known writing and known language. Although decipherment in this case is trivial, useful information can be gleaned when a known language is written in an alphabet other than the one it is commonly written in. Studying the writing of the Phoenician or Sumerian languages in the Greek alphabet allows information about pronunciation and vocalization to be gleaned that cannot be obtained when studying the expression of these languages in their normal writing system. - Type I: unknown writing and known language. Deciphered languages in this category include Phoenician, Ugaritic, Cypriot, and Linear B. In this situation, alphabetic systems are the easiest to decipher, followed by syllabic languages, and finally the most difficult being logo-syllabic. - Type II: known writing and unknown language. An example is Linear A. Strictly speaking, this situation is not one of decipherment but of linguistic analysis. Decipherment in this category is considered extremely difficult to achieve on the basis of internal information only. - Type III: unknown writing and unknown language. Examples include the Archanes script and the Archanes formula, Phaistos disk, Cretan hieroglyphs, and Cypro-Minoan syllabary. When this situation occurs in an isolated culture and without the availability of outside information, decipherment is typically considered impossible.	396	Decipherment	0
8,946	# Decipherment ## Methods There is no single recipe or linear method for decipherment, however: instead, philologists and linguists must rely on a set of heuristic devices that have been established. Broadly, it is important to be familiar with the relevant texts where the script or language occurs in, access to accurate drawings or photographs of these texts, information about their relative chronology, and background information on where the texts occur in (their geography, perhaps being found in the context of a funerary monument, etc). These methods can be divided into approaches utilizing external or internal information. ### External information {#external_information} Many successful decipherments have proceeded from the discovery of external information, a common example being through the use of multilingual inscriptions, such as the Rosetta Stone (with the same text in three scripts: Demotic, hieroglyphic, and Greek) that enabled the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphic. In principle, multilingual text may be insufficient for a decipherment as translation is not a linear and reversible process, but instead represents an encoding of the message in a different symbolic system. Translating a text from one language into a second, and then from the second language back into the first, rarely reproduces exactly the original writing. Likewise, unless a significant number of words are contained in the multilingual text, limited information can be gleaned from it. ### Internal information {#internal_information} Internal approaches are multi-step: one must first ensure that the writing they are looking at represents real writing, as opposed to a grouping of pictorial representations or a modern-day forgery without further meaning. This is commonly approached with methods from the field of grammatology. Prior to decipherment of meaning, one can then determine the number of distinct graphemes (which, in turn, allows one to tell if the writing system is alphabetic, syllabic, or logo-syllabic; this is because such writing systems typically do not overlap in the number of graphemes they use), the sequence of writing (whether it be from left to right, right to left, top to bottom, etc.), and the determination of whether individual words are properly segmented when the alphabet is written (such as with the use of a space or a different special mark) or not. If a repetitive schematic arrangement can be identified, this can help in decipherment. For example, if the last line of a text has a small number, it can be reasonably guessed to be referring to the date, where one of the words means \"year\" and, sometimes, a royal name also appears. Another case is when the text contains many small numbers, followed by a word, followed by a larger number; here, the word likely means \"total\" or \"sum\". After one has exhausted the information that can be inferentially derived from probable content, they must transition to the systematic application of statistical tools. These include methods concerning the frequency of appearance of each symbol, the order in which these symbols typically appear, whether some symbols appear at the beginning or end of words, etc. There are situations where orthographic features of a language make it difficult if not impossible to decipher specific features (especially without certain outside information), such as when an alphabet does not express double consonants. Additional, and more complex methods, also exist. Eventually, the application of such statistical methods becomes exceedingly laborious, in which computers might be used to apply them automatically. ### Computational approaches {#computational_approaches} Computational approaches towards the decipherment of unknown languages began to appear in the late 1990s. Typically, there are two types of computational approaches used in language decipherment: approaches meant to produce translations in known languages, and approaches used to detect new information that might enable future efforts at translation. The second approach is more common, and includes things such as the detection of cognates or related words, discovery of the closest known language, word alignments, and more. ### Artificial intelligence {#artificial_intelligence} In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis on methods utilizing artificial intelligence for the decipherment of lost languages, especially through natural language processing (NLP) methods. Proof-of-concept methods have independently re-deciphered Ugaritic and Linear B using data from similar languages, in this case Hebrew and Ancient Greek.	692	Decipherment	1
8,946	# Decipherment ## Deciphering pronunciation {#deciphering_pronunciation} Related to attempts to decipher the meaning of languages and alphabets, include attempts to decipher how extinct writing systems, or older versions of contemporary writing systems (such as English in the 1600s) were pronounced. Several methods and criteria have been developed in this regard. Important criteria include (1) Rhymes and the testimony of poetry (2) Evidence from occasional spellings and misspellings (3) Interpretations of material in one language from authors in foreign languages (4) Information obtained from related languages (5) Grammatical changes in spelling over time. For example, analysis of poetry focuses on the use of wordplay or literary techniques between words that have a similar sound. Shakespeare\'s play Romeo and Juliet contains wordplay that relies on a similar sound between the words \"soul\" and \"soles\", allowing confidence that the similar pronunciation between the terms today also existed in Shakespeare\'s time. Another common source of information on pronunciation is when earlier texts use rhyme, such as when consecutive lines in poetry end in the similar or the same sound. This method does have some limitations however, as texts may use rhymes that rely on visual similarities between words (such as \'love\' and \'remove\') as opposed to auditory similarities, and that rhymes can be imperfect. Another source of information about pronunciation comes from explicit description of pronunciations from earlier texts, as in the case of the Grammatica Anglicana, such as in the following comment about the letter : \"In the long time it naturally soundeth sharp, and high; as in chósen, hósen, hóly, fólly \[. . .\] In the short time more flat, and a kin to u; as còsen, dòsen, mòther, bròther, lòve, pròve\". Another example comes from detailed comments on pronunciations of Sanskrit from the surviving works of Sanskrit grammarians.	297	Decipherment	2
8,946	# Decipherment ## Challenges Many challenges exist in the decipherment of languages, including when: - When it is not known which language is closest to it. - When the words in the script are not clearly segmented, like in some Iberian languages. - When the writing system is not known. In specific, if there is little certainty towards the number of graphemes that exist in a certain writing system, it cannot be determined if that system is an alphabet, a syllabry, a logosyllabry, or something else. - When the reading direction is not known. For example, it may not be clear if a writing system is meant to be read from left to right, or from right to left. - When it is not known if a script uses punctuation or spaces between words. - When the language of a script subject to decipherment efforts is not known. - When there is a small dataset available to learn about the properties of a script. This could lead to issues such as an incomplete vocabulary being known for the script. - When the typical order between subjects, objects, and verbs is not known. - When it is not known whether or how certain words can change their form. - When it is not known when multiple symbols are used to represent the same sound, syllable, word, concept, or idea (allographs). - When it is not clear how the penmanship or the style of writing of a particular scribe relates to the style of writing of another scribe working in the same text (the same letters or words might be written in a way that looks different), in which case it is difficult to correlate information across multiple examples of the use of the writing system. - When it is not known if certain words change their meaning depending on the context they appear in (homonyms). - When the context of discovery of a writing is not known. This is because information about the location out of which a writing system came from can provide valuable information about its relationship to known languages. - When adequate digital datasets for documented writing systems is not available, limiting the ability to use computational methods for decipherment. - When sufficient hardware resources, such as high performance computing, is not available (which might be necessary for more energy-intensive computational methods). ## Relationship to cryptanalysis {#relationship_to_cryptanalysis} Decipherment overlaps with another technical field known as cryptanalysis, a field that aims to decipher writings used in secret communication, known as ciphertext. A famous case of this was in the cryptanalysis of the Enigma during the World War II. Many other ciphers from past wars have only recently been cracked. Unlike in language decipherment, however, actors using ciphertext intentionally lay obstacles to prevent outsiders from uncovering the meaning of the communication system. ## History Interest in ancient scripts and dead languages began to arise by the Renaissance, if not earlier. Extensive information began to be collected about these scripts in the 16th and 17th centuries, and a typology of writing was established in the 17th century. The first serious decipherments, however, did not take place until the 18th century. In 1754, Swinton and Barthélemy independently deciphered the Aramaic script as represented in Palmyrene inscriptions from the 3rd century AD. In 1787, Silvestre de Sacy deciphered the Sasanian script, which was the script used in Ancient Persia to write down the Middle Iranian language used in the Sasanian empire. Both decipherments relied on bilingual texts where Greek was included as the second script. It was also in the 18th century when the methodological framework for deciphering scripts and languages began to be established. For example, in 1714, Leibniz advocated that parallel content in bilingual inscriptions could be specified by correlating where personal names occur in both inscriptions. By the 19th century, the prerequisites for decipherment began to become widely available. These included extensive knowledge about the scripts themselves, adequate editions of known texts from that script, philological skills, and the ability to reconstruct linguistic forms from the limited available evidence. The 19th century saw two major successes in decipherment: that of Egyptian hieroglyphic and cuneiform. ## Notable decipherers {#notable_decipherers} Name of scholar Script deciphered Date ----------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------- Magnus Celsius Staveless Runes 1674 Jón Ólafsson of Grunnavík Cipher runes 1740s Jean-Jacques Barthélemy Palmyrene alphabet 1754 Jean-Jacques Barthélemy Phoenician alphabet 1758 Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy Pahlavi script 1791 Jean-François Champollion Egyptian Hieroglyphs (Decipherment) 1822 Georg Friedrich Grotefend, Eugène Burnouf, and Henry Rawlinson Old Persian Cuneiform (Decipherment) 1823 Enno Littmann Safaitic script 1901 Thomas Young Demotic script Manuel Gómez-Moreno Northeastern Iberian script James Prinsep Brahmi, Kharosthi Edward Hincks Mesopotamian Cuneiform Bedřich Hrozný Hittite Cuneiform Vilhelm Thomsen Old Turkic George Smith and Samuel Birch, et al. Cypriot syllabary Hans Bauer and Édouard Paul Dhorme Ugaritic alphabet Wáng Yìróng, Liú È, Sūn Yíràng, et al. Oracle Bone script Aleksei Ivanovich Ivanov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky, et al. Tangut script Michael Ventris, John Chadwick, and Alice Kober Linear B Yuri Knorozov and Tatiana Proskouriakoff, et al	839	Decipherment	3
8,965	# Digital Private Network Signalling System The Digital Private Network Signalling System (DPNSS) is a network protocol used on digital trunk lines for connecting to PABX. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities. DPNSS was originally defined by British Telecom. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee. ## History DPNSS was developed in the early 1980s by British Telecom (BT), or its forerunner, Post Office Telecommunications in recognition that the emerging Digital Private Circuit Primary Rate product \'Megastream\' had to address the market for both data and voice, the latter being significantly greater because of the market for PBXs. At the time, BT dictated what signalling could be used on its leased lines and, whilst it only had a minority interest in the sales of PBXs, was requested by the PBX manufacturers to produce a standard to prevent the creation of a plethora of conflicting PBX protocols being developed. Under the liberalization rules of the day (1979), BT was barred from manufacturing, selling or supplying PBXs of more than 200 extensions. Digital (PCM-based) PBXs were just starting to come into the marketplace with the Plessey PDX (a licensed version of the ROLM CBX) and the GEC SL1 (a licensed version of the Northern Telecom SL1). It was recognised that corporate customers would wish to network these systems across the country. At the time, \'CAS\' inter node signaling was slow and inter-register signaling MF5, developed from PSTN signalling protocols, was complex and would not support sufficient features. The support for DPNSS as BT\'s own signalling protocol also differentiated BT\'s private circuit\'s services from those of its emerging rival Mercury Communications. DPNSS was an active (and successful) collaboration between PBX manufacturers and BT which started relatively slowly (BT & Plessey) but quickly snowballed with Mitel, GEC, Ericsson, Philips and eventually Nortel all joining to create a powerful and feature rich protocol. BT and some of the UK manufacturers championed DPNSS into ECMA and CCITT (ITU) but it was eventually deprecated by the standards bodies in favour of Q931 and QSig. Nevertheless, the elegance of the protocol and its compatibility with PBX features ensured the adoption DPNSS actually grew in Europe, compared to the much slower take-up of Qsig. There were also attempts (during 1984) to take DPNSS into North America. Unfortunately the structures for the creation of standards in North America seemed to prevent manufacturer collaboration as a route forward and the ANSI standards body was not interested in creating PBX interworking standards. Version 1 of BTNR188 (DPNSS) was issued in 1983; the last version of DPNSS to be released 6 in 1995 included compatibility with ISDN features released in V5. A lightweight version of DPNSS \'APNSS\' was developed using analogue trunks (Sometimes compressed) and a modem to support D channel signalling.	473	Digital Private Network Signalling System	0
8,965	# Digital Private Network Signalling System ## Overview of the Protocol {#overview_of_the_protocol} Layer 1(CCITT) ITU-G703 defines the physical and electrical interface. G704 defines the Frame structure of the 2,048 Mbs sent across the link. G732 defines the allocation of that frame structure into the 32 discrete 64 Kbit \'channels\', of which 0 is used for alignment of the frames and 16 is (by convention only) allocated to common channel signalling. Speech is carried as G711. Layer 2 Timeslot 16, 64Kbs operates as HDLC LAPB, to support up to 60 PVCs or DLCs (data link connections) (30 directly associated with the bearer channels and 30 for unrelated messages) as the specification describes them. Therefore, at maximum operation, each potential traffic channel can have two simultaneous data channels available for messages. Note that HDLC operates as a statistical multiplexing system. When traffic deltas are low, a single call establishment message will have access to the full 64Kbs (allowing for overheads). DPNSS is a layer 3 protocol functioning as common channel signalling. The functionality is divided into Levels (confusingly nothing to do with OSI layers.) Levels 1-6 deal with simple call establishment (make call/break call) and are the minimum requirements by which a PBX can be said to be DPNSS compatible. The remaining levels are allocated to telephony features, supplementary services or to administrative features. Note that support of \'levels\' by a PBX is not necessarily incremental. Some levels are interdependent but a PBX may omit support of some levels (above 6) and support others. DPNSS is a compelled protocol in that each instruction issued must be met with an appropriate response from the other PBX otherwise the message is re-transmitted (until timer expiry). This means that when interworking two PBXs features invoked on PBX A must be acknowledged by PBX B even if that feature is not supported. DPNSS carries its protocol messages as short strings of IA5 text. It is therefore much easier to interpret in its native form than Q931/Qsig or H323/H450 and a precursor to the plain language format of SIP. ## Practical Considerations {#practical_considerations} As HDLC can operate successfully in quite poor (errored) data environments, DPNSS will work over a 2 Mbit/s link running without proper synchronisation (plesiochronously) and over poor quality connections (including badly terminated connectors). When setting up PBXs to run a DPNSS connection one end must be defined as the primary or \'A\' end. This is a protocol requirement and has nothing to do with link synchronisation. However, such badly synchronised links were frowned upon because of the problems associated with sending faxes and/or other modem based communication which were not specifically identified within the protocol. ## DPNSS and VoIP {#dpnss_and_voip} For a protocol that began life in the 1980s, DPNSS is natively a long way from VoIP. However, many of the hybrid VoIP PBXs available from manufacturers worldwide provide on-board DPNSS trunk cards. Where they do not, a protocol converter is necessary. Commercially available equipment offers the ability to convert from DPNSS to Q.Sig. Note that it is also possible to tunnel DPNSS and its associated PCM (G711) over an IP network. This can be point to point where the IP network carries packetised voice N x 64 Kbs speech and a separate IP signalling channel to carry the notional 64 Kbs of DPNSS signalling. A more sophisticated solution uses intelligence on the edge of the IP network to route voice to the correct node. This is a Voice VPN. Note that this should not be confused with the pre-VOIP \'Voice VPN\' deployed by routing calls intelligently in a TDM switching platform, often Nortel DMS100 and customers PBX nodes. ## Criticisms Some critics of DPNSS suggest that it is too loosely defined and allows too much latitude in its interpretation of message formats and timers. It is also sometimes mistakenly believed that DPNSS is semi proprietary and that it is only possible to connect PBXs from the same manufacturer. i.e. Siemens will connect to Siemens, Mitel to Mitel etc. Experience indicates that this is not the case and BT\'s FeatureNet platform (Nortel\'s DMS100) running DPNSS, has interconnected successfully to many PBX types available in the UK. In addition, as part of the first commercial implementation of DPNSS (in the Government Telephone Network or GTN in 1983), BT insisted that the core of the network be made from PBXs of different manufacture to prove the interoperability in real life	734	Digital Private Network Signalling System	1
8,966	# Digital Access Signalling System 1 Digital Access Signalling System 1 (DASS1) is a proprietary protocol defined by British Telecom to provide ISDN services in the United Kingdom. It is now obsolete, having been replaced by DASS2. This too will become obsolete over the coming years as Q.931, a European standard, becomes widely adopted in the EU	57	Digital Access Signalling System 1	0
8,968	# Devanagari Pandoc failed: ``` Error at (line 287, column 19): unexpected '\|' \|- lang="inc-Latn"\| ^ ``	17	Devanagari	0
8,992	# DirkJan DirkJan is a Dutch comic strip series, created in 1989 by Dutch author and artist Mark Retera. It is also the name of its main character. The series is a gag-a-day comic. ## Description DirkJan is an underachiever who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel gag-a-day comic strips. He started out in 1989 as a student at the current Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical sidekicks, such as the frat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night. Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of Nijmegen. ## Publication DirkJan was first published in Critic, the magazine for the local union of psychology students. It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen (Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, ANS). DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip. With the last move, the nature of the strip changed. Most of the student sidekicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious Kabouter abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space. As of May 2023, there are 28 DirkJan albums, tentatively named \'DirkJan 1\' through \'DirkJan 22\'. Several newspapers in the Netherlands publish the comic in their daily edition. There are 8 more albums outside the regular series. The amateur comics magazine Iris (1990--1995) republished a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused for publication in SjoSji	276	DirkJan	0
8,996	# Dynamic HTML Dynamic HTML, or DHTML, is a term which was used by some browser vendors to describe the combination of HTML, style sheets and client-side scripts (JavaScript, VBScript, or any other supported scripts) that enabled the creation of interactive and animated documents. The application of DHTML was introduced by Microsoft with the release of Internet Explorer 4 in 1997.`{{Unreliable source?\|date=November 2022}}`{=mediawiki} DHTML (Dynamic HTML) allows scripting languages, such as JavaScript, to modify variables and elements in a web page\'s structure, which in turn affect the look, behavior, and functionality of otherwise \"static\" HTML content after the page has been fully loaded and during the viewing process. Thus the dynamic characteristic of DHTML is the way it functions while a page is viewed, not in its ability to generate a unique page with each page load. By contrast, a dynamic web page is a broader concept, covering any web page generated differently for each user, load occurrence, or specific variable values. This includes pages created by client-side scripting and ones created by server-side scripting (such as PHP, Python, JSP or ASP.NET) where the web server generates content before sending it to the client. DHTML is the predecessor of Ajax and DHTML pages are still request/reload-based. Under the DHTML model, there may not be any interaction between the client and server after the page is loaded; all processing happens on the client side. By contrast, Ajax extends features of DHTML to allow the page to initiate network requests (or \'subrequest\') to the server even after page load to perform additional actions. For example, if there are multiple tabs on a page, the pure DHTML approach would load the contents of all tabs and then dynamically display only the one that is active, while AJAX could load each tab only when it is really needed.	304	Dynamic HTML	0
8,996	# Dynamic HTML ## Uses DHTML allows authors to add effects to their pages that are otherwise difficult to achieve, by changing the Document Object Model (DOM) and page style. The combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript offers ways to: - Animate text and images in their document. - Embed a ticker or other dynamic display that automatically refreshes its content with the latest news, stock quotes, or other data. - Use a form to capture user input, and then process, verify and respond to that data without having to send data back to the server. - Include rollover buttons or drop-down menus. A less common use is to create browser-based action games. Although a number of games were created using DHTML during the late 1990s and early 2000s, differences between browsers made this difficult: many techniques had to be implemented in code to enable the games to work on multiple platforms. Browsers have since then converged toward web standards, which has made the design of DHTML games more viable. Those games can be played on all major browsers and in desktop and device applications that support embedded browser contexts. The term \"DHTML\" has fallen out of use in recent years as it was associated with practices and conventions that tended to not work well between various web browsers. DHTML support with extensive DOM access was introduced with Internet Explorer 4.0. Although there was a basic dynamic system with Netscape Navigator 4.0, not all HTML elements were represented in the DOM. When DHTML-style techniques became widespread, varying degrees of support among web browsers for the technologies involved made them difficult to develop and debug. Development became easier when Internet Explorer 5.0+, Mozilla Firefox 2.0+, and Opera 7.0+ adopted a shared DOM inherited from ECMAScript. Later, JavaScript libraries such as jQuery abstracted away many of the day-to-day difficulties in cross-browser DOM manipulation, though better standards compliance among browsers has reduced the need for this. ## Structure of a web page {#structure_of_a_web_page} Typically a web page using DHTML is set up in the following way: ``` html <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <title>DHTML example</title> </head> <body bgcolor="red"> <script> function init() { let myObj = document.getElementById("navigation"); // ... manipulate myObj } window.onload = init; </script> <!-- Often the code is stored in an external file; this is done by linking the file that contains the JavaScript. This is helpful when several pages use the same script: --> <script src="my-javascript.js"></script> </body> </html> ``` ## Example: Displaying an additional block of text {#example_displaying_an_additional_block_of_text} The following code illustrates an often-used function. An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it. ``` html <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <title>Using a DOM function</title> <style> a { background-color: #eee; } a:hover { background: #ff0; } #toggleMe { background: #cfc; display: none; margin: 30px 0; padding: 1em; } </style> </head> <body> <h1>Using a DOM function</h1> <h2><a id="showhide" href="#">Show paragraph</a></h2> <p id="toggle-me">This is the paragraph that is only displayed on request.</p> <p>The general flow of the document continues.</p> <script> function changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement) { if (displayElement.style.display === "none" \|\| displayElement.style.display === "") { displayElement.style.display = "block"; textElement.innerHTML = "Hide paragraph"; } else { displayElement.style.display = "none"; textElement.innerHTML = "Show paragraph"; } } let displayElement = document.getElementById("toggle-me"); let textElement = document.getElementById("showhide"); textElement.addEventListener("click", function (event) { event.preventDefault(); changeDisplayState(displayElement, textElement); }); </script> </body> </html> ``` ## Document Object Model {#document_object_model} DHTML is not a technology in and of itself; rather, it is the product of three related and complementary technologies: HTML, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript. To allow scripts and components to access features of HTML and CSS, the contents of the document are represented as objects in a programming model known as the Document Object Model (DOM). The DOM API is the foundation of DHTML, providing a structured interface that allows access and manipulation of virtually anything in the document. The HTML elements in the document are available as a hierarchical tree of individual objects, making it possible to examine and modify an element and its attributes by reading and setting properties and by calling methods. The text between elements is also available through DOM properties and methods. The DOM also provides access to user actions such as pressing a key and clicking the mouse. It is possible to intercept and process these and other events by creating event handler functions and routines. The event handler receives control each time a given event occurs and can carry out any appropriate action, including using the DOM to change the document.	756	Dynamic HTML	1
8,996	# Dynamic HTML ## Dynamic styles {#dynamic_styles} Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML. By using CSS, one can quickly change the appearance and formatting of elements in a document without adding or removing elements. This helps keep documents small and the scripts that manipulate the document fast. The object model provides programmatic access to styles. This means you can change inline styles on individual elements and change style rules using simple JavaScript programming. Inline styles are CSS style assignments that have been applied to an element using the style attribute. You can examine and set these styles by retrieving the style object for an individual element. For example, to highlight the text in a heading when the user moves the mouse pointer over it, you can use the style object to enlarge the font and change its color, as shown in the following simple example. ``` html <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <title>Dynamic Styles</title> <style> ul { display: none; } </style> </head> <body> <h1 id="first-header">Welcome to Dynamic HTML</h1> <p><a id="clickable-link" href="#">Dynamic styles are a key feature of DHTML.</a></p> <ul id="unordered-list"> <li>Change the color, size, and typeface of text</li> <li>Show and hide text</li> <li>And much, much more</li> </ul> <p>We've only just begun!</p> <script> function showMe() { document.getElementById("first-header").style.color = "#990000"; document.getElementById("unordered-list").style.display = "block"; } document.getElementById("clickable-link").addEventListener("click", function (event) { event	221	Dynamic HTML	2
9,001	# Degree Confluence Project The Degree Confluence Project is a World Wide Web-based all-volunteer project that aims to have people visit each of the integer degree intersections of latitude and longitude on Earth, posting photographs and a narrative of each visit online. The project describes itself as \"an organized sampling of the world\". ## Requirements The precise location of each degree confluence uses the WGS 84 horizontal datum, and visitors to degree confluences almost always make use of GNSS receivers. For a successful visit, the visitor must get within 100 metres of the confluence point, and post a narrative and several photographs to the project website. A visit, or attempted visit, which does not conform to these rules may still be recorded on the website as an incomplete visit. The project encourages visits to degree confluences which have been visited previously, and many confluence points --- especially in non-remote regions of developed nations -- have been visited several times. The total number of degree confluences is 64,442, of which 21,543 are on land, 38,409 on water, and 4,490 on the Antarctic and Arctic ice caps. The project categorizes degree confluences as either primary or secondary. A confluence is primary only if it is on land or within sight of land. In addition, at latitudes greater than 48°, only some points are designated primary because confluences crowd together near the poles. Both primary and secondary confluences may be visited and recorded. In addition, visits to certain special geographical locations can also be reported (special visits). For example: - Middle of the World monument (0°, 78°27\'08\"W) - Centers of continents - Royal Greenwich Observatory ## History The project was started by Alex Jarrett in February 1996 because he \"liked the idea of visiting a location represented by a round number such as 43°00\'00\"N 72°00\'00\"W. What would be there? Would other people have recognized this as a unique spot?\" As of October 2024, 6,668 (40.7%) of 16,349 primary confluences have been visited, covering 195 countries and territories. ## Milestones - First degree confluence visit posted to the website: 43 N 72 W name=First DCP entry in New Hampshire, USA by Alex Jarrett (project founder) and Peter Cline on February 20, 1996. (Note that some degree confluence visits that pre-date this visit have since been posted on the project\'s website.) - Highest confluence: 33 N 80 E name=Highest confluence in Kuba, Tibet, China at 19,143 feet (5,835 m), first visited by Greg Michaels and Robert Whitfield on May 29, 2005. - Lowest confluence: 30 N 27 E name=Lowest confluence in Matrūh, Egypt at −255 feet (−78 m), first visited by Dave Morrison, Steve Price and Tony Carlisle on December 4, 2004	447	Degree Confluence Project	0
9,003	# Dan DeCarlo Daniel S. DeCarlo (December 12, 1919 -- December 18, 2001) was an American cartoonist best known for having developed the look of Archie Comics in the late 1950s and early 1960s, modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher\'s house style up until his death. As well, he is the generally recognized co-creator of the characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats (the title character of which was named for his wife), and Cheryl Blossom. ## Early life and career {#early_life_and_career} Dan DeCarlo was born in New Rochelle, New York, the son of a gardener. He attended New Rochelle High School, followed by Manhattan\'s Art Students League from 1938 to 1941, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army. Stationed in Great Britain, he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes. He also drew a weekly military comic strip, 418th Scandal Sheet. He met his wife, French citizen Josie Dumont, on a blind date in Belgium not long after the Battle of the Bulge. ## Atlas and Archie {#atlas_and_archie} DeCarlo was married, with a pregnant wife, and working as a laborer for his father when he began to pursue a professional art career. Circa 1947, answering an ad, he broke into the comic book industry at Timely Comics, the 1940s iteration of Marvel Comics. Under editor-in-chief Stan Lee, his first assignment was the teen-humor series Jeanie. DeCarlo went uncredited, as was typical for most comic-book writers and artists of the era, and he recalled in 2001, \"I went on with her maybe ten books. They used to call me \'The Jeanie Machine\' because that was all Stan used to give me, was Jeanie\.... Then he took me off Jeanie and he gave me Millie the Model. That was a big break for me. It wasn\'t doing too well and somehow when I got on it became quite successful.\" He went on to an atypically long, 10-year run on that humor series, from issues #18--93 (June 1949 -- Nov. 1959), most of them published by Marvel\'s 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics. DeCarlo and Lee also took over the My Friend Irma comic strip, spun off from the hit Marie Wilson radio comedy. For a decade, DeCarlo wrote and drew the slapsticky adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of the cast. He also contributed the short-lived Sherry the Showgirl and Showgirls for Atlas. In 1960, he and Atlas editor-in-chief Stan Lee co-created the short-lived syndicated comic strip Willie Lumpkin, about a suburban mail carrier, for the Chicago-based Publishers Syndicate. A version of the character later appeared as a long-running minor supporting character in Lee\'s later co-creation, the Marvel Comics series Fantastic Four. As well during this period, DeCarlo created and drew Standard Comics\' futuristic teen-humor comic book Jetta of the 21st Century. Running three issues, #5--7 (Dec. 1952 - April 1953), it featured red-haired Jetta Raye and her friends at Neutron High School. In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for the magazines The Saturday Evening Post and Argosy, as well as Timely/Atlas publisher Martin Goodman\'s Humorama line of pin-up girl cartoon digests. DeCarlo first freelanced for Archie Comics, the company with which he became most closely associated, in the late 1950s while still freelancing for Atlas. He said in 2001, `{{Blockquote\|I was looking for extra work. I went down to see [[Harry Shorten]] [at Archie] and he gave me a job. The pay wasn't too good, but I did it and he liked it – but I didn't go back right away. Finally after two or three weeks go, he called me up and wanted to know what happened, why I wasn't around. I said, 'Well, you know I'm very busy.' ... I had ''Millie the Model'', I had ''[[My Friend Irma (radio-TV)\|My Friend Irma]]'', [and] ''[[Big Boy Restaurants#Adventures of the Big Boy comic book\|Big Boy]]''. ... I told him, 'The people that I'm working for now let me do my own thing. But when I do work for you, it's "Draw like [[Bob Montana]]." And it's hard to look at your reference, and then back at your own page. It's very slow, and very tedious and I didn't like it too much.' He said, 'Come on in, and you can draw any way you like.' That made me go back with him.<ref name=trades />}}`{=mediawiki} DeCarlo is tentatively identified with Archie as early as the Jughead story \"The Big Shot\" in Archie Comics #48 (Feb. 1951), with his earliest confirmed credit the 3 3/4-page story \"No Picnic\" in Archie\'s Girls Betty and Veronica #4 (published in September 1951). His art soon established the publisher\'s house style. As well, he is the generally recognized creator of the teen-humor characters Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats, and Cheryl Blossom.	816	Dan DeCarlo	0
9,003	# Dan DeCarlo ## Atlas and Archie {#atlas_and_archie} ### Josie DeCarlo created Josie on his own in the late 1950s; his wife, named Josie, said in an interview quoted in a DeCarlo obituary, \"We went on a Caribbean cruise, and I had a \[cat\] costume for the cruise, and that\'s the way it started.\" DeCarlo first tried to sell the character as a syndicated comic strip called Here\'s Josie, recalling in 2001: `{{quote\|text=When Publishers Syndicate in Chicago got interested in ''[[Willie Lumpkin]]'' ... I was also hustling my own strip and trying to get it published. Before we got to Publishers Syndicate, I went to [[United Feature]] in New York City with two strips — ''Barney's Beat'' and ''Josie''. [United Feature] told me they liked them both, and they'd like to see more samples, because I didn't bring much. I brought maybe six dailies of ''Barney's Beat'' and six dailies of ''Josie''. That posed a problem for me. I knew I couldn't handle both strips and still keep up with the comic book work, because a syndicated bit was very risky. So, I decided to shelve ''Josie'', and concentrated on ''Willie Lumpkin''. [When that strip ended after] a year, maybe a year and a half[,] I quickly submitted the Josie strip back to the publishers and Harold Anderson, and he sent it back and said, 'It's not what we're looking for, Dan, but keep up the good work,' or words of that kind. Then is when I decided to take it to Archie to see if they could do it as a comic book. I showed it to [[Richard Goldwater]], and he showed it to his father, and a day or two later I got the OK to do it as a comic book.<ref name=trades />}}`{=mediawiki} Josie was introduced in Archie\'s Pals \'n\' Gals #23. The first issue of She\'s Josie followed, cover-dated February 1963. The series featured levelheaded, sweet-natured Josie, her blonde bombshell friend Melody, and bookwormish brunette Pepper. These early years also featured the characters of Josie and Pepper\'s boyfriends Albert and Sock (real name Socrates); Albert\'s rival Alexander Cabot III; and Alex\'s twin sister Alexandra. Occasionally Josie and her friends appeared in \"crossover\" issues with the main Archie characters. She\'s Josie was renamed Josie with issue #17 (Dec. 1965), and again renamed, to Josie and the Pussycats, with issue #45 (Dec. 1969), whereby Pepper was replaced by Valerie and Albert was replaced by Alan M. Under this title, the series finished its run with issue #106 (Oct. 1982). Josie and her gang also made irregular appearances in Pep Comics and Laugh Comics during the 1960s. When Universal Pictures was preparing the live-action movie adaptation Josie and the Pussycats in 2001, DeCarlo and Archie Comics became involved in a lawsuit over the character\'s creation, leading the publisher to terminate its 43-year relationship with him. A federal district court ruled in 2001 that Archie Comics owned the copyright to the Josie characters; this decision was affirmed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals. On December 11, 2001, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected an appeal filed by DeCarlo\'s attorney, Whitney Seymour Jr., who had argued that the issue was a matter of state property law and not federal copyright law. DeCarlo was listed as a creator in the end credits of the film Josie and the Pussycats. He received credit as co-creator of the live-action television show Sabrina the Teenage Witch. Among DeCarlo\'s final works were a story for Paul Dini\'s independent comics series Jingle Belle, and stories for Bongo Comics\' The Simpsons TV tie-in comic, Bart Simpson.	598	Dan DeCarlo	1
9,003	# Dan DeCarlo ## Atlas and Archie {#atlas_and_archie} ### Death DeCarlo died in New Rochelle, New York, of pneumonia. Comics creator Paul Dini said upon DeCarlo\'s death, \"It was tragic that when he was at an age when many cartoonists are revered as treasures by more beneficent publishers, Dan felt spurned and slighted by the owners of properties that prospered greatly from his contributions.\" ## Personal life {#personal_life} His twin sons, Dan Jr. and James \"Jim\" DeCarlo (born January 27, 1948) were also prolific Archie artists, penciling and inking respectively. The two predeceased their father. Dan Jr. died in October 1990 of stomach cancer, and James died in August 1991 from complications from a stroke. Josie DeCarlo, the inspiration for the Archie character Josie, died in her sleep on March 14, 2012.	132	Dan DeCarlo	2
9,003	# Dan DeCarlo ## Josie DeCarlo {#josie_decarlo} Josette Marie \"Josie\" DeCarlo (née Dumont; September 8, 1923 -- March 14, 2012) was a French-born model who became the inspiration and namesake for Josie McCoy of Josie and the Pussycats comics and the 1970 Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon series. She met future husband Dan DeCarlo on a blind date in Belgium in 1945, Shortly after the Battle of the Bulge. At the time, Dumont did not speak English, while DeCarlo, a member of the U.S. Army during World War II, spoke very little French. Unable to have a conversation due to their language barrier, the two communicated through his cartoons. She later explained, \"We communicated with drawing\.... He would draw things for me to make me understand what he had in mind. He was really so amusing. Instead of just using words, he would use cartoons to express himself. Right away, we knew that we were meant for each other.\" The couple married in 1946. She became the inspiration for Josie and the Pussycats while the couple were on a cruise. Josie DeCarlo wore a catsuit costume during the cruise, which became the basis for the fictional Josie and the Pussycats trademark outfits. Later, when she got a new hairdo, Dan DeCarlo incorporated it into the Josie character as well, \"The hairdo came after\... One day, I came in with a new hairdo with a little bow in my hair, and he said, \'That\'s it!\'\" Dan DeCarlo drew his wife with the cat costume as Josie McCoy and naming the starring character Josie. Josie first appeared in Archie Comics in 1962. The character was voiced by actress Janet Waldo in the television series. After her husband\'s death in 2001, Josie DeCarlo remained active in the comics and animation industries, promoting his work. Josie DeCarlo died in her sleep on March 14, 2012, aged 88. Her funeral was held in Scarsdale, New York. ## Awards DeCarlo won the National Cartoonists Society Award for Best Comic Book in 2000 for Betty & Veronica. He was nominated for the Academy of Comic Book Arts\' Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974. ## Legacy Love and Rockets co-creators Jaime Hernandez and Gilbert Hernandez cite DeCarlo as an artistic influence. Artist/animator Bruce Timm, best known for his contributions to the DC Animated Universe, has cited Dan DeCarlo as one of his influences	397	Dan DeCarlo	3
9,011	# Dual Alliance (1879) The Dual Alliance (Zweibund, Kettős Szövetség) was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on October 7, 1879, as part of Germany\'s Otto von Bismarck\'s system of alliances to prevent or limit war. The two powers promised each other support in case of attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, even more so after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894). Bismarck saw the alliance as a way to prevent the isolation of the German Empire, which had just been founded a few years before, and to preserve peace, as Russia would not wage war against both empires. `{{Events leading to World War I}}`{=mediawiki} ## Formation When Austria-Hungary and Germany formed an alliance in 1879, it was one of the more surprising alliances of its time. Though both shared the German language and a similar culture, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often driven apart, most notably during the recent Austro-Prussian War. Additionally, the Habsburg rulers believed that the promotion of nationalism, which was favoured by Germany, would destroy their multinational empire. However, their common distrust of Russia brought both empires together for a common cause. ## Alliance against Russia {#alliance_against_russia} After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo, to gain more power for the German Empire and to unify Germany. In 1878, the Russian Empire defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. The resulting Treaty of San Stefano gave Russia considerable influence in the Balkans, a development that outraged Austria-Hungary, Russia\'s chief rival in the Balkan region (despite being an ally of the Russians and the Germans in the League of the Three Emperors). Hence, in 1878, Bismarck called an international conference (the Congress of Berlin) to sort out the problem. The Treaty of Berlin that resulted from the conference reversed Russia\'s gains from the Treaty of San Stefano and provided the Austrians with compensation in the form of Bosnia. Despite Bismarck\'s attempts to play the role of an \"honest broker\" at the Congress of Berlin, Russo-German relations deteriorated following the conference. The Three Emperors\' League was discontinued, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally against Russia. ## Italy joins alliance {#italy_joins_alliance} In 1881, Italy lost in the competition with France to establish a colony in Tunis (now Tunisia). To enlist diplomatic support, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the Triple Alliance in 1882. During World War I, however, Italy did not go to war immediately with its allies but stayed neutral. In 1915, it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in 1916, against Germany. The Dual Alliance persisted throughout the war as part of the Central Powers and ended with their defeat in 1918	489	Dual Alliance (1879)	0
9,025	# Lists of deities This is an index of lists of deities of the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the world	22	Lists of deities	0
9,032	# Drosophila *Drosophila* (`{{IPAc-en\|d\|r\|ə\|ˈ\|s\|ɒ\|f\|ᵻ\|l\|ə\|,_\|d\|r\|ɒ\|-\|,_\|d\|r\|oʊ\|-}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn\|{{cite book \| vauthors = Jones D \|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) \|title=English Pronouncing Dictionary\| veditors = Roach P, Hartmann J, Setter J \|place=Cambridge\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|orig-year=1917\|year=2003\|isbn=978-3-12-539683-8 }}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn\|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary\|Drosophila}}}}`{=mediawiki}), from Ancient Greek δρόσος (drósos), meaning \"dew\", and φίλος (phílos), meaning \"loving\", is a genus of fly, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called \"small fruit flies\" or pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with the Tephritidae, a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as \"true fruit flies\"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit, with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly. One species of Drosophila in particular, Drosophila melanogaster, has been heavily used in research in genetics and is a common model organism in developmental biology. The terms \"fruit fly\" and \"Drosophila\" are often used synonymously with D. melanogaster in modern biological literature. The entire genus, however, contains more than 1,500 species and is very diverse in appearance, behavior, and breeding habitat. ## Etymology The term \"Drosophila\", meaning \"dew-loving\", is a modern scientific Latin adaptation from Greek words δρόσος, drósos, \"dew\", and φίλος, phílos, \"loving\". ## Morphology Drosophila species are small flies, typically pale yellow to reddish brown to black, with red eyes. When the eyes (essentially a film of lenses) are removed, the brain is revealed. Drosophila brain structure and function develop and age significantly from larval to adult stage. Developing brain structures make these flies a prime candidate for neuro-genetic research. According to a study published in Nature in October 2024, by the scientists examining the brain of an adult female Drosophila, the shape and location of each of its 130,000 neurons and 50 million synapsis were identified. In this study, the most detailed analysis ever conducted on the brain of an adult animal is represented. Many species, including the noted Hawaiian picture-wings, have distinct black patterns on the wings. The plumose (feathery) arista, bristling of the head and thorax, and wing venation are characters used to diagnose the family. Most are small, about 2-4 mm long, but some, especially many of the Hawaiian species, are larger than a house fly. ## Evolution ### Detoxification mechanisms {#detoxification_mechanisms} Environmental challenge by natural toxins helped to prepare Drosophilae to detox DDT, by shaping the glutathione S-transferase mechanism that metabolizes both. ### Selection The Drosophila genome is subject to a high degree of selection, especially unusually widespread negative selection compared to other taxa. A majority of the genome is under selection of some sort, and a supermajority of this is occurring in non-coding DNA. Effective population size has been credibly suggested to positively correlate with the effect size of both negative and positive selection. Recombination is likely to be a significant source of diversity. There is evidence that crossover is positively correlated with polymorphism in D. populations.	492	Drosophila	0
9,032	# Drosophila ## Biology ### Habitat Drosophila species are found all around the world, with more species in the tropical regions. Drosophila made their way to the Hawaiian Islands and radiated into over 800 species. They can be found in deserts, tropical rainforest, cities, swamps, and alpine zones. Some northern species hibernate. The northern species D. montana is the best cold-adapted, and is primarily found at high altitudes. Most species breed in various kinds of decaying plant and fungal material, including fruit, bark, slime fluxes, flowers, and mushrooms. Drosophila species that are fruit-breeding are attracted to various products of fermentation, especially ethanol and methanol. Fruits exploited by Drosophila species include those with a high pectin concentration, which is an indicator of how much alcohol will be produced during fermentation. Citrus, morinda, apples, pears, plums, and apricots belong into this category. The larvae of at least one species, D. suzukii, can also feed in fresh fruit and can sometimes be a pest. A few species have switched to being parasites or predators. Many species can be attracted to baits of fermented bananas or mushrooms, but others are not attracted to any kind of baits. Males may congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females, or form leks, conducting courtship in an area separate from breeding sites. Several Drosophila species, including Drosophila melanogaster, D. immigrans, and D. simulans, are closely associated with humans, and are often referred to as domestic species. These and other species (D. subobscura, and from a related genus Zaprionus indianus) have been accidentally introduced around the world by human activities such as fruit transports. ### Reproduction Males of this genus are known to have the longest sperm cells of any studied organism on Earth, including one species, Drosophila bifurca, that has sperm cells that are 58 mm long. The cells mostly consist of a long, thread-like tail, and are delivered to the females in tangled coils. The other members of the genus Drosophila also make relatively few giant sperm cells, with that of D. bifurca being the longest. D. melanogaster sperm cells are a more modest 1.8 mm long, although this is still about 35 times longer than a human sperm. Several species in the D. melanogaster species group are known to mate by traumatic insemination. Drosophila species vary widely in their reproductive capacity. Those such as D. melanogaster that breed in large, relatively rare resources have ovaries that mature 10--20 eggs at a time, so that they can be laid together on one site. Others that breed in more-abundant but less nutritious substrates, such as leaves, may only lay one egg per day. The eggs have one or more respiratory filaments near the anterior end; the tips of these extend above the surface and allow oxygen to reach the embryo. Larvae feed not on the vegetable matter itself, but on the yeasts and microorganisms present on the decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies widely between species (between 7 and more than 60 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as temperature, breeding substrate, and crowding. Fruit flies lay eggs in response to environmental cycles. Eggs laid at a time (e.g., night) during which likelihood of survival is greater than in eggs laid at other times (e.g., day) yield more larvae than eggs that were laid at those times. Ceteris paribus, the habit of laying eggs at this \'advantageous\' time would yield more surviving offspring, and more grandchildren, than the habit of laying eggs during other times. This differential reproductive success would cause D. melanogaster to adapt to environmental cycles, because this behavior has a major reproductive advantage. Their median lifespan is 35--45 days. ### Aging DNA damage accumulates in Drosophila intestinal stem cells with age. Deficiencies in the Drosophila DNA damage response, including deficiencies in expression of genes involved in DNA damage repair, accelerates intestinal stem cell (enterocyte) aging. Sharpless and Depinho reviewed evidence that stem cells undergo intrinsic aging and speculated that stem cells grow old, in part, as a result of DNA damage.	673	Drosophila	1
9,032	# Drosophila ## Biology ### Mating systems {#mating_systems} #### Courtship behavior {#courtship_behavior} The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster. Courtship behavior of male Drosophila is an attractive behaviour. Females respond via their perception of the behavior portrayed by the male. Male and female Drosophila use a variety of sensory cues to initiate and assess courtship readiness of a potential mate. The cues include the following behaviours: positioning, pheromone secretion, following females, making tapping sounds with legs, singing, wing spreading, creating wing vibrations, genitalia licking, bending the stomach, attempt to copulate, and the copulatory act itself. The songs of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans have been studied extensively. These luring songs are sinusoidal in nature and vary within and between species. The courtship behavior of Drosophila melanogaster has also been assessed for sex-related genes, which have been implicated in courtship behavior in both the male and female. Recent experiments explore the role of fruitless (fru) and doublesex (dsx), a group of sex-behaviour linked genes. The fruitless (fru) gene in Drosophila helps regulate the network for male courtship behavior; when a mutation to this gene occurs altered same sex sexual behavior in males is observed. Male Drosophila with the fru mutation direct their courtship towards other males as opposed to typical courtship, which would be directed towards females. Loss of the fru mutation leads back to the typical courtship behavior. #### Pheromones A novel class of pheromones was found to be conserved across the subgenus Drosophila in 11 desert dwelling species. These pheromones are triacylglycerides that are secreted exclusively by males from their ejaculatory bulb and transferred to females during mating. The function of the pheromones is to make the females unattractive to subsequent suitors and thus inhibit courtship by other males. #### Polyandry The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila serrata, Drosophila pseudoobscura, Drosophila melanogaster, and Drosophila neotestacea. Polyandry is a prominent mating system among Drosophila. Females mating with multiple sex partners has been a beneficial mating strategy for Drosophila. The benefits include both pre and post copulatory mating. Pre-copulatory strategies are the behaviours associated with mate choice and the genetic contributions, such as production of gametes, that are exhibited by both male and female Drosophila regarding mate choice. Post copulatory strategies include sperm competition, mating frequency, and sex-ratio meiotic drive. These lists are not inclusive. Polyandry among the Drosophila pseudoobscura in North America vary in their number of mating partners. There is a connection between the number of time females choose to mate and chromosomal variants of the third chromosome. It is believed that the presence of the inverted polymorphism is why re-mating by females occurs. The stability of these polymorphisms may be related to the sex-ratio meiotic drive. However, for Drosophila subobscura, the main mating system is monandry, not normally seen in Drosophila. #### Sperm competition {#sperm_competition} The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila melanogaster, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila mauritiana. Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous Drosophila females use to increase the fitness of their offspring. The female Drosophila has two sperm storage organs, the spermathecae and seminal receptacle, that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs. However, some species of Drosophila have evolved to only use one or the other. Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice. Female Drosophila through cryptic choice, one of several post-copulatory mechanisms, which allows for the detection and expelling of sperm that reduces inbreeding possibilities. Manier et al. 2013 has categorized the post copulatory sexual selection of Drosophila melanogaster, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila mauritiana into the following three stages: insemination, sperm storage, and fertilizable sperm. Among the preceding species there are variations at each stage that play a role in the natural selection process. This sperm competition has been found to be a driving force in the establishment of reproductive isolation during speciation. #### Parthenogenesis and gynogenesis {#parthenogenesis_and_gynogenesis} Parthenogenesis does not occur in D. melanogaster, but in the gyn-f9 mutant, gynogenesis occurs at low frequency. The natural populations of D. mangebeirai are entirely female, making it the only obligate parthenogenetic species of Drosophila. Parthenogenesis is facultative in parthenogenetica and mercatorum. ### Laboratory-cultured animals {#laboratory_cultured_animals} D. melanogaster is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse out of the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable. In 1906, Thomas Hunt Morgan began his work on D. melanogaster and reported his first finding of a white eyed mutant in 1910 to the academic community. He was in search of a model organism to study genetic heredity and required a species that could randomly acquire genetic mutation that would visibly manifest as morphological changes in the adult animal. His work on Drosophila earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. This and other Drosophila species are widely used in studies of genetics, embryogenesis, chronobiology, speciation, neurobiology, and other areas. However, some species of Drosophila are difficult to culture in the laboratory, often because they breed on a single specific host in the wild. For some, it can be done with particular recipes for rearing media, or by introducing chemicals such as sterols that are found in the natural host; for others, it is (so far) impossible. In some cases, the larvae can develop on normal Drosophila lab medium, but the female will not lay eggs; for these it is often simply a matter of putting in a small piece of the natural host to receive the eggs. The Drosophila Species Stock Center located at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, maintains cultures of hundreds of species for researchers.	958	Drosophila	2
9,032	# Drosophila ## Biology ### Use in genetic research {#use_in_genetic_research} Drosophila is considered one of the most valuable genetic model organisms; both adults and embryos are used in experiments. Drosophila is a prime candidate for genetic research because the relationship between human and fruit fly genes is very close; disease-producing genes in humans can be linked to those in Drosophila. The fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000 genes among their 23 chromosomes. The low number of chromosomes make Drosophila easier to study. Genetic traits can be studied through different Drosophila lineages, and the findings can be applied to deduce genetic trends in humans. Research conducted on Drosophila has helped to determine the ground rules for genetic inheritance in many organisms. Drosophila is a useful in vivo tool to analyze Alzheimer\'s disease. Rhomboid proteases were first detected in Drosophila but then found to be highly conserved across eukaryotes, mitochondria, and bacteria. Melanin\'s ability to protect DNA against ionizing radiation has been most extensively demonstrated in Drosophila, including in the formative study by Hopwood et al. in 1985. ### Microbiome Like other animals, Drosophila is associated with various bacteria in its gut. The fly gut microbiota or microbiome seems to have a central influence on Drosophila fitness and life history characteristics. The microbiota in the gut of Drosophila represents an active current research field. Drosophila species also harbour vertically transmitted endosymbionts, such as Wolbachia and Spiroplasma. These endosymbionts can act as reproductive manipulators, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility induced by Wolbachia or male-killing induced by the D. melanogaster Spiroplasma poulsonii (named MSRO). The male-killing factor of the D. melanogaster MSRO strain was discovered in 2018, solving a decades-old mystery of the cause of male-killing. This represents the first bacterial factor that affects eukaryotic cells in a sex-specific fashion, and is the first mechanism identified for male-killing phenotypes. Alternatively, they may protect theirs hosts from infection. Drosophila Wolbachia can reduce viral loads upon infection, and is explored as a mechanism of controlling viral diseases (e.g. Dengue fever) by transferring these Wolbachia to disease-vector mosquitoes. The S. poulsonii strain of Drosophila neotestacea protects its host from parasitic wasps and nematodes using toxins that preferentially attack the parasites instead of the host. Since the Drosophila species is one of the most used model organisms, it was vastly used in genetics. However, the effect abiotic factors, such as temperature, has on the microbiome on Drosophila species has recently been of great interest. Certain variations in temperature have an impact on the microbiome. It was observed that higher temperatures (31 °C) lead to an increase of Acetobacter populations in the gut microbiome of Drosophila melanogaster as compared to lower temperatures (13 °C). In low temperatures (13 °C), the flies were more cold resistant and also had the highest concentration of Wolbachia. The microbiome in the gut can also be transplanted among organisms. It was found that Drosophila melanogaster became more cold-tolerant when the gut microbiota from Drosophila melanogaster that were reared at low temperatures. This depicted that the gut microbiome is correlated to physiological processes. Moreover, the microbiome plays a role in aggression, immunity, egg-laying preferences, locomotion and metabolism. As for aggression, it plays a role to a certain degree during courtship. It was observed that germ-free flies were not as competitive compared to the wild-type males. Microbiome of the Drosophila species is also known to promote aggression by octopamine OA signalling. The microbiome has been shown to impact these fruit flies\' social interactions, specifically aggressive behaviour that is seen during courtship and mating. ### Predators Drosophila species are prey for many generalist predators, such as robber flies. In Hawaii, the introduction of yellowjackets from mainland United States has led to the decline of many of the larger species. The larvae are preyed on by other fly larvae, staphylinid beetles, and ants. ### Neurochemistry Fruit flies use several fast-acting neurotransmitters, similar to those found in humans, which allow neurons to communicate and coordinate behavior. Acetylcholine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine, serotonin, and histamine are all neurotransmitters that can be found in humans, but Drosophila also have another neurotransmitter, octopamine, the analog of norepinephrine. Acetylcholine is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter and GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter utilized in the drosophila central nervous system. In Drosophila, the effects of many neurotransmitters can vary depending on the receptors and signaling pathways involved, allowing them to act as excitatory or inhibitory signals under different contexts. This versatility enables complex neural processing and behavioral flexibility. Glutamate can serve as an excitatory neurotransmitter, specifically at the neuromuscular junction in fruit flies. This differs from vertebrates, where acetylcholine is used at these junctions. In Drosophila, histamine primarily functions as a neurotransmitter in the visual system. It is released by photoreceptor cells to transmit visual information from the eye to the brain, making it essential for vision. As with many Eukaryotes, this genus is known to express SNAREs, and as with several others the components of the SNARE complex are known to be somewhat substitutable: Although the loss of SNAP-25 - a component of neuronal SNAREs - is lethal, SNAP-24 can fully replace it. For another example, an R-SNARE not normally found in synapses can substitute for synaptobrevin. ### Immunity The Spätzle protein is a ligand of Toll. In addition to melanin\'s more commonly known roles in the endoskeleton and in neurochemistry, melanization is one step in the immune responses to some pathogens. Dudzic et al. 2019 additionally find a large number of shared serine protease messengers between Spätzle/Toll and melanization and a large amount of crosstalk between these pathways. ## Systematics The genus Drosophila as currently defined is paraphyletic (see below) and contains 1,450 described species, while the total number of species is estimated at thousands. The majority of the species are members of two subgenera: Drosophila (about 1,100 species) and Sophophora (including D. (S.) melanogaster; around 330 species). The Hawaiian species of Drosophila (estimated to be more than 500, with roughly 380 species described) are sometimes recognized as a separate genus or subgenus, Idiomyia, but this is not widely accepted. About 250 species are part of the genus Scaptomyza, which arose from the Hawaiian Drosophila and later recolonized continental areas. Evidence from phylogenetic studies suggests these genera arose from within the genus Drosophila: - Liodrosophila Duda, 1922 - Mycodrosophila Oldenburg, 1914 - Samoaia Malloch, 1934 - Scaptomyza Hardy, 1849 - Zaprionus Coquillett, 1901 - Zygothrica Wiedemann, 1830 - Hirtodrosophila Duda, 1923 (position uncertain) Several of the subgeneric and generic names are based on anagrams of Drosophila, including Dorsilopha, Lordiphosa, Siphlodora, Phloridosa, and Psilodorha.	1,098	Drosophila	3
9,032	# Drosophila ## Genetics Drosophila species are extensively used as model organisms in genetics (including population genetics), cell biology, biochemistry, and especially developmental biology. Therefore, extensive efforts are made to sequence drosophilid genomes. The genomes of these species have been fully sequenced: - Drosophila (Sophophora) melanogaster - Drosophila (Sophophora) simulans - Drosophila (Sophophora) sechellia - Drosophila (Sophophora) yakuba - Drosophila (Sophophora) erecta - Drosophila (Sophophora) ananassae - Drosophila (Sophophora) pseudoobscura - Drosophila (Sophophora) persimilis - Drosophila (Sophophora) willistoni - Drosophila (Drosophila) mojavensis - Drosophila (Drosophila) virilis - Drosophila (Drosophila) grimshawi The data have been used for many purposes, including evolutionary genome comparisons. D. simulans and D. sechellia are sister species, and provide viable offspring when crossed, while D. melanogaster and D. simulans produce infertile hybrid offspring. The Drosophila genome is often compared with the genomes of more distantly related species such as the honeybee Apis mellifera or the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. The Drosophila modEncode project conducted extensive work to annotate Drosophila genomes, profile transcripts, histone modifications, transcription factors, regulatory networks, and other aspects of Drosophila genetics, and make predictions about gene expression among others. FlyBase serves as a centralized database of curated genomic data on Drosophila. The `{{visible anchor\|Drosophila 12 Genomes Consortium}}`{=mediawiki} has presented ten new genomes and combines those with previously released genomes for D. melanogaster and D. pseudoobscura to analyse the evolutionary history and common genomic structure of the genus. This includes the discovery of transposable elements (TEs) and illumination of their evolutionary history. Bartolomé et al. 2009 find at least `{{frac\|3}}`{=mediawiki} of the TEs in D. melanogaster, D. simulans and D. yakuba have been acquired by horizontal transfer. They find an average rate of 0.035 horizontal transfer events per TE family per million years. Bartolomé also finds horizontal transfer of TEs follows other relatedness metrics, with transfer events between D. melanogaster and D. simulans being twice as common as either of them with D. yakuba	318	Drosophila	4
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan European influence in Afghanistan has been present in the country since the Victorian era, when the competing imperial powers of Britain and Russia contested for control over Afghanistan as part of the Great Game. ## Rise of Dost Mohammad Khan {#rise_of_dost_mohammad_khan} After the decline of the Durrani dynasty in 1823, Dost Mohammad Khan established the Barakzai dynasty. Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother\'s Qizilbash tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, Fateh Khan. However, in the same year, the Afghans lost their former stronghold of Peshawar to the Sikh Khalsa Army of Ranjit Singh at the Battle of Nowshera. The Afghan forces in the battle were supported by Azim Khan, half-brother of Dost Mohammad.`{{fact\|date=June 2021}}`{=mediawiki} In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, Shuja Shah Durrani, but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward. Ranjit Singh\'s forces moved from Peshawar into territory ruled directly by Kabul. In 1836 Dost Mohammad\'s forces, under the command of his son Akbar Khan, defeated the Sikhs at the Battle of Jamrud, a post fifteen kilometres west of Peshawar. This was a pyrrhic victory and they failed to fully dislodge the Sikhs from Jamrud. The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted Lord Auckland, the new British governor-general in British India, for help in dealing with the Sikhs. The letter marked the beginning of British influence in Afghanistan, and the subsequent Anglo-Russian struggle known as the Great Game.`{{fact\|date=June 2021}}`{=mediawiki}	267	European influence in Afghanistan	0
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## The Great Game {#the_great_game} The British became the major European power in the Indian subcontinent after the 1763 Treaty of Paris and began to show interest in Afghanistan as early as their 1809 treaty with Shah Shuja Durrani. It was the threat of the expanding Russian Empire beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the Great Game. The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires, whose spheres of influence moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan. It also involved repeated attempts by the British to establish a puppet government in Kabul. The remainder of the 19th century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan\'s fate played out globally. The débâcle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the Hindu Kush area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as an invasion route to South Asia. In the early decades of the 19th century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the Iranians, or the French, but from the Russians, who had already begun a steady advance southward from the Caucasus winning decisive wars against the Ottomans and Persians. At the same time, the Russians feared the possibility a permanent British foothold in Central Asia as the British expanded northward, incorporating the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir into their empire; later to become Pakistan. The British viewed Russia\'s absorption of the Caucasus, the Kyrgyz and Turkmen lands, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Indian subcontinent. In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia\'s intentions. First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take Herat, historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India. In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers. The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Yan Vitkevich, who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions. The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar\'s independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time. In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans. When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad suspended negotiations the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich. In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by Ranjit Singh, and that Herat would remain independent. In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be similar to the princes who ruled over the princely states in British India. It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation, advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar, would not be forthcoming. Auckland\'s plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs to place Shuja on the Afghan throne, with British support. By the end of the summer however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja Shah.	644	European influence in Afghanistan	1
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## First Anglo-Afghan War, 1838--1842 {#first_anglo_afghan_war_18381842} As a prelude to his invasion plans, the Governor-General of India Lord Auckland issued the Simla Manifesto in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for British intervention in Afghanistan. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of India, the British must have a trustworthy ally on India\'s western frontier. The British claim that their troops were merely supporting Shah Shujah\'s small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja\'s rule depended entirely on British support to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were supporting its legitimate Shuja government \"against foreign interference and factious opposition\". In November 1841 insurrection and massacre flared up in Kabul. The British vacillated and disagreed and were beleaguered in their inadequate cantonments. The British negotiated with the most influential sirdars, cut off as they were by winter and insurgent tribes from any hope of relief. Mohammad Akbar Khan, son of the captive Dost Mohammad, arrived in Kabul and became effective leader of the sirdars. At a conference with them Sir William MacNaghten was killed, but in spite of this, the sirdars\' demands were agreed to by the British and they withdrew. During the withdrawal they were attacked by Ghilzai tribesmen and in running battles through the snowbound passes nearly the entire column of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers were killed. Of the British only one, Dr. William Brydon, reached Jalalabad, while a few others were captured. Afghan forces loyal to Akbar Khan besieged the remaining British contingents at Kandahar, Ghazni and Jalalabad. Ghazni fell, but the other garrisons held out, and with the help of reinforcements from India their besiegers were defeated. While preparations were under way for a renewed advance on Kabul, the new Governor-General Lord Ellenborough ordered British forces to leave Afghanistan after securing the release of the prisoners from Kabul and taking reprisals. The forces from Kandahar and Jalalabad again defeated Akbar Khan, retook and sacked Ghazni and Kabul, rescuing the prisoners before withdrawing through the Khyber Pass.	382	European influence in Afghanistan	2
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## Mid-nineteenth century {#mid_nineteenth_century} After months of chaos in Kabul, Mohammad Akbar Khan secured local control and in April 1843 his father Dost Mohammad, who had been released by the British, returned to the throne in Afghanistan. In the following decade, Dost Mohammad concentrated his efforts on reconquering Mazari Sharif, Konduz, Badakhshan, and Kandahar. Mohammad Akbar Khan died in 1845. During the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848--49), Dost Mohammad\'s last effort to take Peshawar failed. By 1854 the British wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years. The 1855 Treaty of Peshawar reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side\'s territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other\'s friends and enemies of each other\'s enemies. In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in Kandahar (but not Kabul) during a conflict with the Persians, who had attacked Herat in 1856. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, some British officials suggested restoring Peshawar to Dost Mohammad, in return for his support against the rebellious sepoys of the Bengal Army, but this view was rejected by British political officers on the North West frontier, who believed that Dost Mohammad would see this as a sign of weakness and turn against the British. In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence. A few months later, he died. Sher Ali Khan, his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, Mohammad Afzal (whose troops were led by his son, Abdur Rahman) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the Amu Darya and bided his time. In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British in India, Liberal Party governments in London took a political view of Afghanistan as a buffer state. By the time Sher Ali had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more. Over the next ten years, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily. The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of Russia, which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of Khiva. Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support. The previous year the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan Emir as outside their sphere of influence. The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali.	450	European influence in Afghanistan	3
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## Second Anglo-Afghan War, 1878--1880 {#second_anglo_afghan_war_18781880} After tension between Russia and Britain in Europe ended with the June 1878 Congress of Berlin, Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878 and on 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too. The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord Lytton, the viceroy, ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September 1878 but the mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the Khyber Pass, triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War. A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the Tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to Mazari Sharif, where he died on 21 February 1879. With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali\'s son and successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 in order to put a quick end to the conflict. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and Michni Passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas and Quetta to Britain. The British forces then withdrew. Soon afterwards, an uprising in Kabul led to the killings of Britain\'s Resident in Kabul, Sir Pierre Cavagnari and his guards and staff on 3 September 1879, provoking the second phase of the Second Afghan War. Major General Sir Frederick Roberts led the Kabul Field Force over the Shutargardan Pass into central Afghanistan, defeated the Afghan Army at Char Asiab on 6 October 1879 and occupied Kabul. Ghazi Mohammad Jan Khan Wardak staged an uprising and attacked British forces near Kabul in the Siege of the Sherpur Cantonment in December 1879, but his defeat there resulted in the collapse of this rebellion. `{{Wikisource\|Treaty of Gandamak}}`{=mediawiki} Yaqub Khan, suspected of complicity in the killings of Cavagnari and his staff, was obliged to abdicate. The British considered a number of possible political settlements, including partitioning Afghanistan between multiple rulers or placing Yaqub\'s brother Ayub Khan on the throne, but ultimately decided to install his cousin Abdur Rahman Khan as emir instead. Ayub Khan, who had been serving as governor of Herat, rose in revolt, defeated a British detachment at the Battle of Maiwand in July 1880 and besieged Kandahar. Roberts then led the main British force from Kabul and decisively defeated Ayub Khan in September at the Battle of Kandahar, bringing his rebellion to an end. Abdur Rahman had confirmed the Treaty of Gandamak, leaving the British in control of the territories ceded by Yaqub Khan and ensuring British control of Afghanistan\'s foreign policy in exchange for protection and a subsidy. Abandoning the provocative policy of maintaining a British resident in Kabul, but having achieved all their other objectives, the British withdrew.	554	European influence in Afghanistan	4
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## The Iron Amir, 1880--1901 {#the_iron_amir_18801901} As far as British interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country\'s foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan. He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways. He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation. He broke the stronghold of Pashtun tribes by forcibly transplanting them. He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the Ghilzai, and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the Hindu Kush with predominantly non-Pashtun populations. The last non-Muslim Afghans of Kafiristan north of Kabul were forcefully converted to Islam. Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries. Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent. Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system. During his reign, tribal organization began to be eroded as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits. The Pashtuns battled and conquered the Uzbeks and forced them into the status of ruled people who were discriminated against. Out of anti-Russian strategic interests, the British assisted the Afghan conquest of the Uzbek Khanates, giving weapons to the Afghans and supporting the Afghan government\'s colonization of northern Afghanistan by Pashtuns, which involved sending massive amounts of Pashtun colonists onto Uzbek land. In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions making up Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized bureaucracy. Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a loya jirga, an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders. According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family. During his visit to Rawalpindi in 1885, the Amir requested the Viceroy of India to depute a Muslim Envoy to Kabul who was noble birth and of ruling family background. Mirza Atta Ullah Khan, Sardar Bahadur s/o Khan Bahadur Mirza Fakir Ullah Khan (Saman Burj Wazirabad), a direct descendant of Jarral Rajput Rajas of Rajauri, was selected and approved by the Amir to be the British Envoy to Kabul. Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advance. He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan. He imported European machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods. He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation. Local Afghan tribes strongly resisted this modernization. Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local warriors. Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman\'s foreign policy was completely in foreign hands. The first important frontier dispute was the Panjdeh crisis of 1885, precipitated by Russian encroachment into Central Asia. Having seized the Merv (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan. Claims to the Panjdeh Oasis were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region\'s Turkoman domains. After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis. Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther. Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed that the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh. This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the Amu Darya, but also involved the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh. The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman\'s reign was in the Wakhan. The British insisted that Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region, where unruly Kyrgyz held sway; he had no choice but to accept Britain\'s compromise. In 1895 and 1896, another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered Chinese territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.) For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with India (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the Durand Line was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as Kurram and Chitral) that were already in British control under the Treaty of Gandamak. The Durand Line cut through tribes and bore little relation to the realities of demography or military strategy. The line laid the foundation not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and Pakistan over what came to be known as the issue of Pashtunistan or \'Land of the Pashtuns\'. (See Siege of Malakand). The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, Habibullah Khan, to the throne on his father\'s death in October 1901. Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control.	1,078	European influence in Afghanistan	5
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## Habibullah Khan, 1901--1919 {#habibullah_khan_19011919} Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan\'s eldest son and child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father\'s more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of Dost Mohammad), who sought the throne for her own son. Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman. Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of Mahmud Tarzi, a cousin of the king, increased during his reign. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Habibullah\'s agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms. Tarzi\'s passionate Afghan nationalism influenced a future generation of Asian reformers. The boundary with Iran was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872. Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the Helmand River. Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting Afghanistan, the conclusion of the \"Great Game\" between Russia and Britain occurred without the Afghan ruler\'s participation. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (the Convention of St. Petersburg) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality. The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations. Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan\'s internal affairs. During World War I, Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support Turkey when its sultan proclaimed his nation\'s participation in what it considered a holy war. Habibullah did, however, entertain an Indo-German--Turkish mission in Kabul in 1915 that had as its titular head the Indian nationalist Mahendra Pratap and was led by Oskar Niedermayer and the German legate Werner Otto von Hentig. After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the Central Powers for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British India. But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy.	427	European influence in Afghanistan	6
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence {#third_anglo_afghan_war_and_independence} Amanullah\'s ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in Afghanistan in both foreign and domestic politics. Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms. Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centrifugal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of Russia and Britain as to any political folly on his part. Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the Russian Revolution of 1917. Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another. Keen to modernise his country and remove all foreign influence, Amanullah, sought to shore up his powerbase. Amidst intrigue in the Afghan court, and political and civil unrest in India, he sought to divert attention from the internal divisions of Afghanistan and unite all faction behind him by attacking the British. Using the civil unrest in India as an excuse to move troops to the Durand Line, Afghan troops crossed the border at the western end of the Khyber Pass on 3 May 1919 and occupied the village of Bagh, the scene of an earlier uprising in April. In response, the Indian government ordered a full mobilisation and on 6 May 1919 declared war. For the British it had come at a time when they were still recovering from the First World War. The troops that were stationed in India were mainly reserves and Territorials, who were awaiting demobilisation and keen to return to Britain, whilst the few regular regiments that were available were tired and depleted from five years of fighting. Afghan forces achieved success in the initial days of the war, taking the British and Indians by surprise in two main thrusts as the Afghan regular army was joined by large numbers of Pashtun tribesmen from both sides of the border. A series of skirmishes then followed as the British and Indians recovered from their initial surprise. As a counterbalance to deficiencies in manpower and morale, the British had a considerable advantage in terms of equipment, possessing machine guns, armoured cars, motor transport, wireless communications and aircraft and it was the latter that would prove decisive. British forces deployed air forces for the first time in the region, and the King\'s home was directly targeted in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan\'s history. The attacks played a key role in forcing an armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah. He wrote: \"It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation. While we now see with our own eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilized people of the west\". The fighting concluded in August 1919 and Britain virtually dictated the terms of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, a temporary armistice that provided, on one somewhat ambiguous interpretation, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs. Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy without repercussions anyway, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries.	601	European influence in Afghanistan	7
9,058	# European influence in Afghanistan ## Amanullah Khan, 1919--1929 {#amanullah_khan_19191929} On 20 February 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated on a hunting trip. He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, Amanullah Khan, in charge in Kabul. Amanullah did have an older brother, Nasrullah Khan. But, because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, Amanullah was well situated to seize power. The army\'s support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him. Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities. Amanullah Khan\'s reforms were heavily influenced by Europe. This came through the influence of Mahmud Tarzi, who was both Amanullah Khan\'s father-in-law and Foreign Minister. Mahmud Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet, journalist, and diplomat, was a key figure that brought Western dress and etiquette to Afghanistan. He also fought for progressive reforms such as woman\'s rights, educational rights, and freedom of press. All of these influences, brought by Tarzi and others, were welcomed by Amanullah Khan. In 1926, Amanullah ended the Emirate of Afghanistan and proclaimed the Kingdom of Afghanistan with himself as king. In 1927 and 1928, King Amanullah Khan and his wife Soraya Tarzi visited Europe. On this trip they were honored and feted. In fact, in 1928 the King and Queen of Afghanistan received honorary degrees from the University of Oxford. This was an era when other Muslim nations, like Turkey and Egypt were also on the path to modernization. King Amanullah was so impressed with the social progress of Europe that he tried to implement them right away, this met with heavy resistance from the conservative society and eventually led to his demise. Amanullah enjoyed early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his power to modernize the country. Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women. He created a new capital city and increased trade with Europe and Asia. He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms. This rapid modernization though, created a backlash, and a reactionary uprising known as the Khost rebellion which was suppressed in 1925. After Amanullah travelled to Europe in late 1927, opposition to his rule increased. An uprising in Jalalabad culminated in a march to the capital, and much of the army deserted rather than resist. On 14 January 1929, Amanullah abdicated in favor of his brother, King Inayatullah Khan. On 17 January, Inayatullah abdicated and Habibullah Kalakani became the next ruler of Afghanistan and restored the emirate. However, his rule was short lived and, on 17 October 1929, Habibullah Kalakani was overthrown and replaced by King Nadir Khan. After his abdication in 1929, Amanullah went into temporary exile in India. When he attempted to return to Afghanistan, he had little support from the people. From India, the ex-king traveled to Europe and settled in Italy, and later in Switzerland. Meanwhile, Nadir Khan made sure his return to Afghanistan was impossible by engaging in a propaganda war. Nadir Khan accused Amanullah Khan of kufr with his pro western policies.	536	European influence in Afghanistan	8

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.