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# Emperor Kōrei
, also known as `{{Nihongo||大倭根子日子賦斗邇命|''Ōyamatonekohikofutoni no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the seventh legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kōrei is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Kōrei\'s reign allegedly began in 290 BC. He had one wife and three consorts with whom he fathered seven children. After his death in 215 BC, one of his sons supposedly became the next emperor. Kōrei is traditionally accepted as the first emperor of the Yayoi period, which is named after the Yayoi people who migrated to the Japanese archipelago from mainland Asia.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
In the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and an Imperial *misasagi* or tomb for Kōrei is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Kōrei was born in 342 BC and is believed to be the eldest son of Emperor Kōan. His mother is believed to have been Oshihime, who was the daughter of Ametarashihiko-Kunio-shihito-no-mikoto. Kōrei\'s pre-ascension name was Prince *O-Yamato-Neko Hiko-futo-ni no Mikoto*, and the *Kojiki* records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||黒田廬戸宮|[[Kuroda-noi-odo-no-miya]]}}`{=mediawiki} at Kuroda in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. It is noted in the Kojiki that sometime during Kōrei\'s reign, Kibi was conquered by the emperor. Kōrei was the first emperor since Jimmu to take on consorts, and fathered seven children with them along with his chief wife Empress: Kuwashi-hime. Kōrei is recorded as having a long life, reigning from 290 BC until his death in 215 BC. His eldest son was then subsequently enthroned as the next emperor.
| 321 |
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# Emperor Kōrei
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Kōrei is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the sixth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kōrei*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōrei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. As with Emperor Kōan, Kōrei\'s exceptional age of 127 is considered unlikely due to verification issues among other things. While the actual site of Kōrei\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) in Ōji. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōrei\'s mausoleum, and its formal name is *Kataoka no Umasaka no misasagi*.
Like Emperor Kōshō, there is a possibility that *\"Kōrei\"* could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD). Historian Louis Frédéric notes this idea in his book *Japan Encyclopedia* where he says it is \"very likely\", but this remains disputed among other researchers. The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
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# Emperor Kōgen
, also known as `{{Nihongo||大倭根子日子国玖琉命|''Ōyamatonekohikokunikuru no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the eighth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kōgen is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Kōgen\'s reign allegedly began in 214 BC, he had one wife and two consorts whom he fathered six children with. After his death in 158 BC, one of his sons supposedly became Emperor Kaika.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
In the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, only Kōgen\'s name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and an Imperial *misasagi* or tomb for Kōgen is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Kōgen was born sometime in 273 BC, and is recorded as being the eldest son of Emperor Kōrei. His empress mother was named \"*Kuwashi-hime*\", who was the daughter of Shiki no Agatanushi Oome. Before he was enthroned sometime in 214 BC, his pre-ascension name was *Prince Ō-yamato-neko-hiko-kuni-kuru no Mikoto*. The Kojiki records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||軽之堺原宮|[[Sakaihara-no-miya]]|extra=and in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' as {{Nihongo2|軽境原宮}}}}`{=mediawiki} at Karu in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. Emperor Kōgen had a chief wife (empress) named *Utsushikome*, along with two consorts. His first son was named Prince Ōhiko, and according to the Nihon Shoki was the direct ancestor of the Abe clan. One of Kōgen\'s other sons, Prince *Hikofutsuoshinomakoto*, was also the grandfather of the legendary Japanese hero-statesman Takenouchi no Sukune. Emperor Kōgen reigned until his death in 158 BC; his second son was then enthroned as the next emperor.
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Kōgen is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the seventh of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kōgen*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kōgen, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. While the actual site of Kōgen\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) in Kashihara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōgen\'s mausoleum, and its formal name is *Tsurugi no ike no shima no e no misasagi*.
The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
- Empress: `{{Nihongo|{{ill|Utsushikome|ja|欝色謎命}}|欝色謎命|extra=d.157 BC}}`{=mediawiki}, Oyakuchisukune\'s daughter
- , ancestor of all the Abe clan\'s descendants.
-
- , later Emperor Kaika.
-
- Consort: `{{Nihongo|[[Ikagashikome]]|伊香色謎命}}`{=mediawiki}, Ōhesoki\'s daughter
- , grandfather of `{{Nihongo|[[Takenouchi no Sukune]]|武内宿禰}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Emperor Kaika
, also known as `{{Nihongo||若倭根子日子大毘毘命|''Wakayamato Nekohiko Ōbibi no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} in the *Kojiki*, and `{{Nihongo||稚日本根子彦大日日天皇|''Wakayamato Nekohiko Ōbibi no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} in the *Nihon Shoki* was the ninth legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Very little is known about this Emperor due to a lack of material available for further verification and study. Kaika is known as a \"legendary emperor\" among historians as his actual existence is disputed. Nothing exists in the *Kojiki* other than his name and genealogy. Kaika\'s reign allegedly began in 158 BC. He had one wife and three consorts whom he fathered five children with. After his death in 98 BC, one of his sons supposedly became Emperor Sujin.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
In the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, only Kaika\'s name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and an Imperial *misasagi* or tomb for Kaika is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered that confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. Kaika was born sometime in 208 BC, and is recorded as being the second son of Emperor Kōgen. His empress mother was named *Utsushikome*, who was the daughter of *Oyakuchisukune*. Before he was enthroned sometime in 158 BC, his pre-ascension name was *Prince Nikohiko Ō-hibi no Mikoto*. The Kojiki records that he ruled from the palace of `{{Nihongo||軽之堺原宮|[[Sakaihara-no-miya]]|extra=and in the ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' as {{Nihongo2|軽境原宮}}}}`{=mediawiki} at Karu in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. Emperor Kaika had a chief wife (empress) named *Ikagashikome*, along with three consorts of which he fathered five children with. Kaika ruled until his death in 98 BC; his second son was then enthroned as the next emperor. His son/heir to the throne was posthumously named *Sujin* by later generations, and is the first emperor that historians say might have actually existed.
| 311 |
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# Emperor Kaika
## Known information {#known_information}
The existence of at least the first nine Emperors is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Kaika is thus regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\", and is considered to have been the eighth of eight Emperors without specific legends associated with them. The name Kaika*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kaika, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. While the actual site of Kaika\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kaika\'s mausoleum, and its formal name is *Kasuga no Izakawa no saka no e no misasagi*.
Like Emperor Kōshō and Emperor Kōrei, there is a possibility that *\"Kaika\"* could have lived instead in the 1st century (AD). Historian Louis Frédéric notes this idea in his book *Japan Encyclopedia* where he says \"more likely early AD\", but this remains disputed among other researchers. The first emperor that historians state might have actually existed is Emperor Sujin, the 10th emperor of Japan. Outside of the Kojiki, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 268 |
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# Emperor Sujin
, also known as `{{Nihongo||御眞木入日子印恵命|''Mimakiirihikoinie no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} in the *\[\[Kojiki\]\]*, and `{{Nihongo||御間城入彦五十瓊殖天皇|''Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{Nihongo||御肇國天皇|''Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} in the *\[\[Nihon Shoki\]\]* was the tenth Emperor of Japan. While Sujin is the first emperor whose existence historians widely accept, he is still referred to as a \"legendary emperor\" due to a lack of information available and because dates for his reign vary. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) record events that took place during Sujin\'s alleged lifetime. This legendary narrative tells how he set up a new shrine outside of the Imperial palace to enshrine Amaterasu. He is also credited with initiating the worship of Ōmononushi (equated with the deity of Mount Miwa), and expanding his empire by sending generals to four regions of Japan in what became known as the legend of *Shidō shogun*.
This Emperor\'s reign is conventionally assigned the years of 97 BC -- 30 BC. During his alleged lifetime, he fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts. Sujin chose his future heir based on dreams two of his sons had; in this case, his younger son became Emperor Suinin upon Sujin\'s death in 30 BC. Like other emperors of this period, the location of Sujin\'s grave if it exists is unknown. He is traditionally venerated at the Andonyama kofun in Tenri, Nara.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a kofun (tumulus) for Sujin is currently maintained. There remains no conclusive evidence though that supports this historical figure actually reigning. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *\[\[Kojiki\]\]* and *\[\[Nihon Shoki\]\]*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Sujin was born sometime in 148 BC, and was the second son of Emperor Kaika. Sujin\'s mother was *Ikagashikome no Mikoto*, who was also a concubine of Sujin\'s grandfather Emperor Kōgen. Before he was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, his pre-ascension name was either Prince *Mimakiirihikoinie no Mikoto*, *Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto*, or *Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto*. The former name is used in the *Kojiki*, while the latter two are found in the *Nihon Shoki*. Sujin was enthroned sometime in 97 BC, and during the 3rd year of his reign it is the recorded that he moved the capital to `{{Nihongo|[[Shiki District, Nara|Shiki]]|磯城}}`{=mediawiki}, naming it the *Palace of Mizu-gaki* or `{{Nihongo|Mizugaki-no-miya|瑞籬宮}}`{=mediawiki}.
| 418 |
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# Emperor Sujin
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
### Enshrining Ōmononushi (Miwa Myōjin) {#enshrining_ōmononushi_miwa_myōjin}
The *Kiki* records that pestilence struck during the 5th year of Sujin\'s rule, killing half the Japanese population. The following year peasants abandoned their fields and rebellion became rampant. To help relieve the suffering of his people, the Emperor turned his attention towards the gods. At the time, both the sun goddess Amaterasu and the god `{{Nihongo|[[Yamato Okunitama|Yamato-no-Okunitama]]|倭大国魂神}}`{=mediawiki} were enshrined at the Imperial Residence. Sujin became overwhelmed with having to cohabit with these two powerful deities and set up separate enshrinements to house them. Amaterasu was moved to `{{Nihongo|Kasanui village|笠縫邑}}`{=mediawiki} in Yamato Province (Nara), where a Himorogi altar was built out of solid stone. Sujin placed his daughter `{{Nihongo|{{Ill|Toyosukiiri-hime|ja|豊鍬入姫命}}|豊鍬入姫命}}`{=mediawiki} in charge of the new shrine, and she would become the first Saiō. Yamato-no-Okunitama (the other god) was entrusted to another daughter named Nunaki-iri-hime, but her health began to fail shortly afterward. It is recorded that Nunakiiri-hime became emaciated after losing all of her hair, which rendered her unable to perform her duties. These events still did not alleviate the ongoing plague sweeping the empire, so Sujin decreed a divination to be performed sometime during the 7th year of his reign. The divination involved him making a trip to the plain of Kami-asaji or `{{Nihongo|Kamu-asaji-ga-hara|神浅茅原}}`{=mediawiki}, and invoking the eight hundred myriad deities.
Sujin\'s aunt `{{Nihongo|[[Princess_Yamato_Totohi_Momoso|Yamatototohimomoso-hime]]|倭迹迹日百襲媛命}}`{=mediawiki} (daughter of 7th Emperor Emperor Kōrei) acted as a *miko*, and was possessed by a god who identified himself as Ōmononushi. This god claimed responsibility for the plague, announcing that it would not stop until he was venerated. Although the Emperor propitiated to the god, the effects were not immediate. Sujin was later given guidance in the form of a dream to seek out a man named `{{Nihongo|{{ill|Ōtataneko|ja|大田田根子命}}|太田田根子}}`{=mediawiki} and appoint him as head priest. When he was found and installed, the pestilence eventually subsided, allowing five cereal crops to ripen. Out of an abundance of caution, the Emperor also appointed `{{Nihongo|Ikagashikoo|伊香色雄}}`{=mediawiki} as `{{Nihongo|''kami-no-mono-akatsu-hito''|神班物者}}`{=mediawiki}, or one who sorts the offerings to the gods. To this day the Miwa sect of the Kamo clan claim to be descents from Ōtataneko, while Ikagashikoo was a claimed ancestor of the now extinct Mononobe clan.
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# Emperor Sujin
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
### Four Cardinal Quarters (Shidō shogun) {#four_cardinal_quarters_shidō_shogun}
In his 10th year of rule, Sujin instituted four of his Generals to the *Four Cardinal Quarters* in what would be known as the *Shidō shogun*. These areas (west, north/northwest, northeast, and east) were all centered around the capital in Yamato Province. Sujin instructed his generals (shogun) to quell those who would not submit to their rule. One of the four shoguns who had been sent to the northern region was named `{{Nihongo|Ōhiko|大彦}}`{=mediawiki}, who was also Emperor Kōgen\'s first son. One day a certain maiden approached Ōhiko and sang him a cryptic song, only to disappear afterwards. Sujin\'s aunt `{{Nihongo|[[Princess_Yamato_Totohi_Momoso|Yamatototohimomoso-hime]]|倭迹迹日百襲媛命}}`{=mediawiki}, who was skilled at clairvoyance, interpreted this to mean that Take-hani-yasu-hiko (Ōhiko\'s half brother) was plotting an insurrection. Yamatototohimomoso-hime pieced it together from overhearing news that Take-hani-yasu-hiko\'s wife (Ata-bime) came to `{{Nihongo|Mount Amanokaguya|天香久山}}`{=mediawiki}, and took a clump of earth in the corner of her neckerchief.
Emperor Sujin gathered his generals in a meeting upon hearing the news, but the couple had already mustered troops to the west who were ready to attack the capital. The Emperor responded by sending an army under the command of general *Isaseri-hiko no Mikoto* to fight a battle that ended with a decisive Imperial victory. Ata-bime was killed in combat, and her husband fled back north. Sujin then sent general `{{Nihongo|Hiko-kuni-fuku|彦国葺命}}`{=mediawiki} north to Yamashiro Province to punish the rebel prince. There was ultimately an exchange of bowshots that resulted in Take-hani-yasu-hiko\'s death by an arrow through the chest. Eventually the Emperor would appoint 137 governors for the provinces under his Imperial rule as the empire expanded. In his 12th year of rule, the Emperor decreed that a census be taken of the populace \"with grades of seniority, and the order of forced labour\". The tax system meanwhile was set up so taxes imposed were in the form of mandatory labor. These taxes were known as `{{Nihongo|''yuhazu no mitsugi''|弭調|extra="bow-end tax"}}`{=mediawiki} for men and `{{Nihongo|''tanasue no mitsugi''|手末調|extra="finger-end tax"}}`{=mediawiki} for women. During this period peace and prosperity ensued, and the Emperor received the title `{{Nihongo|''Hatsu kuni shirasu sumeramikoto''|御肇国天皇|extra="The Emperor, the august founder of the country"}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Choosing an heir and Divine treasures {#choosing_an_heir_and_divine_treasures}
During the 48th year of Sujin\'s reign (50 BC), he summoned two of his sons saying that he loved them equally and could not make up his mind which to make his heir. He then asked his sons to describe the dreams they had recently, so he could divine their lot by interpreting them. The elder son\'s name was `{{Nihongo|Toyoki|豊城命}}`{=mediawiki}, and explained to his father that he dreamt of climbing Mt. Mimoro (Mount Miwa). While facing east, he said that he thrust his spear eight times and then waved his sword eight times skywards. The younger prince, whose name was `{{Nihongo|Ikume|活目命}}`{=mediawiki} dreamt of climbing Mimoro and spanning ropes on four sides. He went on to say how he chased the sparrows that ate the millet. Sujin accordingly chose his younger son Ikume to become the next Crown prince, while his older son Toyoki was chosen to govern the east. Toyoki ultimately became the ancestor of the Kamitsuke and Shimotsuke clans.
In the 60th year of Sujin\'s reign (38 BC), Sujin told his ministers that he wanted to look at divine treasures brought from the heavens by `{{Nihongo|Takehinateru|建比良鳥命}}`{=mediawiki} which were housed in the Izumo Shrine. `{{Nihongo|Izumo Furune|出雲振根}}`{=mediawiki} was the keeper of the treasures, but at the time was away on business in Tsukushi Province. Furune\'s younger brother `{{Nihongo|Izumo Iiirine|出雲飯入根}}`{=mediawiki}, accommodated the Imperial Edict on his behalf by sending his two younger brothers as carriers of these treasures to show the Emperor. When Furune returned, he was furious at Iiirine for parting with the treasures. He invited his younger brother to wade in a pool (named Yamuya) with him, where he used a sword-swapping intrigue. Furune exchanged his own wooden sword with his brother\'s real sword and commenced a battle which ended with Iiirine\'s death. When the Imperial court received news of the event, they dispatched two generals to slay Izumo Furune.
### Later reign and death {#later_reign_and_death}
Towards the end of his reign in (36 BC), both the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* records indicate that Sujin started to encourage the building of artificial ponds and canals. During this time, `{{Nihongo|Yosami pond|依網池}}`{=mediawiki} was built near `{{Nihongo|Ōyosami Shrine|大依羅神社}}`{=mediawiki} in Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka. Sujin is also credited with building `{{Nihongo|Sakaori pond|酒折池}}`{=mediawiki} which was said to be located in *Karu* (Kashihara, Nara). During his alleged lifetime, Sujin fathered twelve children with a chief wife (empress) and two consorts. When he died in 30 BC, his son *Prince Ikumeirihikoisachi* became the next emperor per Sujin\'s choice. Sujin\'s actual burial site is unknown, but is said to be at Mount Miwa.
| 792 |
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# Emperor Sujin
## Historical figure {#historical_figure}
While Emperor Sujin is the first emperor whom historians state might have actually existed, he is not confirmed as an actual historical figure. Like his predecessors, his reign is disputed due to insufficient material available for further verification and study. Sujin\'s possible lifespan has been suggested to be as early as the 1st century AD, to as late as the fourth century AD, this is well past his conventionally assigned reign of 97 BC -- 30 BC. Like Emperor Kōshō, Emperor Kōrei, and Emperor Kaika, historian Louis Frédéric notes an idea in his book *Japan Encyclopedia* that Sujin could have lived in the 1st century (AD). This remains disputed though, especially among researchers who have been critical of his book. If Sujin did in fact exist, then he may have been the founder of the imperial dynasty. Historian Richard Ponsonby-Fane suggests that Sujin may have been the first emperor to perform a census and establish and regularize a system of taxation.
In either case (fictional or not), the name Sujin*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Sujin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *\[\[Kojiki\]\]*. Sujin\'s longevity was also written down by later compilers, who may have unrealistically extended his age to fill in time gaps. While the actual site of Sujin\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at the *Andonyama kofun* in Tenri, Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as the kofun (tumulus), and its formal name is \'*\'Yamanobe no michi no Magari no oka no e no misasagi*. Sujin\'s kofun is one of six that are present in the area; the mounds are thought to have built sometime between 250 and 350 AD.
Outside of the *Kojiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography is able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD. The lineal ancestor of the current reigning emperor can be traced back to Emperor Kōkaku, who lived a thousand years later
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# Emperor Keikō
, also known as `{{Nihongo||大足彦忍代別天皇|''Ootarashihikooshirowake no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{Nihongo||大帯日子淤斯呂和氣天皇|''Ōtarashihiko-oshirowake no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki}, was the 12th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) record events that took place during Keikō\'s alleged lifetime. Keikō was recorded as being an exceptionally tall emperor who had a very large family. During his reign he sought to expand territorial control through conquest of local tribes. He had a very important son named \"Prince Ōsu\" (Yamato Takeru), who was in possession of the Kusanagi when he died. This treasure was later moved to Atsuta Shrine, and is now a part of the Imperial Regalia of Japan. There is a possibility that Keikō actually lived or reigned in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st, but more information is needed to confirm this view.
Keikō\'s reign is conventionally considered to have been from 71 to 130 AD. During his alleged lifetime, he fathered at least 80 children with two chief wives (empress) and nine consorts. One of his sons became the next emperor upon his death in 130 AD, but the location of Keikō\'s grave (if any) is unknown. Keikō is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb (*misasagi*) at Nara.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Keiko is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Keikō was born sometime in 13 BC, and was given the name \"Otarashihiko-no-mikoto\". He was the 3rd son of Emperor Suinin, and his second empress wife \"Hibasu-hime\". Otarashihiko-no-mikoto was allegedly chosen as crown prince over his elder brother based on a casual question on what they both had wished for. In the former\'s case he said \"The Empire\" while his elder brother said \"Bow and arrows\". Otarashihiko-no-mikoto later ascended to the throne in 71 AD, coming a year after his father\'s death.
Accounts in the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki* are split when it comes to initial territorial expansion during Emperor Keikō\'s reign. In the *Kojiki*, the Emperor is said to have sent his son \"Prince Ōsu\" (Yamato Takeru) to Kyūshū to conquer local tribes. Alternatively, the *Nihon Shoki* records that he went there himself and won battles against local tribes. Both sources agree that Keikō later sent Yamato Takeru to Izumo Province, and eastern provinces to conquer the area and spread his territory. According to traditional sources, Yamato Takeru died in the `{{Nihongo|43rd year of Emperor Keiko's reign|景行天皇四十三年}}`{=mediawiki}. The possessions of the dead prince were gathered together along with the sword Kusanagi; and his widow venerated his memory in a shrine at her home. Sometime later, these relics and the sacred sword were moved to the current location of the Atsuta Shrine.
Emperor Keikō was recorded as 10 ft, who had at least 80 children from multiple wives. This claim would put him into the category of gigantism if verified, although as with other aspects it was more than likely exaggerated. Other than Yamato Takeru, at least three of Keikō\'s children were ancestors of notable clans. According to tradition, emperor Keikō died in 130 AD at the age of 143, and his son Prince *Wakatarashihiko* was enthroned as the next emperor the following year.
| 586 |
Emperor Keikō
| 0 |
10,452 |
# Emperor Keikō
## Known information {#known_information}
Emperor Keikō is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The name Keikō*-tennō* was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Keikō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. There is a possibility that Keikō\'s era was in the 4th century AD rather than the 1st. This period is concurrent with the Kentoshi having an audience with the Tang Emperor, though more evidence is needed to make any conclusions. Like his father before him, Keikō is also known to have an exaggerated lifespan which is unlikely to be factual. The consecutive reigns of the emperors began to be compiled in the 8th century, and it is thought that age gaps were \"filled up\" as many lacunae were present. For comparison, verified ages in the 110s have since been documented and recorded as the \"oldest in the world\".
While the actual site of Keikō\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keikō\'s mausoleum, and it is formally named *Yamanobe no michi no e no misasagi*. Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
| 284 |
Emperor Keikō
| 1 |
10,452 |
# Emperor Keikō
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Emperor Keikō allegedly had a very large family which consisted of 2 wives, 9 concubines, and more than 80 children (51 of which are listed here). It is now questionable and open to debate,though, whether these numbers are genuine or not. Some of his listed children might actually be duplicates of the same person. The size of Keikō\'s family also could have been exaggerated over time through legends and word of mouth stories.
### Spouse
+---------------+------+----------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Position | Name | Father | Issue |
+===============+======+======================+====================================================================================+
| Empress (1st) | | Prince Wakatakehiko | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Kushitsunowake|櫛角別王}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Ōsu|大碓皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince [[Yamato Takeru|Ōsu]]|小碓尊}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------+------+----------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Empress (2nd) | | Prince Yasakairihiko | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|[[Emperor Seimu|Prince Wakatarashihiko]]|稚足彦尊}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Iokiirihiko|五百城入彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Oshinowake|忍之別皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Wakayamatoneko|稚倭根子皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Ōsuwake|大酢別皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Nunoshino-hime-miko|渟熨斗皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Iokiirihime-miko|五百城入姫皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Kagoyori-hime-miko|麛依姫皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Isakiirihiko|五十狭城入彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Kibinoehiko|吉備兄彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Takagiiri-hime-miko|高城入姫皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Oto-hime-miko|弟姫皇女}}`{=mediawiki} |
+---------------+------+----------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
### Concubines
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name | Father | Issue |
+======+=====================+===========================================================================+
| | Prince Iwatsukuwake | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Ionono-hime-miko|五百野皇女}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Kamukushi|神櫛皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Inaseirihiko|稲背入彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Abe no Kogoto | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Takekunikoriwake|武国凝別皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Himuka no Sotsuhiko|日向襲津彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Kunichiwake|国乳別皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Kunisewake|国背別皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Toyotowake|豊戸別皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Toyokuniwake|豊国別皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Prince Wakatakehiko | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Mawaka|真若王}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Hikohitoōe|彦人大兄命}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | Mononobe no Igui | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Igotohiko|五十功彦命}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | {{\*}}See below |
+------+---------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
### Issue
Status Name Mother Comments
---------- ------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume
Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume Ancestor of `{{Nihongo|Mugetsu no kimi|身毛津君}}`{=mediawiki}
Prince Harima no Inabi no Ōiratsume Ōsu, later known as Yamato Takeru, was the father of Emperor Chūai.
Prince Yasakairi-hime Wakatarashihiko became the next emperor. (Known as \"Seimu\" posthumously)
Prince Yasakairi-hime
Prince Yasakairi-hime
Prince Yasakairi-hime
Prince Yasakairi-hime
Princess Yasakairi-hime
Princess Yasakairi-hime
Princess Yasakairi-hime
Prince Yasakairi-hime Isakiirihiko is the ancestor of `{{Nihongo|Mitsukai no [[Kabane|Muraji]]|御使連}}`{=mediawiki}
Prince Yasakairi-hime
Princess Yasakairi-hime
Princess Yasakairi-hime
Princess Mizuhanoiratsume Ionono-hime-miko was possibly also a Saiō
| 415 |
Emperor Keikō
| 2 |
10,453 |
# Emperor Seimu
, also known as `{{Nihongo||稚足彦天皇|Wakatarashi hiko no Sumera mikoto}}`{=mediawiki}, was the 13th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) record events that took place during Seimu\'s alleged lifetime. This legendary Emperor is best known for organizing his local governments by making the first appointments of their kind to provinces under his rule. Seimu had only one recorded wife who bore him a single child; he also had a concubine but she had no children. This is in stark contrast to his father, who is said to have had at least 80 children with multiple wives.
Seimu\'s reign is conventionally considered to have been from 131 to 190 AD. An issue ultimately occurred when his only son allegedly died at a young age. Seimu appointed one of his nephews to be crown prince before his death in 190 AD, marking the first of later generations which would cede the throne to a non-direct successor. While the location of Seimu\'s grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Seimu\" was used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor. It has also been proposed that Seimu actually reigned much later than he is attested.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Seimu is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Seimu was born to Yasakairi-hime sometime in 84 AD, and was given the name `{{Nihongo|''Wakatarashihiko''|稚足彦尊}}`{=mediawiki}. It is unknown how he was chosen as crown prince, but Wakatarashihiko later ascended to the throne in 131 AD. Seimu is best known for organizing his local governments by appointing the first provincial governors and district officials. While the details of his system of governing remain elusive, at the time Imperial princes were sent to important places in the provinces. These members are designated as *wake*, which represented their status as a branch of the Imperial family. It has been theorized by Brinkley and Kikuchi that these appointments of local governors were designed to extend the \"prestige of the Court\". Those that were eligible included \"men of merit\", Imperial princes, or chiefs of aboriginal tribes.
The records state that Seimu had a wife named `{{Nihongo|''Oho-takara''|弟財郎女}}`{=mediawiki}, who was the daughter of *Take-oshiyama-tari-ne*. Oho-takara bore the Emperor one child, named `{{Nihongo|Prince Wakanuke|和訶奴気王}}`{=mediawiki}. Seimu\'s only son appears to have died at a young age as the Emperor appointed Yamato Takeru\'s son as Crown Prince, before his own death in 190 AD at the age 107 years old. His nephew *Tarashinakatsuhiko* was later enthroned as the next emperor in 192 AD. Seimu\'s death marked an end of direct lineage from legendary Emperor Jimmu, and was the first split branch of others that later followed.
| 527 |
Emperor Seimu
| 0 |
10,453 |
# Emperor Seimu
## Known information {#known_information}
Emperor Seimu is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. His existence is open to debate given this lack of information. If Seimu did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title *tennō* was used during the time period to which his reign has been assigned. It is much more likely that he was a chieftain, or local clan leader, and the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Seimu*-tennō* was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Seimu, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*. There is a possibility that Seimu ruled during the first half of the 4th century when Japan became a unified state ruled from Yamato, making these accounts \"not improbable\".
While the actual site of Seimu\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seimu\'s mausoleum, and is formally named *Saki no Tatanami no misasagi*. Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 272 |
Emperor Seimu
| 1 |
10,454 |
# Emperor Chūai
, also known as `{{Nihongo||足仲彦天皇|''Tarashinakatsuhiko no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the 14th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) record events that took place during Chūai\'s alleged lifetime. Chūai is the first monarch to ascend the throne who was not a son of the previous Emperor as the latter\'s only child died young. He is also noted for having his capital in Kyushu, rather than Yamato like his predecessors. The records state that Chūai had a wife named *Okinagatarashihime-no-Mikoto* (later Jingū), and 2 consorts that all bore him 4 children.
Chūai\'s reign is conventionally considered to have been from 192 to 200 AD. The events leading up to the Emperor\'s death have been subject to interpretation as they involve a vengeful Kami (spirit) indirectly killing Chūai. This event allegedly occurred after the Emperor disrespectfully scoffed at the Kami\'s request. His wife Jingū carried out the Kami\'s request which was to invade Korea, but this has since been considered legendary rather than factual. While the location of Chūai\'s grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb, and at a Hachiman shrine.
Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Chūai\" were used by later generations to describe this legendary Emperor. It has also been proposed that Chūai actually reigned much later than he is attested. Emperor Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Chūai is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The records state that Chūai was born to Futaji no Iri Hime sometime in 149 AD, and was given the name `{{Nihongo|''Tarashinakahiko'' or ''Tarashinakatsuhiko''|足仲彦天皇}}`{=mediawiki}. Chūai\'s father was allegedly the legendary prince, Yamato Takeru. He was the first Emperor who was not the child of the previous Emperor, being instead the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Seimu. The title of *Crown Prince* was given to him by his uncle before his death in 190 AD, two years later Chūai became the next Emperor. Unlike his predecessors who had maintained their capitals in Yamato Province, the records state his palace was first located on the northern shores of Shimonoseki Strait, then south of that in Kyushu.
Emperor Chūai is described in the *Kiki* as having been ten feet tall, with \"a countenance of perfect beauty\". He had one wife who was named *Okinagatarashi* (aka Jingū), and two consorts who all bore him four children. During the start of his reign, he made progress to modern day Tsuruga, and led an expedition to Kii where he heard news of a revolt. Jingū accompanied him to the west to fight against a tribe in Tsukushi (located in modern-day Fukuoka Prefecture) called *Kumaso*. On the eve of battle though, his wife was suddenly possessed by some unknown kami who advised Chūai to invade and conquer Korea. The Kami gave the reasoning that the *Kumaso* were not worthy of \"his steel\". Chūai refused with scorn for a number of reasons which included giving up a military campaign, and doubting that such a land even existed. It is said that the Kami was so enraged by this disrespect, that Emperor Chūai was later killed in a battle that beat down his troops.
The death of the Emperor was kept quiet by Jingū, who vanquished the *Kumaso* soon afterwards in a fit of revenge. Jingū then respected the wishes of the Kami by invading Korea, and subjugated the eastern Korean kingdom of Shiragi. The other two Korean kingdoms at the time voluntarily submitted, and Jingū ascended to the throne as Empress. Jingū\'s occupation of the Korean Peninsula, and reign as Empress are now considered to be legendary rather than factual. The modern traditional view is that Chūai\'s son (*Homutawake*) became the next Emperor after Jingū acted as a regent. She would have been de facto ruler in the interim.
| 713 |
Emperor Chūai
| 0 |
10,454 |
# Emperor Chūai
## Known information {#known_information}
Emperor Chūai is regarded by historians as a \"legendary Emperor\" as there is insufficient material available for further verification and study. The lack of this information has made his very existence open to debate. There is no evidence to suggest that the title *tennō* was used during the time to which Chūai\'s reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Chūai*-tennō* was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Chūai, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*.
The manner in which Chūai died has since been broken down to at least two theories. In his book *Confucianism O - Z*, professor Xinzhong Yao notes that it is possible the late Emperor could have succumbed to illness rather than death on the battlefield. Sources which include Yao, Francis Brinkley, and Kikuchi Dairoku also cite the enemy arrow scenario. While the actual site of Chūai\'s grave is not known, the Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Chūai\'s mausoleum, and is formally named *Ega no Naganu no nishi no misasagi*. The Kami (spirit) of Chūai is also enshrined at the Tamukeyama Hachiman Shrine in Nara. Chūai is traditionally listed as the last Emperor of the Yayoi period, who could have in reality ruled in the 4th century. The next era is known as the Kofun period, where more is known about the Emperors based on modern day archaeological evidence.
Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD
| 361 |
Emperor Chūai
| 1 |
10,455 |
# Emperor Ōjin
, also known as `{{Nihongo||誉田別尊|''Hondawake no Mikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} (alternatively spelled *譽田別命, 誉田別命, 品陀和気命, 譽田分命, 誉田別尊, 品陀別命*) or `{{Nihongo||譽田天皇|''Homuta no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki}, was the 15th (possibly legendary) Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) record events that took place during Ōjin\'s alleged lifetime. Ōjin is traditionally listed as the first emperor of the Kofun period, and is primarily known for being the controversial son of Empress Jingū. Historians have mixed views on his factual existence; if Ōjin was indeed a historical figure, then it is assumed he reigned much later than he is attested.
No firm dates can be assigned to Ōjin\'s life or reign, but he is traditionally considered to have reigned from 270 to 310. According to the Shinto religion and Buddhism in Japan, Emperor Ōjin is the divine spirit of the deity Hachiman (八幡神). While the location of Ōjin\'s grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Ōjin\" was used by later generations to describe this possibly legendary Emperor.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ōjin is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The circumstances surrounding the future emperor\'s birth are controversial as they involve a supposed invasion of the Korean Peninsula as well as a biologically impossible gestation period (3 years). It is said by the Kiki that Ōjin was conceived but unborn when his father Emperor Chūai died. Empress Jingū then became a de facto ruler who allegedly invaded a \"promised land\" (Korea) out of revenge, then returned three years later to the Japanese mainland to give birth. The records state that Ōjin was born to Empress Jingū in Tsukushi Province sometime in 201 AD, and was given the name `{{Nihongo||誉田別尊|Homutawake}}`{=mediawiki}. He became the crown prince at the age of four, but was not crowned Emperor until 270 AD at the age of 70. Emperor Ōjin supposedly lived in two palaces which are now located in present-day Osaka. His reign lasted 40 years until his death in 310 AD, in all he fathered 28 children with one spouse and ten consorts. His fourth son *Ōosazaki* was later enthroned as the next emperor in 313 AD.
| 437 |
Emperor Ōjin
| 0 |
10,455 |
# Emperor Ōjin
## Known information {#known_information}
While the historical existence of Emperor Ōjin is debated among historians, there is a general consensus that he was \"probably real\". There is also an agreement that Ojin\'s three year conception period is mythical and symbolic, rather than realistic. William George Aston has suggested that this can be interpreted as a period of less than nine months containing three \"years\" (some seasons), e.g. three harvests. If Ōjin was an actual historical figure then historians have proposed that he ruled later than attested. Dates of his actual reign have been proposed to be as early as 370 to 390 AD, to as late as the early 5th century AD. At least one Japanese historian has cast doubt on this theory though, by revising a supporting statement given in 1972. In this new narrative Louis Perez states: \"only kings and emperors after the reign of Ojin\... \...are seen as historical figures\". In either case there is also no evidence to suggest that the title *tennō* was used during the time to which Ōjin\'s reign has been assigned. It is certainly possible that he was a chieftain or local clan leader, and that the polity he ruled would have only encompassed a small portion of modern-day Japan. The name Ōjin*-tennō* was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations.
While the actual site of Ōjin\'s grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a *kofun*-type Imperial tomb in Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ōjin\'s mausoleum, and is formally named *Eega no Mofushi no oka no misasagi*. At some point Ōjin was made a guardian Kami of the Hata clan, and is now also deified as Hachiman Daimyōjin. Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
| 344 |
Emperor Ōjin
| 1 |
10,455 |
# Emperor Ōjin
## Family
Emperor Ōjin\'s family allegedly consisted of 28 children, which include 2 unnamed princesses from a previous marriage. He had one spouse who bore him a son that would become the next Emperor, as well as 10 consorts.
### Spouse & concubines {#spouse_concubines}
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Position | Name | Father | Issue |
+==========+======+===================================+========================================+
| Kōgō | | Homudamawaka | {{\*}}Princess Arata\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Netori\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Ōosazaki\ |
| | | | (later Emperor Nintoku) |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Homudamawaka | {{\*}}Prince Izanomawaka\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Komukuta\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Nukata no Ōnakatsuhiko\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Ohara\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Ōyamamori |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Homudamawaka | {{\*}}Princess Ahe\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Awaji no Mihara\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Ki no Uno\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Mino no Iratsume\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Shigehara |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Wani no Hifure no Omi | {{\*}}Princess Metori\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Uji no Wakiiratsuko\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Yata |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Wani no Hifure no Omi | {{\*}}Princess Uji no Wakiiratsu-hime |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Kawamata Nakatsuhiko | {{\*}}Prince Wakanuke no Futamata |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Sakuraitabe no Muraji Shimatarine | {{\*}}Prince Hayabusawake |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | | {{\*}}Princess Hatabi no Wakairatsume\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Ōhae\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Prince Ohae |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Sumeiroōnakatsuhiko | {{\*}}Prince Kataji\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Kawarata no Iratsume\ |
| | | | {{\*}}Princess Tama no Iratsume |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Takenouchi no Sukune | {{\*}}Prince Izanomawaka |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
| Consort | | Kibi-no-Takehiko | |
+----------+------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------+
### Issue
Status Name Mother Comments
---------- ------ -------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Princess *Nakatsu-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Nakatsu-hime* Would later become Emperor Emperor Nintoku.
Prince *Nakatsu-hime* Ancestor of `{{Nihongo|Ōta no Kimi|大田君}}`{=mediawiki}, married Princess Awaji no Mihara (see below).
Prince *Takakiiri-hime* Ancestor of `{{Nihongo|Fukakawawake|深河別}}`{=mediawiki}.
Prince *Takakiiri-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Takakiiri-hime* Ōyamamori died in 310 AD.
Princess *Takakiiri-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Takakiiri-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Oto-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Oto-hime* Married to Prince Netori
Princess *Oto-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Oto-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Oto-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Miyanushiyaka-hime* Uji was a Crown Prince.
Princess *Miyanushiyaka-hime* Metori died in 353 AD, and was married to Prince \"Hayabusawake\" (see below).
Princess *Miyanushiyaka-hime* Yata was later married to Emperor Nintoku.
Princess *Onabe-hime* Uji was later married to Emperor Nintoku.
Prince *Okinaga Mawakanakatsu-hime* Ancestor of `{{Nihongo|Okinaga clan|息長君}}`{=mediawiki}, and great-grandfather of Emperor Keitai.
Prince *Ito-hime* Hayabusawake was the husband of `{{Nihongo|Princess Metori|雌鳥皇女}}`{=mediawiki}.
Prince *Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Himuka no Izumi no Naga-hime* Hatabi was later married to Emperor Richū
Princess *Kaguro-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Princess *Kaguro-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Kaguro-hime* Very little is known about this person.
Prince *Katsuragi no Irome* Very little is known about this person
| 579 |
Emperor Ōjin
| 2 |
10,456 |
# Emperor Nintoku
, also known as `{{Nihongo||大鷦鷯天皇|''Ohosazaki no Sumeramikoto''}}`{=mediawiki} was the 16th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Due to his reputation for goodness derived from depictions in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, he is sometimes referred to as the `{{Nihongo|'''Saint Emperor'''|聖帝|Hijiri-no-mikado}}`{=mediawiki}.
While his existence is generally accepted as fact, no firm dates can be assigned to Nintoku\'s life or reign. He is traditionally considered to have reigned from 313 to 399, although these dates are doubted by scholars.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted Nintoku\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (*misasagi*) for Nintoku is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. The *Kiki* states that Nintoku was born to Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命) sometime in 290 AD, and was given the name `{{Nihongo|Ohosazaki no Mikoto|大鷦鷯尊}}`{=mediawiki}. According to the *Nihon Shoki*, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin.
## Known information {#known_information}
Nintoku is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact without attributing all of the things he allegedly accomplished. Nintoku\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Nintoku might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\". The name \"Nintoku\" also might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*.
Although the *Nihon Shoki* states that Nintoku ruled from 313 to 399, research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate. William George Aston notes that if they were factual, Nintoku would be 312 years old in his 78th year of reign assuming that the traditional accounts are correct. Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
Hidehiro Okada identifies him with Dei of Wa, a king who preceded the better known Five kings of Wa.
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
According to the *Nihon Shoki*, he was the fourth son of Emperor Ōjin and his mother was Nakatsuhime no Mikoto (仲姫命), a great-granddaughter of Emperor Keikō. He was also the father of Emperors Richū, Hanzei, and Ingyō. His name was `{{Nihongo|Ohosazaki no Mikoto|大鷦鷯尊}}`{=mediawiki}.
Empress (*Kōgō*): `{{Nihongo|[[Princess Iwa]]|磐之媛命}}`{=mediawiki}, poet and daughter of `{{Nihongo|Katsuragi no Sotsuhiko|葛城襲津彦}}`{=mediawiki} (first)
- First Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Ōenoizahowake|大兄去来穂別尊}}`{=mediawiki}, later Emperor Richū
-
- Third Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Mizuhawake|瑞歯別尊}}`{=mediawiki}, later Emperor Hanzei
- Fourth Son: `{{Nihongo|Prince Oasatsuma Wakugo no Sukune|雄朝津間稚子宿禰尊}}`{=mediawiki}, later Emperor Ingyō
-
Empress (*Kōgō*): `{{Nihongo|[[Princess Yata]]|八田皇女}}`{=mediawiki}, Emperor Ōjin\'s daughter (second)
Consort (*Hi*) : `{{Nihongo|Himuka no Kaminaga-hime|日向髪長媛}}`{=mediawiki}, Morokata no Kimi Ushimoroi\'s daughter
-
- , married to Emperor Yūryaku
Consort: `{{Nihongo|Uji no Wakiiratsume|宇遅之若郎女}}`{=mediawiki}, daughter of Emperor Ōjin
Consort: `{{Nihongo|Kuro-hime|黒日売}}`{=mediawiki}, daughter of `{{Nihongo|Kibi no Amabe no Atai|吉備海部直}}`{=mediawiki}
## Nintoku\'s tomb {#nintokus_tomb}
Daisen Kofun (the largest tomb in Japan) in Sakai, Osaka, is considered to be his final resting place. The actual site of Nintoku\'s grave is not known.
The Nintoku-ryo tumulus is one of almost 50 tumuli collectively known as \"Mozu Kofungun\" clustered around the city, and covers the largest area of any tomb in the world. Built in the middle of the 5th century by an estimated 2,000 men working daily for almost 16 years, the Nintoku tumulus, at 486 meters long and with a mound 35 meters high, is twice as long as the base of the famous Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) in Giza.
The Imperial tomb of Nintoku\'s consort, Iwa-no hime no Mikoto, is said to be located in Saki-cho, Nara City. Both *kofun*-type Imperial tombs are characterized by a keyhole-shaped island located within a wide, water-filled moat. Imperial tombs and mausolea are cultural properties; but they are guarded and administered by the Imperial Household Agency (IHA), which is the government department responsible for all matters relating to the Emperor and his family. According to the IHA, the tombs are more than a mere repository for historical artifacts; they are sacred religious sites. IHA construes each of the Imperial grave sites as sanctuaries for the spirits of the ancestors of the Imperial House.
Nintoku is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as his mausoleum. It is formally named *Mozu no Mimihara no naka no misasagi*
| 823 |
Emperor Nintoku
| 0 |
10,458 |
# Emperor Hanzei
also known as **Emperor Hansho**, was the 18th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) recorded events that took place during Hanzei\'s alleged lifetime. No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 406 CE to 410 CE. His family included an \"Imperial Lady\", and \"Concubine\" which bore him 4 children. Historians have stated that while nothing remarkable took place during Hanzei\'s brief reign, he did have ranked concubines which is an introduced Chinese custom.
Hanzei died sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir to the throne which caused Imperial ministers to name a successor. While the location of Hanzei\'s grave is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb. Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the title of \"Emperor\" and the name \"Hanzei\" were used by later generations to describe him. There is also a general consensus regarding Hanzei\'s factual existence.
## Protohistoric narrative {#protohistoric_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Hanzei is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It\'s recorded in the *Kiki* that Hanzei was born to `{{Nihongo|''[[Princess Iwa]]''|磐之媛命|Iwa no hime no Mikoto}}`{=mediawiki} sometime in 352 AD, and was given the name `{{Nihongo|''Mizuhawake''|瑞歯別}}`{=mediawiki}. He was the third son of Emperor Nintoku, and a younger brother of Emperor Richū. The phrase *Mizu ha* in the name *Mizuhawake* translates to *beautiful teeth*, as he was said to have beautiful \"exceptionally large\" \"teeth like one bone\" all of the same size. Only the *Kojiki* mentions the alleged full grown height of Emperor Hanzei which is said to have been 9 ft. Shortly after Nintoku died, his elder brother `{{Nihongo|Prince Suminoe no Nakatsu|住吉仲皇子}}`{=mediawiki} attempted to assassinate his eldest brother `{{Nihongo|Prince Ōenoizahowake|大兄去来穂別尊}}`{=mediawiki} (Richū). *Mizuhawake* was able to bribe one of Nakatsu\'s retainers into killing Nakatsu in order to prove his loyalty to the future emperor.
According to the *Nihon Shoki*, Richū bypassed his own children to make his younger brother Mizuhawake crown prince in 401 AD. The given reason is that a *Tajihi* flower fell into a well which gave the name of *Mizuhawake* as the next heir to be. Mizuhawake was proclaimed as \"Emperor Hanzei\" upon Richū\'s death in 405 AD, and was enthroned sometime in the following year. Shortly after his enthronement Hanzei took `{{Nihongo|Tsuno-hime|津野媛}}`{=mediawiki} as an \"Imperial concubine\", and eventually her younger sister `{{Nihongo|Oto-hime|弟媛}}`{=mediawiki} as a consort. The two Empresses bore him 4 children which consisted of 2 sons and 2 daughters. During Emperor Hanzei\'s reign, he ruled from the palace Shibagaki no Miya at *Tajihi* in the province of Kawachi (present-day Matsubara, Osaka). During his five-year reign the country enjoyed a time of peace. Emperor Hanzei died peacefully in his palace sometime in 410 AD without naming an heir (crown prince). This issue was later settled by Imperial ministers who selected Emperor Nintoku\'s youngest son Ingyō as the next emperor.
| 544 |
Emperor Hanzei
| 0 |
10,458 |
# Emperor Hanzei
## Historical assessment {#historical_assessment}
Hanzei is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Hanzei under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\", but notes that his short reign was \"not remarkable for anything\" except for indirect evidence that Chinese customs were beginning to be adopted by the Japanese court. Scholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that \"three ranks of concubines are mentioned\", which at the time were of Chinese origin (ranked concubines). Others such as author Ryoichi Maenosono (Kokushi Daijiten) identify Emperor Hanzei with \"King Chin of the Five kings of Wa. According to Chinese records, King Chin sent a tribute to the Liu Song dynasty in 438 AD.
British academic and Japanologist Basil Hall Chamberlain notes in his translation of the Kojiki that no accurate information exists regarding the ancient Japanese measures used to get Hanzei\'s alleged height of 9 ft. He went on to say that \"the English equivalents used in this passage correspond but approximately to the modern Japanese standards\". As for Hanzei\'s ascension, the *Nihon Shoki* mentions that *Tajihi* is now known as the itadori flower. Aston notes though, that the story of a *Tajihi* flower falling into a well is inconsistent with a later passage in the Nihon Shoki which refers to *Tajihi* as a location (not a flower).
There is no evidence to suggest that the title *tennō* was used during the time to which Hanzei\'s reign has been assigned. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". An alternate title could have also been `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} \"Great King of Yamato\". The name Hanzei*-tennō* was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Hanzei, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*.
While the actual site of Hanzei\'s grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a *kofun*-type Imperial tomb in Sakai, Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Hanzei\'s mausoleum, and is formally named formally named `{{Nihongo|''Mozu no mimihara no kita no misasagi''|百舌鳥耳原北陵}}`{=mediawiki}. Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
| 438 |
Emperor Hanzei
| 1 |
10,458 |
# Emperor Hanzei
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
### Imperial Lady/Concubine {#imperial_ladyconcubine}
+-------------------+------+--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Position | Name | Father | Issue |
+===================+======+========+===============================================================+
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Kai-hime|香火姫皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Tubura-hime|円皇女}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------+------+--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Consort (*Kōkyū*) | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Takara-hime|財皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Takabe|高部皇子}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------+------+--------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
### Issue
Status Name Mother Comments
---------- ------ -------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------
Princess Its unknown if the province of Kahi (Kai) is connected to this princess.
Princess \"The meaning of *Tsubura* is obscure.\"
Princess The name \"Takara\" symbolically means treasure.
Prince Takabe presumably died young
| 98 |
Emperor Hanzei
| 2 |
10,459 |
# Emperor Ingyō
was the 19th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Both the *Kojiki*, and the *Nihon Shoki* (collectively known as the *Kiki*) recorded events that took place during Ingyō\'s alleged lifetime. No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 410 to 453.
While the location of Ingyō\'s grave (if any) is unknown, he is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto tomb.
## Protohistoric narrative {#protohistoric_narrative}
The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign\'s historical existence, and a mausoleum (misasagi) for Ingyō is currently maintained. The following information available is taken from the pseudo-historical *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, which are collectively known as `{{Nihongo|''Kiki''|記紀}}`{=mediawiki} or *Japanese chronicles*. These chronicles include legends and myths, as well as potential historical facts that have since been exaggerated and/or distorted over time. It\'s recorded in the *Kiki* that Ingyō was born to `{{Nihongo|''[[Princess Iwa]]''|磐之媛命|Iwa no hime no Mikoto}}`{=mediawiki} somewhere between 373 and 375 AD and was given the name `{{Nihongo|''Oasazuma Wakugo no Sukune''|雄朝津間稚子宿禰}}`{=mediawiki}. He was the fourth son of Emperor Nintoku, making him the youngest brother of Richū and Hanzei. After the death of his brother Hanzei in 410 AD Oasazuma was approached by ministers who had unanimously chosen him as the next Emperor. Oasazuma declined the offer stating that his brothers had \"despised him as a fool\". He also called himself \"unlucky\" as he claimed to be suffering from an unmentioned paralyzing illness.
After more than two years had passed, Oasazuma was finally persuaded by his favorite concubine Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime to accept the throne. Oasazuma was formally enthroned as Emperor Ingyō and his concubine became the next Kōgō. Sometime in early 414 an envoy was sent to Silla and procured a physician for the ailing Emperor. The physician attributed the problem to Ingyō\'s legs and was able to cure him in August of that year. In 415 AD, Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names. This had been an ongoing issue as many families either gave false names or used a clan title with a ranking they hadn\'t earned. In the middle of 416 AD, an earthquake hit Japan which disrupted the \"temporary\" burial process of Emperor Hanzei.
Sometime in the winter of 418 AD, empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime unintentionally introduced her husband to her younger sister at a banquet. Emperor Ingyō fell deeply in love and sent a messenger afterwards to summon her. He learned that the woman\'s name was \"Otohime\" (\"youngest princess\"), but was given the designation of \"Sotohori Iratsume\" (\"clothing pass maiden\") by local men for her beauty. Otohime initially refused to comply as she didn\'t want to hurt her sister\'s feelings. Not wanting to face punishment for disobeying, the messenger stayed with Otohime until she agreed to come. Oshisaka was not pleased by this and refused to let Otohime into the Imperial palace. Ingyō thus built Otohime a separate residence nearby where he often sneaked off to.
Empress Oshisaka no Ōnakatsuhime bore Ingyō a total of nine children (5 sons and 4 daughters). In 434 AD Ingyō chose to name his first son Kinashi no Karu as Crown Prince. This was unknowingly a controversial choice as Kinashi was later accused of an incestuous relationship with his sister, Princess Karu no Ōiratsume. Ingyō couldn\'t punish his son due to the title he had bestowed upon him, so instead chose an indirect approach by banishing his daughter Karu no Ōiratsume to Iyo. When Emperor Ingyō died sometime in 453 AD, the king of Silla grieved so much that he presented Japan with 80 musicians to comfort Ingyo\'s soul. Kinashi no Karu meanwhile faced a challenge as his younger brother Anaho was favored to be heir apparent.
| 625 |
Emperor Ingyō
| 0 |
10,459 |
# Emperor Ingyō
## Historical assessment {#historical_assessment}
Ingyō is regarded by historians as a ruler during the early 5th century whose existence is generally accepted as fact. Scholar Francis Brinkley lists Emperor Ingyō under \"Protohistoric sovereigns\" whose reign was overshadowed by an affair and scandal regarding his son. Other scholars identify Ingyō with King Sai in the *Book of Song*. This would have been a king of Japan (referred to as *Wa* by contemporary Chinese scholars) who is said to have sent messengers to the Liu Song dynasty at least twice, in 443 and 451. However, there is no record in the *Kiki* of messengers being sent.
### Titles and dating {#titles_and_dating}
There is no evidence to suggest that the title *tennō* was used during the time to which Ingyō\'s reign has been assigned. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". An alternate title could have also been `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} \"Great King of Yamato\". The name Ingyō*-tennō* was more than likely assigned to him posthumously by later generations. His name might have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Ingyō, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the imperial dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the *Kojiki*.
Outside of the *Kiki*, the reign of Emperor Kinmei (c. 509 -- 571 AD) is the first for which contemporary historiography has been able to assign verifiable dates. The conventionally accepted names and dates of the early Emperors were not confirmed as \"traditional\" though, until the reign of Emperor Kanmu between 737 and 806 AD.
### Events during reign {#events_during_reign}
Early on in his reign, Emperor Ingyō chose to send envoys to Korea for medical assistance. Brinkley took note of this and stated that Korea was evidently regarded as the \"home of healing science\". He also attributed the \"many other\" arts which were borrowed from China. In regard to reforms, Sholar William George Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that when Ingyō reformed the system of family and clan names, it would have only applied to dominant caste. At the time the general populace of Japan kept their personal names and \"cared little for geopolitics\". Emperor Ingyō\'s later affair with \"Otohime\" is regarded as important by Brinkley as it illustrates the manners and customs at the time. He also suggests that the \"atmosphere of loose morality\" was in part responsible for Kinashi no Karu\'s incestuous relationship.
It is agreed upon by Basil Hall Chamberlain\'s translation of the Kojiki, and Aston\'s translation of the Nihon Shoki that Prince Kinashi no Karu was probably appointed crown prince during his father\'s lifetime. At the time, marriage between children of the same father had always been allowed as long as the mothers involved were different. Marriage of children of the same mother of whom Kinashi no Karu was guilty of was considered incest. Aston notes in his translation of the Nihon Shoki that it\'s doubtful Karu no Ōiratsume was banished by her father. Historically women have always been more lightly punished than men for the same offense, and \"the particular character of the fault in this case makes such a discrimination all the more reasonable\".
Francis Brinkley comments that four facts present themselves during Emperor Ingyō\'s reign: \"Men wore wristbands and garters to which grelots were attached, that a high value was set for pearls, that metal was used for the construction of great man\'s gates, and the first earthquake is said to have been experienced in 416 AD\". The latter of these things allegedly leveled the Imperial Palace at Kyoto from the severity of the Earth\'s tremors. Modern sources have since questioned the reliability of this \"first earthquake\", opting instead to recognize another that took place in Nara prefecture on May 28, 599 during the reign of Empress Suiko.
### Gravesite
While the actual site of Ingyō\'s grave is not known, this regent is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Fujiidera Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ingyō\'s mausoleum/*kofun*-type Imperial tomb. Formally, this tomb is called `{{Nihongo|Emperor Ingyō's misasagi|恵我長野北陵,|''Ega no nagano no kita no misasagi''}}`{=mediawiki}, but is also given the name `{{Nihongo|[[Ichinoyama Kofun]]|市ノ山古墳（市野山古墳}}`{=mediawiki}. Another burial candidate for Emperor Ingyō\'s is the `{{Nihongo|[[Furuichi Kofun Cluster|Tsudoshiroyama Kofun]]|津堂城山古墳}}`{=mediawiki}, which is also located in Fujiidera. Ingyō is also enshrined at the Imperial Palace along with other emperors and members of the Imperial Family at the Three Palace Sanctuaries.
| 744 |
Emperor Ingyō
| 1 |
10,459 |
# Emperor Ingyō
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
### Spouse/Concubine
+------------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Position | Name | Father | Issue |
+============+======+======================================================================+===========================================================================================+
| Empress\ | | Prince `{{Nihongo|Wakanuke no Futamata|稚野毛二派皇子}}`{=mediawiki} | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|[[Prince Kinashi no Karu]]|木梨軽皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| (*Kōgō*) | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Nagata no Ōiratsume|名形大娘皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Sakai no Kurohiko|境黒彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Anaho|穴穂皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Karu no Ōiratsume|軽大娘皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Yatsuri no Shirahiko|八釣白彦皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Prince Ōhatuse no Wakatakeru|大泊瀬稚武皇子}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Tajima no Tachibana no Ōiratsume|但馬橘大娘皇女}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| | | | {{\*}}`{{Nihongo|Princess Sakami|酒見皇女}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Concubine\ | | Prince `{{Nihongo|Wakanuke no Futamata|稚野毛二派皇子}}`{=mediawiki} | None |
| (*Hi*) | | | |
+------------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
### Issue
Status Name Comments
---------- ------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Prince Prince Kinashi was later defeated by Prince Anaho (see below)
Princess
Prince Prince Sakai allegedly died sometime in 456 AD.
Prince Emperor Ingyō\'s 3rd son later became Emperor Ankō.
Princess \"Princess Karu\" and \"Otohime\" are synonymous in the Kojiki.
Prince Yatsuri\'s lifespan was allegedly 401 to 456 AD.
Prince Emperor Ingyō\'s 5th son later became Emperor Yūryaku
| 191 |
Emperor Ingyō
| 2 |
10,464 |
# Emperor Ninken
(449 -- 9 September 498) was the 24th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 4 February 488 to 9 September 498.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
Ninken is considered to have ruled the country during the late-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.
In his youth, he was known as `{{Nihongo|Prince Oke|億計}}`{=mediawiki}. Along with his younger brother, Prince Woke, Oke was raised to greater prominence when Emperor Seinei died without an heir. The two young princes were said to be grandsons of Emperor Richū. Each of these brothers would ascend the throne as adopted heirs of Seinei, although it is unclear whether they had been \"found\" in Seinei\'s lifetime or only after that.
Oke\'s younger brother, who would become posthumously known as Emperor Kenzō, ascended before his elder brother. This unconventional sequence was in accordance with an agreement made by the two brothers.
## Ninken\'s reign {#ninkens_reign}
When Emperor Kenzo died without heirs, Prince Oke succeeded him as Emperor Ninken.
Ninken\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Ninken might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
Ninken married to Emperor Yūryaku\'s daughter Kasuga no Ōiratsume no Himemiko, a second cousin of him. Their daughter Tashiraka was later married to Emperor Keitai, successor or possibly usurper after her brother, and became mother of Emperor Kinmei, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of all future monarchs of Japan. There apparently was also another daughter, Princess Tachibana, who in turn is recorded to have become a wife of Senka and mother of Princess Iwahime, who herself became a consort of Kimmei and bore Emperor Bidatsu, a future monarch and lineal ancestor of current monarchs of Japan.
Ninken was succeeded by his son, who would accede as Emperor Buretsu.
The actual site of Ninken\'s grave is not known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Osaka.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Ninken\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Hanyū no Sakamoto no misasagi*
| 411 |
Emperor Ninken
| 0 |
10,465 |
# Emperor Buretsu
(489 -- 7 January 507) was the 25th legendary Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 12 January 499 to 7 January 507.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
Buretsu is considered to have ruled the country during the late-fifth century and early-sixth century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.
Buretsu was a son of Emperor Ninken and his mother is `{{Nihongo||春日大娘皇女|Empress Kasuga no Ōiratsume}}`{=mediawiki}. His name was `{{Nihongo|Ohatsuse no Wakasazaki|小泊瀬稚鷦鷯}}`{=mediawiki}. He had no children.
## Buretsu\'s reign {#buretsus_reign}
Buretsu\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Buretsu might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
Buretsu is described as an extremely wicked historical figure. The *Nihonshoki* describes the 11-year-old Buretsu, in 500, cutting open the stomach of a pregnant woman and observing the embryo. In addition to his acts of personal cruelty, during his reign the general welfare of the nation declined severely. According to the *Tenshō*, supposedly compiled by Fujiwara no Hamanari, Buretsu was admonished by Ōtomo no Kanamura. *Nihonshoki* likened his debauchery to Di Xin of the Shang dynasty, but the record in *Kojiki* has no such indication. There are several theories on this difference. Some believe that this was to justify and praise his successor Emperor Keitai, who took over under questionable circumstances, not having been in a position of immediate succession. In history textbooks available before and during World War II, the negative parts of Buretsu\'s record were intentionally omitted.
If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Buretsu is the last Emperor of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.
The actual site of Buretsu\'s grave is not known. The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Buretsu\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kataoka no Iwatsuki no oka no kita no misasagi*
| 384 |
Emperor Buretsu
| 0 |
10,466 |
# Emperor Keitai
(died 10 March 531) was the 26th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 3 March 507 to 10 March 531.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
Keitai is considered to have ruled the country during the early 6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. Significant differences exist in the records of the *Kojiki* and the *Nihon Shoki*.
The *Kojiki* puts this emperor\'s birth year at 485; and his date of death is said to have been April 9, 527. In the extant account, he is called `{{Nihongo|Ohodo|袁本杼}}`{=mediawiki}.
The *Nihon Shoki* gives his birth year at 450; and he is said to have died on February 7, 531 or 534. In this historical record, he is said to have been called `{{Nihongo|Ohodo|男大迹}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{Nihongo|Hikofuto|彦太}}`{=mediawiki}.
In other historical records, he is said to have originally been King of Koshi, a smaller tribal entity, apparently in northern parts of central Japan, perhaps as far as the coast of Sea of Japan. Some modern reference works of history call Keitai simply *King Ohodo of Koshi*.
Keitai\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Keitai might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
### Genealogy
Keitai was not the son of the immediate previous monarch. According to the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, Buretsu died without a successor, at which time a fifth generation grandson of Emperor Ōjin, Keitai, came and ascended the throne.
If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Emperor Buretsu would have been the last monarch of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.
According to the *Kojiki* and *Nihon Shoki*, his father was `{{Nihongo|Hikoushi no Ō/Hikoushi no Ōkimi|彦主人王}}`{=mediawiki} and his mother was `{{Nihongo|Furihime|振媛}}`{=mediawiki}. When Buretsu died, Kanamura recommended Keitai (at the age of 58) as a possible heir to the Chrysanthemum throne. His mother, Furihime, was a seventh generation descendant of Emperor Suinin by his son, Prince Iwatsukuwake. His father was a fourth generation descendant of Emperor Ōjin by his son, Prince Wakanuke no Futamata.
Genealogy information is supplemented in *Shaku Nihongi* which quotes from the now lost text *Jōgūki* (7th century). It says he was a son of Ushi no Ōkimi (believed to be equivalent to Hikoushi no Ōkimi), a grandson of Ohi no Ōkimi, a great-grandson of Ohohoto no Ōkimi (brother to Emperor Ingyō\'s consort), a great-great-grandson of Prince Wakanuke no Futamata, and a great-great-great-grandson of Emperor Ōjin.
The genealogical trees of the *Nihon Shoki* have been lost, and the accuracy of its account of events remains unknown. This uncertainty raises arguable doubts about this emperor\'s genealogy.
Although genealogical information in the *Shaku Nihongi* leaves room for discussion, many scholars acknowledge the blood relationship with the Okinaga clan, a powerful local ruling family or the collateral line of the Imperial family-governed Ōmi region (a part of present-day Shiga Prefecture). This family produced many empresses and consorts throughout history. According to the *Nihon Shoki*, Ohohoto no Ōkimi, the great-grandfather of Emperor Keitai, married into the Okinaga clan. Keitai\'s mother, Furihime, was from a local ruling family in Koshi (Echizen Province), so his mother brought him to her home after his father\'s death. Abundant traditions relating to the family have been passed down by shrines and old-established families in both regions.
Regardless of speculation about Keitai\'s genealogy, it is well settled that there was an extended period of disputes over the succession which developed after Keitai\'s death. A confrontation arose between adherents of two branches of the Yamato, pitting the supporters of sons who would become known as Emperor Ankan and Emperor Senka against those who were backers of the son who would become known as Emperor Kinmei.
## Keitai\'s reign {#keitais_reign}
Keitai declared his ascension in Kuzuha, in the northern part of Kawachi Province (present day Hirakata, Osaka), and married a younger sister of Emperor Buretsu, Princess Tashiraka. It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter Yamato Province, near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time.
In Keitai\'s later years, 527 or 528, the Iwai Rebellion broke out in Tsukushi province, Kyūshū. Keitai assigned Mononobe no Arakabi as Shōgun and sent him to Kyūshū to put down the rebellion.
Among his sons, Emperor Ankan, Emperor Senka and Emperor Kinmei ascended to the throne.
The actual site of Keitai\'s grave is not known. He is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at the Ooda Chausuyama kofun in Ibaraki, Osaka.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Keitai\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Mishima no Aikinu no misasagi*.
| 840 |
Emperor Keitai
| 0 |
10,466 |
# Emperor Keitai
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Empress: `{{Nihongo|[[Princess Tashiraka]]|手白香皇女|extra=b
| 11 |
Emperor Keitai
| 1 |
10,467 |
# Emperor Ankan
(466 -- 25 January 536) was the 27th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
No firm dates can be assigned to this Emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 10 March 531 to 25 January 536.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
According to the *Kojiki*, `{{Nihongo|Prince Magari no Ōe|勾大兄皇子}}`{=mediawiki}, later Emperor Ankan, was the elder son of Emperor Keitai, who is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, though there is a paucity of information about him. When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him.
Ankan\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Ankan might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
The most noteworthy event recorded during his reign was the construction of state granaries in large numbers throughout Japan, indicating the broad reach of imperial power at the time.
Ankan\'s grave is traditionally associated with the Takayatsukiyama kofun in Habikino, Osaka.
## Genealogy
Empress: `{{Nihongo|[[Princess Kasuga no Yamada]]|春日山田皇女|extra=d.539}}`{=mediawiki}, Emperor Ninken\'s daughter
Consort: `{{Nihongo|Satehime|紗手媛}}`{=mediawiki}, Kose no Ohito no Ōomi\'s daughter
Consort: `{{Nihongo|Kakarihime|香香有媛}}`{=mediawiki}, Kose no Ohito no Ōomi\'s daughter
Consort: `{{Nihongo|Yakahime|宅媛}}`{=mediawiki}, Mononobe no Itabi no Ōomuraji\'s daughter
First son: Imperial Prince Ako
| 243 |
Emperor Ankan
| 0 |
10,468 |
# Emperor Senka
(466 --- 15 March 539) was the 28th legendary emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor\'s life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 25 January 536 to 15 March 539, the end of the Kofun period, which was followed by the Asuka period.
## Legendary narrative {#legendary_narrative}
Senka is considered to have ruled the country during the early-6th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study.
When Emperor Ankan died, he had no offspring; and succession passed to his youngest brother `{{Nihongo|Prince Hinokuma no Takata|檜隈高田皇子}}`{=mediawiki}, who will come to be known as Emperor Senka. Emperor Senka was elderly at the time of his enthronement; and his reign is said to have endured for only three years.
Senka\'s contemporary title would not have been *tennō*, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably `{{Nihongo|''Sumeramikoto'' or ''Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi''|治天下大王}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"the great king who rules all under heaven\". Alternatively, Senka might have been referred to as `{{Nihongo2|ヤマト大王/大君}}`{=mediawiki} or the \"Great King of Yamato\".
During this reign, Soga no Iname is believed to have been the first verifiable *Omi* (also *Ōomi*, \"Great Minister\").
The Emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Senka\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Musa no Tsukisaka no e no misasagi*; however, the actual sites of the graves of the early Emperors remain problematic, according to some historians and archaeologists
| 279 |
Emperor Senka
| 0 |
10,472 |
# Elyssa Davalos
**Elyssa Davalos** (born May 30, 1959) is a former American television and movie actress.
## Biography
Born in Canoga Park, Los Angeles, her father was actor Richard Davalos and her sister is musician Dominique Davalos. She is the mother of actress Alexa Davalos, from her marriage to photographer Jeff Dunas. She is of Spanish and Finnish descent on her father\'s side.
She would usually play tough, independent women. She is mostly remembered for her recurring role as Richard Dean Anderson\'s love interest Nikki Carpenter on the original *MacGyver*. She appeared in two Disney films that were part of a franchise: *The Apple Dumpling Gang Rides Again* and *Herbie Goes Bananas*. On television she played Hillary Gant on the series *How The West Was Won* and she appeared on a final season episode of *Hawaii Five-0*, and starred in the TV-movie *Good Against Evil*.
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ ------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------- -------
1973 *`{{sortname|The|Student Teachers}}`{=mediawiki}* Paula Kelly
1979 *`{{sortname|The|Apple Dumpling Gang Rides Again}}`{=mediawiki}* Millie Gaskill
1980 *Herbie Goes Bananas* Melissa
1993 *`{{sortname|A|House in the Hills}}`{=mediawiki}* Sondra Rankin
1999 *Tycus* Crying Woman Video
2000 *Urban Chaos Theory* The Mistress Short
2002 *Two Paths* Sally Short
2003 *Between the Sheets* Layla
2007 *Nancy Drew* Twin Palms Manager
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
---------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1975 *Three for the Road* Sophie Gianelli \"Adventure in Los Angeles\"
1976 *ABC Afterschool Special* Linda \"Dear Lovey Hart: I Am Desperate\"
1976 *Charlie\'s Angels* Maria Bartone \"The Mexican Connection\"
1977 *Welcome Back, Kotter* Judy Horshack \"There Goes Number 5\"
1977 *Good Against Evil* Jessica Gordon TV film
1977 *`{{sortname|The|Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries}}`{=mediawiki}* Wendy Bonner \"The Mystery of King Tut\'s Tomb\"
1978 *Wild and Wooly* Shiloh TV film
1978 *`{{sortname|The|Paper Chase|The Paper Chase (TV series)}}`{=mediawiki}* Nancy Burch \"Nancy\"
1978--79 *How the West Was Won* Hillary Gant Recurring role (seasons 2--3)
1979 *Hawaii Five-O* Diana Webster \"Though the Heavens Fall\"
1979 *Vegas* Kimberly Sarrason \"Doubtful Target\"
1981 *Vegas* Wendy Paige \"No Way to Treat a Victim\"
1981 *Riker* Marlene \"Honkytonk\"
1981 *Code Red* \"A Saved Life\"
1983 *Matt Houston* Carla / Gabrielle Delgado \"The Hunted\", \"Needle in a Haystack\"
1983 *Knight Rider* Julie Robinson \"Blind Spot\"
1984 *Mickey Spillane\'s Mike Hammer* Jackie Drake \"Negative Image\"
1984 *Riptide* Jody Kremer \"Something Fishy\"
1985 *Our Family Honor* \"Pilot\"
1985--86 *Scarecrow and Mrs. King* Leslie O\'Connor \"We\'re Off to See the Wizard\", \"Over the Limit\", \"Dead Men Leave No Trails\"
1986 *Airwolf* Barbara Scarelli \"Desperate Monday\"
1987 *Riviera* Ashley Stevens TV film
1987--88 *MacGyver* Lisa Kosov (two episodes) Nikki Carpenter Recurring role (season 3)
1989 *Beauty and the Beast* Lisa Campbell \"Arabesque\"
1989 *Doogie Howser, M.D.* Victoria Burke \"The Ice Queen Cometh\"
1989 *Matlock* Suzanne Cullen \"The Blues Singer\"
1990 *Father Dowling Mysteries* Marilyn Kemp \"The Exotic Dancer Mystery\"
1990 *Jake and the Fatman* Leah Champlin \"You Took Advantage of Me\"
1990--91 *Life Goes On* Doreen Gillespie Guest role (season 2)
1992 *Dark Justice* \"Prime Cuts\"
1993 *Jericho Fever* Bettina TV film
1993 *Matlock* Karen Garber \"The View\"
1993 *Diagnosis: Murder* Ginger Shaw \"Miracle Cure\"
1994 *Diagnosis: Murder* Constance Wardell \"Death by Extermination\"
1994 *A Perry Mason Mystery: The Case of the Grimacing Governor* Violet Moore TV film
1994 *Matlock* Allison Darnell \"The P.I
| 541 |
Elyssa Davalos
| 0 |
10,475 |
# Enrico Bombieri
**Enrico Bombieri** (born 26 November 1940) is an Italian mathematician, known for his work in analytic number theory, Diophantine geometry, complex analysis, and group theory. Bombieri is currently professor emeritus in the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Bombieri won the Fields Medal in 1974 for his work on the large sieve and its application to the distribution of prime numbers.
## Career
Bombieri published his first mathematical paper in 1957, when he was 16 years old. In 1963, at age 22, he earned his first degree (Laurea) in mathematics from the Università degli Studi di Milano under the supervision of Giovanni Ricci and then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, with Harold Davenport.
Bombieri was an assistant professor (1963--1965) and then a full professor (1965--1966) at the Università di Cagliari, at the Università di Pisa in 1966--1974, and then at the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1974--1977. From Pisa, he emigrated in 1977 to the United States, where he became a professor at the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 2011, he became professor emeritus.
Bombieri is also known for his *pro bono* service on behalf of the mathematics profession, e.g. for serving on external review boards and for peer-reviewing extraordinarily complicated manuscripts (like the paper of Per Enflo on the invariant subspace problem).
## Research
The Bombieri--Vinogradov theorem is one of the major applications of the large sieve method. It improves Dirichlet\'s theorem on prime numbers in arithmetic progressions, by showing that by averaging over the modulus over a range, the mean error is much less than can be proved in a given case. This result can sometimes substitute for the still-unproved generalized Riemann hypothesis.
In 1969, Bombieri, De Giorgi, and Giusti solved Bernstein\'s problem on minimal surfaces in dimensions above eight.
In 1976, Bombieri developed the technique known as the \"asymptotic sieve\". In 1980, he supplied the completion of the proof of the uniqueness of finite groups of Ree type in characteristic 3; at the time of its publication, it was one of the missing steps in the classification of finite simple groups.
## Awards
Bombieri\'s research in number theory, algebraic geometry, and mathematical analysis has earned him many international prizes --- a Fields Medal in 1974 and the Balzan Prize in 1980. He was a plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians, which took place in 1974 in Vancouver. He is a member, or foreign member, of several learned academies, including the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (elected 1976), the French Academy of Sciences (elected 1984), the Academia Europaea (elected 1995), and the United States National Academy of Sciences (elected 1996). In 2002 he was made *Cavaliere di Gran Croce al Merito della Repubblica Italiana*. In 2010, he received the King Faisal International Prize (jointly with Terence Tao). and in 2020 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize in Mathematics.
## Other interests {#other_interests}
Bombieri, accomplished also in the arts, explored for wild orchids and other plants as a hobby in the Alps when a young man.
## Selected publications {#selected_publications}
### Sole
- E. Bombieri, *Le Grand Crible dans la Théorie Analytique des Nombres* (Seconde Édition). Astérisque 18, Paris 1987.
### Joint
-
- and related numbers\|journal = Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik\|volume = 342\|year = 1983\|pages = 173--196}}
- B. Beauzamy, E. Bombieri, P. Enflo and H. L. Montgomery. \"Product of polynomials in many variables\", *Journal of Number Theory*, pages 219--245, 1990
| 587 |
Enrico Bombieri
| 0 |
10,490 |
# Emperor Ninmyō
was the 54th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Ninmyō\'s reign lasted from 833 to 850, during the Heian period.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Ninmyō was the second son of Emperor Saga and the Empress Tachibana no Kachiko. His personal name (*imina*) was `{{nihongo|Masara|正良}}`{=mediawiki}. After his death, he was given the title `{{nihongo|Ninmyō|仁明}}`{=mediawiki}.
Ninmyō had nine Empresses, Imperial consorts, and concubines (*kōi*); and the emperor had 24 Imperial sons and daughters.
Emperor Ninmyō is traditionally venerated at his tomb; the Imperial Household Agency designates `{{nihongo3|Fukakusa Imperial Mausoleum|深草陵|Fukakusa no Misasagi}}`{=mediawiki}, in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Ninmyō\'s mausoleum.
### Events of Ninmyō\'s life {#events_of_ninmyōs_life}
Ninmyō ascended to the throne following the abdication of his uncle, Emperor Junna.
- **6 January 823** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Kōnin]] 10, 4th month, 19th day''|弘仁十四年四月十九日}}`{=mediawiki}): Received the title of Crown Prince at the age of 14.
- **22 March 833** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Tenchō]] 10, 28th day of the 2nd month''|天長十年二月二十八日}}`{=mediawiki}): In the 10th year of Emperor Junna\'s reign, the emperor abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by his adopted son. Masara*-shinnō* was the natural son of Emperor Saga, and therefore would have been Junna\'s nephew. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
Shortly after Ninmyo was enthroned, he designated an heir. He named Prince Tsunesada, a son of former Emperor Junna, as the crown prince.
- **835** (`{{nihongo foot|''[[Jōwa (Heian period)|Jōwa]] 2''|承和二年}}`{=mediawiki}): Kūkai (known posthumously as Kōbō-Daishi) died. This monk, scholar, poet, and artist had been the founder of the Shingon or \"True Word\" school of Buddhism.
- **838-839** (*Jōwa 5-6*): Diplomatic mission to Tang China headed by Fujiwara no Tsunetsugu.
- **842**: Following a coup d\'état called the Jōwa Incident, Tsunesada the crown prince was replaced with Ninmyō\'s first son, Prince Michiyasu (later Emperor Montoku) whose mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Junshi, a daughter of *sadaijin* Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu. It is supposed that this was the result of political intrigue planned by Ninmyō and Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. The first of what would become a powerful line of Fujiwara regents, Yoshifusa had numerous family ties to the imperial court; he was Ninmyō\'s brother in law (by virtue of his sister who became Ninmyō\'s consort), the second son of *sadaijin* Fuyutsugu, and uncle to the new crown prince.
In his lifetime, Ninmyō could not have anticipated that his third son, Prince Tokiyasu, would eventually ascend the throne in 884 as Emperor Kōkō.
- **6 May 850** (\'\'`{{nihongo foot|[[Kashō]] 3, 21st day of the 3rd month''|嘉祥三年三月二十一日}}`{=mediawiki}): Emperor Ninmyō died at the age of 41. He was sometimes posthumously referred to as \"the Emperor of Fukakusa\", because that was the name given to his tomb.
### Eras of Ninmyō\'s reign {#eras_of_ninmyōs_reign}
The years of Ninmyō\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name (*nengō*).
- *Tenchō* (824--834)
- *Jōwa* (834--848)
- *Kashō* (848--851)
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Ninmyō\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Sadaijin*, Fujiwara no Otsugu (藤原緒嗣), 773--843.
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常), 812--854.
- *Udaijin*, Kiyohara no Natsuno (清原夏野), 782--837.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Mimori (藤原三守), d. 840.
- *Udaijin*, Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常)
- *Udaijin*, Tachibana no Ujikimi (橘氏公), 783--847.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804--872.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Otsugu, 825--832
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Otsugu, ?--825.
| 612 |
Emperor Ninmyō
| 0 |
10,490 |
# Emperor Ninmyō
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Consort (*Nyōgo*) later Empress Dowager (*Tai-Kōtaigō*): Fujiwara no Junshi (藤原順子; 809--871), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu's daughter
- First Son: Imperial Prince Michiyasu (道康親王) later Emperor Montoku
Consort (*Nyōgo*): Fujiwara no *Takushi*/Sawako (藤原沢子; d.839), Fujiwara no Fusatsugu's daughter
- Second Son: Imperial Prince Muneyasu (宗康親王; 828--868)
- Third Son: Imperial Prince Tokiyasu (時康親王) later Emperor Kōkō
- Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Saneyasu (人康親王; 831--872)
- Imperial Princess *Shinshi* (新子内親王; d.897)
Consort (*Nyōgo*): Fujiwara no *Teishi*/Sadako (藤原貞子; d.864), Fujiwara no Tadamori's daughter
- Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Nariyasu (成康親王; 836--853)
- Imperial Princess *Shinshi* (親子内親王; d. 851)
- Imperial Princess *Heishi* (平子内親王; d. 877)
Court lady: Shigeno no Tsunako (滋野縄子), Shigeno no Sadanushi's daughter
- fifth Son: Imperial Prince Motoyasu (本康親王; d. 902)
- Ninth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tokiko (時子内親王; d. 847), 2nd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 831--833
- Imperial Princess *Jūshi* (柔子内親王; d. 869)
Consort (*Nyōgo*): Tachibana no Kageko (橘影子; d. 864), Tachibana no Ujikimi's daughter
Consort (*Nyōgo*): Fujiwara Musuko (藤原息子)
Court Attendant (*Koui*): Ki no Taneko (紀種子; d. 869), Ki no Natora's daughter
- Seventh Prince: Imperial Prince Tsuneyasu (常康親王; d. 869)
- Imperial Princess *Shinshi*/Saneko (真子内親王; d. 870)
Court Attendant (*Koui*) (deposed in 845): Mikuni-machi (三国町), daughter of Mikuni clan
- Sada no Noboru (貞登), given the family name \"Sada\" from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 866
Court lady: Fujiwara no Katoko (藤原賀登子), Fujiwara no Fukutomaro\'s daughter
- Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Kuniyasu (国康親王; d. 898)
Court lady: Fujiwara no Warawako (藤原小童子), Fujiwara no Michitō\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess Shigeko (重子内親王; d. 865)
Court lady: Princess Takamune (高宗女王), Prince Okaya\'s daughter
- Seventh/eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Hisako (久子内親王; d. 876), 18th Saiō in Ise Shrine 833--850.
Court lady: daughter of Yamaguchi clan (山口氏の娘)
- Minamoto no Satoru (源覚; 849--879)
*Nyoju*: Kudaraō Toyofuku\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Masaru (源多; 831--888), *Udaijin* 882--888
- Minamoto no Hikaru (源光; 846--913), *Udaijin* 901--913
Court lady (*Nyoju*): Kudara no Yōkyō (百済永慶), Kudara no Kyōfuku\'s daughter
- Twelfth Daughter: Imperial Princess Takaiko (高子内親王; d. 866), 3rd Saiin in Kamo Shrine 833--850
(from unknown women)
- Minamoto no *Suzushi* (源冷; 835--890), *Sangi* 882--890
- Minamoto no *Itaru* (源効)
| 359 |
Emperor Ninmyō
| 1 |
10,490 |
# Emperor Ninmyō
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Ninmyō '''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Saga]] (786–842)
|3= 3. [[Tachibana no Kachiko]] (786–850)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Kanmu]] (737–806)
|5= 5. [[Fujiwara no Otomuro]] (760–790)
|6= 6. [[:ja:橘清友|Tachibana no Kiyotomo]] (758–789)
|7= 7. Taguchi Michihime
|8= 8. [[Emperor Kōnin]] (709–782)
|9= 9. [[Takano no Niigasa]] (c. 720–790)
|10=10. [[Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu]] (716–777)
|11=11. [[:ja:阿倍古美奈|Abe no Komina]] (d. 784)
|12=12. [[Tachibana no Naramaro]] (721–757)
|13=13
| 82 |
Emperor Ninmyō
| 2 |
10,491 |
# Emperor Montoku
(August 827 -- 7 October 858) was the 55th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Montoku\'s reign lasted from 850 to 858.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before Montoku\'s ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (*imina*) was `{{Nihongo|Michiyasu|道康}}`{=mediawiki}. He was also known as *Tamura-no-mikado* or *Tamura-tei*.
He was the eldest son of Emperor Ninmyō. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Junshi (also called the Gojō empress 五条后), daughter of the minister of the left, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu.
Montoku had six Imperial consorts and 29 Imperial children.
## Events of Montoku\'s life {#events_of_montokus_life}
- **6 May 850** (*Kashō 3, 21st day of the 3rd month*) : In the 17th year of Ninmyō*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (仁明天皇十七年), the emperor died; and his eldest son received the succession (*senso*).
- **850** (*Kashō 3, 4th month*): Emperor Montoku formally acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
- **850** (*Kashō 3, 5th month*): The widow of Emperor Saga, who was also the mother of Emperor Ninmyō and the grandmother of Emperor Montoku, died. This very devout Buddhist had founded a temple called `{{Nihongo|Danrin-ji|檀林寺}}`{=mediawiki} on the site of present-day `{{Nihongo|Tenryū-ji|天龍寺}}`{=mediawiki} -- more formally known as `{{Nihongo|Tenryū Shiseizen-ji|天龍資聖禅寺}}`{=mediawiki}, located in what is now Susukinobaba-chō, Ukyō Ward in Kyoto, Before her death, the former empress had been known by the honorific title, `{{Nihongo|Danrin-kōgō |檀林皇后}}`{=mediawiki}; and she had been honored as if she were a saint.
- **850** (*Kashō 3, 11th month*): The emperor named Korehito*-shinnō*, the 4th son of Emperor Montoku as his heir. This 9-month-old baby was also the grandson of *udaijin* Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.
- **853** (*Ninju 3, 2nd month*): The emperor visited the home of *udaijin* Yoshifusa, the grandfather of his designated heir.
- **11 July 854** (*Saikō 1, 13th day of the 6th month*) : The *sadaijin* Minamoto no Tokiwa, also known as Minamoto no Tsune, died at age 43.
- **855** (*Saikō 2, in the 1st month*): The Emishi organized a rebellion; and in response, a force of 1,000 men and provisions were sent to the north.
- **855** (*Saikō 2, 5th month*): The head of the great statute of Buddha in the Tōdai-ji fell off; and in consequence, the emperor ordered the then *dainagon* Fujiwara no Yoshisuke, the brother of *sadaijin* Yoshifusa, to be in charge of gathering the gifts of the pious from throughout the empire to make another head for the Daibutsu.
Events during his reign included the repression of insurrections among the Ebisu people in Mutsu Province in 855, and among the people of the island of Tsushima two years later.
- **7 October 858** (*Ten\'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month*) : Montoku died at the age of 32.
The actual site of Montoku\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Kyoto.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Montoku\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Tamura no misasagi*.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.[-- *kugyō* of Montoku-tennō (in French)](http://www.furugosho.com/moyenage/empereur-g2.htm)
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Montoku\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Daijō-daijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804--872.
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Tokiwa (源常), 812--854.
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Makoto (源信), 810--868.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), 804--872.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相), 813--867.
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*
## Eras of Montoku\'s reign {#eras_of_montokus_reign}
The years of Montoku\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Kashō* (848--851)
- *Ninju* (851--854)
- *Saikō* (854--857)
- *Ten\'an* (857--859)
| 633 |
Emperor Montoku
| 0 |
10,491 |
# Emperor Montoku
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
- Consort (Nyōgo) (Tai-Kotaigō): Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (藤原明子; 829--899), also known as Somedono-no-Kisaki, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa\'s daughter.
- Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Korehito (惟仁親王) later Emperor Seiwa
- Third Daughter: Imperial Princess *Gishi* (儀子内親王; d. 879), 6th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 859--876
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no *Koshi*/Furuko (藤原古子), Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu\'s daughter
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Takakiko (藤原多賀幾子; d. 858), Fujiwara no Yoshimi\'s daughter
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Azumako (東子女王; d. 865)
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no *Nenshi*/Toshiko (藤原年子)
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Koreko (藤原是子)
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no Fusako (橘房子), Tachibana no Ujikimi\'s daughter
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Nyōgo): Tachibana no *Chushi* (橘忠子), Tachibana no Ujikimi\'s daughter
```{=html}
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```
- Consort (Koui): Ki no Shizuko (紀静子; d. 866), Ki no Natora\'s daughter
- First Son: Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844--897)
- Second son: Imperial Prince Koreeda (惟条親王; 848--868)
- Imperial Princess *Tenshi* (恬子内親王; d. 913), 20th Saiō in Ise Shrine 859--876
- Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess *Jutsushi* (述子内親王; d. 897), 5th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 857--858
- Imperial Princess *Chinshi* (珍子内親王; d. 877)
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Shigeno no Okuko (滋野奥子), Shigeno no Sadanushi\'s daughter
- Third Son: Imperial Prince Korehiko (惟彦親王; 850--883)
- Imperial Princess *Nōshi* (濃子内親王; d. 903)
- Imperial Princess *Shōshi* (勝子内親王; d. 871)
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Fujiwara no *Konshi*/Imako (藤原今子), Fujiwara no Sadamori\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Koretsune (惟恒親王; d. 904)
- Imperial Princess *Reishi* (礼子内親王; d. 899)
- Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess *Keishi* (掲子内親王; d. 914), 22nd Saiō in Ise Shrine 882--884
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Fujiwara no *Retsushi* (藤原列子), Fujiwara no Koreo\'s daughter
- First Daughter: Imperial Princess *Anshi* (晏子内親王; d. 900), 19th Saiō in Ise Shrine 850--858
- Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Akirakeiko (慧子内親王; d. 881), 4th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 850--857
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Court lady: Shigeno no Mineko (滋野岑子), Shigeno no Sadao\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Motoari (源本有)
- Minamoto no Noriari (源載有)
- Minamoto no Fuchiko/Shigeko (源淵子/滋子; d. 911)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Court lady: Tomo clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Yoshiari (源能有; 845--897), *Udaijin* 896--897
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Fuse clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Yukiari (源行有; 854--887)
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Tajihi clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no *Tsuneari* (源毎有)
```{=html}
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```
- Court lady: Kiyohara clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Tokiari (源時有)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Court lady: Sugawara clan\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Sadaari (源定有)
- Minamoto no Tomiko (源富子)
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- (from unknown women)
- Minamoto no Tomiari (源富有, d
| 470 |
Emperor Montoku
| 1 |
10,492 |
# Emperor Seiwa
was the 56th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Seiwa\'s reign spanned the years from 858 through 876.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Seiwa was the fourth son of Emperor Montoku. His mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Akirakeiko (明子), also called the Somedono empress (染殿后). Seiwa\'s mother was the daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa (藤原良房), who was regent and great minister of the council of state. He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王; 844--897)
### Imina
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his *imina*) was `{{Nihongo|Korehito|惟仁}}`{=mediawiki}, the first member of the Imperial house to be personally named \"-hito\" 仁. One meaning of the character 仁 is the Confucian concept of *ren*. Later it has been a tradition to name the personal name of all male members of the Imperial family this way.
He was also known as emperor as *Mizunoo-no-mikado* or *Minoo-tei*.
### Events of Seiwa\'s life {#events_of_seiwas_life}
Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as Crown Prince. Upon the death of his father in 858, Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 9, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa.
- **7 October 858** (*Ten\'an 2, 27th day of the 8th month*) : In the 8th year of Montoku*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (文徳天皇8年), the emperor died; and the succession (*senso*) was received by his son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Seiwa is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
- **15 December 858** (*Ten\'an 2, 7th day of the 11th month*) : The emperor\'s official announcement of his enthronement at age 9 was accompanied by the appointment of his grandfather as regent (*sesshō*). This is the first time that this high honor has been accorded to a member of the Fujiwara family, and it is also the first example in Japan of the accession of an heir who is too young to be emperor. The proclamation of the beginning of Seiwa\'s reign was made at the Kotaijingu at Ise Province and at all the tombs of the imperial family.
- **859** (*Jōgan 1, 1st month*): All New Year\'s festivities were suspended because of the period of national mourning for the death of Emperor Montoku.
- **859** (*Jōgan 1*): Construction began on the Iwashimizu Shrine near Heian-kyō. This shrine honors Hachiman, the Shinto war god.
- **869** (*Jōgan 10*): Yōzei was born, and he was named Seiwa\'s heir in the following year.
- **876** (*Jōgan 17, 11th month*): In the 18th year of Seiwa*-tennō*{{\'}}s reign (清和天皇18年), the emperor ceded his throne to his five-year-old son, which meant that the young child received the succession (*senso*). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei formally acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
- **878** (*Gangyō 2*): Seiwa became a Buddhist priest. His new priestly name was Soshin (素真).
- **7 January 881** (*Gangyō 4, 4th day of the 12th month*) : Former-Emperor Seiwa died at age 30.
## Mausoleum
The actual site of Seiwa\'s grave is known. The emperor is traditionally venerated at the *misasagi* memorial shrine in the Ukyō-ku ward of Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seiwa\'s mausoleum. It is formally named the `{{Nihongo|Minooyama no Misasagi|清和天皇陵|}}`{=mediawiki} or Seiwa Tennō Ryō. From the site of his tomb the Emperor Seiwa is sometimes referred to as the `{{Nihongo|Emperor Mizunoo|水尾帝|Mizunoo-tei}}`{=mediawiki}. The *kami* of Emperor Seiwa is venerated at the Seiwatennō-sha near the mausoleum.
## Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Seiwa\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Sesshō*, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, 804--872.
- *Daijō-daijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa.
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Makoto (源信).
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Tooru (源融).
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshimi (藤原良相), 817--867.
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Ujimune (藤原氏宗).
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Mototsune, 836--891.
- *Naidaijin*
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Mototsune.
| 690 |
Emperor Seiwa
| 0 |
10,492 |
# Emperor Seiwa
## Eras of Seiwa\'s reign {#eras_of_seiwas_reign}
The years of Seiwa\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Ten\'an* (857--859)
- *Jōgan* (859--877)
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
- Consort (Nyōgo) later *Kōtaigō*: Fujiwara no Takako (藤原高子; 842--910) later Nijo-kisaki (二条后), Fujiwara no Nagara\'s daughter
- First Son: Imperial Prince Sadaakira (貞明親王) later Emperor Yōzei
- Fourth Son: Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞保親王; 870--924)
- Third/Fifth daughter: Imperial Princess Atsuko (敦子内親王; d. 930), 7th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 877--880
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Tamiko (藤原多美子; d. 886), Fujiwara no Yoshimi\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Taira no *Kanshi* (平寛子)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Princess *Kashi* (嘉子女王)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Sadako (源貞子; d. 873)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Princess *Ryūshi* (隆子女王)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Princess *Kenshi* (兼子女王)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Princess *Chūshi*/Tadako (忠子女王; 854--904), Emperor Kōkō\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Yoriko (藤原頼子; d. 936), Fujiwara no Mototsune\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kazuko (藤原佳珠子; b. 856), Fujiwara no Mototsune\'s daughter
- Seventh Son: Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王; 874--929)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no Takeko/Izuko (源厳子; d. 879), Minamoto no Yoshiari\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no *Seishi* (源済子), Emperor Montoku\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no *Kenshi*/Atsuko (源喧子)
- Consort (Nyōgo): Minamoto no *Gishi*/Yoshiko (源宜子), Minamoto no Okimoto\'s daughter
- Court Attendant (Koui): Ariwara no Fumiko (在原文子), Ariwara no Yukihira\'s daughter
- Eighth Son: Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王; 875--916)
- Imperial Princess Kaneko (包子内親王; d. 889)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Yoshichika\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Sadahira (貞平親王; d. 914)
- Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王; 874--906), 21st Saiō (Imperial Princess serving at Ise Grand Shrine) 877--880
- Court Attendant (Koui): Tachibana no Yasukage\'s daughter (d. 924)
- Imperial Prince Sadakata (貞固親王; 868--930)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Nakamune\'s daughter
- third Son: Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞元親王; 870--910)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Prince Munesada\'s daughter
- Sixth Son: Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王; 873--916) -- father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto, founder of the Seiwa Genji, from whom the Kamakura shogunate, Ashikaga shogunate and the Tokugawa shogunate descend.
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Sadamune\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王; 876--922)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morofuji\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Sadazane (貞真親王; 876--932)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Morokazu\'s daughter
- Imperial Princess *Mōshi* (孟子内親王; d. 901)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Saeki no Sanefusa\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Nagami (源長鑒)
- Minamoto no Nagayori (源長頼; b. 875)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Ben-no-miyasundokoro (弁の御息所), Ōe no Otondo\'s daughter
- Court lady: Kamo no Mineo\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Naganori (源長猷; d. 918)
- Minamoto no *Saishi*/Noriko (源載子)
- Court lady: Ōno no Takatori\'s daughter
- Minamoto no Nagafuchi (源長淵)
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Seiwa'''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Montoku]] (826–858)
|3= 3. [[:ja:藤原明子 (染殿后)|Fujiwara no Akirakeiko]] (829–900)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Ninmyō]] (808–850)
|5= 5. [[:ja:藤原順子|Fujiwara no Junshi]] (809–871)
|6= 6. [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]] (804–872)
|7= 7. [[:ja:源潔姫|Minamoto no Kiyohime]] (810–856)
|8= 8. [[Emperor Saga]] (786–842)
|9= 9. [[Tachibana no Kachiko]] (786–850)
|10=10. [[Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu]] (775–826)
|11=11. [[:ja:藤原美都子|Fujiwara no Mitsuko]] (781–828)
|12=12. [[Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu]] (775–826)
|13=13. [[:ja:藤原美都子|Fujiwara no Mitsuko]] (781–828)
|14=14. [[Emperor Saga]] (786–842)
|15=15
| 539 |
Emperor Seiwa
| 1 |
10,494 |
# Emperor Kōkō
was the 58th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Kōkō reigned from 884 to 887.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
Before the emperor\'s ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name (*imina*) was `{{Nihongo|Tokiyasu Shinnō|時康親王}}`{=mediawiki} or *Komatsu-tei*. He would later be identified sometimes as \"the Emperor of Komatsu\". This resulted in the later Emperor Go-Komatsu adopting this name (*go-* meaning \"later\", so \"Later Emperor Komatsu\" or \"Emperor Komatsu II\").
Tokiyasu *Shinnō* was the third son of Emperor Ninmyō. His mother was Fujiwara no Sawako.
Kōkō had four Imperial consorts and 41 Imperial sons and daughters.
## Events of Kōkō\'s life {#events_of_kōkōs_life}
The first *kampaku* Fujiwara no Mototsune was influential in the process by which Kōkō became an emperor. At the time Emperor Yōzei was deposed, Prince Tokiyasu was already Governor of Hitachi and Chief Minister of Ceremonies (*Jibu-kyō*, 治部卿)
According to Kitabatake Chikafusa\'s 14th-century account, Mototsune resolved the problem of succession by simply going to visit Tokiyasu*-shinnō*, where the kampaku addressed the prince as a sovereign and assigned imperial guards. The prince signaled his acceptance by going into the imperial palanquin, which then conducted him to the emperor\'s residence within the palace. Curiously, he was still wearing the robes of a prince when he decided to take this ride into an entirely unanticipated future.
- **February 4, 884** (*Gangyō 8, 4th day of the 1st month*) : In the 8th year of Emperor Yōzei\'s reign (陽成天皇八年), the emperor was deposed; and scholars then construed that the succession (*senso*) was received by the third son of former Emperor Ninmyō, who was then age 55.
- **March 23, 884** (*Gangyō 8, 23rd day of the 2nd month*) : Emperor Kōkō is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
- **885** (*Gangyō 9*): The era name was changed accordingly in 885.
During his reign, Kōkō revived many ancient court rituals and ceremonies, and one example is the imperial hawking excursion to Serikawa, which had been initiated in 796 by Emperor Kanmu. This ritual event was revived by Kōkō after a lapse of 50 years.
- **January 11, 886** (*Ninna 2, 14th day of the 12th month*) : Kōkō traveled to Seri-gawa to hunt with falcons. He very much enjoyed this kind of hunting, and he often took time for this kind of activity.
- **September 17, 887** (*Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month*) 仁和三年八月二十六日 \--\>: Kōkō died at the age of 57.
The actual site of Kōkō\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Kyoto.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kōkō\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi*.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Kōkō\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Kampaku*, Fujiwara no Mototsune (藤原基経) (Shōsen-kō, 昭宣公), 836--891.
- *Daijō-daijin*, Fujiwara no Mototsune.
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Tōru (源融).
- *Udaijin*, Minamoto no Masaru (源多).
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo (藤原良世)
- *Dainagon*, Fujiwara no Fuyuo (藤原冬緒)
## Eras of Kōkō\'s reign {#eras_of_kōkōs_reign}
The years of Kōkō\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Gangyō* (877--885)
- *Ninna* (885--889)
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# Emperor Kōkō
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
- Consort (later *Kōtaigō*): Princess *Hanshi* (班子女王; 833--900) later Toin-Kisaki (洞院后), Imperial Prince Nakano\'s daughter (son of Emperor Kanmu)
- First Son: Minamoto no Motonaga (源元長; d. 883), die before Emperor Kōkō\'s succession
- Twelfth son: Imperial Prince Koretada (是忠親王; 857--922)
- Thirteenth Son: Imperial Prince Koresada (是貞親王; d. 903)
- Fifteenth Son: Imperial Prince Sadami (定省親王) later Emperor Uda
- Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Tadako (忠子内親王; 854--904), married to Emperor Seiwa
- Fifth Daughter: Imperial Princess *Kanshi* (簡子内親王; d. 914)
- Eighth Daughter: Imperial Princess Yasuko (綏子内親王; d. 925), married to Emperor Yōzei
- Sixteenth Daughter: Imperial Princess *Ishi* (為子内親王; d. 899), married to Emperor Daigo
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Kamiko (藤原佳美子; d. 898), Fujiwara no Mototsune\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no Genjiko (藤原元善子), Fujiwara no Yamakage\'s daughter
- Consort (Nyōgo): Taira no Motoko/*Tōshi* (平等子), Taira no Yoshikaze\'s daughter
- Court Attendant (Koui): Shigeno no Naoko (滋野直子; d. 915)
- Fourth Daughter: Imperial Princess Shigeko (繁子内親王; d. 916), 23rd Saiō in Ise Shrine 884--887
- Court Attendant (Koui): Sanuki no Naganao\'s daughter
- Ninth Son: Minamoto no Motomi (源旧鑒; d. 908)
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara Motoko (藤原元子)
- Court lady: Sugawara no *Ruishi* (菅原類子), Sugawara no Koreyoshi\'s daughter
- Court lady: Princess Keishin (桂心女王), Prince Masami\'s daughter
- Seventh Daughter: Imperial Princess *Bokushi* (穆子内親王; d. 903), 8th Saiin in Kamo Shrine 882--887
- Court lady: daughter of Tajihi clan (多治氏の娘)
- Minamoto no *Kanshi*/Ayako (源緩子/綾子; d. 908)
- Court lady: A daughter of Fuse clan (布勢氏の娘)
- Twelfth Son: Shigemizu no Kiyozane (滋水清実), given the family name \"Shigemizu\" by the Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 886
- Court Attendant (Koui): Fujiwara no Kadomune\'s daughter, later married Minamoto no Noboru
- Thirteenth Son (adopted son): Minamoto no Koreshige (源是茂; 886--941), Minamoto no Noboru\'s son
- (from unknown women)
- Second Son: Minamoto no Kaneyoshi (源兼善; d. 879)
- Third son: Minamoto no Nazane (源名実)
- Fourth Son: Minamoto no Atsuyuki (源篤行)
- Fifth Son: Minamoto no Seiyoshi (源最善)
- Sixth Son: Minamoto no Chikayoshi (源近善; d. 918)
- Seventh son: Minamoto no Ototsune (源音恒)
- Eighth Son: Minamoto no Koretsune (源是恒; d. 905)
- Tenth Son: Minamoto no Sadatsune (源貞恒; 857--908)
- Eleventh Son: Minamoto no Narikage (源成蔭)
- Fourteenth Son: Minamoto no Kuninori (源国紀; d. 909)
- Sixteenth Son: Minamoto no Kosen (源香泉)
- Seventeenth Son: Minamoto no Tomosada (源友貞)
- First Daughter: Minamoto no Osoko (源遅子)
- Second Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源麗子)
- Third Daughter: Minamoto no *Onshi*/Kusuko (源音子/奇子; d. 919)
- Sixth Daughter: Minamoto no Shushi (源崇子)
- Seventh Daughter: Minamoto no *Renshi*/Tsurako (源連子; d. 905)
- Ninth Daughter: Minamoto no Reishi (源礼子)
- Tenth Daughter: Minamoto no *Saishi* (源最子; d. 886)
- Eleventh Daughter: Minamoto no *Kaishi* (源偕子)
- Twelve Daughter: Minamoto no *Mokushi* (源黙子; d. 902)
- Thirteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Koreko (源是子)
- Fourteenth Daughter: Minamoto no *Heishi* (源並子; d. 906)
- Fifteenth Daughter: Minamoto no *Shinshi* (源深子; d. 917)
- Seventeenth Daughter: Minamoto no *Shūshi* (源周子; d. 912)
- Eighteenth Daughter: Minamoto no Mitsuko (源密子)
- Minamoto no *Washi* (源和子; d. 947), married to Emperor Daigo
- Minamoto no *Kenshi* (源謙子; d. 924)
- Minamoto no Sayako (源袟子)
- Minamoto no *Kaishi* (源快子; d
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# Emperor Uda
was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Uda\'s reign spanned the years from 887 through 897.
## Traditional narrative {#traditional_narrative}
### Name and legacy {#name_and_legacy}
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (*imina*) was `{{Nihongo|Sadami|定省}}`{=mediawiki} or *Chōjiin-tei*.
Emperor Uda was the third son of Emperor Kōkō. His mother was Empress Dowager Hanshi, a daughter of Prince Nakano (who was himself a son of Emperor Kanmu). Uda had five Imperial consorts and 20 Imperial children. Particularly important sons include:
- Prince Atsuhito (884--930)
- Prince Atsuzane `{{Nihongo|2=敦実親王}}`{=mediawiki} (893--967)
### Historical background {#historical_background}
In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the *Gempeitōkitsu* `{{Nihongo|2=源平藤橘}}`{=mediawiki}. One of these clans, the Minamoto clan `{{Nihongo|2=源氏}}`{=mediawiki}, is also known as Genji. Some of Uda\'s grandchildren were granted the surname *Minamoto*, the most used surname for former Japanese royalty. In order to distinguish Uda\'s descendants from other Genji, they became known as the Uda Genji `{{Nihongo|2=宇多源氏}}`{=mediawiki}, some of which moved to Ōmi Province and became known as Sasaki clan `{{Nihongo|2=佐々木氏}}`{=mediawiki} or Ōmi Genji `{{Nihongo|2=近江源氏}}`{=mediawiki}.
Among the Uda Genji, Minamoto no Masazane `{{Nihongo|2=源雅信}}`{=mediawiki}, a son of Prince Atsumi `{{Nihongo|2=敦実親王}}`{=mediawiki} succeeded in the court. Masazane became *sadaijin* (Minister of the Left). One of Masazane\'s daughters, Minamoto no Rinshi `{{Nihongo|2=源倫子}}`{=mediawiki} married Fujiwara no Michinaga and from this marriage three empresses dowagers and two regents (*sesshō*) were born.
From Masanobu, several kuge families originated including the Niwata, Ayanokōji, Itsutsuji, Ōhara and Jikōji. From his fourth son Sukeyosi, the Sasaki clan originated, and thus Kyōgoku clan originated. These descendants are known as Ōmi Genji today. From this line, Sasaki Takauji made a success at the Muromachi shogunate and the Amago clan originated from his brother.
### Events of Uda\'s life {#events_of_udas_life}
Uda\'s father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence. Sadami was given the clan name of Minamoto and named Minamoto no Sadami. Later, in 887, when Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of *kampaku* Fujiwara no Mototsune, since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune. After the death of his father in November of that year, Sadami*-shinnō* ascended to the throne.
- **September 17, 887** (*Ninna 3, 26th day of the 8th month*) : Emperor Kōkō died; and his third son received the succession (*senso*). Shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda formally acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
- **December 5, 887** (*Ninna 3, 17th day of the 11th month*): Mototsune asked Uda for permission to retire from his duties; but the emperor is said to have responded, \"My youth limits my ability to govern; and if you stop offering me your good counsel, I will be obliged to abdicate and to retire to a monastery.\" Therefore, Mototsune continued to serve as the new emperor\'s *kampaku*.
```{=html}
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```
- **888** (*Ninna 4, 8th month*): Construction of the newly created Buddhist temple of `{{Nihongo|'''[[Ninna-ji]]'''|仁和寺}}`{=mediawiki} was completed; and a former disciple of Kōbō-daishi was installed as the new abbot.
- **889** (*Kanpyō 1, 10th month*): The former emperor Yōzei became deranged, and afflicted by mental illness. Yōzei would enter the palace and address courtiers he would meet with the greatest rudeness. He became increasingly furious. He garroted women with the strings of musical instruments and then threw the bodies into a lake. While riding on horseback, he directed his mount to run over people. Sometimes he simply disappeared into the mountains where he chased wild boars and red deer.
In the beginning of Uda\'s reign, Mototsune held the office of *kampaku* (or chancellor). Emperor Uda\'s reign is marked by a prolonged struggle to reassert power by the Imperial Family away from the increasing influence of the Fujiwara, beginning with the death of Mototsune in 891. Records show that shortly thereafter, Emperor Uda assigned scholars Sukeyo and Kiyoyuki, supporters of Mototsune, to provincial posts in the remote provinces of Mutsu and Higo respectively. Meanwhile, non-Fujiwara officials mainly from the Minamoto family were promoted to prominent ranks, while his trusted counselor, Sugawara no Michizane rapidly rose in rank within five years to reach the third rank in the court, and supervision of the Crown Prince\'s household. Meanwhile, Mototsune\'s son and heir, Fujiwara no Tokihira, rose in rank, but only just enough to prevent an open power struggle.
Meanwhile, Emperor Uda attempted to return Court politics to the original spirit envisioned in the Ritsuryō Codes, while reviving intellectual interest in Confucian doctrine and culture. In the seventh month of 896, Emperor Uda dispatched Sugawara no Michizane to review prisoners in the capitol and provide a general amnesty for the wrongfully accused, in keeping with Chinese practices. Emperor Uda also issued edicts reinforcing peasant land rights from encroachment by powerful families in the capital or monastic institutions, while auditing tax collections made in the provinces.
Emperor Uda stopped the practice of sending ambassadors to China `{{Nihongo||遣唐使|4='ken-toh-shi'}}`{=mediawiki}. The emperor\'s decision was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane.
The Special Festival of the Kamo Shrine was first held during Uda\'s reign.
In 897, Uda abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Prince Atsuhito, who would later come to be known as Emperor Daigo. Uda left behind an hortatory will or testament which offered general admonitions or precepts for his son\'s guidance (*see excerpt at right*). The document praises Fujiwara no Tokihira as an advisor but cautions against his womanizing; and Sugawara no Michizane is praised as Uda\'s mentor. Both were assigned by Emperor Uda to look after his son until the latter reach maturity.
Three years later, he entered the Buddhist priesthood at age 34 in 900. Having founded the temple at Ninna-ji, Uda made it his new home after his abdication.
His Buddhist name was Kongō Kaku. He was sometimes called \"the Cloistered Emperor of Teiji `{{Nihongo|2=亭子の帝}}`{=mediawiki}\", because the name of the Buddhist hall where he resided after becoming a priest was called Teijiin.
Uda died in 931 (*Shōhei 1, 19th day of the 7th month*) at the age of 65.
The actual site of Uda\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Kyoto.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Uda\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kaguragaoka no Higashi no misasagi*.
The former emperor is buried amongst the \"Seven Imperial Tombs\" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Uda is today named *O-uchiyama*. The emperor\'s burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Uda died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career.
During Uda\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Kampaku*, Fujiwara no Mototsune `{{Nihongo|2=藤原基経|4=836–891}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Daijō-daijin*, Fujiwara no Mototsune
- *Sadaijin*, Minamoto no Tōru `{{Nihongo|2=源融}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Sadaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo `{{Nihongo|2=藤原良世}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Udaijin*, Minamoto no Masaru `{{Nihongo|2=源多}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Udaijin*, Fujiwara no Yoshiyo `{{Nihongo|2=藤原良世}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Udaijin*, Minamoto no Yoshiari `{{Nihongo|2=源能有}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*
## Eras of Uda\'s reign {#eras_of_udas_reign}
The years of Uda\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name, or *nengō*
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# Exile (1995 video game series)
***Exile*** is a series of role-playing video games created by Jeff Vogel of Spiderweb Software. They were released as shareware titles for Macintosh and Windows systems. *Exile III* was also ported to Linux by a third party. There were four games released in the series. All of the games were later revived in the *Avernum* series. Common to all games in the *Exile* series are 2D graphics and basic sound. The graphics in the first versions of *Exile I* and *II* had simple textures, colours and outlines, which were then replaced in later versions with *Exile III*{{\'}}s graphics. The games are designed to be non-linear and long in gameplay length.
## Gameplay
In each game, the player is required to create six characters to form a party of adventurers or may instead use a default party. The characters\' general, combat, magic and miscellaneous skills can be customized along with the character names and graphics. From *Exile II* onward, characters can have their traits and race configured.
The games have three modes including Outdoor Mode, Town Mode and Combat Mode. In Outdoor Mode, the party can enter a town, engage a group of enemies in Combat Mode and rest (if the party has food). In Town Mode, the party can talk to people, purchase from shops (provided they have enough gold), train the characters (provided they have sufficient gold and skill points), find sub-quests, pick up items (from *Exile 2* onward, items can be stolen) and enter Combat Mode. In Combat Mode, the party can attack enemies, defend themselves and pick up adjacent items. Combat Mode can be ended at any time in towns, but can only end outdoors when all enemies are killed.
Magic is divided into Mage and Priest spell types. Spells for attacking can only be cast in Combat Mode. Some spells, such as Light spells, can be cast at any time. Other spells can only be cast outdoors or in town when not in Combat Mode. Players can create a character equipped with spells up to level 3, but higher level or certain spells must be purchased or found in special encounters.
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# Exile (1995 video game series)
## Games
### *Exile I: Escape from the Pit* {#exile_i_escape_from_the_pit}
The first game of the *Exile* trilogy released in January 1995 sees a party of newly created characters thrown from the world above into the subterranean world known as Exile. Once here, the party discovers a civilization formed from the outcasts of the Empire above, a culture beset by constant warfare and monsters galore. The party meets with many of those who wish to get revenge on the Empire for the wrongs it has done to the peoples of Exile.
The characters become a rallying point around which the people of Exile who desire vengeance gather to focus their energies into finding a way to strike back against the cruel Emperor of the surface. Together, the party manages to assassinate Emperor Hawthorne in his throne room, banish the demon king Grah-hoth who was becoming a significant threat to the citizens of Exile, and secure an escape route to the surface.
### *Exile II: Crystal Souls* {#exile_ii_crystal_souls}
The second *Exile* game follows directly from the first, released in November 1996. The Empire has begun to recognise the threat the Exiles pose and begin sending their army down into Exile in huge numbers. To make matters worse, unknown barriers of energy are sprouting up around the world -- sometimes aiding the Exiles, sometimes helping the Empire who can afford the losses much more easily than the Exiles.
A new party of characters meets one of the creatures causing the barriers sprouting up in Exile and go to meet with the unknown race to negotiate. In the end, the party is more successful - and the Vahnatai joins with the Exiles to drive out the Empire. With the support of the Vahnatai the Exiles turn the tables on the Empire and successfully repulse their invasion.
### *Exile III: Ruined World* {#exile_iii_ruined_world}
The final release in the *Exile* trilogy takes place some time after *Exile II*, released in January 1997. The Linux version was ported by [Boutell.com](http://www.boutell.com/) in Summer, 2000. A lot of preparation has taken place and now the Exiles are ready to send a selected few back into the light of the surface. However, while the members of the expedition are at first stunned by the sheer beauty of the land around them, they begin to notice that things are not as perfect as they seem. The slimes the party encounters are only the first part of what becomes a series of monsters and terrible occurrences that are blighting the Empire and laying it to waste.
While scouting the land, as were the expedition members\' orders from the nation of Exile, the members are asked by the Empire to help save the surface from its blight. They bring the Exiles and the Empire together as allies trying to find the cause of the destruction.
### *Blades of Exile* {#blades_of_exile}
*Blades of Exile* was released in December 1997, consisting of three short scenarios set after the main trilogy as well as an editor that allows players to create their own scenarios, which need not be set in the *Exile* game world at all. Several hundred custom-made scenarios have been designed since the release of the game in 1997. The most prominent meeting places on the web of the *Blades of Exile* community are the official company-hosted internet forum. These forums offer support for beginning designers and players, reviews of new scenarios and general discussions about the use of the scenario editor. In June 2007, Jeff Vogel released the source code and game content for *Blades of Exile*, which is currently under version 2 of the GNU General Public License.
## Release
On December 1, 1998, the first three *Exile* games also came packaged on a CD called the \"Exile Trilogy CD\". As of July 8, 2013, these games are freeware on Spiderweb Software\'s website.
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# Exile (1995 video game series)
## Reception
Reviews described the *Exile* trilogy as a \"throwback\" to old fashioned role-playing games, with deep, complex gameplay and simplistic graphics. *Computer Games Strategy Plus* rated *Exile: Escape from the Pit* three and a half out of five stars, calling it \"one of the year\'s best shareware games.\" The reviewer dropped a half star for its \"primitive graphics\" but found the game addictive and recommended it to veteran players \"hungry for good, old fashioned fantasy role-playing games\". *Inside Mac Games* rated *Exile* four out of five, calling it an Ultima-style role-playing game that required \"patience and thoroughness\" and had slightly \"cheesy\" graphics and sound. *Inside Mac Games* named *Exile* as runner up to *Heroes of Might and Magic: A Strategic Quest* for the best role-playing game of 1996.
*Inside Mac Games* awarded *Exile II* 4 out 5 and said that it carried on *Exile*{{\'s}} tradition as \"truly a high quality Shareware game\". A subsequent *Inside Mac Games* review said *Exile II: Crystal Souls* had \"a size, scope and depth of plot unmatched in Macintosh role-playing games.\" *Exile II: Crystal Souls* was an honorable mention for *MacUser*{{\'}}s award for the best shareware game of 1996, behind winner *Escape Velocity*.
*Computer Gaming World* said that *Exile III: Ruined World* appears at first to be \"a shareware game with primitive graphics\" but reveals itself to be a \"remarkably deep\" traditional role-playing game with deceptive complexity. The reviewer praised the \"well written and witty\" NPC dialogue and elegant interface. Emil Pagliarulo reviewed *Exile III* positively for the *Adrenaline Vault*, rating the game four out of five stars and calling it an \"engrossing, thoroughly entertaining \[\...\] epic computer role-playing game\" with simplistic presentation and \"enormous depth\". *Inside Mac Games* rated *Exile III* 4 out of 5, saying that despite superficial similarities to previous games in the series, \"enough new features, situations and challenges\" would keep newcomers and veterans interested. The review concluded that *Exile III* was \"more of the same old thing: inexpensive, challenging, interesting, exciting and entertaining.\" *Inside Mac Games* called *Exile III* \"huge\" and \"highly detailed\", with quality graphics, \"an elegant interface\", and \"one of the largest and most detailed worlds and plots a fantasy role-playing game has offered\". *Exile III* received the 1998 ZDNet Shareware Game of the Year award, selected by the editors of Ziff-Davis magazines *FamilyPC*, *PC Magazine*, and *Computer Gaming World*.
*Inside Mac Games* awarded *Blades of Exile* 3 out of 5, calling it \"a nice, solid CRPG\" that offered value for money and ran bug-free. The reviewer found the introductory scenario lacking in story, with too much repetitive combat and \"plot-checks that have the potential to really aggravate\".
## *Avernum*
Spiderweb Software has remade the *Exile* trilogy twice. The games were remade in 2000--2002 as the *First Trilogy* of the *Avernum* series, which replaced the two-dimensional tile-based graphics system of *Exile* with an isometric one and made numerous changes to the RPG system and some changes to the content. The remakes were followed by a remake of *Blades of Exile*, *Blades of Avernum*, in 2004. The *Exile* trilogy was rebooted for a second time with the release of *Avernum: Escape from the Pit* (2011), *Avernum 2: Crystal Souls* (2015), and *Avernum 3: Ruined World* (2018); the remakes featured an enhanced game engine and expanded storylines.
## Engine and interface {#engine_and_interface}
While the game engine itself remained relatively similar between all games in the series, the interface went through many changes. Each iteration sported a new layout and color scheme, as well the individual elements, like the inventory and character roster boxes, were also changed to display information differently. Between *Exile I* and *Exile II* the most notable difference is a background color change as well as a change to the border of the play window. Between *Exile II* and *Exile III* the interface was changed significantly in that the colors and window styles were changed again but the player roster was overhauled and an inventory window was added. The changes between *Exile III* and *Blades of Exile* were more subtle and were again of the color and style nature
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# Emperor Kazan
was the 65th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.
Kazan\'s reign spanned the years from 984 through 986.
## Biography
Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (*imina*) was Morosada*-shinnō* (師貞親王).
Morasada was the eldest son of Emperor Reizei. The prince\'s mother was Fujiwara no Kaneko/*Kaishi* (藤原懐子), who was a daughter of *sesshō* Fujiwara no Koretada. Morasada was also the brother of Emperor Sanjō.
## Events of Kazan\'s life {#events_of_kazans_life}
Prince Morasada was seventeen years of age at the time of the succession.
- **October 6, 984** (*Eikan 1, 27th day of the 8th month*) : In the 15th year of Emperor En\'yu\'s reign (円融天皇十五年), he abdicated; and the succession (*senso*) was received by a nephew. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kazan is said to have acceded to the throne (*sokui*).
He commissioned the Shūi Wakashū.
- **985** (*Kanna 1, 4th month*): Fujiwara no Tokiakira and his brother, Yasusuke, contended with Fujiwara no Sukitaka and Ōe-no Masahira in a sword fight in Kyoto. Masahira lost the fingers of his left hand. The two brothers fled; and after careful searching, Tokiakira was eventually located in Ōmi Province.
He faced a tough political struggle from the Fujiwara family; and at the age of nineteen, he was manipulated into abandoning the throne by Fujiwara no Kaneie. Kaneie told him that Ichijo (Kaneie\'s maternal grandson) already held the Regalia, and that there was no purpose in Kazan continuing to rule. Under some pressure, Kazan acquiesced, and went to the Gangyō-ji temple. He was accompanied by Kaneie\'s second son, Michikane, who was also to enter religion. When they arrived, however, Michikane said he would like to see his parents one final time while he was still a layman. Michikane never came back.
- **986** (*Kanna 2, 6th month*): Kazan abdicated, and took up residence at Gangyō-ji where he became a Buddhist monk; and his new priestly name was Nyūkaku.
- **August 23, 986** (*Kanna 2, 16th day of the 7th month*) : Iyasada*-shinnō* was appointed as heir and crown prince at age 11. This followed the convention that two imperial lineages took the throne in turn, although Emperor Ichijō was in fact Iyasada\'s junior. He thus gained the nickname *Sakasa-no moke-no kimi* (the imperial heir in reverse). When Emperor Kanzan abandoned the world for holy orders, one grandson of Kaneie ascended to the throne as Emperor Ichijō (the 66th sovereign); and in due course, another grandson would follow on the throne as Emperor Sanjō (the 67th sovereign).
Nyūkaku went on various pilgrimages and \'re-founded\' the Saigoku Kannon Pilgrimage, which was established in the early 8th century by a monk to the name of Tokudo Shonin. This pilgrimage involves travelling to 33 locations across the eight provinces of the Western Japan.
Some scholars`{{Who|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} doubt that Kazan, in his unstable mental condition at the time was involved with the founding of the pilgrimage, thereby leaving all of the credit to Shonin.
It is suggested by many scholars`{{Who|date=March 2021}}`{=mediawiki} that the mental health of Kazan, particularly in later life, was not stable; and therefore, living as a monk may have caused deteriorating behavior.
*Daijō-tennō* Kazan died at the age of 41 on the 8th day of the 2nd month of the fifth year of *Kankō* (1008).
The actual site of Kazan\'s grave is known. This emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine (*misasagi*) at Kyoto.
The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Kazan\'s mausoleum. It is formally named *Kamiya no hotori no misasagi*.
He is buried amongst the \"Seven Imperial Tombs\" at Ryōan-ji Temple in Kyoto. The mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Kazan is today named *Kinugasa-yama.* The emperor\'s burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Kazan died. These tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers (*misasagi*) which were ordered by Emperor Meiji.
### Kugyō
is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.
In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background have brought them to the pinnacle of a life\'s career. During Kazan\'s reign, this apex of the *Daijō-kan* included:
- *Kampaku*, Fujiwara no Yoritada, 924--989.
- *Daijō-daijin*, Fujiwara no Yoritada.
- *Sadaijin*, Fujiwara no Kaneie, 929--990.
- *Naidaijin* (not appointed)
- *Dainagon*
## Eras of Kazan\'s reign {#eras_of_kazans_reign}
The years of Kazan\'s reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or *nengō*.
- *Eikan* (983--985)
- *Kanna* (985--986)
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# Emperor Kazan
## Consorts and children {#consorts_and_children}
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no *Shishi* (藤原忯子; 969--985), Fujiwara no Tamemitsu's daughter
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no *Teishi* (藤原諟子; d.1035), Fujiwara no Yoritada's daughter
Consort (Nyōgo): Fujiwara no *Chōshi* (藤原姚子; 971--989), Fujiwara no Asateru\'s daughter
Consort (Nyōgo): Princess Enshi (婉子女王; 972--998), Imperial Prince Tamehira\'s daughter
Nakatsukasa (中務), Taira no Sukeyuki\'s daughter, -- Nurse of Emperor Kazan
- Imperial Prince Kiyohito (清仁親王; c. 998--1030) -- Ancestor of Shirakawa family (白川家)
- princess (d.1024), Fujiwara no *Shoshi*'s lady-in-waiting
- princess
Nakatsukasa (中務), Taira no *Heishi* (平平子), Taira no Suketada\'s daughter
- Imperial Prince Akinori (昭登親王; 998--1035)
- princess
- princess
(from unknown women)
- Kakugen (覚源; 1000--1065), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Sōjō, 権僧正)
- Shinkan (深観; 1001--1050), a Buddhist monk (Gon-no-Daisōzu, 権大僧都)
## Ancestry
`{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Emperor Kazan'''
|2= 2. [[Emperor Reizei]] (950-1011)
|3= 3. [[:ja:藤原懐子|Fujiwara no Kaishi]] (945-975)
|4= 4. [[Emperor Murakami]] (926-967)
|5= 5. [[Fujiwara no Anshi]] (927-964)
|6= 6. [[Fujiwara no Koretada]] (924-972)
|7= 7. Princess Keiko (925-992)
|8= 8. [[Emperor Daigo]] (885-930)
|9= 9. [[Fujiwara no Onshi]] (885-954)
|10=10.[[Fujiwara no Morosuke]] (909-960) (=12)
|11=11.[[:ja:藤原盛子 (藤原経邦女)|Fujiwara no Seishi]] (d. 943) (=13)
|12=12.[[Fujiwara no Morosuke]] (909-960) (=10)
|13=13. [[:ja:藤原盛子 (藤原経邦女)|Fujiwara no Seishi]] (d. 943) (=11)
|14=14. [[:ja:代明親王|Prince Yoakira]] (904-937)
|15=15
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# Ichijō
literally means *first street* in Japanese. It can refer to:
- Emperor Ichijō (一条天皇 *-tennō*), the 66th Emperor of Japan (980--1011)
## Japanese surname {#japanese_surname}
- The Ichijō family (一条家 *-ke*), one of the five regent houses (*go-sekke*) of the Fujiwara clan in Japan
- Kazuya Ichijō, a Japanese voice actor
## Fictional characters {#fictional_characters}
- Kaoru Ichijou of *Kamen Rider Kuuga*
- *Mashiro Ichijō* of *After School Nightmare*.
- Hikaru Ichijō of the Super Dimension Fortress Macross
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# Economies of scale
`{{Economics sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Sociology}}`{=mediawiki} `{{History of technology sidebar}}`{=mediawiki}
In microeconomics, **economies of scale** are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of output produced per unit of cost (production cost). A decrease in cost per unit of output enables an increase in scale that is, increased production with lowered cost. At the basis of economies of scale, there may be technical, statistical, organizational or related factors to the degree of market control.
Economies of scale arise in a variety of organizational and business situations and at various levels, such as a production, plant or an entire enterprise. When average costs start falling as output increases, then economies of scale occur. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation and industrial equipment, have a physical or engineering basis. The economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite.
Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp and paper industry. A common limit for a low cost per unit weight raw materials is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship products uneconomic distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a higher defect rate.
Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade (a commodity) and find it costly to switch grades frequently. They will, therefore, avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller (usually older) manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity-grade production to specialty products. Economies of scale must be distinguished from economies stemming from an increase in the production of a given plant. When a plant is used below its optimal production capacity, increases in its degree of utilization bring about decreases in the total average cost of production. Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1966) and Nicholas Kaldor (1972) both argue that these economies should not be treated as economies of scale.
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# Economies of scale
## Overview
The simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size. Common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), financial (obtaining lower-interest charges when borrowing from banks and having access to a greater range of financial instruments), marketing (spreading the cost of advertising over a greater range of output in media markets), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production by shifting the short-run average total cost (SRATC) curve down and to the right.
Economies of scale is a concept that may explain patterns in international trade or in the number of firms in a given market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries. It is also a justification for free trade policies, since some economies of scale may require a larger market than is possible within a particular country---for example, it would not be efficient for Liechtenstein to have its own carmaker if they only sold to their local market. A lone carmaker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale also play a role in a \"natural monopoly\". There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale: internal and external. An industry that exhibits an internal economy of scale is one where the costs of production fall when the number of firms in the industry drops, but the remaining firms increase their production to match previous levels. Conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery.
Economies of scale exist whenever the total cost of producing two quantities of a product X is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produce it. See Economies of scope#Economics.
$$TC((Q_1 + Q_2)X) < TC(Q_1X) + TC(Q_2X)$$
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# Economies of scale
## Determinants of economies of scale {#determinants_of_economies_of_scale}
### Physical and engineering basis: economies of increased dimension {#physical_and_engineering_basis_economies_of_increased_dimension}
Some of the economies of scale recognized in engineering have a physical basis, such as the square--cube law, by which the surface of a vessel increases by the square of the dimensions while the volume increases by the cube. This law has a direct effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships and airplanes.
In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness.
Drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in less fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed.
Heat loss from industrial processes vary per unit of volume for pipes, tanks and other vessels in a relationship somewhat similar to the square--cube law. In some productions, an increase in the size of the plant reduces the average variable cost, thanks to the energy savings resulting from the lower dispersion of heat.
Economies of increased dimension are often misinterpreted because of the confusion between indivisibility and three-dimensionality of space. This confusion arises from the fact that three-dimensional production elements, such as pipes and ovens, once installed and operating, are always technically indivisible. However, the economies of scale due to the increase in size do not depend on indivisibility but exclusively on the three-dimensionality of space. Indeed, indivisibility only entails the existence of economies of scale produced by the balancing of productive capacities, considered above; or of increasing returns in the utilisation of a single plant, due to its more efficient use as the quantity produced increases. However, this latter phenomenon has nothing to do with the economies of scale which, by definition, are linked to the use of a larger plant.
### Economies in holding stocks and reserves {#economies_in_holding_stocks_and_reserves}
At the base of economies of scale there are also returns to scale linked to statistical factors. In fact, the greater of the number of resources involved, the smaller, in proportion, is the quantity of reserves necessary to cope with unforeseen contingencies (for instance, machine spare parts, inventories, circulating capital, etc.).
### Transaction economies {#transaction_economies}
One of the reasons firms appear is to reduce transaction costs. A larger scale generally determines greater bargaining power over input prices and therefore benefits from pecuniary economies in terms of purchasing raw materials and intermediate goods compared to companies that make orders for smaller amounts. In this case, we speak of pecuniary economies, to highlight the fact that nothing changes from the \"physical\" point of view of the returns to scale. Furthermore, supply contracts entail fixed costs which lead to decreasing average costs if the scale of production increases. This is of important utility in the study of corporate finance.
### Economies deriving from the balancing of production capacity {#economies_deriving_from_the_balancing_of_production_capacity}
Economies of productive capacity balancing derives from the possibility that a larger scale of production involves a more efficient use of the production capacities of the individual phases of the production process. If the inputs are indivisible and complementary, a small scale may be subject to idle times or to the underutilization of the productive capacity of some sub-processes. A higher production scale can make the different production capacities compatible. The reduction in machinery idle times is crucial in the case of a high cost of machinery.
### Economies resulting from the division of labour and the use of superior techniques {#economies_resulting_from_the_division_of_labour_and_the_use_of_superior_techniques}
A larger scale allows for a more efficient division of labour. The economies of division of labour derive from the increase in production speed, from the possibility of using specialized personnel and adopting more efficient techniques. An increase in the division of labour inevitably leads to changes in the quality of inputs and outputs.
### Managerial economics {#managerial_economics}
Many administrative and organizational activities are mostly cognitive and, therefore, largely independent of the scale of production. When the size of the company and the division of labour increase, there are a number of advantages due to the possibility of making organizational management more effective and perfecting accounting and control techniques. Furthermore, the procedures and routines that turned out to be the best can be reproduced by managers at different times and places.
### Learning and growth economies {#learning_and_growth_economies}
Learning and growth economies are at the base of dynamic economies of scale, associated with the process of growth of the scale dimension and not to the dimension of scale per se. Learning by doing implies improvements in the ability to perform and promotes the introduction of incremental innovations with a progressive lowering of average costs. Learning economies are directly proportional to the cumulative production (experience curve). Growth economies emerge if a company gains an added benefit by expanding its size. These economies are due to the presence of some resource or competence that is not fully utilized, or to the existence of specific market positions that create a differential advantage in expanding the size of the firms. That growth economies disappear once the scale size expansion process is completed. For example, a company that owns a supermarket chain benefits from an economy of growth if, opening a new supermarket, it gets an increase in the price of the land it owns around the new supermarket. The sale of these lands to economic operators, who wish to open shops near the supermarket, allows the company in question to make a profit, making a profit on the revaluation of the value of building land.
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# Economies of scale
## Determinants of economies of scale {#determinants_of_economies_of_scale}
### Capital and operating cost {#capital_and_operating_cost}
Overall costs of capital projects are known to be subject to economies of scale. A crude estimate is that if the capital cost for a given sized piece of equipment is known, changing the size will change the capital cost by the 0.6 power of the capacity ratio (the point six to the power rule).
In estimating capital cost, it typically requires an insignificant amount of labor, and possibly not much more in materials, to install a larger capacity electrical wire or pipe having significantly greater capacity.
The cost of a unit of capacity of many types of equipment, such as electric motors, centrifugal pumps, diesel and gasoline engines, decreases as size increases. Also, the efficiency increases with size.
### Crew size and other operating costs for ships, trains and airplanes {#crew_size_and_other_operating_costs_for_ships_trains_and_airplanes}
Operating crew size for ships, airplanes, trains, etc., does not increase in direct proportion to capacity. (Operating crew consists of pilots, co-pilots, navigators, etc. and does not include passenger service personnel.) Many aircraft models were significantly lengthened or \"stretched\" to increase payload.
Many manufacturing facilities, especially those making bulk materials like chemicals, refined petroleum products, cement and paper, have labor requirements that are not greatly influenced by changes in plant capacity. This is because labor requirements of automated processes tend to be based on the complexity of the operation rather than production rate, and many manufacturing facilities have nearly the same basic number of processing steps and pieces of equipment, regardless of production capacity.
### Economical use of byproducts {#economical_use_of_byproducts}
Karl Marx noted that large scale manufacturing allowed economical use of products that would otherwise be waste. Marx cited the chemical industry as an example, which today along with petrochemicals, remains highly dependent on turning various residual reactant streams into salable products. In the pulp and paper industry, it is economical to burn bark and fine wood particles to produce process steam and to recover the spent pulping chemicals for conversion back to a usable form.
### Economies of scale and the size of exporter {#economies_of_scale_and_the_size_of_exporter}
Large and more productive firms typically generate enough net revenues abroad to cover the fixed costs associated with exporting. However, in the event of trade liberalization, resources will have to be reallocated toward the more productive firm, which raises the average productivity within the industry.
Firms differ in their labor productivity and the quality of their products, so more efficient firms are more likely to generate more net income abroad and thus become exporters of their goods or services. There is a correlating relationship between a firm\'s total sales and underlying efficiency. Firms with higher productivity will always outperform a firm with lower productivity which will lead to lower sales. Through trade liberalization, organizations are able to drop their trade costs due to export growth. However, trade liberalization does not account for any tariff reduction or shipping logistics improvement.`{{R|ArmenterKoren}}`{=mediawiki} However, total economies of scale is based on the exporters individual frequency and size. So large-scale companies are more likely to have a lower cost per unit as opposed to small-scale companies. Likewise, high trade frequency companies are able to reduce their overall cost attributed per unit when compared to those of low-trade frequency companies.
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# Economies of scale
## Economies of scale and returns to scale {#economies_of_scale_and_returns_to_scale}
Economies of scale is related to and can easily be confused with the theoretical economic notion of returns to scale. Where economies of scale refer to a firm\'s costs, returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run (all inputs variable) production function. A production function has *constant* returns to scale if increasing all inputs by some proportion results in output increasing by that same proportion. Returns are *decreasing* if, say, doubling inputs results in less than double the output, and *increasing* if more than double the output. If a mathematical function is used to represent the production function, and if that production function is homogeneous, returns to scale are represented by the degree of homogeneity of the function. Homogeneous production functions with constant returns to scale are first degree homogeneous, increasing returns to scale are represented by degrees of homogeneity greater than one, and decreasing returns to scale by degrees of homogeneity less than one.
If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, has diseconomies of scale if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale. In this case, with perfect competition in the output market the long-run equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).
If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input\'s per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.
In essence, returns to scale refer to the variation in the relationship between inputs and output. This relationship is therefore expressed in \"physical\" terms. But when talking about economies of scale, the relation taken into consideration is that between the average production cost and the dimension of scale. Economies of scale therefore are affected by variations in input prices. If input prices remain the same as their quantities purchased by the firm increase, the notions of increasing returns to scale and economies of scale can be considered equivalent. However, if input prices vary in relation to their quantities purchased by the company, it is necessary to distinguish between returns to scale and economies of scale. The concept of economies of scale is more general than that of returns to scale since it includes the possibility of changes in the price of inputs when the quantity purchased of inputs varies with changes in the scale of production.
The literature assumed that due to the competitive nature of reverse auctions, and in order to compensate for lower prices and lower margins, suppliers seek higher volumes to maintain or increase the total revenue. Buyers, in turn, benefit from the lower transaction costs and economies of scale that result from larger volumes. In part as a result, numerous studies have indicated that the procurement volume must be sufficiently high to provide sufficient profits to attract enough suppliers, and provide buyers with enough savings to cover their additional costs.
However, Shalev and Asbjornse found, in their research based on 139 reverse auctions conducted in the public sector by public sector buyers, that the higher auction volume, or economies of scale, did not lead to better success of the auction. They found that auction volume did not correlate with competition, nor with the number of bidders, suggesting that auction volume does not promote additional competition. They noted, however, that their data included a wide range of products, and the degree of competition in each market varied significantly, and offer that further research on this issue should be conducted to determine whether these findings remain the same when purchasing the same product for both small and high volumes. Keeping competitive factors constant, increasing auction volume may further increase competition.
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# Economies of scale
## Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis {#economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis}
### Economies of scale in classical economists {#economies_of_scale_in_classical_economists}
The first systematic analysis of the advantages of the division of labour capable of generating economies of scale, both in a static and dynamic sense, was that contained in the famous First Book of Wealth of Nations (1776) by Adam Smith, generally considered the founder of political economy as an autonomous discipline.
John Stuart Mill, in Chapter IX of the First Book of his Principles, referring to the work of Charles Babbage (On the economics of machines and manufactories), widely analyses the relationships between increasing returns and scale of production all inside the production unit.
### Economies of scale in Marx and distributional consequences {#economies_of_scale_in_marx_and_distributional_consequences}
In *\[\[Das Kapital\]\]* (1867), Karl Marx, referring to Charles Babbage, extensively analyzed economies of scale and concludes that they are one of the factors underlying the ever-increasing concentration of capital. Marx observes that in the capitalist system the technical conditions of the work process are continuously revolutionized in order to increase the surplus by improving the productive force of work. According to Marx, with the cooperation of many workers brings about an economy in the use of the means of production and an increase in productivity due to the increase in the division of labour. Furthermore, the increase in the size of the machinery allows significant savings in construction, installation and operation costs. The tendency to exploit economies of scale entails a continuous increase in the volume of production which, in turn, requires a constant expansion of the size of the market. However, if the market does not expand at the same rate as production increases, overproduction crises can occur. According to Marx the capitalist system is therefore characterized by two tendencies, connected to economies of scale: towards a growing concentration and towards economic crises due to overproduction.
In his 1844 *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts*, Karl Marx observes that economies of scale have historically been associated with an increasing concentration of private wealth and have been used to justify such concentration. Marx points out that concentrated private ownership of large-scale economic enterprises is a historically contingent fact, and not essential to the nature of such enterprises. In the case of agriculture, for example, Marx calls attention to the sophistical nature of the arguments used to justify the system of concentrated ownership of land:
: As for large landed property, its defenders have always sophistically identified the economic advantages offered by large-scale agriculture with large-scale landed property, as if it were not precisely as a result of the abolition of property that this advantage, for one thing, received its greatest possible extension, and, for another, only then would be of social benefit.
Instead of concentrated private ownership of land, Marx recommends that economies of scale should instead be realized by associations:
: Association, applied to land, shares the economic advantage of large-scale landed property, and first brings to realization the original tendency inherent in land-division, namely, equality. In the same way association re-establishes, now on a rational basis, no longer mediated by serfdom, overlordship and the silly mysticism of property, the intimate ties of man with the earth, for the earth ceases to be an object of huckstering, and through free labor and free enjoyment becomes once more a true personal property of man.
### Economies of scale in Marshall {#economies_of_scale_in_marshall}
Alfred Marshall notes that Antoine Augustin Cournot and others have considered \"the internal economies \[\...\] apparently without noticing that their premises lead inevitably to the conclusion that, whatever firm first gets a good start will obtain a monopoly of the whole business of its trade ... \". Marshall believes that there are factors that limit this trend toward monopoly, and in particular:
- the death of the founder of the firm and the difficulty that the successors may have inherited his/her entrepreneurial skills;
- the difficulty of reaching new markets for one\'s goods;
- the growing difficulty of being able to adapt to changes in demand and to new techniques of production;
- The effects of external economies, that is the particular type of economies of scale connected not to the production scale of an individual production unit, but to that of an entire sector.
### Sraffa\'s critique {#sraffas_critique}
Piero Sraffa observes that Marshall, in order to justify the operation of the law of increasing returns without it coming into conflict with the hypothesis of free competition, tended to highlight the advantages of external economies linked to an increase in the production of an entire sector of activity. However, \"those economies which are external from the point of view of the individual firm, but internal as regards the industry in its aggregate, constitute precisely the class which is most seldom to be met with.\" \"In any case - Sraffa notes -- in so far as external economies of the kind in question exist, they are not linked to be called forth by small increases in production,\" as required by the marginalist theory of price. Sraffa points out that, in the equilibrium theory of the individual industries, the presence of external economies cannot play an important role because this theory is based on marginal changes in the quantities produced.
Sraffa concludes that, if the hypothesis of perfect competition is maintained, economies of scale should be excluded. He then suggests the possibility of abandoning the assumption of free competition to address the study of firms that have their own particular market. This stimulated a whole series of studies on the cases of imperfect competition in Cambridge. However, in the succeeding years Sraffa followed a different path of research that brought him to write and publish his main work *Production of commodities by means of commodities* `{{harv|Sraffa|1966}}`{=mediawiki}. In this book, Sraffa determines relative prices assuming no changes in output, so that no question arises as to the variation or constancy of returns.
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# Economies of scale
## Economies of scale in the history of economic analysis {#economies_of_scale_in_the_history_of_economic_analysis}
### Rule of six-tenths {#rule_of_six_tenths}
In 1947, DuPont engineer Roger Williams Jr. (1930--2005) published a rule of thumb that costs of chemical process are roughly proportional to the tonnage in power \~0.6. In the following decades it became widely adopted other engineering industries and terrestrial mining, sometimes (e. g., in electrical power generation) with modified exponential scaling factors.
### Economies of scale and the tendency towards monopoly: \"Cournot\'s dilemma\" {#economies_of_scale_and_the_tendency_towards_monopoly_cournots_dilemma}
It has been noted that in many industrial sectors there are numerous companies with different sizes and organizational structures, despite the presence of significant economies of scale. This contradiction, between the empirical evidence and the logical incompatibility between economies of scale and competition, has been called the \'Cournot dilemma\'. As Mario Morroni observes, Cournot\'s dilemma appears to be unsolvable if we only consider the effects of economies of scale on the dimension of scale. If, on the other hand, the analysis is expanded, including the aspects concerning the development of knowledge and the organization of transactions, it is possible to conclude that economies of scale do not always lead to monopoly. In fact, the competitive advantages deriving from the development of the firm\'s capabilities and from the management of transactions with suppliers and customers can counterbalance those provided by the scale, thus counteracting the tendency towards a monopoly inherent in economies of scale. In other words, the heterogeneity of the organizational forms and of the size of the companies operating in a sector of activity can be determined by factors regarding the quality of the products, the production flexibility, the contractual methods, the learning opportunities, the heterogeneity of preferences of customers who express a differentiated demand with respect to the quality of the product, and assistance before and after the sale. Very different organizational forms can therefore co-exist in the same sector of activity, even in the presence of economies of scale, such as, for example, flexible production on a large scale, small-scale flexible production, mass production, industrial production based on rigid technologies associated with flexible organizational systems and traditional artisan production. The considerations regarding economies of scale are therefore important, but not sufficient to explain the size of the company and the market structure. It is also necessary to take into account the factors linked to the development of capabilities and the management of transaction costs.
## External economies of scale {#external_economies_of_scale}
External economies of scale tend to be more prevalent than internal economies of scale. Through the external economies of scale, the entry of new firms benefits all existing competitors as it creates greater competition and also reduces the average cost for all firms as opposed to internal economies of scale which only allows benefits to the individual firm. Advantages that arise from external economies of scale include;
- Expansion of the industry.
- Benefits most or all of the firms within the industry.
- Can lead to rapid growth of local governments
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# EDIF
**EDIF** (**Electronic Design Interchange Format**) is a vendor-neutral format based on S-expressions in which to store electronic netlists and schematics. It was one of the first attempts to establish a neutral data exchange format for the electronic design automation (EDA) industry. The goal was to establish a common format from which the proprietary formats of the EDA systems could be derived. When customers needed to transfer data from one system to another, it was necessary to write translators from one format to other. As the number of formats (*N*) multiplied, the translator issue became an *N*-squared problem. The expectation was that with EDIF the number of translators could be reduced to the number of involved systems.
Representatives of the EDA companies Daisy Systems, Mentor Graphics, Motorola, National Semiconductor, Tektronix, Texas Instruments and the University of California, Berkeley established the *EDIF Steering Committee* in November 1983. Later Hilary Kahn, a computer science professor at the University of Manchester, joined the team and led the development from version EDIF 2 0 0 till the final version 4 0 0.
## Syntax
The general format of EDIF involves using parentheses to delimit data definitions, and in this way it superficially resembles Lisp. The basic tokens of EDIF 2.0.0 were keywords (like *library*, *cell*, *instance*, etc.), strings (delimited with double quotes), integer numbers, symbolic constants (e.g. *GENERIC*, *TIE*, *RIPPER* for cell types) and \"Identifiers\", which are reference labels formed from a very restricted set of characters. EDIF 3.0.0 and 4.0.0 dropped the symbolic constants entirely, using keywords instead. So, the syntax of EDIF has a fairly simple foundation. A typical EDIF file looks like this:
``` lisp
(edif fibex (edifVersion 2 0 0)
(edifLevel 0) (keywordMap (keywordLevel 0))
(status (written (timeStamp 1995 1 1 1 1 1) (program "xxx" (version "v1"))))
(library xxx (edifLevel 0)
(technology (numberDefinition (scale 1 (e 1 -6) (unit distance))))
(cell dff_4 (cellType generic)
(view view1 (viewType netlist)
(interface
(port aset (direction INPUT))
(port clok (direction INPUT))
...
(cell yyy (cellType generic)
(view schematic_ (viewType netlist)
(interface
(port CLEAR (direction INPUT))
(port CLOCK (direction INPUT)) ... )
(contents
(instance I_36_1 (viewRef view1 (cellRef dff_4)))
(instance (rename I_36_3 "I$3") (viewRef view1 (cellRef addsub_4)))
...
(net CLEAR
(joined
(portRef CLEAR)
(portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_1))
(portRef aset (instanceRef I_36_3))))
...
```
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# EDIF
## Revision history {#revision_history}
EDIF Version 1 0 0 in 1985
EDIF Version 1 1 0 in 1986
### EDIF 2 0 0 {#edif_2_0_0}
The first \"real\" public release of EDIF was version 2 0 0, which was approved in March 1988 as the standard ANSI/EIA-548-1988. It is published in a single volume. This version has no formal scope statement but what it tries to capture is covered by the defined **viewType**s:
- *BEHAVIOR to describe the behavior of a cell*
- *DOCUMENT to describe the documentation of a cell*
- *GRAPHIC to describe a*dumb*graphics and text representation of displayable or printable information*
- *LOGICMODEL to describe the logic-simulation model of the cell*
- *MASKLAYOUT to describe an integrated circuit layout*
- *NETLIST to describe a netlist*
- *PCBLAYOUT to describe a printed circuit board*
- *SCHEMATIC to describe the schematic representation and connectivity of a cell*
- *STRANGER to describe an as yet unknown representation of a cell*
- *SYMBOLIC to describe a symbolic layout*
The industry tested this release for several years, but finally only the NETLIST view was the one widely used and some EDA tools are still supporting it today for EDIF 2 0 0.
To overcome problems with the main 2 0 0 standard several further documents got released:
- Electronic Industries Association
- *EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 1, Introduction to EDIF*, EIA/EDIF-1, Sept. 1988
- *EDIF Monograph Series, Volume 2, EDIF Connectivity*, EIA/EDIF-2, June 1989
- *Using EDIF 2 0 0 for schematic transfer*, EIA/EDIF/AG-1, July 1989
- Documentation from Hilary J. Kahn, Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
- *EDIF 2 0 0, An Introductory Tutorial*, September 1989
- *EDIF Questions and answers, volume one*, November 1988
- *EDIF Questions and answers, volume two*, February 1989
- *EDIF Questions and answers, volume three*, July 1989
- *EDIF Questions and answers, volume four*, November 1989
- *EDIF Questions and answers, volume five*, June 1991
### EDIF 2 9 0 {#edif_2_9_0}
Released on 15 September 1992.
### EDIF 3 0 0 {#edif_3_0_0}
Because of some fundamental weaknesses in the 2 0 0 release a new not compatible release 3 0 0 was released in September 1993, given the designation of EIA standard EIA-618. It later achieved ANSI and ISO designations. It is published in 4 volumes. The main focus of this version were the viewTypes NETLIST and SCHEMATIC from 2 0 0. MASKLAYOUT, PCBLAYOUT and some other views were dropped from this release and shifted for later releases because the work for these views was not fully completed.
EDIF 3 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-1
### EDIF 4 0 0 {#edif_4_0_0}
EDIF 4 0 0 was released in late August 1996, mainly to add \"Printed Circuit Board\" extensions (the original PCBLAYOUT view) to EDIF 3 0 0. This more than doubled the size of EDIF 3 0 0, and is published in HTML format on CD.
EDIF 4 0 0 is available from the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 61690-2
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# EDIF
## Evolution
### Problems with 2 0 0 {#problems_with_2_0_0}
To understand the problems users and vendors encountered with EDIF 2 0 0, one first has to picture all the elements and dynamics of the electronics industry. The people who needed this standard were mainly design engineers, who worked for companies whose size ranged from a house garage to multi-billion dollar facilities with thousands of engineers. These engineers worked mainly from schematics and netlists in the late 1980s, and the big push was to generate the netlists from the schematics automatically. The first suppliers were Electronic Design Automation vendors (e.g., Daisy, Mentor, and Valid formed the earliest predominating set). These companies competed vigorously for their shares of this market.
One of the tactics used by these companies to \"capture\" their customers was their proprietary databases. Each had special features that the others did not. Once a decision was made to use a particular vendor\'s software to enter a design, the customer was ever after constrained to use no other software. To move from vendor A\'s to vendor B\'s systems usually meant a very expensive re-entry of almost all design data by hand into the new system. This expense of \"migration\" was the main factor that locked design engineers into using a single vendor.
But the \"customers\" had a different desire. They saw immediately that while vendor A might have a really nice analog simulation environment, vendor B had a much better PCB or silicon layout auto-router. And they wished that they could pick and choose amongst the different vendors.
EDIF was mainly supported by the electronics design end-users, and their companies. The EDA vendors were involved also, but their motivation was more along the lines of wanting to not alienate their customers. Most of the EDA vendors produced EDIF 2 0 0 translators, but they were definitely more interested in generating high-quality EDIF readers, and they had absolutely no motivation at all to write any software that generated EDIF (an EDIF Writer), beyond threats from customers of mass migration to another vendor\'s software.
The result was rather interesting. Hardly any software vendor wrote EDIF 2 0 0 output that did not have severe violations of syntax or semantics. The semantics were just loose enough that there might be several ways to describe the same data. This began to be known as \"flavors\" of EDIF. The vendor companies did not always feel it important to allocate many resources to EDIF products, even if they sold a large number of them. There were several stories of active products with virtually no-one to maintain them for years. User complaints were merely gathered and prioritized. The harder it became to export customer data to EDIF, the more the vendors seemed to like it. Those who did write EDIF translators found they spent a huge amount of time and effort on generating sufficiently powerful, forgiving, artificially intelligent readers, that could handle and piece together the poor-quality code produced by the extant EDIF 2 0 0 writers of the day.
In designing EDIF 3 0 0, the committees were well aware of the faults of the language, the calumny heaped on EDIF 2 0 0 by the vendors and the frustration of the end users. So, to tighten the semantics of the language, and provide a more formal description of the standard, the revolutionary approach was taken to provide an information model for EDIF, in the information modeling language EXPRESS. This helped to better document the standard, but was done more as an afterthought, as the syntax crafting was done independently of the model, instead of being generated from the model. Also, even though the standard says that if the syntax and model disagree, the model is the standard, this is not the case in practice. The BNF description of the syntax is the foundation of the language inasmuch as the software that does the day-to-day work of producing design descriptions is based on a fixed syntax. The information model also suffered from the fact that it was not (and is not) ideally suited to describing EDIF. It does not describe such concepts as name spaces very well at all, and the differences between a definition and a reference is not clearly describable either. Also, the constructs in EXPRESS for describing constraints might be formal, but constraint description is a fairly complicated matter at times. So, most constraints ended up just being described as comments. Most of the others became elaborate formal descriptions which most readers will never be able to decipher, and therefore may not stand up to automated debugging/compiling, just as a program might look good in review, but a compiler might find some interesting errors, and actually running the program written might find even more interesting errors. (Additionally, analogous EXPRESS compilers/executors didn\'t exist when the standard was written, and may not still exist today!)
### Solutions to EDIF 2 0 0 problems {#solutions_to_edif_2_0_0_problems}
The solution to the \"flavor\" problem of EDIF 2 0 0 was to develop a more specific semantic description in EDIF 3 0 0 (1993). Indeed, reported results of people generating EDIF 3 0 0 translators was that the writers were now *much* more difficult to get right, due to the great number of semantic restrictions, and the readers are comparatively trivial to develop.
The solution to vendor \"conflict of interest\" was neutral third-party companies, who could provide EDIF products based on vendor interfaces. This separation of the EDIF products from direct vendor control was critical to providing the end-user community with tools that worked well. It formed naturally and without comment. Engineering DataXpress was perhaps the first such company in this realm, with Electronic Tools Company seeming to have captured the market in the mid to late 1990s. Another dynamic in this industry is EDIF itself. Since they have grown to a rather large size, generating readers and writers has become a very expensive proposition. Usually the third-party companies have congregated the necessary specialists and can use this expertise to more efficiently generate the software. They are also able to leverage code sharing and other techniques an individual vendor could not. By 2000, almost no major vendor produced its own EDIF tools, choosing instead to OEM third-party tools.
Since the release of EDIF 4 0 0, the entire EDIF standards organisation has essentially dissolved. There have been no published meetings of any of the technical subcommittees, the EDIF Experts group, etc. Most of the individuals involved have moved on to other companies or efforts. The newsletter was abandoned, and the Users\' Group no longer holds yearly meetings. EDIF 3 0 0 and 4 0 0 are now ANSI, IEC and European (EN) standards. EDIF Version 3 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-1, and EDIF Version 4 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-2.
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# EDIF
## Evolution
### EDIF descendants {#edif_descendants}
- LKSoft took major concepts from EDIF 2 0 0 to create a proprietary data format with the default extension \".cam\" for their CircuitCAM system offered originally by LPKF Laser & Electronics AG in Garbsen/Hannover, Germany and today owned by DCT Co., Ltd. in Tianjn, China. To efficiently work on EDIF like formats LKSoft has developed the *EDIF Procedural Interface*, an API for the C programming language.
- Zuken, formerly Racal-Redac Ltd., took concepts from the early EDIF 4 0 0 development to create a new proprietary format called CADIF for their **Visula** PCB-CAD system. This format is also widely used by 3rd party vendors.
- STEP-AP210, a part of ISO 10303, practically inherited all of the EDIF 4 0 0 functionality except for schematics
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# Book of Enos
**The Book of Enos** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|n|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}) is the fourth book in the Book of Mormon and is a portion of the small plates of Nephi. According to the text it was written by Enos, a Nephite prophet. Most scholars believe it to be a 19th century work by Joseph Smith.
**Identity of Enos** According to the Book of Mormon, Jacob had a son named \"Enos\" (see Jacob 7:27) and the Book of Enos follows immediately after the Book of Jacob in the manuscripts of the Book of Mormon and all printed editions. (See Jacob 7:27 to Enos 1:1.) However, in the opening verse of the Book of Enos (Enos 1:1), Enos mentions only his \"father\" and does not expressly affirm that his father was Jacob or that his uncle was Nephi. It is a reasonable assumption that Enos was the son of Jacob (of Jacob 7:27); but that relationship is not established in the text.
Given the issues that have been debated about how it could have been fully 179 years between the time when Lehi (and Nephi) left Jerusalem and when Enos \"began to be old\" (Enos 1:25) and was \"soon\" to \"go to the place of \[his\] rest\" (Enos 1:27), it is possible either that Jacob and Enos each lived to about 95 years of age, with Jacob fathering Enos late in life, or that Jacob had one son named Enos (as stated in Jacob 7:27) and yet that the Enos of the Book of Enos was another Enos altogether, perhaps, for example, a grandson or even great-grandson of Jacob. The identity of Enos of the Book of Enos is not necessarily established as the son of Jacob and grandson of Lehi and Sariah. Clearly, however, Enos\'s ancestry leads directly to Lehi and Sariah through Jacob.
**Summary of the Book of Enos** This short book consists of a single chapter, relating Enos\' conversion after praying all day and all night, following with his subsequent dialogue with the Lord. It also discusses the redemption of the Nephites and their enemies, the Lamanites, and contains prophecies of future Nephite and Lamanite generations. Additionally, it contains descriptions of the Lamanites. The style of Enos resembles that of Erich Auerbach in his *Mimesis* and that of Nephi, Enos\'s ancestor and the Book of Mormon\'s opening narrator.
## Narrative
Enos hunts in the woods and remembers the gospel that his father taught him; as a result, he kneels and cries all day and during the night for the salvation of his soul. Then the voice of God tells Enos that he is forgiven of his sins. Enos believes the voice, but he wonders how the forgiveness is actually accomplished. In response, God explains that Enos is forgiven because he has faith in Jesus Christ, even though he has never seen or heard Christ.
Enos then prays for the salvation of the Nephites, but God says they will be blessed or punished according to their obedience. Enos, fearing that the Nephites will refuse to obey the commandments of God, then prays for the Lamanites who oppress them; he asks God for the Lamanites\' preservation. Additionally, he prays that God will preserve a record of the Nephites so that someday the Lamanites too might be brought to salvation. Only faith in Christ will save them, but God makes a covenant with Enos that he will bring the records of the Nephites to the Lamanites in due time.
After this experience, Enos takes up the mantle of prophet and preaches among the Nephites, fearing their destruction. In the record, Enos does not say whether he is successful at converting the Nephites, but he does say the Nephites fail to convert the Lamanites. Before Enos dies he gives the records to his son Jarom.
## Portrayal of Lamanites {#portrayal_of_lamanites}
Throughout the narrative, Enos characterizes the Lamanites as possessing an unmoving hatred. According to Enos, the Lamanites become a wild, idolatrous, and bloodthirsty people, eating predatory animals. They live in tents, wander around in the wilderness, wear loincloths, shave their heads, and often eat raw meat. Enos explains that they are skilled with bows, cimeters, and axes and continually seek to destroy the Nephites.
Fatimah Salleh and Margaret Olsen Hemming noticed that Enos implies that Lamanite practices, like eating raw meat, connote corruption, even though the same behavior had no negative connotations earlier in the Book of Mormon when the Nephites and Lamanites were still one people. Thus, Enos demonstrates \"writer\'s bias.\" Hemming and Salleh concluded that Enos\'s criticism of the Lamanites is based more on prejudice and what is culturally acceptable to the Nephite rather than based on a charge from God.
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# Book of Enos
## Book of Enos interpretation {#book_of_enos_interpretation}
Summary Verses
------------------------------------------------------- --------
Receives forgiveness 1-8
Prays for Nephites, Lamanites, and Record 9-18
Prophesies of future Lamanite and Nephite generations 19-24
Writes final words 25-27
Enos begins his account in a manner that is similar to Nephi\'s: he mentions parental influence, passed on through religious counsel. The narrative not only begins with this but also ends with it. A difference from the style of Nephi is that Enos does not quote scripture in his narrative. Terryl L. Givens also argues that Enos\' intended literary audience leans toward the Lamanites, as the Nephites will eventually be destroyed.
According to author Dennis Largey, the style of the Book of Enos implies that Enos did not narrate it over a long period of time but may have narrated it shortly before he died. On another note, literary critic Richard Rust compares the style and syntax of the Book of Enos and that of Erich Auerbach\'s *Mimesis* account of when Abraham is about to sacrifice Isaac. Specifically, Rust noticed in both accounts similar uses of modifiers as well as "and." Additionally, Enos fills his narrative with words such as \"wrestling\" that generally appeal to a reader\'s emotions, says Protestant theologian John Christopher Thomas. The familial and covenantal responsibilities that Enos feels bring a serious but personal flavor into the narrative, according to BYU English professor Sharon J. Harris
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# Environmental skepticism
**Environmental skepticism** is the belief that statements by environmentalists, and the environmental scientists who support them, are false or exaggerated. The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general. It can additionally be defined as doubt about the authenticity or severity of environmental degradation. Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial. Environmental skepticism can also be the result of cultural and lived experiences.
## About
Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than scientists and scientific bodies say, or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence, or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives. One of the themes the movement focuses on is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties.
The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg\'s 2001 book *The Skeptical Environmentalist*.`{{Primary source inline|date=September 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint, and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated. Lomborg argued, on the basis of cost--benefit analysis, that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern. The book came under criticism by scientists noting that Lomborg misinterpreted or misrepresented data, criticized misuse of data while committing similar mistakes himself, examined issues supporting his thesis while ignoring information contrary to it, cherry picks literature, oversimplifies, fails to discuss uncertainty or subjectivity, cites mostly media sources, and largely ignores ecology.
Michael Shermer, who debated Lomborg on several topics from his book, notes that despite the scientific consensus many people are driven to environmental skepticism by the extremism inherent in both sides of the debate and not having been exposed to a sufficiently succinct and visual presentation of the available evidence.
In 2010, Lomborg refined his position and stated that he believes in the need for \"tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change\" and declared global warming to be \"undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today\" and \"a challenge humanity must confront\". He summarized his position, saying \"Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem. But it is not the end of the world.\"
A 2014 study of individuals from 32 countries found that environmental skepticism stems from insufficient education, self-assessed knowledge, religious/conservative values, lack of trust in society, mistrust of science, and other concerns trumping environmental concern.
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# Environmental skepticism
## About
### Climate change skepticism {#climate_change_skepticism}
According to an annual poll conducted by the Pew Research Center, global warming has been a low public priority, ranking 29 out of 30 in the top priorities for the United States President and Congress. Additionally, in a list of 20 policy priorities, it ranks 19th.
Climate skeptics represent about a third of Americans according to national polls. This number makes it challenging for decision-makers who hesitate to implement environmental policies related to global warming and climate change. Anthony Leiserowitz, a professor from Yale, determined that the American community\'s attitude towards climate change fall on a scale from concerned or alarmed to disengaged or dismissive. The term climate skeptic is made up of numerous components such as dubious, doubtful, dismissive, and denial. It does not describe simply a non-believer. In a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, 61% of the public believed there was evidence of global warming. However, 35% of the public still believed there was no significant evidence for global temperature rise.
Climate skepticism is considered to be strictly an American belief constructed of governmental fear, scientific distrust, and interests in resource extraction that support a dominant Western lifestyle. Academics argue that we need to understand Americans underlying ideologies before we denote someone as a skeptic.
A cultural study on Maryland\'s Eastern Shore helped discern some of the differing beliefs of Americans about environmental change. The study included three groups of residents who are dependent on the Eastern Shore of Maryland: commercial fishermen, farmers, and recent migrants. The research conducted was determined to gain a consensus of shared knowledge between the subgroups in regard to the changing environment. Along the scale from denial to concerned, it was found that a majority of respondents noticed climate change but believed that humans were not the cause of it. About a third of the respondents were unaware of it, while the rest of the interlocutors were either dismissive of it or somewhat concerned.
One of the cultural models found in this research was that climate change was natural. The respondents interpreted the changes such as rising sea-levels and drought as cycles of nature. They explained them as natural processes in the Earth\'s evolution not affected by humans. They expressed doubt about human induced climate change but acknowledged the changing environment around them. The residents of the Eastern Shore question the legitimacy of the buildup of greenhouse gases from our use of fossil fuels, which cause sea level rise or glacial melting. Part of this hesitation comes from the knowledge passed down through their families and the stories of weather cycles from previous relatives, all who lived in the same area for generations. This concept of nature going through cycles is culturally significant to the groups living in the area.
The respondents also make note that climate change may have been newly identified by scientists but has been a phenomenon that has been with us from the beginning of time and not with the onset of the industrial revolution. This reinforces the belief that climate change is happening, just not because of humans. Therefore, when contemporary theories of climate change challenge respondents' longstanding traditional cultural models, the latter tends to emerge as the more likely outcome.
The respondents also believe that if climate change becomes apparent to politicians as a human-induced problem, that will lead to regulations being placed on them. They do not believe that climate policies will benefit them and are therefore unlikely to support such programs. They are concerned more with policies and regulations rather than climate change in the area. They see themselves as living with the climate instead of the common approach of overcoming or conquering it. Living with the climate is viewed as nature and society being connected and sharing a relationship where humans must change their activities to fit the changing climate.
Communicating with people who are labeled as skeptics can help create policies that may not be rejected. These beliefs are deeply rooted in longstanding traditions and not influenced by right wing think tanks or other media platforms. Therefore, communicating and working with these people may help reduce the amount of time it will take for policies to be accepted and approved by them. For policy makers to be effective, they should consider the knowledge that these people have and work with them instead of imposing a top-down approach for climate change policy.
## Criticism
According to *The Guardian*, such widespread skeptical doubts have not developed independently, but have been \"encouraged by lobbying and PR campaigns financed by the polluting industries\". Supporters of environmentalists argue that \"skepticism\" implies a form of denialism, and that, in the US particularly, \"large donations \[have been made\] to Senators and Congressmen and \[have\] sponsored neoliberal think tanks and contrarian scientific research. ExxonMobil, the oil major, has been accused by Friends of the Earth and others of giving millions of dollars to a long list of think-tanks and lobbyists opposed to Kyoto.\"
A study from 2008 showed that the overwhelming majority of environmentally skeptical books published since the 1970s were either written or published by authors or institutions affiliated with right-wing think tanks. It concludes that \"scepticism is a tactic of an elite-driven counter-movement designed to combat environmentalism, and that the successful use of this tactic has contributed to the weakening of US commitment to environmental protection.\"
Peter Jacques wrote, \"The skeptical environmental counter-movement is a civic problem and in dealing with the propositions from the counter-movement we are forced to reach down to the bedrock issues of epistemology, identities, articulation and other core work for politics. To use scientism as a hammer against the screw of skepticism will split the wood of public life into splinters or it will immobilize the hammer
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# Frivolous litigation
**Frivolous litigation** is the use of legal processes with apparent disregard for the merit of one\'s own arguments. It includes presenting an argument with reason to know that it would certainly fail, or acting without a basic level of diligence in researching the relevant law and facts. That an argument was lost does not imply the argument was frivolous; a party may present an argument with a low chance of success, so long as it proceeds from applicable law.
Frivolous litigation may be based on absurd legal theories, may involve a superabundance or repetition of motions or additional suits, may be uncivil or harassing to the court, or may claim extreme remedies. A claim or defense may be frivolous because it had no underlying justification in fact, or because it was not presented with an argument for a reasonable extension or reinterpretation of the law. A claim may be deemed frivolous because existing laws unequivocally prohibit such a claim, such as a Good Samaritan law.
In the United States, Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure and similar state rules require that an attorney perform a due diligence investigation concerning the factual basis for any claim or defense. Jurisdictions differ on whether a claim or defense can be frivolous if the attorney acted in good faith. Because such a defense or claim wastes the court\'s and the other parties\' time, resources and legal fees, sanctions may be imposed by a court upon the party or the lawyer who presents the frivolous defense or claim. The law firm may also be sanctioned, or even held in contempt.
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# Frivolous litigation
## US Federal statutes and rules of court penalizing frivolous litigation {#us_federal_statutes_and_rules_of_court_penalizing_frivolous_litigation}
In the United States Tax Court, frivolous arguments may result in a penalty of up to \$25,000 under `{{uscsub|26|6673|a|1}}`{=mediawiki}. Similarly, section 7482 of the Internal Revenue Code provides that the U.S. Supreme Court and the U.S. Courts of Appeals may impose penalties in which the taxpayer\'s appeal of a U.S. Tax Court decision was \"maintained primarily for delay\" or where \"the taxpayer\'s position in the appeal is frivolous or groundless.\" A common example, as shown below, is an argument based on tax protestor claims.
In a noncriminal case in a U.S. District Court, a litigant (or a litigant\'s attorney) who presents any pleading, written motion or other paper to the court is required, under Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, to certify that, to the best of the presenter\'s knowledge and belief, the legal contentions \"are warranted by existing law or by a nonfrivolous argument for the extension, modification, or reversal of existing law or the establishment of new law\". Monetary civil penalties for violation of this rule may in some cases be imposed on the litigant or the attorney under Rule 11.
In one case, the Seventh Circuit Court issued an order giving such an attorney \"14 days to show cause why he should not be fined \$10,000 for his frivolous arguments\". A similar rule penalizing frivolous litigation applies in U.S. Bankruptcy Court under Rule 9011.
The U.S. Congress has enacted section 1912 of Title 28 of the U.S.C. providing that in the U.S. Supreme Court and in the U.S. Courts of Appeals where litigation by the losing party has caused damage to the prevailing party, the court may impose a requirement that the losing party pay the prevailing party for those damages.
Litigants who represent themselves (*in forma pauperis* and *pro se*) sometimes make frivolous arguments due to their limited knowledge of the law and procedure. The particular tendency of prisoners to bring baseless lawsuits led to passage of the Prison Litigation Reform Act of 1995, which limits the ability of prisoners to bring actions without payment.
## Court treatment of frivolous arguments {#court_treatment_of_frivolous_arguments}
An example of a Court\'s treatment of frivolous arguments is found in the case of *Crain v. Commissioner*, [737 F.2d 1417](http://www.openjurist.org/737/f2d/1417) (1984), from the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit:
## Impact upon filing attorney {#impact_upon_filing_attorney}
Filing a claim that is ultimately deemed frivolous can be highly damaging to the attorney so filing. Most frivolous lawsuits that are successful are filed without an attorney. Attorney Daniel Evans writes:
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# Frivolous litigation
## Examples
### *Washington v. Alaimo* {#washington_v._alaimo}
In *Washington v. Alaimo* the court listed more than seventy-five frivolous \"motions\" (a request for a court to issue an order), all of which required the attention of the Court, including the following:
- \"Motion to Behoove an Inquisition\"
- \"Motion for Judex Delegatus\"
- \"Motion for Restoration of Sanity\"
- \"Motion for Deinstitutionalization\"
- \"Motion for Publicity\"
- \"Motion to Vacate Jurisdiction\"
- \"Motion for Cesset processus\"
- \"Motion for Nunc pro tunc\"
- \"Motion for Psychoanalysis\"
- \"Motion to Impeach Judge Alaimo\"
- \"Motion to Renounce Citizenship\"
- \"Motion to Exhume Body of Alex Hodgson\"
- \"Motion to Invoke and Execute Rule 15
[Rule 15](https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/rule_15) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705101116/https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/rule_15 |date=2017-07-05 }}`{=mediawiki}, Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
---Retroactive Note: The Court\'s School Days are Over\"
- \"Motion for Skin Change Operation\"
- \"Motion for Catered Food Services\"
- \"Motion to Kiss My Ass\"
Washington, an inmate from Georgia, was eventually prohibited from filing any future lawsuits or motions in any district court unless he first posted a contempt bond of \$1,500. To be deemed frivolous, a litigant\'s arguments must strike beyond the pale.
### *Pearson v. Chung* {#pearson_v._chung}
In 2005, in *Pearson v. Chung*, Roy Pearson, a Washington, D.C. judge, sued a dry cleaning business for \$67 million for allegedly losing a pair of his pants. This case has been cited as an example of frivolous litigation. According to Pearson, the dry cleaners lost his pants (which he brought in for a \$10.50 alteration) and refused his demands for a large refund. Pearson believed that a sign saying \"Satisfaction Guaranteed\" in the window of the shop legally entitled him to a refund for the cost of the pants, estimated at \$1,000. The \$54 million total also included \$2.0 million in \"mental distress\" and \$15,000 which he estimated to be the cost of renting a car every weekend to go to another dry cleaners. The court ultimately ruled against Pearson, whose judgeship was subsequently not renewed due to this case and several other actions he filed during his divorce, which were found to demonstrate a lack of \"judicial temperament\".
### Jonathan Lee Riches {#jonathan_lee_riches}
In 2010, federal prosecutors asked a judge to help them stop Jonathan Lee Riches from filing any more lawsuits, arguing that his frequent filings were frivolous.
### Gloria Dawn Ironbox {#gloria_dawn_ironbox}
In July 2013, the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario dismissed a complaint laid by a man posing as Gloria Dawn Ironbox, a fictional feminist attorney on television series *Family Guy*. The claimant alleged that a marketing scheme by A&W Restaurants was \"heteronormative\", \"phallocentric\" and promoted \"cross-sectional hegemony\". Citing feelings of distress and alienation over the lack of \"LGBT\" representation in A&W naming conventions, he demanded \$50,000 in damages for injury to dignity and self-respect as well as an order requiring A&W to adopt naming conventions which include non-traditional families. One such product the claimant demanded was the \"Pillow Biter\", described by the claimant as \"a large, dark slab of meat stuffed firmly between two, white, clenched buns\".
### Sirgiorgio Sanford Clardy {#sirgiorgio_sanford_clardy}
In January 2014, Sirgiorgio Sanford Clardy, who is serving a 100-year prison sentence for a beating of a prostitute and her customer, filed a \$100 million lawsuit against Nike, in which he claimed that Nike was partially responsible for the assault he committed. Clardy said that Nike should have placed a label in his Jordan shoes warning consumers that they could be used as a dangerous weapon. He was wearing a pair when he repeatedly stomped the face of a client who was trying to leave a Portland hotel without paying Clardy\'s prostitute in June 2012. This lawsuit gained \"considerable attention across the nation and the world\".
### *Romine v. Stanton* {#romine_v._stanton}
In March 2016, James Romine, one-half of the independent video games developer Digital Homicide Studios, sued video game critic James Stephanie Sterling for criticizing the games published under his studios\' name, seeking \$10 million in damages for \"assault, libel, and slander\" to Romine\'s business. He claimed that Sterling\'s coverage of his studio\'s game *The Slaughtering Grounds* as \"Worst Game of 2014 Contender\" was not protected under fair use law because he did not believe it was \"fair\" criticism. An additional lawsuit for \$18 million was filed against 100 users on the Steam gaming platform for criticizing their games and business practices, which he had interpreted as \"harassment\". The judge issued a subpoena against Valve to disclose the identities of those 100 users. This resulted in Valve removing all published games from Digital Homicide Studios. In addition, Romine filed the lawsuit as an individual and not as a corporation, so such criticism was protected under the right to freedom of speech. The case was dismissed with prejudice in February 2017. This case is also an example of abuse of DMCA takedown requests on YouTube.
### *Erik Estavillo vs Twitch, Inc* {#erik_estavillo_vs_twitch_inc}
In June 2020, Erik Estavillo filed a lawsuit against Twitch, claiming that the streaming platform was responsible for his sex addiction, with damages of \$25 million, which was to be split between him, Twitch Prime subscribers, and COVID-19 charities. He claimed that Twitch\'s \"twisted programming and net code\" made it \"nearly impossible to use Twitch without being exposed to sexual content\". Other claims included him \"chafing his penis every day with \[a fleshlight\]\" and causing a fire by ejaculating on his computer monitor. The filing contained pictures of the female Twitch streamers (such as Amouranth and Pokimane), who he wanted banned from the platform. Estavillo had previously sued Blizzard, Microsoft, Sony, and Nintendo. All of these lawsuits were dismissed with prejudice. This case was dismissed as frivolous in January 2021
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# Floating Point
**\'\'Floating Point***is an album by John McLaughlin, released in 2008 through the record label Abstract Logix. The album reached number fourteen on*Billboard\'\'\'s Top Jazz Albums chart.
Regarding the recording, McLaughlin commented: \"while this CD features predominantly Indian musicians, we are in quite another form compared to the group Shakti\... The music is for the most part \'Jazz-Fusion\' if a label has to be put on it. But with the musicians involved in this project, it has also a \'world\' kind of atmosphere.\" Concerning the album title, McLaughlin remarked: \"Every now and then a group of musicians will gel together in such an incredible way, and at that point it\'s like you lose normal gravity\... you\'ve got your own gravity happening and you\'re kind of like floating with the other guys.\"
## Reception
Michael G. Nastos of AllMusic called the album \"a surprisingly fine effort, ebbing and flowing from track to track, with McLaughlin\'s high-level musicianship shining through, same as it ever was.\"
In a 5-star review for DownBeat, Ken Micallef commented: \"this brilliant collective plays as a single unit, not a band of hired studio guns\... This is a case of Indian musicians using their extraordinary skills to explore U.S. fusion, giving the now 70-year-old guitarist an amazing platform for compositional/improvisational development. This is a landmark recording, marked by detail, subtlety and extraordinarily moving performances.\"
John Kelman in All About Jazz wrote \"One of the most fluent, evocative and powerful albums in a career filled with high points,\" and concluded: \"McLaughlin\'s Indian friends may not have jazz in their blood the way it is in the guitarist\'s, but by approaching unmistakably western-informed music with an eastern mindset, they make *Floating Point* an album that, in McLaughlin\'s lengthy discography, is one of his most successful fusion records\".
Writing for The Guardian, John Fordham awarded the album 5 stars, and stated: \"this boiling new set sounds as if it\'s driven at least as much by cutting-edge Indian crossover musicians as by McLaughlin himself\... this is 99% an absolute cracker, and not just for guitar nuts either.\"
## Track listing {#track_listing}
## Personnel
- John McLaughlin -- guitar synthesizer, guitar (2, 4, 6, 8)
- Hadrien Feraud -- bass guitar
- Louis Banks -- keyboards
- Ranjit Barot -- drums
- Sivamani -- percussion, konokol (6)
- George Brooks -- soprano saxophone (1)
- Debashish Bhattacharya -- Hindustani slide guitar (2)
- Shashank Subramanyam -- bamboo flute (4)
- Shankar Mahadevan -- voice (5)
- U
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# Telecommunications in Fiji
**Telecommunications in Fiji** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations:
- state-owned commercial company, Fiji Broadcasting Corporation, operates 6 radio stations - 2 public broadcasters and 4 commercial broadcasters with multiple repeaters; 5 radio stations with repeaters operated by Communications Fiji, Ltd; transmissions of multiple international broadcasters are available (2009);
- 13 AM, 40 FM, and no shortwave stations (1998).
- Radios: 500,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|14}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations:
- Fiji TV, a publicly traded company on the South Pacific Stock Exchange, operates a free to air channel ever since its inception in 1994.
- 2 terrestrial stations (1998).`{{update after|2014|2|14}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television sets: 21,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|14}}`{=mediawiki}
Radio is a key source of information, particularly on the outer islands. There are publicly and privately owned stations. State-owned Fiji Broadcasting Corporation operates Fijian-language Radio Fiji One, Hindi-language Radio Fiji Two, music-based Bula FM, Hindi station Mirchi FM, and music-based 2day FM.
Communications Fiji Limited, a public listed company on the South Pacific Stock Exchange was established in 1996 and is located in 231 Waimanu Road, Suva. It broadcasts English speaking stations FM96 and LegendFM on 96.2FM and 98.6FM respectively, Fijian language station, VitiFM, Navtarang and Radio Sargam - Hindi speaking stations. The BBC World Service broadcasts on 88.2 FM in the capital, Suva.
### Media control {#media_control}
Under the military government\'s Media Decree, the directors and 90 percent of the shareholders of locally based media must be citizens of, and permanently reside in Fiji. The Media Industry Development Authority of Fiji is responsible for enforcing these provisions. The authority has the power to investigate journalists and media outlets for alleged violations of the decree, including powers of search and seizure of equipment.
A code of ethics contained in the Media Decree requires that all stories run by the media be balanced, with comment obtained from both sides where there is any disagreement on the facts. This requirement enables government departments and private businesses to prevent stories from being published by not responding to media questions, thus making it impossible for the media to fulfill the decree\'s requirement for comment from both sides. However, media sources report that if the story is positive toward the government, the balance requirement could be ignored without consequence.
## Telephones
`{{See also |Telephone numbers in Fiji}}`{=mediawiki}
- Calling code: +679
- International call prefix: 00 or 052
- Main lines:
- 88,400 lines in use, 147th in the world (2012);
- 112,500 lines in use (2005).
- Mobile cellular:
- 858,800 lines, 159th in the world (2012);
- 315,000 lines (2007).
- Telephone system: modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio communications center; telephone or radio telephone links to almost all inhabited islands; most towns and large villages have automatic telephone exchanges and direct dialing; combined fixed and mobile-cellular teledensity roughly 100 per 100 persons (2011).
- Communications cables: Southern Cross Cable, links to the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia; Vanuatu-Fiji Interchange Cable (2014); Tonga-Fiji cable.
- Satellite earth station: 2 Inmarsat (Pacific Ocean) (2011).
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# Telecommunications in Fiji
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .fj
- Internet users:
- 300,326 users, 140th in the world; 33.7% of the population, 126th in the world (2012);
- 114,200 users, 157th in the world (2009).
- Fixed broadband: 13,734 subscriptions, 142nd in the world; 1.5% of the population, 133rd in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: 96,277 subscriptions, 118th in the world; 10.8% of the population, 89th in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 21,739 hosts, 115th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 134,656 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 151.3 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet Service Providers: 7 ISPs (2011)
The Internet is widely available and used in and around urban centers, but its availability and use are minimal or nonexistent outside these areas.
### Labasa-Savusavu Fiber Project {#labasa_savusavu_fiber_project}
Launched in 2023, Telecom Fiji\'s \$4.1 million Fiber Project is designed to expand the underground fiber optic network from Labasa to Savusavu, with the aim of improving internet services in Fiji\'s Northern regions.
The project\'s significance lies in its potential to address the limitations of the existing microwave link-based connectivity in Vanua Levu, which is vulnerable to disruptions, particularly during natural disasters. By reinforcing the communications network with fiber optic technology, the initiative is expected to contribute to the resilience and economic development of the Northern Division. This development is also anticipated to support the advancement of digital education infrastructure and broader economic activities in the region.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
The government in a parliament sitting on March 15, 2018, passed a bill known as the Online Safety Bill to the Standing Committee on Justice, Law and Human Rights that was tabled in the Parliament of Fiji to enforce tougher restrictions on those that may share explicit photos of individuals on social media or spread anti- government remarks as well.
Currently, there are no government restrictions on general public access to the Internet, but evidence suggests that the government monitors private e-mails of citizens as well as Internet traffic in an attempt to control antigovernment reports by anonymous bloggers.
The country has operated under a military-led government since 2006 and has had no constitution or functioning parliament since 2009. A series of decrees have been issued, including the Public Order Amendment Decree (POAD), the Media Decree, and the Crime Decree.
By decree all telephone and Internet service users must register their personal details with telephone and Internet providers, including their name, birth date, home address, left thumbprint, and photographic identification. The decree imposes fines of up to F\$100,000 (\$56,721) on providers who continue to provide services to unregistered users and up to F\$10,000 (\$5,672) on users who do not update their registration information as required. Vodafone, one of two mobile telephone providers, also requires users to register their nationality, postal address, employment details, and both thumbprints.
The POAD gives the government the power to detain persons on suspicion of \"endangering public safety or the preservation of the peace\"; defines terrorism as any act designed to advance a political, religious, or ideological cause that could \"reasonably be regarded\" as intended to compel a government to do or refrain from doing any act or to intimidate the public or a section thereof; and makes religious vilification and attempts to sabotage or undermine the economy offenses punishable by a maximum F\$10,000 (\$5,672) fine or five years' imprisonment. The Media Decree prohibits \"irresponsible reporting\" and provides for government censorship of the media. The Crimes Decree includes criticism of the government in its definition of the crime of sedition, including statements made in other countries by any person, who can be prosecuted on return to Fiji. The government uses the threat of prosecution under these provisions to intimidate government critics and limit public criticism of the government. Journalists and media organizations practice varying degrees of self-censorship, with many reportedly fearing retribution if they criticize the government.
In May 2007 it was reported that the military in Fiji had blocked access to blogs critical of the regime.
In 2012 police investigated former University of the South Pacific (USP) professor Wadan Narsey, a prominent Fijian economist and long-time critic of the military government, for alleged sedition in writings published on his personal blog.
The POAD permits military personnel to search persons and premises without a warrant from a court and to take photographs, fingerprints, and measurements of any person. Police and military officers may enter private premises to break up any meeting considered unlawful
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# Transport in Fiji
Modes of transport in Fiji include rail, road, water, and air. The rail network is mainly used for movement of sugar cane. Suva and Lautoka are the largest seaports. There are 122 km of navigable inland waterways. There are two international airports, one other paved airport, and over 20 with unpaved runways. With 333 tropical islands that make up this country, one can expect to use various modes of transport to get to their destination.
## Buses
Buses are the main mode of transport in Fiji\'s main islands.
## Railways
Total: 597 km; 597 km 0.610-m gauge (1995)
Narrow gauge: Note: belongs to the government-owned Fiji Sugar Corporation The railway is not for passenger or public use.
## Waterways
203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-metric-ton barges
### Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
Labasa, Lautoka, Levuka, Savusavu, Suva
### Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
Total: 6 ships (1,000 GT or over) totaling 11,870 GT/`{{DWT|14,787|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki} Ships by type: chemical tanker 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
## Airports
`{{main article|List of airports in Fiji}}`{=mediawiki}
Fiji has two airports that cater to international air traffic, the main one being Nadi International Airport and a secondary one, Nausori Airport, which receives a small number of international flights. There are 13 other smaller domestic airports spread throughout the country\'s outer islands and these mainly cater for small prop aircraft. Airports Fiji Limited (AFL), a state-owned enterprise owns and operates Nadi International Airport and manages the other 14 airports for the Government.
Major airports include:
- Nadi International Airport
- Nausori International Airport
Total 25 (1999 est.)
### Airports with paved runways {#airports_with_paved_runways}
Total: 3 Over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
### Airports with unpaved runways {#airports_with_unpaved_runways}
Total: 22 914 to 1,523 m: 5 Under 914 m: 17 (1999 est
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# Goal line (gridiron football)
The **goal line** is the chalked or painted line dividing the end zone from the field of play in gridiron football. In American football the goal lines run 10 yd parallel to the end lines, while in Canadian football they run 20 yd parallel to the dead lines. In both football codes the distance is measured from the inside edge of the end line to the far edge of the goal line so that the line itself is part of the end zone. It is the line that must be crossed in order to score a touchdown.
If any part of the ball reaches any part of the imaginary vertical plane transected by this line while in-bounds and in possession of a player whose team is striving toward that end of the field, this is considered a touchdown and scores six points for the team whose player has advanced the ball to, or recovered the ball in, this position. This is in contrast with other sports like Association football and ice hockey, which require the puck or ball to pass completely over the goal line to count as a score.
If any member of the offensive team is downed while in possession of the ball behind his own team\'s goal line, this is called a safety and scores two points for the defensive team.
If, during the course of play, a loose ball travels past the goal line and is recovered within the end zone, then it is a touchdown if recovered by the team that scores in that end zone, or a touchback if recovered and downed by the opposing team
In the event of a kick recovered in one\'s own end zone, the entirety of the ball must pass the goal line in order for the ball to be considered a touchback, and to not be in the field of play
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# Play from scrimmage
A **play from scrimmage** is the sequence in the game of gridiron football during which one team tries to advance the ball, get a first down, or score, and the other team tries to stop them or take the ball away. Once a play is over, and before the next play starts, the football is considered dead. A game of American football (or Canadian Football) consists of many (about 120--150) such plays.
## Specifications
The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team. For instance, the offensive team may be faced with one or two downs left in a possession and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs. In this instance, they may decide to employ a forward pass. Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of forward pass plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team. They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution to outsiders. The team\'s coach, or perhaps the quarterback, will choose one of the planned forward passing strategies, and tell the team, during the huddle which one has been chosen. Because of planning and practice, each player is expected to know what his role in the play is to be, and how to execute it. This will be the offensive play.
Conversely, the defensive team will know that the offense has to cover a good deal of ground in a single play, will expect a forward pass, and will know from earlier study something of the propensities of the offense they face. The defensive captain is likely to call out a specific formation or defensive play, to anticipate and counteract the expected action by the offense.
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# Play from scrimmage
## The play {#the_play}
The play will begin with the snap of the ball (typically but not exclusively to the quarterback), and it will end when the effort by the offensive squad to advance the ball has either succeeded in scoring, or has been frustrated by the ball being downed before the aim of the offensive play is accomplished, or by the defensive squad having managed to come into possession of the ball without first downing it. In the event of change of possession during a play, the team newly in possession of the ball may try to advance it toward their opponent\'s goal, which the team formerly in possession will naturally resist. Change of possession during a routine play may occur by interception or by fumble (often collectively referred to as *turnovers*).
Change of possession may also occur in other ways. A change of possession can occur \"on downs\", if the offensive team fails to achieve a first down or a touchdown in a specified number of consecutive attempts, known as \"downs\" (four in American football; three in Canadian football). Another way is through a change of possession play, when the offensive team (having perhaps surmised the unlikelihood of scoring or of achieving a first down within the allowed consecutive attempts to do so) kicks the ball away in what is known as a punt. A touchdown (and subsequent conversion attempt, whether successful or not) or successful field goal attempt will be followed by a kickoff. Kickoffs and field goal attempts are not considered true change of possession plays. An unsuccessful field goal attempt will usually also result in a change of possession (without a kickoff), but is usually not counted as a turnover
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# Fagales
The **Fagales** are an order of flowering plants in the rosid group of dicotyledons, including some of the best-known trees. Well-known members of Fagales include: beeches, chestnuts, oaks, walnut, pecan, hickory, birches, alders, hazels, hornbeams, she-oaks, and southern beeches. The order name is derived from genus *Fagus* (beeches).
## Systematics
Fagales include the following seven families, according to the APG III system of classification:
- Betulaceae -- birch family (*Alnus*, *Betula*, *Carpinus*, *Corylus*, *Ostrya*, and *Ostryopsis*)
- Casuarinaceae -- she-oak family (*Allocasuarina*, *Casuarina*, *Ceuthostoma*, and *Gymnostoma*)
- Fagaceae -- beech family (*Castanea*, *Castanopsis*, *Chrysolepis*, *Fagus*, *Lithocarpus*, *Notholithocarpus*, *Quercus*, and *Trigonobalanus*)
- Juglandaceae -- walnut family (*Alfaroa*, *Carya*, *Cyclocarya*, *Engelhardia*, *Juglans*, *Oreomunnea*, *Platycarya*, *Pterocarya*, and *Rhoiptelea*)
- Myricaceae -- bayberry family (*Canacomyrica*, *Comptonia*, and *Myrica*)
- Nothofagaceae -- southern beech family (*Nothofagus*)
- Ticodendraceae -- ticodendron family (*Ticodendron*)
Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:
The older Cronquist system only included four families (Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae, Ticodendraceae; Corylaceae now being included within Betulaceae); this arrangement is followed by, for example, the World Checklist of selected plant families. The other families were split into three different orders, placed among the Hamamelidae. The Casuarinales comprised the single family Casuarinaceae, the Juglandales comprised the Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae, and the Myricales comprised the remaining forms (plus *Balanops*). The change is due to studies suggesting the Myricales, so defined, are paraphyletic to the other two groups.
## Characteristics
Most Fagales are wind pollinated and are monoecious with unisexual flowers.
## Evolutionary history {#evolutionary_history}
The oldest member of the order is the flower *Soepadmoa cupulata* preserved in the late Turonian-Coniacian New Jersey amber, which is a mosaic with characteristics characteristic of both *Nothofagus* and other Fagales, suggesting that the ancestor of all Fagales was *Nothofagus*-like
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# Fabales
**Fabales** is an order of flowering plants included in the rosid group of the eudicots in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II classification system. In the APG II circumscription, this order includes the families Fabaceae or legumes (including the subfamilies Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, and Faboideae), Quillajaceae, Polygalaceae or milkworts (including the families Diclidantheraceae, Moutabeaceae, and Xanthophyllaceae), and Surianaceae. Under the Cronquist system and some other plant classification systems, the order Fabales contains only the family Fabaceae. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Fabales were in the superorder Fabiflorae (also called Fabanae) with three families corresponding to the subfamilies of Fabaceae in APG II. The other families treated in the Fabales by the APG II classification were placed in separate orders by Cronquist, the Polygalaceae within its own order, the Polygalales, and the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae within the Rosales.
The Fabaceae, as the third-largest plant family in the world, contain most of the diversity of the Fabales, the other families making up a comparatively small portion of the order\'s diversity. Research in the order is largely focused on the Fabaceae, due in part to its great biological diversity, and to its importance as food plants. The Polygalaceae are fairly well researched among plant families, in part due to the large diversity of the genus *Polygala*, and other members of the family being food plants for various Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species. While taxonomists using molecular phylogenetic techniques find strong support for the order, questions remain about the morphological relationships of the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae to the rest of the order, due in part to limited research on these families.
According to molecular clock calculations, the lineage that led to Fabales split from other plants about 101 million years ago.
## Distribution
The Fabales are a cosmopolitan order of plants, except only the subfamily Papilionoideae (Faboideae) of the Fabaceae are well dispersed throughout the northern part of the North Temperate Zone.
## Phylogeny
The phylogeny of the Fabales is shown below.
## Gallery
<File:Desmodium> gangeticum 2 W IMG 2769.jpg\|*Pleurolobus gangeticus* Image:Lathyrus tuberosa (Guixa).jpg\|Tuberous pea (*Lathyrus tuberosus*) of the Fabaceae Image:Quillaja saponaria.jpg\|Soap bark tree (*Quillaja saponaria*) of the Quillajaceae Image:Polygala myrtifolia0.jpg\|Milkwort (*Polygala myrtifolia*) of the Polygalaceae <File:Polygala> elongata in Talakona, AP I IMG 8388.jpg\|Milkwort (*Polygala elongata*) of the Polygalaceae Image:Suriana maritima flowers
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# Five-card draw
**Five-card draw** (also known as **Cantredraw**) is a poker variant that is considered the simplest variant of poker, and is the basis for video poker. As a result, it is often the first variant learned by new players. It is commonly played in home games but rarely played in casino and tournament play. The variant is also offered by some online venues, although it is not as popular as other variants such as seven-card stud and Texas hold \'em.
## Gameplay
In casino play the first betting round begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer\'s left. Home games typically use an ante; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer\'s left, and the second round begins with the player who opened the first round.
Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down. The remaining deck is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it. Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players, then a round of betting occurs.
If more than one player remains after the first round, the \"draw\" phase begins. Each player specifies how many of their cards they wish to replace and discards them. The deck is retrieved, and each player is dealt in turn from the deck the same number of cards they discarded so that each player again has five cards.
A second \"after the draw\" betting round occurs beginning with the player to the dealer\'s left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds). This is followed by a showdown, if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best hand wins the pot.
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# Five-card draw
## House rules {#house_rules}
A common \"house rule\" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless they draw four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card). This rule is useful for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck. In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used. However, a rule used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck. In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of their cards, that player is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give the fifth replacement card; if no other player draws it is necessary to deal a burn card first.
Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players\' discards (but not the player\'s own discards), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.
## Sample deal {#sample_deal}
The sample deal is being played by four players as shown to the right with Alice dealing. All four players ante \$1. Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck aside.
Bob opens the betting round by betting \$5. Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.
Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them. Alice retrieves the deck, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand. David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck. Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck.
Now a second betting round begins. Bob checks, David checks, Alice bets \$10, Bob folds, David raises \$16, and Alice calls, ending the second betting round and going directly into a showdown. David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.
## Stripped deck variant {#stripped_deck_variant}
Five-card draw is sometimes played with a stripped deck. This variant is commonly known as \"seven-to-ace\" or \"ace-to-seven\" (abbreviated as A-7 or 7-A). It can be played by up to five players. When four or fewer players play, a normal 32-card deck without jokers, with ranks ranging from ace to seven, is used. With five players, the sixes are added to make a 36-card deck. The deck thus contains only eight or nine different card ranks, compared to 13 in a standard deck. This affects the probabilities of making specific hands, so a flush ranks above a full house and below four of a kind. Many smaller online poker rooms, such as Boss Media, spread the variant, although it is unheard of in brick-and-mortar casinos.
## Maths of Five-card draw {#maths_of_five_card_draw}
Pre-draw odds of getting each hand
- Royal flush \<0.001%
- Straight flush (not including royal flush) \<0.002%
- Four of a kind 0.02%
- Full house 0.14%
- Flush (excluding royal flush and straight flush) 0.20%
- Straight (excluding royal flush and straight flush) 0.39%
- Three of a kind 2.11%
- Two pair 4.75%
- One pair 42.30%
- No pair / High card 50
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# Flaming (Internet)
**Flaming**, also known as **roasting**, is the act of posting insults, often including profanity or other offensive language, on the internet. Flaming is distinct from trolling, which is the act of someone causing discord online or in person. Flaming emerges from the anonymity that Internet forums provide for users which allows them to act more aggressively. Anonymity can lead to disinhibition, which results in the swearing, offensive, and hostile language characteristic of flaming. Lack of social cues, less accountability of face-to-face communications, textual mediation, and deindividualization are also likely factors. Deliberate flaming is carried out by individuals known as flamers, which are specifically motivated to incite flaming. These users specialize in flaming and target specific aspects of a controversial conversation.
While these behaviors may be typical or expected in certain types of forums, they can have dramatic, adverse effects in others. **Flame wars** can have a lasting impact on some internet communities where even once a flame war has concluded a division or even dissolution may occur.
The individuals that create an environment of flaming and hostility lead the readers to disengage with the offender and may potentially leave the message board and chat room. The continual use of flaming within the online community can create a disruptive and negative experience for those involved and can lead to limited involvement and engagement within the original chat room and program.
## Purpose
Social researchers have investigated flaming, coming up with several different theories about the phenomenon. These include deindividuation and reduced awareness of other people\'s feelings (online disinhibition effect), conformance to perceived norms, miscommunication caused by the lack of social cues available in face-to-face communication, and anti-normative behavior.
Jacob Borders, in discussing participants\' internal modeling of a discussion, says:
> Mental models are fuzzy, incomplete, and imprecisely stated. Furthermore, within a single individual, mental models change with time, even during the flow of a single conversation. The human mind assembles a few relationships to fit the context of a discussion. As debate shifts, so do the mental models. Even when only a single topic is being discussed, each participant in a conversation employs a different mental model to interpret the subject. Fundamental assumptions differ but are never brought into the open. Goals are different but left unstated. It is little wonder that compromise takes so long. And even when consensus is reached, the underlying assumptions may be fallacies that lead to laws and programs that fail. The human mind is not adapted to understanding correctly the consequences implied by a mental model. A mental model may be correct in structure and assumptions but, even so, the human mind---either individually or as a group consensus---is apt to draw the wrong implications for the future.`{{cbignore}}`{=mediawiki}
Thus, online conversations often involve a variety of assumptions and motives unique to each user. Without social context, users are often helpless to know the intentions of their counterparts. In addition to the problems of conflicting mental models often present in online discussions, the inherent lack of face-to-face communication online can encourage hostility. Professor Norman Johnson, commenting on the propensity of Internet posters to flame one another, states:
> The literature suggests that, compared to face-to-face, the increased incidence of flaming when using computer-mediated communication is due to reductions in the transfer of social cues, which decrease individuals\' concern for social evaluation and fear of social sanctions or reprisals. When social identity and ingroup status are salient, computer mediation can decrease flaming because individuals focus their attention on the social context (and associated norms) rather than themselves.
A lack of social context creates an element of anonymity, which allows users to feel insulated from the forms of punishment they might receive in a more conventional setting. Johnson identifies several precursors to flaming between users, whom he refers to as \"negotiation partners,\" since Internet communication typically involves back-and-forth interactions similar to a negotiation. Flaming incidents usually arise in response to a perception of one or more negotiation partners being unfair. Perceived unfairness can include a lack of consideration for an individual\'s vested interests, unfavorable treatment (especially when the flamer has been considerate of other users), and misunderstandings aggravated by the inability to convey subtle indicators like non-verbal cues and facial expressions.
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# Flaming (Internet)
## Factors
There are multiple factors that play into why people would get involved with flaming. For instance, there is the anonymity factor and that people can use different means to have their identity hidden. Through the hiding of one\'s identity people can build a new persona and act in a way that they normally would not when they have their identity known. Another factor in flaming is proactive aggression \"which is initiated without perceived threat or provocation\" and those who are recipients of flaming may counter with flaming of their own and utilize reactive aggression. Another factor that goes into flaming is the different communication variables. For instance, offline communications networks can impact the way people act online and can lead them to engage in flaming. Finally, there is the factor of verbal aggression and how people who engage in verbal aggression will use those tactics when they engage in flaming online.
Flaming can range from subtle to extremely aggressive in online behaviors, such as derogatory images, certain emojis used in combination, and even the use of capital letters. These things can show a pattern of behavior used to convey certain emotions online. Victims should do their best to avoid fighting back in an attempt to prevent a war of words. Flaming extends past social media interactions. Flaming can also take place through emails, and whether someone calls an email a \"flame\", is based on whether she or he considers an email to be hostile, aggressive, insulting, or offensive. What matters is how the person receives the interaction. So much is lost in translation when communicating online versus in person, that it is hard to distinguish someone\'s intent.
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# Flaming (Internet)
## History
Evidence of debates that resulted in insults being exchanged quickly back and forth between two parties can be found throughout history. Arguments over the ratification of the United States Constitution were often socially and emotionally heated and intense, with many attacking one another through local newspapers. Such interactions have always been part of literary criticism. For example, Ralph Waldo Emerson\'s contempt for Jane Austen\'s works often extended to the author herself, with Emerson describing her as \"without genius, wit, or knowledge of the world\". In turn, Thomas Carlyle called Emerson a \"hoary-headed toothless baboon\".
In the modern era, \"flaming\" was used at East Coast engineering schools in the United States as a present participle in a crude expression to describe an irascible individual and by extension to such individuals on the earliest Internet chat rooms and message boards. Internet flaming was mostly observed in Usenet newsgroups although it was known to occur in the WWIVnet and FidoNet computer networks as well. It was subsequently used in other parts of speech with much the same meaning.
The term \"flaming\" was seen on Usenet newsgroups in the Eighties, where the start of a flame was sometimes indicated by typing \"FLAME ON\", then \"FLAME OFF\" when the flame section of the post was complete. This is a reference to both The Human Torch of the Fantastic Four, who used those words when activating his flame abilities, and to the way text processing programs of the time worked, by placing commands before and after text to indicate how it should appear when printed.
The term \"flaming\" is documented in *The Hacker\'s Dictionary*, which in 1983 defined it as \"to speak rabidly or incessantly on an uninteresting topic or with a patently ridiculous attitude\". The meaning of the word has diverged from this definition since then.
Jerry Pournelle in 1986 explained why he wanted a kill file for BIX:
He added, \"I noticed something: most of the irritation came from a handful of people, sometimes only one or two. If I could only ignore them, the computer conferences were still valuable. Alas, it\'s not always easy to do\".
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) research has spent a significant amount of time and effort describing and predicting engagement in uncivil, aggressive online communication. Specifically, the literature has described aggressive, insulting behavior as \"flaming\", which has been defined as hostile verbal behaviors, the uninhibited expression of hostility, insults, and ridicule, and hostile comments directed towards a person or organization within the context of CMC.
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# Flaming (Internet)
## Types
### Flame trolling {#flame_trolling}
Flame trolling is the posting of a provocative or offensive message, known as *flamebait*, to a public Internet discussion group, such as a forum, newsgroup, or mailing list, with the intent of provoking an angry response (a \"flame\") or argument.
Flamebait can provide the poster with a controlled trigger-and-response setting in which to anonymously engage in conflicts and indulge in aggressive behavior without facing the consequences that such behavior might bring in a face-to-face encounter. In other instances, flamebait may be used to reduce a forum\'s use by angering the forum users. In 2012, it was announced that the US State Department would start flame trolling jihadists as part of Operation Viral Peace.
Among the characteristics of inflammatory behavior, the use of entirely capitalized messages, or the multiple repetition of exclamation marks, along with profanity have been identified as typical.
### Flame war {#flame_war}
A flame war results when multiple users engage in provocative responses to an original post, which is sometimes flamebait. Flame wars often draw in many users, including those trying to defuse the flame war, and can quickly turn into a mass flame war that overshadows regular forum discussion.
Resolving a flame war can be difficult, as it is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a flame war. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a \"baiter\", \"flamer\", or \"troll\".
Flame wars can become intense and can include \"death threats, ad hominem invective, and textual amplifiers," but to some sociologists flame wars can actually bring people together. What is being said in a flame war should not be taken too seriously since the harsh words are a part of flaming.
An approach to resolving a flame war or responding to flaming is to communicate openly with the offending users. Acknowledging mistakes, offering to help resolve the disagreement, making clear, reasoned arguments, and even self-deprecation have all been noted as worthwhile strategies to end such disputes. However, others prefer to simply ignore flaming, noting that, in many cases, if the flamebait receives no attention, it will quickly be forgotten as forum discussions carry on. Unfortunately, this can motivate trolls to intensify their activities, creating additional distractions.
\"Taking the bait\" or \"feeding the troll\" refers to someone who responds to the original message regardless of whether they are aware the original message was intended to provoke a response. Often when someone takes the bait, others will point this out to them with the acronym \"YHBT\", which is short for \"You have been trolled\", or reply with \"don\'t feed the trolls\". Forum users will usually not give the troll acknowledgment; that just \"feeds the troll\".
### Political flaming {#political_flaming}
Political flaming typically occurs when people have their views challenged and they seek to have their anger known. Through the covering of one\'s identity people may be more likely to engage in political flaming. In a 2015 study conducted by Hutchens, Cicchirillo, and Hmielowski, they found that \"those who were more experienced with political discussions---either online or offline---were more likely to indicate they would respond with a flame\", and they also found that verbal aggression also played a role in a person engaging in political flaming. Internet flaming has also contributed to pushing some politicians out of their field, including Kari Kjønaas Kjos of the Norwegian Progress Party who elected to leave politics in April of 2020 due to hostility she was experiencing online.
### Corporate flaming {#corporate_flaming}
Corporate flaming is when a large number of critical comments, usually aggressive or insulting, are directed at a company\'s employees, products, or brands. Common causes include inappropriate behavior of company employees, negative customer experiences, inadequate care of customers and influencers, violation of ethical principles, apparent injustices, and inappropriate reactions. Flame wars can result in reputational damage, decreased consumer confidence, drops in stock prices and company assets, increased liabilities, increased lawsuits, and a decrease in customers, influencers, and sponsors. Based on an assessment of the damage, companies can take years to recover from a flame war that may detract from their core purpose. Kayser notes that companies should prepare for possible flame wars by creating alerts for a predefined \"blacklist\" of words and monitoring fast-growing topics about their company. Alternatively, Kayser points out that a flame war can lead to a positive experience for the company. Based on the content, it could be shared across multiple platforms and increase company recognition, social media fans/followers, brand presence, purchases, and brand loyalty. Therefore, the type of marketing that results from a flame war can lead to higher profits and brand recognition on a broader scale. Nevertheless, it is encouraged that when a company utilizes social media they should be aware that their content could be used in a flame war and should be treated as an emergency.
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# Flaming (Internet)
## Examples
Any subject of a polarizing nature can feasibly cause flaming. As one would expect in the medium of the Internet, technology is a common topic. The perennial debates between users of competing operating systems, such as Windows, Classic Mac OS and macOS operating system, or operating systems based on the Linux kernel and iOS or Android operating system, users of Intel and AMD processors, and users of the Nintendo Switch, Wii U, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One video game systems, often escalate into seemingly unending \"flame wars\", also called software wars. As each successive technology is released, it develops its own outspoken fan base, allowing arguments to begin anew.
Popular culture continues to generate large amounts of flaming and countless flame wars across the Internet, such as the constant debates between fans of *Star Trek* and *Star Wars*. Ongoing discussion of current celebrities and television personalities within popular culture also frequently sparks debate.
In 2005, author Anne Rice became involved in a flame war of sorts on the review boards of online retailer Amazon.com after several reviewers posted scathing comments about her latest novel. Rice responded to the comments with her own lengthy response, which was quickly met with more feedback from users.
In 2007, tech expert Kathy Sierra was a victim of flaming as an image of her depicted as a mutilated body was spread around online forums. In addition to the doctored photo being spread virally, her social security number and home address were made public as well. Consequently, Sierra effectively gave up her technology career in response to the ensuing harassment and threats that she received as a result of the flaming.
In November 2007, the popular audio-visual discussion site AVS Forum temporarily closed its HD DVD and Blu-ray discussion forums because of, as the site reported, \"physical threats that have involved police and possible legal action\" between advocates of the rival formats.
The 2016 Presidential election, saw a flame war take place between Republican candidate Donald Trump and the Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton. The barbs exchanged between the two was highly publicized and is an example of political flaming and a flame war. Similar messages were shared leading up to the 2024 Presidential election, with Donald Trump referring to his opponent, Kamala Harris, as \"Lyin\' Kamala,\" and the incumbent, Joe Biden, as \"Crooked Joe Biden\" on his X account.
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# Flaming (Internet)
## Legal implications {#legal_implications}
Flaming varies in severity and as such so too does the reaction of states in imposing any sort of sanction. Laws vary from country to country. In most cases, constant flaming can be considered cyber harassment, which can result in Internet service provider action to prevent access to the site being flamed. However, as social networks become more and more closely connected to people and their real lives, the more harsh words may be considered defamation of the person. For instance, a South Korean identity verification law was created to help control flaming and to stop \"malicious use of the internet\" but opponents to the law argue that the law infringes on the right to free speech
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# Politics of the Falkland Islands
The **politics of the Falkland Islands** takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary representative democratic dependency as set out by the constitution, whereby the Governor exercises the duties of head of state in the absence of the monarch, and the Chief Executive is the head of the Civil Service, with an elected Legislative Assembly to propose new laws, national policy, approve finance and hold the executive to account.
The Falkland Islands, an archipelago in the southern Atlantic Ocean, are a self-governing British overseas territory. Executive power is exercised on behalf of the King by an appointed Governor, who primarily acts on the advice of the Executive Council. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The military defence and foreign policy of the islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. No political parties exist on the islands currently and so Members stand as independents, however the governmental and legal proceedings very closely resemble British standards.
Following the Falklands War in 1982, Lord Shackleton published a report on the economy of the Falkland Islands which recommended many modernisations. On 1 January 1983 the Falkland Islanders gained British citizenship under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, and on 3 October 1985 the Constitution of the Falkland Islands was established. A new constitution came into force on 1 January 2009 which modernised the Chapter on fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual, embedding self-determination in the main body of the constitution. The new constitution also replaced the Legislative Council with the Legislative Assembly, and better explained the role of the Governor and the Chief Executive.
## Sovereignty issues {#sovereignty_issues}
The Argentine Republic claims the Falkland Islands (known in Spanish as *Islas Malvinas*) to be part of its territory. This claim is disputed by the Falkland Islanders and the United Kingdom. In 1982, Argentina invaded and occupied the islands, starting the Falklands War. The islands were subsequently liberated by British forces just 74 days after the start of the war, which led to the collapse of the military dictatorship in Argentina.
The sovereignty of the Falklands remains in dispute, with Argentina claiming the islands are an integral and indivisible part of its territory, \'illegally occupied by an occupying power\'. The United Kingdom and the Government of the Falkland Islands maintains that the Islanders have the right to determine the sovereignty of their birthplace. In a referendum in 2013 the people of the Falkland Islands soundly rejected Argentina\'s claim to the islands, with 99.8% of voters supporting the Falklands remaining an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom.
## Executive
`{{see also|Governor of the Falkland Islands|Chief Executive of the Falkland Islands|Executive Council of the Falkland Islands}}`{=mediawiki} Executive authority on the Falkland Islands is vested in Charles III, who has been the head of state since his accession to the British throne on 8 September 2022. As the King is absent from the islands for most of the time, executive authority is exercised \"in His Majesty\'s name and on His Majesty\'s behalf\" by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Alison Blake has been Governor since 23 July 2022.
The Governor normally acts only on the advice of the Executive Council of the Falkland Islands, which is composed of three Members of the Legislative Assembly elected by the Assembly to serve on the Council every year, the Chief Executive, the Director of Finance and the Governor, who acts as presiding officer. The only members with a vote to progress a change in law or policy are the democratically elected Members of the Legislative Assembly who are serving on Executive Council. The constitution does permit the Governor to act without consulting the Executive Council and even going against its instructions, but in both cases the Governor must immediately inform the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs in the United Kingdom, who can overrule the Governor\'s actions.
Government policy and the execution thereof is primarily decided by the 3 officio Executive Council MLAs. The Chief Executive leads the civil service and undertakes actions from Executive Council.
## Legislature
The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Legislative Assembly. General elections must take place at least once every four years, in which the islanders elect eight members to the Legislative Assembly (five from Stanley and three from Camp) through universal suffrage using block voting. There are also two ex officio members of the Assembly (the Chief Executive and the Director of Finance) who take part in proceedings but are not permitted to vote in the Assembly.
The following major conventions apply to the Falkland Islands and should be taken into account during the drafting of legislation:
- European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
- International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
- United Nations Convention Against Torture (UNCAT)
- UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
- UN Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
- UN Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).
Until 2009, when the new constitution came into force and created the Legislative Assembly, the legislature of the islands was the Legislative Council, which had existed since the 19th century.
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# Politics of the Falkland Islands
## Judiciary
The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the Summary Court and the Magistrates\' Court. The judiciary is strictly independent of the executive and legislature, although it has links with the other branches of the government through the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy. The government also employs six lawyers (the Attorney General, Law Commissioner, two Crown Counsels and two Legislative Drafters), a Policy Adviser and one Policy Officer.
### Courts
The court system of the Falklands is set out by Chapter VIII of the Constitution and closely resembles the system in England and Wales. The Supreme Court of the Falkland Islands has unlimited jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings, and consists of the Chief Justice (CJ) who is generally a senior barrister or solicitor with a good amount of judicial experience in the United Kingdom. The CJ is not resident in the Falkland Islands but travels to the islands if and when necessary to hear cases. The most serious criminal and civil matters are reserved for the Supreme Court. In civil matters, generally there is no jury however, in criminal matters, the defendant can elect trial by judge and jury or judge alone. There are only a few criminal cases which must be heard before the Supreme Court; these are murder, manslaughter, rape, piracy, treason and arson with the intent to endanger life. The CJ also hears appeals from the Magistrates\' Court.
From the Supreme Court, appeals are sent to the Falkland Islands Court of Appeal, which is based on the Court of Appeal of England and Wales. The Court of Appeal consists of a President and two Justices of Appeal, as well as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who serves as an ex officio member. The President and Justices of Appeal are normally from the UK and are Judges of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales. Appeals from the Court of Appeal are sent to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
The Falkland Islands does not have its own bar or law society, but has a \"Falkland Islands Legal Community\". There is no differentiation between being a barrister or a solicitor; the private practitioners being called legal practitioners. The Legal Practitioners Ordinance defines who can hold themselves out as being a legal practitioner and therefore have rights of audience before the Falkland Islands courts. Only the Chief Justice of the Falkland Islands can prohibit a legal practitioner from practising.
In the court system on the islands, there is a panel of Justices of the Peace (JPs) who sit in the Summary Court, which has no jury. JPs are all non-lawyers and are made up of \"upstanding members of the community\". They hear the most simple of criminal cases (or sit when the Senior Magistrate is not in the Islands) and they also act as the Licensing Justices who deal with alcohol-related applications, such as extended opening hours, special occasion licences, etc.
The Senior Magistrate (SM) is appointed by the Governor and presides over the Magistrates\' Court, which again has no jury. The SM is usually a UK qualified lawyer, with at least 10 years experience as an advocate and, usually, with some judicial experience. The SM holds office for a maximum of three years and is then replaced. The SM is resident in the Islands and hears the majority of cases from simple criminal and civil matters right up to very serious criminal matters or complex civil cases. The SM also hears appeals from the Summary Court.
#### List of chief justices {#list_of_chief_justices}
- 1987--1997: Sir Renn Davis
- 1998--2007: James Wood
- 2007--2015: Christopher Gardner QC
- 2015--2017: Sir Simon Bryan QC
- 2018--present: James Lewis KC
### Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy {#advisory_committee_on_the_prerogative_of_mercy}
The Governor has the power to grant a pardon to any person concerned in or convicted of an offence, but the Governor can only use this power after consultation with the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy. The Committee consist of two elected members of the Legislative Assembly (appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Legislative Assembly), the Chief Executive, the Attorney General and the Chief Medical Officer.
### Attorney general {#attorney_general}
The Attorney General (AG), appointed by the Governor, is the main legal adviser to the Falkland Islands Government. The AG\'s primary role is to determine the legality of government proceedings and action, and has the power to institute and undertake criminal proceedings before any court of law, to take over and continue any criminal proceedings that may have been instituted by another person or authority, or to discontinue at any stage before judgment any criminal proceedings instituted or undertaken by another person or authority. In the exercise of his or her powers, the AG is not subject to the direction or control of any other person or authority.
The Attorney General is also a member of the Advisory Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy and acts as presiding officer during Speaker elections in the Legislative Assembly, and has a constitutional right to attend all meetings of the Assembly and all meetings of the Executive Council.
The current Attorney General is Simon Young, who took office in December 2017.
## Finances
The Director of Finance of the Falkland Islands is responsible for government expenditure on the islands, acting with authorisation from the Legislative Assembly. The Director is also an ex officio member of both the Legislative Assembly and the Executive Council.
There is also a Public Accounts Committee consisting of a chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor (in consultation with the elected MLAs) and two elected members of the Legislative Assembly. Reporting to the Legislative Assembly, the Committee overseas the economy, government expenditure, all public accounts and audit reports on the islands. The Director of Finance is not permitted to be a member of the Public Accounts Committee.
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# Politics of the Falkland Islands
## Elections and parties {#elections_and_parties}
As in many parliamentary democracies, there are no direct elections for the executive branch of the Falkland Islands Government. Instead the people elect the legislature which then advises and forms part of the executive. General elections, which elect the Legislative Assembly, must take place at least once every four years. Suffrage is universal in the Falklands, with the minimum voting age at eighteen. The Legislative Assembly has ten members, eight of which are elected using block voting (five from the Stanley constituency and three from the Camp constituency) and two *ex officio* members (the Chief Executive and the Director of Finance).
In the last general election, which took place on 4 November 2021, only non-partisans were elected as there are no active political parties in the Falkland Islands. The next elections will take place in 2025
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# Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands
**Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands** includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio: Radio services provided by the public broadcaster, Falkland Islands Radio Service, broadcasting on both AM and FM frequencies, and by the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) (2007).
- Radio sets: 1,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|6}}`{=mediawiki}
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- Television: TV service provided by a multi-channel service provider (2007).
- Television sets: 1,008 (2001).`{{update after|2014|1|6}}`{=mediawiki}
Six free-to-air digital channels are provided by BFBS: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4, Sky News and BFBS Extra for non-military audiences. Entitled personnel within British Forces South Atlantic can also receive Sky Sports 1, Sky Sports 2 and BFBS Sport.
A local subscription service, KTV carries satellite channels such as ESPN, Discovery, CNN International and Turner Classic Movies (from the United States) along with BBC World News from the United Kingdom.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +500
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines: 1,980 lines in use (2012), 218th in the world.
- Mobile cellular: 3,450 lines, 216th in the world (2012); Cable & Wireless launched \"Touch\" a GSM 900 mobile service during December 2005; Roaming became partially available in April 2007 depending on providers.
- Domestic: Government-operated radiotelephone and private VHF/CB radiotelephone networks provide effective service to almost all points on both islands (2011). Services in Stanley are delivered via fibre optic and copper. Telephone penetration by household is 100%.
- Satellite earth station: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) with links through the United Kingdom to other countries (2011).
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .fk
- Internet users: 2,842 users, 208th in the world; 96.9% of the population, 1st in the world (2012).
- Fixed broadband: 1,187 subscriptions, 179th in the world; 40.5% of the population, 5th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: unknown (2012).
- Internet hosts: 110 hosts, 207th in the world (2012).
- Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Sure South Atlantic (formerly Cable & Wireless).
- ADSL services were launched in Stanley in mid-2006
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# History of the Faroe Islands
The early details of the history of the Faroe Islands are unclear. It is possible that Brendan, an Irish monk, sailed past the islands during his North Atlantic voyage in the 6th century. He saw an \'Island of Sheep\' and a \'Paradise of Birds\', which some say could be the Faroes with its dense bird population and sheep. This does suggest however that other sailors had got there before him, to bring the sheep. Norsemen settled the Faroe Islands in the 9th or 10th century. The islands were officially converted to Christianity around the year 1000, and became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in 1035. Norwegian rule on the islands continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the dual Denmark--Norway kingdom, under king Olaf II of Denmark.
Following the 1814 Treaty of Kiel that ended the dual Denmark--Norway kingdom, the Faroe Islands remained under the administration of Denmark as a county. During World War II, after Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany, the British invaded and occupied the Faroe Islands until shortly after the end of the war. Following an independence referendum in 1946 that took place unrecognized by Denmark, the Faroe Islands were in 1948 granted extended self-governance with the Danish Realm with the signing of the *Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands*.
## Early Gaelic and Norse settlements {#early_gaelic_and_norse_settlements}
right\|thumb\|upright=1.2\|Faroese stamp depicting Saint Brendan discovering the Faroe Islands There is some evidence of settlement on the Faroe Islands before Norse Viking settlers arrived in the ninth century AD. Scientific researchers found burnt grains of domesticated barley and peat ash deposited in two phases: the first dated between the mid-fourth and mid-sixth centuries, and another between the late-sixth and late-eighth centuries. Researchers have also found sheep DNA in lake-bed sediments, which were dated to around the year 500. Barley and sheep had to have been brought to the islands by humans. It is unlikely the Norse would have sailed near the Faroes long before the early 800s. The first settlers may have come from Britain or Ireland. Archaeologist Mike Church suggested that the people living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia, or from all three.
According to a ninth-century voyage tale, the Irish saint Brendan visited islands resembling the Faroes in the sixth century. This description, however, is not conclusive.
The earliest text which has been claimed to be a description of the Faroe Islands was written by the Irish monk Dicuil c.825 in his work *Liber de Mensura Orbis Terrae* (description of the sphere of the earth). Dicuil had met a \"man worthy of trust\" who related to his master, the abbot Sweeney (Suibhne), how he had landed on islands in the far north after sailing \"two days and a summer night in a little vessel of two banks of oars\" (*in duobus aestivis diebus, et una intercedente nocte, navigans in duorum navicula transtrorum*).
> \"Many other islands lie in the northerly British Ocean. One reaches them from the northerly islands of Britain, by sailing directly for two days and two nights with a full sail in a favourable wind the whole time\.... Most of these islands are small, they are separated by narrow channels, and for nearly a hundred years hermits lived there, coming from our land, Ireland, by boat. But just as these islands have been uninhabited from the beginning of the world, so now the Norwegian pirates have driven away the monks; but countless sheep and many different species of sea-fowl are to be found there\...\"
Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands is recorded in the Færeyinga saga, whose original manuscript is lost. Portions of the tale were inscribed in three other sagas: the *Flateyjarbók*, the Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason, and AM 62 fol. Similar to other sagas, the historical credibility of the Færeyinga saga is highly questioned.
Both the Saga of Ólafr Tryggvason and the *Flateyjarbók* claim that Grímr Kamban was the first man to discover the Faroe Islands. The two sources disagree, however, on the year in which he left and the circumstances of his departure. The *Flateyjarbók* details the emigration of Grímr Kamban as sometime during the reign of Harald Hårfagre, between 872 and 930 AD. The Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason indicates that Kamban was residing in the Faroes long before the rule of Harald Hårfagre, and that other Norse were driven to the Faroe Islands due to his chaotic rule. This mass migration to the Faroe Islands shows a prior knowledge of the Viking settlements\' locations, furthering the claim of Grímr Kamban\'s settlement much earlier. While Kamban is recognized as the first Viking settler of the Faroe Islands, his surname is of Gaelic origin. Writings from the Papar, an order of Irish monks, show that they left the Faroe Islands due to ongoing Viking raids.
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# History of the Faroe Islands
## Pre-14th century {#pre_14th_century}
The name of the islands is first recorded on the Hereford *Mappa Mundi* (1280), where they are labelled *farei*. The name has long been understood as based on Old Norse *fár* \"livestock\", thus *fær-øer* \"sheep islands\".
The main historical source for this period is the 13th-century work *Færeyinga saga* (*Saga of the Faroese*), though it is disputed as to how much of this work is historical fact. *Færeyinga saga* only exists today as copies in other sagas, in particular the manuscripts called *Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason*, *Flateyjarbók* and one registered as AM 62 fol.
According to Flateyjarbók, Grímr Kamban settled in Faroe when Harald Hårfagre was king of Norway (872--930). A slightly different account is found in the version of *Færeyinga saga* in Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar:
: *There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe. But in the days of Harold Fairhair many men fled before the king\'s overbearing. Some settled in Faroe and began to dwell there, and others sought to other waste lands.*
The text suggests that Grímr Kamban settled in the Faroes some time before the flight from Harald Hårfagre, perhaps even hundreds of years before. His first name, *Grímr*, is Norse, but his last, *Kamban*, suggests a Gaelic origin (*Cambán*). He may have been of mixed Norse and Irish origin and have come from a settlement in the British Isles: a so-called Norse-Gael. The Norse-Gaels had intermarried with speakers of Irish, a language also spoken at the time in Scotland (being the ancestor of Scottish Gaelic). Evidence of a mixed cultural background in later settlers may be found in the Norse-Irish ring pins found in the Faroe Islands, and in features of Faroese vocabulary. Examples of such words (derived from Middle Irish) are: \"blak/blaðak\" (buttermilk), Irish *bláthach*; \"drunnur\" (animal tail), Irish *dronn* (chine); \"grúkur\" (head), Irish *gruaig* (hair); \"lámur\" (hand, paw), Irish *lámh* (hand); \"tarvur\" (bull), Irish *tarbh*; and \"ærgi\" (pasture in the outfield), Irish *áirge* (byre, milking place: Mod. Irish *áirí*). The discovery at Toftanes on Eysturoy of wooden devotional crosses apparently modelled on Irish or Scottish exemplars suggests that some of the settlers were Christian. It has also been suggested that the typical curvilinear stone-built walls enclosing early ecclesiastical sites in the Faroes (as in Norse settlements elsewhere) reflect a Celtic Christian style, seen in the circular enclosures of early ecclesiastical sites in Ireland. Indirect support for this theory has been found in genetic research showing that many Norse settler women in the Faroe Islands had Celtic forebears.
If there was settlement in the Faroes in the reign of Harald Hårfagre, it is possible that people already knew about the Faroes because of previous visitors or settlers.
The fact that immigrants from Norway also settled in the Faroe Islands is proven by a runestone (*see Sandavágur stone*) found in the village of Sandavágur on Vágoy Island. It says: `{{quote|''Þorkil Onundsson, austmaþr af Hrua-lande, byggþe þe(n)a staþ fyrst''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abdn.ac.uk/skaldic/db.php?if=srdb&table=mss&id=21252|title=Samnordisk runtextdatabas|website=abdn.ac.uk}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
: *Thorkil Onundsson, eastman (Norwegian) from Rogaland, settled first in this place (Sandavágur)*
This description \"eastman\" (from Norway) has to be seen together with the description \"westman\" (from Ireland/Scotland), which is to be found in local place-names such as \"Vestmanna-havn\" i.e. \"Irishmen\'s harbour\" in the Faroe Isles, and \"Vestmannaeyjar\" i.e. \"Irishmen\'s islands\" in Iceland. According to *Færeyinga saga* there was an ancient institution on the headland called Tinganes in Tórshavn on the island of Streymoy. This was an *Alþing* or Althing (All-council.) This was the place where laws were made and disputes solved. All free men had the right to meet in the Alþing. It was a parliament and law court for all, thus the name. Historians estimate the Alþing to have been established from 800 to 900.
The islands were officially converted to Christianity around the year 1000, with the Diocese of the Faroe Islands based at Kirkjubøur, southern Streymoy, of which there were 33 Catholic bishops.
The Faroes became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in 1035. Early in the 11th century Sigmund or Sigmundur Brestisson, whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the islands of the north, was sent from Norway, to where he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld and continued.
King Sverre of Norway was brought up in the Faroes, being stepson of a Faroese man, and relative to Roe, bishop of the islands.
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# History of the Faroe Islands
## Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War {#foreign_commercial_interest_14th_century_to_second_world_war}
The 14th century saw the start of what would prove to be a long era of foreign encroachment on the Faroese economy. At this time trading regulations were set up so that all Faroese commerce had to pass through Bergen, Norway, in order to collect customs tax. Meanwhile, the Hanseatic League was gaining in power, threatening Scandinavian commerce. Though Norway tried to halt this, it was forced to desist after the Black Death decimated its population.
Norwegian supremacy continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the Kalmar Union. The islands were still a possession of the Norwegian crown since the crowns had not been joined. In 1380 the Alþting was renamed the Løgting, though it was by now little more than a law court.
In 1390s, Henry I Sinclair, Earl of Orkney, took possession of the islands (as vassal of Norway, however) and for some time they were part of the Sinclair principality in the North Atlantic.
Archaeological excavations on the islands indicate sustained pig keeping up to and beyond the 13th century, a unique situation when compared to Iceland and Greenland. The Faroese at Junkarinsfløtti remained dependent upon bird resources, especially puffins, far longer and to a greater degree than with any of the other Viking Age settlers of the North Atlantic islands.
English adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus Heinason, a native of Streymoy, who was sent by Frederick II to clear the seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories.
### Reformation era {#reformation_era}
In 1535 Christian II, the deposed monarch, tried to regain power from King Christian III who had just succeeded his father Frederick I. Several of the powerful German companies backed Christian II, but he eventually lost. In 1537 the new King Christian III gave the German trader Thomas Köppen exclusive trading rights in the Faroes. These rights were subject to the following conditions: only good quality goods were to be supplied by the Faroese and were to be made in numbers proportionate to the rest of the market; the goods were to be bought at their market value; and the traders were to deal fairly and honestly with the Faroese.
Christian III also introduced Lutheranism to the Faroes, to replace Catholicism. This process took five years to complete, in which time Danish was used instead of Latin and church property was transferred to the state. The bishopric at Kirkjubøur, south of Tórshavn, where remains of the cathedral may be seen, was also abolished.
After Köppen, others took over the trading monopoly, though the economy suffered as a result of the Dano-Swedish war between Denmark--Norway and Sweden. During this period of the monopoly most Faroese goods (wool products, fish, meat) were taken to the Netherlands, where they were sold at pre-determined prices. The guidelines of the trading agreement, however, were often ignored or corrupted. This caused delays and shortages in the supply of Faroese goods and a reduction in quality. With the trading monopoly nearing collapse smuggling and piracy were rife.
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# History of the Faroe Islands
## Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War {#foreign_commercial_interest_14th_century_to_second_world_war}
### 1600s onwards {#s_onwards}
The Danish king tried to solve the problem by giving the Faroes to the courtier Christoffer Gabel (and later on his son, Frederick) as a personal feudal estate. However, the Gabel rule was harsh and repressive, breeding much resentment in the Faroese. This caused Denmark--Norway, in 1708, to entrust the islands and trading monopoly once more to the central government. However, they too struggled to keep the economy going, and many merchants were trading at a loss. Finally, on 1 January 1856 the trading monopoly was abolished.
The Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland became a part of Denmark at the Peace of Kiel in 1814, when the union of Denmark--Norway was dissolved.
In 1816 the Løgting (the Faroese parliament) was officially abolished and replaced by a Danish judiciary. Danish was introduced as the main language, whilst Faroese was discouraged. In 1849 a new constitution came into use in Denmark and was promulgated in the Faroes in 1850, giving the Faroese two seats in the Rigsdag (Danish parliament). The Faroese, however, managed in 1852 to re-establish the Løgting as a county council with an advisory role, with many people hoping for eventual independence. The late 19th century saw increasing support for the home rule/independence movement, though not all were in favour. Meanwhile, the Faroese economy was growing with the introduction of large-scale fishing. The Faroese were allowed access to the large Danish waters in the North Atlantic. Living standards subsequently improved and there was a population increase. Though Faroese was standardized as a written language in 1890, it was not allowed to be used in public schools until 1938, or in the church (Fólkakirkjan) until 1939.
## World War II {#world_war_ii}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|British Army soldier with local children in Tórshavn During the Second World War, Denmark was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany. The British subsequently made a pre-emptive invasion and occupation of the Faroes, known as Operation Valentine, to prevent a German invasion. Given their strategic location in the North Atlantic, the Faroes could have proved useful to Germany in the Battle of the Atlantic, possibly as a submarine base. Instead, the British forces built an airbase on Vágar, which is still in use as Vágar Airport. Faroese fishing boats also provided a large amount of fish to the UK, which was crucial given food rationing.
The Løgting gained legislative powers, with the Danish prefect Carl Aage Hilbert retaining executive power. The Faroese flag was recognized by British authorities. There were some attempts to declare complete independence in this period, but the UK had given an undertaking not to interfere in the internal affairs of the Faroe Islands nor to act without the permission of a liberated Denmark. The experience of wartime self-government was crucial in paving the way for formal autonomy in 1948.
The British presence was broadly popular (particularly given the alternative of a German occupation). Approximately 150 marriages took place between British soldiers and Faroese women, although the scale of the British presence on Vágar did lead to some local tensions. The British presence also left a lasting popularity for British chocolate and sweets, which are readily available in Faroese shops but uncommon in Denmark.
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# History of the Faroe Islands
## Post-World War II: Home Rule {#post_world_war_ii_home_rule}
Following the liberation of Denmark and the end of World War II, the last British troops left in September 1945. Until 1948 the Faroes had the official status of a Danish amt (county). A referendum on full independence was held in 1946, which produced a majority in favour. This was, however, not recognised by the Danish Government or king due to only 2/3 of the population participating in the referendum, so the Danish king abolished the government of the Faroes. The subsequent elections Løgting were won by an anti-independence majority and instead a high degree of self-governance was attained in 1948 with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule. Faroese was now an official language, though Danish is still taught as a second language in schools. The Faroese flag was also officially recognised by Danish authorities.
In 1973 Denmark joined the European Community (now European Union). The Faroes refused to join, mainly over the issue of fishing limits.
The 1980s saw an increase in support for Faroese independence. Unemployment was very low, and the Faroese were enjoying one of the world\'s highest standards of living, but the Faroese economy was almost entirely reliant on fishing. The early 1990s saw a dramatic slump in fish stocks, which were being overfished with new high-tech equipment. During the same period the government was also engaged in massive overspending. National debt was now at 9.4 billion Danish krones (DKK). Finally, in October 1992, the Faroese national bank (Sjóvinnurbankin) called in receivers and was forced to ask Denmark for a huge financial bailout. The initial sum was 500 million DKK, though this eventually grew to 1.8 billion DKK (this was in addition to the annual grant of 1 billion DKK). Austerity measures were introduced: public spending was cut, there was a tax and VAT increase and public employees were given a 10% wage-cut. Much of the fishing industry was put into receivership, with talk of cutting down the number of fish-farms and ships.
It was during this period that many Faroese (6%) decided to emigrate, mainly to Denmark. Unemployment rose to as much as 20% in Tórshavn, and even higher in the outlying islands. In 1993 the Sjóvinnurbankin merged with the Faroe Islands\' second largest bank, Føroya Banki. A third was declared bankrupt. Meanwhile, there was a growing international boycott of Faroese produce because of the grindadráp (whaling) issue. The independence movement dissolved on the one hand while Denmark found itself left with the Faroe Islands\' unpaid bills on the other.
Recuperative measures were put in place and largely worked. Unemployment peaked in January 1994 at 26%, since which it fell (10% in mid-1996, 5% in April 2000). The fishing industry survived largely intact. Fish stocks also rose, with the annual catch being 100,000 in 1994, rising to 150,000 in 1995. In 1998 it was 375,000. Emigration also fell to 1% in 1995, and there was a small population increase in 1996. In addition, oil was discovered nearby. By the early 21st century weaknesses in the Faroese economy had been eliminated and, accordingly, many minds turned once again to the possibility of independence from Denmark. However, a planned referendum in 2001 on first steps towards independence was called off following Danish Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Rasmussen saying that Danish money grants would be phased out within four years if there were a \'yes\' vote
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# Geography of the Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands are an island group consisting of eighteen islands between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about half-way between Iceland and Norway. Its coordinates are 62 N 7 W. It is 1,393 square kilometres in area, and includes small lakes and rivers, but no major ones. There are 1,117 kilometres of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country. The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and cool to cold winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent fog and strong winds. Although at a high latitude, due to the Gulf Stream their climate is ameliorated. The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs. The Faroe Islands are notable for having the highest sea cliffs in Europe, and some of the highest in the world otherwise. The lowest point is at sea level, and the highest is at Slættaratindur, which is 882 metres above sea level. The landscape made roadbuilding difficult, and only recently has this been remedied by building tunnels.
Many of the Faroese islands tend to be elongated in shape. Natural resources include fish and hydropower.
## Statistics
Geographic coordinates:
:\* 62 00 N 06 47 W type:country
:\* North: Enniberg, 62°29′,2 N
:\* South: Sumbiarsteinur, 61°21′,6 N
:\* West: Gáadrangur, 7°40′,1 W
:\* East: Stapin, 6°21′,5 W
Area:
:\* Land: 1,393 km²
:\* Water: 7.19 km² (the area includes 10 of the largest lakes. There are a number of smaller lakes and streams.)
Land boundaries:
: 0 km
Coastline:
: 1,117 km
Maritime claims:
:\* Territorial sea: 3 nmi
:\* Continental shelf: 200 nmi or agreed boundaries or median line
:\* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi or agreed boundaries or median line
Climate:
: Subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification *Cfc*) moderated by North Atlantic Current; long, mild, windy winters; short, cool summers, damp in the South and West. Arctic climate (Köppen *ET*) in some mountains.
Terrain:
: Rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast. The coasts are deeply indented with fjords, and the narrow passages between islands are agitated by strong tidal currents. Multiple sea stacks exist along the coast.
Elevation extremes:
:\* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
:\* Highest point: Slættaratindur 880 m
Natural resources:
: Fish, whales, hydropower, wind, possible petroleum and natural gas
Land use:
:\* Arable land: 2.14%
:\* Permanent crops: 0%
:\* Other: 97.86% (2012)
Environment---international agreements:
: Marine dumping
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# Geography of the Faroe Islands
## Climate
The climate is classed as subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification *Cfc*), with areas having a tundra climate, especially in the mountains, although some coastal or low-lying areas may have very mild-winter versions of a tundra climate. The overall character of the climate of the islands is influenced by the strong warming influence of the Atlantic Ocean, which produces the North Atlantic Current. This, together with the remoteness of any source of landmass-induced warm or cold airflows, ensures that winters are mild (mean temperature 3.0 to 4.0 °C or 37 to 39 °F) while summers are cool (mean temperature 9.5 to 11.2 °C or 49 to 52 °F).
The islands are windy, cloudy and cool throughout the year with an average of 210 rainy or snowy days per year. The islands lie in the path of depressions moving northeast, making strong winds and heavy rain possible at all times of the year. Sunny days are rare and overcast days are common. Hurricane Faith struck the Faroe Islands on 5 September 1966 with sustained winds over 100 mph (160 km/h) and only then did the storm cease to be a tropical system.
Due to the altitude, ocean currents, topography, and winds, the islands exhibit a variety of microclimates. Precipitation varies considerably throughout the archipelago. In some highland areas, snow cover may last for months with snowfalls possible for the greater part of the year (on the highest peaks, summer snowfall is by no means rare), while in some sheltered coastal locations, several years pass without any snowfall whatsoever.
. Tórshavn receives frosts more often than other areas just a short distance to the south. Snow is also seen at a much higher frequency than outlying islands nearby. The area receives on average 49 frosts a year.
While receiving more frost than most of the Faroe Islands, Mykines is more temperate in the winter than nearby Vágar. Snow is also less common despite the relatively lower winter temperatures due to the relatively low precipitation in the area. It also has a very mild tundra climate bordering on subpolar oceanic. Frost occurs on 46 days in an average year It is also likely that the lower areas of the island experience less than this, as the weather station is located at 105 meters above sea level.
Akraberg is milder than much of the Faroe Islands and experiences frost on 38 days in an average year, possibly less in lower areas, as the weather station is located at an elevation of 101 meters above sea level.
Vágar has colder and snowier winters than most other places in the archipelago. Lower temperatures combined with higher precipitation are responsible for this, and measurable snow cover can be seen- a rarity in the Faroe Islands, in which snow cover (in areas which regularly experience it) is usually limited to a thin coating. The airport, at which data is recorded, is also located at a higher altitude on the island (84 meters above sea level), which might result in lower temperatures and higher precipitation than lower-lying areas on the island. Frost occurs on average on 62 days of the year, the most out of all stations included in the records of the Danish Meteorological Institute.
Kirkja has a very mild climate, similar to Akraberg. It has the lowest frequency of frosts out of all weather stations included in the records by the Danish Meteorological Institute, with 36 days of frost in an average year. Snowfall is uncommon, due to mild temperatures and relatively low precipitation. The weather station is somewhat high at 53 meters above sea level, which could possibly affect the data, but not as much as the previous stations.
Nólsoy experiences a climate that is quite typical of the surrounding area and the Faroe Islands in general, and is similar to nearby Tórshavn. There are on average 44 days of frost a year. Also, as in the case of previous weather stations, the location is higher on its respective island, and the climate of the lower areas of the island differs slightly.
The climate of Sandur is typical for a low-lying coastal location in the south of the Faroe Islands, as the weather station for Sandur is located at 5 meters above sea level. On average, Sandur experiences 41 days of frost a year
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# Demographics of the Faroe Islands
Demographic features of the population of the Faroe Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The vast majority of the population are ethnic Faroese, of North Germanic descent. Ethnic Faroese are, in genetic terms, among the most homogenous groups ever found.
A 2004 DNA analysis revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87% Scandinavian. The studies show that mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84% Scottish/Irish.
Of the approximately 48,000 inhabitants of the Faroe Islands (16,921 private households (2004)), 98% are Danish realm citizens, meaning Faroese, Danish, or Greenlandic. By birthplace one can derive the following origins of the inhabitants: born on the Faroes 91.7%, in Denmark 5.8%, and in Greenland 0.3%. The largest group of foreigners are Icelanders comprising 0.4% of the population, followed by Norwegians and Poles, each comprising 0.2%. Altogether, on the Faroe Islands there are people from 77 different nationalities. The Faroe Islands have the highest rate of adoption in the world, despite a relatively high fertility rate of 2.6 children. (While 2.6 may sound high it is still rather low; for comparison, Sub-Saharan Africa has a rate of 4.53 in 2022.)
Faroese is spoken in the entire country as a first language. It is not possible to say exactly how many people worldwide speak the Faroese language.
The 2011 census, called Manntal, shows that 10% were not born in the Faroe Islands, but of these only 3% were born outside the Kingdom of Denmark. 6.5% of people older than 15 did not speak Faroese as their mother tongue. 33 persons said that they did not understand Faroese at all. According to the 2011 census, 45 361 Faroese people (people living in the Faroes) spoke Faroese as their first language and 1546 spoke Danish as their first language.
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# Demographics of the Faroe Islands
## Vital statistics since 1900 {#vital_statistics_since_1900}
Average population Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Total Fertility Rate
------ -------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ----------------------
1900 15,000 455 233 222 30.3 15.5 14.8
1901 15,300 457 228 229 29.9 14.9 15.0
1902 15,600 502 217 285 32.2 13.9 18.3
1903 15,900 435 199 236 27.4 12.5 14.8
1904 16,200 489 234 255 30.2 14.4 15.7
1905 16,500 498 296 202 30.2 17.9 12.2
1906 16,700 493 229 264 29.5 13.7 15.8
1907 17,000 479 196 283 28.2 11.5 16.6
1908 17,300 576 182 394 33.3 10.5 22.8
1909 17,600 528 196 332 30.0 11.1 18.9
1910 17,900 576 157 419 32.2 8.8 23.4
1911 18,200 559 164 395 30.7 9.0 21.7
1912 18,600 624 184 440 33.5 9.9 23.7
1913 18,900 650 169 481 34.4 8.9 25.4
1914 19,200 580 182 398 30.2 9.5 20.7
1915 19,600 643 288 355 32.8 14.7 18.1
1916 19,900 636 261 375 32.0 13.1 18.8
1917 20,200 570 240 330 28.2 11.9 16.3
1918 20,600 625 199 426 30.3 9.7 20.7
1919 20,900 607 221 386 29.0 10.6 18.5
1920 21,200 665 227 438 31.4 10.7 20.7
1921 21,500 614 230 384 28.6 10.7 17.9
1922 21,800 668 211 457 30.6 9.7 21.0
1923 22,100 652 255 397 29.5 11.5 18.0
1924 22,400 631 268 363 28.2 12.0 16.2
1925 22,700 599 228 371 26.4 10.0 16.3
1926 23,000 592 199 393 25.7 8.7 17.1
1927 23,300 579 157 422 24.8 6.7 18.1
1928 23,600 620 194 426 26.3 8.2 18.1
1929 23,900 575 253 322 24.1 10.6 13.5
1930 24,200 633 273 360 26.2 11.3 14.9
1931 24,500 607 239 368 24.8 9.8 15.0
1932 24,700 604 210 394 24.5 8.5 16.0
1933 25,000 545 248 297 21.8 9.9 11.9
1934 25,300 578 231 347 22.8 9.1 13.7
1935 25,600 585 269 316 22.9 10.5 12.3
1936 25,900 565 265 300 21.8 10.2 11.6
1937 26,200 615 212 403 23.5 8.1 15.4
1938 26,600 617 241 376 23.2 9.1 14.1
1939 26,900 577 182 395 21.4 6.8 14.7
1940 27,300 698 228 470 25.6 8.4 17.2
1941 27,600 690 286 404 25.0 10.4 14.6
1942 28,000 721 250 471 25.8 8.9 16.8
1943 28,300 804 235 569 28.4 8.3 20.1
1944 28,700 732 247 485 25.5 8.6 16.9
1945 29,000 718 247 471 24.8 8.5 16.2
1946 29,000 708 248 460 24.4 8.6 15.9
1947 30,000 742 242 500 24.7 8.1 16.7
1948 30,000 821 227 595 27.4 7.6 19.8
1949 31,000 876 256 626 28.3 8.3 20.2
1950 31,000 856 282 585 27.6 9.1 18.9
1951 31,000 857 229 628 27.6 7.4 20.3
1952 32,000 809 240 569 25.3 7.5 17.8
1953 33,000 758 228 530 23.0 6.9 16.1
1954 33,000 757 248 509 22.9 7.5 15.4
1955 32,000 749 221 528 23.4 6.9 16.5
1956 33,000 767 239 528 23.2 7.2 16.0
1957 33,000 746 268 478 22.6 8.1 14.5
1958 34,000 845 226 619 24.9 6.6 18.2
1959 34,000 856 242 614 25.2 7.1 18.1
1960 34,000 764 274 490 22.5 8.1 14.4
1961 35,000 781 206 575 22.3 5.9 16.4
1962 36,000 800 234 566 22.2 6.5 15.7
1963 36,000 848 242 606 23.6 6.7 16.8
1964 36,000 857 253 604 23.8 7.0 16.8
1965 37,000 889 261 628 24.0 7.1 17.0
1966 37,000 969 262 707 26.2 7.1 19.1
1967 38,000 956 289 667 25.2 7.6 17.6
1968 38,000 878 262 616 23.1 6.9 16.2
1969 38,300 843 269 574 22.0 7.0 15.0
1970 38,700 814 287 527 21.0 7.4 13.6 3.42
1971 38,700 779 308 471 20.1 8.0 12.2 3.22
1972 38,900 798 267 531 20.5 6.9 13.7 3.26
1973 39,400 808 303 505 20.5 7.7 12.8 3.22
1974 40,100 798 303 495 19.9 7.6 12.3 3.07
1975 40,800 781 280 501 19.1 6.9 12.3 2.90
1976 41,300 756 291 465 18.3 7.0 11.3 2.74
1977 41,800 759 271 488 18.2 6.5 11.7 2.68
1978 42,400 742 303 439 17.5 7.1 10.4 2.60
1979 43,000 790 269 521 18.4 6.3 12.1 2.70
1980 43,400 741 309 432 17.1 7.1 10.0 2.46
1981 43,800 753 293 460 17.2 6.7 10.5 2.47
1982 44,200 726 316 410 16.4 7.1 9.3 2.35
1983 44,500 688 361 327 15.5 8.1 7.4 2.16
1984 45,000 695 350 345 15.4 7.8 7.6 2.17
1985 45,500 740 340 400 16.3 7.5 8.8 2.288
1986 46,000 791 370 421 17.2 8.1 9.1 2.410
1987 46,600 782 372 410 16.8 8.0 8.8 2.358
1988 47,300 870 424 446 18.4 9.0 9.4 2.572
1989 47,700 932 374 558 19.5 7.8 11.7 2.706
1990 47,600 947 359 588 19.9 7.5 12.4 2.796
1991 47,400 866 398 468 18.3 8.4 9.9 2.624
1992 47,100 809 400 409 17.2 8.5 8.7 2.521
1993 46,100 762 385 377 16.6 8.4 8.2 2.509
1994 44,500 667 354 313 15.0 8.0 7.0 2.392
1995 43,600 644 365 279 14.8 8.4 6.4 2.455
1996 43,600 675 395 280 15.5 9.1 6.4 2.586
1997 44,000 665 377 288 15.1 8.6 6.5 2.515
1998 44,500 625 377 248 14.0 8.5 5.5 2.336
1999 45,100 626 401 225 13.9 8.9 5.0 2.325
2000 46,022 692 354 338 15.1 7.7 7.4 2.586
2001 46,867 632 360 272 13.6 7.7 5.9 2.337
2002 47,558 709 392 317 15.0 8.3 6.7 2.557
2003 48,118 705 405 300 14.7 8.5 6.2 2.541
2004 48,301 713 380 333 14.8 7.9 6.9 2.594
2005 48,106 711 417 294 14.7 8.6 6.1 2.639
2006 48,269 662 417 245 13.7 8.7 5.0 2.504
2007 48,311 675 381 294 14.0 7.9 6.1 2.567
2008 48,637 667 383 284 13.8 7.9 5.9 2.581
2009 48,530 614 386 228 12.6 8.0 4.6 2.383
2010 48,489 642 349 293 13.2 7.2 6.0 2.515
2011 48,256 581 385 196 12.0 8.0 4.0 2.312
2012 48,030 619 408 211 12.9 8.5 4.4 2.571
2013 48,126 626 364 262 13.0 7.6 5.4 2.546
2014 48,591 639 394 245 13.2 8.1 5.1 2.577
2015 49,100 608 377 231 12.4 7.7 4.7 2.428
2016 49,796 675 379 296 13.6 7.7 5.9 2.639
2017 50,466 656 447 209 13.1 8.9 4.2 2.493
2018 51,279 684 394 290 13.4 7.7 5.7 2.512
2019 52,111 683 411 272 13.2 8.0 5.2 2.434
2020 52,925 678 366 312 12.9 7.0 5.9 2.350
2021 53,676 683 429 254 12.8 8.1 4.7 2.325
2022 54,200 631 487 144 11.6 9.0 2.6 2.071
2023 54,320 577 406 171 10.6 7.5 3.1 1.859
2024 54,700 585 429 156 10.7 7.9 2.8
### Current vital statistics {#current_vital_statistics}
Period Live births Deaths Natural increase
------------------------ -------------- -------------- ------------------
**January-April 2024** 188 144 +44
**January-April 2025** 204 132 +72
**Difference** +16 (+8.51%) -12 (-8.33%) +28
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# Demographics of the Faroe Islands
## Vital statistics since 1900 {#vital_statistics_since_1900}
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- ---------
Total 27 631 25 752 53 383 100
0--4 1 869 1 822 3 691 6.91
5--9 1 864 1 756 3 620 6.78
10--14 1 847 1 829 3 676 6.89
15--19 1 952 1 758 3 710 6.95
20--24 1 758 1 435 3 193 5.98
25--29 1 594 1 379 2 973 5.57
30--34 1 816 1 681 3 497 6.55
35--39 1 661 1 462 3 123 5.85
40--44 1 714 1 552 3 266 6.12
45--49 1 828 1 515 3 343 6.26
50--54 1 793 1 615 3 408 6.38
55--59 1 770 1 622 3 392 6.35
60--64 1 532 1 497 3 029 5.67
65--69 1 373 1 301 2 674 5.01
70--74 1 278 1 218 2 496 4.68
75--79 989 929 1 918 3.59
80--84 544 622 1 166 2.18
85--89 300 428 728 1.36
90--94 131 254 385 0.72
95--99 17 71 88 0.16
100+ 1 6 7 0.01
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 5 580 5 407 10 987 20.58
15--64 17 418 15 516 32 934 61.69
65+ 4 633 4 829 9 462 17.72
## CIA World Factbook demographic statistics {#cia_world_factbook_demographic_statistics}
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
### Age structure {#age_structure}
: 0--14 years: 19.89% (male 5,214/female 4,878)
: 15--24 years: 14.34% (male 3,738/female 3,538)
: 25--54 years: 37.31% (male 10,252/female 8,676)
: 55--64 years: 11.69% (male 3,054/female 2,878)
: 65 years and over: 16.76% (male 4,111/female 4,391) (2017 est.)
### Sex ratio {#sex_ratio}
: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
: 0--14 years: 1.07 male(s)/female
: 15--24 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
: 25--54 years: 1.18 male(s)/female
: 55--64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
: 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female
: total population: 1.08 male(s)/female (2017 est.)
### Infant mortality rate {#infant_mortality_rate}
5.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.)
### Life expectancy at birth {#life_expectancy_at_birth}
: *total population:* 79.85 years (2012 est.)
: *male:* 77.37 years
: *female:* 82.50 years
### Total fertility rate {#total_fertility_rate}
: 2.4 children born/woman (2012 est.)
### Nationality
: *noun:* Faroese (singular and plural)
: *adjective:* Faroese
### Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
-- Faroese
-- Danes
### Religions
- Protestant Christianity, 97.54% in 2020
### Literacy
\
*definition:* NA\
*total population:* NA%\
*male:* NA%\
*female:* NA%\
*note:* similar to Denmark proper
| 412 |
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# Demographics of the Faroe Islands
## Languages
The official languages are Faroese (derived from Old Norse, closely related to Icelandic), and Danish.
According to the Faroese census of 2011, here is the breakdown of people in the Faroe Islands by language:
Languages \# \%
------------------------------------- -------- --------
Faroese 45,361 93.83
Danish 1,546 3.20
Other Nordic Languages 411 0.85
Other European Languages 607 1.26
Asian languages 290 0.60
Middle East/North African Languages 40 0.08
Other African languages 31 0.06
Sign Language 18 0.04
South American languages 3 {{--}}
No languages 41 0.08
Total 48,346
The percentages have been calculated based on the total number of respondents, which was 48,346 residents of the Faroe Islands who were asked to reply to the questions in November 2011.
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups_1}
Place of Birth \# \%
--------------------- -------- -------
Faroe Islands 43,135 89.22
Denmark Proper 3,431 7.10
Greenland 166 0.34
Elsewhere in Nordic 473 0.98
Elsewhere in EU 312 0.65
Elsewhere in Europe 163 0.34
Others 666 1.38
Total 48,346
: Population by Place of Birth, 2011 Census
## Population by island {#population_by_island}
Name Area Inhabitants People per km^2^ Main places Regions
------------- ------- ------------- ------------------ -------------------------- -------------------------------------------------
Streymoy 373.5 21,717 57.4 Tórshavn and Vestmanna Tórshavn and rest of Streymoy
Eysturoy 286.3 10,738 37.5 Fuglafjørður and Runavík North Eysturoy and South Eysturoy
Vágar 177.6 2,856 15.7 Míðvágur and Sørvágur Vágar
Suðuroy 166 5,074 30.9 Tvøroyri and Vágur Suðuroy
Sandoy 112.1 1,428 12.4 Sandur and Skopun Sandoy
Borðoy 95 5,030 52.4 Klaksvík Klaksvík and rest of northern Faroes (Norðoyar)
Viðoy 41 605 15 Viðareiði Norðoyar
Kunoy 35.5 135 3.8 Kunoy Norðoyar
Kalsoy 30.9 136 4.8 Mikladalur and Húsar Norðoyar
Svínoy 27.4 58 2.7 Svínoy Norðoyar
Fugloy 11.2 46 4 Kirkja Norðoyar
Nólsoy 10.3 262 26.1 Nólsoy Streymoy
Mykines 10.3 19 1.8 Mykines Vágar
Skúvoy 10 61 5.7 Skúvoy Sandoy
Hestur 6.1 40 7.1 Hestur Streymoy
Stóra Dímun 2.7 7 1.9 Dímun Sandoy
Koltur 2.5 2 0.8 Koltur Streymoy
Lítla Dímun 0
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