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# Ethan Allen
## Family
Allen\'s widow Fanny gave birth to a son, Ethan Alphonso, on October 24, 1789. She eventually remarried. Allen\'s two youngest sons went on to graduate from West Point and serve in the United States Army. H. M. Allen was the seventh graduate, a member of the Class of 1804, and served until 1813. E. A. Allen was the 22nd graduate, a member of the Class of 1806, and served until 1821. His daughter Fanny achieved notice when she converted to Catholicism and entered a convent. Two of his grandsons were Henry Hitchcock, Attorney General of Alabama, and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who served as a Union Army general in the American Civil War. Two of Henry Hitchcock\'s sons were Henry Hitchcock and Ethan Allan Hitchcock.
<File:Ira> Allen 1941.5.3.jpg\|Ira Allen <File:Fanny> Allen.gif\|Fanny Allen <File:Gen> Ethan Allen Hitchcock.jpg\|Union General Ethan Allen Hitchcock
<File:Henry> Hitchcock (Alabama).jpg\|Alabama Attorney General Henry Hitchcock Image:Henry Hitchcock (1829-1902).jpg\|Henry Hitchcock <File:EAHitchcock-SecInterior.jpg%7CEthan> Allen Hitchcock
## Disappearance of his grave marker {#disappearance_of_his_grave_marker}
Sometime in the early 1850s, the original plaque marking Allen\'s grave disappeared; its original text was preserved by early war historian Benson Lossing in the 1840s. The inscription read:
In 1858, the Vermont Legislature authorized the placement of a 42-foot (13 m) column of Vermont granite in the cemetery, with the following inscription:
The exact location within the cemetery of his remains is unknown. While there is a vault beneath the 1858 cenotaph, it contains a time capsule from the time of the monument\'s erection. According to the official 1858 report on the Ethan Allen monument, the funeral of Ethan Allen had taken place within Green Mount Cemetery; however the reason his remains had not been found at his memorial plaque {tablet} was because \"\... by the fact that some twenty years since, the dead of the Allen family had been arranged in a square enclosed by stone posts and chains, by Herman Allen, the nephew of Ethan Allen, and this tablet, then *lying upon a dilapidated wall of brick work*, was *reconstructed with cut stone work*, and it is presumed that, as a matter of convenience in giving a regular form to the enclosure, was *removed some feet from its original position* \...\" It was thus apparent it was actually a cenotaph tomb reconstruction that Benson Lossing sketched and presumed to be the actual tomb of Ethan Allen in his 1850 *The Pictorial Field-book of the Revolution*.
## Likenesses
No likenesses of Allen made from life have been found, in spite of numerous attempts to locate them. Efforts by members of the Vermont Historical Society and other historical groups through the years have followed up on rumored likenesses, only to come up empty. Photographs of Allen\'s grandson, General Ethan Allen Hitchcock, are extant, and, Hitchcock\'s mother said that he bore a strong resemblance to her father. The nearest potential images included one claimed to be by noted Revolutionary War era engraver Pierre Eugene du Simitiere that turned out to be a forgery, and a reference to a portrait possibly by Ralph Earl that has not been found (as of Stewart Holbrook\'s writing in 1940). Alexander Graydon, with whom Allen was paroled during his captivity in New York, described him like this:
> His figure was that of a robust, large-framed man, worn down by confinement and hard fare; but he was now recovering his flesh and spirits; and a suit of blue clothes, with a gold laced hat that had been presented to him by the gentlement of Cork, enabled him to make a very passable appearance for a rebel colonel \... I have seldom met with a man, possessing, in my opinion, a stronger mind, or whose mode of expression was more vehement and oratorical. Notwithstanding that Allen might have had something of the insubordinate, lawless frontier spirit in his composition \... he appeared to me to be a man of generosity and honor.
## Memorials
Allen\'s final home, on the Onion River (now called the Winooski River), is a part of the Ethan Allen Homestead and Museum. Situated in Burlington, Allen\'s homestead is open for viewing via guided tours.
Two ships of the United States Navy were named USS *Ethan Allen* in his honor, as were two 19th-century fortifications: a Civil War fort in Arlington County, Virginia and a cavalry outpost in Colchester and Essex, Vermont. The Vermont Army National Guard\'s facility in Jericho, Vermont is called the Camp Ethan Allen Training Site. A statue of Allen represents Vermont in National Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol. A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier--Hochelaga-Maisonneuve commemorating his capture bears his name.
The *Spirit of Ethan Allen III* is a tour boat operating on Lake Champlain. Allen\'s name is the trademark of the furniture and housewares manufacturer, Ethan Allen Inc., which was founded in 1932 in Beecher Falls, Vermont. The *Ethan Allen Express*, an Amtrak train running from New York City to Burlington, Vermont, is also named after him.
The Ethan Allen School was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.
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# Ethan Allen
## Publications
Allen is known to have written the following publications:
- The 1779 edition of Allen\'s *Narrative*.
- An 1849 edition of Allen\'s *Narrative*.
- A 2000 edition of Allen\'s *Narrative* available at [Amazon](https://www.amazon.com/dp/1583900098) in March 2009
-
-
-
- The essay is reprinted in four sections in this bound edition of *The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries*: [Part 1](https://books.google.com/books?id=hdoOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA274), [Part 2](https://books.google.com/books?id=hdoOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA330), [Part 3](https://books.google.com/books?id=hdoOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA29#PRA1-PA29,M1), [Part 4](https://books.google
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# Geography of Ecuador
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# Politics of Ecuador
The **politics of Ecuador** are multi-party. The central government polity is a quadrennially elected presidential, unicameral representative democracy. The President of Ecuador is head of state and head of the army on a multi-party system, and leads a cabinet with further executive power. Legislative power is not limited to the National Assembly, as it may to a lesser degree be exercised by the executive which consists of the President convening an appointed executive cabinet. Subsequent acts of the National Assembly are supreme over Executive Orders where sufficient votes have been cast by the legislators. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Ecuador is also considered a constitutional republic.
The Constitution of Ecuador provides for a four-year term of office for the President, Vice-President, and members of the National Assembly with concurrent elections. Presidents and legislators may be re-elected immediately. Citizens must be at least 16 years of age to vote: suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons aged 18 to 65 and optional for 16 and 17 years of age and other eligible voters.
## Political conditions {#political_conditions}
Ecuador\'s political parties have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism. However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right. Although Ecuador\'s political elite is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration\'s initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers.
Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on 10 August 1998. The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress\' power to challenge cabinet ministers. Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress. However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a Code of Ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes.
Beginning with the 1996 election, the more indigenous, less Spanish-rooted, ethnic groups abandoned their traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as Second Vice-President of the 1998 Congress.
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# Politics of Ecuador
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
### The former Supreme Court of Ecuador {#the_former_supreme_court_of_ecuador}
New justices of the Supreme Court of Ecuador were elected by the sitting members of the court. A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President Lucio Gutiérrez in December 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress; notwithstanding, the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members. Earlier, in November 2004, Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country\'s Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process.
#### List of presidents {#list_of_presidents}
President Períod
---------------------------------------- ------------
José Fernández Salvador López 1830--1834
José María de Arteta y Calisto 1835
Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo 1836
Fidel Quijano Valencia 1837
Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho 1838
José María de Arteta y Calisto 1839--1840
Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo 1841
Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho 1842
José María de Arteta y Calisto 1843
Joaquín Gutiérrez Restrepo 1844
Luis De Saá 1845
Víctor Félix de Sanmiguel Cacho 1846--1847
Salvador Ortega Estacio 1848
Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto 1849
Miguel Alvarado 1850
Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto 1851
Pablo Vásconez Román 1852
Antonio Bustamante del Mazo 1853
Miguel Alvarado 1854
Ramón Borja 1855
Carlos Tamayo 1856
Antonio Bustamante del Mazo 1857
Nicolás Espinosa 1858
Manuel Carrión 1859
Ramón Miño 1860
Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto 1861
Ramón Miño 1862
Antonio Gómez de la Torre 1863
Carlos Tamayo 1864
Pedro José de Arteta y Calisto 1865
Ramón Miño 1866
Antonio Muñoz 1867
Luis A. Salazar 1868
Manuel Checa 1869
Pablo Herrera González 1869
Ramón Miño 1870
Nicolás Martínez 1871
Rafael Carvajal Guzmán 1872
Luis A. Salazar 1873
Rafael Quevedo 1874
Pablo Herrera González 1875
Pedro Fermín Cevallos 1876
Julio Castro 1877
Antonio Muñoz 1878
Antonio Portilla 1879
Francisco A. Arboleda 1880
Vicente Nieto 1881
León Espinosa de los Monteros 1882
Vicente Nieto 1883--1885
Pedro Fermín Cevallos 1886
Pedro J. Cevallos y Fernández Salvador 1886
Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar 1887
Julio Castro 1888
Antonio Robalino 1889
Luis A. Salazar 1890
Julio Castro 1891
Antonio Portilla 1892
José Modesto Espinosa 1893
Vicente Nieto 1894
José Modesto Espinosa 1895
Francisco J. Montalvo 1896
León Espinosa de los Monteros 1897
Vicente Nieto 1898
Manuel Montalvo 1899
José María Borja 1900
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1901
Leopoldo Pino 1902
Manuel Benigno Cueva Betancourt 1903
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1904
Leopoldo Pino 1905
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1906
Manuel Montalvo 1907
Pacífico Villagómez 1908
Alejandro Cárdenas 1909
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1910
Pacífico Villagómez 1911
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1912
Alejandro Cárdenas 1913
Francisco Andrade Marín 1914
Leopoldo Pino 1915
Manuel Eduardo Escudero 1916
Alejandro Cárdenas 1917
Leopoldo Pino 1918
Alejandro Cárdenas 1919
Belisario Albán Mestanza 1920
Leopoldo Pino 1921
Modesto A. Peñaherrera 1922
José María Ayora Cueva 1923
Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri 1924
Leopoldo Pino 1925
José Luis Román 1925
Modesto A. Peñaherrera 1926
José María Ayora Cueva 1927
Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri 1928
Manuel R. Balarezo 1929
Francisco Pérez Borja 1930
Pablo N. Roldán 1931
Manuel Eduardo Escudero Viteri 1932
Manuel María Borrero González 1932
José Antonio Baquero de la Calle 1933
Camilo Octavio Andrade López 1934
Vicente Enríquez Andrade 1935
Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar 1936
Camilo Octavio Andrade López 1937
Benjamín Terán Coronel 1939
Camilo Octavio Andrade López 1940
Belisario Ponce Borja 1941
Celio Enrique Salvador Quintana 1942
Leoncio Patiño Carrión 1943
Aurelio A. Bayas Argudo 1944
Belisario Ponce Borja 1945
José María Suárez M. 1946
Belisario Ponce Borja 1947
Alejandro Ribadeneira Salazar 1948
Camilo Gallegos Toledo 1949
José María Villagómez Román 1950
Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga 1951
Luis F. Madera Negrete 1952
Manuel Elicio Flor Torres 1953
Alfonso Mora Bowen 1954
Camilo Gallegos Toledo 1955
José María Villagómez Román 1956
Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga 1957
Luis Eladio Benítez Jara 1958
Manuel Elicio Flor Torres 1959
Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga 1960
Camilo Gallegos Toledo 1961
José María Villagómez Román 1962
Francisco Montero Carrión 1963
Francisco Ochoa Ortiz 1964
Julio Tobar Donoso 1965
Francisco Páez Romero 1965
Arturo del Pozo Saltos 1966
Francisco Ochoa Ortiz 1967
Julio Tobar Donoso 1968
Benjamín Cevallos Arízaga 1968
Ricardo Cornejo Rosales 1969
César Durango Montenegro 1970
Rafael Terán Varea 1971
Miguel Aguirre Sánchez 1972
Tomás Valdiviezo Alba 1973
Carlos A. Jaramillo Andrade 1974--1975
Luis Jaramillo Pérez 1976
César Durango Montenegro 1977
Gonzalo Karolys Martínez 1978--1979
Armando Pareja Andrade 1979--1981
Gonzalo Zambrano Palacios 1981--1983
Carlos Pozo Montesdeoca 1983--1984
Gonzalo Córdova Galarza 1984--1986
Germán Carrión Arciniegas 1986--1987
Juan Agustín Quinde Burneo 1987--1988
Ramiro Larrea Santos 1988--1990
Walter Guerrero Vivanco 1990--1993
Francisco Acosta Yépez 1993--1995
Miguel Macías Hurtado 1995
Carlos Solórzano Constantine 1995--1997
Héctor Romero Parducci 1997--2000
Galo Pico Mantilla 2000--2002
Armando Bermeo Castillo 2002--2004
Hugo Quintana Coello 2004
Ramón Rodríguez Noboa 2004--2005
Guillermo Castro Dáger 2005
Jaime Velasco Dávila 2005--2008
Roberto Gómez Mera 2008
### Reorganization of Court (2008) {#reorganization_of_court_2008}
After the adoption of a new Constitution in 2008, the judicial branch of the country was completely renewed to provide a cooperative leadership by having a judicial and an administrative head. As such, the bodies of Ecuador\'s judicial branch now consisted of the National Court of Justice, provincial courts (created by the National Court), tribunals and judges, National Council of the Judicature, Public Defendants\' Office, and State Attorneys\' Office. The 2008 Constitution also led to the creation of the Constitutional Court of Ecuador.
#### National Court of Justice {#national_court_of_justice}
The National Court of Justice seats 21 judges elected for a period of 9 years. They are elected by the Judiciary Council based on a merits contest held by that office. They are the final stage of any judicial process serving as a Court of Cassation and create binding precedent based on Triple Reiterative Rulings from the Chambers of the Court. The President of the Court is elected among the members of the Court for a Period of three years, representing the Judicial Branch before the State.
##### List of presidents {#list_of_presidents_1}
President Period
------------------------------ ---------------
José Vicente Troya Jaramillo 2008--2011
Carlos Ramírez Romero 2011--2012
2012--2015
2015--2018
Paulina Aguirre Suárez 2018--present
#### Judiciary Council {#judiciary_council}
The administrative branch of the judicial power consists of the Judiciary Council. The Council is formed by 9 Vocals who are elected by the Branch of Transparency and Social Control, which is formed by the Control Authorities of the State. The Vocals are elected also by a merits contest and it shall be formed by six experts in law and 3 experts in management, economics and other related areas. However, after the National Referendum that took place on 5 May 2011 led to the passing of a proposition impulsed by the government, the Judiciary Council changed its formation by making a constitutional amendment. Currently, a Tri-Party Commission is serving as a Transitional Council with delegates from the Legislative, Executive and Transparency Branch, in order to reform the broken judicial system of the country.
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# Politics of Ecuador
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
### Constitutional Court of Ecuador {#constitutional_court_of_ecuador}
The Constitutional Court of Ecuador does not exercise legal revision, but rather constitutional control of situations where constitutional rights are violated. Also they are the sole body in the State to interpret what the Constitution says.
#### List of presidents {#list_of_presidents_2}
President Períod
------------------------- ---------------
Patricio Pazmiño Freire 2008--2015
Alfredo Ruiz Guzmán 2015--2018
Hernán Salgado Pesántes 2019--present
As of 2019, the court has the following members:
- Hernán Salgado Pesántes
- Carmen Corral
- Agustín Grijalva
- Teresa Nuques
- Enrique Herrera
- Karla Andrade
- Ramiro Ávila
- Daniela Salazar
- Alí Lozada
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# Politics of Ecuador
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
### Structure
The executive branch includes 28 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors, aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are 20 seven-member congressional committees.
### Presidency
The President and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a four-year term.
#### Controversy surrounding Lucio Gutiérrez {#controversy_surrounding_lucio_gutiérrez}
On 20 April 2005, by an act of Congress, Lucio Gutiérrez was dramatically removed from office. The last election was held on 20 October 2002 and a runoff election on 24 November 2002 (with the next one to be held in 2006 per the four-year term limits).
Former Vice-President Alfredo Palacio assumed the presidency on 20 April 2005 after Congress removed Lucio Gutiérrez amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez\'s Supreme Court appointments.
#### Presidency of Rafael Correa {#presidency_of_rafael_correa}
A presidential election was held on 15 October and 26 November 2006. Rafael Correa defeated Álvaro Noboa in a run-off election, or second and final round. Correa won with 56.8% of the vote. There was an attempted coup against President Rafael Correa in 2010. *The Economist* described Correa as \"a left-wing populist\", while *The Washington Post* has characterized Correa\'s ideological approach as being \"economically populist, socially conservative, \[and\] quasi-authoritarian\".
Rafael Correa\'s three consecutive terms (from 2007 to 2017) were followed by Lenín Moreno\'s four years as president (2017--21).
#### Current officeholders {#current_officeholders}
The 11 April 2021 election run-off vote ended in a win for conservative former banker, Guillermo Lasso, taking 52.4% of the vote compared to 47.6% of left-wing economist Andrés Arauz, supported by exiled former president, Rafael Correa. Previously, President-elect Lasso finished second in the 2013 and 2017 presidential elections. On 24 May 2021, Guillermo Lasso was sworn in as the new President of Ecuador, becoming the country\'s first right-wing leader in 14 years.
On 15 October 2023, center-right candidate Daniel Noboa won the run-off of the premature presidential election with 52.3% of the vote against leftist candidate Luisa González. On 23 November 2023, Daniel Noboa was sworn in as Ecuador's new president. In April 2025, President Daniel Noboa won the run-off round of Ecuador\'s presidential election, meaning he will now serve a full four-year term.
`{{office-table}}`{=mediawiki} \|President \|Guillermo Lasso \|Creating Opportunities \|24 May 2021 \|- \|Vice President \|Alfredo Borrero \|Creating Opportunities \|24 May 2021 \|}
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# Politics of Ecuador
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Ecuador has a unicameral National Assembly (*Asamblea Nacional* in Spanish), and it has 137 primary (seat-holding) members (all of whom are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms). It is based on provincial constituencies, but it also has members coming from a national list and it has members representing the emigrant community.
### History
On 29 November 2007, the Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly dismissed Congress on charges of corruption and then assumed legislative powers for itself. The Constituent Assembly then proposed a new National Assembly, which is the current institution.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces: Azuay, Bolívar, Cañar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galápagos Islands, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Ríos, Manabí, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Pichincha, Santa Elena, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Sucumbíos, Tungurahua, Zamora-Chinchipe Santa Elena Province.
## Legal system {#legal_system}
Ecuador\'s legal system is based on the civil law system. Ecuador recently accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
## Female representation in the Assembly {#female_representation_in_the_assembly}
In 1979, there was no female representation. By 1984, there was only 4.2% of female representation with three deputies. In 1986, the number was reduced to one female parliamentarian.
Between 1988 and 1996, the average percentage of female representation was around of 5%. The following trends occurred:
- 1998: 13%
- 2003: 18%
- 2006: 26%
- 2007: 35%
- 2009: 29%
- 2013: 42%
In 2017, the leadership was led by three women: Gabriela Rivadeneira (President), Rosana Alvarado (First Vice-President) and Marcela Aguiñaga (Second Vice-President)
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# Telecommunications in Ecuador
**Telecommunications in Ecuador** include telephone, radio, television, and the Internet.
Ecuador\'s state regulatory agency is the National Telecommunications Council (CONATEL), which is part of the Telecommunications Ministry (MINTEL).
## Telephones
- Fixed lines: 2.2 million lines, 56th in the world; 15 per 100 persons (2011).
- Mobile cellular: 15.3 million subscribers, 55th in the world; 100 per 100 persons (2011).
- International country code: 593.
- Telephone system:
- General assessment: elementary fixed-line service, but increasingly sophisticated mobile-cellular network.
- Domestic: fixed-line services provided by multiple telecommunications operators; mobile-cellular use has surged.
- International: landing points for the PAN-AM and South America-1 submarine cables that provide links to the west coast of South America, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and extending onward to Aruba and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; satellite earth station -- 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
There are three cell phone providers in Ecuador: Claro (Telcel), Movistar, and CNT. Mobile networks are diverse and include GSM 850 MHz (largest) as well as CDMA (Bell South\'s old network before being acquired by Telefónica Spain which rebranded Movistar), TDMA63. CNT is the state owned firm and uses CDMA.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
Ecuador has multiple TV networks and many local channels, as well as more than 300 radio stations. Many TV and radio stations are privately owned. The government owns or controls 5 national TV stations and multiple radio stations. Radio and television broadcasters are required by law to give the government free air time to broadcast programs produced by the state (2007).
### Radio
- Radio broadcast stations: AM 279, FM 530 (plus 349 repeaters), shortwave 25 (2006).
- Radios: 5 million (2001).
### Television
- Television broadcast stations: 323 (including repeaters) (2005).
- Televisions: 2.5 million (2001).
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# Telecommunications in Ecuador
## Internet
- Internet hosts: 170,538 (2012).
- Internet users: 5.3 million, 56th in the world (2012); 35.1% of the population, 119th in the world.
- Fixed broadband: 825,732 subscribers, 59th in the world; 5.4 of population, 102nd in the world (2012).
- Mobile broadband: 3.4 million subscribers, 48th in the world; 22.2% of population, 67th in the world (2012).
- Internet country code: .ec
The government has an ongoing campaign to increase Internet access across the country, with a goal of extending Internet connectivity to 50 percent of households by 2015. Public Internet access centers, known as Infocentros, have been installed in 377 (48 percent) of Ecuador\'s 810 rural parishes, with a projection of 100 percent by 2014. Internet cafes are also becoming increasingly common. During the February 2013 elections for president and National Assembly, the Internet provided a real-time forum for candidates to launch proposals, solicit votes, discuss issues, and increase the scope of their publicity campaigns.
Broadband (commonly used in urban zones) and satellite connections (often used in rural areas) are increasingly popular, eclipsing dial-up plans. According to industry estimates, between 33 and 66 percent of Internet users have broadband speeds between 2 and 3 Mbit/s, at a cost of \$20 to \$25 per month. In May 2012, the Superintendent of Telecommunications indicated that the overall average speed of an Internet connection in Ecuador is 128 kbit/s, although speeds are lower in rural areas.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
- In its *Freedom on the Net 2013* report, Freedom House gives Ecuador a \"freedom on the net status\" of \"partly free\".
There is no widespread blocking or filtering of websites in Ecuador and access to blogs and social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube is generally free and open. Diverse sources of national and international information are available via the Internet. Anonymous communication, encrypted communications, and the use of security tools is not prohibited.
There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitored e-mail or Internet chat rooms. However, on 11 July 2012 the government passed a new telecommunications regulation, requiring that Internet service providers fulfill all information requests from the superintendent of telecommunications, allowing access to client addresses and information without a judicial order.
Standard defamation laws apply to content posted online. Attempts to censor statements made in times of heightened political sensitivity have been reported, as have alleged instances of censorship via the overly broad application of copyright to content critical of the government. Lawsuits have been filed against digital news sites for comments critical of the government. To use the services provided by cybercafes, the national secretary of telecommunications, SENATEL, requires that users register with the following information: full name, phone number, passport number, voting certificate number, email address, and home address.
Self-censorship of comments critical of the government is encouraged. In January 2013, for example, President Correa called for the National Secretary of Intelligence (SENAIN) to investigate two Twitter users who had published disparaging comments about him, an announcement which sent a warning to others not to post comments critical of the president. After receiving criticism from the government, news site La Hora indefinitely suspended the reader comments section on its website. At the president\'s request, the comments section was shut down completely. Print and digital news outlet El Comercio faced similar pressure related to its readers\' comments and the comments section was ultimately disabled after President Correa sent a letter of complaint. While there are no official constraints on organizing protests over the Internet, warnings from the president stating that the act of protesting will be interpreted as \"an attempt to destabilize the government\" have undoubtedly discouraged some from organizing and participating in protests.
Ecuador\'s new \"Organic Law on Communications\" was passed in June 2013. The law recognizes a right to communication. Media companies are required to collect and store user information. \"Media lynching\", which appears to extend to any accusation of corruption or investigation of a public official---even those that are supported with evidence, is prohibited. Websites bear \"ultimate responsibility\" for all content they host, including content authored by third parties. The law creates a new media regulator to prohibit the dissemination of \"unbalanced\" information and bans non-degreed journalists from publishing, effectively outlawing much investigative reporting and citizen journalism. Human rights organizations fear that the new law will stifle critical voices in the media, due to its vague wording, arbitrary sanctions, and the threat of civil and criminal penalties
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# Armed Forces of Ecuador
The **Ecuadorian Armed Forces** (*Fuerzas Armadas del Ecuador*) is the national military force of Ecuador. The commander-in-chief is the President of Ecuador. The military is generally under civilian control, specifically the Ministry of National Defence. The Ecuadorian military of Ecuador has been involved in border disputes with Peru (Ecuadorian--Peruvian War (1857--1860), Ecuadorian--Peruvian War, Paquisha War, Cenepa War), and has provided military observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948.
## Mission
The armed forces are part of the public forces and have the stated mission of the preservation of the integrity and national sovereignty of the national territory. It also involves participation in the social and economic development of the country and the provision of assistance in the maintenance of internal order. Tasks include fighting organised crime, anti-narcotic operations and illegal immigration. One social development programme applies the provision of teachers for rural schools through an accord with the Ministry of Education. Environmental protection is also a priority, several programmes were implemented: National Forestation and Ornamentation, Lonely Tree, Green Surveillance, Fire Plan, Ecuador Forest, and Arenillas Military Reserve. The Ecuadorian territory is divided into five Joint Task Force Zones or *Fuerzas de Tarea Conjunta*, four on mainland Ecuador, the fifth being the Naval Zone (including the Galápagos Islands). Overseas territories include also the Pedro Vicente Maldonado Naval Biological Research Station in the Antarctic.
## Geopolitical situation {#geopolitical_situation}
Ecuador shares a 1420 km border with Peru. Although marked by many conflicts, relations have improved since the signing of a renewed Peace Treaty in 1998. However, along the 590 km-long border with its neighbour Colombia, relations have been strained mainly due to a cross-border raid by Colombian forces on FARC guerrillas. The Armed Forces had logistical shortcomings and were caught off-guard. Their radar did not work, aviation was virtually non-existent, and communications were not fully operational. A diplomatic crisis followed in 2008 which some attribute partially to the need for better equipment as well as a new national defence doctrine.
The new administration at the Defence Ministry launched a deep restructuring program under the name of PATRIA I. It involves the modernisation of military equipment, improvement of planning, and operations within the Ecuadorian territory. PATRIA I was planned to be completed by 2011. In 2009, the spending budget was increased by 25% and totaled \$920 million.
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# Armed Forces of Ecuador
## History
Ecuador\'s military history dates far back to its first attempt to secure freedom from Spain in 1811. In 1822 Ecuadorian troops, alongside other rebel forces, scored a decisive victory over the Spanish royalist army at the Battle of Pichincha. Although assisted by Peruvian troops, it would fight these only a few years later in 1828, as a member of the Confederation of Gran Colombia. The troops of Gran Colombia (Less than half of its troops were Ecuadorians), is defeated in the Battle of Punta Malpelo and the combat of crosses, where the Peruvian navy blocks Guayaquil. Then the great Colombians in the land field defeat a division of Peruvian outpost, in the battle of Tarqui. This battle does not define war after the signing of the Giron agreement where it is indicated that it remains in a status quo before bellum. Eventually, Civil War would plunge the country and the army into disorder. In 1941 the Ecuadorian Military found itself weak and disorganized; the by now long-lasting territorial dispute with Peru escalated into a major conflict, the Ecuadorian--Peruvian War of 1941. A much larger and better equipped Peruvian force quickly overwhelmed the Ecuadorian forces, driving them back and invading the Ecuadorian territory. Ecuador had no choice but to accept Peru\'s territorial claims and signed Peace treaty in 1942. However, the treaty of 1942 failed to settle the border dispute and occasional clashes occurred in a then still non-demarcated border area between the nations. These clashes flared into another outbreak of serious fighting in January 1981 called the Paquisha War where Ecuadorian troops infiltrated into Peruvian territory are expelled by the Peruvian army; similar incidents occurred in 1983 and again in 1984. The last military conflict with Peru occurred in 1995, during the Cenepa War, in which both sides claimed to be fighting inside their own territory until the signing of a ceasefire and the eventual separation of forces. The longest-running source of armed international conflict in the Western Hemisphere had ended.
### Local engagements {#local_engagements}
- Ecuadorian War of Independence in 1820
- Battle of Pichincha in 1822
- Gran Colombia--Peru War in 1829
- Ecuadorian--Peruvian War (1857--1860)
- Battle of Guayaquil in 1860
- Ecuadorian-Colombian War in 1863
- Chincha Islands War in 1864
- Ecuadorian--Peruvian War in 1941
- Paquisha War in 1981
- Cenepa War in 1995
- 2024 conflict in Ecuador in 2024
### UN peacekeeping operations {#un_peacekeeping_operations}
The Ecuadorian Armed Forces has provided military observers and troops to the United Nations since 1948. In November 2003, an Ecuadorian United Nations Training Centre was established under the name of: (*La Unidad Escuela de Misiones de Paz \"Ecuador\"*). In 2009, Ecuador was deploying over 90 peacekeepers around the globe.
- 1948 `{{flagicon|Pakistan}}`{=mediawiki} UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in Pakistan.
- 1948 `{{flagicon|India}}`{=mediawiki} UNIMOGIP United Nations Military Observer Group in India.
- 1958 `{{flagicon|Lebanon}}`{=mediawiki} UNOGIL Peacekeeping mission in Lebanon.
- 1961 `{{flagicon|COD|1960}}`{=mediawiki} ONUC Peacekeeping Force in Congo.
- 1965 `{{flagicon|Dominican Republic}}`{=mediawiki} DOMREP Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic.
- 1990 `{{flagicon|Nicaragua}}`{=mediawiki} ONUCA United Nations Observer Group in Central America, Nicaragua.
- 1991 `{{flagicon|El Salvador}}`{=mediawiki} ONUSAL United Nations Observer Group in El Salvador.
- 1994 `{{flagicon|Guatemala}}`{=mediawiki} MINUGUA United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala.
- 2003 `{{flagicon|Liberia}}`{=mediawiki} UNMIL United Nations Observer Group in Liberia.
- 2004 `{{flagicon|Ivory Coast}}`{=mediawiki} UNOCI Peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast.
- 2004 `{{flagicon|Haiti}}`{=mediawiki} MINUSTAH, United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti.
- 2005 `{{flagicon|Sudan}}`{=mediawiki} UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan.
- 2007 `{{flagicon|Nepal}}`{=mediawiki} UNMIN United Nations Mission in Nepal.
- 2008 `{{flagicon|Chad}}`{=mediawiki} MINURCAT United Nations Mission in Chad.
- 2008 `{{flagicon|Central African Republic}}`{=mediawiki} MINURCAT Part of a Peacebuilding Commission in the Central African Republic.
- 2010 `{{flagicon|Sudan}}`{=mediawiki} UNAMID United Nations Mission and the African Union in Darfur.
## Organization
The armed forces of Ecuador are under the authority of the President of the Republic through the Ministry of Defence, coordinated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces.
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# Armed Forces of Ecuador
## Command structure {#command_structure}
- **The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces** (*Comandante en Jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas*) is the President of the Republic. He exercises the political leadership of security and national defence and counts on the advice of the National Security Council.
- **The National Security Council** (*El Consejo de Seguridad Nacional*) or N.S.C. is the superior body responsible for the national defence, in charge of issuing the strategic concept of national security, which in turn constitutes the essential instrument to start the planning and decision-making process. It is chaired by the President of the Republic, which is also the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. It includes the Presidents of the National Congress and the Supreme Court of Justice; the ministers in charge of National Defence, Government and Police, Foreign Affairs, and Economy and Finance; the Chief of the Joint Command, and the Chiefs of the three branches of the Armed Forces. It monitors the fulfillment of the defence policies and the strategic plans elaborated by the Joint Command of the Armed Forces, submitted by the Ministry of National Defence. The N.S.C. constitutes the highest ranking monitoring and crisis management body.
- **The Ministry of Defense** (*Ministerio de la Defensa National*), is the administrative body of the national defence. The Coordinating Minister of Internal and External Security accords the policies and actions that will be adopted by the following institutions as regards internal and external security: the Ministry of Government and Police, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Defence, and the Secretariat General for the Public administration.
- **The Joint Armed Forces Command** (*El Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas*), is the highest planning, preparation and strategic body of military operations. It advises on national defence and is conformed by the Chief of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces and the Commanders of all three branches of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces: The Army, Navy and the Air Force.
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# Armed Forces of Ecuador
## Branches
### Joint Command {#joint_command}
The command is in charge of the administration and coordination of the three military branches. The objectives of the command are to integrate the military branches with joint capabilities and interoperability, to address changes and new scenarios, which guarantee the peace, security, and well-being of the nation.
Through military strategic guidelines and guidelines, in the innovation, updating, development and implementation of the generation of military technology, through strategic study in the development of military capabilities, verification of the optimal installed military capacity, implementation of military technological development, in order to promote military operational growth to be the effective and efficient decisive force.
### Army
The **Ecuadorian Army** (*Ejército Ecuatoriano*) is the land component of the Armed Forces. Its 25,650 soldiers are deployed in relation to its military doctrine. The contemporary Ecuadorian Army has a large component of jungle and special forces infantry units implemented within its structure. It operates around 236 tanks, 780 IFVs and 68 aircraft; their standard rifle is the Heckler & Koch HK33. Recently acquired material include:
- 30 4x4 vehicles
- 15 Hino trucks (donated by the USA)
- 2 4x4 vehicles (donated by Venezuela)
- 2 Mil Mi-17 helicopters
- 107 Humvee
### Air Force {#air_force}
The present day **Ecuadorian Air Force** (*Fuerza Aérea Ecuatoriana*) saw combat action several times in 1981 and 1995 when it gained valuable experiences against the Peruvian Air Force. The FAE has a personnel strength of 6,200 and focuses mainly on border control but also focuses on the war on drugs, guerrilla insurgencies, and humanitarian missions. Since 2009 the FAE has been undergoing major changes and modernisation plans are ongoing whilst new projects are considered to bolster the country\'s defence capacities. Recent and ongoing orders include:
- 18 Super Tucano light combat aircraft
- 6 Mirage 5 (donated by Venezuela)
- 12 Cheetah supersonic fighter aircraft
- 8 HAL Dhruv helicopters from India
- 3D LANZA Radar low altitude radars
- 3 EADS CASA C-295 Tactical military transport aircraft.
### Navy
The present-day **Ecuadorian Navy** or (*Armada del Ecuador*) is a compact, efficient, and well-balanced force. However, limited funds hinder any major acquisitions and the chances of maintaining a strong force within the Pacific Ocean. Since the end of 2009, the Navy\'s structure became simplified. The Ecuadorian Naval Zone became one and measures, 2237 km of the Pacific Coast and 6720 km2 of the Pacific Ocean, (including the Galápagos Islands). Most sea-going assets are based at Guayaquil. The Navy focuses mainly on border control and illegal immigration. The Navy operates around 20 major vessels (including two submarines) and 25 aircraft. It has a personnel strength of 9,400. To increase its operational capabilities it recently acquired:
- 2 Heron 1 unmanned aerial vehicles
- 4 Searcher MK II unmanned aerial vehicles
### Cyber-Defense Operations Command {#cyber_defense_operations_command}
It is a body responsible for the planning and execution of actions related to cyberdefense in networks and information and telecommunications systems or others that it may have entrusted to, as well as contributing to the appropriate response in cyberspace to threats or aggressions that may affect National Defense, guaranteeing and providing security to strategic entities that are managed by computer systems.
He is prepared to counter cyberattacks, cyberwarfare and espionage to \"critical entities\" that could be attacked \"from anywhere in the world.\"
## Education
The training of army, navy and air force officers is the function of the Eloy Alfaro Military Higher School, the Rafael Morán Valverde Naval Higher School and the Cosme Rennella Barbatto Military Higher School, respectively
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# Geography of Egypt
27 00 N 30 00 E type:country display=title The **geography of Egypt** relates to two regions: North Africa and West Asia.
Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile, and the Red Sea. Egypt borders Libya to the west, Palestine and Israel to the east and Sudan to the south (with a current dispute over the Halaib triangle). Egypt has an area of 1,010,408 km2.
The longest straight-line distance in Egypt from north to south is 1420 km, while that from east to west measures 1275 km. Egypt has more than 2,900 km of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 263,451 km2.
## Governorates
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. There are nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region, ten of Upper Egypt along the Nile river south from Cairo to Aswan, and five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile river.
## Natural regions {#natural_regions}
Egypt is predominantly desert. 35,000 km^2^ -- 3.5% -- of the total land area is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches eastwards from Africa\'s Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia. Historically relevant here is *[The principles and objects of geology, with special reference to the geology of Egypt](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73557)* (1911) by W. F. Hume
Egypt\'s geological history has produced four major physical regions:
- Nile Valley and Nile Delta
- Western Desert (from the Nile west to the Libyan border)
- Eastern Desert (extends from the Nile Valley all the way to the Red Sea coast)
- Sinai Peninsula
Despite covering only about 5% of the total area of Egypt; the Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions, being the country\'s only cultivable regions and supporting about 99% of the population. The Nile valley extends approximately 800 km from Aswan to the outskirts of Cairo. The Nile Valley is known as Upper Egypt, while the Nile Delta region is known as Lower Egypt. Steep rocky cliffs rise along the banks of the Nile in some stretches, while other areas along the Nile are flat, with space for agricultural production. In the past, flooding of the Nile during the summer provided silt and water to make agriculture possible on land that is otherwise very dry. Since the construction of the Aswan Dam, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation. The Nile delta consists of flat, low-lying areas. Some parts of the delta are marshy and water-logged, and thus not suitable for agriculture. Other areas of the delta are used for agriculture.
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# Geography of Egypt
## Natural regions {#natural_regions}
### Nile Valley and Delta {#nile_valley_and_delta}
*Main article: Nile, Nile Delta*`{{No sources|section|date=May 2025|find=Egypt geography nile|find2=Nile delta}}`{=mediawiki} The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world\'s longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert. The length within Egypt of the River Nile in its northwards course from three central African sources -- the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara -- totals some 1,600 km.
The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28% of the Nile\'s Egyptian waters. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in South Sudan, the White Nile\'s channel drops more than 600 m. In its 1,600-km course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan\'s capital, the river descends just 75 m. In South Sudan, the White Nile passes through the Sudd, a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to the point of stagnation.
The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides on average some 58% of the Nile\'s Egyptian waters. This river has a steeper gradient and therefore flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment. For several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river, coming from the Blue Nile, is visibly muddy, while that closer to the western bank, and coming from the White Nile, is clearer.
The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14% of the Nile\'s waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian Highlands, the Atbarah provides 22% of the Nile\'s flow.
The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17% of the Nile\'s waters in the low-water season and 68% during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10% of the Nile\'s waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80% during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January.
The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam\'s construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends southwards from the dam for 320 km to the border and for an additional 158 km within Sudan. Lake Nasser\'s waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow canyon between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries.
Below Aswan, the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty km. North of Isna (160 km north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises to as much as 550 m above sea level; at Qina (some 90 km north of Isna) the 300-m limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course towards the southwest for about 60 km before it turns northwest for about 160 km to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of 22 km.
At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary, subsequently filled by silt deposits to form what is now a fertile, fan-shaped delta some 250 km wide at its seaward extremity and extending about 160 km from north to south. The Nile Delta covers approximately 22,000 km^2^ (roughly equivalent in area to that of Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century AD, seven branches of the Nile once ran through the delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had, by around the twelfth century, just six branches.
Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also known as Dumyat; 240 km long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 km long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their respective mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north, near the coast, the Nile delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes, the most notable among which are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah.
The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depend largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion m^3^ and as high as 4.25 billion m^3^ have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of these flows and thereby moderate the severity of floods.
The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world\'s largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley\'s fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water.
Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley amounted to some nine metres. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year.
Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river\'s banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.
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# Geography of Egypt
## Natural regions {#natural_regions}
### Western Desert {#western_desert}
The Western Desert covers an area of some 700,000 km^2^, thereby accounting for around two-thirds of Egypt\'s total land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to the Sudanese border. The desert\'s Jilf al Kabir Plateau, at a mean altitude of some 1000 m, constitutes an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert\'s plain and extends from the Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Escarpments (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area.
The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression, which includes the country\'s lowest point, encompasses 19605 km2, which is similar to the size of Lake Ontario. It is largely below sea level and is 133 m below sea level at the lowest. Badlands, salt marshes and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression.
Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa\'s cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era.
The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Faiyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies 60 km southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahariya, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country\'s largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birket Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweet water artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over 1800 km2.
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# Geography of Egypt
## Natural regions {#natural_regions}
### Eastern Desert {#eastern_desert}
*Main article: Eastern Desert*
The topographic features of the desert region east of the Nile differ from those to the west of the Nile. The Eastern Desert is relatively mountainous. The elevation rises abruptly from the Nile, and a downward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 km to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 m.
The region\'s most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The desert environment extends all the way to the Red Sea coast.
### Sinai Peninsula {#sinai_peninsula}
The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular-shaped peninsula, about 61,100 km^2^ in area slightly smaller than Latvia (64 573 km^2^). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country\'s highest point, at 2,642 m above sea-level. The Red Sea may have been named after these mountains, which are red.
The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai\'s southern rim is about 1,000 m. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel.
Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in El Tor.
The abundance of life in the Sinai Peninsula may not be immediately apparent. This again has its roots in the way in which the animals of the desert have adapted to life here. Many species, mammals especially, but also reptiles and even birds such as owls, are nocturnal. They spend the daylight hours in the relative cool of burrows, under boulders or in crevices and cracks in the rock. Many of these creatures will only be apparent from their tracks and trails or from a fleeting glimpse of a diminutive gerbil, or zig-zigging hare, in the car headlights at night. Even those animals that do brave the heat of the day are normally only active in the early morning or evening.
## Urban and rural areas {#urban_and_rural_areas}
In the 1971 census, 57 percent of Egypt\'s population was counted as rural, including those residing in agricultural areas in the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the much smaller number of persons living in desert areas. Rural areas differ from the urban in terms of poverty, fertility rates, and other social factors. Agriculture is a key component of the economy in rural areas, though some people are employed in the tourist industry or other non-farm occupations. In 1992, the percentage of Egypt\'s population employed in agriculture was 33 percent. The agricultural industry is dependent on irrigation from the Nile river.
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# Geography of Egypt
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Egypt, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- unnamed headland immediately north-west of Sidi Barrani, Matruh Governorate
- Easternmost point -- Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba), Red Sea Governorate\*
- Southernmost point -- Jabal Bartazuga on the Sudanese border, Red Sea Governorate\*\*
- Westernmost point -- unnamed point on the border with Libya immediately east of the ruin of Qasr al Qarn in Libya, Matruh Governorate
\\\* *Ras Hadarba lies within the Hala\'ib triangle which is claimed by Sudan but administered by Egypt. If it is excluded, then Egypt\'s easternmost point is the Ras Banas peninsula on the mainland or, including islands, Mukawwa Island*
\\\*\* *Jabal Bartazuga lies in the Bir Tawil region, a terra nullius that is often included as part of Egypt but is not claimed by it. If this area is excluded then Egypt has no southernmost point, its southern border being formed by the 22nd parallel north
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# Telecommunications in Egypt
Egypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Middle East and North Africa, and Cairo is the region\'s largest publishing and broadcasting centre.
The telecommunications segment has benefited from effective competition and progressive government policies aimed at comprehensive digital transformation. A liberal regulatory environment permits operators to offer both fixed-line and mobile services under unified licenses. Major players in the market include Telecom Egypt, Vodafone, Orange, Etisalat Egypt, and Ericsson.
The Egypt ICT market is projected to grow from an estimated \$23.60 billion in 2025 to \$53.11 billion by 2030, at a compound annual growth rate of 17.61%. This expansion is driven by rising government investments, increasing internet and mobile penetration, a burgeoning tech startup ecosystem, and ongoing technological advancements. The government\'s commitment to digital transformation and infrastructure development positions Egypt\'s ICT sector as a pivotal contributor to the nation\'s economic growth and modernization efforts.
Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions rose by 77.9 percent, from 39 million to 69.4 million. By December 2023, mobile subscriptions reached 106.2 million. As of January 2024, Egypt\'s internet penetration rate reached 72.2%, with approximately 82 million internet users. Additionally, Egypt's smartphone market is projected to generate \$3.5 billion in revenue by 2025, with an annual growth rate of 6.11% between 2025 and 2029. Notably, Egypt achieved the fastest internet speed on the African continent in 2022.
## History
The origins of telecommunications in Egypt traces back to 1854 when the British Eastern Telegraph Company constructed a telegraph line between Cairo and the Alexandria. Egypt\'s first telephone line was installed between Cairo and Alexandria in 1881, and later that year, the Egyptian government acquired the Eastern Telephone Company, establishing the Telephone and Telegraph Authority.
In 1957, Law No. 107 transferred the assets of the Eastern Telegraph Company and other telecom providers to the Ministry of Telecommunications. Presidential Decree No. 709 of the same year placed all wire and wireless communications under the jurisdiction of the Wire and Wireless Communications Authority, which reported to the Ministry of Transport.
In 1980, the Arab Republic of Egypt National Telecommunications Organization (ARENTO) was formed as an autonomous public utility under the Ministry of Transport. Under Law No. 19 of 1998, ARENTO was renamed Telecom Egypt and restructured as a joint stock company, with the Egyptian government retaining full ownership.
The liberalization of Egypt's telecommunications sector began in 1998 and progressed gradually over the following decades. The private sector played an increasing role in mobile telephony and internet services, contributing to the sector's expansion. In 2004, the Information Technology Industry Development Agency (ITIDA) was established under Law 15 to support Egypt's digital transformation. ITIDA was tasked with implementing e-signature legislation and promoting an export-oriented IT sector. Over the years, it played a critical role in advancing e-business services, facilitating digital security measures, and supporting Egypt's ICT-driven economic development.
The market underwent official deregulation in 2006 following Egypt's commitment to the World Trade Organization Information Technology Agreement in 2003. This move aimed to open the telecommunications market, encourage competition, and attract foreign investment. In 2007, Egypt had approximately 10 million fixed phone lines, 31 million mobile phones, and 8.1 million internet users.
Egypt\'s ICT sector has experienced significant growth in recent years, consistently outpacing the nation\'s overall economic expansion. In the fiscal year 2022/2023, the sector achieved a growth rate of 15.2%, contributing 5.1% to Egypt\'s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This marks an increase from a 4.4% contribution in 2019/2020. Total investments in the ICT sector reached approximately \$4.2 billion in 2022/2023, reflecting a 20% increase from the previous fiscal year.
## Digital Egypt {#digital_egypt}
In line with the Egypt Vision 2030 strategy, the country has launched the Digital Egypt initiative, aiming to transform the nation into a digitally-driven society. This comprehensive plan focuses on developing robust digital infrastructure, fostering innovation, and enhancing public services through digital means. A key component of this initiative is the Digital Egypt e-platform, which offers citizens access to a wide range of government services online, including traffic management, real estate registration, and social housing applications. The platform\'s goal is to streamline service delivery, reduce bureaucratic hurdles, and promote transparency within governmental operations.
Complementing the Digital Egypt initiative are various e-government programs designed to modernize public administration and improve service accessibility. The government has prioritized the digital transformation of public services, resulting in the integration of approximately 33,000 institutions into a secured government network. This network facilitates efficient data exchange between agencies, enhancing coordination and service delivery. Additionally, efforts have been made to train civil servants in digital competencies, ensuring the sustainability and effectiveness of e-government services. These initiatives collectively aim to create a more citizen-centric approach to governance, leveraging technology to meet the evolving needs of the population.
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# Telecommunications in Egypt
## Telecommunication in Egypt {#telecommunication_in_egypt}
### Radio
: *See also Egyptian Radio and Television Union & List of radio stations in Egypt*
The first radio service in Egypt began in 1925. It is almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis.
Starting 2003, Nile Radio Productions, a private company, was given license to operate two radio stations; Nile FM and Nogoum FM. Nile FM broadcasts in English and Nogoom FM broadcasts in Egyptian. Both stations mostly broadcast mainly to the Greater Cairo region. In the early 2009, Radio Masr was launched, broadcasting popular Egyptian songs, news & other programs.
### Television
: *See also Television in Egypt*
Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ERTU) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.
Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.
Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.
In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.
### Landline telephony {#landline_telephony}
: *See also Telephone numbers in Egypt*
Currently, there is a single company in charge of landline telephony, Telecom Egypt which is also government-controlled.
### Cellular communications {#cellular_communications}
: *See also Telephone numbers in Egypt*
Currently, there are four companies which offer cellular communication service: Orange, Vodafone, Etisalat, and We (by Telecom Egypt). These companies also provide services surpassing voice communication, such as 4G, 3G, and mobile internet.
### Internet
The Internet companies market is dealt to two: infrastructure providers and service providers. List following goes in most used.
- WE / Telecom Egypt
- Orange DSL
- Vodafone Egypt
- E& Egypt (Etisalat Egypt)
There are 8 major service provider which sell their services to smaller ISPs. The highest available speed through ADSL technologies was upgraded to 8 Mb in download in February 2008 and then to 24 Mb later that year. The Egyptian ISP market is not competitive, at least in Cairo and Alexandria, with only 3 ISPs offering below-average speeds(Up to 16 Mbit/s).
Orascom, one of the shareholders in the leading cellular operator MobiNil, is also the biggest player in the Internet service provision market and owns 75 per cent of one of Egypt\'s largest ISP, LINKdotNET. The tie-up with the mobile operator is significant in that WAP services were introduced in May for a trial period, making Egypt one of the first countries in Africa to have introduced WAP.
NileOnline and Egynet has been recently sold to Etisalat, increasing Etisalat access into the broadband market. with this acquisition all class I tier ISPs mentioned above are owned by the major telecommunication companies operating in the country.
Raya is owned by Vodafone Egypt, Nileonline and Egynet are now owned by Etisalat, TEdata is owned and operated by the oldest telecom company in the region telecom Egypt and link.net is owned by Orascom telecom
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# Transport in Egypt
**Transport in Egypt** is centered in Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The Ministry of Transportation and other government bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt, whether by sea, river, land or air.
With regards to rail, air and waterway travel, the main line of the nation\'s rail system follows along the Nile river and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub. The Nile River system (about 1600 km) and the principal canals (1600 km) are important locally for transportation. People still travel via the Nile, mainly between Cairo and Aswan. The Suez Canal is a major waterway for international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, Damietta on the Mediterranean and Suez and Safaga on the Red Sea.
## Road system {#road_system}
Egypt has significantly expanded and modernized its road network, primarily through the National Roads Project, which aims to construct 7,000 km of new roads. By 2024, 6,300 km had been completed at a cost of 155 billion Egyptian pounds, increasing the total length of main roads by 29.8% to 30,500 km, compared to 23,500 km in 2014. Additionally, 8,400 km of roads have been upgraded at a cost of 110 billion Egyptian pounds, out of a 10,000 km target. These improvements have enhanced Egypt's Road Quality Index, which rose from 2.9 points (118th place) in 2015 to 5.53 points (18th place) in 2024.
Egypt is integrated into regional road networks, with two routes in the Trans-African Highway network originating in Cairo and multiple highway links connecting to Asia through the Arab Mashreq International Road Network. While national highways remain the primary mode of transport, the country has developed an extensive system of 4-lane highways that function as freeways, though they accommodate mixed traffic, making them slower than dedicated motorways.
Despite infrastructure improvements, traffic regulations are poorly enforced and frequently disregarded, resulting in one of the highest rates of road fatalities worldwide per miles driven.
Some of the country\'s major motorways include:
- Cairo - Alexandria Desert Road: It runs between Cairo and Alexandria, with an extension of 215 km, it is the main motorway in Egypt.
- International Coastal Road: It runs from Alexandria to Port Said, along the Northern Nile Delta. It has a length of 280 km. Also, amongst other cities, it connects Damietta and Baltim.
- Geish Road: It runs between Helwan and Asyut, along the Nile River, also connecting Beni Suef and Minya. Its length is 306 km.
- Ring Road: It serves as an inner ring-road for Cairo. It has a length of 103 km.
- Regional Ring Road: It serves as an outer ring road for Cairo, also connecting its suburbs like Helwan and 10th of Ramadan City. Its length is 130 km.
## Railways
Egypt\'s railway system is the oldest in Africa and the Middle East, with its first line between Alexandria and Kafr Eissa opening in 1854. As of 2018, the network spans approximately 5085 km and is operated by Egyptian National Railways, carrying around 800 million passengers and 12 million tonnes of freight annually. A modernization program was initiated in 2007 to enhance safety and infrastructure.
In 2021, Egypt signed a \$4.5 billion contract with Siemens Mobility, Orascom Construction, and Arab Contractors to construct and maintain a 660 km high-speed electrified railway connecting Ain Sokhna, Mersa Matruh, and Alexandria. Known as the \"Green Line\" or \"Suez Canal on Rails,\" it is designed for both passenger and freight transport. Siemens will supply Velaro high-speed trains, Desiro regional sets, and Vectron freight locomotives. In 2022, the project expanded to include two additional lines linking Greater Cairo to Aswan, and Luxor to Hurghada and Safaga.
The Cairo Metro currently operates three lines, with a fourth under construction and further expansions planned. Additionally, an Alexandria Metro system is under development to improve urban transportation.
## Waterways
Egypt has 3500 km of navigable waterways, including the Nile, Lake Nasser, the Mahmudiyya Canal connecting Alexandria with the Nile, as well as numerous smaller canals in the Nile Delta. The Suez Canal, spanning 193.5 km, serves as a major maritime route, accommodating oceangoing vessels with a maximum draft of 17.68 meters (as of 2011).
### Nile River {#nile_river}
The Nile River system (about 1600 km) and the principal canals (1,600 km) are used for local transportation. Motorboats, ferries and feluccas are common means of transport along the Nile.
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# Transport in Egypt
## Waterways
### Suez Canal {#suez_canal}
The Suez Canal is a critical maritime corridor connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, facilitating global trade since its completion in 1869. Built under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps, it established a direct shipping route between Europe and Asia, significantly reducing travel distances by eliminating the need for passage around the Cape of Good Hope. The canal has undergone multiple expansions to meet the growing demands of international shipping. In 2021, over 20,600 vessels transited the canal, averaging 56 ships per day.
To enhance capacity, the Egyptian government initiated an expansion project in 2014, widening key sections and increasing the daily transit capacity from 49 to 97 ships. The New Suez Canal, inaugurated in 2015, introduced a parallel lane and deepened sections of the original canal, reducing transit times from 18 to 11 hours and minimizing delays for vessels.
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# Transport in Egypt
## Pipelines
As of 2018, Egypt\'s pipeline infrastructure includes 486 km of condensate pipelines, 74 km of condensate/gas pipelines, and an extensive 7,986 km network for natural gas. The country also operates 957 km of liquid petroleum gas pipelines, 5,225 km for crude oil, and 37 km designated for oil, gas, and water transport. Additionally, Egypt has 895 km of refined product pipelines and 65 km for water distribution.
## Ports
Egypt has 15 commercial ports and 29 specialized ports. The specialized ports include 5 tourist seaports, 12 petroleum seaports, 6 mining seaports, and 6 fishing seaports.
### Commercial Ports {#commercial_ports}
- Ain Sokhna Port
- Alexandria Port
- Dekhela Port
- Damietta Port
- Port Said Port
- East Port Said Port
- Arish Port
- Suez Port
- Petroleum Dock Port
- Adabiya Port
- Sokhna Port
- Nuweiba Port
- El Tor Port
- Sharm El Sheikh Port
- Hurghada Port
- Safaga Port
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
In 2018, the number of Egypt\'s sea vessels, according to the CIA World Factbook is 399 as follows:
- Bulk carrier: 14
- Container ship: 8
- General cargo: 33
- Petroleum tanker: 36
- Other: 308
## Airports
Cairo International Airport is used by numerous international airlines, including the country\'s own Egypt Air and Nile Air.
### Airports with paved runways {#airports_with_paved_runways}
*Total:* 72
*Over 3,047 m:* 15
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 36
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 15
*914 to 1,523 m:* 0
*Under 914 m:* 6
### Airports with unpaved runways {#airports_with_unpaved_runways}
*Total:* 11
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 1
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 3
*914 to 1,523 m:* 4
*Under 914 m:* 3 (2013)
## Heliports
- 7 (2013)
## Monorail
Egypt is currently constructing a two-line monorail rapid transit system in the Greater Cairo region. Upon completion, it is projected to be the longest driverless monorail system in the world. The system will provide the first public transport link between the New Administrative Capital and 6th of October City with the greater Cairo metropolitan area. The 53 km line connecting the New Administrative Capital to eastern Cairo is expected to have a travel time of approximately 60 minutes, while the 42 km line linking 6th of October City to Giza is expected to take around 42 minutes
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# Geography of El Salvador
El Salvador is a country in Central America. Situated at the meeting point of three tectonic plates, it is highly seismologically active and the location of numerous earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The country has a tropical climate.`{{Infobox country geography
| name = El Salvador
| map = Un-el-salvador.png
| continent = [[North America]]
| region = [[Central America]]
| coordinates = {{coord|13|41|N|89|11|W|type:country_region:SV|display=country}}
| area ranking = 148th
| km area = 21,041
| percent land = 98.48
| km coastline = 307
| exclusive economic zone = {{convert|90,962|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
| borders = Total border: {{convert|590|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| geographic center =
| highest point = [[Cerro El Pital]] <br> {{convert|2730|m}}
| lowest point = [[Pacific Ocean]] <br> {{convert|0|m}}
| longest river = [[Río Lempa]] <br> {{convert|422|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| largest lake = [[Lago de Ilopango]] <br> {{convert|72|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Plate tectonics {#plate_tectonics}
El Salvador, along with the rest of Central America, is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the Earth\'s surface. The motion of these plates causes the area\'s earthquake and volcanic activity.
Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate. The Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. Ocean floor material is largely composed of basalt, which is relatively dense; when it collides with the lighter granite rocks of Central America, the ocean floor is forced down under the land mass, creating the deep Middle America Trench that lies off the coast of El Salvador.
The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast. As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers.
North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the northern edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala. The grinding action of these two plates creates a fault (similar to the San Andreas fault in California) that runs the length of the valley of the Río Motagua in Guatemala. Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador.
El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. From the early nineteenth century to the mid-1950s, Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name \"Lighthouse of the Pacific\". Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone.
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# Geography of El Salvador
## Physical features {#physical_features}
<File:Panorámica> Volcán Izalco - panoramio.jpg\|View of Izalco (volcano) and Santa Ana Volcano from Cerro Verde
<File:Cerro> verde.jpg\|View of Cerro Verde, Izalco (volcano) and Coatepeque Caldera from Santa Ana Volcano
<File:San_Salvador_Panorama_2013.jpg%7CView> of San Salvador city and San Salvador (volcano)
<File:Sansivar.jpg%7CView> of San Salvador city from San Salvador (volcano)
<File:Santa> Tecla y volcán de San Salvador (6803608805).jpg\|San Salvador (volcano).
<File:Conchagua>, Golfo de Fonseca.jpg\|View of Gulf of Fonseca from Conchagua (volcano)
<File:El> Salvador - El Balsamar - panoramio (4).jpg\|El Balsamar, La Libertad Department (El Salvador)
Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador to the west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau, covering 85 percent of the land, comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.
The northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, form a continuous chain along the border with Honduras. Elevations in this region range from 1,600 to 2,700 meters. The area was once heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion, and it has become semibarren. As a result, it is the country\'s most sparsely populated zone, with little farming or other development.
The southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups. The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, which at 2,365 meters is the highest volcano in El Salvador. Between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits. The volcanic soil is rich, and much of El Salvador\'s coffee is planted on these slopes.
The central plateau constitutes only 25 percent of the land area but contains the heaviest concentration of population and the country\'s largest cities. This plain is about 50 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 600 meters. Terrain here is rolling, with occasional escarpments, lava fields, and geysers.
A narrow plain extends from the coastal volcanic range to the Pacific Ocean. This region has a width ranging from one to thirty-two kilometers with the widest section in the east, adjacent to the Golfo de Fonseca. Near La Libertad, however, the mass of the mountains pushes the lowlands out; the slopes of adjacent volcanoes come down directly to the ocean. Surfaces in the Pacific lowlands are generally flat or gently rolling and result from the alluvial deposits of nearby slopes.
El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Río Lempa. Rising in Guatemala, the Río Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador\'s only navigable river; it and its tributaries drain about half the country. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific.
Numerous lakes of volcanic origin are found in the interior highlands; many of these lakes are surrounded by mountains and have high, steep banks. The largest lake, the Lago de Ilopango, lies just to the east of the capital. Other large lakes include the Lago de Coatepeque in the west and the Lago de Güija on the Guatemalan border. The Cerrón Grande Dam on the Río Lempa has created a large reservoir, the Embalse Cerrón Grande, in northern El Salvador.
Izalco has erupted at least 54 times since 1770. It earned the nickname \"Lighthouse of the Pacific\" because it served as a beacon for ships during the night.
<File:Teopan.jpg>\|Coatepeque Caldera
<File:Ilopango> caldera.jpg\|Lake Ilopango
<File:Salcoatitán>, El Salvador - panoramio (9).jpg\|Cordillera de Apaneca
<File:UsulutánVolcano.jpg>\|Usulután (volcano)
<File:Volcan> san vicente.jpg\|San Vicente (volcano)
<File:Volcan> de Izalco atardecer.jpg\|Izalco (volcano)
<File:San> Miguel Ville et Volcan.JPG\|San Miguel (volcano)
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# Geography of El Salvador
## Climate
<File:Playa> de Corral de Mulas, Usulután, El Salvador - panoramio.jpg\|Corral de Mulas beach, Usulutan
<File:Playa> Los Cóbanos, El Salvador 000 0025.jpg\|Los Cobanos beach in Sonsonate
<File:2010.05.05.071335> Coco Bar El Sunzal El Salvador.jpg\|Sunzal beach, La Libertad, La Libertad
<File:Atardecer> - Salinitas El Salvador.JPG\|Pacific sunset at Salinitas beach Sonsonate
<File:Meanguera> del Golfo.JPG\|Meanguera island Gulf of Fonseca
<File:Narizona.jpg>\|Meanguera del Golfo
<File:El> Salvador - El Balsamar - panoramio (7).jpg\|El Balsamar, La Libertad Department (El Salvador)
<File:Elsunzal.jpg%7CEl> Sunzal beach in La Libertad, La Libertad
<File:El> Zonte (11-2011) - panoramio.jpg\|El Zonte Beach
El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot and humid; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate.
The rainy season, known locally as *invierno*, or winter, extends from May to October. Almost all the annual rainfall during this time, and yearly rain totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 2000 mm. Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador, with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (which actually formed over the Atlantic Basin) and Hurricane Emily in 1973.
From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of its precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy. This season is known locally as *verano*, or summer.
Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant. The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from 25 to. San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of 23 °C and absolute high and low readings of 38 and, respectively. Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from 12 to and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing.
### Other facts {#other_facts}
<File:Departments> of El Salvador named.svg\|Departments of El Salvador <File:Central> Geotérmica Ahuachapán 02.jpg\|Geothermal power plant in Ahuachapan Department <File:Central> Geotérmica de Berlín 05.JPG\|Geothermal power center in the Usulután Department <File:Rio> Lempa Presa Enero 2011.jpg\|Central Hydroelectricity dam over the Lempa River
The total land area of El Salvador is 23,041 km^2^, with 20,721 km^2^ of land and 320 km^2^ of water. El Salvador is about the size of Israel and the U.S. states of New Jersey and Vermont, but has the population size of Libya and Lebanon. El Salvador has 590 km of borders, including 391 km of borders with Honduras and 199 km with Guatemala. El Salvador has a coastline of 307 km.
El Salvador claims a territorial sea of 200 nmi.
The lowest point of elevation in El Salvador is the Pacific Ocean, at sea level. The highest point is Cerro El Pital, at 2,730 m.
**Maritime claims:**\
*Exclusive economic zone:* 90,962 km2
**Natural resources:** Hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable land
Land use (2012 estimate) includes 34.03 percent arable land, 10.86 percent permanent crops, 55.12 percent other.
**Irrigated land:** 449.9 km^2^ (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 25.23 km^3^ (2011)
**Natural hazards:** El Salvador is known as the \"Land of Volcanoes\"; there are frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; hurricanes rarely make direct landfall.
### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
- Northernmost point -- north of El Limo, Santa Ana Department
- Southernmost point -- El Jaguey, La Unión Department
- Westernmost point -- border with Guatemala, Ahuachapán Department
- Easternmost point -- island of Meanguera del Golfo, La Unión Department
- Highest point -- Cerro El Pital: 2730 m
- Lowest point -- Pacific Ocean: 0 m
### Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
Deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes.
El Salvador is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, CITES, Basel Convention, Partial Test Ban Treaty, Montreal Protocol, Ramsar Convention. El Salvador has signed, but not ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
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# Telecommunications in El Salvador
**Telecommunications in El Salvador** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet, centered primarily around the capital, San Salvador.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations: Hundreds of commercial radio broadcast stations and 1 government-owned radio broadcast station (2007).
- Radios: 5.75 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|13}}`{=mediawiki}
- Televisions stations: Multiple privately owned national terrestrial TV networks, supplemented by cable TV networks that carry international channels (2007).
- Television sets: 5,900,881 (2005).`{{update after|2014|1|13}}`{=mediawiki}
The most powerful group in the media sector is Tele-Corporación Salvadoreña (TCS), which controls four television channels with nation-wide coverage (Channels 2, 4, 6 and VTV) as well as two radio stations (Vox FM and Qué Buena). Together with TCS, Canal 12 (whose majority shareholder is TV Azteca), Canal 21 (of the Megavisión group) and Canal 33 (of the Tecnovisión group, owned by the Technological University of El Salvador) complete the national television spectrum.
The law permits the executive branch to use the emergency broadcasting service to take over all broadcast and cable networks temporarily to televise political programming. The president occasionally uses this law to highlight his accomplishments.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +503
- International call prefix: 00
- Fixed lines: 1.1 million lines in use, 74th in the world (2012).
- Mobile cellular: 8.7 million lines, 88th in the world (2012); in 2007 the number of mobile phones exceeded the country\'s population giving the country a 1.06 per capita cellphone penetration rate.
- Teledensity: Mobile cellular exceeds 135 per 100 persons (2011).
- Telephone system: multiple mobile-cellular providers are expanding services rapidly; growth in fixed-line services has slowed in the face of mobile-cellular competition (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
- Connected to the Central American Microwave System (2011), a trunk microwave radio relay system that links the countries of Central America and Mexico with each other.
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# Telecommunications in El Salvador
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .sv
- Internet users: 3.8 million users, 59.4% of the population (2019).
- Fixed broadband: 235,403 subscriptions, 81st in the world; 3.9% of the population, 111th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: 335,716, 104th in the world; 5.5% of the population, 104th in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 24,070 hosts (2012).
- IPv4: 575,744 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 94.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet Service Providers: 11 ISPs (early 2005).
### IT Industry {#it_industry}
El Salvador\'s IT Industry\'s history started early with several IT outsourcing companies such as Gpremper and an early search engine that predated Google in 1995 called \"Buscaniguas\". The industry has since expanded with companies such as Creativa Consultores, Applaudo Studios, and Elaniin providing software and website design services to clients globally while employing thousands of people. Canadian Telus International, a major global IT outsourcing and software development firm, has a significant workforce in the country employing nearly 1,500 people in high tech and customer service roles. The startup scene has also been growing with firms such as HugoApp employing 600 locals and providing delivery and ride sharing services to nearly 1 million users in the Central American/CAFTA region. In 2020, the government announced its \"Digital Agenda 2020\" a plan to digitize government services, digitize identities, make it easier to start businesses, attract foreign investment and improve the education system. Finally, the passing of the Bitcoin Law in 2021 made El Salvador the first country in the world to adopt a cryptocurrency (Bitcoin) as legal tender, this move seeks to improve access to financial services to the non-banked and under banked.
## Freedom of Speech restrictions {#freedom_of_speech_restrictions}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Individuals and groups engage in the expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. Internet access is available in public places throughout the country.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights. Individuals criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, and in most cases the government does not interfere with such criticism. The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions.
### By gangs {#by_gangs}
In March 2012, Carlos Dada, the owner of online newspaper El Faro, received death threats from gang members. The gangs were unhappy with El Faro\'s reporting on the gang truce. On April 13, the International Press Institute criticized the government for not taking any actions to guarantee the safety of El Faro journalists. According to the Salvadoran Association of Journalists (APES), the media practices self-censorship, especially in their reporting on gangs and narcotics trafficking. APES stated that many members of the media were afraid to report in detail on these subjects due to fear of retaliation from gangs and narcotics trafficking groups
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# Transport in El Salvador
El Salvador has transport links by road, rail, sea and air.
El Salvador has over 10,000 km of roads, and one passenger rail service. There are several seaports on the Pacific Ocean, and two international airports.
## Railways
A weekday passenger service links San Salvador and Apopa, a journey of 40 minutes. Of a total of 602 km narrow-gauge (`{{RailGauge|3ft}}`{=mediawiki}) rail, much is abandoned. In November 2013 the government rail agency FENADESAL announced plans for development of four electrified railways serving San Salvador, Sitio del Niño (La Libertad), El Salvador International Airport, La Unión, and the Honduran frontier.
### Railway links with adjacent countries {#railway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Guatemala`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}`{{RailGauge|3ft}}`{=mediawiki} gauge both countries, currently closed.
- Honduras`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}none
## Highways
- *total:* 10,029 km
- *paved:* 1,986 km (including 327 km of Highways)
- *unpaved:* 8,043 km (1999 est.)
The RN-21 (Bulevar Monseñor Romero) (East--West) was the first freeway to be built in El Salvador and in Central America. The freeway passes through the northern area of the city of Santa Tecla, La Libertad. It has a small portion serving Antiguo Cuscatlan, La Libertad, and merges with the RN-5 (Autopista Comalapa) (East--West, Boulevard de Los Proceres/Autopista del Aeropuerto) in San Salvador.
The total length of the RN-21 is 9.95 km and is currently working as a traffic relief in the metropolitan area. The RN-21 was named in honor of Óscar Romero. The first phase of the highway was completed in 2009, and the second phase in November 2012.
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
### Pacific Ocean {#pacific_ocean}
- Acajutla
- Puerto Cutuco
- La Libertad
- La Unión
- Puerto El Triunfo
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
none (1999 est.)
## Airports
75 (2006 est.)
### Airports`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}with paved runways {#airportswith_paved_runways}
- *total:* 4
- *over 3,047 m:* 1
- *1,524 to 2,437 m:* 1
- *914 to 1,523 m:* 2 (2006 est.)
### Airports`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}with unpaved runways {#airportswith_unpaved_runways}
- *total:* 71
- *1,524 to 2,437 m:* 1
- *914 to 1,523 m:* 14
- *under 914 m:* 56 (2006 est.)
### Heliports
1 (2006 est
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# History of Equatorial Guinea
The **History of Equatorial Guinea** is marked by centuries of colonial domination by the Portuguese, British and Spanish colonial empires, and by the local kingdoms.
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Río Muni. Bantu migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal groups and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bakugan from Cameroon and Río Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations. The Igbo of Nigeria (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded small settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the Aro Confederacy in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Annobón population, originally from Angola, were brought by the Portuguese via São Tomé.
## Colonial era {#colonial_era}
### Portuguese colonial rule (1472--1778) {#portuguese_colonial_rule_14721778}
The Portuguese explorer Fernão do Pó, seeking a path to India, is credited as being the first European to discover the island of Bioko in 1472. He called it *Formosa* (\"Beautiful\"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer, usually found on maps Hispanized into \"Fernando Po\". The islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474.
In 1778, Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain signed the Treaty of El Pardo which ceded the Bioko, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the Bight of Biafra between the Niger and Ogoue rivers to Spain. Spain intended to start slave-trading operations on the mainland. Between 1778 and 1810, the territory of Equatorial Guinea was administered by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, based in Buenos Aires.
From 1827 to 1843, the United Kingdom had a base on Bioko to suppress the transatlantic slave trade, which was then moved to Sierra Leone upon agreement with Spain in 1843. In 1844, on restoration of Spanish rule, it became known as the \"Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea\". Spain had neglected to occupy the large area in the Bight of Biafra to which it had treaty rights, and the French had been expanding their occupation at the expense of the area claimed by Spain. The Treaty of Paris in 1900 left Spain with the continental enclave of Rio Muni, a mere 26,000 km^2^ out of the 300,000 stretching east to the Ubangi River, which the Spaniards had claimed.
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# History of Equatorial Guinea
## Colonial era {#colonial_era}
### Spanish colonial territory (1778--1968) {#spanish_colonial_territory_17781968}
*Main article: Spanish Guinea*
At the beginning of the 20th century, the plantations of Fernando Po were largely in the hands of a black Creole elite, later known as Fernandinos. The British had settled some 2,000 Sierra Leoneans and freed slaves during their brief control of the island in the early 19th century, and a small trickle of immigration from West Africa and the West Indies continued after the departure of the British. To this core of settlers were added Cubans, Filipinos, Spaniards of various colours deported for political or other crimes, and some assisted settlers. There was also a trickle of immigration from the neighbouring Portuguese islands: escaped slaves and prospective planters. Although a few of the Fernandinos were Catholic and Spanish-speaking, about nine-tenths of them were Protestant and English-speaking on the eve of the First World War, and pidgin English was the lingua franca of the island. The Sierra Leoneans were particularly well placed as planters while labour recruitment on the Windward coast continued, for they kept family and other connections there and could easily arrange labour supplies.
During World War I, due to Spain\'s neutrality, Rio Muni and Fernando Po were host to large numbers of German troops and refugees who fled German Kamerun after the Entente conquered the colony. They were well-treated by the Spanish authorities, largely because the 180-man militia was not large enough to forcibly intern them. Most of the Cameroonian natives stayed in Muni, while the Germans moved to Fernando Po.
From the opening years of the 20th century, the Fernandinos were put on the defensive by a new generation of Spanish immigrants. New land regulations in 1904--5 favoured Spaniards, and most of the big planters of later years arrived in the islands from Spain following these new regulations. The Liberian labour agreement of 1914 favoured wealthy men with ready access to the state, and the shift in labour supplies from Liberia to Rio Muni increased this advantage. In 1940, it was estimated that only 20 per cent of the colony\'s cocoa production remained in African hands, nearly all of it in the hands of Fernandinos.
The greatest constraint to economic development was a chronic shortage of labour. The indigenous Bubi population of Bioko, pushed into the interior of the island and decimated by alcoholic addiction, venereal disease, smallpox and sleeping sickness, refused to work on plantations. Working their own small cocoa farms gave them a considerable degree of autonomy. Moreover, the Bubi were protected from the demands of the planters from the late 19th century by the Spanish Claretian missionaries, who were very influential in the colony and eventually organised the Bubi into small mission theocracies reminiscent of the famous Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay. Catholic penetration was furthered by two small insurrections protesting the conscription of forced labour for the plantations, in 1898 and 1910, which led to the Bubi being disarmed in 1917 and left them dependent on the missionaries.
Towards the end of the 19th century Spanish, Portuguese, German and Fernandino planters started developing large cacao plantations. With the indigenous Bubi population decimated by disease and forced labour, the island\'s economy came to depend on imported agricultural contract workers. A Labour Treaty was signed with the Republic of Liberia in 1914, the transport of up to 15,000 workers was orchestrated by the German Woermann-Linie. The Liberian labour supply was cut off in 1930 after an International Labour Organization (ILO) commission discovered that contract workers had \"been recruited under conditions of criminal compulsion scarcely distinguishable from slave raiding and slave trading\".
Between 1926 and 1959 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea. The economy was based on large cacao and coffee plantations and logging concessions, and the workforce was mostly made up of immigrant contract labourers from Liberia, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Military campaigns were mounted to subdue the Fang people in the 1920s, at the time that Liberia was beginning to cut back on recruitment. There were garrisons of the colonial guard throughout the enclave by 1926, and the whole colony was considered \'pacified\' by 1929. However, Rio Muni had a small population, officially put at a little over 100,000 in the 1930s, and escape over the frontiers into Cameroon or Gabon was very easy. Moreover, the timber companies needed growing amounts of labour, and the spread of coffee cultivation offered an alternative means of paying taxes. Fernando Po thus continued to suffer from labour shortages. The French only briefly permitted recruitment in Cameroon, and the main source of labour came to be Igbo smuggled in canoes from Calabar and Oron, Nigeria. The persisting labour shortage in the cacao, coffee and logging industries was only overcome by the mushrooming illegal canoe-based smuggling of Igbo and Ibibio workers from the Eastern Provinces of Nigeria. The number of clandestine contract workers on the island of Fernando Po grew to 20,000 in 1942. A labour treaty was signed in the same year, and a continuous stream of workers arrived in Spanish Guinea. It was this treaty which really permitted Fernando Po to become one of Africa\'s most productive agricultural areas after the Second World War. By 1968 there were almost 100,000 Nigerians in Spanish Guinea.
### Spanish Civil War (1936--1939) {#spanish_civil_war_19361939}
At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War the colony remained loyal to the Republican government. On July 24, 1936, the Republican cruiser *Méndez Núñez* arrived at Santa Isabel; on its way back to Spain the officers planned to join the rebellion, but the Spanish government, knowing this, ordered the ship to go back to the colony; on August 14 the *Méndez Núñez* was back in Fernando Po, where the sailors took control of her; on September 21 the ship arrived in Málaga (Republican Spain). On September 19 the Colonial Guard and the Civil Guard began the rebellion and took control of the island of Fernando Po, while the rest of the colony remained loyal to the Republic. On September 22 a clash took place between a rebel group from Kogo and a loyal detachment from Bata. Finally, on October 14 a force of 200 rebels arrived in the merchant *Ciudad de Mahón* and took control of Bata and the rest of the colony.
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# History of Equatorial Guinea
## Colonial era {#colonial_era}
### Provincialisation and decolonisation {#provincialisation_and_decolonisation}
The post-war political history of the colony can be divided into three fairly distinct phases:
1. up to 1959, when its status was raised from \'colony\' to \'province\', taking a leaf out of the approach of the Portuguese Empire;
2. between 1960 and 1968, when Spain attempted a partial decolonisation which was hoped would conserve the territory as an integral segment of the Spanish system; and
3. after 1968, when the territory became an independent republic.
The first of these phases consisted of little more than a continuation of previous policies; these closely resembled the policies of Portugal and France, notably in dividing the population into a vast majority governed as \'natives\' or non-citizens, and a very small minority (together with whites) admitted to civic status as *emancipados*, assimilation to the metropolitan culture being the only permissible means of advancement. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Cortes Generales (Spanish parliament). Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory\'s two provinces. A paradoxical effect of this autonomy was that Guineans could choose among several political parties while metropolitan Spaniards were under a single-party regime. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Although Spain\'s commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations.
Nationalism began to emerge during this \"provincial\" phase, chiefly among small groups who had taken refuge from General Franco\'s dictatorship in Cameroon and Gabon. They formed two bodies: the Movimiento Nacional de Liberación de la Guinea (MONALIGE), and the Idea Popular de Guinea Ecuatorial (IPGE). Their pressures were weak, but the general trend in West Africa was not. A decision of 9 August 1963, approved by a referendum of 15 December 1963, introduced the territory to a measure of autonomy and the administrative promotion of a \'moderate\' grouping, the Movimiento de Unión Nacional de la Guinea Ecuatorial (MUNGE). This proved a feeble instrument, and, with growing pressure for change from the UN, Spain gave way to the currents of nationalism. Independence was conceded on 12 October 1968 and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea came into being with Francisco Macías Nguema elected as president.
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# History of Equatorial Guinea
## Independence and Macias government (1968--1979) {#independence_and_macias_government_19681979}
In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution. In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favour of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president.
In September 1968, Francisco Macías Nguema was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October.
At independence, Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa, although it was also very unevenly distributed as most of the money was in the hands of colonial and elite planters. In its final years of rule the Spanish colonial government achieved a relatively high literacy rate and developed a good network of health care facilities. However, at the time of independence, the number of African doctors and lawyers was in the single digits.
In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated. In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of President for Life. The Macias regime was characterized by human rights abuses, totalitarianism and the abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country\'s population. Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country\'s infrastructure---electricity, water, road, transportation, and health---fell into ruin. The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated. Nigerian contract labourers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976. The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left.
Religion was repressed, and education ceased. All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country\'s churches were also closed in 1978. Nguema introduced a campaign of \'authenticity\', replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became Malabo, the main island of Fernando Po was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and Annobón became Pagalu. As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones. His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong. Much of the population residing on the island of Bioko, consisting of Nigerian labourers and traders, were forced to evacuate.
In August 1979 Macias\' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach prison, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, led a successful coup d\'état; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed. Obiang assumed the presidency in October 1979. The islands were renamed Bioko and Annobón. The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles---by the end of Macias Nguema\'s dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had been reduced to only one-third of what it was at independence.
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# History of Equatorial Guinea
## Obiang government (1979--present) {#obiang_government_1979present}
Although President Obiang signed a national anti-torture decree in 2006 to ban all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners, human rights abuses continue. Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention.
According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are dominated by tensions between Obiang\'s son, Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in power shifts arising from the dramatic increase in oil production which has occurred since 1997.
The unsuccessful \"Wonga Coup\" by European and South African mercenaries in 2004 attempted to replace Obiang with a puppet ruler who would open the country\'s mineral wealth to the plotters. Simon Mann, a former officer in the SAS, led the plot, which also included former members of the South African Army 32 Battalion. Financial backers included Sir Mark Thatcher, son of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and possibly the novelist Jeffrey Archer. Somewhere between \$3 million and \$20 million was expended on the failed coup, which has been claimed by some to have had the tacit support of some Western governments and international corporations.
In 2011, the government announced it was planning a new capital for the country, which was to be named Oyala but will be Djibloho -- Ciudad de la Paz.
On March 7, 2021, there were munitions explosions at a military base near the city of Bata that resulted in 98 deaths and 600 people were injured and a/tending in hospital.
In November 2022 Teodoro Obiang was re-elected in 2022 Equatorial Guinean general election with 99.7% of the vote amidst accusations of fraud by the opposition.
In 2024 it was published that mercenaries from the Wagner Group (now called "Africa Corps") had entered in Equatorial Guinea at the request of Teodoro Obiang. According to opponents, the objective of the mercenaries was to help consolidate a hypothetical succession of Obiang\'s power to his son \"Teodorín\"
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# Geography of Equatorial Guinea
The Republic of **Equatorial Guinea** is located in west central Africa. Bioko Island lies about 40 km from Cameroon. Annobón Island lies about 595 km southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of Río Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland; it includes the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets. The total land area is 28,051 km2. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 303,509 km2.
Bioko Island, called Fernando Po until the 1970s, is the largest island in the Gulf of Guinea --- 2017 km2. It is shaped like a boot, with two large volcanic formations separated by a valley that bisects the island at its narrowest point. The 195 km coastline is steep and rugged in the south but lower and more accessible in the north, with excellent harbors at Malabo and Luba, and several scenic beaches between those towns.
On the continent, Río Muni covers 26003 km2. The coastal plain gives way to a succession of valleys separated by low hills and spurs of the Crystal Mountains. The Rio Benito (Mbini) which divides Río Muni in half, is unnavigable except for a 20-kilometer stretch at its estuary. Temperatures and humidity in Río Muni are generally lower than on Bioko Island.
Annobon Island, named for its discovery on New Year\'s Day 1472, is a small volcanic island covering 18 km2. The coastline is abrupt except in the north; the principal volcanic cone contains a small lake. Most of the estimated 1,900 inhabitants are fisherman specializing in traditional, smallscale tuna fishing and whaling. The climate is tropical---heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent seasonal changes with violent windstorms.
**Location:** Central Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Cameroon and Gabon.
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
Area:
:\* Total: 28,051 km²
:\*\**country rank in the world:* 141st
:\* Land: 28,051 km²
:\* Water: negligible km²
Equatorial Guinea\'s land boundaries total 539 km. It borders Cameroon (189 km) in the north and Gabon (350 km) in the east and south.
Area comparative
:\* Australia comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|3|7}}`{=mediawiki} the size of Tasmania
:\* Canada comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} the size of Nova Scotia
:\* United Kingdom comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Wales
:\* United States comparative: slightly larger than Massachusetts
:\* EU comparative: slightly smaller than Belgium
**Maritime claims:** territorial sea: 12 nmi
**Exclusive economic zone:** 303,509 km2 with 200 nmi
## Terrain
`{{Infobox
| above = Land Use {{nobold|(2012 est.)}}
| label1 = Arable land:
| data1 = 4.28%
| label2 = Permanent crops:
| data2 = 2.14%
| label3 = Other:
| data3 = 93.58%
}}`{=mediawiki} Coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic.
**Total renewable water resources:** 26 km^3^ (2011)
**Natural hazards:** violent windstorms, flash floods
**Environment --- current issues:** tap water is not potable; deforestation
**Environment --- international agreements:** party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
**Geography note:** insular and continental regions rather widely separated
## Climate
The climate of both the continental region and the islands is typically equatorial, with high temperatures, heavy rainfall, and much cloud cover most of the year. Local variations are due to differences in altitude and proximity to the sea. The wet seasons in the continental region are from February to June and from September to December. Rainfall is higher on the coast than inland. In Bata the rainiest months are September, October, and November, with rainfall averaging more than 94 in a year. At Calatrava, farther south on the coast, it sometimes reaches 180 in. Inland, however, rainfall diminishes; Mikomeseng, for example, receives only about 58 in. The average annual temperature is about 79 F and is fairly constant throughout the year. The temperature maxima are somewhat lower than in Bioko. The relative humidity, however, is higher than in Bioko. Bioko has a rather debilitating climate. The so-called dry season lasts from November to March, and the rest of the year is rainy. The average annual temperature of about 77 F varies little throughout the year. Afternoon temperatures reach the high 80s °F (low 30s °C) and drop to only about 70 F at night. Most of the time the sky is cloudy and overcast. Extreme rainfall occurs in the south, with rain brought by monsoon winds amounting to about 450 in a year around San Antonio de Ureca.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Equatorial Guinea, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
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# Politics of Equatorial Guinea
The **politics of Equatorial Guinea** take place under an authoritarian regime where power has been centralized under President Teodoro Obiang Nguema since he seized power in a 1979 coup against his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema. The regime party, Partido democrático de guinea ecuatorial, is the dominant party in Equatorial Guinea politics. The structure of Nguema\'s regime has varied over time. Initially, it was a military dictatorship before transforming into a single-party state before most recently becoming competitive authoritarian.
Elections take place in Equatorial Guinea but they are neither free nor fair. The political opposition is either repressed or co-opted by the Nguema regime.
Corruption is widespread in Equatorial Guinea where members of the Nguema regime enrich themself on Equatorial Guinea\'s substantial oil wealth.
Nominally, the politics Equatorial Guinea takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Chamber of People\'s Representatives
## Political conditions {#political_conditions}
A great deal of political party activity ensued when Equatorial Guinea attained autonomy from Spain in 1963. Bubi and Fernandino parties on the island preferred separation from Río Muni or a loose federation. Ethnically based parties in Río Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Río Muni, an approach that was adopted. The Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island (MAIB), which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence.
Equatorial Guinea became independent from Spain on October 12, 1968. Since then, the country has had two presidents: Francisco Macías Nguema, who had been the mayor of Mongomo under the Spanish colonial government, and Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo Macías\'s nephew, who has ruled since 1979, when he staged a military coup d\'état and executed his uncle. When Macías came to power, political activity largely ceased. Opposition figures among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macías and Obiang governments. After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically.
The 1982 Constitution gives Obiang extensive powers, including the right to name, and dismiss, members of the cabinet. The 1982 constitution also give him the power to make laws by decree, dissolve the Chamber of Representatives, negotiate and ratify international treaties, and calling legislative elections. Obiang retained his role as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and minister of defense when he became president and he maintains close supervision of military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the president. The prime minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.
With the prodding of the United Nations, the United States, Spain, and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995 and held freely contested municipal elections, the country\'s first, in September. Most observers agree that these elections were relatively free and transparent and also that the opposition parties garnered between 2/3 and 3/4 of the total vote. The government delayed announcing the results, then claimed a highly dubious overall 52% victory, and capture of 19 of the 27 municipal councils. The council of Malabo, the capital, went to the opposition however. In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections, to be held in six weeks. The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week. Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote. International observers agreed the election was neither free nor fair. In an attempt to mollify his critics, Obiang announced a new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as opposition figures.
Since President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters in the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo, part of the Esangu subclan of the Fang in the eastern part of Río Muni. Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace.
Under Obiang, schools reopened and primary education expanded, public utilities and roads were restored, a favorable contrast with Macías\' tyranny and terror, but his administration has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms. Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt development of Equatorial Guinea\'s economy and society. In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Cándido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt. However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures. The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equatorial Guinean Government has not moved very rapidly to implement it.
Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macías years. In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy. Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition. Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macías years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist. Religious freedom is tolerated.
On December 15, 2002, Equatorial Guinea\'s four main opposition parties withdrew from the country\'s presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press.
According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang\'s son Teodoro (known by the nickname *Teodorín*, meaning Little Teodoro), and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in a power shift arising from the dramatic increase since 1997 in oil production.
A November 2004 report named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by Simon Mann. Various accounts also name the UK\'s MI6, the US Central Intelligence Agency, and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. Nevertheless, an Amnesty International report on the ensuing trial highlights the government\'s failure to demonstrate in court that the alleged coup attempt had ever actually taken place.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo \|Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea \|3 August 1979 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Manuel Osa Nsue Nsua \|Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea \|16 August 2024 \|} The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.
Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo seized power in a military coup. He is elected by popular vote to a seven-year term.
Another branch of the government is the State Council. The State Council\'s main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President. It comprises the following ex-officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council.
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# Politics of Equatorial Guinea
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Chamber of People\'s Representatives (*Cámara de Representantes del Pueblo*) has 100 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. Equatorial Guinea is a dominant-party state. This means that only one political party, the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea, is in fact allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties are allowed, they are required to accept the *de facto* leadership of the ruling party. The Convergence for Social Democracy is the only true opposition party to operate legally in the county, which holds only a single seat in each house of parliament.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2016 Equatorial Guinean presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
#### Chamber of Deputies {#chamber_of_deputies}
{{#section-h:2017 Equatorial Guinean legislative election\|Chamber of Deputies}}
#### Senate
{{#section-h:2017 Equatorial Guinean legislative election\|Senate}}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judicial system follows similar administrative levels. At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court). In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. The court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel.
As for the legal profession, the Equatorial Guinea Bar Association (Colegio de Abogados de Guinea Ecuatorial) was dissolved by the government in 2002. Although a new bar association was created in 2003, a report issued the same year claimed that \" there are few independent lawyers and judges\" unless they are \"a member of \[or sympathetic to\] the ruling party.\" It was reported in 2014 (and later reconfirmed in 2016) that the association does not have an official headquarters.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Equatorial Guinea is divided in seven provinces (*provincias*); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas.
The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces. Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities. The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels.
## Membership in international organizations {#membership_in_international_organizations}
- ACCT, Agency for the French-Speaking Community,
- ACP, African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States,
- AfDB, African Development Bank,
- BDEAC, Central African States Development Bank,
- CEEAC, Economic Community of Central African States,
- ECA, Economic Commission for Africa,
- FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization,
- FZ, Franc Zone,
- G-77, Group of 77,
- IBRD, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
- ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization,
- ICRM, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement,
- IDA, International Development Association,
- IFAD, International Fund for Agricultural Development,
- IFC, International Finance Corporation,
- IFRCS, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
- ILO, International Labour Organization,
- IMF, International Monetary Fund,
- IMO, International Maritime Organization,
- Intelsat, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization,
- Interpol, International Criminal Police Organization,
- IOC, International Olympic Committee,
- ITU, International Telecommunication Union,
- NAM, Non-Aligned Movement,
- OAS; (observer), Organization of American States
- OAU, Organization of African Unity,
- OIF, International Organisation of La Francophonie,
- OPCW, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,
- OPEC, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries,
- UDEAC, Central African Customs and Economic Union,
- UN, United Nations,
- UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
- UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization,
- UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organization,
- UPU, Universal Postal Union,
- WHO, World Health Organization,
- WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization,
- WToO, World Tourism Organization,
- WTrO;(applicant), World Trade Organization
## Further viewing {#further_viewing}
- *Once Upon a Coup*, PBS Documentary, August 2009, [1](https://www.pbs
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# Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea
**Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations:
- 1 state-owned radio station, and 1 private radio station owned by the president\'s eldest son; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007);
- no AM, 3 FM, and 5 shortwave stations (2001).
- Radios: 180,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|10}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations:
- 1 state-owned TV station; satellite TV service is available; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are accessible (2007);
- 1 TV station (2001).
- Television sets: 4,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|10}}`{=mediawiki}
The state maintains direct or indirect control of all broadcast media. The government owns the only national radio and television broadcast system, RTVGE. The president\'s eldest son owns the only private radio station. Satellite broadcasts are widely available, including the French language Africa24 television news channel that occasionally carries opposition criticism. Foreign channels, including Radio France International (RFI) and the BBC World Service, were broadcast uncensored throughout the country.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +240
- International call prefix: 00
- Land lines:
- 14,900 lines in use, 195th in the world (2012);
- 10,000 lines in use, 204th in the world (2008).
- Mobile cellular:
- 501,000 lines, 169th in the world (2012);
- 346,000 lines, 165th in the world (2008).
- Telephone system: digital fixed-line network in most major urban areas and good mobile coverage; fixed-line density is about 2 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular subscribership has been increasing and in 2011 stood at about 60 percent of the population; international communications from Bata and the capital, Malabo, to African and European countries (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2011).
- Communications cables: Africa Coast to Europe (ACE) submarine cable system, links countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and on to Portugal and France.
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# Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .gq
- Internet users:
- 95,649 users, 169th in the world; 13.9% of the population, 158th in the world (2012);
- 14,400 users, 200th in the world (2009).
- Fixed broadband: 1,372 subscriptions, 174th in the world; 0.2% of population, 159th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
- Internet hosts: 7 hosts, 227th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 3,072 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 4.5 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet service providers: 9 ISPs (2009).
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight. Most overt criticism of the government comes from the country\'s community in exile, and the Internet has replaced broadcast media as the primary way opposition views were expressed and disseminated.
Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, the law grants authorities extensive powers to restrict media activities, which the government uses to limit these rights. While criticism of government policies is allowed, individuals generally can not criticize the president, his family, other high-ranking officials, or the security forces without fear of reprisal. Libel is a criminal offense, but there were no instances of the government using these laws to suppress criticism during 2012.
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, but the government often does not respect these prohibitions. Search warrants are required unless the crime is in progress or for reasons of national security. Security forces enter homes without authorization and arrest alleged criminals, foreign nationals, and others, often without required judicial orders. The government reportedly attempts to impede criticism by monitoring the activities of the political opposition, journalists, and others. Journalists are subject to surveillance and practice self-censorship
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# Transport in Equatorial Guinea
This article lists **transport in Equatorial Guinea**.
## Railways
There are currently no railways in Equatorial Guinea.
## Maps
- [1](http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/fullMaps_Af.nsf/luFullMap/7C43B0E43BE341668525711C0063A7F9/$File/govfr_REF_gnq210206.pdf?OpenElement)
## Highways
There are 2,880 km (1,790 mi) of highways in Equatorial Guinea, the majority of which were not paved in 2002. Equatorial Guinea\'s roads and highways are underdeveloped, but improving. During the rainy season, roads are frequently impassable without four-wheel drive vehicles.
Furthermore, the country has recently`{{When|date=July 2017}}`{=mediawiki} built a 175-km long two-lane expressway that runs between Bata and President Obiang Nguema International Airport, and it is expected to soon reach the city of Mongomo, located on the border with Gabon.
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
In 2005, the country had one merchant ship of over `{{GT|1000|link=off}}`{=mediawiki} in service; a cargo vessel of `{{GT|6556|link=off}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Airports
There are seven airports in Equatorial Guinea. Its main airport is Malabo International Airport in Punta Europa, Bioko Island. International flights operate from:
- Madrid (Spain): Ceiba Intercontinental (4 flights per week)
- Paris (France): Air France (3 flights per week)
- Frankfurt (Germany): Lufthansa (3 flights per week)
- Casablanca (Morocco): Royal Air Maroc ( 2 flights per week)
- Istanbul (Turkey): Turkish Airlines (1 flight per week)
- Cotonou (Benin): Cronos Airlines (2 flights per week)
- Abidjan (Ivory Coast): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week)
- Accra (Ghana): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);
- São Tomé (São Tomé and Príncipe): Ceiba Intercontinental (3 flights per week);
- Douala (Cameroon) Ethiopian Airlines (3 flights per week); Cronos Airlines (3 flights per week)
- Libreville (Gabon): Royal Air Maroc (2 flights per week)
- Port Harcourt (Nigeria): Cronos Airlines (2 flights per week)
- Addis Abeba (Ethiopia): Ethiopian Airlines (3 flights per week)
From Malabo airport, you can fly to any of the other airports in the country. These airports are located in the region of Annobón, Bata, Mongomoyen, and Corisco
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# Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea
The **Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea** (*Fuerzas Armadas de Guinea Ecuatorial*; *Forces armées de la Guinée équatoriale*; *Forças Armadas da Guiné Equatorial*) consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about 120 members. There is also a gendarmerie, but the number of members is unknown. The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea. Military appointments are all reviewed by President Teodoro Obiang, and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang\'s Mongomo-based Esangui clan. Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema.
## History
The Armed Forces were reorganized in 1979. In 1988, the United States donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatoguinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone. The U.S. patrol boat *Isla de Bioko* is no longer operational. U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last Joint Combined Exchange Training exercise). Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased. The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001. It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian helicopter gunships. Cooper and Weinert 2010 says that all aircraft are based on the military side of Malabo International Airport.
In 2002, an International Consortium of Investigative Journalists report said:
## Equipment
### Armour
Name Origin Type In service Notes
-------------------------- -------------- --------------------------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------
Armored fighting vehicle
T-55 Soviet Union Main battle tank 3
BRDM-2 Soviet Union Armored scout car 6
BMP-1 Soviet Union IFV 20 Acquired from the Czech Republic in 2007.
BTR-152 Soviet Union Armoured personnel carrier 10
Reva South Africa Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 25
WZ-551 China IFV Unknown number, IFV, recovery and fire-support variants seen.
Pantsir-S1 Russia Anti-aircraft artillery 2
### Small arms {#small_arms}
Name Origin Type Notes
--------------------- -------------------- -------------------------- -------
AKM Soviet Union Assault rifle
FN FAL Belgium Battle rifle
RPD Soviet Union Light machine gun
RPG-7 Soviet Union Rocket-propelled grenade
Type 56 China Assault rifle
SKS/Type 56 Carbine Soviet Union/China Semi-automatic carbine
### Aircraft
The Equatorial Guinea Air Corps was founded in 1979 with mainly French and Spanish air frames. In 2005, 4 Su 25s including 2 Su-25UB combat trainers were delivered to the Equatorial Guinea Air Corps. The current status of the aircraft is unknown. In 2015 two CASA C-295 (one transport and one surveillance) aircraft were ordered for delivery from September 2016.
### Current inventory {#current_inventory}
Aircraft Origin Type Variant In service Notes
-------------------- ---------------- --------------------- --------- ------------ -------
Combat aircraft
Sukhoi Su-25 Russia attack 4
Transport
Ilyushin Il-76 Soviet Union heavy transport
Antonov AN-12 Soviet Union heavy transport 1
Antonov An-72 Soviet Union transport An-72P
Let L-410 Turbolet Czech Republic transport 2
Helicopters
Kamov Ka-27 Russia utility Ka-29 1
Mil Mi-26 Russia utility / transport 1
Harbin Z-9 China utility Z-9WE 2
Trainer aircraft
Aero L-39 Czech Republic jet trainer 2
## Navy
*Main article: Navy of Equatorial Guinea* The Equatorial Guinean main task is to counter piracy and robbery at sea. In July 2010, after the visit of Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, an order for a *Barroso*-class corvette was announced. However, `{{as of|2014|lc=yes}}`{=mediawiki} no further news has been announced. On 3 June 2014, the frigate *Wele Nzas* was commissioned and became the navy\'s flagship.
Vessel Origin Type In service Notes
-------------------- ---------- --------------- ------------ ---------------------------------------
*Wele Nzas* (F073) Bulgaria Frigate 1 Ukrainian designed - modified locally
*Bata* Bulgaria Corvette 1 Ukrainian design
PV-50 Ukraine Patrol vessel 2
*Isla de Corisco* Israel Patrol boat 1
*Isla de Annobon* Israel Patrol boat 1 Shaldag class
Sa\'ar 4 class Israel Patrol boat 2
*Osa* China Landing ship 1 Salamandra class
*Daphne* Denmark Patrol boat 1
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# Armed Forces of Equatorial Guinea
## Higher education and training {#higher_education_and_training}
On 6 November 2016, the Zimbabwe Defence Forces deployed a training contingent to the Equatorial Guinea to train the country\'s military officers on operational and logistic matters following an urgent request by the West African country. The security personnel contingent is composed of members of the Zimbabwe National Army and Air Force of Zimbabwe. In 2018, 28 graduates from the military received diplomas from the Nakhimov Naval Academy in Sevastopol
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# Economy of Eritrea
The **economy of Eritrea** has undergone extreme changes after the War of Independence. It experienced considerable growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in gross domestic product in 2011 of 8.7 percent and in 2012 of 7.5% over 2011, and has a total of \$8.090 billion as of 2020. However, worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 percent of gross domestic product.
Eritrea has an extensive amount of resources such as copper, gold, granite, marble, and potash. As of 2012, 20 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect and exploit mines.
## Economic history {#economic_history}
Eritrea\'s recent economic growth has been characterised by considerable volatility, partly due to its dependence on predominantly rainfed agriculture, which accounts for about one-third of the economy. The sector is also affected by distribution services, which account for about 20 per cent of GDP, and mining, which accounts for another 20 per cent of the economy. Real GDP growth is estimated to have recovered to around 12% in 2018, after an average contraction of -2.7% between 2015 and 2018, caused by frequent droughts and lower mining output.
Reported inflation in Eritrea was negative between 2016 and 2018, following the exchange of currency in circulation in November 2015, which led to a contraction in the money supply. Deflation persisted in 2018, as increased trade with Ethiopia exerted additional downward pressure on prices.
In recent years, Eritrea has pursued a tighter fiscal policy to address persistent deficits that emerged after the intensification of regional instability in 1998. By 2018, the country recorded a fiscal surplus of about 11 % of GDP, mainly due to significant reductions in capital expenditures and the introduction of some revenue-raising measures. However, current fiscal pressures, including recurrent and labour-related expenditures, are expected to increase.
Short-term growth prospects remain challenging due to fiscal constraints and limited opportunities under existing restrictions. The recovery in the agricultural sector is expected to slow. Eritrea continues to face a difficult macroeconomic environment, characterized by an unsustainable debt burden---including arrears to the World Bank---as well as vulnerabilities in the financial and external sectors.
## Gross domestic product (GDP) {#gross_domestic_product_gdp}
Eritrea\'s GDP, estimated at \$4.037 billion in 2011, was 8.7 percent above the GDP in 2010. The growth was due to increased agricultural output and the expansion of the mining industry along with increasing gold prices. Breakdowns of the Eritrean economy by sector have not been readily available; however, according to some estimates, in 2011 services accounted for 55 percent of the GDP, industry for 34 percent, and agriculture for the remaining 11 percent. The growth of the GDP, however, is compromised by the ongoing tensions with the country\'s borders.
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# Economy of Eritrea
## Industries
### Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing {#agriculture_forestry_and_fishing}
In 2004, agriculture employed nearly 80 percent of the population but accounted for only 12.4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in Eritrea. The agricultural sector has improved with the use of modern farming equipment and techniques, and dams. Nevertheless, it is compromised by a lack of financial services and investment. Major agricultural products are sorghum, barley, beans, dairy products, lentils, meat, millet, leather, teff, and wheat. The displacement of 1 million Eritreans as a result of the war with Ethiopia, and the widespread presence of land mines have played a role in the declining productivity of the agricultural sector. Almost a quarter of the country\'s most productive land remains`{{when|date=May 2023}}`{=mediawiki} unoccupied because of the lingering effects of the 1998--2000 war with Ethiopia.
Forestry is not a significant economic activity in Eritrea.
As of 2011, the government encouraged large-scale cultivation of cactus to help alleviate the human suffering and, in the future, increase export revenues. Cactus plants are said to have been introduced in 1839 by a French Catholic missionary who planted the cactus in Digsa, Akrur and Hebo, Southern region. The second generation of cactus plants were introduced by the Italians, who planted them at Arberebu while they were building the Asmara rail lines.
Reliable figures on the extent and value of the fishing industry in Eritrea are difficult to obtain. However, Eritrea\'s long coastline offers the opportunity for significant expansion of the fishing industry from its current, largely artisanal, stage. Eritrea exports fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia, and there is hope that the construction of a new, jet-capable airport in Massawa, as well as rehabilitation of the port there, may support increased exports of high-value seafood. In 2002, exports were about 14,000 tons, but the maximum stable yield is thought to be nearly 80,000 tons. A fish processing plant was built in 1998 that now exports 150 tons of frozen fish every month to markets in Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. Tensions with Yemen over fishing rights in the Red Sea flared up in 1995 and again in 2002, and Eritrea\'s difficult relations with other nations could hamper further development of the industry.
### Mining and minerals {#mining_and_minerals}
As of 2001, Eritrea\'s substantial mineral deposits were largely unexplored. According to the Eritrean government, artisanal mining in 1998 collected 573.4 kilograms of gold, however the number of gold reserves was unknown. International observers also have noted Eritrea\'s potential for quarrying ornamental marble and granite. As of 2001, some 10 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect for different minerals in Eritrea. The government of Eritrea reportedly was in the process of conducting a geological survey for use by potential investors in the mining sector. The presence of hundreds of thousands of land mines in Eritrea, particularly along the border with Ethiopia, has presented a serious impediment to future development of the mining sector.
In 2011, AngloGold Ashanti moved into Eritrea to explore the Arabian-Nubian Shield for gold through a 50/50 joint venture set up in 2009 with Thani Dubai Mining.
In 2011, the Australian Chalice mining company applied through a 60/40 joint venture for a mining license for 18 years.
Also in 2011, Nevsun Resources completed construction of its Bisha gold mining project. Estimated production was to be 350,000 ounces of gold per year until the gold ore is exhausted, at which point the mine would produce copper and zinc.
As of 2012, nine explorer companies operated in Eritrea from Canada (NGEx Resources), Australia (Chalice Gold Mines, South Boulder Mines, Sunridge Gold Corp), China (Sichuan Road and Bridge Group, Zhong Chang Mining Co, China Africa Huakan Investment Co., Land Energy Group (China) Ltd, Beijing Donia Resources Co.), the UK (London Africa Ltd, Andiamo Exploration Ltd.), the UAE and Barbados.
### Industry and Manufacturing {#industry_and_manufacturing}
During the period of federation, industrial capacity largely shifted to Ethiopia, leaving the Eritrean industrial sector with outmoded capital equipment. In 2003 industry accounted for 25.3 percent of gross domestic product. Major products include processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, glass, leather goods, marble, textiles, and salt.
### Energy
Households consume more than 80 percent of total energy production. Electricity production in 2001 was estimated at 220.5 million kilowatt-hours. Consumption for that year was estimated at 205.1-kilowatt hours. An 88-megawatt electricity plant funded by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Abu Dhabi was completed just south of Massawa in 2003, its completion delayed nearly three years by the war with Ethiopia. Annual consumption of petroleum in 2001 was estimated at 370,000 tons. Eritrea has no domestic petroleum production; the Eritrean Petroleum Corporation conducts purchases through international competitive tender. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, opportunities exist for both on- and offshore oil and natural gas exploration; however, these prospects have yet to come to fruition. The use of Wind energy and solar power have slightly increased, due to the growth of solar power manufacturing companies in the country. The Eritrean government has expressed interest in developing alternative energy sources, including geothermal, solar, and wind power.
### Services
In 2011, services accounted for 55 percent of gross domestic product. Financial services, the bulk of the services sector, are principally rendered by the National Bank of Eritrea (the nation\'s central bank), the Commercial Bank of Eritrea, the Housing and Commerce Bank of Eritrea, the Agricultural and Industrial Bank of Eritrea, the Eritrean Investment and Development Bank, and the National Insurance Corporation of Eritrea.
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# Economy of Eritrea
## Industries
### Tourism
Eritrea\'s lack of access to funds, the presence of large numbers of land mines, and the continued tensions that flare up between Eritrea and Ethiopia have deterred the development of a tourist industry in Eritrea. According to the World Tourism Organization, international tourism receipts in 2002 were only US\$73 million.
### Banking and Finance {#banking_and_finance}
According to the International Monetary Fund, commercial banks in Eritrea---all government owned and operated---appear to be in compliance with prudent regulations. Although the commercial banking sector is largely profitable, mostly owing to income from foreign exchange transactions, the sector is burdened by a high proportion of non-performing loans. Core lending activities do not generate sufficient income to cover operating costs at most commercial banks.
## Labor force {#labor_force}
Agriculture employs about 80 percent of the population in Eritrea, and the remaining 20 percent are employed in industry and services. The GDP per capita at nominal value was \$475 in 2011.
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# Economy of Eritrea
## Currency, exchange rate, and inflation {#currency_exchange_rate_and_inflation}
The official currency is the Eritrean nakfa (ERN), introduced in November 1997. In early 2005, likely in an effort to increase foreign capital reserves, the Eritrean government decreed that all transactions in Eritrea must be conducted in nakfa. It soon became illegal for individuals to hold and exchange foreign currency. As of January 1, 2005, the government set the foreign exchange rate at US\$1=ERN15.
Inflation continues to be a problem in Eritrea, particularly as years of drought push grain prices higher and defense expenditures remain high. The International Monetary Fund estimates that in 2003 (the most recent year for which figures are available) average inflation reached 23 percent.
## Government budget {#government_budget}
Eritrea does not publish a budget, making its fiscal condition difficult to assess. According to the International Monetary Fund, the overall fiscal deficit in 2003 was 17 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Government expenditures for that year were estimated to be US\$375 million, with revenues of only US\$235.7 million. In 2002 the fiscal deficit was 32 percent of GDP. Current expenditures continue to exceed budgeted spending, particularly in defense and other discretionary expenditures. Monetary policy remains subservient to the financing demands of the government, and debt is unsustainably high. This situation is not likely to change until demobilization of the military occurs. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Eritrean Government has revenues of \$715.2 million, and outlays of \$1.021 billion.
## Foreign economic relations {#foreign_economic_relations}
China, India, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany are aggressively pursuing market opportunities in Eritrea. There is growing interest in U.S. products and services in Eritrea, although U.S. investment in Eritrea is still small.
In 2011, Eritrea imported goods worth US\$899.9 million, including machinery, petroleum products, food, and manufactured goods. Eritrea\'s main suppliers were Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Italy, Germany, Saudi Arabia, and South Africa. In 2011 exports from Eritrea were valued at US\$415.4 million, and the bulk were food, livestock, small manufactures, sorghum, and textiles. The major markets for Eritrean goods were China, Egypt, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the UK. More recently, fish, flowers, and salt have joined the list of exports.
Foreign investment is hindered by government regulations that seek to protect domestic industries from foreign competition and by a generally unfavorable investment climate. Major foreign investors in Eritrea include China, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany, as well as the World Bank.
The government prefers private-sector investment to official aid programs and declines foreign aid; therefore its relations with aid-dispensing nations and international institutions have often been difficult.
On 16 September 2018, Eritrean President Isaias Afwerki and Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed signed a peace agreement in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia between the two countries after a bitter war that lasted 20 years (from 1998 to 2018). The two neighbouring countries ceased hostilities and restored trade and diplomatic ties, and planned joint projects
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# Telecommunications in Eritrea
**Telecommunications in Eritrea** are under the authority of the Government of Eritrea.
## Infrastructure
The Eritrea Telecommunication Services Corporation, more commonly known as *EriTel*, is the sole operator of both landline and mobile telephone communication infrastructure in Eritrea. However, it is one of several internet service providers in the country.
The domestic telecommunications infrastructure is very inadequate. Most fixed line telephones are located in Asmara, the capital and largest city. Cell phones are in increasing use throughout the country. The government is seeking international tenders to improve the system.
On 13 April 2006, Eritrea received a soft loan from the government of China to upgrade their communication infrastructure. The total sum loaned to EriTel was \$23 million. All major cities are connected to the mobile telephone system in Eritrea except for Assab, as of 2023.
## Telephone
- Fixed phones in use: 58,500 lines, 159th in the world (2011).
- Mobile cellular phones in use: 241,900 lines, 175th in the world (2011).
- Combined fixed-line and mobile-cellular subscribership is less than 5 per 100 persons (2011).
- International country code: 291.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- The government controls all broadcast media with private ownership prohibited. Purchases of satellite dishes and subscriptions to international broadcast media are permitted.
- Radio networks: 2 state-owned (2007).
- TV stations: 1 state-owned (2007).
## Internet
- Internet users: 48,692 users, 180th in the world; 0.8% of the population, 211th in the world (2012).
- Fixed broadband: 122 subscriptions, 192nd (last) in the world; 0.0% of the population, 192nd (last) in the world (2012).
- Mobile broadband: unknown.
- Internet hosts: 701 hosts, 177th in the world (2012).
- Internet service providers (ISPs): 4 (2005) - EriTel, CTS, TFanus, Ewan.`{{update after|2013|11|1}}`{=mediawiki}
- Country code: ER
- Top level domain: .er
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
- Listed as Under Surveillance by Reporters Without Borders (RWB) in 2008, 2009, not in 2010, and again from 2011 to 2012.
Eritrea has not set up a widespread automatic Internet filtering system, but it does not hesitate to order blocking of several diaspora websites critical of the regime. Access to these sites is blocked by two of the Internet service providers, Erson and Ewan, as are pornographic websites`{{Dubious|date=May 2018|reason=During visits to internet cafes, pornography seemed visible on computer screens. It is possible they had different ISPs}}`{=mediawiki}and YouTube. Self-censorship is said to be widespread
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# Transport in Eritrea
**Transport in Eritrea** includes highways, airports and seaports, in addition to various forms of public and private vehicular, maritime and aerial transportation.
## Railways
As of 1999, there was a total of 317 kilometres of `{{RailGauge|950mm}}`{=mediawiki} (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The railway links Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; however, it was nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. By 2003, the line had been restored from Massawa all the way through to Asmara.
There are no rail links with adjacent countries.
## Highways
The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads that are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable. The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully covered with asphalt (throughout their entire length), and, in general, they carry traffic between all the major towns in Eritrea.
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| Title | Start point | Intermediate point | End point | Road type |
+=======+=============+====================+==========================+===========+
| P-1 | Asmara | Ghinda | Massawa | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-2 | Asmara | Adi Tekelezan | Keren | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-3 | Asmara | Adi Keyh | Senafe | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-4 | Asmara | Mendefera | Mareb River\ | Asphalt |
| | | | (*border with Ethiopia*) | |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-5 | Keren | Barentu | Tesseney | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-6 | Massawa | Tiyo | Asseb | Gravel |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-7 | Asseb | *n/a* | Bure | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-8 | Gahtelai | Shebah | She\'eb | Asphalt |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
| P-9 | Serejeqa | *n/a* | Shebah | Gravel |
+-------+-------------+--------------------+--------------------------+-----------+
: Primary Highways of Eritrea
\
*total:* 4,010 km\
*paved:* 874 km\
*unpaved:* 3,136 km (1996 est.)
## Seaports and harbours {#seaports_and_harbours}
### Red Sea {#red_sea}
- Asseb (Aseb)
- Massawa (Mits\'iwa)
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
\
*total:* 5 ships (with a volume of `{{GT|1,000|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki} or over) totaling `{{GT|16,069}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|19,549|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}\
*ships by type:* bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 1, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 (1999 est.)
## Airports
There are three international airports, one in the capital, Asmara International Airport, and the two others in the coastal cities, Massawa (Massawa International Airport) and Assab (Assab International Airport). The airport in Asmara received all international flights into the country as of March 2007, as well as being the main airport for domestic flights.
### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
Name Length of the runway
--------- ----------------------
Asmara
Massawa
Assab
### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
\
*total:* 18\
*over 3,047 m:* 2\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 2\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 6\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 6\
*under 914 m:* 2 (1999 est.)
## Cableway
The Asmara-Massawa Cableway, built by Italy in the 1930s, connected the port of Massawa with the city of Asmara. The British later dismantled it during their eleven-year occupation after defeating Italy in World War II
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# Geography of Estonia
Between 57.3 and 59.5 latitude and 21.5 and 28.1 longitude, Estonia lies on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea on the level northwestern part of the rising East European Platform. Estonia\'s continental mainland is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland (part of the Baltic Sea) across from Finland, to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia, and to the south by Latvia. Besides the part of the European continent, Estonian territory also includes the larger islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, and over 2,200 other islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, off the western and northern shores of the country\'s mainland.
Average elevation in Estonia reaches 50 m.
The climate is maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers. Oil shale and limestone deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets.
## Geographic features {#geographic_features}
`{{See also|List of islands of Estonia}}`{=mediawiki} `{{See also|List of rivers of Estonia}}`{=mediawiki}
Estonia is a flat country covering 45339 km2, of which internal waters comprise 4.6%. Estonia has a long, shallow coastline (3794 km) along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at 2673 km2, and Hiiumaa, at 989 km2. The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots. The country\'s highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches 318 m above sea level. Estonia is covered by about 18000 km2 of forest. Arable land amounts to about 9260 km2. Meadows cover about 2520 km2, and pastureland covers about 1810 km2. There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. The largest of them, Lake Peipus (3555 km2), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia. Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake (270 km2). The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country\'s many rivers.
A small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali are found on the Estonian island of Saaremaa. The impact may have been witnessed by the Iron Age inhabitants of the area.
Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from 16.3 °C on the Baltic islands to 17.1 °C inland in July, the warmest month, and from −3.5 °C on the Baltic islands to −7.6 °C inland in February, the coldest month. Precipitation averages 568 mm per year and is heaviest in late summer.
Estonia\'s land border with Latvia runs 333 km; the Russian border runs 324 km. From 1920 to 1945, Estonia\'s border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva river in the northeast and beyond the town of Petseri in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2300 km2, was transferred to Soviet Russia at the end of World War II.
### Geology
Estonia is located on the northwestern part of the East European Platform, bordering the Fennoscandian Shield. Estonia\'s bedrock consists of two main layers: the crystalline basement and the sedimentary cover. These are further classified into three distinct geological complexes. The crystalline basement, composed of granites, gneisses, and other crystalline rocks, formed during the Proterozoic. This is overlain by a sedimentary cover of Paleozoic rocks, including limestones and sandstones. Above this, a quaternary surface layer is mainly composed of unconsolidated sediments such as gravels, sands, and clays, which formed in the Cenozoic.
## Fauna
There live 65 different species of mammals in the Estonian forests. There are an estimated 700 brown bears, over 150 wolves, 400 lynxes, 14,000--16,000 beavers, 3,400 wild boars, 10,000--11,000 moose and 120,000--130,000 deer. There are also red deer and other wild animals.
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# Geography of Estonia
## Flora
## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
One of the most burdensome legacies of the 1944--1991 Soviet occupation of Estonia is widespread environmental pollution. The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army. Across military installations covering more than 800 km2 of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters.
In the 1990s, during the army\'s withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment. In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far. The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia\'s topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases. At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that 6 km2 of land were covered by a layer of fuel; 11 km2 of underground water were said to be contaminated. The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable, and was sometimes set fire by locals to provide heat during the winter. With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as 4 million EEK. The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than 10 billion EEK to the damage to the country\'s topsoil and water supply. However, the ministry was able to allocate only 5 million EEK in 1993 for cleanup operations.
In a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental concerns. For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita. Nearly 75% of Estonia\'s air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva. The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia has also left large mounds of limestone tailings dotting the region. Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into a reservoir on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents. In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern. The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EEK3.5 billion.
**Natural hazards:** flooding occurs frequently in the spring in certain areas
**Environment -- current issues:** air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amounts of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen dramatically and the pollution load of wastewater at purification plants has decreased substantially due to improved technology and environmental monitoring; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations
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# Politics of Estonia
**Politics in Estonia** takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Estonia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in the Estonian parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government, which is led by the prime minister. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Estonia is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO.
## History
The Estonian Declaration of Independence was issued on 21 February 1918. A parliamentary republic was formed by the Estonian Constituent Assembly and the first Constitution of Estonia was adopted on 15 June 1920. The Parliament of Estonia (State Assembly) elected a Riigivanem who acted both as Head of Government and Head of State. During the Era of Silence, political parties were banned and the parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938 because the country was ruled by decree of Konstantin Päts, who was elected as the first President of Estonia in 1938. In 1938 a new constitution was passed and the Parliament of Estonia was convened once again, this time bicamerally, consisting of Riigivolikogu (lower house) and Riiginõukogu (upper house), both meaning State Council in direct translation. In 1940, Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union. It was soon followed by the German occupation of 1941--1944. During the course of the two occupations, legal institutions, elected according to the Estonian constitution, were removed from power. In September 1944, after German forces left, legal power was briefly restored, as Otto Tief formed a new government in accordance with the 1938 constitution. The Tief government lasted for only five days, as Estonia was again occupied by the Soviet Union. Estonia declared independence in 1991 as the Republic of Estonia on the basis of continuity of the constitution prior to 1938, putting into motion the transition from a state socialist economy to a capitalist market economy; in 1992, the public approved a new constitution. On 1 May 2004, Estonia was accepted into the European Union. On 1 January 2011, Estonia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency as the first former Soviet Union state.
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## History
### Recent political developments {#recent_political_developments}
The leader of the Reform Party Andrus Ansip was the Prime Minister of Estonia from 2005 until 2014. By the end of his nine-year tenure he was the longest-serving prime minister in the European Union. In August 2011, President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves, in office since 2006, was re-elected. In March 2014, after the resignation of Ansip, Taavi Rõivas of the Reform Party became new prime minister. 34-year-old Rõivas was the youngest prime minister in Europe at that time. In March 2015, the ruling Reform party, led by Prime Minister Taavi Rõivas, won the parliamentary election In October 2016, Estonian parliament elected Kersti Kaljulaid as the new President of Estonia. She was the first female president of Estonia. In November 2016, the new chairman of the Centre Party Jüri Ratas became the new Prime Minister of Estonia. He succeeded prime minister Rõivas whose government lost a parliamentary vote of no-confidence.
In the parliamentary election of 2019, five parties gained seats at Riigikogu. The head of the Centre Party, Jüri Ratas, formed the government together with Conservative People\'s Party and Isamaa, while Reform Party and Social Democratic Party became the opposition. On January 13, 2021, Ratas resigned as prime minister in the wake of a corruption scandal.
On 26 January 2021, Reform Party leader Kaja Kallas became Estonia\'s first female prime minister, making Estonia the only country in the world to currently be led by both a female President and Prime Minister. The new government was a two-party coalition between country\'s two biggest political parties Reform Party and Centre Party. However, Alar Karis was sworn in as Estonia\'s sixth President on October 11, 2021. In July 2022, Prime Minister Kaja Kallas formed a new three-party coalition by her liberal Reform Party, the Social Democrats and the conservative Isamaa party. Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the center-left Center Party left the coalition.
In March 2023, the Reform party, led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas, won the parliamentary election, taking 31,4% of the vote. Far-right Conservative People\'s Party came second with 16,1 % and the third was the Centre Party with 15% of the vote. In April 2023, Kallas formed her third government, which included, in addition to Reform Party, also the liberal Estonia 200 and the Social Democratic (SDE) parties. In July 2024, Kristen Michal became Estonia\'s new prime minister to succeed Kaja Kallas, who resigned as prime minister on July 15 to become the European Union\'s new High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Estonia was 2023 the 5th most electoral democratic country in the world.
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# Politics of Estonia
## Institutions
The framework for the political institutions of Estonia is provided by the Constitution of Estonia (*Eesti Vabariigi põhiseadus*). The constitution follows the principle of separation of powers. Legislative power is wielded by the Parliament, executive power by the Government and judicial power by the courts. Each institution is further defined by their respective legislative acts.
### Parliament
*Main article: Riigikogu* The *Riigikogu* is the representative legislative authority of the Republic of Estonia. It comprises 101 members who are elected at free elections for a four-year term according to the principle of proportional representation. The work of the Parliament is coordinated by the Board of the *Riigikogu*, which is led by the President of the *Riigikogu* and is elected for a term of one year. There are also factions within the Parliament, which carry out the programmes of their respective political parties. The work of the Parliament is supported by various committees, which are staffed by members of the factions. They prepare draft legislation and exercise parliamentary control over their fields of activity. The Chancellery of the *Riigikogu* is tasked with servicing the Parliament. It is headed by the Secretary General of the *Riigikogu*, who is appointed by the Board of the *Riigikogu*. Legislation is passed by an open majority vote. The quorum for the Parliament is provided in the *Riigikogu* Rules of Procedure and Internal Rules Act.
Citizens of Estonia who are at least 21 years of age and are eligible to vote may stand to be elected to the Parliament of Estonia. Citizens who are at least 18 years of age and are not convicted of a criminal offence have the right to participate in the voting for the Parliament of Estonia. Elections are called by the President of the Republic. After the election of the Parliament, the first sitting is convened by the President of the Republic, where the members of the Parliament will take an oath of office and then elect the President and Vice Presidents of the Parliament. After the election of the President and Vice Presidents, who are nominated by members of the Parliament, the Prime Minister announces the resignation of the Government so a new one could take its place. The procedure of elections is defined in the *Riigikogu* Election Act.
### Head of State {#head_of_state}
The President is the head of state of the Republic of Estonia and serves as the highest representative of the state. Furthermore, the President can have limited participation in legislation by issuing decrees, resolutions and directives. Presidential legislation is administered by the Government of the Republic. In addition, the President can refuse to proclaim a law and return it to the Parliament for review. The President is assisted by the Office of the President, which is managed by the Head of the Office of the President. There are also several institutions under the jurisdiction of the President. These include: President\'s Academic Advisory Board, Roundtable on Regional Development, Estonian Memory Institute, Cultural Foundation of the President, Estonian Cooperation Assembly and National Defence Council. The mandate of the President is determined by the President of the Republic Work Procedure Act.
The President is elected by the Parliament of Estonia for a five-year term, but no more than two terms. If the Parliament does not secure at least two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an Electoral College (made up of the Parliament and representatives of local authority councils) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes. The President candidate is nominated with at least one-fifth support by members of the Parliament. Candidates have to be citizens of Estonia by birth and at least 40 years of age. The procedure for election of the President is provided in the President of the Republic Election Act. The President of the *Riigikogu* can also perform the duties of the President of the Republic in cases outlined in the constitution.
### Government
The Government of the Republic (*Vabariigi Valitsus*) is the executive authority of the Republic of Estonia. Its main task is governing the state and implementing policies. It comprises the Prime Minister of Estonia and ministers, who also serve as representatives in the Council of the European Union. The Prime Minister is the head of Government who represents the institution and directs its activities. Different areas of government are managed by various ministries, each of which is headed by a minister. Ministries are further divided into departments, divisions and bureaus. The work of the ministry is managed by a secretary general, who is recommended by the minister and appointed by the Government. Executive power is also exercised by executive agencies and inspectorates under the authority of a ministry. The Government of the Republic is assisted by the Government Office, which is led by the State Secretary. The State Secretary is appointed by the Prime Minister. The activities and organisation of the Government is regulated in the Government of the Republic Act.
After the appointment of the Parliament, the Prime Minister candidate is nominated by the President. The Parliament then decides whether to authorise the candidate to form the Government. If approved, the candidate presents a list of members of the Government to the President, who appoints the Government within three days. The Government of the Republic assumes office by taking an oath before the Parliament.
### Central Bank {#central_bank}
The Bank of Estonia (*Eesti Pank*) is the central bank of the Republic of Estonia. Its mission is to maintain the stability of the Estonian financial system. It administers the circulation of currency, implements monetary policy, advises the Government and reports to the Parliament. However, it operates independently of other national government agencies. It is a member of the European System of Central Banks and may receive instructions from the European Central Bank. It is overseen by the supervisory board, which includes a chairman together with seven members. The chairman of the supervisory board is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament for a term of five years. The Bank of Estonia is headed by the Governor of the Bank of Estonia, who is recommended by the supervisory board and appointed by the President for a term of five years, but no more than one consecutive term. The Governor is also the chairman of the executive board, which is responsible for planning and organising the work of the institution. Furthermore, the Governor represents the Republic of Estonia in the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund. The Bank of Estonia is governed by strict confidentiality rules regarding banking secrets. The organisation and activities of the Bank of Estonia is regulated by the Bank of Estonia Act.
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# Politics of Estonia
## Institutions
### National Audit Office {#national_audit_office}
The National Audit Office (*Riigikontroll*) is an independent public body that carries out audits concerning public spending and assets, including the use of European Union funds. It mainly reports to the Parliament, but can and does share information with the Government and the public. It is headed by the Auditor General, who is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament for a term of five years. Every year the Auditor General presents reports about public assets to the Parliament, which are also made public. The National Audit Office has two main departments, the Audit Department and Development and Administrative Service. The Audit Department carries out various audits and the Development and Administrative Service supports its function. The National Audit Office also cooperates with the European Court of Auditors. The organisation and activities of the National Audit Office is regulated by the National Audit Office Act.
### Chancellor of Justice {#chancellor_of_justice}
The Chancellor of Justice (*Õiguskantsler*) is a public official who is tasked with supervising the conformity of legislation with the Constitution of Estonia and laws, protecting fundamental rights, performing the functions of the Ombudsman for Children and solving discrimination disputes. Anybody can turn to the Chancellor of Justice with issues of fundamental rights and freedoms or conformance of an act or legislation with the constitution or law. Every year a report is presented to the Parliament about the activities of the Chancellor of Justice. If the Chancellor of Justice finds that some legislation is not in conformance with the constitution or law, then it can be sent back to the body that passed it to be brought into conformity. If the legislation is not brought in conformity within 20 days, then the Chancellor of Justice can make a proposal to the Supreme Court to repeal it. The Chancellor of Justice also regularly inspects places of detention to prevent and protect detainees of ill-treatment. The working body of the Chancellor of Justice is the Office of Chancellor of Justice. The Chancellor of Justice is recommended by the President and appointed to office by the Parliament for a term of seven years. The status and the organisation of the office of the Chancellor of Justice is determined by the Chancellor of Justice Act.
### Courts
Courts form the judiciary of the Republic of Estonia, which consists of three instances. The first instance courts include county and city courts and administrative courts. Circuit courts are the second instance and review the rulings of the courts of first instance on appeal. The Supreme Court (*Riigikohus*) is the highest court instance and reviews rulings of other courts upon request for a motion to quash, but also acts as a constitutional court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is recommended by the President and appointed by the Parliament. Justices of the Supreme Court are recommended by the Chief Justice and appointed by the Parliament. Other judges are recommended by the Supreme Court and appointed to office for life by the President. First and second instance courts are administered by the Ministry of Justice with the support of Council for Administration of Courts. The Supreme Court administers itself with the aid of self-government bodies. These include: Court *en banc*, Council for Administration of Courts, Disciplinary Chamber, Judge\'s examination committee and Judicial Training Council. First and second order courts are headed by chairmen, who are elected from among judges for a term of seven years. The organisation of the courts and their rules of procedure are established in the Courts Act.
### Local government {#local_government}
The local self-government (*Kohalik omavalitsus*) is the authority responsible for all local matters. They are based on rural municipalities and cities. The local authority is represented by its council, which is elected for a term of four years on free local elections, in conformance with the Municipal Council Election Act. The council can have no less than seven members. The work of the council is managed by the chairman, who is elected from among the members of the council. The executive body of the local authority is the municipal administration (government). The municipal administration is formed and managed by the mayor, who is appointed by the council. The mayor is also tasked with representing the local authority. The council has the right to impose taxes, duties and regulations according to law. These are only valid within the administrative territory of the local government. The council may also decide to form committees, law enforcement units and other administrative agencies. Residents of the municipality have the right to initiate passage, amendment or repeal of legislation of the local authority. Issues in the domain of the council are decided by an open vote. The functions, responsibility and organisation of local governments is determined by the Local Government Organisation Act.
### Political parties {#political_parties}
Estonia has a multi-party system in which parties usually need to form coalition governments. However, some local self-governments have been formed by a single party. Parties gain authority for implementing their policies by participating in local self-government council, state parliament and/or European Parliament elections. The political landscape is relatively stable, though fractured, and polarization on the left-right scale tends to be fairly weak. Most of the polarization is centered on ethnicity, which is infused with conflict over Estonia\'s history and identity inherited from the Soviet Union.
A party is founded by a memorandum of association as a non-profit association. It needs to have at least 1000 members and a platform approved by the leadership to be registered. Parties receive funding through donations and from state budget if they are either represented in the state parliament or managed to receive at least one percent of the votes in the elections of the parliament. Funding is reviewed by the political party funding supervision committee, which consists of members appointed for a term of five years by the Chancellor of Justice, Auditor General, National Electoral Committee and political parties represented in the parliament. Any Estonian citizen or a citizen of European Union with permanent residence in Estonia who is at least 18 years old can become a member of a political party. The organisation and activities of political parties is regulated by the Political Parties Act and Non-profit Associations Act.
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# Politics of Estonia
## Policies
Mandate to implement policies is attained through elections. Political parties determine their program based on their platform and the input of members. Parties that get elected to a position of authority then have a chance to deliberate with other elected parties to decide which policies to implement and how.
### Elections
*Main article: Elections in Estonia, Electronic voting in Estonia* There are four types of public elections in Estonia: local government council elections, state parliament elections, European Parliament elections and referendums. Referendums can be initiated by the Parliament. The rules of procedure for elections are established in the Municipal Council Election Act, *Riigikogu* Election Act, European Parliament Election Act and Referendum Act. Elections are overseen by the National Electoral Committee and managed by the State Electoral Office, county heads of elections and voting district committees. Members of the National Electoral Committee, which is established for a term of four years, are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Chancellor of Justice, Auditor General, Chief Public Prosecutor, State Secretary and Board of Auditors. The State Electoral Office is part of the Chancellery of the *Riigikogu* and its members are appointed by the Secretary General of the Parliament. It organises electronic voting and supervises the election managers. County heads of elections manage elections in the county by instructing and supervising voting district committees. They are either the county secretary or someone recommended by the country secretary and appointed by the Head of the State Electoral Office. A voting district committee is formed by the municipal council and comprises at least five members, with half of the members being presented by the municipal secretary and half by participating political parties. The activities of the National Electoral Committee and election managers can be observed by everyone.
Electronic voting was first used in Estonia during the municipal council elections of 2005. Since then the share of people voting electronically has continuously risen. Electronic voting is managed by the State Electoral Office, which establishes the technical requirements and organisation of electronic voting. Voting is based on the Estonian ID card. Every voter has the right to verify and change their vote electronically. If the voter has also voted with a ballot paper, then only the ballot paper will be taken into account.
Residents without Estonian citizenship may not elect the Riigikogu. Residents without citizenship of any European Union member state may not elect the European Parliament. All permanent residents, regardless of citizenship, are eligible to vote in the Estonian municipal elections.
### Finance and the national budget {#finance_and_the_national_budget}
Estonia operates an advanced free-market economy, which is integrated into the wider European economy by being part of the European Union and the Eurozone. The Estonian monetary system is managed by the Estonian Central Bank, the national budget is drafted by the Government of the Republic and approved by the Parliament. The draft must be presented to the Parliament at least three months before the beginning of the budget year. The rules for drafting and passage of the state budget are described in the State Budget Act. Financial supervision is provided by the Financial Supervision Authority. It supervises securities market, banks, insurance providers, insurance mediators, investment associations and management companies.
Drafting of the national budget is annually co-ordinated by the Ministry of Finance and supported by other ministries. The ministries prepare plans for at least the next three years and then negotiate the draft budget with the Ministry of Finance, while the Government of the Republic acts as a mediator. After the draft has been finalized by the Government of the Republic, it is then presented to the Parliament for approval. The implementation of the budget is then organized by the Ministry of Finance. Rearrangement of the budget, so that the total revenues and expenses don\'t change, is passed as amendments, but changes to the total revenues and expenses have to be made through an additional budget. Revenues and expenses are accounted by the State Treasury.
Estonia has one of the lowest national debts in Europe. Part of the reason is that the State Budget Act requires the structural budget position to be in balance. There has also traditionally been a general political consensus over keeping the budget in balance and holding a decent reserve. The Estonian economy is frequently rated as one of the freest in the world and maintains a stable international credit rating. High efficiency is provided through an advanced internet banking system and e-governance.
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# Politics of Estonia
## Policies
### Foreign relations and international treaties {#foreign_relations_and_international_treaties}
Foreign relations are managed mainly by the Parliament, the Government of the Republic (including various ministries) and the President of the Republic, who mostly serves a representative role. The government can enter into international agreements and present them to the parliament for ratification. Agreements that are in conflict with the Constitution can not be ratified. One notable example of such a case was when Estonia decided to join the European Union, which required the amendment of the Constitution in order to ratify the Accession Treaty. The mandate for the amendment of the Constitution was gained through a public referendum.
Estonia\'s main foreign policy goals are to maintain national security and stability of international relations, ensuring the functioning of Estonian economy, protecting citizens abroad, maintaining good influence and reputation, and promoting democracy, human rights, rule of law and economic freedom. To achieve these goals, Estonia has set its priorities on involvement and integration into the European Union and NATO, and forming strong relations with countries that share its values, especially its close Baltic and Nordic neighbours. Baltic and Nordic cooperation is coordinated through such formats as: Baltic Council of Ministers, Baltic Assembly, Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8), Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Council of Ministers. Estonia is also a member of the UN, OECD, OSCE and WTO, among others.
Treaties can be initiated or concluded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Other ministries and the State Chancellery can make proposals on treaties to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which then reviews the proposals. If the submission meets requirements, the ministry can then send it to the Government of the Republic for approval. Ratification of treaties is performed by the parliament. The performance of treaties is guaranteed by the Government of the Republic. The procedures pertaining to foreign relations are described in the Foreign Relations Act. After decades of Soviet occupation, Estonia decided to re-establish its independence in 1991. Because the annexation of Estonia was never recognized, and on the basis of the historical continuity of statehood, the state inherited the full responsibility for the rights and obligations of the Republic of Estonia that existed before the occupation. This means, that multilateral treaties, which were approved before the occupation, were considered to be still in effect. Thus, Estonia has re-assumed its international obligations through the restoration of old treaties.
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# Politics of Estonia
## Policies
### National defence {#national_defence}
Estonia\'s national defence is based on initial self-defence capability and membership in NATO. Estonia\'s security policy utilizes a broad concept of security, similar to the concept of total defence in several Nordic countries, in which all sectors of society are involved. According to the constitution, all citizens of Estonia have a duty to participate in national defence. Male citizens between the ages of 17-27 must partake in 8-12 month military service, though female citizens are also free to serve. Peace-time and war-time organisation of national defence is determined by the National Defence Act.
The supreme commander of national defence is the President of the Republic. The president is advised by the National Defence Council, which consists of the President of the Parliament, Chairman of the National Defence Committee, Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Prime Minister with other ministers and the Commander of the Defence Forces. Planning, development and organisation of national defence is coordinated by the Security Committee of the Government of the Republic. Management of defence readiness, state of emergency and state of war are directed by the Prime Minister. Increase of defence readiness needs to be approved by the parliament. Beginning and end of state of war and mobilisation is proposed by the president and declared by the parliament. In case of aggression against the Republic of Estonia, state of war can be declared by the president without a corresponding resolution from the parliament. Use of the Defence forces in international cooperation is decided by the parliament. The activities of the Defence Forces are directed and organised by the Commander of the Estonian Defence Forces
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# Telecommunications in Estonia
The National Telecommunications act in the second period of Estonian independence granted a monopoly on international and local fixed line telephony to Estonian Telecom (Eesti Telecom). In the process of privatization, a concession was granted to liberalize mobile, CATV and packet-switched telecommunications. This concession was critical for developing a competitive market. Three licensed mobile operators encouraged one of the highest rates of mobile telephony penetration in the world. CATV licenses were granted at a local level, and while it was a more natural monopoly, pirate operators proliferated within populous cities in the 1990s.
Internet penetration blossomed. Beginning with a satellite link and widespread undersea leased line connectivity, Estonia connected with the rest of the world. The concession for packet communications, perhaps against the constraint of limited international telephony competition (with the global exceptions of callback, transit and re-file arbitrage) \-- created conditions in which Skype was natively created.
With a population of about 1.3 million, Estonia had in 2012 about 2.07 million cellular telephones and 0.45 million fixed phones. In 2009 it had about 0.97 million internet users.
## Digital Progress {#digital_progress}
Estonia is a nation with a digitally advanced economy. In 2023, about 93% of citizens engage with e-government services, highlighting a citizen-centric governance approach. Access to e-health records is available to 89% of Estonians. In the business realm, 51% of companies have adopted cloud services. Supporting this digital progress, approximately 10.1% of graduates are in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
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# Transport in Estonia
**Transport in Estonia** relies mainly on road and rail networks.
## Roads
- Total: 57,565 km (including 16,465 km of national roads)
- Paved: 12,926 km (including 99 km of limited-access roads)
### National roads {#national_roads}
National roads form the core of Estonian road network. Their total length is 16,489 km (or 28% of all roads), 67% of them are paved. They are divided into 4 classes according to importance:
- main roads (1,607 km)
- basic roads (2,406 km)
- secondary roads (12,476 km)
- local roads (18,455 km)
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Number | E-road | Route | Length (km) | Notes |
+========+========+===========================================+=============+============================================================================================+
| | | Tallinn -- Narva | 211 | expressway for 80 km out of Tallinn and 7 km between Kukruse and Johvi.\ |
| | | | | Continues to Saint Petersburg as Russian A180 |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Tallinn -- Tartu -- Võru -- Luhamaa | 291 | expressway for 79 km out of Tallinn.\ |
| | | | | Crosses Estonia in southeast direction from Tallinn to join national road 7 |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Jõhvi -- Tartu -- Valga | 216 | continues from Valga to Riga as Latvian A3 |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Tallinn -- Pärnu -- Ikla | 193 | expressway for 14 km out of Tallinn and 7 km out of Pärnu\ |
| | | | | continues from Ikla to Riga as Latvian A1 |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Pärnu -- Rakvere -- Sõmeru | 184 | from Pärnu via Paide to join national road 1 near Rakvere |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Valga -- Uulu | 125 | from Pärnu via Kilingi-Nõmme to Valga |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Riga -- Pskov | 22 | short section in southeast Estonia via Misso, continues as Russian A212 and Latvian A2 |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Tallinn -- Paldiski | 49 | via Keila, Keila-Paldiski section is part of E 265, which continues on ferry to Kapellskär |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Ääsmäe -- Haapsalu -- Rohuküla | 81 | ferry connection from Rohuküla to Hiiumaa |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Risti -- Virtsu -- Kuivastu -- Kuressaare | 144 | ferry between Virtsu and Kuivastu (Muhumaa) |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Tallinn ring road | 38 | |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Tartu -- Viljandi -- Kilingi-Nõmme | 130 | |
+--------+--------+-------------------------------------------+-------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: **Main roads in Estonia**
### Electric vehicle network {#electric_vehicle_network}
Estonia is the first country in the EU and in the world to introduce a nationwide, publicly serviced charging system for charging the batteries of electric vehicles. The 165 fast charging stations are equipped with connectors of the CHAdeMO standard. They are located throughout the entire country, including the islands, and have a maximum distance of 40--60 km in between. The charging stations can also be navigated via a smartphone app (currently only for Android). The relatively dense network and 30 minute quick charges are built to enable a country-wide electric vehicle network. The system offers a unitary booking service and several different tariffs, some of which appear attractively low priced. The charging station network puts Estonia at the forefront in Europe even though Norway actually has a higher penetration of electric vehicles. Estonia has a rate of 1 electric vehicle per 1,000 capita, whereas Norway has 4 EVs per 1,000 capita.
## Railways
- Total: 900 km common carrier lines only (1,200 km including dedicated industrial lines)
- Broad gauge: 900 km `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{RailGauge|1524mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (133 km electrified)
### Railway links with adjacent countries {#railway_links_with_adjacent_countries}
- Latvia -- yes -- same `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge
- Russia -- yes -- same `{{RailGauge|1520mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge
As of 2023, the Rail Baltica project to link a high speed line through Latvia and Lithuania to Poland, is scheduled for completion in 2030, with a start of services on some of the sections in 2028.
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# Transport in Estonia
## Light rail {#light_rail}
There has been a growing tram network in Tallinn, Estonia since 1888, when traffic was started by horse-powered trams. The first line was electrified on October 28, 1925. The first electric trams were built by Dvigatel, Ltd., in Tallinn before World War II and for some years after that, the last one in 1954. In the 1920s and 1930s gas-powered trams were also used. Since 1955 to 1988 German-built trams were used. In total, there were 20 LOWA T54-B54 trams (in use from February 1955 to March 1977), 11 Gotha T57-B57 (in use from January 1958 to June 1978), 5 Gotha T59E-B59E (in use from June 1960 to February 1980), 14 Gotha T2-62 and B2-62 (in use from 1962 to 1981) and 50 Gotha G4 trams (in use from January 1965 to October 1988) trams. The first Czechoslovakian-built ČKD Tatra T4SU arrived in 1973. The T4SU trams were in use from May 1973 to September 2005 and there were 60 of them. The first KT4SU arrived in Tallinn in 1981 and was first in use on March 10, 1981. In 2007, there are 56 KT4SU, 12 KTNF6 (rebuilt KT4SUs, 10 local, one from Gera and one from Erfurt) and 23 KT4D (12 from Gera, 6 from Cottbus, 1 from Frankfurt (Oder) and 5 from Erfurt) in use. As of 2018, there are five lines: 1: (Kopli-Kadriorg), 2: (Kopli-Suur-Paala), 3: (Tondi-Kadriorg) 4: (Tondi-Suur-Paala) and 5: (Kopli-Vana-Lõuna).
The line number 4 was diverted to Suur-Paala in 2024 due to the construction of the Rail Baltica railway terminal in Ülemiste. The line will return onto its original route in 2026.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Estonia has 45 ports in the State Port Register. With a few exceptions, all of them are on the Baltic Sea.
Largest ports are Muuga (near Tallinn), Tallinn (comprises several ports), Paldiski, Kunda, Pärnu and Sillamäe.
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
Since 2014, there have been no vessels over 500gt on the Estonian register. About 60 merchant vessels are beneficially owned in Estonia, with most of them registered in Malta. The government has started a drive to bring more of these vessels back into the Estonian register.
## Airports
### Airports -- with paved runways {#airports_with_paved_runways}
- total: 13 (2013)
- over 3,047 m: 2
- 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
- 1,524 m to 2,437 m : 2
- 914 to 1,523 m: 1
Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport is the largest airport in Estonia
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# Demographics of Ethiopia
The **demographics of Ethiopia** encompass the demographic features of inhabitants in Ethiopia, including ethnicity, languages, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Official Ethiopian Statistics Services put Ethiopian Population 2024 at. 109 Million around 20 Million less than UN Numbers.
## Population
Source: Central Statistical Agency (CSA)
Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world. Its total population has grown from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018. The population was only about nine million in the 19th century. The 2007 Population and Housing Census results show that the population of Ethiopia grew at an average annual rate of 2.6% between 1994 and 2007, down from 2.8% during the period 1983--1994. As of 2015, the population growth rate is among the top ten countries in the world. According to UN estimations, life expectancy in Ethiopia had improved over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.
### UN estimates {#un_estimates}
According to `{{UN_Population|source}}`{=mediawiki}, the total population was `{{UN_Population|Ethiopia}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, compared to 18,434,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 55.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older. The average age was 25.1.
Total population Population aged 0--14 (%) Population aged 15--64 (%) Population aged 65+ (%)
------ ------------------ --------------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------------
1950 18 434 000 44.1 52.9 3
1955 20 298 000 43.9 53.3 2.8
1960 22 553 000 43.5 53.8 2.6
1965 25 480 000 43.5 53.9 2.6
1970 28 959 000 44.1 53.3 2.7
1975 32 959 000 44.5 52.7 2.8
1980 35 426 000 44.5 52.6 2.9
1985 41 078 000 44.6 52.6 2.9
1990 48 333 000 45.4 52.1 2.9
1995 57 042 000 45.9 51.2 2.9
2000 65 578 000 45.9 51.1 3.0
2005 74 264 000 44.5 52.4 3.1
2010 82 950 000 41.5 55.2 3.3
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 37 217 130 36 533 802 73 750 932 100
0--4 5 482 792 5 314 230 10 797 022 14.64
5--9 6 106 788 5 874 976 11 981 764 16.25
10--14 5 412 324 4 999 913 10 412 237 14.12
15--19 4 454 710 4 293 338 8 748 048 11.86
20--24 3 098 338 3 303 747 6 402 085 8.68
25--29 2 622 759 3 039 429 5 662 188 7.68
30--34 2 088 208 2 131 858 4 220 066 5.72
35--39 1 827 296 1 949 346 3 776 642 5.12
40--44 1 464 529 1 408 451 2 872 980 3.90
45--49 1 150 017 1 097 287 2 247 304 3.05
50--54 928 294 962 472 1 890 766 2.56
55--59 634 053 536 967 1 171 020 1.59
60--64 646 359 588 641 1 235 000 1.67
65--69 446 242 359 019 805 261 1.09
70--74 359 897 316 663 676 560 0.92
75--79 203 843 146 333 350 176 0.47
80--84 159 786 127 691 287 477 0.39
85--89 62 001 38 195 100 196 0.14
90--94 38 185 26 357 64 542 0.09
95+ 30 709 18 889 49 598 0.07
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 17 001 904 16 189 119 33 191 023 45.00
15--64 18 914 563 19 311 536 38 226 099 51.83
65+ 1 300 663 1 033 147 2 333 810 3.16
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------- ---------
Total 50 501 054 50 195 689 100 696 744 100
0--4 6 928 657 6 696 036 13 624 693 13.53
5--9 6 556 462 6 386 585 12 943 045 12.85
10--14 5 953 639 5 819 250 11 772 889 11.69
15--19 5 590 667 5 450 660 11 041 324 10.96
20--24 5 047 253 4 902 329 9 949 582 9.88
25--29 4 406 798 4 348 582 8 755 379 8.69
30--34 3 687 268 3 768 246 7 455 512 7.40
35--39 2 990 405 3 135 347 6 125 754 6.08
40--44 2 394 320 2 528 749 4 923 071 4.89
45--49 1 843 822 1 962 667 3 806 489 3.78
50--54 1 472 263 1 548 292 3 020 553 3.00
55--59 1 156 765 1 177 778 2 334 541 2.32
60--64 883 392 899 303 1 782 694 1.77
65--69 639 745 643 776 1 283 523 1.27
70--74 444 339 441 554 885 894 0.88
75--79 276 955 273 976 550 928 0.55
80+ 228 308 212 565 440 871 0.44
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 19 438 758 18 901 871 38 340 629 38.08
15--64 29 472 949 29 721 947 59 194 896 58.79
65+ 1 589 347 1 571 871 3 161 218 3.14
### UN projections {#un_projections}
Below are the UN\'s medium variant projections: `{{Historical populations
|title = UN population projections for Ethiopia (medium variant)
|align = left
|shading = off
|percentages = pagr
|3=2025|4=135472051|5=2030|6=147649901|7=2035|8=164079192|9=2040|10=180415091|11=2045|12=196839709|13=2050|14=213190071}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Demographics of Ethiopia
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events in Ethiopia is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates:
Year Population (thousands) Live births (thousands) Deaths (thousands) Natural change (thousands) CBR CDR NC TFR IMR Life expectancy (years)
------ ------------------------ ------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------- -------------------------
1950 17 710 875 494 381 49.4 27.9 21.5 7.35 199.4 36.35
1951 18 101 890 498 392 49.1 27.5 21.6 7.30 198.1 36.60
1952 18 497 899 502 397 48.6 27.1 21.5 7.20 195.4 36.82
1953 18 892 910 503 407 48.1 26.6 21.5 7.12 192.3 37.23
1954 19 292 921 505 416 47.7 26.2 21.5 7.05 189.1 37.54
1955 19 704 934 507 428 47.4 25.7 21.7 6.99 185.6 37.96
1956 20 128 951 509 442 47.2 25.3 21.9 6.95 181.9 38.34
1957 20 499 967 643 324 47.2 31.4 15.8 6.92 216.3 32.39
1958 20 817 985 636 349 47.3 30.5 16.8 6.90 211.8 32.94
1959 21 227 1 007 502 505 47.4 23.6 23.8 6.89 169.9 39.86
1960 21 740 1 032 508 524 47.5 23.3 24.1 6.88 165.8 40.33
1961 22 282 1 060 509 551 47.6 22.9 24.7 6.88 161.8 41.00
1962 22 852 1 090 516 574 47.7 22.6 25.1 6.88 158.0 41.40
1963 23 449 1 121 520 601 47.8 22.2 25.6 6.87 154.6 41.96
1964 24 074 1 157 529 628 48.0 22.0 26.1 6.87 151.6 42.28
1965 24 728 1 193 541 652 48.3 21.9 26.4 6.86 149.6 42.44
1966 25 378 1 230 607 622 48.5 23.9 24.5 6.87 160.6 40.15
1967 26 052 1 268 566 702 48.7 21.7 26.9 6.88 146.5 42.69
1968 26 779 1 308 580 728 48.8 21.7 27.2 6.90 146.2 42.84
1969 27 530 1 358 599 759 49.3 21.8 27.5 6.94 146.0 42.83
1970 28 308 1 399 618 781 49.4 21.8 27.6 6.98 145.7 42.82
1971 29 100 1 442 634 807 49.5 21.8 27.7 7.02 145.4 42.89
1972 29 891 1 481 687 794 49.5 23.0 26.6 7.06 152.0 41.55
1973 30 694 1 517 702 815 49.4 22.9 26.5 7.09 151.6 41.64
1974 31 489 1 561 783 778 49.6 24.9 24.7 7.12 163.2 39.45
1975 32 253 1 601 803 798 49.6 24.9 24.7 7.14 163.0 39.36
1976 33 062 1 644 744 900 49.7 22.5 27.2 7.19 147.9 41.90
1977 33 695 1 694 766 929 49.9 22.5 27.3 7.26 147.6 41.89
1978 34 259 1 712 774 937 49.8 22.5 27.3 7.30 147.1 41.90
1979 34 759 1 750 766 985 49.8 21.8 28.0 7.31 143.4 42.81
1980 34 945 1 764 761 1 004 49.8 21.5 28.3 7.33 141.9 43.22
1981 35 819 1 771 752 1 018 49.9 21.2 28.7 7.36 140.4 43.61
1982 37 213 1 858 782 1 076 50.0 21.0 28.9 7.37 138.6 43.77
1983 38 235 1 917 1 084 833 50.2 28.4 21.8 7.38 180.9 36.04
1984 39 203 1 985 1 088 897 50.7 27.8 22.9 7.40 177.5 36.43
1985 40 286 2 052 1 077 974 51.0 26.8 24.2 7.38 171.4 37.36
1986 41 455 2 111 1 090 1 021 51.0 26.4 24.7 7.36 167.9 37.81
1987 42 852 2 168 833 1 335 50.7 19.5 31.2 7.34 126.6 45.44
1988 44 512 2 230 877 1 353 50.3 19.8 30.5 7.30 125.1 45.06
1989 46 196 2 304 911 1 394 50.0 19.8 30.2 7.27 123.1 45.04
1990 47 878 2 389 957 1 432 50.1 20.1 30.0 7.24 122.0 44.56
1991 49 937 2 466 935 1 531 49.8 18.9 30.9 7.21 117.6 46.13
1992 52 012 2 548 950 1 598 49.1 18.3 30.8 7.16 114.3 46.90
1993 53 792 2 618 957 1 661 48.7 17.8 30.9 7.13 111.1 47.39
1994 55 620 2 677 964 1 714 48.2 17.3 30.8 7.08 107.7 47.86
1995 57 477 2 737 970 1 767 47.6 16.9 30.8 7.01 104.1 48.30
1996 59 348 2 811 968 1 843 47.4 16.3 31.1 6.92 100.5 48.92
1997 61 233 2 865 968 1 897 46.8 15.8 31.0 6.85 97.1 49.51
1998 63 136 2 895 973 1 921 45.8 15.4 30.4 6.75 93.7 49.93
1999 65 078 2 946 1 011 1 935 45.3 15.5 29.7 6.65 90.9 49.43
2000 67 032 2 984 990 1 995 44.5 14.8 29.7 6.56 87.2 50.54
2001 69 019 3 040 991 2 048 44.0 14.4 29.7 6.46 83.9 51.04
2002 71 073 3 085 992 2 092 43.4 14.0 29.4 6.37 80.3 51.52
2003 73 169 3 096 970 2 126 42.3 13.3 29.0 6.24 76.8 52.53
2004 75 301 3 138 960 2 178 41.7 12.7 28.9 6.11 73.1 53.24
2005 77 470 3 177 948 2 230 41.0 12.2 28.8 5.97 69.6 54.01
2006 79 691 3 207 920 2 287 40.2 11.5 28.7 5.85 66.3 55.15
2007 81 996 3 240 886 2 354 39.5 10.8 28.7 5.74 62.8 56.43
2008 84 357 3 245 856 2 389 38.5 10.1 28.3 5.57 59.8 57.59
2009 86 756 3 235 823 2 412 37.3 9.5 27.8 5.39 57.1 58.80
2010 89 238 3 259 803 2 456 36.5 9.0 27.5 5.22 54.4 59.73
2011 91 818 3 290 782 2 508 35.8 8.5 27.3 5.05 51.9 60.72
2012 94 451 3 289 766 2 523 34.8 8.1 26.7 4.88 49.6 61.54
2013 97 084 3 294 751 2 543 33.9 7.7 26.2 4.72 47.4 62.37
2014 99 747 3 346 748 2 598 33.6 7.5 26.1 4.61 45.2 62.91
2015 102 472 3 425 739 2 687 33.4 7.2 26.2 4.53 43.2 63.65
2016 105 293 3 507 729 2 777 33.3 6.9 26.4 4.47 41.4 64.39
2017 108 198 3 577 732 2 844 33.1 6.8 26.3 4.39 39.6 64.84
2018 111 129 3 668 730 2 937 33.0 6.6 26.4 4.34 38.0 65.41
2019 114 176 3 883 750 3 122 33.5 6.5 27.0 4.35 37.6 65.7
2020 117 298 3 961 761 3 239 33.3 6.4 27.2 4.27 36.3 66.0
2021 120 537 4 015 811 3 203 32.9 6.6 26.2 4.18 35.1 65.3
2022 123 740 4 064 767 3 288 32.4 6.1 26.2 4.08 34.0 66.9
2023 127 028 4 106 767 3 327 31.9 6.0 25.9 3.99 33.0 67.3
CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births
Source: *UN World Population Prospects*
### Census data on fertility {#census_data_on_fertility}
As per 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia
Region Urban TFR Rural TFR Total TFR (U+R)
--------------------------------- ----------- ----------- -----------------
Ethiopia (Country Total) 2.220 4.650 4.160
Tigray Region 2.915 4.905 4.440
Affar Region 2.440 2.000 2.075
Amhara Region 2.135 4.540 4.175
Oromia Region 2.635 5.235 4.845
Somali Region 2.175 1.985 2.010
Benishangul -- Gumuz Region 3.005 4.800 4.520
S.N.N.P Region 2.750 4.715 4.495
Gambella Region 2.725 2.930 2.885
Harari Region 1.725 4.725 2.885
Addis Ababa City Administration 1.485 \- 1.485
Dira Dawa City Administration 2.155 5.455 2.985
Region 17 3.210 2.585 2.845
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# Demographics of Ethiopia
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Crude Birth Rate (CBR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Wanted Fertility Rate (WFR):
year crude birth rate (CBR)
------- ------------------------ ------- -------
total urban rural total
2000 41.3 30.7 42.9
2005 35.7 23.4 37.3
2011 34.5 26.4 36.2
2016 31.8 23.9 33.2
2019 26.5 24.6 27.2
Fertility data as of 2016 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15--49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40--49
------------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
Tigray 4.7 5.0 6.1
Afar 5.5 9.5 6.5
Amhara 3.7 5.9 6.2
Oromiya 5.4 8.3 6.7
Somali 7.2 12.9 7.4
Benishangul-Gumuz 4.4 7.3 6.7
SNNPR 4.4 8.0 6.9
Gambela 3.5 5.9 4.9
Harari 4.1 9.2 4.3
Addis Ababa 1.8 2.6 2.6
Dire Dawa 3.1 5.5 5.2
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# Demographics of Ethiopia
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Ethiopia\'s population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation\'s population. The Amhara represent 27.0% of the country\'s inhabitants, while Somalis and Tigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively. Other prominent ethnic groups are as follows: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% and Others 12.6%.
Afroasiatic-speaking communities make up the majority of the population. Among these, Semitic speakers often collectively refer to themselves as the Habesha people. The Arabic form of this term (*al-Ḥabasha*) is the etymological basis of \"Abyssinia\", the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages. Additionally, Nilo-Saharan-speaking ethnic minorities inhabit the southern regions of the country, particularly in areas of the Gambela Region which borders South Sudan. The largest ethnic groups among these include the Nuer and Anuak. The Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples\' Region, being an amalgam of the main homelands of numerous ethnicities, contains over 56 indigenous ethnic groups.
## Languages
According to the bibliographic database Glottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia; meanwhile, *Ethnologue* lists 90 individual languages spoken in the country. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, including the Oromo language, Somali, Amharic, and Tigrinya. Together, these four groups make up about three-quarters of Ethiopia\'s population. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Gurage languages, Harari, Silt\'e, and Argobba languages. Arabic, which also belongs to the Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.
The principal Semitic language of the north-west and centre of the country is Amharic, which is the language of the Amhara Region. Moreover, Amharic is also one of the official working languages of Ethiopia.
Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harar and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.
## Religion
International Data {{!}} TheARDA\|url=<https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_78_2.asp%7Caccess-date=2021-07-28%7Cwebsite=www.thearda.com%7Carchive-date=21> June 2021\|archive-url=<https://web.archive.org/web/20210621062101/https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_78_2.asp%7Curl-status=dead>}}
}}Various religions are adhered to in Ethiopia. Most Christians live in the highlands, whereas Muslims mainly inhabit the lowlands. Adherents of traditional faiths are primarily concentrated in the southern regions.
According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (2007 census), the national religious composition is Ethiopian Orthodox 43.5%, Protestantism 18.6%, Roman Catholicism 0.7%, Islam 33.9%, traditional 2.6%, and others 0.6%
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# Politics of Ethiopia
The **politics of Ethiopia** are the activities associated with the governance of Ethiopia. The government is structured as a federal parliamentary republic with both a President and Prime Minister. The legislature is multicameral, with a house of representatives and a council. The term **politics of Ethiopia** mainly relates to the political activities in Ethiopia after the late 20th century when democratization took place in the nation. The current political structure of Ethiopia was formed after the Tigrayan People\'s Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew dictator President Mengistu Haile Mariam in 1991. A general election was held in June 1994 and Ethiopia has maintained a multiparty political environment until today.
## Government of Ethiopia {#government_of_ethiopia}
The government of Ethiopia is structured in the form of a federal parliamentary republic, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the Parliament. The Judiciary is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature. There are 12 ethnically based administrative regions and two self-governing administrations; the capital city Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.
The president of Ethiopia is elected by the House of Peoples\' Representatives for a six-year term. The prime minister is chosen by the parliament. The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections. The Council of Ministers, according to the 1995 constitution, is comprised by the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Ministers, various Ministers and other members as determined and approved by the House of Peoples\' Representatives. At the current time, this includes the 20 members of Council of Ministers.
The Federal Parliamentary Assembly has two chambers: the House of Peoples\' Representatives (*Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet*) with 547 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat constituencies; and the Council of the Federation (*Yefedereshn Mekir Bet*) with 110 members, one for each nationality, and one additional representative for each one million of its population, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections.
The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of Peoples\' Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the People\'s Representatives for appointment.
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# Politics of Ethiopia
## Recent history {#recent_history}
In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name Tigrayan People\'s Liberation Front (TPLF) overthrew the dictatorship of President Mengistu Haile Mariam. In July 1991, the TPLF, the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Ogaden National Liberation Front, Western Somali Liberation Front, Oromo People\'s Democratic Organization (OPDO), Amhara National Democratic Movement (ANDM) and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), which consisted of an 87-member Council of Representatives guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. Since 1991, Ethiopia has established warm relations with the United States and western Europe and has sought substantial economic aid from Western countries and the World Bank.
In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia Peoples\' Democratic Coalition left the government. The Eritrean People\'s Liberation Front (EPLF), an ally in the fight against the Mengistu regime, assumed control of Eritrea and established a provisional government. Eritrea achieved full independence on May 24, 1993.
President Meles Zenawi and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy. The first election for Ethiopia\'s 547-member constituent assembly was held in June 1994. This assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia\'s first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections. There was a landslide victory for the Ethiopian People\'s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so.
The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The first President was Negasso Gidada. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, seemingly devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has nine semi-autonomous Regions of Ethiopia that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.
In 2004, the government began a resettlement initiative to move more than two million people away from the arid highlands of the east, proposing that these resettlements would reduce food shortages.
The ruling party, EPRDF was declared a winner by the election board in 2000, and then again in 2005 amidst protests and riots that led to the death of many Ethiopians. Hundreds of political leaders--some of whom were elected to parliamentary positions-- were arrested in connection with these protests. The incumbent president in 2013 was Mulatu Teshome who resigned in 2018.
Human rights organisations have raised concerns over the well-being of some of these prisoners. However 8,000 prisoners have already been freed.
On 5 August 2016, protests broke out across the country and dozens of protesters were shot and killed by police over the following days. The protesters demanded an end to human rights abuses, the act of land grabbing by the ruling party members and relatives of the higher officials, the master plan intended to expand Addis Ababa onto surrounding zones of the Oromia region including the farm land of oromo people (special zones of oromia around Addis Ababa), the release of political prisoners, a fairer redistribution of the wealth generated by over a decade of economic growth, and a return of Wolqayt District to the Amhara Region. The events were the most violent crackdown against protesters in Sub-Saharan Africa since the Ethiopian regime killed at least 75 people during protests in the Oromia Region in November and December 2015.
In the wake of significant unrest, the TPLF lost control of the EPDRF, with Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, announcing his resignation as head of the EPDRF in 2018. Abiy Ahmed, who had become Prime Minister after winning the EPDRF leadership elections in April 2018 subsequently dissolved the EPDRF. He replaced it with the Prosperity Party, a coalition which includes all former members of the EPDRF but notably excluded the TPLF. This kickstarted a period of growing tension between the government and the TPLF, which culminated in the Tigray War that began in 2020.
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# Politics of Ethiopia
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
In the 2015 general election, Opposition parties lost the only seat which they still held in the House of Peoples\' Representatives. The Ethiopian People\'s Revolutionary Democratic Front and its allies won all 547 seats.
Political pressure groups include the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) Beyene Petros and the Southern Ethiopia People\'s Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) \[Beyene Petros\].
The coalition of opposition parties and some individuals that was established in 2009 to oust at the general election in 2010 the regime of the TPLF, Meles Zenawi\'s party that has been in power since 1991, published a 65-page manifesto in Addis Ababa on October 10, 2009.
Some of the eight-member parties of this Ethiopian Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD or Medrek in Amharic) include the Oromo Federalist Congress (organized by the Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement and the Oromo People\'s Congress), the Arena Tigray (organized by former members of the ruling party TPLF), the Unity for Democracy and Justice (UDJ, whose leader was imprisoned), and the Coalition of Somali Democratic Forces.
### 2005 Ethiopian general elections {#ethiopian_general_elections}
Ethiopia held its third general election in May 2005, which drew a record number of voters, with 90% of the electorate turning out to cast their vote. While the election was deemed by the European Union election observer team to fall short of international standards for fair and free elections, other teams drew different conclusions. The African Union report on September 14 commended \"the Ethiopian people\'s display of genuine commitment to democratic ideals\"; on September 15, the US Carter Center concluded that \"the majority of the constituency results based on the May 15 polling and tabulation are credible and reflect competitive conditions\". The US Department of State said on September 16, \"these elections stand out as a milestone in creating a new, more competitive multi-party political system in one of Africa\'s largest and most important countries.\" Even the EU preliminary statement of 2005 also said \"\...the polling processes were generally positive. The overall assessment of the process has been rated as good in 64% of the cases, and very good in 24%\".
The opposition complained that the ruling EPRDF engaged in widespread vote rigging and intimidation, alleging fraud in 299 constituencies. The ruling party complained that the main opposition party CUD\'s AEUP sub party had engaged in intimidation. All allegations were investigated by the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia in cooperation with election monitors, a process which delayed the release of the final results. In June 2005, with the results of the election still unclear, a group of university students protested these alleged discrepancies, encouraged by supporters of the Coalition for Unity opposition party, despite a ban on protests imposed by the government. On June 8, 26 people were killed in Addis Ababa as a result of rioting, which led to the arrest of hundreds of protesters. On September 5, 2005, the National Elections Board of Ethiopia released the final election results, which confirmed that the ruling Ethiopian People\'s Revolutionary Democratic Front retained its control of the government, but showed that opposition parties had increased their share of parliamentary seats, from 12 to 176. The Coalition for Unity and Democracy won all the seats in Addis Ababa, both for the Parliament and the City Council.
In February 2006, UK Prime Minister Blair, acknowledging that the EPRDF has won the election, said he wanted to see Ethiopia resolve its internal problems and continue on a democratic path.
With Ethiopia\'s national election in May 2010 approaching, some opposition groups begun to hint a boycott, accusing the government of stepping up harassment against them. Despite growing claims of \"harassment\" and \"undemocratic actions\" perpetrated by the ruling party, the Forum for Democratic Dialogue (FDD), Ethiopia\'s biggest alliance of opposition political parties declared in October 2009 that it will contest in the scheduled election.
Gebru Asrat, a former ally of PM Meles Zenawi, said that his party\'s primary efforts were *\"to engage in negotiation with the government on key election issues\"* ahead of the election, but he added that the government was reluctant.
FDD insists to engage in a pre-election negotiation on 10 key subjects, among which the issues of access to the media for campaigning, the supremacy of law, the free access of international observers, the establishment of an independent electoral board and a stop to harassment and pressure on opposition members.
### 2010 Ethiopian general elections {#ethiopian_general_elections_1}
The EPRDF won the 2010 elections by a landslide, taking 499 seats, while allied parties took a further 35. Oppositions parties took just two. Both opposition groups say their observers were blocked from entering polling stations during the election on Sunday, May 23, and in some cases the individuals were beaten. The United States and the European Union have both criticized the election as falling short of international standards. Additionally, the EPRDF won all but one of 1,904 council seats in regional elections.
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# Politics of Ethiopia
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
ACP, AfDB, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO.
Scheye wrote in 2010 that significant donor resources are being invested in security sector reform in Ethiopia because of donor national interest, even though the country\'s ruling group is ideologically opposed to the core principles of SSR, and showed, at that time, little interest in justice and security sector development.
*The Guardian* wrote just before the 2015 elections that \"..the EPRDF\'s relations with donors are a crucial factor in maintaining its position. Ethiopia remains structurally dependent on aid, with the country receiving more than \$3 billion a year from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. However, all indications are that external support will remain strong, regardless of electoral openness. Ethiopia is a key partner for countries concerned about security in the region, especially the US, UK and the European Union.\"
## Royalists and government in exile {#royalists_and_government_in_exile}
A group of Ethiopian royalists continue to operate The Crown Council of Ethiopia as a government in exile
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# Telecommunications in Ethiopia
**Telecommunications in Ethiopia** is a monopoly in the control of Ethio telecom, formerly the Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC). As of 2012, 20.524 million cellular phones and 797,500 main line phones were in use.
## Overview
The telephone system in Ethiopia consists of open wire and microwave radio relay systems adequate for government use. Domestic systems are open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the high frequency, very high frequency, and ultra high frequency; two domestic satellites provide the national trunk service. International systems are open wire to Djibouti and Sudan; microwave radio relay to Djibouti and Kenya; and satellite earth stations are 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean).
The Ethiopian dial plan changed on 17 September 2005. City codes (*i.e.*, internal prefixes) changed from two digits to three (or, from outside Ethiopia, one digit to two). Phone numbers changed from six digits to seven.
In 2007, there were 89 internet hosts. There were 447,300 internet users in 2009. In 2010, just 0.75 percent of the population were using the Internet, one of the lowest rates in the world. The internet domain in Ethiopia is .et.
## History
The first telegraph line in Ethiopia was constructed in the years 1897--1899 between the cities of Harar and the capital Addis Ababa. This was extended in 1904 by a line that ran from Addis Ababa through Tigray into Eritrea and to Massawa; and the next year by a line again from Addis Ababa to Gore in the province of Illubabor and Jimma in Kaffa.
The first telephones were brought by Ras Makonnen from Italy in 1890, and connected between the Palace and the Imperial treasury; the sound of disembodied voices frightened the local priests, who thought it was the work of demons. The Emperor Menelik II responded to their protests with disdain, and later used the telephone to give orders to his provincial governors. Emperor Haile Selassie had begun the process of introducing radio transmitters to the country for civilian and military use in the years before the Italian invasion.
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# Telecommunications in Ethiopia
## Current status {#current_status}
According to the ETC, the average rural inhabitant of Ethiopia has to walk 30 kilometers to the nearest phone. The ETC announced 7 September 2006 a program to improve national coverage, and reduce the average distance to 5 kilometers.
Since 2008 CDMA2000 and WCDMA is available in certain areas.
Since 26 September 2017 until end of 2018 it was not possible to buy and use Ethio telecom SIM cards in mobile devices that have not been purchased in Ethiopia or registered with the authorities. Local advice suggests travellers should register their phone in the customs arrival hall at Bole Airport on arrival if they intend to use a local SIM card. For travellers, local prepaid SIMs are available at small shops, Ethio telecom kiosks and hotels. Satellite phones may require letter of permission from the ETC prior to bringing such phones through customs.
Use of voice over IP services such as Skype and Google Talk was prohibited by telecommunications legislation in 2002. Personal use of these services was legalised by the Proclamation on Telecom Fraud Offences of 2012.
Since the changes and upgrade of equipment in the mid-2000 the telecommunication network is frequently out of work or overloaded, callers using both the landlines and mobile network are unable to connect, the situation is made worse by inclement weather. The ETC has not addressed this issue publicly nor admitted that the coverage and service is below par.
Ethio telecom has launched the Fourth Generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) service on 21 March 2015 in line with the help of the Chinese company HUAWEI.
Ethio telecom Corporate Compunction Officer, Abdurahim Mohammed, stated that the rural telecom access within 5 km radius service has currently reached 96 per cent. As part of the efforts to expand its service and improve network quality, Ethio telecom had built 725 stations in Addis Ababa alone during the past 20 years. Damages on fiber optic cables and power interruptions are among the challenges the service provider faced in its expansion and network quality improvement efforts
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# Transport in Ethiopia
**Transport in Ethiopia** is overseen by the Ministry of Transport and Communications. Over the last years, the Ethiopian federal authorities have significantly increased funding for rail and road construction to build an infrastructure, that allows better economic development.
## Railways
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Current railways in Ethiopia:`{{legend-line|red solid 4px|[[Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway|Addis Ababa–Djibouti]]}}`{=mediawiki}`{{legend-line|yellow solid 4px|[[Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway|Awash–Hara Gebeya]] [[Hara Gebeya–Mek'ele Railway|–Mek'ele]]}}`{=mediawiki} Ethiopia is building a standard gauge railway network, the National Railway Network of Ethiopia, planned to consist of up to 6,000 km of railways in a number of years. The railway network serves a strategic goal to allow Ethiopia a sustainable and stable economic development. By 2030, the Ethiopian government hopes to invest about \$65 billion into its transportation. The railway network\'s primary purpose is then both to connect landlocked Ethiopia to the world market by ensuring a seamless access to one or several sea ports for trade and for transporting most imports and exports. The rail transport of goods appears favorable -- if compared to road transport -- in terms of volume, costs, safety and speed of transportation for both imports and exports. The primary port for Ethiopia is the Port of Djibouti in Djibouti. More than 95% of Ethiopia\'s trade passes through Djibouti.
The port of Djibouti is served by one international railway, the electrified standard gauge 756 km long Addis Ababa -- Djibouti Railway (of which 656 km run in Ethiopia). This railway has officially been opened in October 2016 but it is in trial service with no regular traffic in 2017. Once operational by the end of 2017 or in 2018, it will allow passenger transport and a travel time from Addis Ababa to Djibouti City in less than twelve hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.
Another railway, the Awash -- Hara Gebeya Railway will go into trial service over its first 270 km in 2018. This second railway links Addis Ababa and the Addis Ababa -- Djibouti Railway with the north of Ethiopia. Once operational over its first 270 km, possibly 2018 or 2019, it will allow both freight and passenger transport. A train ride from Addis Ababa to the twin cities of Kombolcha and Dessie will be possible in around six hours with a designated speed of 120 km/hour.
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# Transport in Ethiopia
## Roads
Road projects now`{{When|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} represent around a quarter of the annual infrastructure budget of the Ethiopian federal government. Additionally, through the Road Sector Development Program (RSDP), the government has earmarked \$4 billion to construct, repair and upgrade roads over the next decade.
As the first part of a 10-year to 15 year Road Sector Development Program, between 1997 and 2002 the Ethiopian government began a sustained effort to improve its infrastructure of roads. As a result, as of 2002 Ethiopia has a total (federal and regional) 33,297 km of roads, both paved and gravel. The share of federally managed roads in good quality improved from 14% in 1995 to 31% in 2002 as a result of this program, and to 89% in 2009 the road density increased from 21 km per 1000 km^2^ (in 1995) to 889 per 1000 km^2^ (in 2009) however, this is much greater than the average of 50 km per 1000 km^2^ for Africa.
The Ethiopian government had begun the second part of the Road Sector Development Program, which was completed in 2007. This had involved the upgrading or construction of over 7,500 km of roads, with the goal of improving the average road density for Ethiopia to 35 km per 1000 km^2^, and reducing the proportion of the country area that is more than 5 km from an all-weather road from 75% to 70%.
In 2024, the Ministry of Transport and Communications announced that they will ban combustion engined vehicle imports. As of February 2024, the date and details of the ban have not been released.
According to the Government of Ethiopia, it has spent over 600 billion birr (US\$50 billion, €30 billion) on infrastructure since 1990.
- *total (regional and federal):* 144,391 km (2009)
- *asphalt:* 120,381 km (2009) (89% of the roads in Ethiopia are asphalt)
- *gravel:* 11,023 km (2009) (11% of the roads in Ethiopia are gravel)
- *maintained by Regional government*: 86,580 km (2009)
Major roads include:\
**No 1**: north east from Addis Ababa 853 km via Adama and Awash to Bure on Eritrean border\
**No 2**: north from Addis Ababa 1071 km via Dessie, Mek\'ele and Adigrat to Axum\
**No 3**: north west from Addis Ababa across the Blue Nile at Dejen and again at Bahir Dar east around Lake Tana 737 km to Gondar. Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)\
**No 4**: west from Addis Ababa 445 km via Nekemte to Gimbi\
**No 5**: west from Addis Ababa 510 km via Jimma to Metu\
**No 6**: south west from Jimma 216 km to Mizan Teferi\
**No 7**: south from Mojo 432 km via Shashamane and Sodo to Arba Minch. Part of road between Mojo and Shashamane is designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)\
**No 8**: south from Shashamane 214 km via Awasa to Hagere Mariam. Designated part of the Cairo-Cape Town Trans-African Highway 4 (TAH 4)\
**No 9**: south from Adama 77 km to Asella\
**No 10**: east from Awash 572 km via Harar and Jijiga to Degehabur
### Expressways
The Addis Ababa--Adama Expressway was completed in 2014 as the first expressway in Ethiopia. In December 2015, construction began on a second expressway between Awasa and Mojo, where it will connect to the existing expressway.
In addition, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has undertaken a three-year project to upgrade over 370 km of roads in the country. Contracts have been signed with the Ethiopian Defense Construction, China Railway Engineering, Eney Construction, China Wuyi, Yotek Construction and FAL General Contractor.
### Dangers of vehicular transport {#dangers_of_vehicular_transport}
It is said that Ethiopia has the highest rates of traffic fatalities per vehicle in the world. This is due to many factors. For example, the roads are poorly maintained, lightened and marked; which are major factors in road accidents. Another major factor is the people themselves, who ignore the rules of the road. Their disregard of road safety puts every other driver at risk. Due to this, foreigners are advised to keep a safe distance from the car in front of them because the driving is unpredictable; anything can happen in the blink of an eye. Even the surroundings involving transport can be incredibly dangerous. For example, there are instances when carjackings and robberies occur on highways or streets that are away from the public eye. Due to this, people are forced to be highly alert of their surroundings, such as checking to make sure no one is lurking around their vehicle before entering and avoiding nighttime travel.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Asseb and Massawa until 1997; since the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports. Ethiopia increasingly relies on inland dry ports for distributing cargo, after cargo arrived from Djibouti. The main Ethiopian dry port is Modjo dry port.
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
The Baro River is the only river used for transport.
*Total:* 9 ships (with a volume of `{{GT|1,000}}`{=mediawiki} or over) `{{GT|81,933}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|101,287}}`{=mediawiki} (2003 est.)\
*ships by type:* cargo ship 7; container ship 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off ship 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.)
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# Transport in Ethiopia
## Airports
As of 2021, Ethiopia has 57 airports, of which 17 have paved runways . The Addis Ababa Airport is the largest airport in Ethiopia and one of Africa\'s biggest and busiest. It is the main hub of Ethiopian Airlines, the national airline that serves destinations in Ethiopia and throughout the African continent, as well as nonstop service to Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The airport is also the base of the Ethiopian Aviation Academy. As of June 2018, nearly 450 flights per day were departing from and arriving at the airport. In 2018, about 12 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights.
Paved runways
*total:* 14\
*over 3,047 m:* 3\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 5\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 5\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 1 (2003 est.)
Unpaved runways
*total:* 68\
*over 3,047 m:* 3\
*2,438 to 3,047 m:* 2\
*1,524 to 2,437 m:* 13\
*914 to 1,523 m:* 27\
*under 914 m:* 23 (2003 est
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# Europa Island
**Europa Island** (*Île Europa*, `{{IPA|fr|il øʁɔpa|pron}}`{=mediawiki}), in Malagasy **Nosy Ampela** is a 28 km2 low-lying tropical atoll in the Mozambique Channel, about a third of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique. The island had never been inhabited until 1820, when the French family of Rosier moved to it. The island officially became a possession of France in 1897, though it is claimed by Madagascar.
The island, garrisoned by a detachment from Réunion, has a weather station and is visited by scientists. Though uninhabited now, it is part of the Scattered Islands of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands administrative region.
Europa Island was the setting of \"Search in the Deep\", a 1968 episode of *The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau*, partly focusing on the breeding habits of the green sea turtle.
## Description
Europa is 6 km in diameter, with a maximum altitude of 6 m, and has 22.2 km of coastline. It is surrounded by coral beaches and a fringing reef and encloses a mangrove lagoon of around 9 km2 and open to the sea on one side.
There are no ports or harbours but anchorage is possible offshore. Its exclusive economic zone, contiguous with that of Bassas da India, is 127300 km2. The airstrip is 1500 m metres long.
### Ecology
The island is a nature reserve. Its vegetation consists of dry forest, scrub, *Euphorbia*, the mangrove swamp, and the remains of a sisal plantation. It is one of the world\'s largest nesting sites for green sea turtles. It is also home to goats introduced by settlers in the late 18th century.
The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a large and diverse population of breeding seabirds and other waterbirds. It is the only known breeding site outside Aldabra and Madagascar for Malagasy pond herons. Seabirds include the second largest colony in the western Indian Ocean of great frigatebirds (with up to 1100 pairs), tropical shearwaters (up to 100 pairs, probably of the subspecies *Puffinus bailloni bailloni* previously considered endemic to the Mascarene Islands), dimorphic egrets and Caspian terns.
Europa is home to an endemic subspecies of white-tailed tropicbird (*Phaethon lepturus europae*), three kinds of landbird (including an endemic subspecies of the Malagasy white-eye) and its own species of hissing cockroach.
### Climate
Europa Island\'s climate is affected by the Agulhas Current with water temperatures usually above 30 C, southeast trade winds during the (austral) winter and occasional cyclones. The climate can be described as a semi-arid and tropical combination with wet summers and dry winters.
## History
While the island has probably been sighted by navigators since at least the 16th century, it takes its name from the British ship *Europa*, which visited it in December 1774. Ruins and graves on Europa island attest to several attempts at settlement from the 1860s to the 1920s. For example, the French Rosiers family moved to the island in 1860, but subsequently abandoned it. The Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean are partially claimed by the Comoros, Madagascar, and Mauritius. The Malagasy and Mauritian claims, however, are significantly later than their access to independence. However, the agreement reached in October 2024 on the restitution to Mauritius of the Chagos Islands by Great Britain, in the heart of the Indian Ocean, notably home to the American base of Diego Garcia, has relaunched the debate in Madagascar.
<File:Europa> Island.jpg\|Satellite photo of Europa Island (north at top) <File:Europa> Island simplified land cover map-en.svg\|Map of Europa Island <File:vue> aerienne europa.jpg\|Aerial view of the island <File:EuropaDunesNord
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# Ericsson
(`{{lit|Telephone Stock Company of LM Ericsson}}`{=mediawiki}), commonly known as **Ericsson** (`{{IPA|sv|ˈêːrɪkˌsɔn|-|LL-Q9027 (swe)-Moonhouse-Ericsson.wav}}`{=mediawiki}), is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden. Ericsson has been a major contributor to the development of the telecommunications industry and is one of the leaders in 5G. Ericsson has over 57,000 granted patents and it is the inventor of Bluetooth technology.
The company sells infrastructure, software, and services in information and communications technology for telecommunications service providers and enterprises, including, among others, cellular 4G and 5G equipment, and Internet Protocol (IP) and optical transport systems. The company employs around 100,000 people and operates in more than 180 countries. The company is listed on the Nasdaq Stockholm under the ticker symbols ERIC.A and ERIC.B and on the American Nasdaq under the ticker symbol ERIC.
The company was founded in 1876 by Lars Magnus Ericsson and is jointly controlled by the Wallenberg family through its holding company Investor AB, and the universal bank Handelsbanken through its investment company Industrivärden. The Wallenbergs and the Handelsbanken sphere acquired their voting-strong A-shares, and thus the control of Ericsson, after the fall of the Kreuger empire in the early 1930s.
## History
### Foundation
Lars Magnus Ericsson began his association with telephones in his youth as an instrument maker. He worked for a firm that made telegraph equipment for the Swedish government agency Telegrafverket. In 1876, at the age of 30, he started a telegraph repair shop with help from his friend Carl Johan Andersson in central Stockholm and repaired foreign-made telephones. In 1878, Ericsson began making and selling his own telephone equipment. His telephones were not technically innovative. In 1878, he agreed to supply telephones and switchboards to Sweden\'s first telecommunications operating company, Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag.
### International expansion {#international_expansion}
As production grew in the late 1890s, and the Swedish market seemed to be reaching saturation, Ericsson expanded into foreign markets through a number of agents. The UK (Ericsson Telephones Ltd.) and Russia were early markets, where factories were later established to improve the chances of gaining local contracts and augment the output of the Swedish factory. In the UK, the National Telephone Company was a major customer; by 1897 sold 28% of its output in the UK. The Nordic countries were also Ericsson customers; they were encouraged by the growth of telephone services in Sweden.
Other countries and colonies were exposed to Ericsson products through the influence of their parent countries. These included Australia and New Zealand, which by the late 1890s were Ericsson\'s largest non-European markets. Mass production techniques were now firmly established; telephones were losing some of their ornate finish and decoration.
Despite their successes elsewhere, Ericsson did not make significant sales in the United States. AT&T's Western Electric Company (via the Bell System), Kellogg and Automatic Electric dominated the market. Ericsson eventually sold its U.S. assets. Sales in Mexico led to inroads into South American countries. South Africa and China were also generating significant sales. With his company now multinational, Lars Ericsson stepped down from the company in 1901.
### Automatic equipment {#automatic_equipment}
Ericsson ignored the growth of automatic telephony in the United States and concentrated on manual exchange designs. Their first dial telephone was produced in 1921, although sales of the early automatic switching systems were slow until the equipment had proven itself on the world\'s markets. Telephones of this period had a simpler design and finish, and many of the early automatic desk telephones in Ericsson\'s catalogues were magneto styles with a dial on the front and appropriate changes to the electronics. Elaborate decals decorated the cases. World War I, the subsequent Great Depression and the loss of its Russian assets after the Revolution slowed the company\'s development while sales to other countries fell by about half.
### Shareholding changes {#shareholding_changes}
The acquisition of other telecommunications companies put pressure on Ericsson\'s finances; in 1925, Karl Fredric Wincrantz took control of the company by acquiring most of the shares. Wincrantz was partly funded by Ivar Kreuger, an international financier. The company was renamed *Telefonaktiebolaget L M Ericsson*. Kreuger started showing interest in the company, being a major owner of Wincrantz holding companies.
### Wallenberg era begins {#wallenberg_era_begins}
Ericsson was saved from bankruptcy and closure with the help of banks including Stockholms Enskilda Bank (now Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken) and other Swedish investment banks controlled by the Wallenberg family, and some Swedish government backing. Marcus Wallenberg Jr. negotiated a deal with several Swedish banks to rebuild Ericsson financially. The banks gradually increased their possession of LM Ericsson \"A\" shares, while International Telephone & Telegraph (ITT) was still the largest shareholder. In 1960, the Wallenberg family bought ITT\'s shares in Ericsson, and has since controlled the company.
### Market development {#market_development}
In the 1920s and 1930s, the world telephone markets were being organized and stabilized by many governments. The fragmented town-by-town systems serviced by small, private companies that had evolved were integrated and offered for lease to a single company. Ericsson obtained some leases, which represented further sales of equipment to the growing networks. Ericsson got almost one-third of its sales under the control of its telephone operating companies.
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# Ericsson
## History
### Further development {#further_development}
Ericsson introduced the world\'s first fully automatic mobile telephone system, MTA, in 1956. It released one of the world\'s first hands-free speaker telephones in the 1960s. In 1954, it released the Ericofon. Ericsson crossbar switching equipment was used in telephone administrations in many countries. In 1983 the company introduced the ERIPAX suite of network products and services.
### Emergence of the Internet (1995--2003) {#emergence_of_the_internet_19952003}
In the 1990s, during the emergence of the Internet, Ericsson was regarded as slow to realize its potential and falling behind in the area of IP technology. But the company had established an Internet project in 1995 called Infocom Systems to exploit opportunities leading from fixed-line telecom and IT. CEO Lars Ramqvist wrote in the 1996 annual report that in all three of its business areas -- Mobile Telephones and Terminals, Mobile Systems, and Infocom Systems -- \"we will expand our operations as they relate to customer service and Internet Protocol (IP) access (Internet and intranet access)\".
The growth of GSM, which became a *de facto* world standard, combined with Ericsson\'s other mobile standards, such as D-AMPS and PDC, meant that by the start of 1997, Ericsson had an estimated 40% share of the world\'s mobile market, with around 54 million subscribers. There were also around 188 million AXE lines in place or on order in 117 countries. Telecom and chip companies worked in the 1990s to provide Internet access over mobile telephones. Early versions such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) used packet data over the existing GSM network, in a form known as GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), but these services, known as 2.5G, were fairly rudimentary and did not achieve much mass-market success.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) had prepared the specifications for a 3G mobile service that included several technologies. Ericsson pushed hard for the WCDMA (wideband CDMA) form based on the GSM standard and began testing it in 1996. Japanese operator NTT Docomo signed deals to partner with Ericsson and Nokia, who came together in 1997 to support WCDMA over rival standards. DoCoMo was the first operator with a live 3G network, using its own version of WCDMA called FOMA. Ericsson was a significant developer of the WCDMA version of GSM, while US-based chip developer Qualcomm promoted the alternative system CDMA2000, building on the popularity of CDMA in the US market. This resulted in a patent infringement lawsuit that was resolved in March 1999 when the two companies agreed to pay each other royalties for the use of their respective technologies and Ericsson purchased Qualcomm\'s wireless infrastructure business and some R&D resources.
Ericsson issued a profit warning in March 2001. Over the coming year, sales to operators halved. Mobile telephones became a burden; the company\'s telephones unit made a loss of SEK 24 billion in 2000. A fire in a Philips chip factory in New Mexico in March 2000 caused severe disruption to Ericsson\'s phone production, dealing a *coup de grâce* to Ericsson\'s mobile phone hopes. Mobile phones would be spun off into a joint venture with Sony, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications, in October 2001. Ericsson launched several rounds of restructuring, refinancing and job-cutting; during 2001, staff numbers fell from 107,000 to 85,000. A further 20,000 went the next year, and 11,000 more in 2003. A new rights issue raised SEK 30 billion to keep the company afloat. The company had survived as mobile Internet started growing. With record profits, it was in better shape than many of its competitors.
### Rebuilding and growing (2003--2018) {#rebuilding_and_growing_20032018}
The emergence of full mobile Internet began a period of growth for the global telecom industry, including Ericsson. After the launch of 3G services in 2003, people started to access the Internet using their telephones.
Ericsson was working on ways to improve WCDMA as operators were buying and rolling it out; it was the first generation of 3G access. New advances included IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) and the next evolution of WCDMA, called High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA). It was initially deployed in the download version called HSDPA; the technology spread from the first test calls in the US in late 2005 to 59 commercial networks in September 2006. HSPA would provide the world\'s first mobile broadband.
In July 2016, Hans Vestberg stepped down as Ericsson\'s CEO after heading the company for six years. Jan Frykhammar, who had been working for the company since 1991 stepped in as interim CEO while Ericsson searched for a full-time replacement. On 16 January 2017, following Ericsson\'s announcement on 26 October 2016, new CEO Börje Ekholm started and interim CEO Jan Frykhammar stepped down the following day.
In June 2018, Ericsson, Inc. and Ericsson AB have agreed to pay \$145,893 to settle potential civil liability for an apparent violation of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA) and the Sudanese Sanctions Regulations, 31 C.F.R. part 538 (SSR).1
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# Ericsson
## History
### Acquisitions and cooperation {#acquisitions_and_cooperation}
Around 2000, companies and governments began to push for standards for mobile Internet. In May 2000, the European Commission created the Wireless Strategic Initiative, a consortium of four telecommunications suppliers in Europe -- Ericsson, Nokia, Alcatel (France) and Siemens (Germany) -- to develop and test new prototypes for advanced wireless communications systems. Later that year, the consortium partners invited other companies to join them in a Wireless World Research Forum in 2001. In December 1999, Microsoft and Ericsson announced a strategic partnership to combine the former\'s web browser and server software with the latter\'s mobile-internet technologies. In 2000, the Dot-com bubble burst with marked economic implications for Sweden. Ericsson, the world\'s largest producer of mobile telecommunications equipment, shed thousands of jobs, as did the country\'s Internet consulting firms and dot-com start-ups. In the same year, Intel, the world\'s largest semiconductor chip manufacturer, signed a \$1.5 billion deal to supply flash memory to Ericsson over the next three years.
The short-lived partnership, called Ericsson Microsoft Mobile Venture, owned 70/30 percent by Ericsson and Microsoft respectively, ended in October 2001 when Ericsson announced it would absorb the former joint venture and adopt a licensing agreement with Microsoft instead. The same month, Ericsson and Sony announced the creation of the mobile phone manufacturing joint venture: Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications. Ten years later, in February 2012, Ericsson sold its stake in the joint venture; Ericsson said it wanted to focus on the global wireless market as a whole.
Lower stock prices and job losses affected many telecommunications companies in 2001. The major equipment manufacturers -- Motorola (U.S.), Lucent Technologies (U.S.), Cisco Systems (U.S.), Marconi (UK), Siemens (Germany), Nokia (Finland), as well as Ericsson -- all announced job cuts in their home countries and subsidiaries around the world. Ericsson\'s workforce worldwide fell during 2001 from 107,000 to 85,000.
In September 2001, Ericsson purchased the remaining shares in EHPT from Hewlett-Packard. Founded in 1993, Ericsson Hewlett Packard Telecom (EHPT) was a joint venture made up of 60% Ericsson interests and 40% Hewlett-Packard interests.
In 2002, ICT investor losses topped \$2 trillion and share prices fell by 95% until August that year. More than half a million people lost their jobs in the global telecom industry over the two years. The collapse of U.S. carrier WorldCom, with more than \$107 billion in assets, was the biggest in U.S. history. The sector\'s problems caused bankruptcies and job losses, and led to changes in the leadership of several major companies. Ericsson made 20,000 more staff redundant and raised about \$3 billion from its shareholders. In June 2002, Infineon Technologies (then the sixth-largest semiconductor supplier and a subsidiary of Siemens) bought Ericsson\'s microelectronics unit for \$400 million.
Ericsson was an official backer in the 2005 launch of the .mobi top-level domain created specifically for the mobile internet.
Co-operation with Hewlett-Packard did not end with EHPT; in 2003 Ericsson outsourced its IT to HP, which included Managed Services, Help Desk Support, Data Center Operations, and HP Utility Data Center. The contract was extended in 2008. In October 2005, Ericsson acquired the bulk of the troubled UK telecommunications manufacturer Marconi Company, including its brand name that dates back to the creation of the original Marconi Company by the \"father of radio\" Guglielmo Marconi. In September 2006, Ericsson sold the greater part of its defense business Ericsson Microwave Systems, which mainly produced sensor and radar systems, to Saab AB, which renamed the company to Saab Microwave Systems.
In 2007, Ericsson acquired carrier edge-router maker Redback Networks, and then Entrisphere, a US-based company providing fiber-access technology. In September 2007, Ericsson acquired an 84% interest in German customer-care and billing software firm LHS, a stake later raised to 100%. In 2008, Ericsson sold its enterprise PBX division to Aastra Technologies, and acquired Tandberg Television, the television technology division of Norwegian company Tandberg.
In 2009, Ericsson bought the CDMA2000 and LTE business of Nortel\'s carrier networks division for US\$1.18 billion; Bizitek, a Turkish business support systems integrator; the Estonian manufacturing operations of electronic manufacturing company Elcoteq; and completed its acquisition of LHS. Acquisitions in 2010 included assets from the Strategy and Technology Group of inCode, a North American business and consulting-services company; Nortel\'s majority shareholding (50% plus one share) in LG-Nortel, a joint venture between LG Electronics and Nortel Networks providing sales, R&D and industrial capacity in South Korea, now known as Ericsson-LG; further Nortel carrier-division assets, relating from Nortel\'s GSM business in the United States and Canada; Optimi Corporation, a U.S.--Spanish telecommunications vendor specializing in network optimization and management; and Pride, a consulting and systems-integration company operating in Italy.
In 2011, Ericsson acquired manufacturing and research facilities, and staff from the Guangdong Nortel Telecommunication Equipment Company (GDNT) as well as Nortel\'s Multiservice Switch business. Ericsson acquired U.S. company Telcordia Technologies in January 2012, an operations and business support systems (OSS/BSS) company. In March, Ericsson announced it was buying the broadcast-services division of Technicolor, a media broadcast technology company. In April 2012 Ericsson completed the acquisition of BelAir Networks a strong Wi-Fi network technology company.
On 3 May 2013, Ericsson announced it would divest its power cable operations to Danish company NKT Holding. On 1 July 2013, Ericsson announced it would acquire the media management company Red Bee Media, subject to regulatory approval. The acquisition was completed on 9 May 2014. In September 2013, Ericsson completed its acquisition of Microsoft\'s Mediaroom business and televisions services, originally announced in April the same year. The acquisition makes Ericsson the largest provider of IPTV and multi-screen services in the world, by market share; it was renamed Ericsson Mediaroom. In September 2014, Ericsson acquired majority stake in Apcera for cloud policy compliance. In October 2015, Ericsson completed the acquisition of Envivio, a software encoding company. In April 2016, Ericsson acquired Polish and Ukrainian operations of software development company Ericpol, a long-time supplier to Ericsson. Approximately 2,300 Ericpol employees joined Ericsson, bringing software development competence in radio, cloud, and IP.
On 20 June 2017, Bloomberg disclosed that Ericsson hired Morgan Stanley to explore the sale of its media businesses. The Red Bee Media business was kept in-house as an independent subsidiary company, as no suitable buyer was found, but a 51% stake of the remainder of the Media Solution division was sold to private equity firm One Equity Partners, the new company being named MediaKind. The transaction was completed on 31 January 2019. In February 2018, Ericsson acquired the location-based mobile data management platform Placecast. Ericsson has since integrated Placecast\'s platform and capabilities with its programmatic mobile ad subsidiary, Emodo. In May 2018, SoftBank partnered with Ericsson to trial new radio technology. In September 2020, Ericsson acquired US-based carrier equipment manufacturer Cradlepoint for \$1.1 billion.
In November 2021, Ericsson announced it had reached an agreement to acquire Vonage for \$6.2 billion. The acquisition completed in July 2022. In January 2024, Ericson and MTN Group announced expansion of their partnership to boost their mobile financial services on Africa market, as the company appointed Michael Wallis-Brown as vice president responsible for global mobile financial services.
In December 2024, Ericsson secured a multi-year extension deal worth billions with Bharti Airtel for the provision of 4G and 5G radio access network products and solutions. This agreement underscores the growing demand for advanced telecommunications infrastructure as the industry transitions to 5G technologies.
## Corporate governance {#corporate_governance}
, members of the board of directors of LM Ericsson were: Leif Johansson, Jacob Wallenberg, Kristin S. Rinne, Helena Stjernholm, Sukhinder Singh Cassidy, Börje Ekholm, Ulf J. Johansson, Mikael Lännqvist, Zlatko Hadzic, Kjell-Åke Soting, Nora Denzel, Kristin Skogen Lund, Pehr Claesson, Karin Åberg and Roger Svensson.
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# Ericsson
## Research and development {#research_and_development}
Ericsson has structured its R&D in three levels depending on when products or technologies will be introduced to customers and users.`{{better source needed|date=July 2019}}`{=mediawiki} Its research and development organization is part of \'Group Function Technology\' and addresses several facets of network architecture: wireless access networks; radio access technologies; broadband technologies; packet technologies; multimedia technologies; services software; EMF safety and sustainability; security; and global services. The head of research since 2012 is Sara Mazur.
Group Function Technology holds research co-operations with several major universities and research institutes including Lund University in Sweden, Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary and Beijing Institute of Technology in China. Ericsson also holds research co-operations within several European research programs such as GigaWam and OASE. Ericsson holds 33,000 granted patents and is the number-one holder of GSM/GPRS/EDGE, WCDMA/HSPA, and LTE essential patents. In 2023, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)'s Annual PCT Review ranked Ericsson\'s number of patent applications published under the PCT System as 7th in the world, with 1,863 patent applications being published during 2023.
Ericsson hosts a developer program called Ericsson Developer Connection designed to encourage development of applications and services. Ericsson also has an open innovation initiative for beta applications and beta API\'s & tools called Ericsson Labs. The company hosts several internal innovation competitions among its employees.
In May 2022, it was announced that Ericsson and Intel are pooling R&D excellence to create high-performing Cloud RAN solutions. The organisations have pooled to launch a tech hub in California, USA. The hub focuses on the benefits that Ericsson Cloud RAN and Intel technology can bring to: improving energy efficiency and network performance, reducing time to market, and monetizing new business opportunities such as enterprise applications.
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# Ericsson
## Products and services {#products_and_services}
Ericsson\'s business includes technology research, development, network systems and software development, and running operations for telecom service providers. and software Ericsson offers end-to-end services for all major mobile communication standards, and has three main business units.
### Business Area Networks {#business_area_networks}
Business Area Networks, previously called Business Unit Networks, develop network infrastructure for communication needs over mobile and fixed connections. Its products include radio base stations, radio network controllers, mobile switching centers and service application nodes. Operators use Ericsson products to migrate from 2G to 3G and, most recently, to 4G networks.
The company\'s network division has been described as a driver in the development of 2G, 3G, 4G/LTE and 5G technology, and the evolution towards all-IP, and it develops and deploys advanced LTE systems, but it is still developing the older GSM, WCDMA, and CDMA technologies. The company\'s networks portfolio also includes microwave transport, Internet Protocol (IP) networks, fixed-access services for copper and fiber, and mobile broadband modules, several levels of fixed broadband access, radio access networks from small pico cells to high-capacity macro cells and controllers for radio base stations.
#### Network services {#network_services}
Ericsson\'s network rollout services employ in-house capabilities, subcontractors and central resources to make changes to live networks. Services such as technology deployment, network transformation, support services and network optimization are also provided.
### Business Area Digital Services {#business_area_digital_services}
This unit provides core networks, Operations Support Systems such as network management and analytics, and Business Support Systems such as billing and mediation. Within the Digital Services unit, there is an **m-Commerce** offering, which focuses on service providers and facilitates their working with financial institutions and intermediaries. Ericsson has announced m-commerce deals with Western Union and African wireless carrier MTN.
### Business Area Managed Services {#business_area_managed_services}
The unit is active in 180 countries; it supplies managed services, systems integration, consulting, network rollout, design and optimization, broadcast services, learning services and support.
The company also works with television and media, public safety, and utilities. Ericsson claims to manage networks that serve more than 1 billion subscribers worldwide, and to support customer networks that serve more than 2.5 billion subscribers.
### Broadcast services {#broadcast_services}
Ericsson\'s Broadcast Services unit was evolved into a unit called Red Bee Media, which has been spun out into a joint venture. It deals with the playout of live and pre-recorded, commercial and public service television programmes, including presentation (continuity announcements), trailers, and ancillary access services such as closed-caption subtitles, audio description and in-vision sign language interpreters. Its media management services consist of Managed Media Preparation and Managed Media Internet Delivery.
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# Ericsson
## Divested businesses {#divested_businesses}
Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB (Sony Ericsson) was a joint venture with Sony that merged the previous mobile telephone operations of both companies. It manufactured mobile telephones, accessories and personal computer (PC) cards. Sony Ericsson was responsible for product design and development, marketing, sales, distribution and customer services. On 16 February 2012, Sony announced it had completed the full acquisition of Sony Ericsson, after which it changed name to Sony Mobile Communications, and nearly a year later it moved headquarters from Sweden to Japan.
### Mobile phones {#mobile_phones}
As a joint venture with Sony, Ericsson\'s mobile telephone production was moved into the company Sony Ericsson in 2001. The following is a list of mobile phones marketed under the brand name Ericsson.
- Ericsson GS88 -- Cancelled mobile telephone Ericsson invented the \"Smartphone\" name for
- Ericsson GA628 -- Known for its Z80 CPU
- Ericsson SH888 -- First mobile telephone to have wireless modem capabilities
- Ericsson A1018 -- Dualband cellphone, notably easy to hack
- Ericsson A2618 & Ericsson A2628 -- Dualband cellphones. Use graphical LCD display based on PCF8548 I²C controller.
- Ericsson PF768
- Ericsson GF768
- Ericsson DH318 - One of the earliest TDMA/AMPS phones in the USA
- Ericsson GH388
- Ericsson T10 -- Colourful cellphone
- Ericsson T18 -- Business model of the T10, with active flip
- Ericsson T28 -- Very slim telephone. Uses lithium polymer batteries. [*Ericsson T28* FAQ](http://www.lokety.com/t28faq.html) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220173530/http://www.lokety.com/t28faq.html |date=20 December 2016 }}`{=mediawiki} use graphical LCD display based on PCF8558 I²C controller.
- Ericsson T20s
- Ericsson T29s -- Similar to the T28s, but with WAP support
- Ericsson T29m -- Pre-alpha prototype for the T39m
- Ericsson T36m -- Prototype for the T39m. Announced in yellow and blue. Never hit the market due to release T39m
- Ericsson T39 -- Similar to the T28, but with a GPRS modem, Bluetooth and triband capabilities
- Ericsson T65
- Ericsson T66
- Ericsson T68m -- The first Ericsson handset to have a color display, later branded as Sony Ericsson T68i
- Ericsson R250s Pro -- Fully dust- and water resistant telephone
- Ericsson R310s
- Ericsson R320s
- Ericsson R320s Titan -- Limited Edition with titanium front
- Ericsson R320s GPRS -- Prototype for testing GPRS networks
- Ericsson R360m -- Pre-alpha prototype for the R520m
- Ericsson R380 -- First cellphone to use the Symbian OS
- Ericsson R520m -- Similar to the T39, but in a candy bar form factor`{{clarify|date=July 2014}}`{=mediawiki} and with added features such as a built-in speakerphone and an optical proximity sensor
- Ericsson R520m UMTS -- Prototype to test UMTS networks
- Ericsson R520m SyncML -- Prototype to test the SyncML implementation
- Ericsson R580m -- Announced in several press releases. Supposed to be a successor of the R380s without external antenna and with color display
- Ericsson R600
### Telephones
- Ericsson Dialog
- Ericofon
### Ericsson Mobile Platforms {#ericsson_mobile_platforms}
Ericsson Mobile Platforms existed for eight years; on 12 February 2009, Ericsson announced it would be merged with the mobile platform company of STMicroelectronics, ST-NXP Wireless, to create a 50/50 joint venture owned by Ericsson and STMicroelectronics. This joint venture was divested in 2013 and remaining activities can be found in Ericsson Modems and STMicroelectronics. Ericsson Mobile Platform ceased being a legal entity early 2009.
### Ericsson Enterprise {#ericsson_enterprise}
Starting in 1983 Ericsson Enterprise provided communications systems and services for businesses, public entities and educational institutions. It produced products for voice over Internet protocol (VoIP)-based private branch exchanges (PBX), wireless local area networks (WLAN), and mobile intranets. Ericsson Enterprise operated mainly from Sweden but also operated through regional units and other partners/distributors. In 2008 it was sold to Aastra.
## Corruption
On 7 December 2019, Ericsson agreed to pay more than \$1.2 billion (€1.09 billion) to settle U.S. Department of Justice FCPA criminal and civil investigations into foreign corruption. US authorities accused the company of conducting a campaign of corruption between 2000 and 2016 across China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Kuwait and Djibouti. Ericsson admitted to paying bribes, falsifying books and records and failing to implement reasonable internal accounting controls in an attempt to strengthen its position in the telecommunications industry.
In 2022, an internal investigation into corruption inside the company was leaked by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. It detailed corruption in at least 10 countries. Ericsson has admitted \"serious breaches of compliance rules\".
The leak also revealed that some subcontractors working on behalf of Ericsson paid bribes to the Islamic State in order to continue operating the telecom network in occupied regions of Iraq
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# The Time in Between
***The Time in Between*** is a novel by Canadian author David Bergen. It deals with a man, who mysteriously returns to Vietnam, where he had been a soldier earlier in his life, followed by his children, who also go to Vietnam to search for him. The novel was the recipient of the Scotiabank Giller Prize and the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005.
## Plot
Charles Boatman, an army veteran suddenly disappears and his daughter Ada and her younger brother Jon on finding some clues go looking out for him in Danang, Vietnam. The novel mixes various stories from different timeframes narrating Charles\'s days in Washington when he was young. He married Sara and had daughter Ada while living in Fraser Valley of British Columbia. He gets posted in the wartime era to Vietnam and serves there and upon arrival discovers his wife\'s infidelity. Sara dies early and by then they also had a son Jon. Charles keeps getting nightmares of his Vietnam days on how he killed an innocent civilian boy in one of the operations and this keeps haunting him. On the other hand, Ada is on a mission to find her father and is helped by a local guy Yen who becomes her guide and guardian in the new country. She engages in a sexual relationship with an older man, Hoang Vu who is an artist by profession. Jon indulges in the nightlife of Vietnam, and Ada keeps getting closer to her father as she travels across the country. Charles discovers author Dang Tho\'s novel chronicling wartime and this helps him find some peace.
## Publication and development {#publication_and_development}
The book is author David Bergen\'s fifth novel. Although generally called a war novel, the author states that he \"\[doesn\'t\] see *The Time in Between* as a war novel\". The book was released as Audio book by Blackstone Audio in December 2005 and was narrated by Anna Fields, better known as Kate Fleming.
## Reviews and reception {#reviews_and_reception}
*Kirkus reviews* called the novel a \"beautifully composed, unflinching and harrowing story\". Nicholas Dinka in their *Quill & Quire* review mentions that the novel has \"much decency and intelligence\" and both the stories of the novel are \"entirely plausible\" but criticises for \"remarkable dourness of its prose\". While Dennis Lythgoe of *Deseret News* noted that \"Bergen\'s book lives and breathes the Vietnam experience\"; Ron Charles in his *The Washington Post* review mentioned that \"Bergen\'s ability to dramatize trauma-induced disaffection is undeniable; whether readers will want to sink down that hole with his characters is less clear\". Irene Wanner of *The Seattle Times* appreciated the novel for its writing.
The novel won the Scotiabank Giller Prize in 2005 while being nominated along with *Luck* (by Joan Barfoot), *Sweetness in the Belly* (by Camilla Gibb), *Alligator* (by Lisa Moore), and *A Wall of Light* (by Edeet Ravel). The judges Warren Cariou, Elizabeth Hay, and Richard B. Wright noted \"*The Time in Between* explores our need to understand the relationship between love and duty\....\[\] This is a subtle and elegantly written novel by an author in complete command of his talent\". It also won the McNally Robinson Book of the Year Award in 2005. Bergen had earlier won the award in 1996 for *A Year of Lesser* and later again won in 2009 for *The Retreat*. Dan Zigmond of *SFGate* reviews the novel as \"a rich and rewarding novel\"
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# Spain in Flames
***Spain in Flames*** is a 1937 compilation film made by Helen van Dongen during the Spanish Civil War. Hal Erickson has written that the film \"\... is remarkable in its willingness to offer both sides of the conflict \-- though its sympathies are firmly with the Loyalists.\" The film consists of two parts. The first, \"The Fight for Freedom\", was based on film footage from a Spanish government documentary *Spain and the Fight for Freedom*. A foreword by the then Spanish Ambassador to the United States, Fernando de los Ríos, began one of the film\'s screenings in New York in 1937.
The second part, \"They Shalt Not Pass\", was based on a short film *No Pasaran!* done by the Artkino Film Company of the Soviet Union, where van Dongen was working at the time the film was made. John Dos Passos narrated parts of the film, and the commentary was written by Dos Passos, Ernest Hemingway, Archibald MacLeish, and Prudencio de Pareda. Erickson writes that, \"The horrendous images of battlefield carnage, not to mention the close-ups of suffering and dying Spanish children, still pack a wallop when seen today.\"
Later, Hemingway, Dos Passos, Lillian Hellman and others founded the company Contemporary Historians, which produced another film called *The Spanish Earth* (1937), directed by Joris Ivens and edited by van Dongen.
*Spain in Flames* was banned in New Brunswick, New Jersey and Waterbury, Connecticut. A screening of the film, accompanied by a speech from Granville Hicks, was also banned in Provincetown, Massachusetts
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# Egyptian Lover
**Gregory James Broussard** (born August 31, 1963), better known by his stage name **Egyptian Lover**, is an American musician, vocalist, producer and DJ, and was a part of the L.A. dance music, electro, and rap scene in the early 1980s.
## History
The Egyptian Lover was born in Los Angeles, California, and started out there as a DJ with Uncle Jamm\'s Army, DJing dances as large as the L.A. Sports Arena with 10,000 people. He began recording around Los Angeles in 1982 as a member of the Radio Crew, as well as Uncle Jamm\'s Army. Members of Uncle Jamm\'s Army and the World Class Wreckin\' Cru, including Dr. Dre, The Unknown DJ, Egyptian Lover, Ice-T and Kid Frost would later go on to help define the early West Coast Hip-Hop sound throughout the 1980s.
Most of the Egyptian Lover\'s successful recordings were 12\" singles. \"Egypt, Egypt\" was one of the most popular, which was called part of the \"b-boy canon.\" He eventually released some of the earliest rap LPs, but they were less popular commercially than his singles. On the strength of an alternative mix of his most popular single \"Egypt, Egypt\", 1984\'s *On the Nile* was moderately successful, reaching the Billboard Top 200. It was called \"one of the first hip-hop records to come out of the West Coast\". He also collaborated with several other hip-hop and dance music artists. After a break in the early 1990s, Egyptian Lover returned in 1994 with *Back from the Tomb*, his first full-length album in over ten years.
The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as Rodney O & Joe Cooley, 2 O\'Clock, and Te & Joezee.
His 2015 release, *1984*, continues his tradition of using all analog equipment, including the Roland TR-808, along with much of the same gear used on his recordings of the 1980s. The name \"1984\" refers to his earlier albums. The album was recorded at Skip Saylor, Encore Studios, and at RUSK Studios, the same studio where *On The Nile* was recorded in 1984. It is widely available on double gatefold LP, CD and cassette tape.
### 2000s
- 2005 -- New single \"Party\", backed with \"Dancefloor\"
- February 2006 -- *Platinum Pyramids* was released
- End of 2006 -- Recorded \"UFO\" and \"Futuristic\" with Jamie Jupiter for Jupiter\'s new 12\" single (never released)
- 2007 -- Remade \"Modernaire\" by Dez Dickerson (from the film *Purple Rain*) for the label Citinite
- 2007 -- Collaborated with Clone Machine and Egypt Ear Werk
- December 2008 -- Released exclusive songs on iTunes: \"Electro Pharaoh\", \"Freaky D.J.\", and \"Scandinavian Summer\"
- 2008 -- Joined Who Cares on the song \"They Killed the Radio\"
- 2008 -- Worked with Jamie Jones on the song \"Galactic Space Bar\"
- 2008 -- Worked with M.I.A. on \"Rock off Shake off\" for new artist Rye Rye
- May 2009 -- Collaborated with Debonaire on \"Do U Wanna Get Down?\" for a new Street Sounds compilation
- May 2009 -- New video \"Freaky D.J.\" with producer/director Victor Brooks a.k.a. Who007
- 2009 -- New album that included songs \"Electro Pharaoh\", \"U.F.O.\", \"Freaky D.J.\", \"BellyDance\", \"Scandinavian Summer\", and \"Do U Wanna Get Down?\"
- June 2009 -- Remix of James Pants\'s Cosmic Rapp was released
- 2011 -- Work on new album entitled *1984* begins
- 2014 -- Collaborated with Dye on the song \"She\'s Bad\"
- 2015 -- *1984* released
### Touring
The Egyptian Lover began touring again in 2004 throughout Europe, Asia, and North America. His performances often begin with mixing records on turntables before segueing into his original compositions.
In 2008, he supported M.I.A. in her People vs. Money Tour
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# Electrical telegraph
**Electrical telegraphy** is point-to-point distance communicating via sending electric signals over wire, a system primarily used from the 1840s until the late 20th century. It was the first electrical telecommunications system and the most widely used of a number of early messaging systems called *telegraphs*, that were devised to send text messages more quickly than physically carrying them. Electrical telegraphy can be considered the first example of electrical engineering.
Electrical telegraphy consisted of two or more geographically separated stations, called telegraph offices. The offices were connected by wires, usually supported overhead on utility poles. Many electrical telegraph systems were invented that operated in different ways, but the ones that became widespread fit into two broad categories. First are the needle telegraphs, in which electric current sent down the telegraph line produces electromagnetic force to move a needle-shaped pointer into position over a printed list. Early needle telegraph models used multiple needles, thus requiring multiple wires to be installed between stations. The first commercial needle telegraph system and the most widely used of its type was the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, invented in 1837. The second category are armature systems, in which the current activates a telegraph sounder that makes a click; communication on this type of system relies on sending clicks in coded rhythmic patterns. The archetype of this category was the Morse system and the code associated with it, both invented by Samuel Morse in 1838. In 1865, the Morse system became the standard for international communication, using a modified form of Morse\'s code that had been developed for German railways.
Electrical telegraphs were used by the emerging railway companies to provide signals for train control systems, minimizing the chances of trains colliding with each other. This was built around the signalling block system in which signal boxes along the line communicate with neighbouring boxes by telegraphic sounding of single-stroke bells and three-position needle telegraph instruments.
In the 1840s, the electrical telegraph superseded optical telegraph systems such as semaphores, becoming the standard way to send urgent messages. By the latter half of the century, most developed nations had commercial telegraph networks with local telegraph offices in most cities and towns, allowing the public to send messages (called telegrams) addressed to any person in the country, for a fee.
Beginning in 1850, submarine telegraph cables allowed for the first rapid communication between people on different continents. The telegraph\'s nearly-instant transmission of messages across continents`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} and between continents`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki} had widespread social and economic impacts. The electric telegraph led to Guglielmo Marconi\'s invention of wireless telegraphy, the first means of radiowave telecommunication, which he began in 1894.
In the early 20th century, manual operation of telegraph machines was slowly replaced by teleprinter networks. Increasing use of the telephone pushed telegraphy into only a few specialist uses; its use by the general public dwindled to greetings for special occasions. The rise of the Internet and email in the 1990s largely made dedicated telegraphy networks obsolete.
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# Electrical telegraph
## History
### Precursors
Prior to the electric telegraph, visual systems were used, including beacons, smoke signals, flag semaphore, and optical telegraphs for visual signals to communicate over distances of land.
An auditory predecessor was West African talking drums. In the 19th century, Yoruba drummers used talking drums to mimic human tonal language to communicate complex messages -- usually regarding news of birth, ceremonies, and military conflict -- over 4--5 mile distances.
Possibly the earliest design and conceptualization for a telegraph system was by the British polymath Robert Hooke, who gave a vivid and comprehensive outline of visual telegraphy to the Royal Society in a 1684 submission in which he outlined many practical details. The system was largely motivated by military concerns, following the Battle of Vienna in 1683.
The first official optical telegraph was invented in France in the 18th century by Claude Chappe and his brothers. The Chappe system would stretch nearly 5,000 km with 556 stations and was used until the 1850s.
### Early work {#early_work}
From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance. All the known effects of electricity`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}such as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and later electromagnetism`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}were applied to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances.
In 1753, an anonymous writer in the *Scots Magazine* suggested an electrostatic telegraph. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. The writer has never been positively identified, but the letter was signed C.M. and posted from Renfrew leading to a Charles Marshall of Renfrew being suggested. Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system.
In 1774, Georges-Louis Le Sage realised an early electric telegraph. The telegraph had a separate wire for each of the 26 letters of the alphabet and its range was only between two rooms of his home.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, providing a continuous current of electricity for experimentation. This became a source of a low-voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known human-made sources of electricity.
Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an \"electrochemical telegraph\" created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier 1804 design by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) to represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering\'s design), with each of the telegraph receiver\'s wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each letter of a message; at the recipient\'s end, the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver\'s operator would watch the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message. This is in contrast to later telegraphs that used a single wire (with ground return).
Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field that will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, that could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current. Also that year, André-Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be achieved by placing small magnets under the ends of a set of wires, one pair of wires for each letter of the alphabet. He was apparently unaware of Schweigger\'s invention at the time, which would have made his system much more sensitive. In 1825, Peter Barlow tried Ampère\'s idea but only got it to work over 200 ft and declared it impractical. In 1830 William Ritchie improved on Ampère\'s design by placing the magnetic needles inside a coil of wire connected to each pair of conductors. He successfully demonstrated it, showing the feasibility of the electromagnetic telegraph, but only within a lecture hall.
In 1825, William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current. Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires. During his tenure at The Albany Academy from 1826 to 1832, Henry first demonstrated the theory of the \'magnetic telegraph\' by ringing a bell through 1 mi of wire strung around the room in 1831.
In 1835, Joseph Henry and Edward Davy independently invented the mercury dipping electrical relay, in which a magnetic needle is dipped into a pot of mercury when an electric current passes through the surrounding coil. In 1837, Davy invented the much more practical metallic make-and-break relay which became the relay of choice in telegraph systems and a key component for periodically renewing weak signals. Davy demonstrated his telegraph system in Regent\'s Park in 1837 and was granted a patent on 4 July 1838. Davy also invented a printing telegraph which used the electric current from the telegraph signal to mark a ribbon of calico infused with potassium iodide and calcium hypochlorite.
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# Electrical telegraph
## History
### First working systems {#first_working_systems}
The first working telegraph was built by the English inventor Francis Ronalds in 1816 and used static electricity. At the family home on Hammersmith Mall, he set up a complete subterranean system in a 175 yd long trench as well as an 8 mi long overhead telegraph. The lines were connected at both ends to revolving dials marked with the letters of the alphabet and electrical impulses sent along the wire were used to transmit messages. Offering his invention to the Admiralty in July 1816, it was rejected as \"wholly unnecessary\". His account of the scheme and the possibilities of rapid global communication in *Descriptions of an Electrical Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus* was the first published work on electric telegraphy and even described the risk of signal retardation due to induction. Elements of Ronalds\' design were utilised in the subsequent commercialisation of the telegraph over 20 years later.
The Schilling telegraph, invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832, was an early needle telegraph. It had a transmitting device that consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current. The receiving instrument consisted of six galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from silk threads. The two stations of Schilling\'s telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one for a signal bell. When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station. Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers. Pavel Schilling subsequently improved its apparatus by reducing the number of connecting wires from eight to two.
On 21 October 1832, Schilling managed a short-distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment. In 1836, the British government attempted to buy the design but Schilling instead accepted overtures from Nicholas I of Russia. Schilling\'s telegraph was tested on a 5 km experimental underground and underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg and was approved for a telegraph between the imperial palace at Peterhof and the naval base at Kronstadt. However, the project was cancelled following Schilling\'s death in 1837. Schilling was also one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission. His work was taken over and developed by Moritz von Jacobi who invented telegraph equipment that was used by Tsar Alexander III to connect the Imperial palace at Tsarskoye Selo and Kronstadt Naval Base.
In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen, installed a 1200 m wire above the town\'s roofs. Gauss combined the Poggendorff-Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer. To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own. As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line.
At first, Gauss and Weber used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals and finally, their own alphabet. The alphabet was encoded in a binary code that was transmitted by positive or negative voltage pulses which were generated by means of moving an induction coil up and down over a permanent magnet and connecting the coil with the transmission wires by means of the commutator. The page of Gauss\'s laboratory notebook containing both his code and the first message transmitted, as well as a replica of the telegraph made in the 1850s under the instructions of Weber are kept in the faculty of physics at the University of Göttingen, in Germany.
Gauss was convinced that this communication would be of help to his kingdom\'s towns. Later in the same year, instead of a voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two. The inventors and university did not have the funds to develop the telegraph on their own, but they received funding from Alexander von Humboldt. Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835--1836. In 1838, Steinheil installed a telegraph along the Nuremberg--Fürth railway line, built in 1835 as the first German railroad, which was the first earth-return telegraph put into service.
By 1837, William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had co-developed a telegraph system which used a number of needles on a board that could be moved to point to letters of the alphabet. Any number of needles could be used, depending on the number of characters it was required to code. In May 1837 they patented their system. The patent recommended five needles, which coded twenty of the alphabet\'s 26 letters.
Samuel Morse independently developed and patented a recording electric telegraph in 1837. Morse\'s assistant Alfred Vail developed an instrument that was called the register for recording the received messages. It embossed dots and dashes on a moving paper tape by a stylus which was operated by an electromagnet. Morse and Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet.
On 24 May 1844, Morse sent to Vail the historic first message "WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT\" from the Capitol in Washington to the old Mt. Clare Depot in Baltimore.
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# Electrical telegraph
## Commercial telegraphy {#commercial_telegraphy}
### Cooke and Wheatstone system {#cooke_and_wheatstone_system}
The first commercial electrical telegraph was the Cooke and Wheatstone system. A demonstration four-needle system was installed on the Euston to Camden Town section of Robert Stephenson\'s London and Birmingham Railway in 1837 for signalling rope-hauling of locomotives. It was rejected in favour of pneumatic whistles. Cooke and Wheatstone had their first commercial success with a system installed on the Great Western Railway over the 13 mi from Paddington station to West Drayton in 1838. This was a five-needle, six-wire system, and had the major advantage of displaying the letter being sent so operators did not need to learn a code. The insulation failed on the underground cables between Paddington and West Drayton, and when the line was extended to Slough in 1843, the system was converted to a one-needle, two-wire configuration with uninsulated wires on poles. The cost of installing wires was ultimately more economically significant than the cost of training operators. The one-needle telegraph proved highly successful on British railways, and 15,000 sets were in use at the end of the nineteenth century; some remained in service in the 1930s. The Electric Telegraph Company, the world\'s first public telegraphy company, was formed in 1845 by financier John Lewis Ricardo and Cooke.
### Wheatstone ABC telegraph {#wheatstone_abc_telegraph}
Wheatstone developed a practical alphabetical system in 1840 called the A.B.C. System, used mostly on private wires. This consisted of a \"communicator\" at the sending end and an \"indicator\" at the receiving end. The communicator consisted of a circular dial with a pointer and the 26 letters of the alphabet (and four punctuation marks) around its circumference. Against each letter was a key that could be pressed. A transmission would begin with the pointers on the dials at both ends set to the start position. The transmitting operator would then press down the key corresponding to the letter to be transmitted. In the base of the communicator was a magneto actuated by a handle on the front. This would be turned to apply an alternating voltage to the line. Each half cycle of the current would advance the pointers at both ends by one position. When the pointer reached the position of the depressed key, it would stop and the magneto would be disconnected from the line. The communicator\'s pointer was geared to the magneto mechanism. The indicator\'s pointer was moved by a polarised electromagnet whose armature was coupled to it through an escapement. Thus the alternating line voltage moved the indicator\'s pointer on to the position of the depressed key on the communicator. Pressing another key would then release the pointer and the previous key, and re-connect the magneto to the line. These machines were very robust and simple to operate, and they stayed in use in Britain until well into the 20th century.
### Morse system {#morse_system}
The Morse system uses a single wire between offices. At the sending station, an operator taps on a switch called a telegraph key, spelling out text messages in Morse code. Originally, the armature was intended to make marks on paper tape, but operators learned to interpret the clicks and it was more efficient to write down the message directly.
In 1851, a conference in Vienna of countries in the German-Austrian Telegraph Union (which included many central European countries) adopted the Morse telegraph as the system for international communications. The international Morse code adopted was considerably modified from the original American Morse code, and was based on a code used on Hamburg railways (Gerke, 1848). A common code was a necessary step to allow direct telegraph connection between countries. With different codes, additional operators were required to translate and retransmit the message. In 1865, a conference in Paris adopted Gerke\'s code as the International Morse code and was henceforth the international standard. The US, however, continued to use American Morse code internally for some time, hence international messages required retransmission in both directions.
In the United States, the Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the two decades following the first demonstration in 1844. The overland telegraph connected the west coast of the continent to the east coast by 24 October 1861, bringing an end to the Pony Express.
### Foy--Breguet system {#foybreguet_system}
France was slow to adopt the electrical telegraph, because of the extensive optical telegraph system built during the Napoleonic era. There was also serious concern that an electrical telegraph could be quickly put out of action by enemy saboteurs, something that was much more difficult to do with optical telegraphs which had no exposed hardware between stations. The Foy-Breguet telegraph was eventually adopted. This was a two-needle system using two signal wires but displayed in a uniquely different way to other needle telegraphs. The needles made symbols similar to the Chappe optical system symbols, making it more familiar to the telegraph operators. The optical system was decommissioned starting in 1846, but not completely until 1855. In that year the Foy-Breguet system was replaced with the Morse system.
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## Commercial telegraphy {#commercial_telegraphy}
### Expansion
As well as the rapid expansion of the use of the telegraphs along the railways, they soon spread into the field of mass communication with the instruments being installed in post offices. The era of mass personal communication had begun. Telegraph networks were expensive to build, but financing was readily available, especially from London bankers. By 1852, National systems were in operation in major countries:
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| Country | Company or system | Miles or kilometers\ | ref |
| | | of wire | |
+================+====================================================================+======================+=====+
| United States | 20 companies | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| United Kingdom | Electric Telegraph Company, Magnetic Telegraph Company, and others | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| Prussia | Siemens system | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| Austria | Siemens system | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| Canada | | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
| France | optical systems dominant | | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----+
: Extent of the telegraph in 1852
The New York and Mississippi Valley Printing Telegraph Company, for example, was created in 1852 in Rochester, New York and eventually became the Western Union Telegraph Company. Although many countries had telegraph networks, there was no *worldwide* interconnection. Message by post was still the primary means of communication to countries outside Europe.
A letter by post from London took
-----------------------------------
days
12
13
19
33
44
45
57
73
: Worldwide postal speeds in 1852
Telegraphy was introduced in Central Asia during the 1870s.
### Telegraphic improvements {#telegraphic_improvements}
A continuing goal in telegraphy was to reduce the cost per message by reducing hand-work, or increasing the sending rate. There were many experiments with moving pointers, and various electrical encodings. However, most systems were too complicated and unreliable. A successful expedient to reduce the cost per message was the development of telegraphese.
The first system that did not require skilled technicians to operate was Charles Wheatstone\'s ABC system in 1840 in which the letters of the alphabet were arranged around a clock-face, and the signal caused a needle to indicate the letter. This early system required the receiver to be present in real time to record the message and it reached speeds of up to 15 words a minute.
In 1846, Alexander Bain patented a chemical telegraph in Edinburgh. The signal current moved an iron pen across a moving paper tape soaked in a mixture of ammonium nitrate and potassium ferrocyanide, decomposing the chemical and producing readable blue marks in Morse code. The speed of the printing telegraph was 16 and a half words per minute, but messages still required translation into English by live copyists. Chemical telegraphy came to an end in the US in 1851, when the Morse group defeated the Bain patent in the US District Court.
For a brief period, starting with the New York--Boston line in 1848, some telegraph networks began to employ sound operators, who were trained to understand Morse code aurally. Gradually, the use of sound operators eliminated the need for telegraph receivers to include register and tape. Instead, the receiving instrument was developed into a \"sounder\", an electromagnet that was energized by a current and attracted a small iron lever. When the sounding key was opened or closed, the sounder lever struck an anvil. The Morse operator distinguished a dot and a dash by the short or long interval between the two clicks. The message was then written out in long-hand.
Royal Earl House developed and patented a letter-printing telegraph system in 1846 which employed an alphabetic keyboard for the transmitter and automatically printed the letters on paper at the receiver, and followed this up with a steam-powered version in 1852. Advocates of printing telegraphy said it would eliminate Morse operators\' errors. The House machine was used on four main American telegraph lines by 1852. The speed of the House machine was announced as 2600 words an hour.
thumb\|upright=1.5\|A Baudot keyboard, 1884 David Edward Hughes invented the printing telegraph in 1855; it used a keyboard of 26 keys for the alphabet and a spinning type wheel that determined the letter being transmitted by the length of time that had elapsed since the previous transmission. The system allowed for automatic recording on the receiving end. The system was very stable and accurate and became accepted around the world.
The next improvement was the Baudot code of 1874. French engineer Émile Baudot patented a printing telegraph in which the signals were translated automatically into typographic characters. Each character was assigned a five-bit code, mechanically interpreted from the state of five on/off switches. Operators had to maintain a steady rhythm, and the usual speed of operation was 30 words per minute.
By this point, reception had been automated, but the speed and accuracy of the transmission were still limited to the skill of the human operator. The first practical automated system was patented by Charles Wheatstone. The message (in Morse code) was typed onto a piece of perforated tape using a keyboard-like device called the \'Stick Punch\'. The transmitter automatically ran the tape through and transmitted the message at the then exceptionally high speed of 70 words per minute.
#### Teleprinters
right\|thumb\|upright=1\|Teletype Model 33 ASR (Automatic Send and Receive) An early successful teleprinter was invented by Frederick G. Creed. In Glasgow he created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals onto paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system was adopted by the *Daily Mail* for daily transmission of the newspaper contents.
With the invention of the teletypewriter, telegraphic encoding became fully automated. Early teletypewriters used the ITA-1 Baudot code, a five-bit code. This yielded only thirty-two codes, so it was over-defined into two \"shifts\", \"letters\" and \"figures\". An explicit, unshared shift code prefaced each set of letters and figures. In 1901, Baudot\'s code was modified by Donald Murray.
In the 1930s, teleprinters were produced by Teletype in the US, Creed in Britain and Siemens in Germany.
By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialling to connect teletypewriters. These resulting systems were called \"Telex\" (TELegraph EXchange). Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialling for circuit switching, and then sent data by ITA2. This \"type A\" Telex routing functionally automated message routing.
The first wide-coverage Telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s as a network used to communicate within the government.
At the rate of 45.45 (±0.5%) baud -- considered speedy at the time -- up to 25 telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel by using *voice frequency telegraphy multiplexing*, making telex the least expensive method of reliable long-distance communication.
Automatic teleprinter exchange service was introduced into Canada by CPR Telegraphs and CN Telegraph in July 1957 and in 1958, Western Union started to build a Telex network in the United States.
#### The harmonic telegraph {#the_harmonic_telegraph}
The most expensive aspect of a telegraph system was the installation -- the laying of the wire, which was often very long. The costs would be better covered by finding a way to send more than one message at a time through the single wire, thus increasing revenue per wire. Early devices included the duplex and the quadruplex which allowed, respectively, one or two telegraph transmissions in each direction. However, an even greater number of channels was desired on the busiest lines. In the latter half of the 1800s, several inventors worked towards creating a method for doing just that, including Charles Bourseul, Thomas Edison, Elisha Gray, and Alexander Graham Bell.
One approach was to have resonators of several different frequencies act as carriers of a modulated on-off signal. This was the harmonic telegraph, a form of frequency-division multiplexing. These various frequencies, referred to as harmonics, could then be combined into one complex signal and sent down the single wire. On the receiving end, the frequencies would be separated with a matching set of resonators.
With a set of frequencies being carried down a single wire, it was realized that the human voice itself could be transmitted electrically through the wire. This effort led to the invention of the telephone. (While the work toward packing multiple telegraph signals onto one wire led to telephony, later advances would pack multiple voice signals onto one wire by increasing the bandwidth by modulating frequencies much higher than human hearing. Eventually, the bandwidth was widened much further by using laser light signals sent through fiber optic cables. Fiber optic transmission can carry 25,000 telephone signals simultaneously down a single fiber.)
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# Electrical telegraph
## Commercial telegraphy {#commercial_telegraphy}
### Oceanic telegraph cables {#oceanic_telegraph_cables}
right\|thumb\|upright=1.51\|Major telegraph lines in 1891 *Main article: Transatlantic telegraph cable, Submarine communications cable* Soon after the first successful telegraph systems were operational, the possibility of transmitting messages across the sea by way of submarine communications cables was first proposed. One of the primary technical challenges was to sufficiently insulate the submarine cable to prevent the electric current from leaking out into the water. In 1842, a Scottish surgeon William Montgomerie introduced gutta-percha, the adhesive juice of the *Palaquium gutta* tree, to Europe. Michael Faraday and Wheatstone soon discovered the merits of gutta-percha as an insulator, and in 1845, the latter suggested that it should be employed to cover the wire which was proposed to be laid from Dover to Calais. Gutta-percha was used as insulation on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne. In 1849, C. V. Walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a 2 mi wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully.
John Watkins Brett, an engineer from Bristol, sought and obtained permission from Louis-Philippe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication between France and England. The first undersea cable was laid in 1850, connecting the two countries and was followed by connections to Ireland and the Low Countries.
The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed in London in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. It was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship SS *Great Eastern*, captained by Sir James Anderson, after many mishaps along the way. John Pender, one of the men on the Great Eastern, later founded several telecommunications companies primarily laying cables between Britain and Southeast Asia. Earlier transatlantic submarine cables installations were attempted in 1857, 1858 and 1865. The 1857 cable only operated intermittently for a few days or weeks before it failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of very long transmission lines. The telegraph lines from Britain to India were connected in 1870. (Those several companies combined to form the *Eastern Telegraph Company* in 1872.) The HMS *Challenger* expedition in 1873--1876 mapped the ocean floor for future underwater telegraph cables.
Australia was first linked to the rest of the world in October 1872 by a submarine telegraph cable at Darwin. This brought news reports from the rest of the world. The telegraph across the Pacific was completed in 1902, finally encircling the world.
From the 1850s until well into the 20th century, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the All Red Line. In 1896, there were thirty cable laying ships in the world and twenty-four of them were owned by British companies. In 1892, British companies owned and operated two-thirds of the world\'s cables and by 1923, their share was still 42.7 percent.
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# Electrical telegraph
## Commercial telegraphy {#commercial_telegraphy}
### Cable and Wireless Company {#cable_and_wireless_company}
thumb\|upright=1.51\|The Eastern Telegraph Company network in 1901 *Main article: Cable & Wireless plc* Cable & Wireless was a British telecommunications company that traced its origins back to the 1860s, with Sir John Pender as the founder, although the name was only adopted in 1934. It was formed from successive mergers including:
- The Falmouth, Malta, Gibraltar Telegraph Company
- The British Indian Submarine Telegraph Company
- The Marseilles, Algiers and Malta Telegraph Company
- The Eastern Telegraph Company
- The Eastern Extension Australasia and China Telegraph Company
- The Eastern and Associated Telegraph Companies
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## Telegraphy and longitude {#telegraphy_and_longitude}
Main article § Section: `{{Section link|History of longitude|Land surveying and telegraphy}}`{=mediawiki}.
The telegraph was very important for sending time signals to determine longitude, providing greater accuracy than previously available. Longitude was measured by comparing local time (for example local noon occurs when the sun is at its highest above the horizon) with absolute time (a time that is the same for an observer anywhere on earth). If the local times of two places differ by one hour, the difference in longitude between them is 15° (360°/24h). Before telegraphy, absolute time could be obtained from astronomical events, such as eclipses, occultations or lunar distances, or by transporting an accurate clock (a chronometer) from one location to the other.
The idea of using the telegraph to transmit a time signal for longitude determination was suggested by François Arago to Samuel Morse in 1837, and the first test of this idea was made by Capt. Wilkes of the U.S. Navy in 1844, over Morse\'s line between Washington and Baltimore. The method was soon in practical use for longitude determination, in particular by the U.S. Coast Survey, and over longer and longer distances as the telegraph network spread across North America and the world, and as technical developments improved accuracy and productivity
The \"telegraphic longitude net\" soon became worldwide. Transatlantic links between Europe and North America were established in 1866 and 1870. The US Navy extended observations into the West Indies and Central and South America with an additional transatlantic link from South America to Lisbon between 1874 and 1890. British, Russian and US observations created a chain from Europe through Suez, Aden, Madras, Singapore, China and Japan, to Vladivostok, thence to Saint Petersburg and back to Western Europe.
Australia\'s telegraph network was linked to Singapore\'s via Java in 1871, and the net circled the globe in 1902 with the connection of the Australia and New Zealand networks to Canada\'s via the All Red Line. The two determinations of longitudes, one transmitted from east to west and the other from west to east, agreed within one second of arc (`{{frac|1|15}}`{=mediawiki} second of time -- less than 30 metres).
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# Electrical telegraph
## Telegraphy in war {#telegraphy_in_war}
The ability to send telegrams brought obvious advantages to those conducting war. Secret messages were encoded, so interception alone would not be sufficient for the opposing side to gain an advantage. There were also geographical constraints on intercepting the telegraph cables that improved security, however once radio telegraphy was developed interception became far more widespread.
### Crimean War {#crimean_war}
The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use telegraphs and was one of the first to be documented extensively. In 1854, the government in London created a military Telegraph Detachment for the Army commanded by an officer of the Royal Engineers. It was to comprise twenty-five men from the Royal Corps of Sappers & Miners trained by the Electric Telegraph Company to construct and work the first field electric telegraph.
Journalistic recording of the war was provided by William Howard Russell (writing for *The Times* newspaper) with photographs by Roger Fenton. News from war correspondents kept the public of the nations involved in the war informed of the day-to-day events in a way that had not been possible in any previous war. After the French extended their telegraph lines to the coast of the Black Sea in late 1854, war news began reaching London in two days. When the British laid an underwater cable to the Crimean peninsula in April 1855, news reached London in a few hours. These prompt daily news reports energised British public opinion on the war, which brought down the government and led to Lord Palmerston becoming prime minister.
### American Civil War {#american_civil_war}
During the American Civil War the telegraph proved its value as a tactical, operational, and strategic communication medium and an important contributor to Union victory. By contrast the Confederacy failed to make effective use of the South\'s much smaller telegraph network. Prior to the War the telegraph systems were primarily used in the commercial sector. Government buildings were not inter-connected with telegraph lines, but relied on runners to carry messages back and forth. Before the war the Government saw no need to connect lines within city limits, however, they did see the use in connections between cities. Washington D.C. being the hub of government, it had the most connections, but there were only a few lines running north and south out of the city. It was not until the Civil War that the government saw the true potential of the telegraph system. Soon after the shelling of Fort Sumter, the South cut telegraph lines running into D.C., which put the city in a state of panic because they feared an immediate Southern invasion.
Within 6 months of the start of the war, the U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (USMT) had laid approximately 300 mi of line. By war\'s end they had laid approximately 15000 mi of line, 8,000 for military and 5,000 for commercial use, and had handled approximately 6.5 million messages. The telegraph was not only important for communication within the armed forces, but also in the civilian sector, helping political leaders to maintain control over their districts.
Even before the war, the American Telegraph Company censored suspect messages informally to block aid to the secession movement. During the war, Secretary of War Simon Cameron, and later Edwin Stanton, wanted control over the telegraph lines to maintain the flow of information. Early in the war, one of Stanton\'s first acts as Secretary of War was to move telegraph lines from ending at McClellan\'s headquarters to terminating at the War Department. Stanton himself said \"\[telegraphy\] is my right arm\". Telegraphy assisted Northern victories, including the Battle of Antietam (1862), the Battle of Chickamauga (1863), and Sherman\'s March to the Sea (1864).
The telegraph system still had its flaws. The USMT, while the main source of telegraphers and cable, was still a civilian agency. Most operators were first hired by the telegraph companies and then contracted out to the War Department. This created tension between generals and their operators. One source of irritation was that USMT operators did not have to follow military authority. Usually they performed without hesitation, but they were not required to, so Albert Myer created a U.S. Army Signal Corps in February 1863. As the new head of the Signal Corps, Myer tried to get all telegraph and flag signaling under his command, and therefore subject to military discipline. After creating the Signal Corps, Myer pushed to further develop new telegraph systems. While the USMT relied primarily on civilian lines and operators, the Signal Corp\'s new field telegraph could be deployed and dismantled faster than USMT\'s system.
### First World War {#first_world_war}
During World War I, Britain\'s telegraph communications were almost completely uninterrupted, while it was able to quickly cut Germany\'s cables worldwide. The British government censored telegraph cable companies in an effort to root out espionage and restrict financial transactions with Central Powers nations. British access to transatlantic cables and its codebreaking expertise led to the Zimmermann Telegram incident that contributed to the US joining the war. Despite British acquisition of German colonies and expansion into the Middle East, debt from the war led to Britain\'s control over telegraph cables to weaken while US control grew.
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# Electrical telegraph
## Telegraphy in war {#telegraphy_in_war}
### Second World War {#second_world_war}
World War II revived the \'cable war\' of 1914--1918. In 1939, German-owned cables across the Atlantic were cut once again, and, in 1940, Italian cables to South America and Spain were cut in retaliation for Italian action against two of the five British cables linking Gibraltar and Malta. Electra House, Cable & Wireless\'s head office and central cable station, was damaged by German bombing in 1941.
Resistance movements in occupied Europe sabotaged communications facilities such as telegraph lines, forcing the Germans to use wireless telegraphy, which could then be intercepted by Britain. The Germans developed a highly complex teleprinter attachment (German: *Schlüssel-Zusatz*, \"cipher attachment\") that was used for enciphering telegrams, using the Lorenz cipher, between German High Command (OKW) and the army groups in the field. These contained situation reports, battle plans, and discussions of strategy and tactics. Britain intercepted these signals, diagnosed how the encrypting machine worked, and decrypted a large amount of teleprinter traffic.
## End of the telegraph era {#end_of_the_telegraph_era}
In America, the end of the telegraph era can be associated with the fall of the Western Union Telegraph Company. Western Union was the leading telegraph provider for America and was seen as the best competition for the National Bell Telephone Company. Western Union and Bell were both invested in telegraphy and telephone technology. Western Union\'s decision to allow Bell to gain the advantage in telephone technology was the result of Western Union\'s upper management\'s failure to foresee the surpassing of the telephone over the, at the time, dominant telegraph system. Western Union soon lost the legal battle for the rights to their telephone copyrights. This led to Western Union agreeing to a lesser position in the telephone competition, which in turn led to the lessening of the telegraph.
While the telegraph was not the focus of the legal battles that occurred around 1878, the companies that were affected by the effects of the battle were the main powers of telegraphy at the time. Western Union thought that the agreement of 1878 would solidify telegraphy as the long-range communication of choice. However, due to the underestimates of telegraph\'s future`{{explain|date=October 2019}}`{=mediawiki} and poor contracts, Western Union found itself declining. AT&T acquired working control of Western Union in 1909 but relinquished it in 1914 under threat of antitrust action. AT&T bought Western Union\'s electronic mail and Telex businesses in 1990.
Although commercial \"telegraph\" services are still available in many countries, transmission is usually done via a computer network rather than a dedicated wired connection
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# Election
`{{Elections}}`{=mediawiki} `{{politics}}`{=mediawiki}
An **election** is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold public office.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private and business organizations, from clubs to voluntary association and corporations.
The global use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where the elections were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.
Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). Election is the fact of electing, or being elected.
To *elect* means \"to select or make a decision\", and so sometimes other forms of ballot such as referendums are referred to as elections, especially in the United States .
## History
Elections were used as early in history as ancient Greece and ancient Rome, and throughout the Medieval period to select rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor (see imperial election) and the pope (see papal election).
The Pala King Gopala (ruled c. 750s -- 770s CE) in early medieval Bengal was elected by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. In the Chola Empire, around 920 CE, in Uthiramerur (in present-day Tamil Nadu), palm leaves were used for selecting the village committee members. The leaves, with candidate names written on them, were put inside a mud pot. To select the committee members, a young boy was asked to take out as many leaves as the number of positions available. This was known as the *Kudavolai* system.
The first recorded popular elections of officials to public office, by majority vote, where all citizens were eligible both to vote and to hold public office, date back to the Ephors of Sparta in 754 BC, under the mixed government of the Spartan Constitution. Athenian democratic elections, where all citizens could hold public office, were not introduced for another 247 years, until the reforms of Cleisthenes. Under the earlier Solonian Constitution (c. 574 BC), all Athenian citizens were eligible to vote in the popular assemblies, on matters of law and policy, and as jurors, but only the three highest classes of citizens could vote in elections. Nor were the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens (as defined by the extent of their wealth and property, rather than by birth) eligible to hold public office, through the reforms of Solon. The Spartan election of the Ephors, therefore, also predates the reforms of Solon in Athens by approximately 180 years.
Questions of suffrage, especially suffrage for minority groups, have dominated the history of elections. Males, the dominant cultural group in North America and Europe, often dominated the electorate and continue to do so in many countries. Early elections in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States were dominated by landed or ruling class males. By 1920 all Western European and North American democracies had universal adult male suffrage (except Switzerland) and many countries began to consider women\'s suffrage. Despite legally mandated universal suffrage for adult males, political barriers were sometimes erected to prevent fair access to elections (see civil rights movement).
## Contexts
Elections are held in a variety of political, organizational, and corporate settings. Many countries hold elections to select people to serve in their governments, but other types of organizations hold elections as well. For example, many corporations hold elections among shareholders to select a board of directors, and these elections may be mandated by corporate law. In many places, an election to the government is usually a competition among people who have already won a primary election within a political party. Elections within corporations and other organizations often use procedures and rules that are similar to those of governmental elections.
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# Election
## Electorate
### Suffrage
The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not generally include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those who are under the age of majority from voting. All jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting.
In Australia, Aboriginal people were not given the right to vote until 1962 (see 1967 referendum entry) and in 2010 the federal government removed the rights of prisoners serving for three years or more to vote (a large proportion of whom were Aboriginal Australians).
Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country, though further limits may be imposed.
In the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required. In some countries, voting is required by law. Eligible voters may be subject to punitive measures such as a fine for not casting a vote. In Western Australia, the penalty for a first time offender failing to vote is a \$20.00 fine, which increases to \$50.00 if the offender refused to vote prior.
### Voting population {#voting_population}
Historically the size of eligible voters, the electorate, was small having the size of groups or communities of privileged men like aristocrats and men of a city (citizens).
With the growth of the number of people with bourgeois citizen rights outside of cities, expanding the term citizen, the electorates grew to numbers beyond the thousands. Elections with an electorate in the hundred thousands appeared in the final decades of the Roman Republic, by extending voting rights to citizens outside of Rome with the Lex Julia of 90 BC, reaching an electorate of 910,000 and estimated voter turnout of maximum 10% in 70 BC, only again comparable in size to the first elections of the United States. At the same time the Kingdom of Great Britain had in 1780 about 214,000 eligible voters, 3% of the whole population. Naturalization can reshape the electorate of a country.
## Candidates
A representative democracy requires a procedure to govern nomination for political office. In many cases, nomination for office is mediated through preselection processes in organized political parties.
Non-partisan systems tend to be different from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated. Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome, and in the selection of popes and Holy Roman emperors, the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the gradual emergence of representative government in Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century. In some systems no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting---with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age requirement---in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is not required (or even possible) that the members of the electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, though such systems may involve indirect elections at larger geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity among potential electees can exist at these levels (i.e., among the elected delegates).
## Systems
Electoral systems are the detailed constitutional arrangements and voting systems that convert the vote into a political decision.
The first step is for voters to cast the ballots, which may be simple single-choice ballots, but other types, such as multiple choice or ranked ballots may also be used. Then the votes are tallied, for which various vote counting systems may be used. and the voting system then determines the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either proportional, majoritarian or mixed. Among the proportional systems, the most commonly used are party-list proportional representation (list PR) systems, among majoritarian are first-past-the-post electoral system (single winner plurality voting) and different methods of majority voting (such as the widely used two-round system). Mixed systems combine elements of both proportional and majoritarian methods, with some typically producing results closer to the former (mixed-member proportional) or the other (e.g. parallel voting).
Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as approval voting, single transferable vote, instant runoff voting or a Condorcet method; these methods are also gaining popularity for lesser elections in some countries where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.
While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter\'s ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.
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# Election
## Campaigns
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns. Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize campaign advertising. It is common for political scientists to attempt to predict elections via political forecasting methods.
The most expensive election campaign included US\$7 billion spent on the 2012 United States presidential election and is followed by the US\$5 billion spent on the 2014 Indian general election.
## Timing
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. For that reason, most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office. There is a variety of schedules, for example, presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the President of Russia and the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, President of the United States every four years.
Predetermined or fixed election dates have the advantage of fairness and predictability. They tend to greatly lengthen campaigns, and make dissolving the legislature (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at a time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the United Kingdom) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice, this means the government remains in power for close to its full term, and chooses an election date it calculates to be in its best interests (unless something special happens, such as a motion of no-confidence). This calculation depends on a number of variables, such as its performance in opinion polls and the size of its majority.
**Rolling elections** are elections in which all representatives in a body are elected, but these elections are spread over a period of time rather than all at once. Examples are the presidential primaries in the United States, Elections to the European Parliament (where, due to differing election laws in each member state, elections are held on different days of the same week) and, due to logistics, general elections in Lebanon and India. The voting procedure in the Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic are also a classical example.
In rolling elections, voters have information about previous voters\' choices. While in the first elections, there may be plenty of hopeful candidates, in the last rounds consensus on one winner is generally achieved. In today\'s context of rapid communication, candidates can put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages.
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# Election
## Undemocratic or unfair {#undemocratic_or_unfair}
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Buenos Aires 1892: \"The rival voters were kept back by an armed force of police out of sight to others. Only batches of two or three were allowed to enter the polling office at a time. Armed sentries guarded the gates and the doors.\" Godefroy Durand, *The Graphic*, 21 May 1892. *Main article: Unfair election* In many of the countries with weak rule of law, the most common reason why elections do not meet international standards of being \"free and fair\" is interference from the incumbent government. Dictators may use the powers of the executive (police, martial law, censorship, physical implementation of the election mechanism, etc.) to remain in power despite popular opinion in favour of removal. Members of a particular faction in a legislature may use the power of the majority or supermajority (passing criminal laws, and defining the electoral mechanisms including eligibility and district boundaries) to prevent the balance of power in the body from shifting to a rival faction due to an election.
Non-governmental entities can also interfere with elections, through physical force, verbal intimidation, or fraud, which can result in improper casting or counting of votes. Monitoring for and minimizing electoral fraud is also an ongoing task in countries with strong traditions of free and fair elections. Problems that prevent an election from being \"free and fair\" take various forms.
### Lack of open political debate or an informed electorate {#lack_of_open_political_debate_or_an_informed_electorate}
The electorate may be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press, lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, or lack of access to news and political media. Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favouring certain viewpoints or state propaganda. Scheduling frequent elections can also lead to voter fatigue.
### Violation of political egalitarianism {#violation_of_political_egalitarianism}
Gerrymandering, wasted votes and manipulating electoral thresholds can prevent that all votes count equally.
### Interference with campaigns {#interference_with_campaigns}
Exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high nomination rules on who may be a candidate, are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favour a specific faction or candidate. Those in power may arrest or assassinate candidates, suppress or even criminalize campaigning, close campaign headquarters, harass or beat campaign workers, or intimidate voters with violence. Foreign electoral intervention can also occur, with the United States interfering between 1946 and 2000 in 81 elections and Russia or the Soviet Union in 36. In 2018 the most intense interventions, utilizing false information, were by China in Taiwan and by Russia in Latvia; the next highest levels were in Bahrain, Qatar and Hungary.
### Tampering with mechanisms {#tampering_with_mechanisms}
This can include falsifying voter instructions, violation of the secret ballot, ballot stuffing, tampering with voting machines, destruction of legitimately cast ballots, voter suppression, voter registration fraud, failure to validate voter residency, fraudulent tabulation of results, and use of physical force or verbal intimation at polling places. Other examples include persuading candidates not to run, such as through blackmailing, bribery, intimidation or physical violence.
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# Election
## Undemocratic or unfair {#undemocratic_or_unfair}
### Shams
alt=\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|The 2024 Economist Intelligence Unit *Democracy Index* map
A **sham election**, or **show election**, is an election that is held purely for show; that is, without any significant political choice or real impact on the results of the election.
Sham elections are a common event in dictatorial regimes that feel the need to feign the appearance of public legitimacy. Published results usually show nearly 100% voter turnout and high support (typically at least 80%, and close to 100% in many cases) for the prescribed candidates or for the referendum choice that favours the political party in power. Dictatorial regimes can also organize sham elections with results simulating those that might be achieved in democratic countries.
Sometimes, only one government-approved candidate is allowed to run in sham elections with no opposition candidates allowed, or opposition candidates are arrested on false charges (or even without any charges) before the election to prevent them from running.
Ballots may contain only one \"yes\" option, or in the case of a simple \"yes or no\" question, security forces often persecute people who pick \"no\", thus encouraging them to pick the \"yes\" option. In other cases, those who vote receive stamps in their passport for doing so, while those who did not vote (and thus do not receive stamps) are persecuted as enemies of the people.
Sham elections can sometimes backfire against the party in power, especially if the regime believes they are popular enough to win without coercion, fraud or suppressing the opposition. The most famous example of this was the 1990 Myanmar general election, in which the government-sponsored National Unity Party suffered a landslide defeat by the opposition National League for Democracy and consequently, the results were annulled.
Examples of sham elections include: the 1929 and 1934 elections in Fascist Italy, the 1942 general election in Imperial Japan, those in Nazi Germany, East Germany other than the election in 1990, the 1940 elections of Stalinist \"People\'s Parliaments\" to legitimise the Soviet occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, those in Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, Hosni Mubarak, and Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, those in Bangladesh under Sheikh Hasina, those in Russia under Vladimir Putin, those in Syria under Hafez Al-Assad and his son Bashar Al-Assad, those in Venezuela Under Hugo Chavez and Nicolas Maduro and most notably in 2018 and 2024, the 1928, 1935, 1942, 1949, 1951 and 1958 elections in Portugal, those in Indonesia during New Order regime, those in Belarus and most notably in 2020, the 1991 and 2019 Kazakh presidential elections, those in North Korea, the 1995 and 2002 presidential referendums in Saddam Hussein\'s Iraq.
In Mexico, all of the presidential elections from 1929 to 1982 are considered to be sham elections, as the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and its predecessors governed the country in a *de facto* single-party system without serious opposition, and they won all of the presidential elections in that period with more than 70% of the vote. The first seriously competitive presidential election in modern Mexican history was that of 1988, in which for the first time the PRI candidate faced two strong opposition candidates, though it is believed that the government rigged the result. The first fair election was held in 1994, though the opposition did not win until 2000.
A predetermined conclusion is permanently established by the regime through suppression of the opposition, coercion of voters, vote rigging, reporting several votes received greater than the number of voters, outright lying, or some combination of these. In an extreme example, Charles D. B. King of Liberia was reported to have won by 234,000 votes in the 1927 general election, a \"majority\" that was over fifteen times larger than the number of eligible voters.
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# Election
## Aristocratic
Some scholars argue that the predominance of elections in modern liberal democracies masks the fact that they are actually aristocratic selection mechanisms that deny each citizen an equal chance of holding public office. Such views were expressed as early as the time of Ancient Greece by Aristotle. According to French political scientist Bernard Manin, the inegalitarian nature of elections stems from four factors: the unequal treatment of candidates by voters, the distinction of candidates required by choice, the cognitive advantage conferred by salience, and the costs of disseminating information. These four factors result in the evaluation of candidates based on voters\' partial standards of quality and social saliency (for example, skin colour and good looks). This leads to self-selection biases in candidate pools due to unobjective standards of treatment by voters and the costs (barriers to entry) associated with raising one\'s political profile. Ultimately, the result is the election of candidates who are superior (whether in actuality or as perceived within a cultural context) and objectively unlike the voters they are supposed to represent.
Evidence suggests that the concept of electing representatives was originally conceived to be different from democracy. Prior to the 18th century, some societies in Western Europe used sortition as a means to select rulers, a method which allowed regular citizens to exercise power, in keeping with understandings of democracy at the time. The idea of what constituted a legitimate government shifted in the 18th century to include consent, especially with the rise of the enlightenment. From this point onward, sortition fell out of favor as a mechanism for selecting rulers. On the other hand, elections began to be seen as a way for the masses to express popular consent repeatedly, resulting in the triumph of the electoral process until the present day.
This conceptual misunderstanding of elections as open and egalitarian when they are not innately so may thus be a root cause of the problems in contemporary governance. Those in favor of this view argue that the modern system of elections was never meant to give ordinary citizens the chance to exercise power - merely privileging their right to consent to those who rule. Therefore, the representatives that modern electoral systems select for are too disconnected, unresponsive, and elite-serving. To deal with this issue, various scholars have proposed alternative models of democracy, many of which include a return to sortition-based selection mechanisms. The extent to which sortition should be the dominant mode of selecting rulers or instead be hybridised with electoral representation remains a topic of debate
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