id
int64 39
11.1M
| section
stringlengths 3
4.51M
| length
int64 2
49.9k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## Course
The Euphrates is the longest river of West Asia. It emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su or Western Euphrates (450 km) and the Murat Su or Eastern Euphrates (650 km) 10 km upstream from the town of Keban in southeastern Turkey. Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the Tigris at 3000 km, of which 1230 km is in Turkey, 710 km in Syria and 1060 km in Iraq. The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova. The length of the Shatt al-Arab, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the Persian Gulf, is given by various sources as 145 --.
Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from Lake Van at elevations of 3290 m and 3520 m amsl, respectively. At the location of the Keban Dam, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of 693 m amsl. From Keban to the Syrian--Turkish border, the river drops another 368 m over a distance of less than 600 km. Once the Euphrates enters the Upper Mesopotamian plains, its grade drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163 m while over the last stretch between Hīt and the Shatt al-Arab the river drops only 55 m.
### Discharge
The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. Discharge in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60--70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn. The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early- and mid-twentieth century records as 20.9 km3 at Keban, 36.6 km3 at Hīt and 21.5 km3 at Hindiya. However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at Birecik, just north of the Syro--Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 km3 in 1961 to a high of 42.7 km3 in 1963.
The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 m3 per second (11.2 km3 per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7510 m3 per second, while after 1990 it is only 2514 m3 per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 m3 per second before 1990 to 58 m3 per second afterward.
| 473 |
Euphrates
| 1 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## Course
### Tributaries
In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the Sajur, the Balikh and the Khabur. These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro--Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin Dam. The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near \'Ayn al-\'Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around Ra\'s al-\'Ayn, from where the Khabur flows southeast past Al-Hasakah, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near Busayrah. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.
Name Length Watershed size Discharge Bank
-------------- -------- ---------------- --------------------------- ------------
Kara Su Confluence
Murat River Confluence
Sajur River 4.1 m^3^/s (145 cu ft/s) Right
Balikh River 6 m^3^/s (212 cu ft/s) Left
Khabur River 45 m^3^/s (1,600 cu ft/s) Left
## Drainage basin {#drainage_basin}
Further information: Tigris--Euphrates river system The drainage basins of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22000 km2 and 40000 km2, respectively. Estimates of the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low 233000 km2 to a high 766000 km2. Recent estimates put the basin area at 388000 km2, 444000 km2 and 579314 km2. The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey\'s share is 28 percent, Syria\'s is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent. Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively. Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within Saudi Arabia, while a small part falls inside the borders of Kuwait. Finally, some sources also include Jordan in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert (220 km2) drains toward the east rather than to the west.
| 394 |
Euphrates
| 2 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## Climate change {#climate_change}
In 2021, the Iraqi Ministry of Water Resources reported that the Euphrates river could dry out by 2040 due to climate change and droughts.
## Natural history {#natural_history}
The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct vegetation zones. Although millennia-long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a xeric woodland. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various oaks, pistachio trees, and *Rosaceae* (rose/plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and *Rosaceae*. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including einkorn wheat, emmer, oat and rye.
South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland-steppe vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro--Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by white wormwood (*Artemisia herba-alba*) and Amaranthaceae. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of sheep and goat pastoralism by its inhabitants. Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true desert. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of *Chenopodiaceae* or *Poa sinaica*. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a riverine forest. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the Oriental plane, the Euphrates poplar, the tamarisk, the ash and various wetland plants.
Among the fish species in the Tigris--Euphrates basin, the family of the Cyprinidae are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total. Among the Cyprinids, the mangar has good recreational fishing qualities, leading the British to nickname it the \"Tigris salmon.\" The Euphrates softshell turtle is an endangered soft-shelled turtle that is limited to the Tigris--Euphrates river system.
The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict lion and bull hunts in fertile landscapes. Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like gazelle, onager and the now-extinct Arabian ostrich lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the wild boar. Carnivorous species include the wolf, the golden jackal, the red fox, the leopard and the lion. The Syrian brown bear can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of Eurasian beaver has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.
| 487 |
Euphrates
| 3 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## River
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Map (in French) showing the locations of dams and barrages built in the Syro--Turkish part of the Euphrates basin\|alt=Refer to caption
The Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris--Euphrates river system. The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah. Iraq\'s largest dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam; a 9 km earth-fill dam creating Lake Qadisiyah. Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia Project, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the Freedom Dam and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam -- the Halabiye Dam -- between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor. The Tabqa Dam is Syria\'s largest dam and its reservoir (Lake Assad) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that 640000 ha should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only 100000 -- had been realized. Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.
With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (**Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi**, or *GAP*) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces. GAP affects a total area of 75000 km2 and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey\'s total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams -- including the Keban Dam -- and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1700000 ha of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey. C. 910000 ha of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin. By far the largest dam in GAP is the Atatürk Dam, located c. 55 km northwest of Şanlıurfa. This 184 and dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third-largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 km3, the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates. Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the World Bank has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.
Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Tharthar, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the Shatt al-Hayy, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so-called \"Third River;\" constructed between 1953 and 1992. This 565 km canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of Baghdad to prevent soil salinization from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.
| 571 |
Euphrates
| 4 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## River
### Environmental and social effects {#environmental_and_social_effects}
The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP -- in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins -- have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people. A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient. The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an \"Arab belt\" along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.
Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased evaporation; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 km3 in Turkey, 1 km3 in Syria and 5 km3 in Iraq. Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields. The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water. The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large-scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile Mesopotamian Marshes and on freshwater fish habitats in Iraq.
The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many archaeological sites and other places of cultural significance. Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered cultural heritage as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of Zeugma with its unique Roman mosaics by the reservoir of the Birecik Dam has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press. The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by UNESCO to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the Natufian to the Abbasid period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include Mureybet, Emar and Abu Hureyra. A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Jerf el Ahmar. An archaeological survey and rescue excavations were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq. Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for looting, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the 2003 invasion.
## Religion
### Islam
In Islamic tradition, a hadith of Muhammad states that the Last Hour will not occur until the Euphrates River uncovers a mountain of gold, over which people will fight. Ninety-nine out of every one hundred individuals engaged in this conflict will perish, with each person hoping to be the one who secures the treasure. The hadith also advises that whoever finds this gold should refrain from taking any of it. This event is considered one of the minor signs of the approaching Day of Judgment.
### Christianity
In the Christian Bible, the Euphrates River is mentioned in Revelation 16:12, in the final book of the New Testament. The author, John of Patmos, writes about the Euphrates river drying up as part of a series of events that foretell the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.
The river Phrath mentioned in Genesis 2:14 is also identified as the Euphrates.
| 752 |
Euphrates
| 5 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## History
### Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic periods {#palaeolithic_to_chalcolithic_periods}
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the Fertile Crescent. Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe; the latter together with remains of *Homo erectus* that were dated to 450,000 years old. In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra -- at first occupied by hunter-gatherers but later by some of the earliest farmers, Jerf el Ahmar, Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward. In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey. Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area. Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including Tell es-Sawwan. During the 5th millennium BCE, or late Ubaid period, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 ha. In Iraq, sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period. Clay boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period. The Uruk period, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over 100 ha in size and displayed monumental architecture. The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. Habuba Kabira on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.
| 369 |
Euphrates
| 6 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## History
### Ancient history {#ancient_history}
During the Jemdet Nasr (3600--3100 BCE) and Early Dynastic periods (3100--2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including Sumero-Akkadian sites like Sippar, Uruk, Adab and Kish, were organized in competing city-states. Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from remote sensing imagery. A similar development took place in Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu and Assyria, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like Ebla, Mari and Tell Leilan grew to prominence for the first time during this period.
Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the Akkadian Empire (2335--2154 BC) and Ur III empires, which controlled -- either directly or indirectly through vassals -- large parts of modern-day Iraq and northeastern Syria. Following their collapse, the Old Assyrian Empire (1975--1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city-states like Isin, Kish and Larsa before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of Babylonia under Hammurabi in the early to mid 18th century BCE.
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni, Assyria and the Hittite Empire in the north, with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365--1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians. Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (935--605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.
In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived Median Empire (612--546 BC) and equally brief Neo-Babylonian Empire (612--539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the Achaemenid Empire (539--333 BC). The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by Alexander the Great, who defeated the last king Darius III and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.
Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire (312--150 BC), Parthian Empire (150--226 AD) (during which several Neo-Assyrian states such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the Roman Empire, its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire (226--638 AD), until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD. The Battle of Karbala took place near the banks of this river in 680 AD.
In the north, the river served as a border between Greater Armenia (331 BC--428 AD) and Lesser Armenia (the latter became a Roman province in the 1st century BC).
| 516 |
Euphrates
| 7 |
10,221 |
# Euphrates
## History
### Modern era {#modern_era}
After World War I, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), when the Ottoman Empire was partitioned. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, France for its Syrian mandate and the United Kingdom for its mandate of Iraq) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation. An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris--Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.
The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932 to 1959.
Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates -- the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively -- within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 km3 in 1973 to 9.4 km3 in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union. A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey\'s hydroelectricity production. In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least 500 m3 per second, or 16 km3 per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries. Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey. In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris--Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect. On 15 April 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on 16 May 2014 resulting in the Euphrates terminating at the Turkish--Syrian border. This was in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of 500 m3 of water per second at the Turkish--Syrian border.
During the Syrian civil war and the Iraqi Civil War, much of the Euphrates was controlled by the Islamic State from 2014 until 2017, when the terrorist group began losing land and was eventually defeated territorially in Syria at the Battle of Baghouz and in Iraq in the Western Iraq offensive respectively.
## Economy
Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large hydropower stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria\'s Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of Aleppo, 75 km to the west of the river valley. The lake also supports a modest state-operated fishing industry. Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad
| 595 |
Euphrates
| 8 |
10,229 |
# Equidae
**Equidae** (commonly known as the **horse family**) is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including asses, zebras, and many extinct species known only from fossils. The family evolved more than 50 million years ago, in the Eocene epoch, from a small, multi-toed ungulate into larger, single-toed animals. All extant species are in the genus *Equus*, which originated in North America. Equidae belongs to the order Perissodactyla, which includes the extant tapirs and rhinoceros, and several extinct families. It is more specifically grouped within the superfamily Equoidea, the only other family being the extinct Palaeotheriidae.
The term **equid** refers to any member of this family, including any equine.
## Evolution
The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae were found in North America, and date from the early Eocene epoch, 54 million years ago. They were once assigned to the genus *Hyracotherium*, but the type species of that genus is now regarded as a palaeothere. The other species have been split off into different genera. These early equids were fox-sized animals with three toes on the hind feet, and four on the front feet. They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and already adapted for running. The complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals. Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grasses and other tough plant food.
The equids, like other perissodactyls, are hindgut fermenters. They have evolved specialized teeth that cut and shear tough plant matter to accommodate their fibrous diet. Their seemingly inefficient digestion strategy is a result of their size at the time of its evolution, as they would have already had to be relatively large mammals to be supported on such a strategy.
The family became relatively diverse during the Miocene epoch, with many new species appearing. By this time, equids were more truly horse like, having developed the typical body shape of the modern animals. Many of these species bore the main weight of their bodies on their central third toe, with the others becoming reduced and barely touching the ground, if at all. The sole surviving genus, *Equus*, had evolved by the early Pleistocene epoch, and spread rapidly through the world.
## Classification
`{{see also|List of perissodactyls}}`{=mediawiki}
- **Order Perissodactyla** (In addition to Equidae, Perissodactyla includes four species of tapir in a single genus, as well as five living species (belonging to four genera) of rhinoceros.) † indicates extinct taxa
| 413 |
Equidae
| 0 |
10,273 |
# Embryo drawing
**Embryo drawing** is the illustration of embryos in their developmental sequence. In plants and animals, an embryo develops from a zygote, the single cell that results when an egg and sperm fuse during fertilization. In animals, the zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells, which then forms a set of tissue layers that migrate and fold to form an early embryo. Images of embryos provide a means of comparing embryos of different ages, and species. To this day, embryo drawings are made in undergraduate developmental biology lessons.
Comparing different embryonic stages of different animals is a tool that can be used to infer relationships between species, and thus biological evolution. This has been a source of quite some controversy, both now and in the past. Ernst Haeckel at the University of Basel pioneered in this field. By comparing different embryonic stages of different vertebrate species, he formulated the recapitulation theory. This theory states that an animal\'s embryonic development follows exactly the same sequence as the sequence of its evolutionary ancestors. Haeckel\'s work and the ensuing controversy linked the fields of developmental biology and comparative anatomy into comparative embryology. From a more modern perspective, Haeckel\'s drawings were the beginnings of the field of evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo).
The study of comparative embryology aims to prove or disprove that vertebrate embryos of different classes (e.g. mammals vs. fish) follow a similar developmental path due to their common ancestry. Such developing vertebrates have similar genes, which determine the basic body plan. However, further development allows for the distinguishing of distinct characteristics as adults.
| 265 |
Embryo drawing
| 0 |
10,273 |
# Embryo drawing
## Famous embryo illustrators {#famous_embryo_illustrators}
### Ernst Haeckel (1834--1919) {#ernst_haeckel_18341919}
Haeckel\'s illustrations show vertebrate embryos at different stages of development, which exhibit embryonic resemblance as support for evolution, recapitulation as evidence of the Biogenetic Law, and phenotypic divergence as evidence of von Baer\'s laws. The series of twenty-four embryos from the early editions of Haeckel\'s *Anthropogenie* remain the most famous. The different species are arranged in columns, and the different stages in rows. Similarities can be seen along the first two rows; the appearance of specialized characters in each species can be seen in the columns and a diagonal interpretation leads one to Haeckel\'s idea of recapitulation.
Haeckel\'s embryo drawings are primarily intended to express his theory of embryonic development, the Biogenetic Law, which in turn assumes (but is not crucial to) the evolutionary concept of common descent. His postulation of embryonic development coincides with his understanding of evolution as a developmental process. In and around 1800, embryology fused with comparative anatomy as the primary foundation of morphology. Ernst Haeckel, along with Karl von Baer and Wilhelm His, are primarily influential in forming the preliminary foundations of \'phylogenetic embryology\' based on principles of evolution. Haeckel\'s \'Biogenetic Law\' portrays the parallel relationship between an embryo\'s development and phylogenetic history. The term, \'recapitulation,\' has come to embody Haeckel\'s Biogenetic Law, for embryonic development is a recapitulation of evolution. Haeckel proposes that all classes of vertebrates pass through an evolutionarily conserved \"phylotypic\" stage of development, a period of reduced phenotypic diversity among higher embryos. Only in later development do particular differences appear. Haeckel portrays a concrete demonstration of his Biogenetic Law through his *Gastrea* theory, in which he argues that the early cup-shaped gastrula stage of development is a universal feature of multi-celled animals. An ancestral form existed, known as the gastrea, which was a common ancestor to the corresponding gastrula.
Haeckel argues that certain features in embryonic development are conserved and palingenetic, while others are caenogenetic. Caenogenesis represents \"the blurring of ancestral resemblances in development\", which are said to be the result of certain adaptations to embryonic life due to environmental changes. In his drawings, Haeckel cites the notochord, pharyngeal arches and clefts, pronephros and neural tube as palingenetic features. However, the yolk sac, extra-embryonic membranes, egg membranes and endocardial tube are considered caenogenetic features. The addition of terminal adult stages and the telescoping, or driving back, of such stages to descendant\'s embryonic stages are likewise representative of Haeckelian embryonic development. In addressing his embryo drawings to a general audience, Haeckel does not cite any sources, which gives his opponents the freedom to make assumptions regarding the originality of his work.
### Karl Ernst von Baer (1792--1876) {#karl_ernst_von_baer_17921876}
Haeckel was not the only one to create a series of drawings representing embryonic development. Karl E. von Baer and Haeckel both struggled to model one of the most complex problems facing embryologists at the time: the arrangement of general and special characters during development in different species of animals. In relation to developmental timing, von Baer\'s scheme of development differs from Haeckel\'s scheme. Von Baer\'s scheme of development need not be tied to developmental stages defined by particular characters, where recapitulation involves heterochrony. Heterochrony represents a gradual alteration in the original phylogenetic sequence due to embryonic adaptation. As well, von Baer early noted that embryos of different species could not be easily distinguished from one another as in adults.
Von Baer\'s laws governing embryonic development are specific rejections of recapitulation. As a response to Haeckel\'s theory of recapitulation, von Baer enunciates his most notorious laws of development. Von Baer\'s laws state that general features of animals appear earlier in the embryo than special features, where less general features stem from the most general, each embryo of a species departs more and more from a predetermined passage through the stages of other animals, and there is never a complete morphological similarity between an embryo and a lower adult. Von Baer\'s embryo drawings display that individual development proceeds from general features of the developing embryo in early stages through differentiation into special features specific to the species, establishing that linear evolution could not occur. Embryological development, in von Baer\'s mind, is a process of differentiation, \"a movement from the more homogeneous and universal to the more heterogeneous and individual.\"
Von Baer argues that embryos will resemble each other before attaining characteristics differentiating them as part of a specific family, genus or species, but embryos are not the same as the final forms of lower organisms.
| 753 |
Embryo drawing
| 1 |
10,273 |
# Embryo drawing
## Famous embryo illustrators {#famous_embryo_illustrators}
### Wilhelm His (1831--1904) {#wilhelm_his_18311904}
Wilhelm His was one of Haeckel\'s most authoritative and primary opponents advocating physiological embryology. His *Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen* (Anatomy of human embryos) employs a series of his most important drawings chronicling developing embryos from the end of the second week through the end of the second month of pregnancy. In 1878, His begins to engage in serious study of the anatomy of human embryos for his drawings. During the 19th century, embryologists often obtained early human embryos from abortions and miscarriages, postmortems of pregnant women and collections in anatomical museums. In order to construct his series of drawings, His collected specimens which he manipulated into a form that he could operate with.
In His\' *Normentafel*, he displays specific individual embryos rather than ideal types. His does not produce norms from aborted specimens, but rather visualizes the embryos in order to make them comparable and specifically subjects his embryo specimens to criticism and comparison with other cases. Ultimately, His\' critical work in embryonic development comes with his production of a series of embryo drawings of increasing length and degree of development. His\' depiction of embryological development strongly differs from Haeckel\'s depiction, for His argues that the phylogenetic explanation of ontogenetic events is unnecessary. His argues that all ontogenetic events are the \"mechanical\" result of differential cell growth. His\' embryology is not explained in terms of ancestral history.
The debate between Haeckel and His ultimately becomes fueled by the description of an embryo that Wilhelm Krause propels directly into the ongoing feud between Haeckel and His. Haeckel speculates that the allantois is formed in a similar way in both humans and other mammals. His, on the other hand, accuses Haeckel of altering and playing with the facts. Although Haeckel is proven right about the allantois, the utilization of Krause\'s embryo as justification turns out to be problematic, for the embryo is that of a bird rather than a human. The underlying debate between Haeckel and His derives from differing viewpoints regarding the similarity or dissimilarity of vertebrate embryos. In response to Haeckel\'s evolutionary claim that all vertebrates are essentially identical in the first month of embryonic life as proof of common descent, His responds by insisting that a more skilled observer would recognize even sooner that early embryos can be distinguished. His also counteracts Haeckel\'s sequence of drawings in the *Anthropogenie* with what he refers to as \"exact\" drawings, highlighting specific differences. Ultimately, His goes so far as to accuse Haeckel of \"faking\" his embryo illustrations to make the vertebrate embryos appear more similar than in reality. His also accuses Haeckel of creating early human embryos that he conjured in his imagination rather than obtained through empirical observation. His completes his denunciation of Haeckel by pronouncing that Haeckel had \"\'relinquished the right to count as an equal in the company of serious researchers.\'\"
## Controversy
The exactness of Ernst Haeckel\'s drawings of embryos has caused much controversy among Intelligent Design proponents recently and Haeckel\'s intellectual opponents in the past. Although the early embryos of different species exhibit similarities, Haeckel apparently exaggerated these similarities in support of his Recapitulation theory, sometimes known as the Biogenetic Law or \"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\". Furthermore, Haeckel even proposed theoretical life-forms to accommodate certain stages in embryogenesis. A recent review concluded that the \"biogenetic law is supported by several recent studies -- if applied to single characters only\".
Critics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Karl von Baer and Wilhelm His, did not believe that living embryos reproduce the evolutionary process and produced embryo drawings of their own which emphasized the differences in early embryological development. Late 20th and early 21st century critic Stephen Jay Gould has objected to the continued use of Haeckel\'s embryo drawings in textbooks.
On the other hand, Michael K. Richardson, Professor of Evolutionary Developmental Zoology, Leiden University, while recognizing that some criticisms of the drawings are legitimate (indeed, it was he and his co-workers who began the modern criticisms in 1998), has supported the drawings as teaching aids, and has said that \"on a fundamental level, Haeckel was correct.\"
| 691 |
Embryo drawing
| 2 |
10,273 |
# Embryo drawing
## Opposition to Haeckel {#opposition_to_haeckel}
Haeckel encountered numerous oppositions to his artistic depictions of embryonic development during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Haeckel\'s opponents believe that he de-emphasizes the differences between early embryonic stages in order to make the similarities between embryos of different species more pronounced.
### Early opponents: Ludwig Rutimeyer, Theodor Bischoff and Rudolf Virchow {#early_opponents_ludwig_rutimeyer_theodor_bischoff_and_rudolf_virchow}
The first suggestion of fakery against Haeckel was made in late 1868 by Ludwig Rutimeyer in the *Archiv für Anthropogenie*. Rutimeyer was a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel, who rejected natural selection as simply mechanistic and proposed an anti-materialist view of nature. Rutimeyer claimed that Haeckel \"had taken to kinds of liberty with established truth\". Rutimeyer claimed that Haeckel presented the same image three consecutive times as the embryo of the dog, the chicken, and the turtle.
Theodor Bischoff (1807--1882), was a strong opponent of Darwinism. As a pioneer in mammalian embryology, he was one of Haeckel\'s strongest critics. Although Bischoff\'s 1840 surveys depict how similar the early embryos of man are to other vertebrates, he later demanded that such hasty generalization was inconsistent with his recent findings regarding the dissimilarity between hamster embryos and those of rabbits and dogs. Nevertheless, Bischoff\'s main argument was in reference to Haeckel\'s drawings of human embryos, for Haeckel is later accused of miscopying the dog embryo from him. Throughout Haeckel\'s time, criticism of his embryo drawings was often due in part to his critics\' belief in his representations of embryological development as \"crude schemata\".
### Contemporary criticism of Haeckel: Michael Richardson and Stephen Jay Gould {#contemporary_criticism_of_haeckel_michael_richardson_and_stephen_jay_gould}
Michael Richardson and his colleagues in a July 1997 issue of *Anatomy and Embryology*, demonstrated that Haeckel falsified his drawings in order to exaggerate the similarity of the phylotypic stage. In a March 2000 issue of *Natural History*, Stephen Jay Gould argued that Haeckel \"exaggerated the similarities by idealizations and omissions.\" As well, Gould argued that Haeckel\'s drawings are simply inaccurate and falsified. On the other hand, one of those who criticized Haeckel\'s drawings, Michael Richardson, has argued that \"Haeckel\'s much-criticized drawings are important as phylogenetic hypotheses, teaching aids, and evidence for evolution\". But even Richardson admitted in *Science* Magazine in 1997 that his team\'s investigation of Haeckel\'s drawings were showing them to be \"one of the most famous fakes in biology.\"
Some version of Haeckel\'s drawings can be found in many modern biology textbooks in discussions of the history of embryology, with clarification that these are no longer considered valid.
| 423 |
Embryo drawing
| 3 |
10,273 |
# Embryo drawing
## Haeckel\'s proponents (past and present) {#haeckels_proponents_past_and_present}
Although Charles Darwin accepted Haeckel\'s support for natural selection, he was tentative in using Haeckel\'s ideas in his writings; with regard to embryology, Darwin relied far more on von Baer\'s work. Haeckel\'s work was published in 1866 and 1874, years after Darwin\'s \"The Origin of Species\" (1859).
Despite the numerous oppositions, Haeckel has influenced many disciplines in science in his drive to integrate such disciplines of taxonomy and embryology into the Darwinian framework and to investigate phylogenetic reconstruction through his Biogenetic Law. As well, Haeckel served as a mentor to many important scientists, including Anton Dohrn, Richard and Oscar Hertwig, Wilhelm Roux, and Hans Driesch.
One of Haeckel\'s earliest proponents was Carl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena (1865--1873), during which both men were absorbing the impact of Darwin\'s theory. The two quickly sought to integrate their knowledge into an evolutionary program. In determining the relationships between \"phylogenetic linkages\" and \"evolutionary laws of form,\" both Gegenbaur and Haeckel relied on a method of comparison. As Gegenbaur argued, the task of comparative anatomy lies in explaining the form and organization of the animal body in order to provide evidence for the continuity and evolution of a series of organs in the body. Haeckel then provided a means of pursuing this aim with his biogenetic law, in which he proposed to compare an individual\'s various stages of development with its ancestral line. Although Haeckel stressed comparative embryology and Gegenbaur promoted the comparison of adult structures, both believed that the two methods could work in conjunction to produce the goal of evolutionary morphology.
The philologist and anthropologist, Friedrich Müller, used Haeckel\'s concepts as a source for his ethnological research, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. Müller\'s work relies specifically on theoretical assumptions that are very similar to Haeckel\'s and reflects the German practice to maintain strong connections between empirical research and the philosophical framework of science. Language is particularly important, for it establishes a bridge between natural science and philosophy. For Haeckel, language specifically represented the concept that all phenomena of human development relate to the laws of biology. Although Müller did not specifically have an influence in advocating Haeckel\'s embryo drawings, both shared a common understanding of development from lower to higher forms, for Müller specifically saw humans as the last link in an endless chain of evolutionary development.
Modern acceptance of Haeckel\'s Biogenetic Law, despite current rejection of Haeckelian views, finds support in the certain degree of parallelism between ontogeny and phylogeny. A. M. Khazen, on the one hand, states that \"ontogeny is obliged to repeat the main stages of phylogeny.\" A. S. Rautian, on the other hand, argues that the reproduction of ancestral patterns of development is a key aspect of certain biological systems. Dr. Rolf Siewing acknowledges the similarity of embryos in different species, along with the laws of von Baer, but does not believe that one should compare embryos with adult stages of development. According to M. S. Fischer, reconsideration of the Biogenetic Law is possible as a result of two fundamental innovations in biology since Haeckel\'s time: cladistics and developmental genetics.
In defense of Haeckel\'s embryo drawings, the principal argument is that of \"schematisation.\" Haeckel\'s drawings were not intended to be technical and scientific depictions, but rather schematic drawings and reconstructions for a specifically lay audience. Therefore, as R. Gursch argues, Haeckel\'s embryo drawings should be regarded as \"reconstructions.\" Although his drawings are open to criticism, his drawings should not be considered falsifications of any sort. Although modern defense of Haeckel\'s embryo drawings still considers the inaccuracy of his drawings, charges of fraud are considered unreasonable. As Erland Nordenskiöld argues, charges of fraud against Haeckel are unnecessary. R. Bender ultimately goes so far as to reject His\'s claims regarding the fabrication of certain stages of development in Haeckel\'s drawings, arguing that Haeckel\'s embryo drawings are faithful representations of real stages of embryonic development in comparison to published embryos.
## Use of embryo drawings in contemporary biology {#use_of_embryo_drawings_in_contemporary_biology}
Although Stephen Jay Gould\'s 1977 book *Ontogeny and Phylogeny* helps to reassess Haeckelian embryology, it does not address the controversy over Haeckel\'s embryo drawings. Nevertheless, new interest in evolution in and around 1977 inspired developmental biologists to look more closely at Haeckel\'s illustrations.
In current biology, fundamental research in developmental biology and evolutionary developmental biology is no longer driven by morphological comparisons between embryos, but more by molecular biology
| 746 |
Embryo drawing
| 4 |
10,278 |
# List of explosives used during World War II
Almost all the common explosives listed here were mixtures of several common components:
- Ammonium picrate
- TNT (Trinitrotoluene)
- PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)
- RDX
- Powdered aluminium.
This is only a partial list; there were many others. Many of these compositions are now obsolete and only encountered in legacy munitions and unexploded ordnance.
Name Composition Notes
---------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Amatol Ammonium nitrate and TNT Extensively used in bombs, shells, depth charges and naval mines
Baronal Barium nitrate, TNT and powdered aluminium
Baratol Barium nitrate and TNT Used in British hand grenades. Also used as the low velocity explosive lens in the implosion type nuclear weapon, Fat Man
Composition A 88.3% RDX and 11.7% plasticizer
Composition B RDX, TNT and wax Used as the high velocity explosive lens in the implosion type nuclear weapon, Fat Man
Composition H6 45% RDX, 30% TNT, 20% powdered aluminium and 5% wax Replaced Torpex for use in naval applications.
DBX (Depth Bomb Explosive) 21% RDX, 21% ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, 18% powdered aluminium An alternative for Torpex, that used less of the strategic material RDX
Minol 40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate and 20% powdered aluminium (Minol-2) Developed by the British Royal Navy and used in torpedoes, depth charges and naval mines. Unsuitable for shells because of a risk of detonation if subjected to very high accelerations.
Octol 75% HMX (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) and 25% TNT Still in use
Pentolites 50% PETN and 50% TNT
Picratol 52% ammonium picrate and 48% TNT Used in armour-piercing shells and bombs as insensitive to shock
PIPE 81% PETN and 19% oil
PTX-1 30% RDX, 50% tetryl and 20% TNT
PTX-2 41-44% RDX, 26-28% PETN and 28-33% TNT
PVA-4 90% RDX, 8% PVA and 2% dibutyl phthalate
RIPE 85% RDX and 15% oil
Tetrytols 70% Tetryl and 30% TNT
Torpex 42% RDX, 40% TNT and 18% powdered aluminium Developed for use in torpedoes, it was especially effective at producing destructive, underwater explosions
| 330 |
List of explosives used during World War II
| 0 |
10,285 |
# Eligible receiver
In gridiron football, not all players on offense are entitled to receive a forward pass: only an **eligible pass receiver** may legally catch a forward pass, and only an eligible receiver may advance beyond the neutral zone if a forward pass crosses into the neutral zone. If the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, it is \"illegal touching\" (resulting in a penalty of five yards and loss of down). If an ineligible receiver is beyond the neutral zone when a forward pass crossing the neutral zone is thrown, a foul of \"ineligible receiver downfield\" (resulting in a penalty of five yards, but no loss of down) is called. Each league has slightly different rules regarding who is considered an eligible receiver.
## College football {#college_football}
The NCAA rulebook defines eligible receivers for college football in Rule 7, Section 3, Article 3. The determining factors are the player\'s position on the field at the snap and their jersey number. Specifically, any players on offense wearing numbers between 50 and 79 are always ineligible. All defensive players are eligible receivers and offensive players who are not wearing an ineligible number are eligible receivers if they meet one of the following three criteria:
- Player is at either end of the group of players on the line of scrimmage (wide receivers and tight ends)
- Player is lined up at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage (running backs, fullbacks, slot receivers, etc.)
- Player is positioned to receive a hand-to-hand snap from the center (almost always the quarterback)
Players may only wear eligible numbers at an ineligible position when it is obvious that a punt or field goal is to be attempted.
If a player is to change between eligible and ineligible positions, they must physically change jersey numbers to reflect the position.
A receiver loses his eligibility by leaving the field of play unless he was forced out by a defensive player and immediately attempts to get back inbounds (Rule 7--3--4). All players on the field become eligible as soon as the ball is touched by a defensive player or an official during play (Rule 7--3--5).
| 360 |
Eligible receiver
| 0 |
10,285 |
# Eligible receiver
## Professional football {#professional_football}
In both American and Canadian professional football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible. The offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage. Of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers. The remaining players are in the backfield (four in American football, five in Canadian football), including the quarterback. These backfield players are also eligible receivers. In the National Football League (NFL), a quarterback who takes his stance behind center as a T-formation quarterback is not eligible unless, before the ball is snapped, he legally moves to a position at least one yard behind the line of scrimmage or on the end of the line, and is stationary in that position for at least one second before the snap, but is nonetheless not counted toward the seven men required on the line of scrimmage.
If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver. This can often happen when a flanker or slot receiver, who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the offensive line and a split end. In most cases where a pass is caught by an ineligible receiver, it is usually because the quarterback was under pressure and threw it to an offensive lineman out of desperation.
Eligible receivers must wear certain uniform numbers, so that the officials can more easily distinguish between eligible and ineligible receivers. In the NFL, running backs, wide receivers, and tight ends must wear numbers 0 to 49 and 80 to 89. Numbers 50 to 79 are reserved for linemen and are always ineligible on offense unless they report as eligible. In the CFL ineligible receivers must wear numbers 50 to 69; all other numbers (including 0 and 00) may be worn by eligible receivers. A player who is not wearing a number that corresponds to an eligible receiver is ineligible even if he lines up in an eligible position. However, a player who reports to the referee that he intends to be eligible in the following play is allowed to line up and act as an eligible receiver. An example of this was a 1985 NFL game in which William Perry, wearing number 72 and normally a defensive lineman, was made an eligible receiver on an offensive play, and successfully caught a touchdown pass attempt. A more recent example, and more commonly used, has been former New England Patriots linebacker Mike Vrabel lining up as a tight end in goal line situations. In the 2018 season, George Fant has also lined up in the tight end position for the Seattle Seahawks due to injuries to the starting tight ends Ed Dickson and Will Dissly. In the 2019 season the Atlanta Falcons declared right tackle Ty Sambrailo eligible on many plays before throwing the ball to him for a 35-yard touchdown against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.
Before the snap of the ball, in the American game, backfield players may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one back may be in motion at any given time, and if forward motion has occurred, the back must be still for a full second before the snap. The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap. A breach of this rule results in a penalty for illegal procedure (five yards). However, in the Canadian game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap.
The rules on eligible receivers only apply to forward passes. Any player may legally catch a backwards or lateral pass.
In the American game, once the play has started, eligible receivers can become ineligible depending on how the play develops. Any eligible receiver that goes out of bounds is no longer an eligible receiver and cannot receive a forward pass, unless that player re-establishes by taking three steps in bounds. Also, if a pass is touched by any defensive player or eligible offensive receiver (tipped by a defensive lineman, slips through a receiver\'s hands, etc.), every offensive player immediately becomes eligible. In the CFL all players become eligible receivers if a pass is touched by a member of the defensive team. A proposed rule change in the XFL would make all players behind the line of scrimmage eligible receivers, regardless of position or number.
## High school {#high_school}
In high school football, the rules of eligibility are roughly the same as in the college game. However, as of February 2009, at least five players must wear numbers between 50 and 79 on first, second, or third down, which by rule would make them ineligible receivers. This was because of a change in the definition of a scrimmage-kick formation made by the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS). The change was intended to close a loophole in the rules which allowed teams to run an A-11 offense, in which a team would be exempted from eligibility numbering restrictions if the player receiving the snap was at least seven yards behind the line of scrimmage.
In 2019, the NFHS changed the rules slightly, instead measuring the number of players behind the line of scrimmage, limiting that number to four. The minimum number of players on the offensive line was reduced from seven to five
| 936 |
Eligible receiver
| 1 |
10,289 |
# Emsworth
**Emsworth** is a town in the Borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire, on the south coast of England near the border with West Sussex. It lies at the north end of an arm of Chichester Harbour, a large and shallow inlet from the English Channel, and is equidistant between Portsmouth and Chichester.
Emsworth had a population of 10,269 at the 2021 Census. The town has a basin for yachts and fishing boats, which fills at high tide and can be emptied through a sluice at low tide. In geodemographic segmentation the town is the heart of the Emsworth (cross-county) built-up area, the remainder of which is Westbourne, Southbourne and Nutbourne. The area had a combined population of 18,777 in 2011, with a density of 30.5 people per hectare, and shares two railway stations.
## Etymology
According to Richard Coates the meaning of Emsworth is derived from the Old English *Æmelswrð*, which translates as \'Æmmele\'s curtilage\'. Similarly, Eilert Ekwall says that \"Emsworth\" was derived from *Amils worth*, with *worth* meaning the fence around the property (owned by Amil).
It is popularly thought that Emsworth derived its name from the River Ems, but this is not true; before the 16th century the stream was actually called the Bourne. The river was renamed by the 16th century chronicler Raphael Holinshed:
Holinshed writes that the Emille flows in to the sea at Emilswort or Emmesworth. Therefore, it appears that the river was named after Emsworth and not the other way round.
## History
### Pre-Roman {#pre_roman}
In prehistoric and early historical times the River Ems was tidal as far as Westbourne and the Westbrook creek reached to Victoria Road, leaving Emsworth almost isolated at high tide. A coastal route developed that led from Hayling Island through Havant and Rowlands Castle to the Downs. A part of the coastal route followed the Portsdown ridgeway and from Chichester to Belmont Hill in Bedhampton probably skirted the heads of the various creeks which entered the harbour, passing through country still covered with the original thick forest of oak and beech.
### Roman
In Roman times a villa existed to the south of the road to Noviomagus Reginorum in the fields of what is now Warblington Castle Farm. Archaeological finds show that the building was a sizeable brick and stone edifice, with floors paved with red brick and coloured sandstone and a view of the harbour and wooded shores of Hayling Island. The fertile landscape suggests the area to have been under continuous cultivation for 1500--1800 years.
### Anglo-Saxon {#anglo_saxon}
Saxons began settling the area after AD 500. Charters were granted by Kings Æthelstan and Æthelred in AD 935 and AD 980 establishing and confirming the boundaries of Warblington. From AD 980--1066 the manor was held by Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his son Harold Godwinson.
### Medieval
After the Norman Conquest, the Manor of Warblington was given to Roger de Montgomery, Earl of Shrewsbury as part of the manor of Westbourne. The Domesday Book lists the latter with two churches, a mill, 29 families and two slaves (about 120 people). There were also seven plough teams, indicating about 850 acres of land under cultivation.
The first recorded mention of Emsworth as a separate entity was in AD 1216, when King John divided the manor of Warblington, accepting annual rent of \'a pair of gilt spurs yearly\' from William Aguillon for land at *Emelsworth*. In AD 1239, Henry III granted the town a weekly market on Wednesdays and an annual fair on 7 July. The town was mentioned in a patent roll of a hospital in the Hermitage area in AD 1251.
In AD 1341 Emsworth was designated as one of five English towns required to provide a ship for defence of the Channel Islands. It was designated as a customs landing for Chichester in AD 1346 and in AD 1348 was investigated by a special commission for smuggling.
### 18th and 19th centuries {#th_and_19th_centuries}
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Emsworth was still a port. Emsworth was known for shipbuilding, boat building and rope making. Grain from the area was ground into flour by tidal mills and transported by ship to places such as London and Portsmouth. Timber from the area was also exported in the 18th and 19th centuries. The River Ems, which is named after the town (not, as often believed, the town being named after the river), flows into the Slipper millpond. The mill itself is now used as offices.
In the 19th century Emsworth had as many as 30 pubs and beer houses; today, only nine remain.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Emsworth had a population of less than 1,200 but it was still considered a large village for the time. By the end of the 18th century, it became fashionable for wealthy people to spend the summer by the sea. In 1805 a bathing house was built where people could have a bath in seawater.
St Peter\'s Chapel was completed in 1790, later becoming Emsworth Town Hall. The parish Church of St James was built in 1840 to a design by John Elliott. It was expanded in the late 1850s this time to a design by John Colson. Colson\'s designs were again used in an expansion of 1865. A final round of building took place in the early 1890s this time to a design by Arthur Blomfield. The reredos added in the 1920s features a painting by Percy George Bentham.
Queen Victoria visited Emsworth in 1842, resulting in Queen Street and Victoria Road being named after her. In 1847 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (now the West Coastway line) came to Emsworth, with a railway station built to serve the town.
Hollybank House to the north of the town was built in 1825 and is now a hotel.
Emsworth became part of Warblington Urban District which held its first meeting in 1895. The Urban District was abolished in 1932. Emsworth subsequently became part of Havant Urban District.
| 1,003 |
Emsworth
| 0 |
10,289 |
# Emsworth
## History
### Modern
By 1901 the population of Emsworth was about 2,000. It grew rapidly during the 20th century to about 5,000 by the middle of the century. In 1906 construction began on the post office, with local cricketer George Wilder laying an inscribed brick. The renamed Emsworth Recreation Ground dates from 1909 and is the current home of Emsworth Cricket Club, which was founded in 1811. Cricket in Emsworth has been played at the same ground, Cold Harbour Lawn, since 1761.
In 1902 the once famous Emsworth oyster industry went into rapid decline. This was after many of the guests at mayoral banquets in Southampton and Winchester became seriously ill and four died after consuming oysters. The infection was due to oysters sourced from Emsworth, as the oyster beds had been contaminated with raw sewage. Fishing oysters at Emsworth was subsequently halted until new sewers were dug, though the industry never completely recovered. J D Foster, an oyster merchant, who had for many years been in occupation of the oyster beds sued Warblington Urban District Council (the owners of the sewers) for nuisance. This was a test case as he could not prove title to the land. However, the Court of Appeal held that Foster had a right to sue, as exclusive occupier of the oyster beds, whether or not he had acquired an interest in the land itself. The judges view was that: `{{blockquote|"..the contest arises, in my view, between the person who is in occupation of a portion of the foreshore and a wrongdoer [Warblington Urban District Council]. Whether the plaintiff would be able to resist the claims of the owner of the foreshore, whoever he may be, or the owner of a several fishery, if such fishery exists, or of a member of the public exercising a right of fishery, if there be such a right in the present case, seems to me immaterial for the purposes of this case . ."<small>''(Judge Stirling LJ)''</small>|source={{cite web|author=David Swarbrick|title=Foster v Warblington UDC [1906] 1 KB 648 |url=https://swarb.co.uk/foster-v-warblington-urban-district-council-ca-1906/|publisher=David Swarbrick|date=2023|access-date=4 August 2023}} }}`{=mediawiki} Foster went on to win his case.
Recently, Emsworth\'s last remaining oyster boat, *The Terror,* was restored and is now sailing again. But the oyster industry is again under threat, because the reproductive rate of the oysters has plunged, as they now contain microscopic glass spicules that are shed into the water from the hulls of the numerous plastic fibreglass boats in Chichester Harbour.
During the Second World War, nearby Thorney Island was used as a Royal Air Force station, playing a role in defence in the Battle of Britain. The north of Emsworth at this time was used for growing flowers and further north was woodland (today Hollybank Woods). In the run up to D-Day, the Canadian Army used these woods as one of their pre-invasion assembly points for men and materiel. Today the foundations of their barracks can still be seen. In the 1960s large parts of this area were developed with a mix of bungalow and terraced housing.
For a few years (2001 to 2007), Emsworth held a food festival. It was the largest event of its type in the UK, with more than 50,000 visitors in 2007. The festival was cancelled due to numerous complaints of disruption to residents and businesses in the proximity.
A Baptist church was constructed in North Street in 2015.
The harbour is now used for recreational sailing, paddle boarding, kayaking and swimming. The town has two sailing clubs, Emsworth Sailing Club (established in 1919) and Emsworth Slipper Sailing Club (in 1921), the latter based at Quay Mill, a former tide mill. Both clubs organise a programme of racing and social events during the sailing season.
<File:Elegant> bus shelter in Emsworth Town Centre - geograph.org.uk - 805167.jpg\|Emsworth town centre <File:Quay> Mill, Emsworth, West Sussex (geograph 5803415).jpg\|Quay Mill, Emsworth
## Culture and community {#culture_and_community}
Emsworth Library was considered for closure in 2020 but following public consultation, was reprieved.
Emsworth Museum is administered by the Emsworth Maritime & Historical Trust.
The town is twinned with Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer in Normandy, France.
There are a large number of community groups in Emsworth and the immediate surrounding area such as cadets, scout and guide groups.
Local landmark Thorney Island is home to a detachment of the Sussex Army Cadet Force, a volunteer youth organisation, sponsored by the Ministry of Defence, which accepts cadets aged between 12 and 18 years of age.
1st Emsworth Scouts meet several times per week with different sections aimed at different age groups and abilities.
In 2014 retired Royal Navy Captain Clifford \"John\" Caughey drove his car into the clubhouse of Emsworth Sailing Club, causing an explosion and requiring thirty firefighters to put out the fire.
| 787 |
Emsworth
| 1 |
10,289 |
# Emsworth
## Politics
The town is part of the Havant constituency, which since the 1983 election has been a Conservative seat. The current Member of Parliament (MP) is Alan Mak. The town is represented at Havant Borough Council by councillors Richard Kennett and Lulu Bowerman of the Conservative Party and Grainne Rason of the Green Party. The local Hampshire County Councillor is Lulu Bowerman. The town has branches of the Conservative Party, Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party, the United Kingdom Independence Party and the Green Party.
## Transport
Emsworth railway station is on the West Coastway Line. It has services that run to Portsmouth, Southampton, Brighton and London Victoria.
Stagecoach South operates the Coastliner 700 which runs between Chichester and Portsmouth.
Havant Borough Council claims local bus services are provided by Emsworth & District, First and Stagecoach.
## Notable residents {#notable_residents}
- Denise Black (1958--), actress. Best known for playing Denise Osbourne in *Coronation Street* and Hazel in *Queer as Folk*.
- Peter Blake (1948--2001), yachtsman. Broke the world record for the fastest solo circumnavigation of the globe in 1994.
- William Buckler (1814--1884), artist and entomologist, lived in Emsworth from the 1860s and died in Lumley in 1884.
- Peter Danckwerts (1916--1984), Royal Navy officer, chemical engineer and academic.
- Albert Finney (1936--2019), actor. Recipient of BAFTA, Golden Globe and Emmy awards.
- Mark Evelyn Heath (1927--2005), diplomat. Former British Ambassador to the Holy See (1980--1985).
- Thomas Hellyer (1811--1894), architect of many buildings in Hampshire and on the Isle of Wight, was born in Emsworth.
- Nicholas Lyndhurst (1961--), actor. Best known for playing Rodney Trotter in *Only Fools and Horses*.
- David Richards (1952--), British Army officer. Former Chief of the Defence Staff (2010--2013).
- Malcolm Waldron (1956--), footballer. Played for Southampton, Burnley and Portsmouth.
- Joel Ward (1989-), footballer Played for Portsmouth FC currently playing for Crystal Palace FC was born in Emsworth
- William Whitcher (1832--1910), cricketer. Played for Hampshire.
- George Wilder (1876--1948), cricketer. Played for Hampshire and Sussex.
- P. G. Wodehouse (1881--1975), writer
| 342 |
Emsworth
| 2 |
10,303 |
# Evaporation
**Evaporation** is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. A high concentration of the evaporating substance in the surrounding gas significantly slows down evaporation, such as when humidity affects rate of evaporation of water. When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas. When evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.
On average, only a fraction of the molecules in a liquid have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. The evaporation will continue until an equilibrium is reached when the evaporation of the liquid is equal to its condensation. In an enclosed environment, a liquid will evaporate until the surrounding air is saturated.
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. The sun (solar energy) drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor; this vapor can then rise up and form clouds. With sufficient energy, the liquid will turn into vapor.
## Theory
For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, they have to be moving in the proper direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces. When only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure (determines the percent humidity), and air movement.
On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen.
Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g., cooking oil at room temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids *are* evaporating. It is just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible.
### Evaporative equilibrium {#evaporative_equilibrium}
If evaporation takes place in an enclosed area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium, the vapor is said to be \"saturated\", and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius--Clapeyron relation:
: $\ln \left( \frac{ P_2 }{ P_1 } \right) = - \frac{ \Delta H_{\rm vap } }{ R } \left( \frac{ 1 }{ T_2 } - \frac{ 1 }{ T_1 } \right)$
where *P*~1~, *P*~2~ are the vapor pressures at temperatures *T*~1~, *T*~2~ respectively, Δ*H*~vap~ is the enthalpy of vaporization, and *R* is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the ambient pressure the liquid will boil.
The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is based largely on the amount of kinetic energy an individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization.
| 784 |
Evaporation
| 0 |
10,303 |
# Evaporation
## Factors influencing the rate of evaporation {#factors_influencing_the_rate_of_evaporation}
Note: Air is used here as a common example of the surrounding gas; however, other gases may hold that role.
Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air: If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly.\
Flow rate of air: This is in part related to the concentration points above. If \"fresh\" air (i.e., air which is neither already saturated with the substance nor with other substances) is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
The amount of minerals dissolved in the liquid
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Inter-molecular forces: The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more energy one must get to escape. This is characterized by the enthalpy of vaporization.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Pressure: Evaporation happens faster if there is less exertion on the surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Surface area: A substance that has a larger surface area will evaporate faster, as there are more surface molecules per unit of volume that are potentially able to escape.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Temperature of the substance: the higher the temperature of the substance the greater the kinetic energy of the molecules at its surface and therefore the faster the rate of their evaporation.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
Photomolecular effect: The amount of light will affect the evaporation. When photons hits the surface area of the liquid they can make individual molecules break free and disappear into the air without any need for additional heat.
In the US, the National Weather Service measures, at various outdoor locations nationwide, the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized \"pan\" open water surface. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map. The measurements range from under 30 to over 120 in per year.
Because it typically takes place in a complex environment, where \'evaporation is an extremely rare event\', the mechanism for the evaporation of water is not completely understood. Theoretical calculations require prohibitively long and large computer simulations. \'The rate of evaporation of liquid water is one of the principal uncertainties in modern climate modeling.\'
| 427 |
Evaporation
| 1 |
10,303 |
# Evaporation
## Thermodynamics
Evaporation is an endothermic process, since heat is absorbed during evaporation.
## Applications
- Industrial applications include many printing and coating processes; recovering salts from solutions; and drying a variety of materials such as lumber, paper, cloth and chemicals.
- The use of evaporation to dry or concentrate samples is a common preparatory step for many laboratory analyses such as spectroscopy and chromatography. Systems used for this purpose include rotary evaporators and centrifugal evaporators.
- When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.
- The matki/matka, a traditional Indian porous clay container used for storing and cooling water and other liquids.
- The botijo, a traditional Spanish porous clay container designed to cool the contained water by evaporation.
- Evaporative coolers, which can significantly cool a building by simply blowing dry air over a filter saturated with water.
### Combustion vaporization {#combustion_vaporization}
Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat (energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.
### Pre-combustion vaporization {#pre_combustion_vaporization}
Internal combustion engines rely upon the vaporization of the fuel in the cylinders to form a fuel/air mixture in order to burn well. The chemically correct air/fuel mixture for total burning of gasoline has been determined to be about 15 parts air to one part gasoline or 15/1 by weight. Changing this to a volume ratio yields 8000 parts air to one part gasoline or 8,000/1 by volume.
### Film deposition {#film_deposition}
Thin films may be deposited by evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate, or by dissolving the substance in a solvent, spreading the resulting solution thinly over a substrate, and evaporating the solvent. The Hertz--Knudsen equation is often used to estimate the rate of evaporation in these instances
| 352 |
Evaporation
| 2 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
**Edwin Howard Armstrong** (December 18, 1890 -- February 1, 1954) was an American electrical engineer and inventor who developed FM (frequency modulation) radio and the superheterodyne receiver system.
He held 42 patents and received numerous awards, including the first Medal of Honor awarded by the Institute of Radio Engineers (now IEEE), the French Legion of Honor, the 1941 Franklin Medal and the 1942 Edison Medal. He achieved the rank of major in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War I and was often referred to as \"Major Armstrong\" during his career. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame and included in the International Telecommunication Union\'s roster of great inventors. He was inducted into the Wireless Hall of Fame posthumously in 2001. Armstrong attended Columbia University, and served as a professor there for most of his life.
Armstrong is also noted for his legal battles with Lee de Forest and David Sarnoff, two other key figures in developing the early radio industry in the United States. The prolonged litigation took a toll on Armstrong\'s health and finances, which led to a breakdown in his marriage, followed by his suicide in 1954. Thereafter, his estate\'s legal cases were pursued by his widow, Marion, who won several successful suits and settlements.
## Early life {#early_life}
Armstrong was born in the Chelsea district of New York City, the oldest of John and Emily (née Smith) Armstrong\'s three children. His father began working at a young age at the American branch of the Oxford University Press, which published bibles and standard classical works, eventually advancing to the position of vice president. His parents first met at the North Presbyterian Church, located at 31st Street and Ninth Avenue. His mother\'s family had strong ties to Chelsea, and an active role in church functions. When the church moved north, the Smiths and Armstrongs followed, and in 1895 the Armstrong family moved from their brownstone row house at 347 West 29th Street to a similar house at 26 West 97th Street on the Upper West Side. The family was comfortably middle class.
At the age of eight, Armstrong contracted Sydenham\'s chorea (then known as St. Vitus\' Dance), an infrequent but serious neurological disorder precipitated by rheumatic fever. For the rest of his life, Armstrong was afflicted with a physical tic exacerbated by excitement or stress. Due to this illness, he withdrew from public school and was home-tutored for two years. To improve his health, the Armstrong family moved to a house overlooking the Hudson River, at 1032 Warburton Avenue in Yonkers. The Smith family subsequently moved next door. Armstrong\'s tic and the time missed from school led him to become socially withdrawn.
From an early age, Armstrong showed an interest in electrical and mechanical devices, particularly trains. He loved heights and constructed a makeshift backyard antenna tower that included a bosun\'s chair for hoisting himself up and down its length, to the concern of neighbors. Much of his early research was conducted in the attic of his parents\' house.
In 1909, Armstrong enrolled at Columbia University in New York City, where he became a member of the Epsilon Chapter of the Theta Xi engineering fraternity, and studied under Professor Michael Pupin at the Hartley Laboratories, a separate research unit at Columbia. Another of his instructors, Professor John H. Morecroft, later remembered Armstrong as being intensely focused on the topics that interested him, but somewhat indifferent to the rest of his studies. Armstrong challenged conventional wisdom and was quick to question the opinions of both professors and peers. In one case, he recounted how he tricked a visiting professor from Cornell University that he disliked into receiving a severe electrical shock. He also stressed the practical over the theoretical, stating that progress was more likely the product of experimentation and reasoning than on mathematical calculation and the formulae of \"mathematical physics\".
Armstrong graduated from Columbia in 1913, earning an electrical engineering degree.
During World War I, Armstrong served in the Signal Corps as a captain and later a major.
Following college graduation, he received a \$600 one-year appointment as a laboratory assistant at Columbia, after which he nominally worked as a research assistant, for a salary of \$1 a year, under Professor Pupin. Unlike most engineers, Armstrong never became a corporate employee. He set up a self-financed independent research and development laboratory at Columbia, and owned his patents outright.
In 1934, he filled the vacancy left by John H. Morecroft\'s death, receiving an appointment as a professor of Electrical Engineering at Columbia, a position he held the remainder of his life.
| 770 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 0 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Early work {#early_work}
### Regenerative circuit {#regenerative_circuit}
Armstrong began working on his first major invention while still an undergraduate at Columbia. In late 1906, Lee de Forest had invented the three-element (triode) \"grid Audion\" vacuum-tube. How vacuum tubes worked was not understood at the time. De Forest\'s initial Audions did not have a high vacuum and developed a blue glow at modest plate voltages; De Forest improved the vacuum for Federal Telegraph. By 1912, vacuum tube operation was understood, and regenerative circuits using high-vacuum tubes were appreciated.
While growing up, Armstrong had experimented with the early temperamental, \"gassy\" Audions. Spurred by the later discoveries, he developed a keen interest in gaining a detailed scientific understanding of how vacuum tubes worked. In conjunction with Professor Morecroft he used an oscillograph to conduct comprehensive studies. His breakthrough discovery was determining that employing positive feedback (also known as \"regeneration\") produced amplification hundreds of times greater than previously attained, with the amplified signals now strong enough so that receivers could use loudspeakers instead of headphones. Further investigation revealed that when the feedback was increased beyond a certain level a vacuum-tube would go into oscillation, thus could also be used as a continuous-wave radio transmitter.
Beginning in 1913 Armstrong prepared a series of comprehensive demonstrations and papers that carefully documented his research, and in late 1913 applied for patent protection covering the regenerative circuit. On October 6, 1914, `{{US patent|1,113,149}}`{=mediawiki} was issued for his discovery. Although Lee de Forest initially discounted Armstrong\'s findings, beginning in 1915 de Forest filed a series of competing patent applications that largely copied Armstrong\'s claims, now stating that he had discovered regeneration first, based on a notebook entry made on August 6, 1912, while working for the Federal Telegraph company, prior to the date recognized for Armstrong of January 31, 1913. The result was an interference hearing at the patent office to determine priority. De Forest was not the only other inventor involved -- the four competing claimants included Armstrong, de Forest, General Electric\'s Langmuir, and Alexander Meissner, who was a German national, which led to his application being seized by the Office of Alien Property Custodian during World War I.
Following the end of WWI Armstrong enlisted representation by the law firm of Pennie, Davis, Martin and Edmonds. To finance his legal expenses he began issuing non-transferable licenses for use of the regenerative patents to a select group of small radio equipment firms, and by November 1920, 17 companies had been licensed. These licensees paid 5% royalties on their sales which were restricted to only \"amateurs and experimenters\". Meanwhile, Armstrong explored his options for selling the commercial rights to his work. Although the obvious candidate was the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), on October 5, 1920, the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company took out an option for \$335,000 for the commercial rights for both the regenerative and superheterodyne patents, with an additional \$200,000 to be paid if Armstrong prevailed in the regenerative patent dispute. Westinghouse exercised this option on November 4, 1920.
Legal proceedings related to the regeneration patent became separated into two groups of court cases. An initial court action was triggered in 1919 when Armstrong sued de Forest\'s company in district court, alleging infringement of patent 1,113,149. This court ruled in Armstrong\'s favor on May 17, 1921. A second line of court cases, the result of the patent office interference hearing, had a different outcome. The interference board had also sided with Armstrong, but he was unwilling to settle with de Forest for less than what he considered full compensation. Thus pressured, de Forest continued his legal defense, and appealed the interference board decision to the District of Columbia district court. On May 8, 1924, that court ruled that it was de Forest who should be considered regeneration\'s inventor. Armstrong (along with much of the engineering community) was shocked by these events, and his side appealed this decision. Although the legal proceeding twice went before the US Supreme Court, in 1928 and 1934, he was unsuccessful in overturning the decision.
In response to the second Supreme Court decision upholding de Forest as the inventor of regeneration, Armstrong attempted to return his 1917 IRE Medal of Honor, which had been awarded \"in recognition of his work and publications dealing with the action of the oscillating and non-oscillating audion\". The organization\'s board refused to allow him, and issued a statement that it \"strongly affirms the original award\".
| 743 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 1 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Early work {#early_work}
### Superheterodyne circuit {#superheterodyne_circuit}
The United States entered WWI in April 1917. Later that year Armstrong was commissioned as a captain in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, and assigned to a laboratory in Paris, France to help develop radio communication for the Allied war effort. He returned to the US in the autumn of 1919, after being promoted to the rank of Major. (During both world wars, Armstrong gave the US military free use of his patents.)
During this period, Armstrong\'s most significant accomplishment was the development of a \"supersonic heterodyne\" -- soon shortened to \"superheterodyne\" -- radio receiver circuit. This circuit made radio receivers more sensitive and selective and is used extensively today. The key feature of the superheterodyne approach is the mixing of the incoming radio signal with a locally generated, different frequency signal within a radio set. That circuit is called the mixer. The result is a fixed, unchanging intermediate frequency, or I.F. signal which is easily amplified and detected by following circuit stages. In 1919, Armstrong filed an application for a US patent of the superheterodyne circuit which was issued the next year. This patent was subsequently sold to Westinghouse. The patent was challenged, triggering another patent office interference hearing. Armstrong ultimately lost this patent battle; although the outcome was less controversial than that involving the regeneration proceedings.
The challenger was Lucien Lévy of France who had worked developing Allied radio communication during WWI. He had been awarded French patents in 1917 and 1918 that covered some of the same basic ideas used in Armstrong\'s superheterodyne receiver. AT&T, interested in radio development at this time, primarily for point-to-point extensions of its wired telephone exchanges, purchased the US rights to Lévy\'s patent and contested Armstrong\'s grant. The subsequent court reviews continued until 1928, when the District of Columbia Court of Appeals disallowed all nine claims of Armstrong\'s patent, assigning priority for seven of the claims to Lévy, and one each to Ernst Alexanderson of General Electric and Burton W. Kendall of Bell Laboratories.
Although most early radio receivers used regeneration Armstrong approached RCA\'s David Sarnoff, whom he had known since giving a demonstration of his regeneration receiver in 1913, about the corporation offering superheterodynes as a superior offering to the general public. (The ongoing patent dispute was not a hindrance, because extensive cross-licensing agreements signed in 1920 and 1921 between RCA, Westinghouse and AT&T meant that Armstrong could freely use the Lévy patent.) Superheterodyne sets were initially thought to be prohibitively complicated and expensive as the initial designs required multiple tuning knobs and used nine vacuum tubes. In conjunction with RCA engineers, Armstrong developed a simpler, less costly design. RCA introduced its superheterodyne Radiola sets in the US market in early 1924, and they were an immediate success, dramatically increasing the corporation\'s profits. These sets were considered so valuable that RCA would not license the superheterodyne to other US companies until 1930.
| 493 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 2 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Early work {#early_work}
### Super-regeneration circuit {#super_regeneration_circuit}
The regeneration legal battle had one serendipitous outcome for Armstrong. While he was preparing apparatus to counteract a claim made by a patent attorney, he \"accidentally ran into the phenomenon of super-regeneration\", where, by rapidly \"quenching\" the vacuum-tube oscillations, he was able to achieve even greater levels of amplification. A year later, in 1922, Armstrong sold his super-regeneration patent to RCA for \$200,000 plus 60,000 shares of corporation stock, which was later increased to 80,000 shares in payment for consulting services. This made Armstrong RCA\'s largest shareholder, and he noted that \"The sale of that invention was to net me more than the sale of the regenerative circuit and the superheterodyne combined\". RCA envisioned selling a line of super-regenerative receivers until superheterodyne sets could be perfected for general sales, but it turned out the circuit was not selective enough to make it practical for broadcast receivers.
| 158 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 3 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Wide-band FM radio {#wide_band_fm_radio}
\"Static\" interference -- extraneous noises caused by sources such as thunderstorms and electrical equipment -- bedeviled early radio communication using amplitude modulation and perplexed numerous inventors attempting to eliminate it. Many ideas for static elimination were investigated, with little success. In the mid-1920s, Armstrong began researching a solution. He initially, and unsuccessfully, attempted to resolve the problem by modifying the characteristics of AM transmissions.
One approach used frequency modulation (FM) transmissions. Instead of varying the strength of the carrier wave as with AM, the frequency of the carrier was changed to represent the audio signal. In 1922 John Renshaw Carson of AT&T, inventor of Single-sideband modulation (SSB), had published a detailed mathematical analysis which showed that FM transmissions did not provide any improvement over AM. Although the Carson bandwidth rule for FM is important today, Carson\'s review turned out to be incomplete, as it analyzed only (what is now known as) \"narrow-band\" FM.
In early 1928 Armstrong began researching the capabilities of FM. Although there were others involved in FM research at this time, he knew of an RCA project to see if FM shortwave transmissions were less susceptible to fading than AM. In 1931 the RCA engineers constructed a successful FM shortwave link transmitting the Schmeling--Stribling fight broadcast from California to Hawaii, and noted at the time that the signals seemed to be less affected by static. The project made little further progress.
Working in secret in the basement laboratory of Columbia\'s Philosophy Hall, Armstrong developed \"wide-band\" FM, in the process discovering significant advantages over the earlier \"narrow-band\" FM transmissions. In a \"wide-band\" FM system, the deviations of the carrier frequency are made to be much larger than the frequency of the audio signal which can be shown to provide better noise rejection. He was granted five US patents covering the basic features of the new system on December 26, 1933. Initially, the primary claim was that his FM system was effective at filtering out the noise produced in receivers, by vacuum tubes.
Armstrong had a standing agreement to give RCA the right of first refusal to his patents. In 1934 he presented his new system to RCA president Sarnoff. Sarnoff was somewhat taken aback by its complexity, as he had hoped it would be possible to eliminate static merely by adding a simple device to existing receivers. From May 1934 until October 1935 Armstrong conducted field tests of his FM technology from an RCA laboratory located on the 85th floor of the Empire State Building in New York City. An antenna attached to the building\'s spire transmitted signals for distances up to 80 mi. These tests helped demonstrate FM\'s static-reduction and high-fidelity capabilities. RCA, which was heavily invested in perfecting TV broadcasting, chose not to invest in FM, and instructed Armstrong to remove his equipment.
Denied the marketing and financial clout of RCA, Armstrong decided to finance his own development and form ties with smaller members of the radio industry, including Zenith and General Electric, to promote his invention. Armstrong thought that FM had the potential to replace AM stations within 5 years, which he promoted as a boost for the radio manufacturing industry, then suffering from the effects of the Great Depression. Making existing AM radio transmitters and receivers obsolete would necessitate that stations buy replacement transmitters and listeners purchase FM-capable receivers. In 1936 he published a landmark paper in the *Proceedings of the IRE* that documented the superior capabilities of using wide-band FM. (This paper would be reprinted in the August 1984 issue of *Proceedings of the IEEE*.) A year later, a paper by Murray G. Crosby (inventor of Crosby system for FM Stereo) in the same journal provided further analysis of the wide-band FM characteristics, and introduced the concept of \"threshold\", demonstrating that there is a superior signal-to-noise ratio when the signal is stronger than a certain level.
In June 1936, Armstrong gave a formal presentation of his new system at the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) headquarters. For comparison, he played a jazz record using a conventional AM radio, then switched to an FM transmission. A United Press correspondent was present, and recounted in a wire service report that: \"if the audience of 500 engineers had shut their eyes they would have believed the jazz band was in the same room. There were no extraneous sounds.\" Moreover, \"Several engineers said after the demonstration that they consider Dr. Armstrong\'s invention one of the most important radio developments since the first earphone crystal sets were introduced.\" Armstrong was quoted as saying he could \"visualize a time not far distant when the use of ultra-high frequency wave bands will play the leading role in all broadcasting\", although the article noted that \"A switchover to the ultra-high frequency system would mean the junking of present broadcasting equipment and present receivers in homes, eventually causing the expenditure of billions of dollars.\"
In the late 1930s, as technical advances made it possible to transmit on higher frequencies, the FCC investigated options for increasing the number of broadcasting stations, in addition to ideas for better audio quality, known as \"high-fidelity\". In 1937 it introduced what became known as the Apex band, consisting of 75 broadcasting frequencies from 41.02 to 43.98 MHz. As on the standard broadcast band, these were AM stations but with higher quality audio -- in one example, a frequency response from 20 Hz to 17,000 Hz +/- 1 dB -- because station separations were 40 kHz instead of the 10 kHz spacings used on the original AM band. Armstrong worked to convince the FCC that a band of FM broadcasting stations would be a superior approach. That year he financed the construction of the first FM radio station, W2XMN (later KE2XCC) at Alpine, New Jersey. FCC engineers had believed that transmissions using high frequencies would travel little farther than line-of-sight distances, limited by the horizon. When operating with 40 kilowatts on 42.8 MHz, the station could be clearly heard 100 mi away, matching the daytime coverage of a full power 50-kilowatt AM station.
FCC studies comparing the Apex station transmissions with Armstrong\'s FM system concluded that his approach was superior. In early 1940, the FCC held hearings on whether to establish a commercial FM service. Following this review, the FCC announced the establishment of an FM band effective January 1, 1941, consisting of forty 200 kHz-wide channels on a band from 42 to 50 MHz, with the first five channels reserved for educational stations. Existing Apex stations were notified that they would not be allowed to operate after January 1, 1941, unless they converted to FM.
Although there was interest in the new FM band by station owners, construction restrictions that went into place during WWII limited the growth of the new service. Following the end of WWII, the FCC moved to standardize its frequency allocations. One area of concern was the effects of tropospheric and Sporadic E propagation, which at times reflected station signals over great distances, causing mutual interference. A particularly controversial proposal, spearheaded by RCA, was that the FM band needed to be shifted to higher frequencies to avoid this problem. This reassignment was fiercely opposed as unneeded by Armstrong, but he lost. The FCC made its decision final on June 27, 1945. It allocated 100 FM channels from 88 to 108 MHz, and assigned the former FM band to \'non government fixed and mobile\' (42--44 MHz), and television channel 1 (44--50 MHz), now sidestepping the interference concerns. A period of allowing existing FM stations to broadcast on both low and high bands ended at midnight on January 8, 1949, at which time any low band transmitters were shut down, making obsolete 395,000 receivers that had already been purchased by the public for the original band. Although converters allowing low band FM sets to receive high band were manufactured, they ultimately proved to be complicated to install, and often as (or more) expensive than buying a new high band set outright.
| 1,335 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 4 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Wide-band FM radio {#wide_band_fm_radio}
Armstrong felt the FM band reassignment had been inspired primarily by a desire to cause a disruption that would limit FM\'s ability to challenge the existing radio industry, including RCA\'s AM radio properties that included the NBC radio network, plus the other major networks including CBS, ABC and Mutual. The change was thought to have been favored by AT&T, as the elimination of FM relaying stations would require radio stations to lease wired links from that company. Particularly galling was the FCC assignment of TV channel 1 to the 44--50 MHz segment of the old FM band. Channel 1 was later deleted, since periodic radio propagation would make local TV signals unviewable.
Although the FM band shift was an economic setback, there was reason for optimism. A book published in 1946 by Charles A. Siepmann heralded FM stations as \"Radio\'s Second Chance\". In late 1945, Armstrong contracted with John Orr Young, founding member of the public relations firm Young & Rubicam, to conduct a national campaign promoting FM broadcasting, especially by educational institutions. Article placements promoting both Armstrong personally and FM were made with general circulation publications including *The Nation*, *Fortune*, *The New York Times*, *Atlantic Monthly*, and *The Saturday Evening Post*.
In 1940, RCA offered Armstrong \$1,000,000 for a non-exclusive, royalty-free license to use his FM patents. He refused this offer, because he felt this would be unfair to the other licensed companies, which had to pay 2% royalties on their sales. Over time this impasse with RCA dominated Armstrong\'s life. RCA countered by conducting its own FM research, eventually developing what it claimed was a non-infringing FM system. The corporation encouraged other companies to stop paying royalties to Armstrong. Outraged by this, in 1948 Armstrong filed suit against RCA and the National Broadcasting Company, accusing them of patent infringement and that they had \"deliberately set out to oppose and impair the value\" of his invention, for which he requested treble damages. Although he was confident that this suit would be successful and result in a major monetary award, the protracted legal maneuvering that followed eventually began to impair his finances, especially after his primary patents expired in late 1950.
## FM radar {#fm_radar}
During World War II, Armstrong turned his attention to investigations of continuous-wave FM radar funded by government contracts. Armstrong hoped that the interference fighting characteristic of wide-band FM and a narrow receiver bandwidth to reduce noise would increase range. Primary development took place at Armstrong\'s Alpine, NJ laboratory. A duplicate set of equipment was sent to the U.S. Army\'s Evans Signal Laboratory. The results of his investigations were inconclusive, the war ended, and the project was dropped by the Army.
Under the name Project Diana, the Evans staff took up the possibility of bouncing radar signals off the moon. Calculations showed that standard pulsed radar like the stock SCR-271 would not do the job; higher average power, much wider transmitter pulses, and very narrow receiver bandwidth would be required. They realized that the Armstrong equipment could be modified to accomplish the task. The FM modulator of the transmitter was disabled and the transmitter keyed to produce quarter-second CW pulses. The narrow-band (57 Hz) receiver, which tracked the transmitter frequency, got an incremental tuning control to compensate for the possible 300 Hz Doppler shift on the lunar echoes. They achieved success on January 10, 1946.
| 568 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 5 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Death
The numerous protracted patent fights caused Armstrong\'s health to suffer and his behavior grew erratic. On one occasion he came to believe that someone had poisoned his food and insisted on having his stomach pumped. According to *They Made America* -- authored by Sir Harold Evans and others -- Armstrong was oblivious to the toll his struggle was taking on Marion. Marion spent months in a mental hospital after she threw herself into the East River.
The legal battles also brought Armstrong to the brink of financial ruin. On November 1, 1953, Armstrong told Marion that he had used up almost all his financial resources. In better times, funds for their retirement were put in her name, and he asked her to release a portion of those funds so he could continue litigation. She declined, and suggested he consider accepting a settlement. Enraged, Armstrong picked up a fireplace poker, striking her on the arm. Marion left the apartment to stay with her sister and never saw Armstrong again.
After just under three months of separation from Marion, sometime during the night of January 31`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}February 1, 1954, Armstrong jumped to his death from a window in his 12-room apartment on the 13th floor of River House in Manhattan, New York City. The *New York Times* described the contents of his two-page suicide note to his wife: \"he was heartbroken at being unable to see her once again, and expressing deep regret at having hurt her, the dearest thing in his life.\" The note concluded, \"God keep you and Lord have mercy on my Soul.\"
David Sarnoff disclaimed any responsibility, telling Carl Dreher directly that \"I did not kill Armstrong.\" After his death, a friend of Armstrong estimated that 90 percent of his time was spent on litigation against RCA. U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wisconsin) reported that Armstrong had recently met with one of his investigators, and had been \"mortally afraid\" that secret radar discoveries by him and other scientists \"were being fed to the Communists as fast as they could be developed\".
Following her husband\'s suicide, Marion Armstrong took charge of pursuing his estate\'s legal cases. In late December 1954, it was announced that through arbitration a settlement of \"approximately \$1,000,000\" had been made with RCA. Dana Raymond of Cravath, Swaine & Moore in New York served as counsel in that litigation. Marion Armstrong was able to formally establish Armstrong as the inventor of FM following protracted court proceedings over five of his basic FM patents, with a series of successful suits, which lasted until 1967, against other companies that were found guilty of infringement.
## Legacy
It was not until the 1960s that FM stations in the United States started to challenge the popularity of the AM band, helped by the development of FM stereo by General Electric, followed by the FCC\'s FM Non-Duplication Rule, which limited large-city broadcasters with AM and FM licenses to simulcasting on those two frequencies for only half of their broadcast hours. Armstrong\'s FM system was also used for communications between NASA and the Apollo program astronauts.
A US Postage Stamp was released in his honor in 1983 in a series commemorating American Inventors.
Armstrong has been called \"the most prolific and influential inventor in radio history\". The superheterodyne process is still extensively used by radio equipment. Eighty years after its invention, FM technology has started to be supplemented, and in some cases replaced, by more efficient digital technologies. The introduction of digital television eliminated the FM audio channel that had been used by analog television, HD Radio has added digital sub-channels to FM band stations, and, in Europe and Pacific Asia, Digital Audio Broadcasting bands have been created that will, in some cases, eliminate existing FM stations altogether. However, FM broadcasting is still used internationally, and remains the dominant system employed for audio broadcasting services.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1923, combining his love for high places with courtship rituals, Armstrong climbed the WJZ (now WABC) antenna located atop a 20-story building in New York City, where he reportedly did a handstand, and when a witness asked him what motivated him to \"do these damnfool things\", Armstrong replied \"I do it because the spirit moves me.\" Armstrong had arranged to have photographs taken, which he had delivered to David Sarnoff\'s secretary, Marion McInnis. Armstrong and McInnis married later that year. Armstrong bought a Hispano-Suiza motor car before the wedding, which he kept until his death, and which he drove to Palm Beach, Florida for their honeymoon. A publicity photograph was made of him presenting Marion with the world\'s first portable superheterodyne radio as a wedding gift.
He was an avid tennis player until an injury in 1940, and drank an Old Fashioned with dinner. Politically, he was described by one of his associates as \"a revolutionist only in technology -- in politics he was one of the most conservative of men.\"
In 1955, Marion Armstrong founded the Armstrong Memorial Research Foundation, and participated in its work until her death in 1979 at the age of 81. She was survived by two nephews and a niece.
| 857 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 6 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Honors
In 1917, Armstrong was the first recipient of the IRE\'s (now IEEE) Medal of Honor.
For his wartime work on radio, the French government gave him the Legion of Honor in 1919. He was awarded the 1941 Franklin Medal, and in 1942 received the AIEEs Edison Medal \"for distinguished contributions to the art of electric communication, notably the regenerative circuit, the superheterodyne, and frequency modulation.\" The ITU added him to its roster of great inventors of electricity in 1955.
He later received two honorary doctorates, from Columbia in 1929, and Muhlenberg College in 1941.
In 1980, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, and appeared on a U.S. postage stamp in 1983. The Consumer Electronics Hall of Fame inducted him in 2000, \"in recognition of his contributions and pioneering spirit that have laid the foundation for consumer electronics.\" He was posthumously inducted into the Wireless Hall of Fame in 2001. Columbia University established the Edwin Howard Armstrong Professorship in the School of Engineering and Applied Science in his memory.
Philosophy Hall, the Columbia building where Armstrong developed FM, was declared a National Historic Landmark. Armstrong\'s boyhood home in Yonkers, New York was recognized by the National Historic Landmark program and the National Register of Historic Places, although this was withdrawn when the house was demolished.
Armstrong Hall at Columbia was named in his honor. The hall, located at the northeast corner of Broadway and 112th Street, was originally an apartment house but was converted to research space after being purchased by the university. It is currently home to the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, a research institute dedicated to atmospheric and climate science that is jointly operated by Columbia and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. A storefront in a corner of the building houses Tom\'s Restaurant, a longtime neighborhood fixture that inspired Susanne Vega\'s song \"Tom\'s Diner\" and was used for establishing shots for the fictional \"Monk\'s diner\" in the \"Seinfeld\" television series.
A second Armstrong Hall, also named for the inventor, is located at the United States Army Communications and Electronics Life Cycle Management Command (CECOM-LCMC) Headquarters at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.
In 2005, Armstrong\'s regenerative feedback circuit and superheterodyne and FM circuits were inducted into the TECnology Hall of Fame, an honor given to \"products and innovations that have had an enduring impact on the development of audio technology.\"
| 401 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 7 |
10,315 |
# Edwin Howard Armstrong
## Patents
E. H. Armstrong patents:
- : \"Frequency Modulation Multiplex System\"
- : \"Radio Signaling\"
- : \"Frequency-Modulated Carrier Signal Receiver\"
- : \"Frequency Modulation Signaling System\"
- : \"Means for Receiving Radio Signals\"
- : \"Method and Means for Transmitting Frequency Modulated Signals\"
- : \"Current Limiting Device\"
- : \"Frequency Modulation System\"
- : \"Radio Rebroadcasting System\"
- : \"Means and Method for Relaying Frequency Modulated Signals\"
- : \"Means and Method for Relaying Frequency Modulated Signals\"
- : \"Frequency Modulation Signaling System\"
- : \"Radio Transmitting System\"
- : \"Radio Transmitting System\"
- : \"Radio Transmitting System\"
- : \"Frequency Changing System\"
- : \"Radio Receiving System\"
- : \"Radio Receiving System\"
- : \"Multiplex Radio Signaling System\"
- : \"Radio Signaling System\"
- : \"Radio Transmitting System\"
- : \"Phase Control System\"
- : \"Radio Signaling System\"
- : \"Radio Transmitting System\"
- : \"Radio Signaling System\"
- : \"Radio Telephone Signaling\"
- : \"Radiosignaling\"
- : \"Radiosignaling\"
- : \"Radio Broadcasting and Receiving System\"
- : \"Radio Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wireless Receiving System for Continuous Wave\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Wave Signaling System\"
- : \"Signaling System\"
- : \"Radioreceiving System Having High Selectivity\"
- : \"Selectively Opposing Impedance to Received Electrical Oscillations\"
- : \"Multiple Antenna for Electrical Wave Transmission\"
- : \"Method of Receiving High Frequency Oscillation\"
- : \"Antenna with Distributed Positive Resistance\"
- : \"Electric Wave Transmission\" (Note: Co-patentee with Mihajlo Pupin)
- : \"Wireless Receiving System\"
U.S
| 281 |
Edwin Howard Armstrong
| 8 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
**Educational psychology** is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. It is also informed by neuroscience. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education, classroom management, and student motivation. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning theory. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.
The field of educational psychology involves the study of memory, conceptual processes, and individual differences (via cognitive psychology) in conceptualizing new strategies for learning processes in humans. Educational psychology has been built upon theories of operant conditioning, functionalism, structuralism, constructivism, humanistic psychology, Gestalt psychology, and information processing.
Educational psychology has seen rapid growth and development as a profession in the last twenty years. School psychology began with the concept of intelligence testing leading to provisions for special education students, who could not follow the regular classroom curriculum in the early part of the 20th century. Another main focus of school psychology was to help close the gap for children of colour, as the fight against racial inequality and segregation was still very prominent, during the early to mid-1900s. However, \"school psychology\" itself has built a fairly new profession based upon the practices and theories of several psychologists among many different fields. Educational psychologists are working side by side with psychiatrists, social workers, teachers, speech and language therapists, and counselors in an attempt to understand the questions being raised when combining behavioral, cognitive, and social psychology in the classroom setting.
| 389 |
Educational psychology
| 0 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## History
As a field of study, educational psychology is fairly new and was not considered a specific practice until the 20th century. Reflections on everyday teaching and learning allowed some individuals throughout history to elaborate on developmental differences in cognition, the nature of instruction, and the transfer of knowledge and learning. These topics are important to education and, as a result, they are important in understanding human cognition, learning, and social perception.
### Antiquity
Some of the ideas and issues pertaining to educational psychology date back to the time of Plato and Aristotle. Philosophers as well as sophists discussed the purpose of education, training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral education. Some other educational topics they spoke about were the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of the individual, role of the teacher, and the relations between teacher and student. Plato saw knowledge acquisition as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and understanding of the world. This conception of human cognition has evolved into a continuing argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning today. Aristotle, on the other hand, ascribed to the idea of knowledge by association or schema. His four laws of association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes.
### Early Modern era {#early_modern_era}
John Locke is considered one of the most influential philosophers in post-renaissance Europe, a time period that began around the mid-1600s. Locke is considered the \"Father of English Psychology\". One of Locke\'s most important works was written in 1690, named *An Essay Concerning Human Understanding*. In this essay, he introduced the term \"tabula rasa\" meaning \"blank slate.\" Locke explained that learning was attained through experience only and that we are all born without knowledge.
He followed by contrasting Plato\'s theory of innate learning processes. Locke believed the mind was formed by experiences, not innate ideas. Locke introduced this idea as \"empiricism\", or the understanding that knowledge is only built on knowledge and experience.
In the late 1600s, John Locke advanced the hypothesis that people learn primarily from external forces. He believed that the mind was like a blank tablet (tabula rasa), and that successions of simple impressions give rise to complex ideas through association and reflection. Locke is credited with establishing \"empiricism\" as a criterion for testing the validity of knowledge, thus providing a conceptual framework for later development of experimental methodology in the natural and social sciences.
In the 18th century the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau espoused a set of theories which would become highly influential in the field of education, particularly through his philosophical novel *Emile, or On Education*. Despite stating that the book should not be used as a practical guide to nurturing children, the pedagogical approach outlined in it was lauded by Enlightenment contemporaries including Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Rousseau advocated a child-centered approach to education, and that the age of the child should be accounted for in choosing what and how to teach them. In particular he insisted on the primacy of experiential education, in order to develop the child\'s ability to reason autonomously. Rousseau\'s philosophy influenced educational reformers including Johann Bernhard Basedow, whose practice in his model school the Philanthropinum drew upon his ideas, as well as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. More generally Rousseau\'s thinking had significant direct and indirect influence on the development of pedagogy in Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands. In addition, Jean Piaget\'s stage-based approach to child development has been observed to have parallels to Rousseau\'s theories.
| 607 |
Educational psychology
| 1 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## History
### Before 1890 {#before_1890}
Philosophers of education such as Juan Vives, Johann Pestalozzi, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Herbart had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the beginnings of psychology in the late 1800s.
#### Juan Vives {#juan_vives}
Juan Vives (1493--1540) proposed induction as the method of study and believed in the direct observation and investigation of the study of nature. His studies focused on humanistic learning, which opposed scholasticism and was influenced by a variety of sources including philosophy, psychology, politics, religion, and history. He was one of the first prominent thinkers to emphasize that the location of a school is important to learning. He suggested that a school should be located away from disturbing noises; the air quality should be good and there should be plenty of food for the students and teachers. Vives emphasized the importance of understanding individual differences of the students and suggested practice as an important tool for learning.
Vives introduced his educational ideas in his writing, \"De anima et vita\" in 1538. In this publication, Vives explores moral philosophy as a setting for his educational ideals; with this, he explains that the different parts of the soul (similar to that of Aristotle\'s ideas) are each responsible for different operations, which function distinctively. The first book covers the different \"souls\": \"The Vegetative Soul\"; this is the soul of nutrition, growth, and reproduction, \"The Sensitive Soul\", which involves the five external senses; \"The Cogitative soul\", which includes internal senses and cognitive facilities. The second book involves functions of the rational soul: mind, will, and memory. Lastly, the third book explains the analysis of emotions.
#### Johann Pestalozzi {#johann_pestalozzi}
Johann Pestalozzi (1746--1827), a Swiss educational reformer, emphasized the child rather than the content of the school. Pestalozzi fostered an educational reform backed by the idea that early education was crucial for children, and could be manageable for mothers. Eventually, this experience with early education would lead to a \"wholesome person characterized by morality.\" Pestalozzi has been acknowledged for opening institutions for education, writing books for mother\'s teaching home education, and elementary books for students, mostly focusing on the kindergarten level. In his later years, he published teaching manuals and methods of teaching.
During the time of The Enlightenment, Pestalozzi\'s ideals introduced \"educationalization\". This created the bridge between social issues and education by introducing the idea of social issues to be solved through education. Horlacher describes the most prominent example of this during The Enlightenment to be \"improving agricultural production methods.\"
#### Johann Herbart {#johann_herbart}
Johann Herbart (1776--1841) is considered the father of educational psychology. He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the subject and the teacher. He thought that teachers should consider the students\' existing mental sets---what they already know---when presenting new information or material. Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps. The 5 steps that teachers should use are:
1. Review material that has already been learned by the student
2. Prepare the student for new material by giving them an overview of what they are learning next
3. Present the new material.
4. Relate the new material to the old material that has already been learned.
5. Show how the student can apply the new material and show the material they will learn next.
| 555 |
Educational psychology
| 2 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## History
### 1890--1920
There were three major figures in educational psychology in this period: William James, G. Stanley Hall, and John Dewey. These three men distinguished themselves in general psychology and educational psychology, which overlapped significantly at the end of the 19th century.
#### William James (1842--1910) {#william_james_18421910}
The period of 1890--1920 is considered the golden era of educational psychology when aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the scientific methods of observation and experimentation to educational problems. From 1840 to 1920 37 million people immigrated to the United States. This created an expansion of elementary schools and secondary schools. The increase in immigration also provided educational psychologists the opportunity to use intelligence testing to screen immigrants at Ellis Island. Darwinism influenced the beliefs of the prominent educational psychologists. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. The pioneering American psychologist William James commented that: `{{blockquote|Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality".<ref name=james>[[William James|James, W.]] (1983). ''Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1899)</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} James is the father of psychology in America, but he also made contributions to educational psychology. In his famous series of lectures *Talks to Teachers on Psychology*, published in 1899, James defines education as \"the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior\". He states that teachers should \"train the pupil to behavior\" so that he fits into the social and physical world. Teachers should also realize the importance of habit and instinct. They should present information that is clear and interesting and relate this new information and material to things the student already knows about. He also addresses important issues such as attention, memory, and association of ideas.
#### Alfred Binet {#alfred_binet}
Alfred Binet published *Mental Fatigue* in 1898, in which he attempted to apply the experimental method to educational psychology. In this experimental method he advocated for two types of experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments done in the classroom. In 1904 he was appointed the Minister of Public Education. This is when he began to look for a way to distinguish children with developmental disabilities. Binet strongly supported special education programs because he believed that \"abnormality\" could be cured. The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was the first to distinguish between \"normal children\" and those with developmental disabilities. Binet believed that it was important to study individual differences between age groups and children of the same age. He also believed that it was important for teachers to take into account individual students\' strengths and also the needs of the classroom as a whole when teaching and creating a good learning environment. He also believed that it was important to train teachers in observation so that they would be able to see individual differences among children and adjust the curriculum to the students. Binet also emphasized that practice of material was important. In 1916 Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon so that the average score was always 100. The test became known as the Stanford-Binet and was one of the most widely used tests of intelligence. Terman, unlike Binet, was interested in using intelligence test to identify gifted children who had high intelligence. In his longitudinal study of gifted children, who became known as the Termites, Terman found that gifted children become gifted adults.
#### Edward Thorndike {#edward_thorndike}
Edward Thorndike (1874--1949) supported the scientific movement in education. He based teaching practices on empirical evidence and measurement. Thorndike developed the theory of instrumental conditioning or the law of effect. The law of effect states that associations are strengthened when it is followed by something pleasing and associations are weakened when followed by something not pleasing. He also found that learning is done a little at a time or in increments, learning is an automatic process and its principles apply to all mammals. Thorndike\'s research with Robert Woodworth on the theory of transfer found that learning one subject will only influence your ability to learn another subject if the subjects are similar. This discovery led to less emphasis on learning the classics because they found that studying the classics does not contribute to overall general intelligence. Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus-response patterns a person had rather than general intellectual ability. He contributed word dictionaries that were scientifically based to determine the words and definitions used. The dictionaries were the first to take into consideration the users\' maturity level. He also integrated pictures and easier pronunciation guide into each of the definitions. Thorndike contributed arithmetic books based on learning theory. He made all the problems more realistic and relevant to what was being studied, not just to improve the general intelligence. He developed tests that were standardized to measure performance in school-related subjects. His biggest contribution to testing was the CAVD intelligence test which used a multidimensional approach to intelligence and was the first to use a ratio scale. His later work was on programmed instruction, mastery learning, and computer-based learning: `{{blockquote|If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.<ref name=thorndike>[[Edward Thorndike|Thorndike, E.L.]] (1912). ''Education: A first book''. New York: MacMillan.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
#### John Dewey {#john_dewey}
John Dewey (1859--1952) had a major influence on the development of progressive education in the United States. He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence. He pushed for the creation of practical classes that could be applied outside of a school setting. He also thought that education should be student-oriented, not subject-oriented. For Dewey, education was a social experience that helped bring together generations of people. He stated that students learn by doing. He believed in an active mind that was able to be educated through observation, problem-solving, and enquiry. In his 1910 book *How We Think*, he emphasizes that material should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting to the student since it encourages original thought and problem-solving. He also stated that material should be relative to the student\'s own experience. `{{blockquote|"The material furnished by way of information should be relevant to a question that is vital in the students own experience"<ref name="Dewey"/>}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Jean Piaget {#jean_piaget}
Jean Piaget (1896--1980) was one of the most powerful researchers in of developmental psychology during the 20th century. He developed the theory of cognitive development. The theory stated that intelligence developed in four different stages. The stages are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, the preoperational state from 2 to 7 years old, the concrete operational stage from 7 to 10 years old, and the formal operational stage from 12 years old and up. He also believed that learning was constrained to the child\'s cognitive development. Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was the first to believe that cognitive development was important and something that should be paid attention to in education. Most of the research on Piagetian theory was carried out by American educational psychologists.
| 1,246 |
Educational psychology
| 3 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## History
### 1920--present
The number of people receiving a high school and college education increased dramatically from 1920 to 1960. Because very few jobs were available to teens coming out of eighth grade, there was an increase in high school attendance in the 1930s. The progressive movement in the United States took off at this time and led to the idea of progressive education. John Flanagan, an educational psychologist, developed tests for combat trainees and instructions in combat training. In 1954 the work of Kenneth Clark and his wife on the effects of segregation on black and white children was influential in the Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education. From the 1960s to present day, educational psychology has switched from a behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive-based perspective because of the influence and development of cognitive psychology at this time.
#### Jerome Bruner {#jerome_bruner}
Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Piaget\'s cognitive approaches into educational psychology. He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create a problem solving environment that allows the student to question, explore and experiment. In his book *The Process of Education* Bruner stated that the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of the person are important in learning. He emphasized the importance of the subject matter. He also believed that how the subject was structured was important for the student\'s understanding of the subject and that it was the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in a way that was easy for the student to understand. In the early 1960s, Bruner went to Africa to teach math and science to school children, which influenced his view as schooling as a cultural institution. Bruner was also influential in the development of MACOS, Man: a Course of Study, which was an educational program that combined anthropology and science. The program explored human evolution and social behavior. He also helped with the development of the head start program. He was interested in the influence of culture on education and looked at the impact of poverty on educational development.
#### Benjamin Bloom {#benjamin_bloom}
Benjamin Bloom (1903--1999) spent over 50 years at the University of Chicago, where he worked in the department of education. He believed that all students can learn. He developed the taxonomy of educational objectives. The objectives were divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain deals with how we think. It is divided into categories that are on a continuum from easiest to more complex. The categories are knowledge or recall, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The affective domain deals with emotions and has 5 categories. The categories are receiving phenomenon, responding to that phenomenon, valuing, organization, and internalizing values. The psychomotor domain deals with the development of motor skills, movement, and coordination and has 7 categories that also go from simplest to most complex. The 7 categories of the psychomotor domain are perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination. The taxonomy provided broad educational objectives that could be used to help expand the curriculum to match the ideas in the taxonomy. The taxonomy is considered to have a greater influence internationally than in the United States. Internationally, the taxonomy is used in every aspect of education from the training of the teachers to the development of testing material. Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals and promoting an active student. He thought that teachers should provide feedback to the students on their strengths and weaknesses. Bloom also did research on college students and their problem-solving processes. He found that they differ in understanding the basis of the problem and the ideas in the problem. He also found that students differ in process of problem-solving in their approach and attitude toward the problem.
#### Nathaniel Gage {#nathaniel_gage}
Nathaniel Gage (1917--2008) is an important figure in educational psychology as his research focused on improving teaching and understanding the processes involved in teaching. He edited the book *Handbook of Research on Teaching* (1963), which helped develop early research in teaching and educational psychology. Gage founded the Stanford Center for Research and Development in Teaching, which contributed research on teaching as well as influencing the education of important educational psychologists.
| 707 |
Educational psychology
| 4 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Perspectives
### Behavioral
Applied behavior analysis, a research-based science utilizing behavioral principles of operant conditioning, is effective in a range of educational settings. For example, teachers can alter student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items. Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of self-determination theory, who claim that praise and other rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior. But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation. Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of applied behavior analysis, including pivotal response therapy which is used to treat autism spectrum disorders.
### Cognitive
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations, and emotions. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio\'s dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.
The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education. For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure). Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to the education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using mnemonics for immediate and delayed retention of information.
Problem solving, according to prominent cognitive psychologists, is fundamental to learning. It resides as an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory. A problem students run into while reading is called \"activation.\" This is when the student\'s representations of the text are present during working memory. This causes the student to read through the material without absorbing the information and being able to retain it. When working memory is absent from the reader\'s representations of the working memory, they experience something called \"deactivation.\" When deactivation occurs, the student has an understanding of the material and is able to retain information. If deactivation occurs during the first reading, the reader does not need to undergo deactivation in the second reading. The reader will only need to reread to get a \"gist\" of the text to spark their memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student\'s attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema. The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem-solving.
#### Cognitive view of intelligence {#cognitive_view_of_intelligence}
Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities, and challenges that result from predisposition, learning, and development. These manifest as individual differences in intelligence, creativity, cognitive style, motivation, and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disability, dyslexia, and speech disorder. Less common disabilities include intellectual disability, hearing impairment, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, and blindness.
Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether it can be characterized by a single factor known as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner\'s theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the WISC are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as gifted are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as phonological awareness. In addition to basic abilities, the individual\'s personality traits are also important, with people higher in conscientiousness and hope attaining superior academic achievements, even after controlling for intelligence and past performance.
| 782 |
Educational psychology
| 5 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Perspectives
### Developmental
Developmental psychology, and especially the psychology of cognitive development, opens a special perspective for educational psychology. This is so because education and the psychology of cognitive development converge on a number of crucial assumptions. First, the psychology of cognitive development defines human cognitive competence at successive phases of development. Education aims to help students acquire knowledge and develop skills that are compatible with their understanding and problem-solving capabilities at different ages. Thus, knowing the students\' level on a developmental sequence provides information on the kind and level of knowledge they can assimilate, which, in turn, can be used as a frame for organizing the subject matter to be taught at different school grades. This is the reason why Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development was so influential for education, especially mathematics and science education. In the same direction, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development suggest that in addition to the concerns above, sequencing of concepts and skills in teaching must take account of the processing and working memory capacities that characterize successive age levels.
Second, the psychology of cognitive development involves understanding how cognitive change takes place and recognizing the factors and processes which enable cognitive competence to develop. Education also capitalizes on cognitive change, because the construction of knowledge presupposes effective teaching methods that would move the student from a lower to a higher level of understanding. Mechanisms such as reflection on actual or mental actions vis-à-vis alternative solutions to problems, tagging new concepts or solutions to symbols that help one recall and mentally manipulate them are just a few examples of how mechanisms of cognitive development may be used to facilitate learning.
Finally, the psychology of cognitive development is concerned with individual differences in the organization of cognitive processes and abilities, in their rate of change, and in their mechanisms of change. The principles underlying intra- and inter-individual differences could be educationally useful, because knowing how students differ in regard to the various dimensions of cognitive development, such as processing and representational capacity, self-understanding and self-regulation, and the various domains of understanding, such as mathematical, scientific, or verbal abilities, would enable the teacher to cater for the needs of the different students so that no one is left behind.
| 377 |
Educational psychology
| 6 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Perspectives
### Constructivist
Constructivism is a category of learning theory in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior \"knowing\" and experience of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development, from social constructivism. The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the learning itself. It regards learning as a process of enculturation. People learn by exposure to the culture of practitioners. They observe and practice the behavior of practitioners and \'pick up relevant jargon, imitate behavior, and gradually start to act in accordance with the norms of the practice\'. So, a student learns to become a mathematician through exposure to mathematician using tools to solve mathematical problems. So in order to master a particular domain of knowledge it is not enough for students to learn the concepts of the domain. They should be exposed to the use of the concepts in authentic activities by the practitioners of the domain.
A dominant influence on the social constructivist paradigm is Lev Vygotsky\'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. \"Zone of Proximal Development\" (ZPD) is a term Vygotsky used to characterize an individual\'s mental development. He believed that tasks individuals can do on their own do not give a complete understanding of their mental development. He originally defined the ZPD as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." He cited a famous example to make his case. Two children in school who originally can solve problems at an eight-year-old developmental level (that is, typical for children who were age 8) might be at different developmental levels. If each child received assistance from an adult, one was able to perform at a nine-year-old level and one was able to perform at a twelve-year-old level. He said \"This difference between twelve and eight, or between nine and eight, is what we call *the zone of proximal development.*\" He further said that the ZPD \"defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state.\" The zone is bracketed by the learner\'s current ability and the ability they can achieve with the aid of an instructor of some capacity.
Vygotsky viewed the ZPD as a better way to explain the relation between children\'s learning and cognitive development. Prior to the ZPD, the relation between learning and development could be boiled down to the following three major positions: 1) Development always precedes learning (e.g., constructivism): children first need to meet a particular maturation level before learning can occur; 2) Learning and development cannot be separated, but instead occur simultaneously (e.g., behaviorism): essentially, learning is development; and 3) learning and development are separate, but interactive processes (e.g., gestaltism): one process always prepares the other process, and vice versa. Vygotsky rejected these three major theories because he believed that learning should always precede development in the ZPD. According to Vygotsky, through the assistance of a more knowledgeable other, a child can learn skills or aspects of a skill that go beyond the child\'s actual developmental or maturational level. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently (also referred to as the child\'s developmental level). The upper limit is the level of potential skill that the child can reach with the assistance of a more capable instructor. In this sense, the ZPD provides a prospective view of cognitive development, as opposed to a retrospective view that characterizes development in terms of a child\'s independent capabilities. The advancement through and attainment of the upper limit of the ZPD is limited by the instructional and scaffolding-related capabilities of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO is typically assumed to be an older, more experienced teacher or parent, but often can be a learner\'s peer or someone their junior. The MKO need not even be a person, it can be a machine or book, or other source of visual and/or audio input.
Elaborating on Vygotsky\'s theory, Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of instructional scaffolding, in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.
#### Jean Piaget\'s Cognitive Development {#jean_piagets_cognitive_development}
Jean Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to its environment. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with a schema operating at birth that he called \"reflexes\". Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development. The four stages are sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.
| 820 |
Educational psychology
| 7 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Conditioning and learning {#conditioning_and_learning}
To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.
For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget\'s theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget\'s most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.
Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naïve understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget\'s views of moral development were elaborated by Lawrence Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the social cognitive theory of morality) are required to explain bullying.
Rudolf Steiner\'s model of child development interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development in developmental stages similar to those later described by Piaget.
Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people\'s belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.
| 362 |
Educational psychology
| 8 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Conditioning and learning {#conditioning_and_learning}
### Motivation
Motivation is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Motivation can have several impacting effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter:
- Provide direction towards goals.
- Enhance cognitive processing abilities and performance.
- Direct behavior toward specific goals.
- Lead to increased effort and energy.
- Increase initiation of and persistence in activities.
Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the volition or will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, the personally held goals that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. As intrinsic motivation deals with activities that act as their own rewards, extrinsic motivation deals with motivations that are brought on by consequences or punishments. A form of attribution theory developed by Bernard Weiner describes how students\' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of shame and embarrassment and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of guilt and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.
The self-determination theory (SDT) was developed by psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. SDT focuses on the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in driving human behavior and posits inherent growth and development tendencies. It emphasizes the degree to which an individual\'s behavior is self-motivated and self-determined. When applied to the realm of education, the self-determination theory is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a value of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes.
Motivational theories also explain how learners\' goals affect the way they engage with academic tasks. Those who have *mastery goals* strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have *performance approach goals* strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have *performance avoidance* goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, creativity, and intrinsic motivation. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor concentration while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing, and test anxiety. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.
Locus of control is a salient factor in the successful academic performance of students. During the 1970s and \'80s, Cassandra B. Whyte did significant educational research studying locus of control as related to the academic achievement of students pursuing higher education coursework. Much of her educational research and publications focused upon the theories of Julian B. Rotter in regard to the importance of internal control and successful academic performance. Whyte reported that individuals who perceive and believe that their hard work may lead to more successful academic outcomes, instead of depending on luck or fate, persist and achieve academically at a higher level. Therefore, it is important to provide education and counseling in this regard.
| 563 |
Educational psychology
| 9 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Technology
Instructional design, the systematic design of materials, activities, and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a taxonomy of educational objectives created by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues. Bloom also researched mastery learning, an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. Gagné, another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of task analysis in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives connected by prerequisite relationships. The following list of technological resources incorporate computer-aided instruction and intelligence for educational psychologists and their students:
- Intelligent tutoring system
- Cognitive tutor
- Cooperative learning
- Collaborative learning
- Problem-based learning
- Computer-supported collaborative learning
- Constructive alignment
Technology is essential to the field of educational psychology, not only for the psychologist themselves as far as testing, organization, and resources, but also for students. Educational psychologists who reside in the K-12 setting focus most of their time on special education students. It has been found that students with disabilities learning through technology such as iPad applications and videos are more engaged and motivated to learn in the classroom setting. Liu et al. explain that learning-based technology allows for students to be more focused, and learning is more efficient with learning technologies. The authors explain that learning technology also allows for students with social-emotional disabilities to participate in distance learning.
| 281 |
Educational psychology
| 10 |
10,332 |
# Educational psychology
## Applications
### Teaching
Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students\' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.
Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students\' learning, and classroom management. A developing Wikibook about educational psychology gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education.
- Special education
- Secondary Education
- Lesson plan
### Counseling
#### Training
In order to become an educational psychologist, students can complete an undergraduate degree of their choice. They then must go to graduate school to study education psychology, counseling psychology, or school counseling. Most students today are also receiving their doctoral degrees in order to hold the \"psychologist\" title. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in K--12 school settings (closely related are school psychologists in the US and Canada) are trained at the master\'s and doctoral levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. However, school psychologists are generally more individual-oriented towards students.
Many high schools and colleges are increasingly offering educational psychology courses, with some colleges offering it as a general education requirement. Similarly, colleges offer students opportunities to obtain a Ph.D. in educational psychology.
Within the UK, students must hold a degree that is accredited by the British Psychological Society (either undergraduate or at the master\'s level) before applying for a three-year doctoral course that involves further education, placement, and a research thesis.
In recent years, many university training programs in the US have included curriculum that focuses on issues of race, gender, disability, trauma, and poverty, and how those issues affect learning and academic outcomes. A growing number of universities offer specialized certificates that allow professionals to work and study in these fields (i.e. autism specialists, trauma specialists).
#### Employment outlook {#employment_outlook}
Anticipated to grow by 18--26%, employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations in 2014. One in four psychologists is employed in educational settings. In the United States, the median salary for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is US\$58,360 as of May 2004.
In recent decades, the participation of women as professional researchers in North American educational psychology has risen dramatically.
## Methods of research {#methods_of_research}
As opposed to some other fields of educational research, quantitative methods are the predominant mode of inquiry in educational psychology, but qualitative and mixed-methods studies are also common. Educational psychology, as much as any other field of psychology relies on a balance of observational, correlational, and experimental study designs. Given the complexities of modeling dependent data and psychological variables in school settings, educational psychologists have been at the forefront of the development of several common statistical tools, including psychometric methods, meta-analysis, regression discontinuity and latent variable modeling
| 605 |
Educational psychology
| 11 |
10,334 |
# Epistle to the Laodiceans
The **Epistle to the Laodiceans** is a possible writing of Paul the Apostle, the original existence of which is inferred from an instruction in the Epistle to the Colossians that the congregation should send their letter to the believing community in Laodicea, and likewise obtain a copy of the letter \"from Laodicea\" (*ἐκ Λαοδικείας*, *ek Laodikeas*). `{{Blockquote|And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea.|Colossians 4:16 (NRSV)<ref name="col416" />}}`{=mediawiki}
This letter is generally regarded as being lost. However, some ancient sources, such as Hippolytus of Rome, and some modern scholars consider that the epistle \"from Laodicea\" was never a lost epistle, but rather Paul re-using one of his other letters (the most common candidate is the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians), just as he asks for the copying and forwarding of the Letter to Colossians to Laodicea. An additional complication is that many scholars do not believe that Colossians was itself written by Paul, in which case the indicated letter might itself not be Pauline even if it existed.
At least two ancient texts claimed to be the missing \"Epistle to the Laodiceans\" are known to have existed. These are generally considered, both in antiquity and by modern scholarship, to be attempts to supply a forged copy of a lost document. The sole version that survived is a Latin ***Epistola ad Laodicenses*** (\"Epistle to the Laodiceans\"), first witnessed in Codex Fuldensis. The Latin epistle is actually a short compilation of verses from other Pauline epistles, principally Philippians. It too is generally considered a \"clumsy forgery\" and an attempt to fill the \"gap\" suggested by Colossians 4:16. Despite this, it was part of medieval Bibles in the Western, Latin church for centuries, with it only becoming clearly non-canonical after it was rejected by both the Protestant reformers and the Catholic Council of Trent in the early modern era.
| 332 |
Epistle to the Laodiceans
| 0 |
10,334 |
# Epistle to the Laodiceans
## Mention in Colossians 4:16 {#mention_in_colossians_416}
Paul, the earliest known Christian author, wrote several letters (or epistles) in Greek to various churches. Paul apparently dictated all his epistles through a secretary (or amanuensis), but wrote the final few paragraphs of each letter by his own hand. Many survived and are included in the New Testament, but others are known to have been lost. The Epistle to the Colossians, which is traditionally attributed to Paul, includes a seeming reference to a presumably Pauline letter in the possession of the church at Laodicea. An interlinear gloss of Colossians 4:16 reads as follows: `{{fs interlinear |lang=grc
|Καὶ ὅταν ἀναγνωσθῇ παρ’ ὑμῖν ἡ ἐπιστολή ποιήσατε ἵνα καὶ ἐν τῇ Λαοδικέων ἐκκλησίᾳ ἀναγνωσθῇ καὶ τὴν ἐκ Λαοδικείας ἵνα καὶ ὑμεῖς ἀναγνῶτε.
|Kaí ótan anagnosthí par’ ymín i epistolí poiísate ína kaí en tí Laodikéon ekklisía anagnosthí kaí tín ek Laodikeías ína kaí ymeís anagnóte.
|And when {may be read} among you, the epistle, cause that also in the {[of] the Laodiceans} assembly {it may be read}, and that from Laodicea that also ye {may read.}<ref>{{cite book |last=Berry |first=George Ricker |author-link=George Ricker Berry |date=1897 |title=The Interlinear Literal Translation of the Greek New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/interlinearliter00berr/page/526/mode/2up?view=theater |location=Harrisburg, Pennsylvania |publisher=Handy Book Corporation |pages=527–528 |isbn=}}</ref>
|After this letter has been read to you, see that it is also read in the church of the Laodiceans and that you in turn read the letter from Laodicea. (NIV translation)<ref name="col416" />}}`{=mediawiki}
The last words can be interpreted as \"letter written to the Laodiceans\", but also \"letter written from Laodicea\". The New American Standard Bible (NASB) translates this verse in the latter manner, and a few translations in other languages also translate it likewise, such as the Dutch Statenvertaling: \"When this letter is read among you, have it also read in the church of the Laodiceans; and you, for your part read my letter (that is coming) from Laodicea.\" Those who read here \"letter written to the Laodiceans\" that, at the time that the Epistle to the Colossians was written, Paul also had written an epistle to the community of believers in Laodicea. It could also perhaps be interpreted as Paul recommending a letter produced by the Laodicean community, not himself.
Another possibility exists: that no such epistle to the Laodiceans was ever created, despite the verse in Colossians. Colossians is considered a deutero-Pauline work by many scholars (meaning a letter written in Paul\'s name by an associate or someone else), based on a number of differences in writing style and assumed situation from Paul\'s earlier letters. While this is explained by some as due to increasing use of a secretary (amanuensis) later in Paul\'s life, a more skeptical approach is to suggest that Colossians was not written by Paul at all. If Colossians was forged in Paul\'s name, then the reference to the other letter to the Laodiceans could merely be a verisimilitude---a small detail to make the letter seem real. The letter would never have been sent to Colossae in this scenario, but rather used as an example of Paul\'s doctrine to win a theological dispute far from Colossae, and there would be nobody to recognize that the claimed letter to the Laodiceans was non-existent.
## Identification with canonical epistles {#identification_with_canonical_epistles}
### Epistle to the Ephesians {#epistle_to_the_ephesians}
Some scholars have suggested that it refers to the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians, contending that it was a circular letter (an *encyclical*) to be read to many churches in the Laodicean area. Others dispute this view.
### Epistle to Philemon {#epistle_to_philemon}
Others have suggested that it refers to the canonical Epistle to Philemon.
| 605 |
Epistle to the Laodiceans
| 1 |
10,334 |
# Epistle to the Laodiceans
## Works purporting to be the lost text {#works_purporting_to_be_the_lost_text}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.3\|The top half of the first page of the Latin Epistle to the Laodiceans in the Fulda manuscript
### Marcionite Epistle to the Laodiceans {#marcionite_epistle_to_the_laodiceans}
According to the Muratorian fragment, Marcion\'s canon contained an epistle called the Epistle to the Laodiceans which is commonly thought to be a forgery written to conform to his own point of view. This is not at all clear, however, since none of the text survives. It is not known what this letter might have contained. Most scholars believe it was explicitly Marcionist in its outlook, hence its condemnation.
Others believe it to be the Epistle to the Ephesians; the proto-Orthodox author Tertullian accuses Marcion\'s group of using an edited version of Ephesians which was referred to as the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
### Latin Vulgate Epistle to the Laodiceans {#latin_vulgate_epistle_to_the_laodiceans}
A claimed Epistle to the Laodiceans from Paul exists in Latin. It is quite short at only 20 verses. It is mentioned by various writers from the fourth century onwards, notably by Pope Gregory the Great; the oldest known copy of this epistle is in the Fulda manuscript written for Victor of Capua in 546. Possibly due to Gregory\'s endorsement of it, many Western Latin Bibles contained this epistle for centuries afterward. Pre-modern Arabic and Slavonic translations were created from the Latin text. It also featured in early English Bibles: John Wycliffe included Paul\'s letter to the Laodiceans in his Bible translation from the Latin to English. Medieval German Bibles included it as well, until it was excluded from the Luther Bible in the 1500s. However, the epistle is essentially unknown in Eastern Christianity, where it was never used or published; the Second Council of Nicea of 787 rejected it. There is no evidence of a Greek text, the language Paul wrote in. The text was almost unanimously considered pseudepigraphal when the Christian Biblical canon was decided upon, and does not appear in any Greek copies of the Bible at all, nor is it known in Syriac or other versions. Jerome, who wrote the Latin Vulgate translation, wrote in the 4th century, \"it is rejected by everyone\".
Scholars are unanimous in concurring with Jerome and believing this epistle forged long after Paul\'s death. Additionally, the epistle is derided for having no theological content. It includes Pauline greetings and farewells, but does not appear to have any substantive content: it does not address any problem or advocate for any position. Rudolf Knopf and Gustav Kruger wrote that the epistle is \"nothing other than a worthless patching together of \[canonical\] Pauline passages and phrases, mainly from the Epistle to the Philippians.\" M. R. James wrote that \"It is not easy to imagine a more feebly constructed cento of Pauline phrases.\" Wilhelm Schneemelcher was \"amazed that it ever found a place in Bible manuscripts.\" However, it evidently gained a certain degree of respect, having appeared in over 100 surviving early Latin copies of the Bible. According to *Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatam versionem*, there are Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing this epistle dating between the 6th and 12th century, including Latin manuscripts F (Codex Fuldensis), M, Q, B, D (Ardmachanus), C, and Lambda.
The apocryphal epistle is generally considered a transparent attempt to supply this supposed lost sacred document. Some scholars, such as Wolfgang Speyer, suggest that it was created in response to the Marcionite epistle; it would be easier to reject the Marcionite version if the \"real\" Epistle to the Laodiceans could be provided to counter it.
An obvious question is if the Latin epistle and the Marcionite epistle are actually the same document: is it possible that the Muratorian fragment was referring to an early version of the Latin epistle? While the occasional scholar advocates for this (Adolf von Harnack for one), most scholars consider this unlikely, because the Latin epistle does not include any Marcionite theology or character
| 656 |
Epistle to the Laodiceans
| 2 |
10,359 |
# Amiga Enhanced Chip Set
The **Enhanced Chip Set** (**ECS**) is the second generation of the Amiga computer\'s chipset, offering minor improvements over the original chipset (OCS) design. ECS was introduced in 1990 with the launch of the Amiga 3000. Another version was developed around 1994 but was unreleased due to Commodore International filing for bankruptcy. Amigas produced from 1990 onwards featured a mix of OCS and ECS chips, such as later versions of the Amiga 500 and the Commodore CDTV. Other ECS models were the Amiga 500+ in 1991 and lastly the Amiga 600 in 1992.
## Features
The enhanced chip set had two new chips, the 8375 HR Agnus and 8373 HR Denise. The ECS Denise chip offers *Productivity* VGA output (640×480 non-interlaced) and *SuperHiRes* (1280×200 or 1280×256) display modes (also available in interlaced mode), which are however limited to only 4 bits on-screen colors. The *Productivity* output required a multi-sync monitor. It also allowed for a greyscale resolution of 1008 x 800 pixels with the A2024 monitor.
Some Amigas, such as the Amiga 500 and the Amiga 2000 came with the ECS version of the Agnus chip but the original chipset version (OCS) of the Denise chip. It is possible to upgrade one or both of them to obtain partial or full ECS functionality by replacing OCS chips with ECS versions. Not all OCS chipset computers were upgradable, some such as the Amiga 2000-A and the Amiga 1000 had different Agnus sockets.
ECS was followed by the third generation AGA chipset with the launch of the Amiga 4000 and Amiga 1200 in 1992
| 266 |
Amiga Enhanced Chip Set
| 0 |
10,361 |
# European Space Operations Centre
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Signal received at ESOC from Rosetta (January 2014), the first comet landing mission
The **European Space Operations Centre** (**ESOC**) serves as the main mission control centre for the European Space Agency (ESA) and is located in Darmstadt, Germany. ESOC\'s primary function is the operation of uncrewed spacecraft on behalf of ESA and the launch and early orbit phases (LEOP) of ESA and third-party missions. The Centre is also responsible for a range of operations-related activities within ESA and in cooperation with ESA\'s industry and international partners, including ground systems engineering, software development, flight dynamics and navigation, development of mission control tools and techniques and space debris studies.
ESOC\'s current major activities comprise operating planetary and solar missions, such as Mars Express and the Trace Gas Orbiter, astronomy & fundamental physics missions, such as Gaia and XMM Newton, and Earth observation missions such as CryoSat2 and Swarm.
ESOC is responsible for developing, operating and maintaining ESA\'s ESTRACK network of ground stations. Teams at the Centre are also involved in research and development related to advanced mission control concepts and Space Situational Awareness, and standardisation activities related to frequency management; mission operations; tracking, telemetry and telecommanding; and space debris.
## Missions
ESOC\'s current missions comprise the following:
Planetary and solar missions
- BepiColombo
- Mars Express
- Solar Orbiter
- ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter
- Cluster II
- JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE)
- Hera
Astronomy and fundamental physics missions
- Gaia
- INTEGRAL
- XMM-Newton
- Euclid
Earth observation missions
- CryoSat-2
- Swarm
- Sentinel-1A
- Sentinel-1C
- Sentinel-2A
- Sentinel-2B
- Sentinel-2C
- Sentinel-5 Precursor
- SMOS
- EarthCARE
In addition, the ground segment and mission control teams for several missions are in preparation and training, including:
- ExoMars
- Biomass
- FLEX
- PLATO
- future satellites of the Sentinel programme
## ESTRACK
ESOC hosts the control centre for the Agency\'s European Tracking ESTRACK station network. The core network comprises seven stations in seven countries: Kourou (French Guiana), Cebreros (Spain), Redu (Belgium), Santa Maria (Portugal), Kiruna (Sweden), Malargüe (Argentina) and New Norcia (Australia). Operators are on duty at ESOC 24 hours/day, year round, to conduct tracking passes, uploading telecommands and downloading telemetry and data.
## Activities
In addition to \'pure\' mission operations, a number of other activities take place at the Centre, most of which are directly related to ESA\'s broader space operations activities.
- Flight dynamics: A team is responsible for all orbital calculations and orbit determinations.
- Mission analysis: Selection and calculation of possible orbits and launch windows
- Software development: Mission control systems and spacecraft management tools
- ESA Navigation Support Office: Calculating and predicting GPS and Galileo satellite orbits
- Ground station engineering: Developing deep-space tracking technology
- Space debris: Coordinating ESA\'s debris research, provision of conjunction warning services and cooperating with agencies worldwide
- Frequency management: Helping manage radio spectrum used by all satellite operators
## History
The European Space Operations Centre was formally inaugurated in Darmstadt, Germany, on 8 September 1967 by the then-Minister of Research of the Federal Republic of Germany, Gerhard Stoltenberg. Its role was to provide satellite control for the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), which is today known as its successor organisation, the European Space Agency (ESA).
The 90-person ESOC facility was, as it is today, located on the west side of Darmstadt; it employed the staff and resources previously allocated to the European Space Data Centre (ESDAC), which had been established in 1963 to conduct orbit calculations. These were augmented by mission control staff transferred from ESTEC to operate satellites and manage the ESTRACK tracking station network.
Within just eight months, ESOC, as part of ESRO, was already operating its first mission, ESRO-2B, a scientific research satellite and the first of many operated from ESOC for ESRO, and later ESA.
By July 2012, ESOC had operated over 56 missions spanning science, Earth observation, orbiting observatories, meteorology and space physics.
In 2024 ESA announced a new satellite control center at ESOC. Designed to support multiple launch operations at once and with power redundancy that will provide 99% uptime, the control center will be designed with the future in mind.
## Location and expansion {#location_and_expansion}
ESOC is located on the west side of the city of Darmstadt, some 500 m from the main train station, at Robert-Bosch-Straße 5. In 2011, ESA announced the first phase of the ESOC II modernisation and expansion project valued at €60 million. The new construction will be located across Robert-Bosch-Straße, opposite the current centre.
| 755 |
European Space Operations Centre
| 0 |
10,361 |
# European Space Operations Centre
## Employees
At ESOC, ESA employs approximately 800, comprising some 250 permanent staff and about 550 contractors. Staff from ESOC are routinely dispatched to work at other ESA establishments, ESTRACK stations, the ATV Control Centre (Toulouse), the Columbus Control Centre (Oberpfaffenhofen) and at partner facilities in several countries
| 53 |
European Space Operations Centre
| 1 |
10,372 |
# Entire function
In complex analysis, an **entire function**, also called an **integral function,** is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane. Typical examples of entire functions are polynomials and the exponential function, and any finite sums, products and compositions of these, such as the trigonometric functions sine and cosine and their hyperbolic counterparts sinh and cosh, as well as derivatives and integrals of entire functions such as the error function. If an entire function $f(z)$ has a root at $w$, then $f(z)/(z-w)$, taking the limit value at $w$, is an entire function. On the other hand, the natural logarithm, the reciprocal function, and the square root are all not entire functions, nor can they be continued analytically to an entire function.
A **transcendental entire function** is an entire function that is not a polynomial.
Just as meromorphic functions can be viewed as a generalization of rational fractions, entire functions can be viewed as a generalization of polynomials. In particular, if for meromorphic functions one can generalize the factorization into simple fractions (the Mittag-Leffler theorem on the decomposition of a meromorphic function), then for entire functions there is a generalization of the factorization --- the Weierstrass theorem on entire functions.
## Properties
Every entire function $f(z)$ can be represented as a single power series: $\ f(z) = \sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n z^n\$ that converges everywhere in the complex plane, hence uniformly on compact sets. The radius of convergence is infinite, which implies that $\ \lim_{n\to\infty} |a_n|^{\frac{1}{n}} = 0\$ or, equivalently, $\ \lim_{n\to\infty} \frac{\ln|a_n|}n = -\infty ~.$ Any power series satisfying this criterion will represent an entire function.
If (and only if) the coefficients of the power series are all real then the function evidently takes real values for real arguments, and the value of the function at the complex conjugate of $z$ will be the complex conjugate of the value at $z ~.$ Such functions are sometimes called self-conjugate (the conjugate function, $F^*(z),$ being given by `{{nowrap|<math>\bar F(\bar z)</math>).}}`{=mediawiki}
If the real part of an entire function is known in a neighborhood of a point then both the real and imaginary parts are known for the whole complex plane, up to an imaginary constant. For instance, if the real part is known in a neighborhood of zero, then we can find the coefficients for $n>0$ from the following derivatives with respect to a real variable $r$:
$\begin{align}
\operatorname\mathcal{Re} \left\{\ a_n\ \right\} &= \frac{1}{n!} \frac{d^n}{dr^n}\ \operatorname\mathcal{Re} \left\{\ f(r)\ \right\} && \quad \mathrm{ at } \quad r = 0 \\
\operatorname\mathcal{Im}\left\{\ a_n\ \right\} &= \frac{1}{n!} \frac{d^n}{dr^n}\ \operatorname\mathcal{Re} \left\{\ f\left( r\ e^{-\frac{i\pi}{2n}} \right)\ \right\} && \quad \mathrm{ at } \quad r = 0
\end{align}$
(Likewise, if the imaginary part is known in a neighborhood then the function is determined up to a real constant.) In fact, if the real part is known just on an arc of a circle, then the function is determined up to an imaginary constant.} Note however that an entire function is ***not*** determined by its real part on all curves. In particular, if the real part is given on any curve in the complex plane where the real part of some other entire function is zero, then any multiple of that function can be added to the function we are trying to determine. For example, if the curve where the real part is known is the real line, then we can add $i$ times any self-conjugate function. If the curve forms a loop, then it is determined by the real part of the function on the loop since the only functions whose real part is zero on the curve are those that are everywhere equal to some imaginary number.
The Weierstrass factorization theorem asserts that any entire function can be represented by a product involving its zeroes (or \"roots\").
The entire functions on the complex plane form an integral domain (in fact a Prüfer domain). They also form a commutative unital associative algebra over the complex numbers.
Liouville\'s theorem states that any bounded entire function must be constant.
As a consequence of Liouville\'s theorem, any function that is entire on the whole Riemann sphere is constant. Thus any non-constant entire function must have a singularity at the complex point at infinity, either a pole for a polynomial or an essential singularity for a transcendental entire function. Specifically, by the Casorati--Weierstrass theorem, for any transcendental entire function $f$ and any complex $w$ there is a sequence $(z_m)_{m\in\N}$ such that
$$\ \lim_{m\to\infty} |z_m| = \infty, \qquad \text{and} \qquad \lim_{m\to\infty} f(z_m) = w ~.$$
Picard\'s little theorem is a much stronger result: Any non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as value, possibly with a single exception. When an exception exists, it is called a lacunary value of the function. The possibility of a lacunary value is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value $0$. One can take a suitable branch of the logarithm of an entire function that never hits $0$, so that this will also be an entire function (according to the Weierstrass factorization theorem). The logarithm hits every complex number except possibly one number, which implies that the first function will hit any value other than $0$ an infinite number of times. Similarly, a non-constant, entire function that does not hit a particular value will hit every other value an infinite number of times.
Liouville\'s theorem is a special case of the following statement:
## Growth
Entire functions may grow as fast as any increasing function: for any increasing function $g:[0,\infty)\to[0,\infty)$ there exists an entire function $f$ such that $f(x)>g(|x|)$ for all real $x$. Such a function $f$ may be easily found of the form:
$f(z)=c+\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}\left(\frac{z}{k}\right)^{n_k}$
for a constant $c$ and a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers $n_k$. Any such sequence defines an entire function $f(z)$, and if the powers are chosen appropriately we may satisfy the inequality $f(x)>g(|x|)$ for all real $x$. (For instance, it certainly holds if one chooses $c:=g(2)$ and, for any integer $k \ge 1$ one chooses an even exponent $n_k$ such that $\left(\frac{k+1}{k}\right)^{n_k} \ge g(k+2)$).
| 1,010 |
Entire function
| 0 |
10,372 |
# Entire function
## `{{anchor|order of an entire function}}`{=mediawiki} Order and type {#order_and_type}
The **order** (at infinity) of an entire function $f(z)$ is defined using the limit superior as:
$\rho = \limsup_{r\to\infty}\frac{\ln \left (\ln\| f \|_{\infty, B_r} \right ) }{\ln r},$
where $B_r$ is the disk of radius $r$ and $\|f \|_{\infty, B_r}$ denotes the supremum norm of $f(z)$ on $B_r$. The order is a non-negative real number or infinity (except when $f(z) = 0$ for all $z$). In other words, the order of $f(z)$ is the infimum of all $m$ such that:
$f(z) = O \left (\exp \left (|z|^m \right ) \right ), \quad \text{as } z \to \infty.$
The example of $f(z) = \exp(2z^2)$ shows that this does not mean $f(z)=O(\exp(|z|^m))$ if $f(z)$ is of order $m$.
If $0<\rho < \infty,$ one can also define the ***type***:
$\sigma=\limsup_{r\to\infty}\frac{\ln \| f\|_{\infty, B_r}} {r^\rho}.$
If the order is 1 and the type is $\sigma$, the function is said to be \"of exponential type $\sigma$\". If it is of order less than 1 it is said to be of exponential type 0.
If $f(z)=\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n z^n,$ then the order and type can be found by the formulas $\begin{align}
\rho &=\limsup_{n\to\infty} \frac{n\ln n}{-\ln|a_n|} \\[6pt]
(e\rho\sigma)^{\frac{1}{\rho}} &= \limsup_{n\to\infty} n^{\frac{1}{\rho}} |a_n|^{\frac{1}{n}}
\end{align}$
Let $f^{(n)}$ denote the $n$-th derivative of $f$. Then we may restate these formulas in terms of the derivatives at any arbitrary point $z_0$:
$\begin{align}
\rho &=\limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{n\ln n}{n\ln n-\ln|f^{(n)}(z_0)|}=\left(1-\limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{\ln|f^{(n)}(z_0)|}{n\ln n}\right)^{-1} \\[6pt]
(\rho\sigma)^{\frac{1}{\rho}} &=e^{1-\frac{1}{\rho}} \limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{|f^{(n)}(z_0)|^{\frac{1}{n}}}{n^{1-\frac{1}{\rho}}}
\end{align}$
The type may be infinite, as in the case of the reciprocal gamma function, or zero (see example below under `{{slink||Order 1}}`{=mediawiki}).
Another way to find out the order and type is Matsaev\'s theorem.
### Examples
Here are some examples of functions of various orders:
#### Order *ρ* {#order_ρ}
For arbitrary positive numbers $\rho$ and $\sigma$ one can construct an example of an entire function of order $\rho$ and type $\sigma$ using:
$f(z)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \left (\frac{e\rho\sigma}{n} \right )^{\frac{n}{\rho}} z^n$
#### Order 0 {#order_0}
- Non-zero polynomials
- $\sum_{n=0}^\infty 2^{-n^2} z^n$
#### Order 1/4 {#order_14}
$f(\sqrt[4]z)$ where $f(u)=\cos(u)+\cosh(u)$
#### Order 1/3 {#order_13}
$f(\sqrt[3]z)$ where $f(u)=e^u+e^{\omega u}+e^{\omega^2 u} = e^u+2e^{-\frac{u}{2}}\cos \left (\frac{\sqrt 3u}{2} \right ), \quad \text{with } \omega \text{ a complex cube root of 1}.$
#### Order 1/2 {#order_12}
$\cos \left (a\sqrt z \right )$ with $a\neq 0$ (for which the type is given by $\sigma=|a|$)
#### Order 1 {#order_1}
- $\exp(az)$ with $a\neq 0$ ($\sigma=|a|$)
- $\sin(z)$
- $\cosh(z)$
- the Bessel functions $J_n(z)$ and spherical Bessel functions $j_n(z)$ for integer values of $n$
- the reciprocal gamma function $1/\Gamma(z)$ ($\sigma$ is infinite)
- $\sum_{n=2}^\infty \frac{z^n}{(n\ln n)^n}. \quad (\sigma=0)$
#### Order 3/2 {#order_32}
- Airy function $Ai(z)$
#### Order 2 {#order_2}
- $\exp(az^2)$ with $a\neq 0$ ($\sigma=|a|$)
- The Barnes G-function ($\sigma$ is infinite).
#### Order infinity {#order_infinity}
- $\exp(\exp(z))$
## `{{anchor|genus of an entire function}}`{=mediawiki} Genus
Entire functions of finite order have Hadamard\'s canonical representation (Hadamard factorization theorem):
$f(z)=z^me^{P(z)}\prod_{n=1}^\infty\left(1-\frac{z}{z_n}\right)\exp\left(\frac{z}{z_n}+\cdots+\frac{1}{p} \left(\frac{z}{z_n}\right)^p\right),$
where $z_k$ are those roots of $f$ that are not zero ($z_k \neq 0$), $m$ is the order of the zero of $f$ at $z = 0$ (the case $m = 0$ being taken to mean $f(0) \neq 0$), $P$ a polynomial (whose degree we shall call $q$), and $p$ is the smallest non-negative integer such that the series
$\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{|z_n|^{p+1}}$
converges. The non-negative integer $g=\max\{p, q\}$ is called the genus of the entire function $f$.
If the order $\rho$ is not an integer, then $g = [ \rho ]$ is the integer part of $\rho$. If the order is a positive integer, then there are two possibilities: $g = \rho-1$ or $g = \rho$.
For example, $\sin$, $\cos$ and $\exp$ are entire functions of genus $g = \rho = 1$.
| 613 |
Entire function
| 1 |
10,372 |
# Entire function
## Other examples {#other_examples}
According to J. E. Littlewood, the Weierstrass sigma function is a \'typical\' entire function. This statement can be made precise in the theory of random entire functions: the asymptotic behavior of almost all entire functions is similar to that of the sigma function. Other examples include the Fresnel integrals, the Jacobi theta function, and the reciprocal Gamma function. The exponential function and the error function are special cases of the Mittag-Leffler function. According to the fundamental theorem of Paley and Wiener, Fourier transforms of functions (or distributions) with bounded support are entire functions of order $1$ and finite type.
Other examples are solutions of linear differential equations with polynomial coefficients. If the coefficient at the highest derivative is constant, then all solutions of such equations are entire functions. For example, the exponential function, sine, cosine, Airy functions and Parabolic cylinder functions arise in this way. The class of entire functions is closed with respect to compositions. This makes it possible to study dynamics of entire functions.
An entire function of the square root of a complex number is entire if the original function is even, for example $\cos(\sqrt{z})$.
If a sequence of polynomials all of whose roots are real converges in a neighborhood of the origin to a limit which is not identically equal to zero, then this limit is an entire function. Such entire functions form the Laguerre--Pólya class, which can also be characterized in terms of the Hadamard product, namely, $f$ belongs to this class if and only if in the Hadamard representation all $z_n$ are real, $\rho\leq 1$, and $P(z)=a+bz+cz^2$, where $b$ and $c$ are real, and $c\leq 0$. For example, the sequence of polynomials
$\left (1-\frac{(z-d)^2}{n} \right )^n$
converges, as $n$ increases, to $\exp(-(z-d)^2)$. The polynomials
$\frac{1}{2}\left ( \left (1+\frac{iz}{n} \right )^n+ \left (1-\frac{iz}{n} \right )^n \right )$
have all real roots, and converge to $\cos(z)$. The polynomials
$\prod_{m=1}^n \left(1-\frac{z^2}{\left ( \left (m-\frac{1}{2} \right )\pi \right )^2}\right)$
also converge to $\cos(z)$, showing the buildup of the Hadamard product for cosine
| 341 |
Entire function
| 2 |
10,378 |
# European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
The **European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts** (**ECMWF**) is an independent intergovernmental organisation supported by most of the nations of Europe. It is based at three sites: Shinfield Park, Reading, United Kingdom; Bologna, Italy; and Bonn, Germany. It operates one of the largest supercomputer complexes in Europe and the world\'s largest archive of numerical weather prediction data.
## History
ECMWF was established in 1975, in recognition of the need to pool the scientific and technical resources of Europe\'s meteorological services and institutions for the production of weather forecasts for medium-range timescales (up to approximately two weeks) and of the economic and social benefits expected from it. The Centre employs about 350 staff, mostly appointed from across the member states and co-operating states. In 2017, the centre\'s member states accepted an offer from the Italian Government to move ECMWF\'s data centre to Bologna, Italy. The new site, a former tobacco factory, would be redesigned by the architecture firm gmp.
During 2020, the Centre arranged to move its Copernicus operations away from Reading and into European Union territory. Following bids from Toulouse, Italy, Austria, Germany, Spain and Ireland, eventually Bonn (Germany) was chosen. The move has been directly attributed to Brexit.
In early 2024, it was announced that the ECMWF\'s headquarters, currently at Shinfield Road in the English town of Reading, would be relocated to a new complex to be constructed on the Whiteknights Park campus of the University of Reading. Construction of this complex started in early 2025, with completion expected in early 2027.
## Objectives
ECMWF aims to provide accurate medium-range global weather forecasts out to 15 days and seasonal forecasts out to 12 months. Its products are provided to the national weather services of its member states and co-operating states as a complement to their national short-range and climatological activities, and those national states use ECMWF\'s products for their own national duties, in particular to give early warning of potentially damaging severe weather.
ECMWF\'s core mission is to:
- Produce numerical weather forecasts and monitor planetary systems that influence weather
- Carry out scientific and technical research to improve forecast skill
- Maintain an archive of meteorological data
To deliver this core mission, the Centre provides:
- Twice-daily global numerical weather forecasts
- Air quality analysis
- Atmospheric composition monitoring
- Climate monitoring
- Ocean circulation analysis
- Hydrological prediction
The Centre develops and operates global atmospheric models and data assimilation systems for the dynamics, thermodynamics and composition of the Earth\'s atmosphere and for interacting parts of the Earth-system. It uses numerical weather prediction methods to prepare forecasts and their initial conditions, and it contributes to monitoring the relevant parts of the Earth system.
### Copernicus
The centre currently serves as the Entrusted Entity responsible for delivery of two of the Services of the EU\'s Copernicus Programme. The two services are the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) and the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).
The Centre arranged to move its Copernicus operations away from Reading and into Bonn (Germany) in 2020. The move has been directly attributed to Brexit.
| 517 |
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
| 0 |
10,378 |
# European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
## Work and projects {#work_and_projects}
### Forecasting
Numerical weather prediction (NWP) requires input of meteorological data, collected by satellites and earth observation systems such as automatic and crewed weather stations, aircraft (including commercial flights), ships and weather balloons. Assimilation of this data is used to produce an initial state of a computer model of the atmosphere, from which an atmospheric model is used to forecast the weather. These forecasts are typically:
- medium-range forecasts, predicting the weather up to 15 days ahead
- monthly forecasts, predicting the weather on a weekly basis 30 days ahead
- seasonal forecasts up to 12 months ahead.
Over the past three decades ECMWF\'s wide-ranging programme of research has played a major role in developing such assimilation and modelling systems. This improves the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasting by about a day per decade, so that a seven-day forecast now (2015) is as accurate as a three-day forecast was four decades ago (1975).
### Monthly and seasonal forecasts {#monthly_and_seasonal_forecasts}
ECMWF\'s monthly and seasonal forecasts provide early predictions of events such as heat waves, cold spells and droughts, as well as their impacts on sectors such as agriculture, energy and health. Since ECMWF runs a wave model, there are also predictions of coastal waves and storm surges in European waters which can be used to provide warnings.
### Early warning of severe weather events {#early_warning_of_severe_weather_events}
Forecasts of severe weather events allow appropriate mitigating action to be taken and contingency plans to be put into place by the authorities and the public. The increased time gained by issuing accurate warnings can save lives, for instance by evacuating people from a storm surge area. Authorities and businesses can plan to maintain services around threats such as high winds, floods or snow.
In October 2012 the ECMWF model suggested seven days in advance that Hurricane Sandy was likely to make landfall on the East Coast of the United States. It also predicted the intensity and track of the November 2012 nor\'easter, which impacted the east coast a week after Sandy.
ECMWF\'s Extreme Forecast Index (EFI) was developed as a tool to identify where the EPS (Ensemble Prediction System) forecast distribution differs substantially from that of the model climate`{{clarify|date=January 2016}}`{=mediawiki}. It contains information regarding variability of weather parameters, in location and time and can highlight an abnormality of a weather situation without having to define specific space- and time-dependent thresholds.
### Satellite data {#satellite_data}
ECMWF, through its partnerships with EUMETSAT, ESA, the EU and others, exploits satellite data for operational numerical weather prediction and operational seasonal forecasting with coupled atmosphere--ocean--land models. The increasing amount of satellite data and the development of more sophisticated ways of extracting information from that data have made a major contribution to improving the accuracy and utility of NWP forecasts.
### Reanalysis
ECMWF supports research on climate variability using an approach known as reanalysis. This involves feeding weather observations collected over decades into a NWP system to recreate past atmospheric, sea- and land-surface conditions over specific time periods to obtain a clearer picture of how the climate has changed. Reanalysis provides a four-dimensional picture of the atmosphere and effectively allows monitoring of the variability and change of global climate, thereby contributing also to the understanding and attribution of climate change.
To date, and with support from Europe\'s National Meteorological Services and the European Commission, ECMWF has conducted several major reanalyses of the global atmosphere: the first ECMWF re-analysis (ERA-15) project generated reanalyses from December 1978 to February 1994; the ERA-40 project generated reanalyses from September 1957 to August 2002. The ERA-Interim reanalysis covered the period from 1979 onwards. A reanalysis product (ERA5) with higher spatial resolution (31 km) was released by ECMWF in 2019 as part of the Copernicus Climate Change Service.
### Operational forecast model {#operational_forecast_model}
ECMWF\'s operational forecasts are produced from its \"Integrated Forecast System\" (sometimes informally known in the United States as the \"European model\") which is run every twelve hours and forecasts out to ten days.
It includes both a \"deterministic forecast\" mode and an ensemble. The deterministic forecast is a single model run that is relatively high in resolution as well as in computational expense. The ensemble is relatively low (about half that of the deterministic) in resolution (and in computational expense), so less accurate. But it is run 51 times in parallel, from slightly different initial conditions to give a spread of likelihood over the range of the forecast.
As of 2021, the ECMWF\'s weather model is generally considered to be the most accurate weather forecasting model.
## Member and co-operating states {#member_and_co_operating_states}
ECMWF comprises 23 European countries:
- the eighteen founding states of 1975: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom.
- five states that joined since 2010: Iceland (April 2011), Slovenia (December 2012), Serbia (January 2015), Croatia (January 2016), Estonia (December 2020).
It also has co-operation agreements with other states: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Morocco, Romania and Slovakia
| 849 |
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
| 1 |
10,385 |
# Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
The **Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System** (**Joint STARS**) is a retired United States Air Force (USAF) airborne ground surveillance, battle management and command and control aircraft. It tracked ground vehicles and some aircraft, collected imagery, and relayed tactical pictures to ground and air theater commanders. Until its retirement in 2023 the aircraft was operated by both active duty USAF and Air National Guard units, with specially trained U.S. Army personnel as additional flight crew.
## Development
Joint STARS evolved from separate U.S. Army and Air Force (USAF) programs to develop technology to detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the front line of a battle. In 1982, the programs were merged and the USAF became the lead agent. The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the Tacit Blue experimental aircraft. The prime contract was awarded to Grumman Aerospace Corporation in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems.
In late 2005, Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract for upgrading engines and other systems. Pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS), was contracted to produce and deliver JT8D-219 engines for the E-8s. Their greater efficiency would have allowed the Joint STARS to spend more time on station, take off from a wider range of runways, climb faster, fly higher, all with a much reduced cost per flying hour.
In December 2008, an E-8C test aircraft took its first flight with the new engines. In 2009, the company began engine replacement and additional upgrade efforts. The re-engining funding was halted in 2009 as the Air Force began to consider other options for performing the JSTARS mission.
| 286 |
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
| 0 |
10,385 |
# Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
## Design
The E-8C is an aircraft modified from the Boeing 707-300 series commercial airliner. The E-8 carries specialized radar, communications, operations and control subsystems. The most prominent external feature is the 40 ft (12 m) canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 24 ft (7.3 m) APY-7 active electronically scanned array side looking airborne radar antenna.
The E-8C can respond quickly and effectively to support worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jam-resistant system capable of operating while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures. The E-8C can fly a mission profile for 9 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be substantially increased through in-flight refueling.
### Radar and systems {#radar_and_systems}
The AN/APY-7 radar can operate in wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) modes.
To pick up moving targets, the Doppler radar looks at the Doppler frequency shift of the returned signal. It can look from a long-range, which the military refers to as a high standoff capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side of the aircraft for a 120-degree field of view covering nearly 19,305 square miles (50,000 km^2^) and can simultaneously track `{{citation needed span|600 targets|date=July 2024}}`{=mediawiki} at more than 152 miles (250 km). The GMTI modes cannot pick up objects that are too small, insufficiently dense, or stationary. Data processing allows the APY-7 to differentiate between armored vehicles (tracked tanks) and trucks, allowing targeting personnel to better select the appropriate ordnance for various targets.
The system\'s SAR modes can produce images of stationary objects. Objects with many angles (for example, the interior of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar signature, or specular return. In addition to being able to detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles, the radar has a limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow-moving fixed-wing aircraft.
The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefield information. Data is collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy and friendly ground forces. The information is relayed in near-real time to the US Army\'s common ground stations via the secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link (SCDL) and to other ground C4I nodes beyond line-of-sight via ultra high-frequency satellite communications.
Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and control (O&C) subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intelligence, communications and maintenance functions.
Northrop Grumman has tested the installation of a MS-177 camera on an E-8C to provide real time visual target confirmation.
The Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program (MP-RTIP) radar system was proposed as a more capable replacement of the AN/APY-7. The USAF ended up pursuing cheaper ways to modernize the E-8, though the MP-RTIP receiver technology did see use in the form of JSTARS Radar Modernization (JSRM).
### Battle management {#battle_management}
In missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war, the E-8C can provide targeting data and intelligence for attack aviation, naval surface fire, field artillery and friendly maneuver forces. The information helps air and land commanders to control the battlespace.
The E-8\'s ground-moving radar can tell approximate number of vehicles, location, speed, and direction of travel. It cannot identify exactly what type of vehicle a target is, tell what equipment it has, or discern whether it is friendly, hostile, or a bystander, so commanders often crosscheck the JSTARS data against other sources. In the Army, JSTARS data is analyzed in and disseminated from a Ground Station Module (GSM).
Other improvement programs that have been applied to the E-8C include JSTARS Net Enabled Weapons (JNEW) and Joint Surface Warfare (JSuW); Blue Force Tracker (BFT); and Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) compatibility.
| 649 |
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
| 1 |
10,385 |
# Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
## Operational history {#operational_history}
`{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
The two E-8A development aircraft were deployed in 1991 to participate in Operation Desert Storm under the direction of USAF Colonel Harry H. Heimple, Program Director, even though they were still in development. The joint program accurately tracked mobile Iraqi forces, including tanks and Scud missiles. Crews flew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties, accumulating more than 500 combat hours and a 100% mission effectiveness rate.
These Joint STARS developmental aircraft also participated in Operation Joint Endeavor, a NATO peacekeeping mission, in December 1995. While flying in friendly air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Accords agreements. Crews flew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hours with a 98% mission effectiveness rate.
The 93d Air Control Wing, which activated 29 January 1996, accepted its first aircraft on 11 June 1996, and deployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in October. The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group monitored treaty compliance while NATO rotated troops through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first production E-8C and a pre-production E-8C flew 36 operational sorties and more than 470 flight hours with a 100% effectiveness rate. The wing declared initial operational capability 18 December 1997 after receiving the second production aircraft. Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 flight hours and a 94.5% mission-effectiveness rate in support of the U.S.-lead Kosovo War.
The twelfth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the USAF on 5 November 2001.
On 1 October 2002, the 93d Air Control Wing (93 ACW) was \"blended\" with the 116th Bomb Wing in a ceremony at Robins Air Force Base (AFB), Georgia. The 116 BW was an Air National Guard wing equipped with B-1B Lancer bombers at Robins. As a result of a USAF reorganization of the B-1B force, all B-1Bs were assigned to active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission. The newly created wing was designated 116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW) and the 93 ACW was inactivated the same day. The 116 ACW constituted the first fully blended wing of active duty and Air National Guard airmen. The wing took delivery of the 17th and final E-8C on 23 March 2005.
The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the North Korean winter exercise cycle and for the United Nations enforcing resolutions on Iraq.
In March 2009, a Joint STARS aircraft was damaged beyond economical repair when a test plug was left on a fuel tank vent, subsequently causing the fuel tank to rupture during in-flight refueling. There were no casualties but the aircraft sustained \$25 million in damage.
In September 2009, Loren B. Thompson of the Lexington Institute raised the question of why most of the Joint STARS fleet was sitting idle instead of being used to track insurgents in Afghanistan. Thompson states that the Joint STARS\' radar has an inherent capacity to find what the Army calls \'dismounted\' targets---insurgents walking around or placing roadside bombs. Thompson\'s neutrality has been questioned by some since Lexington Institute has been heavily funded by defense contractors, including Northrop Grumman.
Recent trials of Joint STARS in Afghanistan are destined to develop tactics, techniques and procedures in tracking dismounted, moving groups of Taliban.
In January 2011, Northrop Grumman\'s E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) test bed aircraft completed the second of two deployments to Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California, in support of the U.S. Navy Joint Surface Warfare Joint Capability Technology Demonstration to test its network-enabled weapon architecture. The Joint STARS aircraft executed three Operational Utility Assessment flights and demonstrated its ability to guide anti-ship weapons against surface combatants at a variety of standoff distances in the NEW architecture.
From 2001 to January 2011 the Joint STARS fleet flew more than 63,000 hours in 5,200 combat missions in support of Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and New Dawn.
On 1 October 2011, the \"blended\" wing construct of the 116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW), combining Air National Guard and Regular Air Force personnel in a single unit was discontinued. On this date, the 461st Air Control Wing (461 ACW) was established at Robins AFB as the Air Force\'s sole active duty E-8 Joint STARS wing while the 116 ACW reverted to a traditional Air National Guard wing within the Georgia Air National Guard. Both units share the same E-8 aircraft and will often fly with mixed crews, but now function as separate units.
On 1 October 2019, JSTARS ended its continuous presence in the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) areas of responsibility. The 18--year deployment was the second-longest deployment in U.S. Air Force history. In that time, the crews and aircraft flew 10,938 sorties, and 114,426.6 combat hours.
On 11 February 2022, the first of four JSTARS out of the remaining 16 operational JSTARS was retired as detailed in the Fiscal Year 2022 National Defence Authorisation Act (NDAA). The plane (serial number 92-3289/GA) which was the first to arrive at Robins AFB in 1996 has now been transferred to the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group at Davis--Monthan Air Force Base.
From late 2021 to early 2022, E-8C JSTARS aircraft deployed to Europe during the prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Thirty years after entering service, it was performing the type of mission it had originally been intended to: monitoring Russian military activity in Eastern Europe, which it did while operating over Ukrainian airspace until the start of the invasion in late February 2022.
| 952 |
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
| 2 |
10,385 |
# Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
## Operational history {#operational_history}
### Retirement
The USAF began an analysis of alternatives (AOA) in March 2010 for its next generation GMTI radar aircraft fleet. The study was completed in March 2012 and recommended buying a new business jet-based ISR aircraft, such as a version of the Boeing 737, and the Gulfstream 550. The Air Force said Joint STARS was expected to remain in operation through 2030.
On 23 January 2014, the USAF revealed a plan for the acquisition of a new business jet-class replacement for the E-8C Joint STARS. The program was called Joint STARS Recap and planned for the aircraft to reach initial operating capability (IOC) by 2022. The aircraft would be more efficient, and separate contracts would be awarded for developing the aircraft, airborne sensor, battle management command and control (BMC2) system, and communications subsystem.
On 8 April 2014, the Air Force held an industry day for companies interested in competing for JSTARS Recap; attendees included Boeing, Bombardier Aerospace, and Gulfstream Aerospace. Air Force procurement documents called for a replacement for the Boeing 707-based E-8C as a \"business jet class\" aircraft that is \"significantly smaller and more efficient.\" Indicative specification were for an aircraft with a 10-13 person crew with a 3.96 - radar array and capable of flying at 38,000 ft for eight hours. In August 2015, the Air Force issued contracts to Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman for a one-year pre-engineering and manufacturing development effort to mature and test competing designs ahead of a downselect in late 2017.
During the fiscal 2019 budget rollout briefing it was announced that the Air Force will not move forward with an E-8C replacement aircraft. Funding for the JSTARS recapitalization program was instead be diverted to pay for development of an Advanced Battle Management System.
The E-8C JSTARS began to be retired in February 2022, and flew its last operational sortie on 21 September 2023. Rather than procure a replacement aircraft, the USAF intends to use a network of satellites, aircraft sensors and ground radars as a cheaper and more resilient approach to collecting similar targeting and tracking data. The JSTARS performed its last flight on 15 November 2023. The aircraft conducted some 14,000 operational sorties, flying more than 141,000 hours over 32 years of service.
| 384 |
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
| 3 |
10,385 |
# Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
## Variants
E-8A
: Original platform configuration
TE-8A
: Single aircraft with mission equipment removed, used for flight crew training.
YE-8B
: Single aircraft, was to be a U.S. Navy Boeing E-6 Mercury but transferred to the U.S. Air Force as a development aircraft before it was decided to convert second-hand Boeing 707s (one from a Canadian Boeing CC-137) for the JSTARS role.
E-8C
: Production Joint STARS platform configuration, converted from second-hand Boeing 707s (1 from a CC-137).
## Operators
`{{USA}}`{=mediawiki}
- United States Air Force 1991--2023
- 93d Air Control Wing - Robins Air Force Base, Georgia 1996--2002
- 12th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
- 16th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
- 461st Air Control Wing - Robins Air Force Base, Georgia 2002--2023
- 12th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
- 16th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
- Air National Guard - 2006--2023
- 116th Air Control Wing - Robins Air Force Base, Georgia
- 128th Airborne Command and Control Squadron
## Aircraft on display {#aircraft_on_display}
- E-8C 00-2000 is preserved at the Museum of Aviation at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It was transported from the base to the museum\'s facilities in July 2023.
- TE-8A 86-0416 was transferred to the Sowela Technical Community College in Lake Charles, Louisiana on 19 September 2023. It will be used as a ground aircraft maintenance training tool as part of the college\'s Aviation Maintenance Technology program. This aircraft was one of the original two pre-production E-8A which took part in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and also saw action during Operation Joint Endeavor in 1995. Afterward, it was converted into a TE-8A training aircraft and used to qualify E-8C pilots, navigators, and flight engineers.
- E-8C 02-9111, the last JSTARS aircraft in service, was transferred to Kelly Field, San Antonio, Texas, on 15 November 2023, where it serves as a ground training aircraft in the 37th Training Wing.
## Accidents
One E-8C was damaged beyond economical repair during an operational sortie.
- On 13 March 2009, E-8C tail 93-0597, while assigned to the USAF 379th Air Expeditionary Wing, experienced a near catastrophic fuel tank over-pressurization during aerial refueling. While refueling from a Boeing KC-135T Stratotanker a test plug left in the fuel vent system caused overpressure resulting in severe internal damage to the number two fuel tank and surrounding wing structure. The JSTARS crew were able to make a successful emergency landing at Al Udeid Air Base, and the aircraft was written off
| 420 |
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
| 4 |
10,388 |
# Eric Cheney
**Eric Cheney** (5 January 1924 -- 30 December 2001) was an English motorcycle racer, designer and independent constructor. He was known as one of the best motorcycle frame designers of his era, concentrating mainly in the off-road competition aftermarket.
## Early life {#early_life}
Cheney attended a school in Winchester based on Lancasterian principles before joining the Royal Navy at the age of 18, where he served on wartime Arctic convoys and in motor torpedo boats and gained experience of engineering and working on high performance engines. Cheney also worked on the development of remote controlled submarines for the Royal Navy.
## Career
After World War II, Cheney joined the motorcycle dealers Archers of Aldershot as a mechanic. Cheney began racing motocross and became one Britain\'s best riders, along with his travelling companion Les Archer, who went on to become European champion. He had ten successful years on the Continental circuit but a prolonged illness due to an infection contracted while racing in Algeria ended his riding career. He moved into bike preparation and designs for motorcycle chassis and suspension systems.
Cheney had no formal training as a motorcycle designer yet was able to create original and high-performance motorcycle chassis designs working in a simple workshop that was essentially a domestic garage. His approach has been described as \"like a medieval engineer\" as in an age of computer-aided design and significant resources for research and development teams, he worked entirely by intuition. Eric relied on his long personal experience of international off-road competition riding and would prepare his initial designs for a new motorcycle frame in chalk on the wall of his workshop. Experimenting with different lines until he was satisfied, Cheney would then form the steel tubing using his chalk drawings as a guide. Only when he had built a working prototype motorcycle would he start work on a final jig for mass production. He was once quoted as saying \"I know when it\'s right and it screams at me when it\'s wrong.\"
In the late 1960s, the British motorcycle industry was unable to support a national team to compete in the International Six Days Trial so, Cheney hand built a limited number of ISDT Cheney-Triumphs using his own design of twin down-tube frame with a specially tuned Triumph 5TA engine. Fitted with tapered conical hubs, special motocross forks and large alloy fuel tanks, a Cheney Triumph was first used in the 1968 British Trophy Team. In 1970 and 1971 three 504cc Cheney Triumphs were used by the British team in the ISDT, in which Cheney won a manufacturer\'s prize. Replicas were built, but production was short-lived due to a shortage of engines.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|1973 Cheney 500 cc BSA B50 Victor Cheney\'s most noted successes were in the Grand Prix road racing championships, with Phil Read using his chassis in tandem with a Yamaha engine to win the 1971 250cc world championship. His designs were the last British ones to win a Grand Prix. He never worked for any of the major manufacturers but maintained a productive relationship with BSA in its heyday. After the demise of BSA in 1972, Cheney joined with former BSA factory rider John Banks to develop and campaign a highly successful BSA powered motocross bike.
Some of Cheney\'s motorcycle designs are now famous in their own right, such as the competition BSA Gold Stars of Jerry Scott and Keith Hickman and the John Banks replica which used a BSA B50 engine specially tuned by Cheney. He also built some racing frames for Suzuki Grand Prix motorcycles in 1968 and, it has been suggested that Suzuki engineers incorporated features of Cheney\'s designs, such as magnesium hubs and lower fork legs into production road going motorcycles. Cheney\'s company was originally known as Eric Cheney Designs, then changed to Inter-Moto, now known as Cheney Racing.
## Steve McQueen {#steve_mcqueen}
American actor Steve McQueen, an experienced off-road rider who represented the United States in the ISDT bought a number of Cheney\'s motorcycles at full price because he considered them better than other makes
| 676 |
Eric Cheney
| 0 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
L. L. Zamenhof developed Esperanto in the 1870s and \'80s. *Unua Libro*, the first print discussion of the language, appeared in 1887. The number of Esperanto speakers have increased gradually since then, without much support from governments and international organizations. Its use has, in some instances, been outlawed or otherwise suppressed.
## Standardized Yiddish {#standardized_yiddish}
Around 1880, while in Moscow and approximately simultaneously with working on Esperanto, Zamenhof made an aborted attempt to standardize Yiddish, based on his native Bialystok (Northeastern) dialect, as a unifying language for the Jews of the Russian Empire. He even used a Latin alphabet, with the letters *ć, h́, ś, ź* (the same as in early drafts of Esperanto, later *ĉ, ĥ, ŝ, ĵ*) and *ě* for schwa. However, he concluded there was no future for such a project, and abandoned it, dedicating himself to Esperanto as a unifying language for all humankind. Paul Wexler proposed that Esperanto was not an arbitrary pastiche of major European languages but a Latinate relexification of Yiddish, a native language of its founder. This model is generally unsupported by mainstream linguists.
## Development of the language before publication {#development_of_the_language_before_publication}
Zamenhof would later say that he had dreamed of a world language since he was a child. At first he considered a revival of Latin, but after learning it in school he decided it was too complicated to be a common means of international communication. When he learned English, he realised that verb conjugations were unnecessary, and that grammatical systems could be much simpler than he had expected. He still had the problem of memorising a large vocabulary, until he noticed two Russian signs labelled *Швейцарская* (*švejtsarskaja,* a porter\'s lodge -- from *швейцар* *švejtsar,* a porter) and *Кондитерская* (*konditerskaja,* a confectioner\'s shop -- from *кондитер* *konditer,* a confectioner). He then realised that a judicious use of affixes could greatly decrease the number of root words needed for communication. He chose to take his vocabulary from Romance and Germanic, the languages that were most widely taught in schools around the world and would therefore be recognisable to the largest number of people.
Zamenhof taught an early version of the language to his high-school classmates. Then, for several years, he worked on translations and poetry to refine his creation. In 1895 he wrote, \"I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that it was already completely ready.\" When he was ready to publish, the Czarist censors would not allow it. Stymied, he spent his time in translating works such as the Bible and Shakespeare. This enforced delay led to continued improvement. In July 1887 he published his *Unua Libro* (*First Book*), a basic introduction to the language. This was essentially the language spoken today.
| 467 |
History of Esperanto
| 0 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
## *Unua Libro* to Declaration of Boulogne (1887--1905) {#unua_libro_to_declaration_of_boulogne_18871905}
*Unua Libro* was published in 1887. At first the movement grew most in the Russian empire and eastern Europe, but soon spread to western Europe and beyond: to Argentina in 1889; to Canada in 1901; to Algeria, Chile, Japan, Mexico, and Peru in 1903; to Tunisia in 1904; and to Australia, the United States, Guinea, Indochina, New Zealand, Tonkin, and Uruguay in 1905.
In its first years Esperanto was used mainly in publications by Zamenhof and early adopters like Antoni Grabowski, in extensive correspondence (mostly now lost), in the magazine *La Esperantisto*, published from 1889 to 1895 and only occasionally in personal encounters.
In 1894, under pressure from Wilhelm Trompeter, the publisher of the magazine *La Esperantisto*, and some other leading users, Zamenhof reluctantly put forward a radical reform to be voted on by readers. He proposed the reduction of the alphabet to 22 letters (by eliminating the accented letters and most of their sounds), the change of the plural to *-i*, the use of a positional accusative instead of the ending *-n*, the removal of the distinction between adjectives and adverbs, the reduction of the number of participles from six to two, and the replacement of the table of correlatives with more Latinate words or phrases. These reforms were overwhelmingly rejected, but some were picked up in subsequent reforms (such as Ido) and criticisms of the language. In the following decade Esperanto spread into western Europe, especially France. By 1905 there were already 27 magazines being published (Auld 1988).
A small international conference was held in 1904, leading to the first world congress in August 1905 in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. There were 688 Esperanto speakers present from 20 nationalities. At this congress, Zamenhof officially resigned his leadership of the Esperanto movement, as he did not want personal prejudice against himself (or anti-Semitism) to hinder the progress of the language. He proposed a declaration on founding principles of the Esperanto movement, which the attendees of the congress endorsed.
| 340 |
History of Esperanto
| 1 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
## Declaration of Boulogne to present (1905--present) {#declaration_of_boulogne_to_present_1905present}
The World Esperanto Congress has been held every year since 1905, except during the two world wars and the COVID-19 pandemic.
The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language. In 1908, it was eventually accepted alongside Dutch, German, and French. There was also a large Esperanto group led by Anna Tuschinski in the Free City of Danzig.
In the early 1920s, a great opportunity seemed to arise for Esperanto when the Iranian delegation to the League of Nations proposed that it be adopted for use in international relations, following a report by Nitobe Inazō, an official delegate of League of Nations during the 13th World Congress of Esperanto in Prague. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux, who employed France\'s Council veto privilege to squash all League attempts at the recognition of Esperanto, starting on the first vote on 18 December 1920 and continuing through the next three years. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. However, two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. The French retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in French schools and universities. The French Ministry of Instruction said that acceptance of Esperanto would mean that \"French and English would perish and that the literary standard of the world would be debased\". Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement.
In 1941, the Soviet Union started performing mass arrests, deportations, and killings of many Esperantists and their relatives for fear of an anti-nationalistic movement, but it was interrupted by the Nazi invasion.
Hitler wrote in *Mein Kampf* that Esperanto was created as a universal language to unite the Jewish diaspora.
The creation of a Jew-free National German Esperanto League was not enough to placate the Nazis. The teaching of Esperanto was not allowed in German prisoner-of-war camps during World War II. Esperantists sometimes were able to get around the ban by convincing guards that they were teaching Italian, the language of Germany\'s closest ally.
In the early years of the Soviet Union, Esperanto was given a measure of government support, and an officially recognized Soviet Esperanto Association came into being. However, in 1937, Stalin reversed this policy and the use of Esperanto was effectively banned until 1956. While Esperanto itself was not enough cause for execution, its use was extended among Jews or trade unionists and encouraged contacts with foreigners.
Fascist Italy, on the other hand, made some efforts of promoting tourism in Italy through Esperanto leaflets and appreciated the similarities of Italian and Esperanto.
Portugal\'s right-wing governments cracked down on the language from 1936 until they were deposed in the Carnation Revolution of 1974. After the Spanish Civil War, Francoist Spain cracked down on the Anarchists and Catalan nationalists among whom the speaking of Esperanto had been quite widespread; but in the 1950s, the Esperanto movement was tolerated again, with Francisco Franco accepting the honorary patronage of the Madrid World Esperanto Congress.
The Cold War, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, put a damper on the Esperanto movement as well, as there were fears on both sides that Esperanto could be used for enemy propaganda. However, the language experienced something of a renaissance in the 1970s and spread to new parts of the world, such as its veritable explosion in popularity in Iran in 1975. By 1991 there were enough African Esperantists to warrant a pan-African congress. The language continues to spread, although it is not officially recognised by any country, and is part of the state educational curriculum of only a few.
In 2022 an Esperanto club was founded on the Amundsen--Scott South Pole Station making Antarctica the last continent with organized Esperantists.
| 673 |
History of Esperanto
| 2 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
## Evolution of the language {#evolution_of_the_language}
The Declaration of Boulogne(1905) limited changes to Esperanto. That declaration stated, among other things, that the basis of the language should remain the *italics=yes* (\"Foundation of Esperanto\", a group of early works by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it. The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style.
Many Esperantists believe this declaration stabilising the language is a major reason why the Esperanto speaker community grew beyond the levels attained by other constructed languages and has developed a flourishing culture. Other constructed languages have been hindered from developing a stable speaking community by continual tinkering. Also, many developers of constructed languages have been possessive of their creation and have worked to prevent others from contributing to the language. One such ultimately disastrous case was Schleyer\'s Volapük. In contrast, Zamenhof declared that \"Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists\", and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the early development of the language.
The grammatical description in the earliest books was somewhat vague, so a consensus on usage (influenced by Zamenhof\'s answers to some questions) developed over time within boundaries set by the initial outline (Auld 1988). Even before the Declaration of Boulogne, the language was remarkably stable; only one set of lexical changes were made in the first year after publication, namely changing \"when\", \"then\", \"never\", \"sometimes\", \"always\" from *kian*, *tian*, *nenian*, *ian*, *ĉian* to *kiam*, *tiam*, *neniam* etc., to avoid confusion with the accusative forms of *kia* \"what sort of\", *tia* \"that sort of\", etc. Thus Esperanto achieved a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages enjoy by virtue of their native speakers and established bodies of literature. One could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot. Changes could and did occur in the language, but only by acquiring widespread popular support; there was no central authority making arbitrary changes, as happened with Volapük and some other languages.
Modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the *Fundamento*, though the differences are largely semantic (involving changed meaning of words) rather than grammatical or phonological. The translation given for \"I like this one\", in the sample phrases in the main Esperanto article, offers a significant example. According to the *Fundamento*, *Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun* would in fact have meant \"I esteem this one\". The traditional usage is *Tiu ĉi plaĉas al mi* (literally, \"this one is pleasing to me\"), which reflects the phrasing of most European languages (French *celui-ci me plaît*, Spanish *éste me gusta*, Russian *это мне нравится* \[eto mnye nravitsya\], German *Das gefällt mir*, Italian *mi piace*). However, the original *Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi* continues to be commonly used.
For later changes to the language, see Modern evolution of Esperanto.
| 493 |
History of Esperanto
| 3 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
## Dialects, reform projects and derived languages {#dialects_reform_projects_and_derived_languages}
Esperanto has not fragmented into regional dialects through natural language use. This may be because it is the language of daily communication for only a small minority of its speakers. However at least three other factors work against dialects, namely the centripetal force of the Fundamento, the unifying influence of the Plena Vortaro and its successors, which exemplified usage from the works of Zamenhof and leading writers, and the transnational ambitions of the speech community itself. Slang and jargon have developed to some extent, but such features interfere with universal communication -- the whole point of Esperanto -- and so have generally been avoided.
However, in the early twentieth century numerous reform projects were proposed. Almost all of these Esperantidos were stillborn, but the very first, Ido (\"offspring\"), had significant success for several years. Ido was proposed by the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language in Paris in October 1907. Its main reforms were in bringing the alphabet, semantics, and some grammatical features into closer alignment with the Romance languages, as well as removal of adjectival agreement and the accusative case except when necessary. At first, a number of leading Esperantists put their support behind the Ido project, but the movement stagnated and declined, first with the accidental death of one of its main proponents and later as people proposed further changes, and the number of current speakers is estimated at between 250 and 5,000. However, Ido has proven to be a rich source of Esperanto vocabulary.
Some more focused reform projects, affecting only a particular feature of the language, have gained a few adherents. One of these is riism, which modifies the language to incorporate non-sexist language and gender-neutral pronouns. However, most of these projects are specific to individual nationalities (riism from English speakers, for example), and the only changes that have gained acceptance in the Esperanto community have been the minor and gradual bottom-up reforms discussed in the last section.
Esperanto is credited with influencing or inspiring several later competing language projects, such as Occidental (1922) and Novial (1928). These always lagged far behind Esperanto in their popularity. By contrast, Interlingua (1951) has greatly surpassed Ido in terms of popularity. It shows little or no Esperanto influence, however.
| 385 |
History of Esperanto
| 4 |
10,400 |
# History of Esperanto
## Timeline of Esperanto {#timeline_of_esperanto}
- 1859: L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, is born in Białystok, Russia (now Poland).
- 1873: The Zamenhof family moves to Warsaw.
- 1878: Zamenhof celebrates the completion of his universal language project, *Lingwe Uniwersala*, with high school friends.
- 1879: Zamenhof attends medical school in Moscow. His father burns his language project while he\'s away. Meanwhile Schleyer publishes a sketch of Volapük, the first constructed international auxiliary language to acquire a number of speakers. Many Volapük clubs will later switch to Esperanto.
- 1881: Zamenhof returns to Warsaw to continue medical school, and starts to recreate his project.
- 1887: Zamenhof marries. In July, with his wife\'s financial help, he publishes *Unua Libro*, the first publication introducing Esperanto, in Russian. Polish, German, and French translations are published later that year.
- 1888: Leo Tolstoy becomes an early supporter. Zamenhof publishes *Dua Libro*, as well as the first English-language edition of *Unua Libro*, which proved to be filled with errors.
- 1889: The second English-language edition of *Unua Libro* is published in January, translated by Richard H. Geoghegan, and becomes the standard English translation. Henry Phillips Jr., of the American Philosophical Society, also translates *Unua Libro* into English. The first volume of *La Esperantisto* is published in September. The language begins to be called *Esperanto*.
- 1894: Zamenhof, reacting to pressure, puts a radical reform to a vote, but it is overwhelmingly rejected. That version of Esperanto is often referred to as Esperanto 1894.
- 1895: *La Esperantisto* ceases publication. *Lingvo Internacia* begins publication in December.
- 1901: Zamenhof publishes his ideas on a universal religion, based on the philosophy of Hillel the Elder.
- 1905: *Fundamento de Esperanto* is published in the spring. The first World Esperanto Congress is held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, with 688 participants and conducted entirely in Esperanto. The Declaration of Boulogne is drafted and ratified at the congress.
- 1906: The second World Esperanto Congress is held in Geneva, Switzerland, drawing 1200 participants. *La Revuo* begins publication.
- 1907: Twelve members of the British parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize. The *Ĉekbanko Esperantista* (Esperantist Checking Bank) is founded in London, using the *spesmilo*, an auxiliary Esperanto currency based on the gold standard. A committee organised by Louis Couturat in Paris proposes the Ido reform project, which provides significant competition for Esperanto until the First World War.
- 1908: The Universal Esperanto Association is founded by Hector Hodler, a 19-year-old Swiss Esperantist.
- 1909: The International Association of Esperantist Railway Workers is founded in Barcelona.
- 1910s: Esperanto is taught in state schools in the Republic of China, Samos, and Macedonia.
- 1910: 42 members of the French parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize.
- 1914: *Lingvo Internacia* and *La Revuo* cease publication.
- 1917: Zamenhof dies during World War I.
- 1920: The first Esperanto magazine for the blind, *Aŭroro*, begins publishing in then-Czechoslovakia. It\'s still in print today.
- 1921: The French Academy of the Sciences recommends using Esperanto for international scientific communication.
- 1922: Esperanto is banned from French schools.
- 1924: The League of Nations recommends that member states implement Esperanto as an auxiliary language.
- 1920s: Offices of the Brazilian Ministry of Education use Esperanto for their international correspondence. Lu Xun, the founder of modern Chinese literature, becomes a supporter of Esperanto. Montagu C. Butler is the first to raise Esperanto-speaking children.
- 1933/34: Reorganisation of the international (neutral) Esperanto movement, under the name UEA.
- 1934: Encyclopedia of Esperanto first published in Budapest.
- 1935: Kalocsay and Waringhien publish the influential *Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto* (Complete Grammar of Esperanto). Esperanto and other planned languages *de facto* prohibited in Nazi Germany in May.
- 1936: All Esperanto organisations in Nazi Germany prohibited in June through the prohibition of the UEA and SAT in June by Heinrich Himmler.
- 1937: Leaders of the Esperanto organisation in the Soviet Union arrested; Esperanto activities made impossible.
- 1938: The World Esperanto Youth Organisation TEJO is founded.
- 1939--1945: In World War II many countries are occupied by Germany and the Soviet Union, where Esperanto organisations often were prohibited or Esperanto activities were limited in other ways.
- 1948: The railway workers\' association is refounded as IFEF, the *Internacia Fervojista Esperanto-Federacio* (International Railway Workers\' Esperanto Federation) to foster the use of Esperanto in the administration of the railroads of the world (so far, of Eurasia).
- 1954: UNESCO establishes consultative relations with the Universal Esperanto Association.
- 1966: The precursor to *Pasporta Servo* is launched in Argentina. *Pasporta Servo* is a global network of Esperanto speakers who host Esperantists traveling through their countries.
- 1967: István Nemere founds the *Renkontiĝo de Esperanto-Familioj*, the first organisation for Esperanto-speaking families.
- 1975: The Esperanto movement spreads to Iran, with three thousand learning the language in Tehran.
- 1980: The *Internacia Junulara Kongreso* (International Youth Congress) in Rauma, Finland ratify the Manifesto of Rauma, articulating the view of many in the Esperanto movement that Esperanto is a goal in itself.
- 1985: UNESCO encourages UN member states to add Esperanto to their school curricula.
- 1987: 6000 Esperantists attend the 72nd World Esperanto Congress in Warsaw, marking Esperanto\'s centennial.
- 1991: The first pan-African Esperanto Conference is held in Lomé, Togo.
- 1992: PEN International accepts an Esperanto section.
- 1999: The Esperanto poet William Auld is nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.
- 2001: The Vikipedio project (Esperanto Wikipedia) is launched, resulting in the first general encyclopedia written in a constructed language. It is now one of the most popular websites in Esperanto.
- 2004: The Europe--Democracy--Esperanto party (E°D°E°) contests the European Parliament elections in France, on a platform of making Esperanto the second language of all EU member states, taking 0.15% of the vote.
- 2007: Israel issues a stamp to commemorate 120 years of Esperanto (1887--2007). An image of Zamenhof is designed in a text describing his life, reproduced from the Wikipedia article on Esperanto. The corner of the tab shows the flag of the Esperanto movement.
- 2009: The Senate of Brazil passed a bill which would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in its state schools. As of 2010 the bill has not yet been passed by the Chamber of Deputies.
- 2015: The 100th World Esperanto Congress is held in Lille, France. Duolingo launches its Esperanto program.
- 2017: Amikumu is launched, an app connecting Esperantists with other local Esperantists throughout the world
| 1,088 |
History of Esperanto
| 5 |
10,409 |
# Eve Arden
**Eve Arden** (born **Eunice Mary Quedens**, April 30, 1908 -- November 12, 1990) was an American film, radio, stage and television actress. She performed in leading and supporting roles for nearly six decades.
Beginning her film career in 1929 and on Broadway in the early 1930s, Arden\'s first major role was in the RKO Radio Pictures drama *Stage Door* (1937) opposite Katharine Hepburn, followed by roles in the comedies *Having Wonderful Time* (1938) and *At the Circus* (1939). She received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her role in *Mildred Pierce* (1945).
Somewhat surprisingly for an actress of Arden\'s refinement and wit, she appeared to good effect in a number of films noir, some exceptionally high-profile, including *Mildred Pierce*, *The Unfaithful* (1947), *The Arnelo Affair* (1947), *Whiplash* (1948), and *Anatomy of a Murder* (1959).
Later in her career, Arden moved to television, playing a sardonic but engaging high school teacher in *Our Miss Brooks*, for which she won the first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. She also played the maternity ward nurse in *Bewitched* and the school principal in the film musicals *Grease* (1978) and *Grease 2* (1982).
## Early life {#early_life}
Eve Arden was born Eunice Mary Quedens on April 30, 1908, in Mill Valley, California, to Charles Peter Quedens, the son of Charles Henry Augustus Quedens and Eunice Meta Dierks, and Lucille Frank, the daughter of Bernard Frank and Louisa Mertens. Lucille, a milliner, divorced Charles over his gambling and went into business for herself.
Although not Catholic, young Eunice was sent to a Dominican convent school in San Rafael, California. She then attended Tamalpais High School, a public high school in Mill Valley, until age 16. After leaving school, she joined the stock theater company of Henry \"Terry\" Duffy.
| 304 |
Eve Arden
| 0 |
10,409 |
# Eve Arden
## Career
### Film
She made her film debut under her real name in the backstage musical *Song of Love* (1929), as a wisecracking, homewrecking showgirl who becomes a rival to the film\'s star, singer Belle Baker. The film was one of Columbia Pictures\' earliest successes. In 1933, she relocated to New York City, where she had supporting parts in several Broadway stage productions. In 1934, she was cast in the *Ziegfeld Follies* revue, the first role where she was credited as Eve Arden. When she was told to adopt a stage name for the show, Arden looked at her cosmetics and \"stole my first name from Evening in Paris, and the second from Elizabeth Arden\". Between 1934 and 1941, she appeared in Broadway productions of *Parade*, *Very Warm for May*, *Two for the Show*, and *Let\'s Face It!*.
Arden\'s film career began in earnest in 1937 when she signed a contract with RKO Radio Pictures and appeared in the films *Oh Doctor* and *Stage Door*. Her *Stage Door* portrayal of a fast-talking, witty supporting character gained Arden considerable notice and was a template for many of Arden\'s future roles.
In 1938, she played a supporting part in the comedy *Having Wonderful Time*, starring Ginger Rogers and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. This was followed by roles in the crime film *The Forgotten Woman* (1939), and the Marx Brothers comedy *At the Circus* (1939), a role that required her to perform acrobatics.
In 1940, she appeared in support of Clark Gable and Hedy Lamarr in *Comrade X*, followed by support in the drama *Manpower* (1941) opposite Marlene Dietrich, Edward G. Robinson and George Raft. She also had a supporting part in the Red Skelton comedy *Whistling in the Dark* (1941) and the romantic comedy *Obliging Young Lady* (1942).
Her many memorable screen roles include a supporting role as Joan Crawford\'s wise-cracking friend in *Mildred Pierce* (1945), for which she received an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actress; as a catty cousin turned peacemaker in The Unfaithful (1947); and as James Stewart\'s wistful but wry secretary in Otto Preminger\'s mystery *Anatomy of a Murder* (1959) (which also featured her husband, Brooks West). In 1946, exhibitors voted her the sixth-most promising \"star of tomorrow\".
Arden became familiar to a new generation of filmgoers when she played Principal McGee in *Grease* (1978) and *Grease 2 (1982)*. Arden was known for her deadpan comedic delivery.
| 403 |
Eve Arden
| 1 |
10,409 |
# Eve Arden
## Career
### Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
Arden\'s ability with witty scripts made her a natural talent for radio. She was a regular on Danny Kaye\'s short-lived but memorably zany comedy-variety show in 1946, which also featured swing bandleader Harry James and gravel-voiced character actor-comedian Lionel Stander.
The additional exposure of Arden\'s comic talent on Kaye\'s show led to her best-known role, that of Madison High School English teacher Connie Brooks in *Our Miss Brooks*. Arden portrayed the character on radio from 1948 to 1957, in a television version of the program from 1952 to 1956, and in a 1956 feature film. Her character clashed with the school\'s principal, Osgood Conklin (played by Gale Gordon) and nursed an unrequited crush on fellow teacher Philip Boynton (played originally by future film star Jeff Chandler; and later on radio and TV by Robert Rockwell). Except for Chandler, the entire radio cast of Arden, Gordon, Richard Crenna (Walter Denton), Robert Rockwell (Mr. Philip Boynton), Gloria McMillan (Harriet Conklin) and Jane Morgan (landlady Margaret Davis) played the same roles on TV.
Arden\'s portrayal of Miss Brooks was so popular that she was made an honorary member of the National Education Association, received a 1952 award from the Teachers College of Connecticut\'s Alumni Association \"for humanizing the American teacher\", and even received teaching job offers. Her well-established wisecracking, deadpan character ultimately became her public persona as a comedienne. She won a listeners\' poll by *Radio Mirror* magazine as the top-ranking comedienne of 1948--1949, receiving her award at the end of an *Our Miss Brooks* broadcast that March. \"I\'m certainly going to try in the coming months to merit the honor you\'ve bestowed upon me, because I understand that if I win this (award) two years in a row, I get to keep Mr. Boynton,\" she joked. She was also a hit with the critics: A winter 1949 poll of newspaper and magazine radio editors by *Motion Picture Daily* named her the year\'s best radio comedienne.
Arden had a very brief guest appearance in a 1955 *I Love Lucy* episode titled \"L.A. at Last\", where she played herself. While awaiting their food at the Brown Derby, Lucy Ricardo (Lucille Ball) and Ethel Mertz (Vivian Vance) argue over whether a certain portrait on a nearby wall is Shelley Winters or Judy Holliday. Lucy urges Ethel to ask a lady occupying the next booth, who turns and replies, \"Neither. That\'s Eve Arden.\" As Ethel realizes she just spoke to Arden herself, Arden passes Lucy and Ethel\'s table to leave the restaurant while the pair gawk.
Desilu Productions, jointly owned by Desi Arnaz and Ball during their marriage, was the production company for the *Our Miss Brooks* television show, filmed during the same years as *I Love Lucy*. Ball and Arden met when they costarred in the film *Stage Door* in 1937. Ball, according to numerous radio historians, suggested Arden for *Our Miss Brooks* after Shirley Booth auditioned for but failed to land the role and Ball---committed at the time to *My Favorite Husband*---could not.
Arden tried another series for CBS in the fall of 1957, *The Eve Arden Show*, but it was canceled in spring of 1958 after 26 episodes. In 1966, she played a pediatric nurse in an episode of *Bewitched* and a scientist in an episode of *The Man from U.N.C.L.E.*. She later costarred with Kaye Ballard as her neighbor and in-law, Eve Hubbard, in the 1967--1969 NBC situation comedy *The Mothers-in-Law*, produced by Arnaz after the dissolution of Desilu Productions. In her later career, Arden made appearances on such television shows as *Maude*, *Alice*, *Hart to Hart*, and *Falcon Crest*. In 1985, she appeared as the wicked stepmother in the *Faerie Tale Theatre* production of *Cinderella*.
### Stage
Arden was one of many actresses to take on the title roles in *Hello, Dolly!* and *Auntie Mame* in the 1960s; in 1967, she won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theater. In 1983, Arden was cast as the leading lady in what was to be her Broadway comeback, *Moose Murders*, but she withdrew and was replaced with the much younger Holland Taylor after one preview performance, citing \"artistic differences\". The show went on to open and close on the same night, becoming known a legendary flop in Broadway history.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Arden was married to Edward Grinnell \"Ned\" Bergen 1939--47 and reportedly had a long relationship with Danny Kaye through the 1940s (likely starting from their Broadway work on *Let\'s Face It!* in 1941). Arden was married to actor Brooks West from 1952 until his death in 1984 from a brain hemorrhage at age 67. She adopted her first child with Bergen and a second child as a single mother after her divorce from him; she adopted her third child with West and gave birth to her youngest (with West) at age 46 in 1954. All four children survived their parents.
| 823 |
Eve Arden
| 2 |
10,409 |
# Eve Arden
## Death
On November 12, 1990, Arden died at home at age 82. According to her death certificate, she died of cardiac arrest and arteriosclerotic heart disease. She is buried in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, Westwood, Los Angeles, California.
## Legacy
Arden published an autobiography, *The Three Phases of Eve*, in 1985. In addition to her Academy Award nomination, Arden has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: Radio and Television (see List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for addresses). She was inducted into the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1995.
## Filmography
### Film {#film_1}
Year Title Role Notes
------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
1929 *Song of Love* Maisie LeRoy
1933 *Dancing Lady* Marcia Uncredited
1937 *Oh, Doctor* Shirley Truman
1937 *Stage Door* Eve
1938 *Cocoanut Grove* Sophie De Lemma
1938 *Having Wonderful Time* Henrietta
1938 *Letter of Introduction* Cora Phelps
1939 *Women in the Wind* Kit Campbell
1939 *Big Town Czar* Susan Warren
1939 *The Forgotten Woman* Carrie Ashburn
1939 *Eternally Yours* Gloria
1939 *At the Circus* Peerless Pauline
1939 *`{{sortname|A|Child Is Born|A Child Is Born (film)}}`{=mediawiki}* Miss Pinty
1939 *Slightly Honorable* Miss Ater
1940 *She Couldn\'t Say No* Alice Hinsdale
1940 *Comrade X* Jane Wilson
1940 *No, No, Nanette* Kitty
1941 *That Uncertain Feeling* Sally Aikens
1941 *Ziegfeld Girl* Patsy Dixon
1941 *She Knew All the Answers* Sally Long
1941 *San Antonio Rose* Gabby Trent
1941 *Whistling in the Dark* \'Buzz\' Baker
1941 *Manpower* Dolly
1941 *Last of the Duanes* Kate
1941 *Sing for Your Supper* Barbara Stevens
1941 *Bedtime Story* Virginia Cole
1942 *Obliging Young Lady* \'Space\' O\'Shea - AKA Suwanee Rivers
1943 *Hit Parade of 1943* Belinda Wright Alternative title: *Change of Heart*
1943 *Let\'s Face It* Maggie Watson
1944 *Cover Girl* Cornelia Jackson
1944 *`{{sortname|The|Doughgirls}}`{=mediawiki}* Sgt. Natalia Moskoroff
1945 *Pan-Americana* Helen \'Hoppy\' Hopkins
1945 *Earl Carroll Vanities* \'Tex\' Donnelly
1945 *Patrick the Great* Jean Matthews
1945 *Mildred Pierce* Ida Corwin
1946 *My Reputation* Ginna Abbott
1946 *`{{sortname|The|Kid from Brooklyn}}`{=mediawiki}* Ann Westley
1946 *Night and Day* Gabrielle
1947 *`{{sortname|The|Unfaithful|The Unfaithful (1947 film)}}`{=mediawiki}* Paula
1947 *`{{sortname|The|Arnelo Affair}}`{=mediawiki}* Vivian Delwyn
1947 *Song of Scheherazade* Madame de Talavera
1947 *`{{sortname|The|Voice of the Turtle|The Voice of the Turtle (film)}}`{=mediawiki}* Olive Lashbrooke
1948 *One Touch of Venus* Molly Stewart
1948 *Whiplash* Chris Sherwood
1949 *My Dream Is Yours* Vivian Martin
1949 *`{{sortname|The|Lady Takes a Sailor}}`{=mediawiki}* Susan Wayne
1950 *Paid in Full* Tommy Thompson
1950 *Curtain Call at Cactus Creek* Lily Martin
1950 *Tea for Two* Pauline Hastings
1950 *Three Husbands* Lucille McCabe
1951 *Goodbye, My Fancy* Miss \'Woody\' Woods
1951 *Two Tickets to Broadway* Showgirl
1952 *We\'re Not Married!* Katie Woodruff
1953 *`{{sortname|The|Lady Wants Mink}}`{=mediawiki}* Gladys Jones
1956 *Our Miss Brooks* Connie Brooks
1959 *Anatomy of a Murder* Maida Rutledge
1960 *`{{sortname|The|Dark at the Top of the Stairs|The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (film)}}`{=mediawiki}* Lottie Lacey
1965 *Sergeant Deadhead* Lt. Charlotte Kinsey
1975 *`{{sortname|The|Strongest Man in the World}}`{=mediawiki}* Harriet Crumply
1978 *Grease* Principal McGee
1981 *Under the Rainbow* The Duchess
1982 *Pandemonium* Warden June
1982 *Grease 2* Principal McGee (final film appearance)
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------
1951 *Starlight Theatre* Julie Todd \"Julie\"
1952--1956 *Our Miss Brooks* Connie Brooks Main role (130 episodes)
1955 *I Love Lucy* Herself (cameo) \"Hollywood at Last\"
1957--1958 *`{{sortname|The|Eve Arden Show}}`{=mediawiki}* Liza Hammond Main role (26 episodes)
1959--1967 *`{{sortname|The|Red Skelton Show}}`{=mediawiki}* Clara Appleby Recurring role (6 episodes)
1961 *Checkmate* Georgia Golden \"Death by Design\"
1962 *My Three Sons* Marisa Montaine \"A Holiday for Tramp\"
1964 *Vacation Playhouse* Claudia Cooper \"He\'s All Yours\"
1965 *Laredo* Emma Bristow \"Which Way Did They Go?\"
1966 *Bewitched* Nurse Kelton \"And Then There Were Three\"
1966 *Run for Your Life* Mame Huston \"Who\'s Watching the Fleshpot?\"
1966 *`{{sortname|The|Man from U.N.C.L.E.}}`{=mediawiki}* Prof. Lillian Stemmler \"The Minus-X Affair\"
1967 *`{{sortname|The|Danny Thomas Hour}}`{=mediawiki}* Thelda Cunningham \"The Royal Follies of 1933\"
1967--1969 *`{{sortname|The|Mothers-in-Law}}`{=mediawiki}* Eve Hubbard Main role (56 episodes)
1969 *In Name Only* Aunt Theda Reeson TV film
1972 *`{{sortname|A|Very Missing Person|nolink=1}}`{=mediawiki}* Hildegarde Withers TV film
1972 *All My Darling Daughters* Miss Freeling TV film
1974 *`{{sortname|The|ABC Afternoon Playbreak}}`{=mediawiki}* Mrs. Owens \"Mother of the Bride\"
1974 *`{{sortname|The|Girl with Something Extra}}`{=mediawiki}* Aunt Fran \"The Greening of Aunt Fran\"
1974 *Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law* Dr. Lucille Barras \"Subject: The Sterilization of Judy Simpson\"
1975 *Harry and Maggie* Maggie Sturdivant TV pilot
1975 *Ellery Queen* Vera Bethune / Miss Aggie \"The Adventure of Miss Aggie\'s Farewell Performance\"
1977 *Maude* Lola Ashburn \"Maude\'s Aunt\"
1978 *`{{sortname|A|Guide for the Married Woman|nolink=1}}`{=mediawiki}* Employment lady TV film
1978 *Flying High* Clarissa \'Wedgie\' Wedge \"It Was Just One of Those Days\"
1979 *Vega\$* Sarah Bancroft \"Design for Death\"
1980 *`{{sortname|The|Dream Merchants|dab=miniseries}}`{=mediawiki}* Coralee TV miniseries
1980 *Alice* Martha MacIntire \"Alice in TV Land\"
1980 *`{{sortname|The|Love Boat}}`{=mediawiki}* Ms. Brenda Watts \"The Affair: Parts 1 & 2\"
1980 *B. J. and the Bear* Mrs. Jarvis \"The Girls of Hollywood High\"
1980 *Hart to Hart* Sophie Green \"Does She or Doesn\'t She?\"
1981 *Nuts and Bolts* Martha Fenton TV film
1983 *Great Performances* Queen of Hearts \"Alice in Wonderland\"
1983 *Masquerade* Mrs
| 843 |
Eve Arden
| 3 |
10,416 |
# Emperor Bidatsu
was the 30th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
The years of reign of Bidatsu start in 572 and end in 585; however, there are no certain dates for this emperor\'s life or reign. The names and sequence of the early emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" until the reign of Emperor Kanmu, who was the 50th monarch of the imperial dynasty.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Historians consider details about the life of Emperor Bidatsu to be possibly legendary, but probable. The name Bidatsu*-tennō* was created for him posthumously by later generations.
In the *Nihon Shoki*, he is called `{{Nihongo|Nunakura no Futotamashiki|渟中倉太珠敷}}`{=mediawiki}.
His palace in Yamato Province was called Osada no Miya of Iware.
## Events of Bidatsu\'s life {#events_of_bidatsus_life}
In the 15th year of Emperor Kinmei's reign, Bidatsu was named Crown Prince.
In the `{{Nihongo|32nd year of Kimmei''-tennō'''s reign|欽明天皇32年|extra=572}}`{=mediawiki}, the old Emperor died, and the succession was received by his second son. Soon after, Emperor Bidatsu is said to have acceded to the throne.
Bidatsu\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Bidatsu might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
Bidatsu\'s reign was marked by power struggles about Buddhism. The two most important men in the court of Bidatsu were Soga no Umako and Mononobe no Moriya. Soga supported the growth of Buddhism, and Moriya wanted to stop it.
Bidatsu sought to re-establish relations with Korean Kingdoms and, according to *Nihon Shoki*, his court successfully established relations with Baekje and Silla, two of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
The Emperor died from a disease which afflicted him with sores, apparently the first royal victim of smallpox in Japan.
The actual site of Bidatsu\'s grave is known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Bidatsu\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kawachi no Shinaga no naka no o no misasagi*.
## Genealogy
He was the second son of Emperor Kinmei. His mother, Ishi-hime, was a daughter of Emperor Senka.
Although he had many children, none of them would ever become Emperor. According to *Gukanshō*, Bidatsu had four empresses and 16 Imperial children (6 sons and 10 daughters).
Bidatsu\'s first empress, Hirohime, died in the fifth year of his reign. To replace her, he elevated one of his consorts, Princess Nukatabe, to the rank of empress. Nukatabe was his half-sister by their father Kinmei. Later she ascended to the throne in her own right and is today known as Empress Suiko.
He was succeeded first by one of his brothers, Emperor Yōmei, then by another, Emperor Sushun, and then Empress Suiko, his sister and wife, before his grandson, Emperor Jomei, eventually took the throne.
- Empress: `{{Nihongo|[[Hirohime]]|広姫|extra=d.575}}`{=mediawiki}, Prince Okinaga-no-Mate\'s daughter
- First Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Oshisako no Hikohito no Ōe|押坂彦人大兄皇子|extra=b.556}}`{=mediawiki}
-
- , Saiō
- Empress: `{{Nihongo|Princess Nukatabe|額田部皇女}}`{=mediawiki}, later Empress Suiko, Emperor Kinmei\'s daughter
- , married to Prince Shōtoku
-
- , married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Ōe
-
-
- , father of Tachibana-no-Oiratsume (Prince Shōtoku\'s consort)
- , married to Emperor Jomei
- , married to Prince Oshisako-no-Hikohito-no-Ōe, later married to Prince Kume (Emperor Yomei\'s son)
- Consort: `{{Nihongo|Kasuga-no-Ominako-no-Iratsume|春日老女子}}`{=mediawiki}, Kasuga no Nakakimi no Omi\'s daughter
-
-
-
- Third Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Ohomata|大派皇子|extra=b
| 585 |
Emperor Bidatsu
| 0 |
10,417 |
# Emperor Yōmei
was the 31st Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Yōmei\'s reign spanned the years from 585 until his death in 587.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
He was called `{{Nihongo|Tachibana no Toyohi no Mikoto|橘豊日尊}}`{=mediawiki} in the *Kojiki*. He was also referred to as `{{Nihongo|Prince Ōe|大兄皇子|Ōe no Miko}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{Nihongo|Prince Ikebe|池辺皇子|Ikebe no Miko}}`{=mediawiki} after the palace in which he lived. He acceded to the throne after the death of his half brother, Emperor Bidatsu.
The influential courtiers from Emperor Bidatsu\'s reign, Mononobe no Moriya, also known as Mononobe Yuge no Moriya no Muraji or as Ō-muraji Yuge no Moriya, and Soga no Umako no Sukune, both remained in their positions during the reign of Emperor Yōmei. Umako was the son of Soga Iname no Sukune, and therefore, he would have been one of Emperor Yōmei\'s cousins.
- **585**: In the `{{Nihongo|14th year of Bidatsu''-tennō'''s reign|敏達天皇14年}}`{=mediawiki}, he died; and the succession was received by his younger brother. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōmei is said to have acceded to the throne.
Yōmei\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Yōmei might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
Emperor Yōmei\'s reign lasted only two years; and he died at the age of 46 or 47.
- **587**, in the 4th month: Yōmei died and his body was placed in a coffin, but not buried.
- **587**, in the 5th month: Armed conflict over the succession erupted. Shintoist, anti-Buddhist forces of Yuge no Moriya no Muraji (also known as Ō-muraji Yuge no Moriya) battled unsuccessfully against the pro-Buddhist forces of Prince Shōtoku and Soga Umako no Sukune. The opposition to Buddhism was entirely destroyed.
- **587**, in the 7th month: The body of former Emperor Yōmei was buried.
Because of the brevity of his reign, Emperor Yōmei was not responsible for any radical changes in policy, but his support of Buddhism created tension with supporters of Shinto who opposed its introduction. According to Nihon Shoki, Emperor Yomei believed both in Buddhism and Shinto. Moriya, the most influential supporter of Shinto, conspired with Emperor Yōmei\'s brother, Prince Anahobe, and after Emperor Yomei\'s death they made an abortive attempt to seize the throne. Although Emperor Yōmei is reported to have died from illness, this incident and the brevity of his reign have led some to speculate that he was actually assassinated by Moriya and Prince Anahobe.
The actual site of Yōmei\'s grave is known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōmei\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kōchi no Shinaga no hara no misasagi*.
## Genealogy
Emperor Yōmei was the fourth son of Emperor Kinmei and his mother was Soga no Kitashihime, a daughter of Soga no Iname.
In 586, Emperor Yōmei took his half-sister `{{Nihongo|Princess Anahobe no Hashihito|穴穂部間人皇女|Anahobe no Hashihito no Himemiko}}`{=mediawiki}, whose mother was another of Iname\'s daughters, Soga no Oane Hime, as his consort. Princess Hashihito no Anahobe bore him four sons.
Empress (*Kōgō*): `{{Nihongo|[[Princess Hashihito no Anahobe]]|穴穂部間人皇女|extra=d.622}}`{=mediawiki}, Emperor Kinmei\'s daughter
- Second Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Umayado|厩戸皇子}}`{=mediawiki}, later Prince Shōtoku, regent to Empress Suiko
- Fourth Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Kume|来目皇子|extra= d.603}}`{=mediawiki}
- Fifth Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Eguri|殖栗皇子}}`{=mediawiki}
- Sixth Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Mamuta|茨田皇子|extra=579-643}}`{=mediawiki}
Concubine (*Hin*): `{{Nihongo|Soga no Ishikina|蘇我石寸名}}`{=mediawiki}, Soga no Iname\'s daughter
- First Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Tame|田目皇子}}`{=mediawiki}
Consort (*Hi*): `{{Nihongo|Katsuragi Hiroko|葛城広子}}`{=mediawiki}, Katsuragi no Atahe\'s daughter
- Third Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Maroko|当麻皇子|extra=574-586}}`{=mediawiki}
-
Yomei had three Empresses and seven Imperial sons and daughters
| 615 |
Emperor Yōmei
| 0 |
10,418 |
# Emperor Sushun
was the 32nd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Sushun\'s reign spanned the years from 587 through 592.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his *imina*) was Hatsusebe*-shinnō*, also known as Hatsusebe no Waka-sazaki.
His name at birth was `{{Nihongo|Hatsusebe|泊瀬部}}`{=mediawiki}. He was the twelfth son of Emperor Kinmei. His mother was `{{Nihongo|Empress Hirohime|蘇我小姉君}}`{=mediawiki}, a daughter of Soga no Iname, who was the chief, or Ōomi, of the Soga clan.
He succeeded his half-brother, Emperor Yōmei in 587, and lived in the Kurahashi Palace (Kurahashi no Miya) in Yamato.
- **587**: In the `{{Nihongo|2nd year of Yōmei''-tennō'''s reign|用明天皇2年}}`{=mediawiki}, the Emperor died, and despite a dispute over who should follow him as sovereign, the succession was received by another son of Emperor Kinmei, one of Yōmei\'s younger brothers. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Sushun is said to have acceded to the throne.
Sushun\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Sushun might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
He came to the throne with the support of the Soga clan and Empress Suiko, his half sister and the widow of Emperor Bidatsu. Initially, the Mononobe clan, a rival clan of the Sogas, allied with Prince Anahobe, another son of Kimmei, and attempted to have him installed as Emperor. At the Battle of Shigisan, Soga no Umako, who succeeded his father as Ōomi of the Soga clan, eventually killed Mononobe no Moriya, the head of the Mononobe clan, which led to its decline. Umako then installed Emperor Sushun on the throne.
As time went on, Sushun eventually became resentful of Umako\'s power, and wanted him deposed. It is said that one day, he killed a wild boar and stated, \"As I have slain this boar, so would I slay the one I despise\". This angered Soga no Umako and, perhaps out of fear of being struck first, Umako hired `{{illm|Yamatonoaya no Koma|ja|東漢駒}}`{=mediawiki} to assassinate Sushun in 592.
Emperor Sushun\'s reign lasted for five years before his death at the age of 72.
The actual site of Sushun\'s grave is known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Yōmei\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kurahashi no oka no e no misasagi*.
## Genealogy
Sushun had two consorts and three Imperial children
| 437 |
Emperor Sushun
| 0 |
10,419 |
# Empress Suiko
(554 -- 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan, and the country\'s first and longest-reigning empress regnant, according to the traditional order of succession.
Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (her *imina*) was Mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto, also Toyomike Kashikiya hime no Mikoto.
Empress Suiko had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumously) Toyomike Kashikiya. She was a daughter of Emperor Kinmei. Her mother was Soga no Iname\'s daughter, Soga no Kitashihime. Suiko was the younger sister of Emperor Yōmei.
### Biography
Empress Suiko was a consort to her half-brother, Emperor Bidatsu, but after Bidatsu\'s first wife died she became his official consort and was given the title Ōkisaki (official consort of the emperor). She bore eight children.
After Bidatsu\'s death, Suiko\'s brother, Emperor Yōmei, came to power for about two years before dying of illness. Upon Yōmei\'s death, another power struggle arose between the Soga clan and the Mononobe clan, with the Sogas supporting Prince Hatsusebe and the Mononobes supporting Prince Anahobe. The Sogas prevailed once again and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as Emperor Sushun in 587. However, Sushun began to resent the power of Soga no Umako, the head of the Soga clan, and Umako, perhaps out of fear that Sushun might strike first, had him assassinated by `{{nihongo|Yamatoaya no Ataikoma|東漢直駒}}`{=mediawiki} in 592. When asked to accede to the throne to fill the power vacuum that subsequently developed, Suiko became the first of what would be several examples in Japanese history where a woman was chosen to accede to the throne to avert a power struggle.
- **593**: In the 2nd year of Sushun*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (崇峻天皇二年), he died; and contemporary scholars then construed that the succession (*senso*) was received by the consort of former Emperor Bidatsu. Shortly thereafter, Empress Suiko is said to have ascended to the throne (*sokui*).
Suiko\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably *Sumeramikoto* or *Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi* (治天下大王), meaning \"the great Queen who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Suiko might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the \"Great Queen of Yamato\".
Prince Shōtoku was appointed regent the following year. Although political power during Suiko\'s reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless. The mere fact that she survived and her reign endured suggests she had significant political skills.
In 599, an earthquake destroyed buildings throughout Yamato Province in what is now Nara Prefecture.
Suiko\'s refusal to grant Soga no Umako\'s request that he be granted the imperial territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in 624 is cited as evidence of her independence from his influence. Some of the many achievements under Empress Suiko\'s reign include the official recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in 594. Suiko was also one of the first Buddhist monarchs in Japan, and had taken the vows of a nun shortly before becoming empress.
The reign of this empress was marked by the opening of relations with the Sui court in 600, the adoption of the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System in 603 and the adoption of the Seventeen-article constitution in 604.
The adoption of the Sexagenary cycle calendar (*Jikkan Jūnishi*) in Japan is attributed to Empress Suiko in 604.
At a time when imperial succession was generally determined by clan leaders rather than the emperor, Suiko left only vague indications of succession to two candidates while on her deathbed. One, Prince Tamura, was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the main line of Sogas, including Soga no Emishi. The other, Prince Yamashiro, was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some lesser members of the Soga clan. After a brief struggle within the Soga clan in which one of Prince Yamashiro\'s main supporters was killed, Prince Tamura was chosen and he acceded to the throne as Emperor Jomei in 629.
Empress Suiko ruled for 35 years. Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women\'s reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century. Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.
The actual site of Suiko\'s grave is known. This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suiko\'s mausoleum. It\'s formally named *Shinaga no Yamada no misasagi*.
## Beginning of historical writing in Japan {#beginning_of_historical_writing_in_japan}
Sinologist Wm. Theodore de Bary believed that it was not until the reign of Suiko that \"consciously written \[Japanese\] history becomes a reality\". He noted the name Suiko can be translated to \"conjecture of the past\", suggesting that this posthumous title was \"bestowed on the empress because the writing of history was considered to be an outstanding achievement of her reign\". He commented that \"little of the material from the ancient Japanese past can be taken seriously\" and the earliest extant Japanese annals were the *Kojiki* and the *Nihon Shoki*, which both date to the 8th century.
| 910 |
Empress Suiko
| 0 |
10,419 |
# Empress Suiko
## Spouse and children {#spouse_and_children}
Empress Suiko, born as Princess Nukatabe (額田部皇女), was the daughter of Emperor Kinmei and his consort (Hi), Soga no Kitashihime. Princess Nukatabe had five full sisters and seven full brothers among which the eldest would become Emperor Yōmei.
She married her eldest half-brother, Prince Nunakura Futotama-Shiki, born by her father\'s legal wife and empress consort. The couple had eight children but none would ascend the throne.
- Husband: Prince Nunakakura no Futo Tamashiki no Sumeramikoto (渟中倉太珠敷) later Emperor Bidatsu,
- First Daughter: Princess Uji no Shitsukahi/Uji no Kahitako (菟道貝蛸皇女, b.570), married to Crown Prince Shōtoku
- First Son: Prince Takeda (竹田皇子)
- Second Daughter: Princess Woharida (小墾田皇, b
| 116 |
Empress Suiko
| 1 |
10,422 |
# Emperor Kōtoku
was the 36th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
The years of his reign lasted from 645 through 654.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before Kōtoku\'s ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (*imina*) was `{{nihongo|Karu|軽}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nihongo|Prince Karu|軽皇子|Karu-no-Ōji}}`{=mediawiki}.
He was a descendant of Emperor Bidatsu. He was a son of Chinu no ōkimi (Prince Chinu, 茅渟王) by Kibitsuhime no ōkimi (Princess Kibitsuhime, 吉備姫王). Empress Kōgyoku was his elder sister from the same parents. Chinu was a son of Prince Oshisaka hikohito no ōe, whose father was the Emperor Bidatsu. He had at least three consorts including his Empress, Hashihito no Himemiko (Princess Hashihito), the daughter of Emperor Jomei and his sister Empress Kōgyoku. In the 3rd year of Kōgyoku*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (皇極天皇三年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by her younger brother. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōtoku is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
Kōtoku ruled from July 12, 645 (AD), until his death in 654. In 645, he ascended to the throne two days after Prince Naka no Ōe (Emperor Tenji) assassinated Soga no Iruka in the court of Kōgyoku. Kōgyoku abdicated in favor of her son and crown prince, Naka no Ōe, but Naka no Ōe insisted Kōtoku should ascend to the throne instead. Kōtoku\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians `{{according to whom|date=November 2018}}`{=mediawiki} believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably *Sumeramikoto* or *Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi* (治天下大王), meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Kōtoku might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the \"Great King of Yamato\". According to the *Nihonshoki*, he was of gentle personality and was in favor of Buddhism.
In 645, he created a new city in the area called Naniwa, and moved the capital from Yamato Province to this new city (see Nara). The new capital had a seaport and was good for foreign trade and diplomatic activities. In 653, Kōtoku sent an envoy to the court of the Tang dynasty in China, but some of the ships were lost *en route*.
Naka no Ōe held the rank of crown prince and was the *de facto* leader of the government. In 653 Naka no Ōe proposed to move the capital again to Yamato province. Kōtoku denied. Naka no Ōe ignored the emperor\'s policy and moved to the former province. Many courtiers of the court, including Empress Hashihito, followed him. Kōtoku was left in the palace. In the next year he died of an illness. After his death, Naka would not ascend to the throne. Instead, his mother and the sister of Kōtoku, the former Empress Kogyoku, ascended to the throne under another name, Empress Saimei.
He enacted the Taika Reform edicts. The system of *hasshō kyakkan* (eight ministries and a hundred offices) was first established during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku.
The actual site of Kōtoku\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōtoku\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Ōsaka-no-shinaga no misasagi*.
Traditionally the monk Hōdō, was born in today India, and traveled to Japan via Tang China and the Baekje kingdom in Korea. Hōdō cured an illness of the Emperor Kōtoku (596 -- 654 AD), who then sent the monk to establish numerous Buddhist temples. According to legend Hōdō founded Tenjō-ji in 646 (AD). The monk is worshipped in the Gion faith.
### *Kugyō*
*Kugyō* (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Kōtoko\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Sadaijin*, Abe no Kurahashi-maro (阿部倉梯麻呂) (d. 649), 645--649.
- *Sadaijin*, Kose no Tokoda (巨勢徳太) (593--658), 649--658.
- *Udaijin*, Soga no Kura-no-Yamada no Ishikawa-no-maro (蘇我倉山田石川麻呂) (d. 649), 645--649.
- *Udaijin*, Ōtomo no Nagatoko (大伴長徳) (d. 651), 649--651.
- *Naidaijin*(内臣), Nakatomi Kamako (中臣鎌子) (Fujiwara no Kamatari, 藤原鎌足) (614--669), 645--669.
## Eras of Kōtoku\'s reign {#eras_of_kōtokus_reign}
The years of Kōtoku\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Taika* (645--650)
- *Hakuchi* (650--655)
| 734 |
Emperor Kōtoku
| 0 |
10,422 |
# Emperor Kōtoku
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Empress: Princess Hashihito (間人皇女, d
| 13 |
Emperor Kōtoku
| 1 |
10,425 |
# Emperor Kōbun
was the 39th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Kōbun\'s reign lasted only a few months in 672.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Emperor Kōbun was named the 39th emperor by the Meiji government in 1870; and since the late 19th century, he is known by the posthumous name accorded to him by Meiji scholars.
In his lifetime, he was known as Prince Ōtomo (大友皇子, *Ōtomo no ōji*). He was the favorite son of Emperor Tenji; and he was also the first to have been accorded the title of *Daijō-daijin.*
Now, Japanese Imperial Household Agency and minority of contemporary historians place the reign of Emperor Kōbun between the reigns of Emperor Tenji and Emperor Tenmu; but the *Nihongi*, the *Gukanshō*, the *Jinnō Shōtōki* and majority of contemporary historians do not recognize this reign. Prince Ōtomo was only given his posthumous title and name in 1870.
: **Post-Meiji chronology**
- ***In the 10th year of Tenji***, in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), designated his son as his heir; and modern scholars construe this as meaning that the son would have received the succession (*senso*) after his father\'s death. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kōbun is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*). If this understanding were valid, then it would follow:
:\* ***In the 1st year of Kōbun*** (672): Emperor Kōbun, in the 1st year of his reign (弘文天皇元年), died; and his uncle Ōaomino ōji received the succession (*senso*) after the death of his nephew. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Tenmu could be said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
: **Pre-Meiji chronology**
: Prior to the 19th century, Ōtomo was understood to have been a mere interloper, a pretender, an anomaly; and therefore, if that commonly accepted understanding were to have been valid, then it would have followed:
- ***In the 10th year of Tenji***, in the 11th month (671): Emperor Tenji, in the 10th year of his reign (天智天皇十年), died; and despite any military confrontations which ensued, the brother of the dead sovereign would have received the succession (*senso*); and after a time, it would have been understood that Emperor Tenmu rightfully acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
: Control of the throne was wrested by Emperor Tenchi\'s brother, Prince Ōama, during the Jinshin War, after which Emperor Kōbun died by suicide. For centuries, the hapless Prince Ōtomo was not considered to have been a part of the traditional order of succession.
The actual site of Kōbun\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Shiga.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōbun\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Nagara no Yamasaki no misasagi*.
## Non*-nengō* period {#non_nengō_period}
The years of Kōbun\'s reign are not linked by scholars to any era or *nengō*. The Taika era innovation of naming time periods -- *nengō* -- languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.
- See Japanese era name -- *\"Non-nengo periods\"*
- See Kōbun (period) (672).
In this context, Brown and Ishida\'s translation of *Gukanshō* offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō\'s reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame:
:
: \"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō \[(686+7=692?)\]; and (2) Taika, which was four years long \[695--698\]. (The first year of this era was *kinoto-hitsuji* \[695\].) \... In the third year of the Taka era \[697\], Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"
### *Kugyo*
The top `{{nihongo|court officials|公卿|Kugyō}}`{=mediawiki} during Emperor Kōbun\'s reign included:
- *Sadaijin*, Soga no Akae (蘇我赤兄) (?--?), 672 (7 months)
- *Udaijin*, Nakatomi no Kane (中臣金) (d. 672), 672 (7 months)
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Consort: Princess Tōchi (十市皇女), Emperor Tenmu\'s daughter
- First son: Prince Kadono (葛野王, 669--706)
Consort: Fujiwara no Mimimotoji (藤原耳面刀自), Fujiwara no Kamatari\'s daughter
- Princess Ichishi-hime (壱志姫王)
Emperor Kōbun had another son named Prince Yota (興多王), whose mother is unknown
| 679 |
Emperor Kōbun
| 0 |
10,427 |
# Empress Jitō
was the 41st monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Jitō\'s reign spanned the years from 686 through 697.
In the history of Japan, Jitō was the third of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The two female monarchs before Jitō were Suiko and Kōgyoku/Saimei. The five women sovereigns reigning after Jitō were Genmei, Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Empress Jitō was the daughter of Emperor Tenji. Her mother was Ochi-no-Iratsume, the daughter of Minister Ō-omi Soga no Yamada-no Ishikawa Maro. She was the wife of Tenji\'s full brother Emperor Tenmu, whom she succeeded on the throne.
Empress Jitō\'s given name was `{{nihongo|Unonosarara or Unonosasara|鸕野讚良}}`{=mediawiki}, or alternately Uno.
### Events of Jitō\'s reign {#events_of_jitōs_reign}
Jitō took responsibility for court administration after the death of her husband, Emperor Tenmu, who was also her uncle. She acceded to the throne in 687 in order to ensure the eventual succession of her son, Kusakabe-shinnō. Throughout this period, Empress Jitō ruled from the Fujiwara Palace in Yamato. In 689, Jitō prohibited *Sugoroku*, in 690 at enthronement she performed special ritual then gave pardon and in 692 she travelled to Ise against the counsel of minister Miwa-no-Asono-Takechimaro.
Prince Kusakabe was named as crown prince to succeed Jitō, but he died at a young age. Kusakabe\'s son, Karu-no-o, was then named as Jitō\'s successor. He eventually would become known as Emperor Monmu.
Empress Jitō reigned for eleven years. Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women\'s reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century. Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.
In 697, Jitō abdicated in Monmu\'s favor; and as a retired sovereign, she took the post-reign title *daijō-tennō*. After this, her imperial successors who retired took the same title after abdication.
Jitō continued to hold power as a cloistered ruler, which became a persistent trend in Japanese politics.
The actual site of Jitō\'s grave is known. This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jitō\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Ochi-no-Okanoe no misasagi*.
### *Kugyō*
*Kugyō* (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Jitō\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Daijō-daijin*, Takechi-shinnō (the 3rd son of Emperor Tenmu)
- *Sadaijin*
- *Udaijin*
- *Naidaijin*
## Non*-nengō* period {#non_nengō_period}
Jitō\'s reign is not linked by scholars to any era or nengō. The Taika era innovation of naming time periods -- *nengō* -- languished until Mommu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.
- See Japanese era name -- *\"Non-nengo periods\"*
- See Jitō period (687--697).
However, Brown and Ishida\'s translation of *Gukanshō* offers an explanation which muddies a sense of easy clarity:
: \"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō \[(686+7=692?)\]; and (2) Taika, which was four years long \[695--698\]. (The first year of this era was *kinoto-hitsuji* \[695\].) \... In the third year of the Taka era \[697\], Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"
## Family
Empress Jitō, known as Princess Uno-no-sarara (鸕野讃良皇女) in her early days, was born to Emperor Tenji and his concubine, who held of Beauty (Hin).She had two full siblings: Princess Ōta and Prince Takeru. Empress Jitō and her younger sister, Princess Ōta, shared the same husband, Emperor Tenmu, with whom both would have children.
- Husband: Emperor Tenmu (天武天皇, Tenmu tennō, c. 631 -- October 1, 686), son of Emperor Jomei and Empress Kōgyoku
- Son: Crown Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子, 662 -- May 10, 689)
| 696 |
Empress Jitō
| 0 |
10,427 |
# Empress Jitō
## Poetry
The *Man\'yōshū* includes poems said to have been composed by Jitō. This one was composed after the death of the Emperor Tenmu:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Japanese Rōmaji English
やすみしし 我が大君の 夕されば 見したまふらし 明け来れば 問ひたまふらし 神岳の 山の黄葉を 今日もかも 問ひたまはまし 明日もかも 見したまはまし その山を 振り放け見つつ 夕されば あやに悲しみ 明け来れば うらさび暮らし 荒栲の 衣の袖は 干る時もなし *Yasumishishi waga ōkimi no* *Yū sareba meshita furashi* *Akekureba toita furashi* *Kamuoka no yama no momichi to* *Kyō mo ka mo toita mawamashi* *Asu mo ka mo meshita mawamashi* *Sono yama o furisakemitsutsu* *Yū sareba aya ni kanashimi* *Akekureba* *Urasabikurashi* *Aratae no* *Koromo no sode wa* *Furu toki mo nashi* Oh, the autumn foliage Of the hill of Kamioka! My good Lord and Sovereign Would see it in the evening And ask of it in the morning. On that very hill from afar I gaze, wondering If he sees it to-day, Or asks of it to-morrow. Sadness I feel at eve, And heart-rending grief at morn--- The sleeves of my coarse-cloth robe Are never for a moment dry
| 172 |
Empress Jitō
| 1 |
10,428 |
# Emperor Monmu
was the 42nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Monmu\'s reign spanned the years from 697 through 707.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (*imina*) was Karu*-shinnō*.
He was a grandson of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. He was the second son of Prince Kusakabe. Monmu\'s mother was Princess Abe, a daughter of Emperor Tenji. Monmu\'s mother would later accede to the throne herself, and she would be known as Empress Genmei.
### Events of Monmu\'s life {#events_of_monmus_life}
Karu*-shinnō* was only six years old when his father, Crown Prince Kusakabe, died.
- **697**: In the 10th year of Jitō*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (持統天皇十年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by a grandson of Emperor Tenmu. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Monmu is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
Emperor Monmu ruled until his death in 707, at which point he was succeeded by his mother, Empress Genmei, who was also his first cousin once removed and his first cousin twice removed. He left a young son by Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhito: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became Emperor Shōmu.
Emperor Monmu\'s reign lasted 10 years. He died at the age of 25.
The actual site of Monmu\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Monmu\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Hinokuma no Ako no oka no e no misasagi*.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Monmu\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Daijō-daijin*, Osakabe*-shinnō*.
- *Sadaijin*
- *Udaijin*
- *Naidaijin*, Nakatomi Kamako no Muraji.
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara Fuhito.
## Eras of Monmu\'s reign {#eras_of_monmus_reign}
Conventional modern scholarship seems to have determined that the years of Monmu\'s reign are encompassed within more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Taihō (era)* (701--704)
- *Keiun* (704--708)
### Non*-nengō* period {#non_nengō_period}
The initial years of Monmu\'s reign are not linked by scholars to any era or *nengō*. The Taika era innovation of naming time periods -- *nengō* -- languished until Monmu reasserted an imperial right by proclaiming the commencement of Taihō in 701.
- See Japanese era name -- *\"Non-nengo periods\"*
- See Monmu period (697--701).
In this context, Brown and Ishida\'s translation of *Gukanshō* offers an explanation about the years of Empress Jitō\'s reign which muddies a sense of easy clarity in the pre-Taiho time-frame:
:
: \"The eras that fell in this reign were: (1) the remaining seven years of Shuchō \[(686+7=692?)\]; and (2) Taika, which was four years long \[695--698\]. (The first year of this era was *kinoto-hitsuji* \[695\].) \... In the third year of the Taka era \[697\], Empress Jitō yielded the throne to the Crown Prince.\"
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
*Bunin*: Fujiwara no Miyako (藤原宮子, d
| 534 |
Emperor Monmu
| 0 |
10,430 |
# Empress Genshō
was the 44th monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Her reign spanned the years 715 through 724.
Genshō was the fifth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant, and the only one in the history of Japan to have inherited her title from another empress regnant rather than from a male predecessor. The four female monarchs before Genshō were Suiko, Kōgyoku, Jitō and Genmei; the three reigning after her were Kōken, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name (*imina*) was Hidaka*-hime*.
Genshō was an elder sister of Emperor Monmu and daughter of Prince Kusakabe and his wife who later became Empress Genmei. Therefore, she was a granddaughter of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō by her father and a granddaughter of Emperor Tenji through her mother.
### Events of Genshō\'s life {#events_of_genshōs_life}
Empress Genshō\'s succession to the throne was intended as a regency until Prince Obito, the son of her deceased younger brother Monmu, was mature enough to ascend the throne. Obito would later become the Emperor Shōmu.
Obito was appointed Crown Prince in 714 by Empress Genmei. In the next year, 715, Empress Genmei, then in her fifties, abdicated in favor of her daughter Genshō. Obito was then 14 years old.
- **715** (*Reiki 1, 9th month*) : In the 7th year of Genmei*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (元明天皇七年), the empress abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by her daughter, who held the throne in trust for her younger brother. Shortly thereafter, Empress Genshō acceded to the throne (*sokui*) as Empress Regnant.
Obito remained the crown prince, heir to the new empress. Fujiwara no Fuhito, the most powerful courtier in Genmei\'s court, remained at his post until his death in 720. After his death, Prince Nagaya, a grandson of Tenmu and the Empress Genshō\'s cousin, seized power. This power shift was a background for later conflicts between Nagaya and Fuhito\'s four sons during the reign of Emperor Shōmu (formerly Prince Obito).
Under Genshō\'s reign, the *Nihon Shoki* was finished in 720. Organization of the law system known as the *ritsuryō* was continued under the initiatives of Fuhito until his death. These laws and codes were edited and enacted by Fujiwara no Nakamaro, a grandson of Fuhito, and published as *Yōrō ritsuryō* under the name of Fuhito. The taxation system which had been introduced by Empress Jitō in the late 7th century began to malfunction. To compensate for the decreased tax revenue, the \"Act of possession in three generations\", an initiative of Prince Nagaya, was enacted in 723. Under this act, people were allowed to possess a newly cultivated field once every three generations. In the fourth generation, the right of possession would revert to the national government. This act was intended to motivate new cultivation, but it only remained in effect for about 20 years.
Empress Genshō reigned for nine years. Although there were seven other reigning empresses, their successors were most often selected from amongst the males of the paternal Imperial bloodline, which is why some conservative scholars argue that the women\'s reigns were temporary and that male-only succession tradition must be maintained in the 21st century. Empress Genmei, who was succeeded by her daughter, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument.
In 724, Genshō abdicated in favor of her nephew, who would be known as Emperor Shōmu. Genshō lived for 25 years after she stepped down from the throne. She never married and had no children. She died at age 65.
Empress Genshō\'s grave is located in Nara. This empress is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*), also in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency has designated this location as Monmu\'s mausoleum, and has been formally named *Nahoyama no nishi no misasagi*. The Imperial tomb can be visited today in Narazaka-chō, Nara City.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Genshō\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Daijō-daijin* (*Chi-daijō-kanji* 知太政官事), Toneri*-shinnō* (Prince Toneri) (舎人親王). (9th son of Emperor Tenmu) 720--735
- *Sadaijin*, Isonokami no Maro (石上麻呂). 708--717
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Fuhito (藤原不比等). 708--720
- *Udaijin*, Prince Nagaya (長屋王). 721--724
- *Dainagon*, Abe no Sukunamaro (阿倍宿奈麻呂). 718--720
- *Dainagon*, Prince Nagaya (長屋王). 718--721
- *Dainagon*, Tajihi no Ikemori (多治比池守). 721--730
## Eras of Genshō\'s reign {#eras_of_genshōs_reign}
The years of Genshō\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Reiki* (715--717)
- *Yōrō* (717--724)
- *Jinki* (724--729)
| 799 |
Empress Genshō
| 0 |
10,430 |
# Empress Genshō
## Genealogy
Empress Genshō, born Princess Hidaka (氷高皇女), was the eldest child of Empress Genmei (元明天皇) and her husband, Crown Prince Kusakabe (草壁皇子). She had one younger brother, Prince Karu (珂瑠皇子), later known as Emperor Monmu (文武天皇), and one younger sister, Imperial Princess Kibi (吉備内親王).
Empress Genshō never got married or had children. The throne was inherited by her younger brother\'s son, Emperor Shōmu.
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Empress Genshō'''
|2= 2. [[Crown Prince Kusakabe]] (662–689)
|3= 3. [[Empress Genmei]] (660–721)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Tenmu]] (c. 631–686)
|5= 5. [[Empress Jitō]] (645–703)
|6= 6. [[Emperor Tenji]] (626–672)
|7= 7. [[:ja:姪娘|Mei no Iratsume]]
|8= 8. [[Emperor Jomei]] (593–641)
|9= 9. [[Empress Kōgyoku|Empress Kōgyoku/Empress Saimei]] (594–661)
|10=10. [[Emperor Tenji]] (626–672)
|11=11. [[:ja:遠智娘|Soga no Ochi-no-iratsume]] (d. c. 651)
|12=
|13=
|14=14. [[Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro]] (d. c
| 151 |
Empress Genshō
| 1 |
10,432 |
# Emperor Junnin
was the 47th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. The seventh son of Prince Toneri and a grandson of Emperor Tenmu, his reign spanned the years 758 to 764.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before his ascension to the throne, his name (*imina*) was Ōi-no-ō. He was the seventh son of Prince Toneri, a son of Emperor Tenmu. And although his father died when he was three, he was not given any rank or office at the court. After the forced abdication he received the newer rank, thus addressed Ōi*-shinnō*. In the older Japanese documents, he is usually referred to as Haitai (廃帝), the dethroned emperor. The posthumous name of Emperor Junnin was given by Emperor Meiji a thousand years later.
### Ascension and reign {#ascension_and_reign}
In 757 the Empress Kōken, his third cousin appointed him to be her crown prince instead of Prince Funado, who had been appointed to this position in the will of the Emperor Shōmu. In the tenth year of Kōken*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (*称徳天皇十年*), on December 7, 758 (*Tenpyō-shōhō 2, 1st day of the 8th month*) , the empress abdicated and the succession (*senso*) passed to her adopted son. Shortly afterwards, Emperor Junnin is said to have ascended to the throne (*sokui*). In 760 (*Tenpyō-hōji 4*), additional coins were put into circulation---copper coins bearing the words *Mannen Ten-hō*, silver coins bearing the words *Teihei Genhō*, and gold coins bearing the words *Kaiki Shōhō*.
The years of Junnin\'s reign, 758--765, are more specifically encompassed within a single era name or *nengō*, *Tenpyō-hōji*. Junnin seemingly had very little power and was possibly a mere figurehead. In 764, six years after Empress Kōken had abdicated, the former empress reclaimed the throne during Fujiwara no Nakamaro\'s Rebellion, forcing Junnin to abdicate.
### Death and mausoleum {#death_and_mausoleum}
On November 10, 765 (*Tenpyō-jingo 1, 23rd day of the 10th month*), the former emperor died while in exile. The official cause of death was illness, but according to one theory, it was the assassination by the order of Emperor Shōtoku. The site of Junnin\'s actual grave is unknown, and he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Awaji. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Junnin\'s mausoleum: It is formally named *Awaji no misasagi*.
Though Junnin had, technically, been emperor, he was not featured on the official List of Japanese Emperors until the late nineteenth century. In 1870, Emperor Meiji conferred the posthumous name and title by which Emperor Junnin is now known. His place in the traditional order of succession was confirmed at the same time as announcements about Emperor Kōbun and Emperor Chūkyō were made public.
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this elite group included only three or four men at a time, and they were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of their careers. During Junnin\'s reign, the ranks of this group of *Daijō-kan* included:
- Taishi (Daijō-daijin): Fujiwara Oshikatsu, also known as Emi no Oshikatsu (恵美押勝) (formerly Fujiwara no Nakamaro) (藤原仲麻呂).
- Taiho (Udaijin): Fujiwara Oshikatsu.
- Sadaijin:, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成).
- Udaijin, Fujiwara no Toyonari (藤原豊成).
- Naidaijin (not appointed)
- Dainagon
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Consort: Awata no Morone (粟田諸姉), widow of Fujiwara no Mayori, the first son of Fujiwara no Nakamaro
By Unknown woman:
- Daughter: Imperial Princess Abe (安倍内親王) married Prince Isobe
| 586 |
Emperor Junnin
| 0 |
10,432 |
# Emperor Junnin
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Junnin'''
|2= 2. [[Prince Toneri]]
|3= 3. Tagima no Yamashiro
|4= 4. [[Emperor Tenmu]] (c. 631–686)
|5= 5. [[Princess Niitabe]] (d. 699)
|6= 6. Tagima no Rō
|7=
|8= 8. [[Emperor Jomei]] (593–641)
|9= 9. [[Empress Kōgyoku|Empress Kōgyoku/Empress Saimei]] (594–661)
|10=10.[[Emperor Tenji]] (626–672)
|11=11. [[:ja:橘娘|Abe no Tachibana-no-iratsume]] (d
| 67 |
Emperor Junnin
| 1 |
10,434 |
# Emperor Heizei
, also known as *Heijō-tennō*, was the 51st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Heizei\'s reign lasted from 806 to 809.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Heizei was the eldest son of the Emperor Kanmu and empress Fujiwara no Otomuro. Heizei had three empresses and seven sons and daughters.
Heizei is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates `{{nihongo3|Yamamomo Imperial Mausoleum|楊梅陵|Yamamomo no Misasagi}}`{=mediawiki}, in Nara, as the location of Heizei\'s mausoleum. The site is publicly accessible. Although one of the largest kofun monuments in Japan, archaeological investigations in 1962--1963 indicate that it was constructed in the early 5th century, and that portions of it were destroyed during the construction of Heijō-kyō, calling into question the designation by the Imperial Household Agency.
### Events of Heizei\'s life {#events_of_heizeis_life}
Before he ascended to the throne, his liaison with Fujiwara no Kusuko, the mother of his one consort, caused a scandal. Because of this scandal his father considered depriving him of the rank of crown prince.
- **785**: (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Enryaku]] 4, 11th month''|延暦四年十一月}}`{=mediawiki}): Heizei was appointed Crown Prince at the age of 12.
- **April 9, 806** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Daidō]] 1, 17th day of the 3rd month''|大同一年三月十七日}}`{=mediawiki}): In the 25th year of Emperor Kanmu\'s reign, he died; and despite an ensuing dispute over who should follow him as sovereign, contemporary scholars then construed that the succession (*senso*) was received by his son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Heizei is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
His title Heizei was derived from the official name of the capital in Nara, Heizei Kyō.
During Heizei\'s reign, the bodyguards were reorganized; the existing Imperial Bodyguards became the Left Imperial Bodyguards, while the Middle Bodyguards became the Right Imperial Bodyguards. Both sides were given a new Senior Commander; at this time Heizei appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758--811) as Senior Commander of the Imperial Bodyguards of the Right. Under Emperor Kanmu, Tamuramaro had been appointed as *shōgun* of a military expedition against the Emishi.
- **809** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Daidō]] 4, 1st month''|大同四年一月}}`{=mediawiki}): After a reign of four years, Heizei fell ill; and fearing that he would not survive, Heizei abdicated in favor of his younger brother, who would later come to be known as Emperor Saga. After abdicating, Heizei moved to Nara and was henceforth known as *Nara no Mikado*, the \"Emperor of Nara\".
- **May 18, 809** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Daidō]] 4, 1st day of the 4th month''|大同四年四月一日}}`{=mediawiki}): Emperor Saga was enthroned at age 24.
- **810** (*Kōnin 1*): In Heizei\'s name, the former emperor\'s ambitious third wife, `{{nihongo|Fujiwara no Kusuko|藤原薬子}}`{=mediawiki}, and her brother Nakanari organized an attempted rebellion, but their forces were defeated. Kusuko died in poison and her brother was executed. Heizei took the tonsure and became a Buddhist monk.
- **August 5, 824** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Tenchō]] 1, 7th day of the 7th month''|天長一年七月七日}}`{=mediawiki}): Heizei died at age 51, 14 years after he had abdicated due to illness.
| 487 |
Emperor Heizei
| 0 |
10,434 |
# Emperor Heizei
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
### Era of Heizei\'s reign {#era_of_heizeis_reign}
The years of Heizei\'s reign are encompassed within one era name (*nengō*).
- *Daidō* (806--810)
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Heizei\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Sadaijin* (not appointed)
- *Udaijin*, Miwa-no-Oh or Miwa-no-Ohkimi (神王), 798--806.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麿), 806--812.
- *Naidaijin*
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Otomo (藤原雄友), 806--807
When the daughter of a *chūnagon* became the favored consort of the Crown Prince Ate (later known as Heizei*-tennō*), her father\'s power and position in court was affected. Kanmu disapproved of `{{nihongo|Fujiwara no Kusuko|藤原薬子|d. 810}}`{=mediawiki}, former wife of Fujiwara no Tadanushi; and Kanmu had her removed from his son\'s household. After Kanmu died, Heizei restored this one-time favorite as part of his household; and this distinction had consequences.
- *Chūnagon*, Fujiwara no Tadanushi
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Empress (posthumously elevated *Kōgō*): Fujiwara no Tarashiko/*Taishi* (藤原帯子; d.794), Fujiwara no Momokawa's daughter
*Hi*: Imperial Princess Asahara (朝原内親王; 779--817), Emperor Kanmu's daughter
*Hi*: Imperial Princess Ōyake (大宅内親王; d.849), Emperor Kanmu's daughter
*Hi*: Imperial Princess Kan\'nabi (甘南美内親王; 800--817), Emperor Kanmu's daughter
*Shōshi* Court lady (*Naishi-no-kami*): `{{nihongo|Fujiwara no Kusuko|藤原薬子|extra=d. 810}}`{=mediawiki}, former wife of *Chūnagon* Fujiwara no Tadanushi and Fujiwara no Tanetsugu\'s daughter
*Hi*: Fujiwara Tadanushi\'s daughter
Court lady: Ise no Tsuguko (伊勢継子; 772--812), Ise no Ōna\'s daughter
- Third Prince: Imperial Prince Takaoka (高丘親王; 799--865), the Crown Prince in 809 (deposed in 810)
- Fourth prince: Imperial Prince Kose (巨勢親王; d. 882)
- Imperial Princess Kamitsukeno (上毛野内親王; d. 842)
- Imperial Princess Isonokami (石上内親王; d. 846)
- Third princess: Imperial Princess Ōhara (大原内親王; d. 863), 14th Saiō in Ise Shrine (806--809)
Court lady: Fujii no Fujiko/*Tōshi* (葛井藤子), Fujii no Michiyori\'s daughter
- First Prince: Imperial Prince Abo (阿保親王)
Court lady: Ki no Iokazu (紀魚員), Ki no Kotsuo\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess Enu (叡努内親王; d. 835)
| 363 |
Emperor Heizei
| 1 |
10,434 |
# Emperor Heizei
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Heizei'''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Kanmu]] (737-806)
|3= 3. [[Fujiwara no Otomuro]] (760-790)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Kōnin]] (709–782)
|5= 5. [[Takano no Niigasa]] (c. 720-790)
|6= 6. [[Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu]] (716-777)
|7= 7. [[:ja:阿倍古美奈|Abe no Komina]] (d. 784)
|8= 8. [[:ja:志貴皇子|Prince Shiki]] (d. 716)
|9= 9. [[:ja:紀橡姫|Ki no Tochihime]] (d. 709)
|10=10. Yamato no Ototsugu
|11=11. Haji no Maimo
|12=12. [[Fujiwara no Umakai]] (694-737)
|13=13. Isonokami no Kunimina no Ōtoji
|14=14
| 89 |
Emperor Heizei
| 2 |
10,435 |
# Emperor Saga
`{{nihongo|'''Emperor Saga'''|嵯峨天皇|Saga-tennō|October 3, 786 – August 24, 842}}`{=mediawiki} was the 52nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Saga\'s reign lasted from 809 to 823.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Saga was the second son of Emperor Kanmu and Fujiwara no Otomuro. His personal name was `{{nihongo|'''Kamino'''|神野}}`{=mediawiki}. Saga was an \"accomplished calligrapher\" able to compose in Chinese who held the first imperial poetry competitions (`{{Transliteration|ja|naien}}`{=mediawiki}). According to legend, he was the first Japanese emperor to drink tea.
Saga is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates `{{nihongo3|Saganoyamanoe Imperial Mausoleum|嵯峨山上陵|Saganoyamanoe no Misasagi}}`{=mediawiki}, in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Saga\'s mausoleum.
### Events of Saga\'s life {#events_of_sagas_life}
- **806** Saga became the crown prince at age 21.
- **June 17, 809** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Daidō]] 4, 1st day of the 4th month''|大同四年五月一日}}`{=mediawiki}): In the 4th year of Emperor Heizei\'s reign, he fell ill and abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by Kanmu\'s second son Saga, the eldest son having become a Buddhist priest. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Saga is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
Soon after his enthronement, Saga himself took ill. At the time the retired Heizei had quarreled with his brother over the ideal location of the court, the latter preferring the Heian capital, while the former was convinced that a shift back to the Nara plain was necessary, and Heizei, exploiting Saga\'s weakened health, seized the opportunity to foment a rebellion, known historically as the Kusuko Incident; however, forces loyal to Emperor Saga, led by *taishōgun* Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, quickly defeated the Heizei rebels which thus limited the adverse consequences which would have followed any broader conflict. This same Tamuramaro is remembered in Aomori\'s annual Nebuta Matsuri which feature a number of gigantic, specially-constructed, illuminated paper floats. These great lantern-structures are colorfully painted with mythical figures; and teams of men carry them through the streets as crowds shout encouragement. This early ninth century military leader is commemorated in this way because he is said to have ordered huge illuminated lanterns to be placed at the top of hills; and when the curious Emishi approached these bright lights to investigate, they were captured and subdued by Tamuramaro\'s men.
- **August 24, 842** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Jōwa (Heian period)|Jōwa]] 9, 15th day of the 7th month''|承和九年七月十五日}}`{=mediawiki}): Saga died at the age of 57.
### Eras of Saga\'s reign {#eras_of_sagas_reign}
The years of Saga\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (*nengō*).
- *Daidō* (806--810)
- *Kōnin* (810--824)
## Legacy
In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the *Gempeitōkitsu* (源平藤橘). One of these clans, the Minamoto clan are also known as Genji (源氏), and of these, the Saga Genji (嵯峨源氏) are descended from 52nd emperor Saga. Saga\'s son, Minamoto no Tōru, is thought to be an inspiration for the protagonist of the novel *The Tale of Genji*.
Emperor Saga played an important role as a stalwart supporter of the Buddhist monk Kūkai. The emperor helped Kūkai to establish the Shingon School of Buddhism by granting him Tō-ji Temple in the capital Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto).
### Daikaku-ji {#daikaku_ji}
is a Shingon Buddhist temple in Ukyō-ku in Kyoto. The site was originally a residence of the emperor, and later various emperor conducted their cloistered rule from here. The artificial lake of the temple, Ōsawa Pond, is one of the oldest Japanese garden ponds to survive from the Heian period.
The *Saga Go-ryū* school of *ikebana* has its headquarters in the temple and is named in his honour.
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Saga\'s reign (809--823), this *kugyō* included:
- *Sadaijin*
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麿), 806--812.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Sonohito (藤原園人), 812--818.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 821--825.
- *Udaijin*, Tachibana no Ujikimi.
- *Naidaijin*
- *Dainagon*
| 683 |
Emperor Saga
| 0 |
10,435 |
# Emperor Saga
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Saga had 49 children with at least 30 different women. Many of the children received the surname Minamoto, thereby removing them from royal succession.
- Empress: Tachibana no Kachiko (橘嘉智子), also known as `{{Nihongo|Empress Danrin|檀林皇后|Danrin-kōgō}}`{=mediawiki}, Tachibana no Kiyotomo\'s daughter.
- Second Son: Imperial Prince Masara (正良親王) later Emperor Ninmyō
- Imperial Princess Seishi (正子内親王; 810--879), married to Emperor Junna
- Imperial Princess Hideko (秀子内親王; d. 850)
- Imperial Prince Hidera (秀良親王; 817--895)
- Imperial Princess Toshiko (俊子内親王; d. 826)
- Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess Yoshiko (芳子内親王; d. 836)
- Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王; d. 865)
- *Hi* (deposed): Imperial Princess Takatsu (高津内親王; d. 841), Emperor Kanmu's daughter
- Second Prince: Imperial Prince Nariyoshi (業良親王; d. 868)
- Imperial Princess Nariko (業子内親王; d. 815)
- *Hi*: Tajihi no Takako (多治比高子; 787--825), Tajihi no Ujimori\'s daughter
- *Bunin*: Fujiwara no Onatsu (藤原緒夏; d. 855), Fujiwara no Uchimaro\'s daughter
- Court lady (*Naishi-no-kami*): Kudara no Kyomyō (百済王慶命; d. 849), Kudara no Kyōshun\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Yoshihime (源善姫; b. 814)
- Minamoto no Sadamu (源定; 815--863)
- Minamoto no Wakahime (源若姫)
- Minamoto no Shizumu (源鎮; 824--881)
- *Nyōgo*: Kudara no Kimyō (百済貴命; d. 851), Kudara no Shuntetsu\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Motora (基良親王; d. 831)
- Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Tadara (忠良親王; 819--876)
- Imperial Princess Motoko (基子内親王; d. 831)
- *Nyōgo*: Ōhara no Kiyoko (大原浄子; d. 841), Ōhara no Ietsugu\'s daughter
- Tenth Daughter: Imperial Princess *Ninshi* (仁子内親王; d. 889), 15th Saiō in Ise Shrine 809--823
- *Koui*: Iidaka no Yakatoji (飯高宅刀自), Iidaka Gakuashi
- Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常; 812--854)
- Minamoto no Akira (源明; 814--852/853)
- *Koui*: Akishino no Koko (秋篠高子/康子), Akishino no Yasuhito\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Kiyoshi (源清)
- *Koui*: Yamada no Chikako (山田近子)
- Minamoto no *Hiraku(?)* (源啓; 829--869)
- Minamoto no Mituhime (源密姫)
- *Nyōgo*: Princess Katano (交野女王), Prince Yamaguchi\'s daughter
- Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Uchiko (有智子内親王; 807--847), 1st Saiin in Kamo Shrine 810--831
- Court lady: Takashina no Kawako (高階河子), Takashina no Kiyoshina\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess *Sōshi* (宗子内親王; d. 854)
- Court lady: Hiroi no Otona\'s daughter
- Seventh Son: Minamoto no Makoto (源信)
- Court lady: Fuse no Musashiko (布勢武蔵子)
- Minamoto no Sadahime (源貞姫; 810--880)
- Minamoto no Hashihime (源端姫)
- Court lady: Kamitsukeno clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Hiromu (源弘; 812--863)
- Court lady: Abe no Yanatsu\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Yutaka (源寛; 813--876)
- Court lady: Kasa no Tsugiko (笠継子), Kasa no Nakamori\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Ikeru (源生; 821--872)
- Court lady: Awata clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Yasushi (源安; 822--853)
- Court lady: Ōhara no Matako (大原全子), Ōhara no Mamuro\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Tōru (源融), *Sadaijin*
- Minamoto no Tsutomu (源勤; 824--881)
- Minamoto no Mitsuhime (源盈姫)
- Court lady: Ki clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Sarahime (源更姫)
- Court lady: Kura no Kageko (内蔵影子)
- Minamoto no Kamihime (源神姫)
- Minamoto no *Katahime* (源容姫)
- Minamoto no Agahime (源吾姫)
- Court lady: Kannabi no Iseko (甘南備伊勢子)
- Minamoto no Koehime (源声姫)
- Court lady: Fun\'ya no Fumiko (文屋文子), Fun\'ya no Kugamaro\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess *Junshi* (純子内親王; d. 863)
- Imperial Princess *Seishi* (斉子内親王; d. 853), married to Prince Fujii (son of Emperor Kanmu)
- Prince Atsushi (淳王)
- Court lady: Tanaka clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no *Sumu(?)* (源澄)
- Court lady: Koreyoshi no Sadamichi\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Masaru (源勝)
- Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Mineko (大中臣峯子)
- Court lady: Tachibana no Haruko (橘春子)
- Court lady: Nagaoka no Okanari\'s daughter
- Minamoto no *Sakashi(?)* (源賢)
- Court lady (*Nyoju*): Taima no Osadamaro\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Kiyohime (源潔姫; 810--856), married to Fujiwara no Yoshifusa
- Minamoto no Matahime (源全姫; 812--882), Naishi-no-kami (尚侍)
- Lady-in-waiting: Sugawara Kanshi (菅原閑子)
- (from unknown women)
- Minamoto no *Tsugu (?)* (源継)
- Minamoto no Yoshihime (源良姫)
- Minamoto no Toshihime (源年姫)
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Saga'''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Kanmu]] (737-806)
|3= 3. [[Fujiwara no Otomuro]] (760-790)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Kōnin]] (709–782)
|5= 5. [[Takano no Niigasa]] (c. 720-790)
|6= 6. [[Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu]] (716-777)
|7= 7. [[:ja:阿倍古美奈|Abe no Komina]] (d. 784)
|8= 8. [[:ja:志貴皇子|Prince Shiki]] (d. 716)
|9= 9. [[:ja:紀橡姫|Ki no Tochihime]] (d. 709)
|10=10. Yamato no Ototsugu
|11=11. Haji no Maimo
|12=12. [[Fujiwara no Umakai]] (694-737)
|13=13. Isonokami no Kunimina no Ōtoji
|14=14
| 728 |
Emperor Saga
| 1 |
10,436 |
# Emperor Junna
was the 53rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Junna reigned from 823 to 833.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Junna had six empresses and imperial consorts and 13 imperial sons and daughters. His personal name (*imina*) was `{{nihongo|Ōtomo|大伴}}`{=mediawiki}.
Junna is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates `{{nihongo3|Ōharano no Nishi no Minenoe Imperial Mausoleum|大原野西嶺上陵|Ōharano no Nishi no Minenoe no Misasagi}}`{=mediawiki}, in Nishikyō-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Junna\'s mausoleum.
### Events of Junna\'s life {#events_of_junnas_life}
- **810**: After the rebellion of Emperor Heizei, he became the crown prince of Emperor Saga at 25 years of age.
- **30 May 823** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Kōnin]] 14, 17th day of the 4th month''|弘仁十四年四月十七日}}`{=mediawiki}): In the 14th year of Emperor Saga\'s reign, he abdicated; the succession (*senso*) was received by Junna, Saga\'s younger brother and Emperor Kanmu\'s third son.
- **22 March 833** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Tenchō]] 10, 28th day of the 2nd month''|天長十年二月二十八日}}`{=mediawiki}): In the 10th year of Emperor Junna\'s reign, the emperor abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by his adopted son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne. After Junna stepped down from the throne, two former Emperors were alive. In this period, Saga was called the Senior Retired Emperor and Junna was known as the Junior Retired Emperor.
- **11 June 840** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Jōwa (Heian period)|Jōwa]] 7, 8th day of the 5th month''|承和七年五月八日}}`{=mediawiki}: Former-Emperor Junna died at the age of 55. Following his death, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa maneuvered to have Montoku, rather than the crown prince Tsunesada, put on the throne; Junna\'s death set the stage for the Fujiwara clan\'s ascendancy.
### Eras of Junna\'s reign {#eras_of_junnas_reign}
The years of Junna\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (*nengō*).
- *Kōnin* (810--824)
- *Tenchō* (824--834)
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Junna\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Sadaijin*, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu (藤原冬嗣), 825--826.
- *Sadaijin*, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 832--843.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 825--832.
- *Udaijin*, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 832--837.
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 821--825.
- *Dainagon*, Yoshimine no Yasuyo (良峯安世) (half brother of Emperor Junna), 828--830.
- *Dainagon*, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 828--832
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), 829--838
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Empress: *Imperial Princess Shōshi*/Masako (正子内親王; 810--879), Emperor Saga\'s daughter
- Second Son: Imperial Prince Tsunesada (恒貞親王), the Crown Prince (deposed in 842)
- Third Son: Imperial Prince Motosada (基貞親王; 827--869)
- Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Tsunefusa (恒統親王; 829--842)
*Hi* (Empress as posthumous honors): Imperial Princess Koshi (高志内親王; 789--809), Emperor Kanmu\'s daughter
- First Son: Imperial Prince Tsuneyo (恒世親王; 806--826)
- First Daughter: Imperial Princess Ujiko (氏子内親王; d.885), 16th Saiō in Ise Shrine (823--827)
- Imperial Princess *Yushi* (有子内親王; d. 862)
- Imperial Princess Sadako (貞子内親王: d. 834)
Court lady: Princess Otsugu (緒継女王; 787--847)
*Nyogō*: Nagahara no Motohime (永原原姫)
*Nyogō*: Tachibana no Ujiko (橘氏子), Tachibana no Nagana\'s daughter
- Prince
*Koui*: Fujiwara no Kiyoko (藤原潔子), Fujiwara no Nagaoka\'s daughter
Court lady: Kiyohara no Haruko (清原春子), Kiyohara no Natsuno\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess *Meishi* (明子内親王; d. 854)
Court lady: Ōnakatomi no Yasuko (大中臣安子), Ōnakatomi Fuchiio\'s daughter
- Fifth Son: Imperial Prince Yoshisada (良貞親王; d. 848)
Court lady: Ōno no Takako (大野鷹子), Ōno no Masao\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess Hiroko (寛子内親王; d. 869)
Court lady: Tachibana no Funeko (橘船子), Tachibana no Kiyono\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess Takaiko (崇子内親王; d. 848)
Court lady: Tajihi no Ikeko (丹犀池子), Tajihi no Kadonari\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess Tomoko (同子内親王; d. 860)
Unknown lady
- Mune no *Chushi* (統忠子; d. 863), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 862.
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Junna'''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Kanmu]] (737–806)
|3= 3. [[:ja:藤原旅子|Fujiwara no Tabiko]] (759–788)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Kōnin]] (709–782)
|5= 5. [[Takano no Niigasa]] (c. 720–790)
|6= 6. [[Fujiwara no Momokawa]] (732–779)
|7= 7. [[Fujiwara no Moroane]]
|8= 8. [[:ja:志貴皇子|Prince Shiki]] (d. 716)
|9= 9. [[:ja:紀橡姫|Ki no Tochihime]] (d. 709)
|10=10. Yamato no Ototsugu
|11=11. Haji no Maimo
|12=12. [[Fujiwara no Umakai]] (694–737)
|13=13. [[Kume no Wakame]] (d. 780)
|14=14
| 753 |
Emperor Junna
| 0 |
10,439 |
# Emperor Sukō
(25 May 1334 -- 31 January 1398) was the third of the Emperors of Northern Court during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts in Japan. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1348 through 1351.
## Genealogy
His personal name was originally **Masuhito** (益仁), but was later changed to **Okihito** (興仁).
His father was Emperor Kōgon. His predecessor, Emperor Kōmyō was his uncle, the younger brother of Emperor Kōgon.
- Lady-in-waiting: Niwata (Minamoto) Motoko (庭田（源）資子; d.1394), Niwata Shigemoto\'s daughter
- First son: Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Yoshihito (1351--1416; 伏見宮栄仁親王) (Founder of Fushimi-no-miya house, collateral branch of the Imperial Family and included in the Succession to the Japanese throne until 1947)
- Second son: Imperial Prince Priest Koshin (1358--1391; 興信法親王)
- Court Lady: Anfuku-dono-Naishi (安福殿女御)
- Consort: Sanjō-no-Tsubone (三条局)
- First daughter: Princess Suiho (瑞宝女王)
- Third son: Imperial Prince Priest Kojo (弘助法親王)
## Events of Sukō\'s life {#events_of_sukōs_life}
Sukō occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 18 November 1348 until 22 November 1351.
In 1348, he became Crown Prince. In the same year, he became Northern Emperor upon the abdication of Emperor Kōmyō. Although Emperor Kōgon ruled as a cloistered Emperor, the rivalry between Ashikaga Takauji and Ashikaga Tadayoshi began, and in 1351, Takauji returned to the allegiance of the Southern Court, forcing Emperor Sukō to abdicate. This was intended to reunify the Imperial Line.
However, the peace soon fell apart, and in April 1352, the Southern Dynasty evacuated Kyoto, abducting with them Retired (Northern) Emperors Emperor Kōgon and Emperor Kōmyō as well as Emperor Sukō and the Crown Prince Tadahito. Because of this, Takauji made Emperor Kōgon\'s second son Imperial Prince Iyahito emperor (First Fushimi-no-miya).
Returning to Kyoto in 1357, Emperor Sukō\'s son Imperial Prince Yoshihito began to work with the Bakufu to be named Crown Prince, but the Bakufu instead decided to make Emperor Go-Kōgon\'s son (the future Emperor Go-En\'yū) Crown Prince instead.
In 1398, Emperor Sukō died. But, 30 years after his death, in 1428, his great-grandson Hikohito (彦仁), as the adopted son of Emperor Shōkō, became Emperor Go-Hanazono, fulfilling Sukō\'s dearest wish. Sukō is enshrined at the *Daikōmyōji no misasagi* (大光明寺陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto
| 363 |
Emperor Sukō
| 0 |
10,440 |
# Emperor Go-Kōgon
was the 4th of the Emperors of Northern Court during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1352 through 1371.
This Nanboku-chō \"sovereign\" was named after his father Emperor Kōgon and *go-* (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he may be called the \"Later Emperor Kōgon\", or, in some older sources, may be identified as \"Emperor Kōgon, the second\", or as \"Emperor Kōgon II.\"
## Genealogy
His personal name was Iyahito (彌仁).
He was the second son of the Northern Pretender Emperor Kōgon, and brother of his predecessor, Emperor Sukō. His mother was Hideko (秀子), Sanjō Kinhide\'s daughter
- Lady-in-waiting: Hirohashi (Fujiwara) Nakako (廣橋（藤原）仲子; 1336/9-1427) later Sukenmon'in (崇賢門院), Hirohashi Kanetsuna\'s daughter
- Second son: Imperial Prince Ohito (緒仁親王) later Emperor Go-En\'yū
- Fifth son: Imperial Prince Priest Eijo (1362--1437; 永助入道親王)
- Sixth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōnin (堯仁法親王; 1363--1430）
- Twelfth son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyōsho (堯性法親王; 1371--1388)
- Consort: Uemon-no-Suke no Tsubone (右衛門佐局)
- First son: Imperial Prince Priest Ryōnin (1355--1370; 亮仁入道親王)
- Third son: Imperial Prince Priest Gyojo (行助法親王; 1360--1386）
- son: (1361--1369)
- Seventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakuzō (1363--1390; 覺増法親王)
- Consort: Sakyōdaibu-no-Tsubone (左京大夫局), Hōin Chōkai\'s daughter
- First daughter: Imperial Princess Haruko (d. 1390; 治子内親王)
- Fourth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kakuei (覺叡法親王; 1361--1377)
- Eighth son: Imperial Prince Priest Dōen (道圓入道親王; 1364--1385)
- Eleventh son: Imperial Prince Priest Shōjo (聖助法親王; b.1371)
- Consort:Shonagon-naishi (少納言内侍), Tachibana no Mochishige 's daughter
- Tenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Myōshō (1367--1396; 明承法親王)
- from unknown women
- Ninth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kanshu (1366--1401; 寬守法親王)
- Thirteenth son: Imperial Prince Priest Kankyō (1373--1405; 寬教入道親王)
- Second daughter: Imperial Princess Kenshi (見子內親王)
- Fourteenth son: ?
- Daughter: Princess Shūnin (秀仁女王)
## Events of Go-Kōgon\'s life {#events_of_go_kōgons_life}
In his own lifetime, Go-Kōgon and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 25 September 1352 to 9 April 1371.
In 1351, Ashikaga Takauji briefly returned to the allegiance of the Southern Dynasty, causing the Southern Court to briefly consolidate control of the Imperial Line. However, this peace fell apart in April 1352. On this occasion, the Southern Court abducted Retired (Northern) Emperors Emperor Kōgon and Emperor Kōmyō as well as Emperor Sukō and the Crown Prince Tadahito from Kyoto to Anau, the location of the Southern Court. This produced a state of affairs in which there was no Emperor in Kyoto. Because of this, Imperial Prince Iyahito became emperor in 1352 with the support of Ashikaga Yoshiakira.
During this period, the Era of the Northern and Southern Courts, because of the antagonism between the two competing dynasties, public order in Kyoto was disturbed. The Southern Court repeatedly recaptured Kyoto. Emperor Go-Kōgon was forced to repeatedly flee from Kyoto to Ōmi Province and other places. Around the time that Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named *shōgun* (1368), the Southern Courts power weakened, and order was restored to Kyoto. Also around this time, the Emperor\'s authority began to show its weakness.
On 9 April 1371, he abdicated in favor of his son, who became Emperor Go-En\'yū. He continued to rule as Cloistered Emperor until he died of illness on 12 March 1374. He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called *Fukakusa no kita no misasagi* (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto.
## Eras of Go-Kōgon\'s reign {#eras_of_go_kōgons_reign}
The years of Go-Kōgon\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*
| 579 |
Emperor Go-Kōgon
| 0 |
10,441 |
# Emperor Go-En'yū
(11 January 1359 -- 6 June 1393) was the 5th of the Emperors of Northern Court during the period of two courts in Japan. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1371 through 1382.
This Nanboku-chō \"sovereign\" was named after the 10th century Emperor En\'yū and *go-* (後), translates literally as \"later;\" and thus, he may be called the \"Later Emperor En\'yū\", or, in some older sources, may be identified as \"Emperor En\'yū, the second\", or as \"Emperor En\'yū II.\"
## Genealogy
His personal name was Ohito (緒仁).
He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender Emperor Go-Kōgon. His mother was Fujiwara no Nakako (藤原仲子), Hirohashi Kanetsuna\'s daughter.
- Consort: Sanjō Itsuko (三条 厳子) (also known as Fujiwara no Izuko). Sanjō Kintada\'s daughter.
- First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) later Emperor Go-Komatsu
- First daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (1381--1399; 珪子内親王)
- Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara no Imako (藤原今子), Shijō Takasato\'s daughter
- Second son: Imperial Prince Priest Dōchō (1378--1446; 道朝法親王)
- Naishi: Ogimachi Sanjo Sanetoshi\'s daughter
- Naishi: Azechi-no-tsubone, Tachibana Tomoshige\'s daughter
- unknown
- daughter: (d.1391)
- daughter: ???
- son: ???
## Events of Go-En\'yū\'s life {#events_of_go_enyūs_life}
In his own lifetime, Go-En\'yū and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 9 April 1371 to 24 May 1382.
In 1371, by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of *shinnō* (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir). Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Go-Kōgon. There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor Emperor Sukō over the Crown Prince. With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the Bakufu, Go-Kōgon\'s son became the Northern Emperor.
Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as cloistered emperor. In 1368, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named *shōgun*, and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized. In 1382, upon abdicating to Emperor Go-Komatsu, his cloistered rule began. Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his consort Itsuko of adultery.
In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts came to an end. On 6 June 1393, Go-En\'yū died. He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called *Fukakusa no kita no misasagi* (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto.
## Eras of Go-En\'yū\'s reign {#eras_of_go_enyūs_reign}
The years of Go-En\'yū\'s *Nanboku-chō* reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*
| 410 |
Emperor Go-En'yū
| 0 |
10,442 |
# Emperor Suizei
, also known as `{{Nihongo||神沼河耳命|''Kamununakawamimi no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki}, was the second legendary emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Suizei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. A legendary account from the *Kojiki* states that Suizei became emperor after receiving the title of crown prince by his half brother due to his bravery regarding a murder plot. Suizei\'s reign started in 581 BC, he had one wife and a sole son who supposedly became the next emperor upon his death in 549 BC.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
While the *Kojiki* provides little information about Suizei, it does state his name, genealogy, and a record about his accession to the throne. He was born sometime in 632 BC, and was one of the sons of Emperor Jimmu and his chief wife Himetataraisuzu-hime. The account in the Kojiki states that Suizei\'s older brother Kamuyaimimi was originally the Crown-prince. When Jimmu died, another of his sons named Tagishimimi attempted to seize the throne by murdering those in his way. Tagishimimi was given birth to by a lesser wife named Ahiratsu-hime, and was older than Jimmu\'s legitimate heir. When Himetataraisuzu-hime learned of the plot she tried in vain to warn her sons by way of songs and poems. While Suizei encouraged Kamuyaimimi to slay Tagishimimi, he could not find it in him to murder his own half brother. Suizei pleaded with his older brother for the weapon he was going to use, and upon receiving it accomplished the deed for him. Kamuyaimimi ceded his rights as crown prince shortly after to Suizei as he believed his braver younger brother should be the new Emperor.
Emperor Suizei\'s pre-ascension name remains unknown, but the *Kojiki* records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||葛城高岡宮|[[Takaoka-no-miya]]}}`{=mediawiki} at Katsuragi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. While another more expansive account exists in the *Nihon Shoki*, the section is more steeped in myth. Suizei is conventionally considered to have reigned from 581 to 549 BC. He wed Isuzuyori-hime at an unknown date, and the two had one son. Emperor Suizei allegedly died in 549 BC and his gravesite is formally named *Tsukida no oka no e no misasagi*. He was succeeded by his only son, *Prince Shikitsuhikotamatemi* who became Emperor Annei.
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Suizei is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is ranked as the first of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Suizei*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"joyfully healthy peace\". His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Suizei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. While the actual site of his grave is not known, an Imperial *misasagi* or tomb for Suizei is currently maintained in Kashihara. The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 604 |
Emperor Suizei
| 0 |
10,443 |
# Emperor Annei
, also known as `{{Nihongo||師木津日子玉手見命|''Shikitsuhikotamatemi no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the third legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Annei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Annei\'s reign allegedly began in 549 BC, he had one wife and three sons. After his death in 511 BC, his second or third son supposedly became the next emperor.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
Emperor Annei\'s name appears in both the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* where only his genealogy are recorded. While the Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Before his accession to the throne, he was allegedly known as Prince Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi. Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi was either the eldest son or the only son of Emperor Suizei with Isuzuyori-hime. The *Kojiki* records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||片塩浮穴宮|[[Ukena-no-miya]]|extra=and in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' as {{Nihongo2|片塩浮孔宮}}}}`{=mediawiki} at Katashiro in Kawachi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. During Emperor Annei\'s alleged lifetime, he had one wife named \"Nunasokonakatsu-hime\" and fathered three children with her. Annei\'s reign lasted from 549 BC until his death in 511 BC, his second or third son then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Itoku.
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. *Annei* is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the second of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Annei*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"steady tranquillity\". His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Annei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. The name \"Annei\" is first credited to Japanese scholar and writer Ōmi no Mifune, who allegedly came up with the name sometime in the latter half of the 8th century.
While the actual site of Annei\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (陵,*misasagi*) in Kashihara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Annei\'s mausoleum, and is formally named *Unebi-yama no hitsujisaru Mihodo no i no e no misasagi(畝傍山西南御陰井上陵,The royal tomb over the mihodo at the south west of mount unebi)*. The first emperor that historians believe might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 521 |
Emperor Annei
| 0 |
10,445 |
# Emperor Kōshō
, also known as `{{Nihongo||真津日子訶恵志泥命|''Mimatsuhikokaeshine no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the fifth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kōshō is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Kōshō\'s reign allegedly began in 475 BC, he had one wife and two sons. After his death in 393 BC, his second son supposedly became the next emperor.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
In the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and an Imperial *misasagi*(陵) or tomb for Kōshō is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Kōshō is believed to be the oldest son of Emperor Itoku, and his wife Amanotoyototsu-hime. His mother was the daughter of Okishimimi-no-kami. The *Kojiki* records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||葛城掖上宮|[[Ikekokoro-no-miya]]|extra=and in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' as {{Nihongo2|掖上池心宮}}}}`{=mediawiki} at Waki-no-kami in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. Kōshō allegedly had a wife named *Yosotarashi-hime*, and fathered two children with her. His reign lasted from 475 BC until his death in 393 BC, his second son then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Kōan.
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. *Kōshō* is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the fourth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kōshō*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, and literally means \"filial manifestation\". His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōshō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. While the actual site of Kōshō\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) in Gose. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōshō\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Waki-no-kami no Hakata no yama no e no misasagi*. There is a possibility that this figure could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD), however more research is needed to make any further conclusions.
The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 493 |
Emperor Kōshō
| 0 |
10,446 |
# Emperor Kōan
, also known as `{{Nihongo||大倭帯日子国押人命|''Yamatotarashihikokunioshihito no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the sixth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kōan is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Kōan\'s reign allegedly began in 393 BC, he had one wife and two sons and reigned for more than 100 years until his death in 291 BC at the age of 137. One of his sons then supposedly became the next emperor. Emperor Kōan is traditionally accepted as the final emperor of the Jōmon period, which ended in 300 BC.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
In the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and an Imperial *misasagi* or tomb for Kōan is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. He is believed to be son of Emperor Kōshō; and his mother is believed to have been Yosotarashi-no-hime, who was the daughter of Okitsuyoso, and ancestress of the Owari. The *Kojiki* records Kōan was the second son of Emperor Kōshō, and that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||葛城室之秋津島宮|[[Akitsushima-no-miya]]|extra=and in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' as {{Nihongo2|室秋津島宮}}}}`{=mediawiki} at Muro in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. Kōan was allegedly an emperor who reigned for more than a hundred years, and lived to the age of 137 (according to the Kojiki). He allegedly had a wife named Yosotarashi-hime, and fathered two children with her. Kōan\'s reign lasted from 392 BC until his death in 291 BC, one of his sons then took the throne and would later be referred to as Emperor Kōrei.
| 317 |
Emperor Kōan
| 0 |
10,446 |
# Emperor Kōan
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Kōan is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the fifth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kōan*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōan, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. The name \"Kōan\" is first credited to Japanese scholar and writer Ōmi no Mifune, who allegedly came up with the name sometime in the latter half of the 8th century.
Emperor Kōan\'s longevity is disputed as the oldest verified humans usually go into the mid to late 110s. While historian John S. Brownlee calls Kōan\'s alleged age of 137 at the time of his death \"too long\", he also says that this is not unusual for mythical figures. He ends his narrative by saying that nobody in Japan was bothered by the longevity of the former emperors until the modern era. Regardless of his age, the actual site of Kōan\'s grave is not known. Kōan is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) in Tamade, Gose. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōan\'s mausoleum, and its formal name is *Tamate no oka no e no misasagi*.
The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 324 |
Emperor Kōan
| 1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.