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# Forge
A **forge** is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace (**smithy**) where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature at which it becomes easier to shape by forging, or to the point at which work hardening no longer occurs. The metal (known as the \"workpiece\") is transported to and from the forge using tongs, which are also used to hold the workpiece on the smithy\'s anvil while the smith works it with a hammer. Sometimes, such as when hardening steel or cooling the work so that it may be handled with bare hands, the workpiece is transported to the slack tub, which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of water. However, depending on the metal type, it may require an oil quench or a salt brine instead; many metals require more than plain water hardening. The slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge.
## Types
### Coal/coke/charcoal forge {#coalcokecharcoal_forge}
A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same.
A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealing, and tempering as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: amount of air, the volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire.
Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge:
- Tuyere---a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire
- Bellows or blower---a means for forcing air into the tuyere
- Hearth---a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening. Traditionally hearths have been constructed of mud-brick (adobe), fired brick, stone, or later, constructed of iron.
During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes fuel faster and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel).
A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire.
In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centred in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire\'s heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it \"cooks\" into coke first.
If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work.
The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a \'backdraft\' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall.
Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal), the fire is handled differently.
Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.
### Gas forge {#gas_forge}
A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket (ex: mineral wool). The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect.
Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick.
The primary advantage of a gas forge is the ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a well-designed gas forge is hot enough for any task.
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# Forge
## Types
### Finery forge {#finery_forge}
A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron is refined into wrought iron.
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# Forge
## Forging equipment {#forging_equipment}
### Anvil
The anvil serves as a workbench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be forged is worked. Anvils may seem clunky and heavy, but they are a highly refined tool carefully shaped to suit a blacksmith\'s needs. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. Some anvils are made of only cast iron and have no tool steel face. These are not real anvils, and will not serve a blacksmith as such because they are too soft. A common term for a cast iron anvil is \"ASO\" or \"Anvil Shaped Object\". The purpose of a tool steel face on an anvil is to provide what some call \"rebound\" as well as being hard and not denting easily from misplaced hammer blows. The term rebound means it projects some of the force of the blacksmith\'s hammer blows back into the metal thus moving more metal at once than if there were no rebound. A good anvil can project anywhere from 50 to 99% of the energy back into the workpiece. The flat top, called the \"face\" is highly polished and usually has two holes (but can have more or less depending on the design). The square hole is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy tool fits. There are many different kinds of hardy tools. The smaller hole is called the pritchel hole, used as a bolster when punching holes in hot metal, or to hold tools similar to how the hardy tool does, but for tools that require being able to turn a 360-degree angle such as a hold-down tool for when the blacksmith\'s tongs cannot hold a workpiece as securely as it needs to be. On the front of the anvil, there is sometimes a \"horn\" that is used for bending, drawing out steel, and many other tasks. Between the horn and the anvil face, there is often a small area called a \"step\" or a \"cutting table\" That is used for cutting hot or cold steel with chisels, and hot cut tools without harming the anvil\'s face. Marks on the face transfer into imperfections in the blacksmith\'s work.
### Hammer
*Main article: Hammer* There are many types of hammer used in a blacksmith\'s workshop but this will name just a few common ones. Hammers can range in shape and weight from half an ounce to nearly 30 pounds depending on the type of work being done with it.
1. Hand hammer - used by the smith.
- Ball-peen hammer
- Cross-peen hammer
- Straight-peen hammer
- Rounding hammer
2. Sledge hammer - used by the striker.
### Chisel
Chisels are made of high carbon steel. They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually, hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels. Also, many smiths shape chisels as to have a simple twisted handle as to resemble a hammer, they can be used at a greater distance away from the hot metals. They are very useful and found throughout the world.
### Tongs
Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are custom made by the smith in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. It is not uncommon for a blacksmith to own twenty or more pairs of tongs; traditionally, a smith would start building their collection during the apprenticeship. There are various types of tongs available in the market. (1) flat tong (2) rivet or ring tong (3) straight lip fluted tong (4) gad tong
### Fuller
Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal.
### Hardy
The hardy tool is a tool with a square shank that fits in a hardy hole. There are many different kinds of hardy tools such as the hot cut hardy, used for cutting hot metal on the anvil; the fuller tool, used for drawing out metal and making grooves; bending jigs - and too many others to list.
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# Forge
## Forging equipment {#forging_equipment}
### Slack tub {#slack_tub}
A *slack tub* is usually a large container full of water used by a blacksmith to quench hot metal. The slack tub is principally used to cool parts of the work during forging (to protect them, or keep the metal in one area from \"spreading\" for example, nearby hammer blows); to harden the steel; to tend a coal or charcoal forge; and simply to cool the work quickly for easy inspection. In bladesmithing and tool-making the term will usually be changed to a \"quench tank\" because oil or brine is used to cool the metal. The term slack is believed to derive from the word \"slake\", as in slaking the heat.
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# Forge
## Types of forging {#types_of_forging}
### Drop forging {#drop_forging}
Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping a heavy hammer with a die on its face onto the workpiece.
#### Process
The workpiece is placed into the forge. Then the impact of a hammer causes the heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the die and die cavities. Typically only one die is needed to completely form the part. Extra space between the die faces causes some of the material to be pressed out of the sides, forming flash. This acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves and is later trimmed off of the finished part.
#### Equipment
The equipment used in the drop forming process is commonly known as a power or drop hammer. These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die forging. The designs for the dies have many aspects to them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location. The materials must also be selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things. The most common materials used for the tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, nickel-based alloys.
#### Workpiece materials {#workpiece_materials}
The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminium, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs poorly as a drop forging material.
## Mythology
Various gods and goddesses are associated with the forge in a number of mythologies, such as the Irish Brigid, West African Ogun, Greek Hephaestus and Roman Vulcan
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# Forgotten Futures
***Forgotten Futures*** is a role-playing game created by Marcus Rowland to allow people to play in settings inspired by Victorian and Edwardian science fiction and fantasy (i.e., steampunk). Most of its releases begin with these stories then add background material to explain the settings (often as alternate worlds, whose history diverges from our own), adventures, and other game material.
## Game system {#game_system}
The base system uses three characteristics (Body, Mind, and Soul) and a range of skills; points are used to purchase characteristics and skills based on one or more of the characteristics. Skills and characteristics are used by opposing them to a target (such as a difficulty number, an opponent\'s skill or characteristics, etc.) using a 2D6 dice roll. Subsequent revisions to the rules add options including a Magic characteristic, melodramatic character traits, and other complications, but the core system remains unchanged.
Rowland is believed to have pioneered the concept of shareware tabletop role-playing games with this system, although there were earlier shareware computer games with role-playing elements. Users can download the rules from his web site, buy a subscription that entitles them to Forgotten Futures CDs, or buy a copy of the published version of this game. The CDs are also good sources for science fiction books and other period material whose copyright has expired. A proportion of his income from the game is donated to cancer research charities.
Currently several versions of the rules are on line (complete and summary versions in HTML and PDF, and a German translation in PDF), along with a sample adventure set in a Victorian Channel Tunnel, plus eleven game collections (source material plus background worldbook, adventures, etc.), with an expanding collection of additional resources on line and on the CD-ROM. The rules and sample adventure have twice been published in print; in brief form as a booklet given away with *Arcane Magazine* in 1997, and at full length by Heliograph Inc. in 1999.
In May 2016 Rowland announced that due to delays in the next release and changes in European tax law he would end shareware distribution of the game. Instead he intends to put all of the existing material on line, including the full contents of the CD, with a tip jar for voluntary contributions, and hopes to add more material. Users with current shareware registrations were offered a partial refund or the option to donate it to Cancer Research UK.
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# Forgotten Futures
## Versions
*Forgotten Futures I: The A.B.C. Files*: Set in Kipling\'s 21st century airship utopia. Contains the text of \"With the Night Mail\" and \"As Easy as ABC\", a worldbook, an adventure, a spreadsheet of airship data, and numerous illustrations. This was the first and by far the smallest of these collections, since at that time the game was distributed on 720k disks; subsequent releases were on 1.44mb disks then CD-ROM.\
*Forgotten Futures II: The Log of the Astronef*: A comprehensive guide to the exploration of the Solar System in 1900 AD. Based on George Griffith\'s *Stories of Other Worlds*, it contains six stories, the illustrations from their original publication, a worldbook taking the story forward to 1920, a spaceship design spreadsheet, five adventures, plus the novelisation *A Honeymoon in Space*. The fiction and worldbook were briefly available in print from Heliograph Inc.\
*Forgotten Futures III: George E. Challenger\'s Mysterious World*: Adventures with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle\'s scientific hero, including the full text of *The Lost World*, \"The Poison Belt\", \"When the World Screamed\", *The Land of Mist*, \"The Horror of the Heights\", and \"The Disintegration Machine\", a worldbook, four adventures, and a wargames scenario.\
*Forgotten Futures IV: The Carnacki Cylinders*: Horror and the supernatural in Edwardian England, including the original text and illustrations for William Hope Hodgson\'s *Carnacki, the Ghost-Finder*, a worldbook with rules for magic and the Ab-natural, three adventures and two long outlines, a story-telling card game, etc. Re-released as PDFs with additional material December 2022.\
*Forgotten Futures V: Goodbye Piccadilly...*: The destruction of London, as seen by a variety of authors around the end of the 19th century. Contents include two long adventures, numerous adventure outlines, ten stories and articles, etc.\
*Forgotten Futures VI: Victorian Villainy*: A source collection for melodramatic adventures, including three plays, the novel *A Bid for Fortune* by Guy Boothby, some of E.W. Hornung\'s *Raffles* stories, and more.\
*Forgotten Futures VII: Tsar Wars*: Based on the late 19th-century novels of George Griffith, *Tsar Wars* is a setting for the struggle between the anarchist Terror and the forces of oppression in the early 20th century, and the return of the Tsar\'s heir to the utopia of 2030 AD. The novels were briefly in print from Heliograph Inc.\
*Forgotten Futures VIII: Fables and Frolics*: Based on the fantasies of E. Nesbit, FF8 is a role-playing game set in a world of childhood magical adventures. Includes three novels, 23 short stories and some autobiographical articles by Nesbit, also rules for magic, life as a Victorian/Edwardian child, adventures, etc.\
*Forgotten Futures IX: It\'s My Own Invention*: Adventures in the worlds of weird science and engineering. Includes two novels by George Griffith, articles and stories by several authors, and game worlds based on flight (and a war on the supernatural), automata and calculating engines, space travel, and time travel.\
*Forgotten Futures X: The Tooth and Claw Role Playing Game*: A licensed RPG based on the novel *Tooth and Claw* by Jo Walton, set in a world with Victorian-equivalent technology which has a separate dragon nation. Player characters are dragons. The game is published in PDF and HTML versions, and is illustrated by Sue Mason and the author. It includes background material, revised rules catering for dragon characters, two adventures, and adventure outlines.\
*The Forgotten Futures Compendium*: Two long adventures, *Curse of the Leopardmen* by Alex Stewart and *The League of Extraordinary Geometers* (a crossover with *The Original Flatland RPG*) by Marcus Rowland, plus adventure outlines based on Victorian and Edwardian advertising by Marcus Rowland. PDF only.\
*Forgotten Futures XI: Planets of Peril*: A 1930s pulp SF setting based on the stories of Stanley Weinbaum, sent to registered users on November 20, 2010, on line from December 20, 2010. Published in PDF and HTML versions and including most of Weinbaum\'s SF, three long adventures, and details of the worlds and technology of the setting.\
*In Preparation - Forgotten Futures XII: Empire of Earth*: Announced with the release of FF XI, FF XII will be a setting based on Victorian stories of interplanetary and interstellar travel and warfare, primarily \"The Struggle for Empire\" by Robert W. Cole.\
*The Original Flatland Role Playing Game*: Originally published in 1998 as an \'extra\' on the Forgotten Futures CD-ROM, and relaunched as a stand-alone PDF with additional material in 2006, this game uses a streamlined version of the Forgotten Futures rules adapted to the setting of Edwin A. Abbott\'s *Flatland*. Characters are living 2D shapes such as triangles and hexagons. The game includes rules, three adventures and four adventure outlines, a wargame by Matthew Hartley, a long section on the \'science\' of Flatland which attempts to explain aspects of the world and its natives, and the original book. It is sold as a charity project in aid of Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders).
## Reception
In the November 1994 edition of *Pyramid* (Issue #10), Ken and Jo Walton liked both the content of *Forgotten Futures 2* and the shareware concept, saying, \"This is an excellent, atmospheric, roleplaying game, made slightly unapproachable by its unusual distribution method. It is available only on disk; you unzip the file and print out the book for yourself. All text files are ASCII format, all pictures are GIFs.\"
In the March 1998 edition of *Dragon* (Issue 245), Allen Varney called *Forgotten Futures* \"A very substantial and admirable shareware RPG from one of Britain\'s top designers, based on the British \'scientific romances\' popular a century ago.\" Varney also complimented Marcus Rowland for trying to keep those old \'scientific romance\' stories in circulation, saying, \"Aside from the game\'s real virtues, this worthy mission makes *Forgotten Futures* a must for any fan of science fiction\'s early history
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# Fabritio Caroso
**Fabritio Caroso da Sermoneta** (1526/1535 -- 1605/1620) was an Italian Renaissance dancing master and a composer or transcriber of dance music.
His dance manual *Il Ballarino* was published in 1581, with a subsequent edition, significantly different, *Nobiltà di Dame*, printed in 1600 and again after his death in 1630. The work has been published in English as *Courtly Dance of the Renaissance* by Julia Sutton.
Both manuals have been printed in facsimile edition. Many of the dances of Fabritio Caroso\'s manuals are meant for two dancers with a few for four or more dancers. These manuals offer a great deal of information to dance historians and musicologists alike in that each description of a dance is accompanied by music examples with lute tablature and directions about how each music example is to be played. Many of the dances also contain dedications to noble women of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries
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# Federal Information Processing Standards
The **Federal Information Processing Standards** (**FIPS**) of the United States are a set of publicly announced standards that the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed for use in computer systems of non-military United States government agencies and contractors. FIPS standards establish requirements for ensuring computer security and interoperability, and are intended for cases in which suitable industry standards do not already exist. Many FIPS specifications are modified versions of standards the technical communities use, such as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
## Specific areas of FIPS standardization {#specific_areas_of_fips_standardization}
The U.S. government has developed various FIPS specifications to standardize a number of topics including:
- Codes, e.g., FIPS county codes or codes to indicate weather conditions or emergency indications. In 1994, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) began broadcasting FIPS codes along with their standard weather broadcasts from local stations. These codes identify the type of emergency and the specific geographic area, such as a county, affected by the emergency.
- Encryption standards, such as AES (FIPS 197), and its predecessor, the withdrawn 56-bit DES (FIPS 46-3).
## Data security standards {#data_security_standards}
Some FIPS standards are related to the security of data processing systems. Some of these include the use of key escrow systems.
## Withdrawal of geographic codes {#withdrawal_of_geographic_codes}
Some examples of FIPS Codes for geographical areas include FIPS 10-4 for country codes or region codes and FIPS 5-2 for state codes. These codes were similar to or comparable with, but not the same as, ISO 3166, or the NUTS standard of the European Union. In 2002, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) withdrew several geographic FIPS code standards, including those for countries (FIPS 10-4), U.S. states (FIPS 5-2), and counties (FIPS 6-4). These are to be replaced by ISO 3166 and INCITS standards 38 and 31, respectively. Some of the codes maintain the previous numerical system, particularly for states.
In 2008, NIST withdrew the FIPS 55-3 database. This database included 5-digit numeric place codes for cities, towns, and villages, or other centers of population in the United States. The codes were assigned alphabetically to places within each state, and as a result changed frequently in order to maintain the alphabetical sorting. NIST replaced these codes with the more permanent GNIS Feature ID, maintained by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. The GNIS database is the official geographic names repository database for the United States, and is designated the only source of geographic names and locative attributes for use by the agencies of the Federal Government. FIPS 8-6 \"Metropolitan Areas\" and 9-1 \"Congressional Districts of the U.S.\" were also withdrawn in 2008, to be replaced with INCITS standards 454 and 455, respectively.
The U.S. Census Bureau used FIPS place codes database to identify legal and statistical entities for county subdivisions, places, and American Indian areas, Alaska Native areas, or Hawaiian home lands when they needed to present census data for these areas.
In response to the NIST decision, the Census Bureau is in the process of transitioning over to the GNIS Feature ID, which will be completed after the 2010 census.`{{update inline|date=January 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Until then, previously issued FIPS place codes, renamed \"Census Code\", will continue to be used, with the Census bureau assigning new codes as needed for their internal use during the transition
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# Freeciv
***Freeciv*** is a single- and multiplayer turn-based strategy game for workstations and personal computers inspired by the proprietary *Sid Meier\'s Civilization* series. It is available for most desktop computer operating systems and available in an online browser version. Released under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later,`{{r|LICENSE}}`{=mediawiki} *Freeciv* is free and open-source software. The game\'s default settings are closest to *Civilization II*, in both gameplay and graphics, including the units and the isometric grid. However, with a lot of multiplayer games being played in longturn communities, rulesets and additional variants have evolved away from the original ruleset. *Freeciv* is playable online on various public and private servers.
Players take the role of tribal leaders in 4000 B.C. who must guide their peoples through the centuries. Over time, new technologies are discovered, which allow the construction of new city buildings and the deployment of new units. Players can wage war on one another or form diplomatic relationships.
The game ends when one civilization has eradicated all others or accomplished the goal of space colonization, or at a given deadline. If more than one civilization remains at the deadline, the player with the highest score wins. Points are awarded for the size of a civilization, its wealth, and cultural and scientific advances.
## History
At the computer science department at Aarhus University, three students, avid players of *XPilot* and of Sid Meier\'s *Civilization*, which was a stand-alone PC game for MS-DOS, decided to find out whether the two could be fused into an X-based multiplayer *Civilization*-like strategy game. The students---Peter Unold, Claus Leth Gregersen and Allan Ove Kjeldbjerg---started development in November 1995; the first playable version was released in January 1996, with bugfixing and small enhancements until April. The rules of the game were close to *Civilization*, while the client/server architecture was basically that of *XPilot*.
For the developers, *Freeciv* 1.0 was a successful proof of concept, but a rather boring game, so they went back to *XPilot*.`{{r|20YEARS}}`{=mediawiki} Other players and developers took over; they made the game available on many other operating systems, including Linux, Solaris, Ultrix, AmigaOS, and Microsoft Windows. Linux distributions started to include *Freeciv*.
The main development goal remained to make a *Civilization*-like game playable over the Internet, with participants on different continents, even when connected with 14400 bit/s modems. *Freeciv* achieved this by using an asynchronous client-server protocol: during each turn, human users play concurrently, and their actions are sent to the server for processing without awaiting the results. This kept the game playable with network latency up to a few hundreds of milliseconds.
In 1998, computer players were added; they could soon beat newcomers to the game with ease, using only minor forms of cheating. Computer players are implemented directly in the server; they do not play concurrently with human players, but separately, in between turns.
The game grew in popularity. A public server was installed on which games could be played around the clock; it retained the games and published a post-game analysis webpage with per-player statistics and an animated map replay.
Subsequent 1.x releases improved the GUI, improved the gameplay, optimized playability over poor connections, and added many small features. Over time, the winning strategy proved to be *city smallpox*, i.e. sprawling the map with many small cities as fast as possible; whoever could develop fastest would win the game, and growing and developing individual cities was not worthwhile.
In practice, from around 2002, experienced players would form teams at the start of the game; a fork of *Freeciv* included specific features for team play.
Version 2.0, released in 2005, introduced several important changes. New team playing features and advanced diplomacy made cooperative gaming more attractive. Adjustments to various costs and benefits put an end to the dominance of the city smallpox strategy that left many of the game\'s features unused; developing one\'s empire now necessitated a careful plan for city development, including the use of trade routes and phases of *rapture*, in which city populations grow quickly, under relatively peaceful conditions. As a result, multiplayer games were almost always played in teams and typically took longer to finish when compared to 1.x games.
In 2006, TCP and UDP port number 5556 was assigned to *Freeciv* by IANA. In 2017, after being hosted on Gna! for 15 years, *Freeciv* moved its source repository to GitHub.
### Reception and impact {#reception_and_impact}
In 2000, CNN placed *Freeciv* among the \"Top 10 Linux games for the holidays\". In 2005, in an O\'Reilly article on \"Open Source Mac Gaming\", *Freeciv* was recommended. In 2008, *APC* named Freeciv among the \"Top 5 best (free) open source games\". *Linux Format* selected it as \"HotPick\" in April 2010 and in October 2014.
*Freeciv* was described as an example in *The Art of Unix Programming* by Eric S. Raymond. Studies and courses have used *Freeciv* as a platform for experimenting with the design and programming of intelligent agents.
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# Freeciv
## Design
Freeciv is very configurable, down to the specific rules, so it can be played in Freeciv (default) mode, *Civilization* mode, *Civilization II* mode, or a custom mode. One or several players act as game administrators and can configure the game rules. Typically modified rules are:
- Number of players required before the game can be started. The maximum number of players is 126 in the latest version of Freeciv.
- Speed of technological development
- Whether there should be computer controlled players
- Whether (computer controlled) barbarians should invade player settlements
- How close cities can be built to one another
- How continents and islands are generated and distributed over the map
- The map size, where the maximum map size is 2,048,000 map tiles (128,000 before 2.4.0)
- Map topology (rectangular or hexagonal tiling; whether it wraps horizontally and/or vertically)
In order to play a game of Freeciv, a user must start up a Freeciv client and connect it to a Freeciv server. Initially, the server is in pre-game phase; in this phase, clients can connect and game configuration parameters can be changed. At some point, the server may be ordered to start a game; in response, it creates game players (nations) and the game map, and assigns every player to either a Freeciv client or a computer player, as specified by the configuration. From that point on, the game will run until it ends or is terminated; the server can never get back into pre-game state. The user can also start a game directly from the client: this automatically starts a Freeciv server, connects to it and starts the game.
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# Freeciv
## Features
Freeciv\'s graphics system is configurable: originally, map display was always in overhead mode (like in *Civ I*). Isometric mode (like in *Civ II* and *III*) and optionally hexagonal tiling (like in *Civ V* and *VI*) were added later. In both modes, look can be further customized by switching to an alternative set of graphics (called a *tileset*). The sounds can be replaced as well. Freeciv supports human-to-human multiplayer gameplay and artificial intelligence (AI) computer players. While the game is turn based, human players move simultaneously. The AI players move separately, partly at the start of a turn, partly at the end.
In releases before 2.0, AI players could not engage in diplomatic relationships with human players. Under the current releases, AI players will engage in a very predictable, rules-based diplomacy. Version 2.2.0 included a map editor, termed Civworld. It can create new scenarios, as well as edit the map currently being played. Basic scripting is available with Freeciv, but is not available in Civworld. Version 2.3 increased the limit of players from 30 to 126.
There are different clients available SDL, GTK+ (version3) and Xaw3D A Qt client was added in version 2.5. The Freeciv interface is available in over 30 different languages. The addition of Gaelic was covered on BBC TV.
## Ports and variants {#ports_and_variants}
Originally developed on IRIX, Freeciv has been ported to many different operating systems: it is distributed with many Linux distributions, offers installers for Microsoft Windows, and has been known to run on Mac OS X, MorphOS, Solaris, Ultrix, QNX, OS/2, Cygwin, AmigaOS, AROS, RISC OS, Maemo, ZETA, SkyOS, various BSDs, and smartphones and tablets running Android.
Between version 2.4 and version 3.1 Mac OS X was not supported, but returned in March of 2023. As of version 2.3, Windows versions older than Windows XP SP3 are no longer supported. Freeciv is available in the PortableApps format.
### Freeciv21
Freeciv21 is a fork of the original Freeciv project started with the intention of modernizing the code and the client interface, and also adjusting the software more to the needs of multiplayer longturn variant. It was started by enthusiasts within the Longturn.net community. As of January 2023 it is in late developing stage. The first standard Longturn game played on Fc21 software was LT75, started in November 2022.
### fciv.net
Fciv.net is a web-based variant of Freeciv which focuses on 3D graphics. It uses the Three.js 3D engine. `{{as of|February 2025}}`{=mediawiki} the site is not working.
### freecivx.net
Freecivx.net is a free-to-play variant of Freeciv which focuses on 3D graphics. It uses the Three.js 3D engine and OpenAI for AI/LLM chat in-game assistance. Freecivx has a Java client and server in development.
### Freeciv-web {#freeciv_web}
Freeciv-web is a version of Freeciv playable online in any modern web browser. It supports 2D isometric graphics or 3D graphics using WebGL. The game is a fork of the Freeciv project, with the goal of redesigning the desktop game into a version which can be played online. Freeciv-web introduced several new features, such as play-by-email support freely available to anyone online, and support for playing the game on any real-world map location by choosing a map using Mapbox, which is not available in commercial games in the genre. The game\'s default settings are closest to *Civilization II*, both in gameplay and graphics (including the units and the isometric grid). The proposal to create a web-version of Freeciv was made 6 April 2007 on the Freeciv mailing lists, and documented on the Freeciv.org wiki. Freeciv-web was originally created by Andreas Røsdal, but is now maintained by several Freeciv developers on GitHub.
Freeciv-web is free and open-source software. The Freeciv C server is released under the GNU General Public License, while the Freeciv-web client is released under the GNU Affero General Public License. Freeciv-web supports human-to-human multiplayer gameplay and artificial intelligence (AI) computer players. Its features are similar to the Freeciv C client, although not all of the user-interface has been ported from the C client yet.
The Freeciv-web server on play.freeciv.org was shut down in March 2018, but the project was revived by a group of volunteers on freecivweb.org. Freeciv-web can be played online at a number of servers such as freecivweb.org. All the features required to play a full game of Freeciv are in place. Most servers offer multiple varieties of the game: single-player, multiplayer free-for-all, play-by-email and longturn.
### Longturn variants {#longturn_variants}
Freeciv *Longturn* is a specialized large-group-multiplayer-online-strategy variant of Freeciv featuring daylong game turns with large amounts of human opponents per map, allowing for optimal timing to build up strategic plans and readapt them to the circumstances of each turn. Matches can last anytime from a few weeks to months, and commonly involve 20 to 30 players in each one.
Longturn\'s first game, now called LT0, started around 2004 on the Polish Civilization fanpage civ.org.pl and is now conducted at Longturn.net. It was decided that the game is a bit too slow-paced, so a new \"3X movement\" ruleset was devised -- basically, all units had their movement points and vision radius tripled. As of December 2022, the latest game was LT76. Changes to settings or rulesets are discussed in the Longturn forum. and, recently, Longturn Discord server where the community is currently centered. There is ongoing development of a few non-standard rulesets specifically adjusted for longturn multiplayer games, diverging from the rules of the original Civilization which was created as a single-player game.
*Greatturn* was a similar concept on another server. *FreeCivWeb.org* also offers longturn games (more than fifty have been played before mid-2021) with a multiplayer ruleset which is documented in great detail.
*Power of Planets -- Earth* (formerly known as *GaCivs*) is a free-to-play MMO-RTS variant based on FreeCiv. The ruleset was devised to support long-term time-based gameplay instead of turn-based strategy
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# Francesco Borromini
**Francesco Borromini** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|b|ɒr|ə|ˈ|m|iː|n|i}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|it|franˈtʃesko borroˈmiːni|lang}}`{=mediawiki}), byname of **Francesco Castelli** (`{{IPA|it|kaˈstɛlli|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 25 September 1599 -- 2 August 1667), was an Italian architect born in the modern Swiss canton of Ticino who, with his contemporaries Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Pietro da Cortona, was a leading figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture.
A keen student of the architecture of Michelangelo and the ruins of Antiquity, Borromini developed an inventive and distinctive, if somewhat idiosyncratic, architecture employing manipulations of Classical architectural forms, geometrical rationales in his plans, and symbolic meanings in his buildings. His soft lead drawings are particularly distinctive. He seems to have had a sound understanding of structures that perhaps Bernini and Cortona lacked, as they were principally trained in other areas of the visual arts. He appears to have been a self-taught scholar, amassing a large library by the end of his life.
His career was constrained by his personality. Unlike Bernini who easily adopted the mantle of the charming courtier in his pursuit of important commissions, Borromini was both melancholic and quick in temper, which resulted in his withdrawing from certain jobs. His conflicted character led him to a death by suicide in 1667.
Probably because his work was idiosyncratic, his subsequent influence was not widespread, but it is apparent in the Piedmontese works of Guarino Guarini and, as a fusion with the architectural modes of Bernini and Cortona, in the late Baroque architecture of Northern Europe. Later critics of the Baroque, such as Francesco Milizia and the English architect Sir John Soane, were particularly critical of Borromini\'s work. From the late nineteenth century onward, however, interest has revived in the works of Borromini and his architecture has become appreciated for its inventiveness.
## Early life and first works {#early_life_and_first_works}
Borromini was born at Bissone, near Lugano in today\'s Ticino, which was at the time a bailiwick of the Swiss Confederacy. He was the son of a stonemason and began his own career as one.
He soon went to Milan to study architecture and practice his craft. He moved to Rome in 1619 and started working for Carlo Maderno, his distant relative, at St. Peter\'s and then at the Palazzo Barberini. When Maderno died in 1629, he and Pietro da Cortona continued to work on the palace under the direction of Bernini.
Once he had become established in Rome, he changed his name from Castelli to Borromini, a name derived from his mother\'s family and perhaps, also out of regard for St Charles Borromeo.
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# Francesco Borromini
## Major works {#major_works}
### San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (San Carlino) {#san_carlo_alle_quattro_fontane_san_carlino}
In 1634, Borromini received his first major independent commission to design the church, cloister and monastic buildings of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (also known as San Carlino). Situated on the Quirinal Hill in Rome, the complex was designed for the Spanish Trinitarians, a religious order. The monastic buildings and the cloister were completed first after which construction of the church took place during the period 1638-1641 and in 1646 it was dedicated to San Carlo Borromeo. The church is considered by many to be an exemplary masterpiece of Roman Baroque architecture. San Carlino is remarkably small given its significance to Baroque architecture; it has been noted that the whole building would fit into one of the dome piers of Saint Peter\'s.
The site was not an easy one; it was a corner site and the space was limited. Borromini positioned the church on the corner of two intersecting roads. Although the idea for the serpentine façade must have been conceived fairly early on, probably in the mid-1630s, it was only constructed toward the end of Borromini\'s life and the upper part was not completed until after the architect\'s death.
Borromini devised the complex ground plan of the church from interlocking geometrical configurations, a typical Borromini device for constructing plans. The resulting effect is that the interior lower walls appear to weave in and out, partly alluding to a cross form, partly to a hexagonal form and partly to an oval form; geometrical figures that are all found explicitly in the dome above. The area of the pendentives marks the transition from the lower wall order to the oval opening of the dome. Illuminated by windows hidden from a viewer below, interlocking octagons, crosses and hexagons diminish in size as the dome rises to a lantern with the symbol of the Trinity.
### Oratory of Saint Philip Neri (Oratorio dei Filippini) {#oratory_of_saint_philip_neri_oratorio_dei_filippini}
In the late sixteenth century, the Congregation of the Filippini (also known as the Oratorians) rebuilt the church of Santa Maria in Vallicella (known as the Chiesa Nuova -new church) in central Rome. In the 1620s, on a site adjacent to the church, the Fathers commissioned designs for their own residence and for an oratory (or *oratorio* in Italian) in which to hold their spiritual exercises. These exercises combined preaching and music in a form that became immensely popular and highly influential on the development of the musical oratorio.
The architect Paolo Maruscelli drew up plans for the site (which survive) and the sacristy was begun in 1629 and was in use by 1635. After a substantial benefaction in January 1637, however, Borromini was appointed as architect. By 1640, the oratory was in use, a taller and richer clock tower was accepted, and by 1643, the relocated library was complete. The striking brick curved façade adjacent to the church entrance has an unusual pediment and does not entirely correspond to the oratory room behind it. The white oratory interior has a ribbed vault and a complex wall arrangement of engaged pilasters along with freestanding columns supporting first-level balconies. The altar wall was substantially reworked at a later date.
Borromini\'s relations with the Oratorians were often fraught; there were heated arguments over the design and the selection of building materials. By 1650, the situation came to a head and, in 1652, the Oratorians appointed another architect.
However, with the help of his Oratorian friend and provost Virgilio Spada, Borromini documented his own account of the building of the oratory and the residence and an illustrated version was published in Italian in 1725.
### Sant\'Ivo alla Sapienza {#santivo_alla_sapienza}
From 1640 to 1650, he worked on the design of the church of Sant\'Ivo alla Sapienza near University of Rome La Sapienza palace. It initially had been the church of the Roman Archiginnasio. He was recommended for the commission in 1632, by his then-supervisor for the work at the Palazzo Barberini, Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The site, like many in cramped Rome, is challenged by external perspectives, being built to abut the wings of an existing structure, at the end of Giacomo della Porta\'s long courtyard.
The dome and cochlear steeple are peculiar and reflect the idiosyncratic architectural motifs that distinguish Borromini from contemporaries. Inside, the nave has an unusual centralized plan circled by alternating concave and convex-ending cornices, leading to a dome decorated with linear arrays of stars and putti.
The geometry of the structure is a symmetric six-pointed star; from the centre of the floor, the cornice looks like two equilateral triangles forming a hexagon, but three of the points are clover-like, while the other three are concavely clipped. The innermost columns are points on a circle. The fusion of feverish and dynamic baroque excesses with rationalistic geometry is an excellent match for a church in a papal institution of higher learning.
### Sant\'Agnese in Agone {#santagnese_in_agone}
Borromini was one of several architects involved in the building of the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Rome. Not only were some of his design intentions changed by succeeding architects, but the net result is a building that reflects, rather unhappily, a mix of different approaches.
The decision to rebuild the church was taken in 1652 as part of Pope Innocent X\'s project to enhance the Piazza Navona, the urban space onto which his family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili, faced. The first plans for a Greek Cross church were drawn up by Girolamo Rainaldi and his son Carlo Rainaldi, who relocated the main entrance from the Via di Santa Maria dell\'Anima to the Piazza Navona. The foundations were laid and much of the lower level walls had been constructed when the Rainaldis were dismissed due to criticisms of the design and Borromini was appointed in their stead.
Borromini began a much more innovative approach to the façade that was expanded to include parts of the adjacent Palazzo Pamphili family palace and to gain space for two bell towers he introduced. Each of the constructed bell towers has a clock, one for Roman time, the other for *tempo ultramontano* or European time. Construction of the façade proceeded up to the cornice level and the dome was completed as far as the lantern. On the interior, he placed columns against the piers of the lower order that was mainly completed.
In 1655, Innocent X died and the project lost momentum. In 1657, Borromini resigned and Carlo Rainaldi was recalled and he made a number of significant changes to Borromini\'s design. Further alterations were made by Bernini including the façade pediment. In 1668, Carlo Rainaldi returned as architect and Ciro Ferri received the commission to fresco the dome interior, which it is highly unlikely that Borromini intended. Further large-scale statuary and coloured marbling were also added; again, these are not part of Borromini\'s design repertoire that was orientated to white stucco architectural and symbolic motifs.
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# Francesco Borromini
## Major works {#major_works}
### The Re Magi Chapel of the Propaganda Fide {#the_re_magi_chapel_of_the_propaganda_fide}
The College of the Propagation of the Faith or Propaganda Fide in Rome includes the Re Magi Chapel by Borromini, generally considered by architectural historians to be one of his most spatially unified architectural interiors.
The chapel replaced a small oval chapel designed by his rival Bernini. It was a late work in Borromini\'s career. He was appointed as architect in 1648, but it was not until 1660 that construction of the chapel began. Although the main body of work was completed by 1665, some of the decoration was finished after his death.
His façade to the Via di Propaganda Fide comprises seven bays articulated by giant pilasters. The central bay is a concave curve and accommodates the main entry into the college courtyard and complex, with the entrance to the chapel to the left and to the college to the right.
## Other works {#other_works}
Borromini\'s works include:
- Interior of Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano
- Cappella Spada, San Girolamo della Carità (uncertain attribution)
- Palazzo Spada (trick perspective)
- Palazzo Barberini (upper-level windows and oval staircase)
- Santi Apostoli, Naples -- Filamarino Altar
- Sant\'Andrea delle Fratte
- Oratorio dei Filippini
- Palazzo Carpegna, Rome (ground floor portico and portal, helicoidal ramp leading to the upper floors)
- Collegio de Propaganda Fide
- Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori, Rome
- Santa Maria alla Porta, Milan - portal and tympanum
- San Giovanni in Oleo (restoration)
- Palazzo Giustiniani (with Carlo Fontana)
- Façade and loggia Palazzo Falconieri
- Santa Lucia in Selci (restoration)
- Saint Peter\'s Basilica (gates to Blessed Sacrament Chapel and possibly parts of baldacchino)
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# Francesco Borromini
## Death and epitaph {#death_and_epitaph}
In the summer of 1667, following the completion of the Falconieri chapel (the High Altar chapel) in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, Borromini committed suicide in Rome by drawing his sword, resting the hilt against his bed, and falling on it \"with such force that it ran into \[his\] body, from one side to the other\". Depression may have been the cause.
The architect named cardinal Ulderico Carpegna executor of his will and bequeathed him money and objects of considerable value \"for\", as he wrote, \"the infinite debt I have toward him\". The prelate was a former patron who had commissioned Borromini important works of transformation and expansion of his palace at Fontana di Trevi. In his testament, Borromini wrote that he did not want any name on his burial and expressed the desire to be buried in the tomb of his kinsman Carlo Maderno in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini.
In 1955, his name was added to the marble plaque below the tomb of Maderno. A commemorative plaque commissioned by the Swiss embassy in Rome also was placed on a pillar of the church. This Latin inscription on the plaque reads:
The adjective \"Ticinensis\" used after his name on the 1955 plaque is an anachronism, since that name is related to the Ticino river and that geographical name only came into use when the modern Canton of that name was created by Napoleon in 1803.
## Honours
- Francesco Borromini was featured on Banknotes of the Swiss franc. He appears on the obverse of the sixth series 100 Swiss Franc banknote, which was in circulation from 1976 until 2000. This decision at that time caused polemics in Switzerland, started by the Swiss-Italian art historian Piero Bianconi. According to him, since in seventeenth century the territories which in 1803 became the Canton Ticino were Italian possessions of some Swiss cantons (Condominiums of the Twelve Cantons), Borromini could neither be defined Ticinese nor Swiss. The architect also was featured on the seventh series, which was a reserve emission that was never released. The reverse of both series shows architectural details from some of his major works.
- He is the subject of the film *La Sapienza* by Eugène Green released in 2015
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# February 26
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# Fudge (role-playing game system)
***Fudge*** is a generic role-playing game system for use in freeform role-playing games. The name \"*FUDGE*\" was once an acronym for *Freeform Universal Donated* (later, *Do-it-yourself*) *Gaming Engine* and, though the acronym has since been dropped, that phrase remains a good summation of the game\'s design goals. *Fudge* has been nominated for an Origins Award for *Best Role-Playing Game System* for the *Deryni Adventure Game*.
Rather than being a rigidly pre-defined set of rules like *d20 System* or *GURPS*, *Fudge* offers a customizable toolkit for building the users\' own specialized role-playing game system. Such things as what attributes and skills will define characters are left to be determined by the Game Master and players, and several different optional systems for resolving actions and conflicts are offered. *Fudge* is not tied to any particular genre or setting and world builders are encouraged to invent appropriate attributes and rules tailored to the campaign.
## History
The project that would lead to *Fudge* was first proposed by Steffan O\'Sullivan in November 1992 on the rec.games.design newsgroup, and over the following months that online community would contribute to the directed project. One of the earliest stipulations of O\'Sullivan was that the basic system would always remain free to the public over the internet, and the PDF of the 1995 version still is. The 1995 version of *Fudge* is available under a non-commercial licence.
Grey Ghost Press, with the endorsement of Steffan O\'Sullivan, publishes an expanded form of the *Fudge* system. There have been three Grey Ghost Press editions, the most current being the *Fudge 10th Anniversary Edition*, which includes several suggested rules systems for common RPG elements and an example basic fantasy \"build\" of the game.
In March 2004, Grey Ghost Press acquired the copyright of *Fudge*, and on April 6, 2005, they released a version of *Fudge* under the Open Game License.
The OGL license has allowed the *Fate* role-playing game system to build on *Fudge* as its underlying mechanic.
In 1999 *Pyramid* magazine named *Fudge* as one of *The Millennium\'s Most Underrated Games*. Editor Scott Haring stated \"*Fudge* is an extremely flexible, rules-light system. It works great, and everybody who plays it, loves it. Why isn\'t it more popular? I dunno.\"
## Name
At the time *Fudge* was conceived, it was stylish to give role-playing games acronyms for names (for instance, *GURPS* and *TWERPS*), and originally the usenet design project referred to the game as *SLUG*, for \"Simple Laid-back Universal Game\". However, this was soon changed to *FUDGE* for \"Free-form Universal Donated Gaming Engine\", but also because the word invoked connotations of an easy to make source of fun. This again was changed when Grey Ghost Press released their 1995 hard copy version of the game, to \"Free-form Universal Do-it-yourself Gaming Engine\".
With the publication of the Expanded Edition in 2000, the fad for acronym-based names had long since faded, and the writer and the publisher both felt that the forced acronym had become irrelevant. The game has been referred to officially as just *Fudge* ever since, though fans often still refer to it in the old manner as *FUDGE*.
## Game mechanics {#game_mechanics}
In *Fudge*, character Traits such as Attributes and Skills, are rated on a seven-level, ascending adjective scale: *Terrible, Poor, Mediocre, Fair, Good, Great,* and *Superb.*
*Fudge* characters can also have Gifts and Faults, which are positive and negative traits that do not fit into the adjective scale.
### Fudge dice {#fudge_dice}
*Fudge* uses customized \"*Fudge* dice\" which have an equal number of plus, minus, and blank sides. A number of these dice are rolled, usually four at a time (\"4dF\" in Fudge dice notation), and for every plus side that comes up the result of using the Trait is considered one step higher (e.g. from *Fair* to *Good*) and for every minus side that comes up the result is considered one step lower. The goal is to match or surpass the difficulty level, also on the adjective scale, of the test. Thus, a *Good* attribute is considered to be *Great* if the player were to roll two plus sides, one minus side, and one blank---the minus side cancels out one of the plus sides and the remaining plus side raises the result by one step. The same *Good* attribute would be considered *Poor* if you were to roll three minus sides and one blank. The same dice roll can be achieved with six-sided dice, treating a 1 or 2 as \[−\], a 3--4 as \[ \] and a 5--6 as \[+\].
There are also several alternative dice systems available that use ten-sided dice, coins, or playing cards.
## Complexity
The rules of *Fudge* are highly customizable and can be adjusted for the level of simplicity or complexity desired by the Game Master and Players. Overall, the system is designed to encourage role-playing over strict adherence to a set of rules. In fact, the main *Fudge* documents encourage players to \"Just Fudge It\"; that is, to focus on the story being created rather than on the game rules. For example, one character creation method encourages players to first write prose descriptions of their characters and then translate those into *Fudge* Traits.
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# Fudge (role-playing game system)
## Reception
In the January 1996 edition of *Dragon* (Issue 225), Rick Swan called this game system \"a remarkable achievement, a concise, logical analysis of RPG theory that amateur and pro designers alike would do well to ponder.\" Although Swan liked the simplicity and logic of the open system, he felt that too much of the onus fell on the gamemaster. \"Not only must he role-play the NPCs, stage memorable encounters, and keep the story on track, he must also come up with Difficulty Levels for every conceivable situation. It ain\'t easy.\" He concluded by giving the game a rating of 5 out of 6, saying, \"FUDGE is about as appropriate for novices as calculus is for preschoolers. Seasoned gamers, however, will be in for a pleasant surprise.\"
In Issue 17 of *Shadis*, Leonard Wilson was enthusiastic about this game system, writing, \"Simply put, from start to finish, FUDGE is the sort of quality product that can\'t be mistaken for anything but a labor of love for everyone involved. If you\'re a role-player who frequents the Internet anyway, you\'ll be missing a real treasure if you don\'t download yourself a copy. Even if you don't frequent the Internet, if you\'ve ever found yourself tinkering with the rules to a role-playing games, you\'ll find it well worth the effort to track down a copy of FUDGE.\"
In Issue 3 of the French games magazine *Backstab'*, Stéphane Bura liked the game system, commenting \"This is, to my knowledge, the best system using a normal bell curve (frequent average results and rare extreme results) published to date \... Even if it requires some effort, FUDGE will satisfy those looking for a good generic system less complicated than *GURPS*.\" Bura concluded by giving the game system a rating of 8 out of 10.
In Issue 30 of the Australian game magazine *Australian Realms*, Mike Bell wrote, \"What lifts FUDGE to new heights of excellence \[\...\] is the way it encourages and guides through designing your very own personalised RPG using the basic building blocks supplied by its author, Stefan O\'Sullivan. Originally distributed via the Internet, buyers are actively encouraged to design and distribute their own FUDGE-based games so long as they include copyright notices and a disclaimer. Way cool!\"
In his 2023 book *Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground*, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, \"Most people didn\'t see it at the time, but *FUDGE* marks a fundamental change in RPGs. Simultaneously a system of rules and a treatise on game design theory, it questions many of the methods and mechanics that are taken for granted about roleplaying and reshapes those assumptions, paving the way for other games to continue pushing into new forms in the coming decades
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# February 12
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# Frederick Copleston
**Frederick Charles Copleston** `{{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|SJ|CBE|FBA}}`{=mediawiki} (10 April 1907 -- 3 February 1994) was a British Catholic priest, philosopher, and historian of philosophy, best known for his influential multi-volume *A History of Philosophy* (1946--75).
Copleston achieved a degree of popularity in the media for debating the existence of God with Bertrand Russell in a celebrated 1948 BBC broadcast; the following year he debated logical positivism and the meaningfulness of religious language with his friend the analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer.
## Origins
Frederick Charles Copleston was born on 10 April 1907 at Claremont in the parish of Trull, near Taunton in Somerset, England, the eldest son of Frederick Selwyn Copleston (1850--1935), a judge of the High Court in Rangoon, Burma, by his second wife, Norah Margaret Little. He was a member of the family of Copleston, lords of the manor of Copleston in Devon until 1659, one of the most ancient in that county according to a traditional rhyme related by John Prince (d.1723):
> *\"Crocker, Cruwys, and Coplestone*,\
> *When the Conqueror came were at home\"*
## Biography
He was raised an Anglican---his uncle, Reginald Stephen Copleston, was an Anglican bishop of Calcutta; another uncle, Ernest Copleston, was the Anglican Bishop of Colombo. Copleston was educated at Marlborough College from 1920 to 1925. At the age of eighteen, he converted to the Roman Catholic faith, which caused a great deal of stress in his family. Copleston explained his recognition of the objective authority in the Catholic Church:
> \"It seemed to me that if Christ was truly the Son of God and if he founded a Church to teach all nations in His name, it must be a Church teaching with authority, as her Master did. Obviously one might deny that Christ was the Son of God, and one might reject the claim that he founded a Church. But if these two claims were accepted, it seemed to me that in spite of all its faults the Roman Catholic Church was the only one which could reasonably be thought to have developed out of what Christ established.\"
His father, though opposed to his son\'s becoming a Catholic, helped him complete his education at St John\'s College, Oxford, where he studied from 1925 to 1929. He graduated from Oxford University in 1929 having managed a third in classical moderations and a good second at Greats. After Oxford, Copleston entered St. Mary\'s College, Oscott as a seminarian for the diocese of Clifton, but realized the life was not for him.
In 1930, he entered instead the Jesuits. After completing the two-year Jesuit novitiate in Roehampton, he followed the traditional course of studies for the priesthood at the Jesuit house of studies in Heythrop, Oxfordshire and in 1937 he was ordained a Jesuit priest there. In 1938 he travelled to Germany to complete his training, returning to Britain just before the outbreak of war in 1939. Copleston was originally destined to study for his doctorate at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, but the war now made that impossible. Instead, he accepted a posting that saw him return to Heythrop in Oxfordshire to teach the history of philosophy to the few Jesuits remaining there.
From this time onwards, Copleston began writing his influential multi-volume *A History of Philosophy* (1946--75), a textbook that presents clear accounts of ancient, medieval, and modern philosophy. Still highly respected, Copleston\'s history has been described as \"a monumental achievement\" that \"stays true to the authors it discusses, being very much a work in exposition\".
Copleston achieved a degree of popularity in the media for debating the existence of God with Bertrand Russell in a celebrated 1948 BBC broadcast (see Copleston--Russell debate). The following year he debated logical positivism and the meaningfulness of religious language with his friend the analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer.
Throughout the rest of his academic career, Copleston accepted a number of prestigious titles, including visiting professor at Rome\'s Gregorian University, where he spent six months each year lecturing from 1952 to 1968. In 1970 the Jesuit Heythrop house of studies was relocated to London, where as Heythrop College it became a constituent part of the federal University of London. Copleston became the new college\'s respected principal and gave undergraduate courses. His uncontestable mastery of his material immediately won the confidence and respect of the students, who were drawn from among younger Jesuits and junior religious from male and female religious orders, and some lay men and women. Moreover, his affable manner, dry humour and unfailing courtesy made him popular. In that same year 1970, he was made Fellow of the British Academy (FBA), and in 1972 he was given a personal professorship by the University of London. In 1975, he was made an Honorary Fellow of St. John\'s College, Oxford.
After officially retiring in 1974, he continued to lecture. From 1974 to 1982, Copleston was visiting professor at the University of Santa Clara, California, and from 1979 to 1981, he delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, which were published as *Religion and the One*. These lectures attempted to \"express themes perennial in his thinking and more personal than in his history\". Toward the end of his life, Copleston received honorary doctorates from a number of institutions, including Santa Clara University, California, Uppsala University, and the University of St Andrews.
Copleston was offered memberships in the Royal Institute of Philosophy and in the Aristotelian Society. In 1993 he was made CBE. Father Frederick Copleston died on 3 February 1994 at St Thomas\' Hospital in London, at the age of 86.
## Legacy
In addition to his influential multi-volume *History of Philosophy* (1946--75), one of Copleston\'s most significant contributions to modern philosophy was his work on the theories of Saint Thomas Aquinas. He attempted to clarify Aquinas\'s Five Ways (in the *Summa Theologica*) by making a distinction between *in fieri* causes and *in esse* causes. By doing so, Copleston makes clear that Aquinas wanted to put forth the concept of an omnipresent God rather than a being that could have disappeared after setting the chain of cause and effect into motion.
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# Frederick Copleston
## Works
- *A History of Philosophy* (1946--1975)
**Other select works**
- *Friedrich Nietzsche: Philosopher of Culture* (1942), expanded edition; (1975)
- *Arthur Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism* (1946)
- *Medieval Philosophy* (1952), revised edition: *A History of Medieval Philosophy* (1972)
- *Aquinas* (1955), reprinted from 1976 as *Thomas Aquinas*,
- \"Logical Positivism - A Debate\" (with A. J. Ayer) in: Edwards, Paul, Pap, Arthur (eds.), *A Modern Introduction to Philosophy* (1957)
- *Contemporary Philosophy: Studies of Logical Positivism and Existentialism* (1956), republished with a new first chapter in 1972
- *Religion and Philosophy* (1974)
- *Philosophers and Philosophies* (1976)
- *On the History of Philosophy and Other Essays* (1979)
- *Philosophies and Culture* (1980)
- *Religion and the One: Philosophies East and West* (1982)
- *Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev* (1986)
- *Russian Religious Philosophy* (1988)
- *Memoirs of a Philosopher* (1993)
**Related works**
Hughes, Gerard J. (1987) *The Philosophical assessment of theology: essays in honour of Frederick C
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# The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix
***The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix*** (*\'\'\'Flåklypa Grand Prix\'\'\'*) is a 1975 Norwegian stop-motion-animated sports film directed by Ivo Caprino. It is based on characters from a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust.
It is the most widely seen Norwegian film of all time, having sold some 5 million tickets since its release to a population which currently numbers just over 5 million. The film sold 28 million movie tickets in the former Soviet Union.
## Plot
In the village of Flåklypa, (En. Pinchcliffe), the inventor Reodor Felgen (En. Theodore Rimspoke) lives with his animal friends Ludvig (En. Lambert) (a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog) and Solan Gundersen (En. Sonny Duckworth) (a cheerful and optimistic magpie). Reodor works as a bicycle repairman; one day, the trio discovers that one of Reodor\'s former assistants, Rudolf Blodstrupmoen (En. Rudolph Gore-Slimey), has stolen his design for a race car engine and has become a world champion Formula Seven driver. Solan secures funding from Arab oil sheik Ben Redic Fy Fazan (En. Abdul Ben Bonanza), who happens to be vacationing in Flåklypa, and to enter the race, the trio builds a gigantic racing car: *Il Tempo Gigante*. Reodor ends up winning despite Blodstrupmoen\'s attempts at sabotage.
## History
In 1969, Ivo Caprino and Kjell Aukrust started work on a 30-minute-long TV special entitled *Flåklypa Radio Norway* based on Aukrust\'s books and commissioned for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. Puppets were designed by Ingeborg Isdahl Riser, with the star vehicle *Il Tempo Gigante* being built by Bjarne Sandemose (who used entirely house-found material in its construction). Despite major publicity, the NRK were unsatisfied and ceased production; another factor was difficultly adapting the original material (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public). A year later, Caprino and Aukrust announced that it would be adapted into a feature-length film.
The film is heavily inspired by Lom Municipality, where Aukrust had roots. The Flåklypa-mountain is a stylized version of a real mountain, where the valley underneath is named Flåklypa. Other names, including Reodor and Blostrupmoen, were taken from the village of Alvdal. The film was made in 3 years by a small team of set builders and camera operators; Caprino directed and animated.
## Release and reception {#release_and_reception}
*Flåklypa Grand Prix* was originally released in Norway on 28th August 1975. Following its immense success, NRK1, later TV 2 Direkte, began broadcasting the film every year on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day respectively, a tradition which continues into the present day. To promote it, a life-size replica of *Il Tempo Gigante* was created. In 2013, the film was released on Blu-Ray and finally available in high definition, the restoration process having began in 2005 for DVD and further enhanced for a theatrical 2010 rerelease.
The first English-language release occurred in 1981, distributed by G.G. Communications with a dub recorded in Montreal, Canada. In the United Kingdom another dub premiered on BBC One in 1983; it is this version that is available on Norwegian home video releases.
## Subsequent films based on Aukrust\'s *Flåklypa* universe {#subsequent_films_based_on_aukrusts_flåklypa_universe}
- *Gurin with the Foxtail* (1998)
- *Solan og Ludvig - Jul i Flåklypa* (2013)
- *Solan og Ludvig: Herfra til Flåklypa* (2015)
- *Månelyst i Flåklypa* (2018)
## Other works inspired {#other_works_inspired}
In 2000, a computer game based on the film was released. The game was created by Tyr Neilsen who was Creative Director and in charge of production at Ingames Interactive until a debilitating accident ended his video game career. The project was taken over and completed by Caprino\'s son Remo, while his grandson Mario was lead programmer. The lead designers were Joe Dever and Terry Greer. The game was ported to Nintendo DS in 2010 and sold over 380,000 copies in Norway.
The film inspired a young Christian von Koenigsegg to create the Koenigsegg CC, the first of the Koenigsegg line of supercars.
Norwegian hip-hop duo Multicyde based their 1999 single \"Not for the Dough\" on a sample from the film\'s soundtrack and featured excerpts from the film in the song\'s music video
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# Foobar
`{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020|cs1-dates=y}}`{=mediawiki} The terms **foobar** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|uː|b|ɑr}}`{=mediawiki}), **foo**, **bar**, **baz, qux, quux**, and others are used as metasyntactic variables and placeholder names in computer programming or computer-related documentation. They have been used to name entities such as variables, functions, and commands whose exact identity is unimportant and serve only to demonstrate a concept. The style guide for Google developer documentation recommends against using them as example project names because they are unclear and can cause confusion.
## History and etymology {#history_and_etymology}
It is possible that *foobar* is a playful allusion to the World War II-era military slang FUBAR (*fucked up beyond all recognition)*.
According to a RFC from the Internet Engineering Task Force, the word FOO originated as a nonsense word with its earliest documented use in the 1930s comic *Smokey Stover* by Bill Holman. Holman states that he used the word due to having seen it on the bottom of a jade Chinese figurine in San Francisco Chinatown, purportedly signifying \"good luck\". If true, this is presumably related to the Chinese word *fu* (\"*福*\", sometimes transliterated *foo*, as in *foo dog*), which can mean *happiness* or *blessing*.
The first known use of the terms in print in a programming context appears in a 1965 edition of MIT\'s *Tech Engineering News*. The use of *foo* in a programming context is generally credited to the Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) of MIT from c. 1960. In the complex model system, there were scram switches located at multiple places around the room that could be thrown if something undesirable was about to occur, such as a train moving at full power towards an obstruction. Another feature of the system was a digital clock on the dispatch board. When someone hit a scram switch, the clock stopped and the display was replaced with the word \"FOO\"; at TMRC the scram switches are, therefore, called \"Foo switches\". Because of this, an entry in the 1959 *Dictionary of the TMRC Language* went something like this: \"FOO: The first syllable of the misquoted sacred chant phrase \'foo mane padme hum.\' Our first obligation is to keep the foo counters turning.\" One book`{{which|date=November 2010}}`{=mediawiki} describing the MIT train room describes two buttons by the door labeled \"foo\" and \"bar\". These were general-purpose buttons and were often repurposed for whatever fun idea the MIT hackers had at the time, hence the adoption of foo and bar as general-purpose variable names. An entry in the *Abridged Dictionary of the TMRC Language* states:
*Foobar* was used as a variable name in the Fortran code of *Colossal Cave Adventure* (1977 Crowther and Woods version). The variable FOOBAR was used to contain the player\'s progress in saying the magic phrase \"Fee Fie Foe Foo\", a phrase from an historical quatrain in the classic English fairy tale Jack and the Beanstalk. Intel also used the term *foo* in their programming documentation in 1978.
## Examples in culture {#examples_in_culture}
- Foo Camp is an annual hacker convention.
- BarCamp, an international network of user-generated conferences.
- During the *United States v. Microsoft Corp.* trial, evidence was presented that Microsoft had tried to use the Web Services Interoperability organization (WS-I) as a means to stifle competition, including e-mails in which top executives including Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer referred to the WS-I using the codename \"foo\".
- foobar2000 is an audio player
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# Fingerspelling
**Fingerspelling** (or **dactylology**) is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. These **manual alphabets** (also known as **finger alphabets** or **hand alphabets**) have often been used in deaf education and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages. There are about forty manual alphabets around the world. Historically, manual alphabets have had a number of additional applications---including use as ciphers, as mnemonics and in silent religious settings.
## Forms of manual alphabets {#forms_of_manual_alphabets}
As with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually. The simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air and the simplest tactual form is tracing them on the hand. Fingerspelling can be one-handed such as in American Sign Language, French Sign Language and Irish Sign Language, or it can be two-handed such as in British Sign Language.
## Fingerspelling in sign languages {#fingerspelling_in_sign_languages}
Fingerspelling has been introduced into certain sign languages by educators and as such has some structural properties that are unlike the visually motivated and multi-layered signs that are typical in deaf sign languages. In many ways fingerspelling serves as a bridge between the sign language and the oral language that surrounds it.
Fingerspelling is used in different sign languages and registers for different purposes. It may be used to represent words from an oral language that have no sign equivalent or for emphasis or clarification or when teaching or learning a sign language.
In American Sign Language (ASL) more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing. Different sign language speech communities use fingerspelling to a greater or lesser degree. At the high end of the scale fingerspelling makes up about 8.7% of casual signing in ASL and 10% of casual signing in Auslan. The proportion is higher in older signers. Across the Tasman Sea only 2.5% of the corpus of New Zealand Sign Language was found to be fingerspelling. Fingerspelling did not become a part of NZSL until the 1980s. Before that words could be spelled or initialised by tracing letters in the air. Fingerspelling does not seem to be used much in the sign languages of Eastern Europe except in schools, and Italian Sign Language is also said to use very little fingerspelling, and mainly for foreign words. Sign languages that make no use of fingerspelling at all include Kata Kolok and Ban Khor Sign Language.
The speed and clarity of fingerspelling also vary among different signing communities. In Italian Sign Language fingerspelled words are produced relatively slowly and clearly, whereas fingerspelling in standard British Sign Language (BSL) is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement. Most of the letters of the BSL alphabet are produced with two hands but when one hand is occupied the dominant hand may fingerspell onto an imaginary subordinate hand and the word can be recognised by the movement. As with written words, the first and last letters and the length of the word are the most significant factors for recognition.
When people fluent in sign language read fingerspelling they do not usually look at the signer\'s hand(s) but maintain eye contact, as is normal for sign language. People who are learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their peripheral vision and must look straight at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. It frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling.
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# Fingerspelling
## Families of manual alphabets in sign languages {#families_of_manual_alphabets_in_sign_languages}
Power et al. (2020) conducted a large-scale data study into the evolution and contemporary character of 76 current and defunct manual alphabets (MAs) of sign languages, postulating the existence of eight groups: an Afghan--Jordanian Group, an Austrian-origin Group (with a Danish Subgroup), a British-origin Group, a French-origin Group, a Polish Group, a Russian Group, a Spanish Group, and a Swedish Group. Notably, several defunct versions of German, Austrian, Hungarian and Danish manual alphabets were part of the Austrian-origin group, while the current MAs of these sign languages are closely related to the French, American, International Sign and other MAs in the French-origin Group. Latvian Sign Language\'s MA dangled somewhere between the Polish and Russian Groups, Finnish Sign Language (which belongs to the Swedish Sign Language family) had a French-origin MA, while Indo-Pakistani Sign Language (whose lexicon and grammar have independent origins) currently used a two-handed manual alphabet of British origin.
Yoel (2009) demonstrated that American Sign Language is influencing the lexicon and grammar of Maritime Sign Language in various ways, including the fact that the original BANZSL two-handed manual alphabet is no longer used in the Maritimes and has been replaced by the one-handed American manual alphabet, which has been influencing lexicalisation. Although all participants in her survey had learnt and could still produce the BANZSL fingerspelling, they had difficulty doing so, and all participants indicated that it had been a long time since they last used it.
### One-handed {#one_handed}
Two families of manual alphabets are used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world. The more common of the two is mostly produced on one hand and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century.
Some manual representations of non-Roman scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, Devanagari (e.g. the Nepali manual alphabet), Hebrew, Greek, Thai and Russian alphabets are based to some extent on the one-handed Latin alphabet described above. In some cases, however, the \'basis\' is more theory than practice. Thus, for example, in the Japanese manual syllabary only the five vowels (ア /a/, イ /i/, ウ /u/, エ /e/, オ /o/) and the Ca (consonant plus \"a\' vowel) letters (カ /ka/, サ /sa/, ナ /na/, ハ /ha/, マ /ma/, ヤ /ya/, ラ /ra/, ワ /wa/, but notably *not* タ /ta/, which would resemble a somewhat rude gesture) derive from the American manual alphabet. In the Nepali Sign Language only four \'letters\' derive from the American manual alphabet: अ /a/, ब /b/, म /m/, and र /r/).
The Yugoslav manual alphabet represents characters from the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet as well as Gaj\'s Latin alphabet.
Manual alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet, the Ethiopian Ge\'ez script and the Korean Hangul script use handshapes that are more or less iconic representations of the characters in the writing system.
### Two-handed {#two_handed}
Two-handed manual alphabets are used by a number of deaf communities; one such alphabet is shared by users of British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language (collectively known as the BANZSL language family) and another is used in Turkish Sign Language. Some of the letters are represented by iconic shapes and in the BANZSL languages the vowels are represented by pointing to the fingertips.
Letters are formed by a dominant hand, which is on top of or alongside the other hand at the point of contact, and a subordinate hand, which uses either the same or a simpler handshape as the dominant hand. Either the left or right hand can be dominant. In a modified tactile form used by deafblind people the signer\'s hand acts as the dominant hand and the receiver\'s hand becomes the subordinate hand.
Some signs, such as the sign commonly used for the letter *C*, may be one-handed.
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# Fingerspelling
## History of manual alphabets {#history_of_manual_alphabets}
### Latin manual alphabet {#latin_manual_alphabet}
Some writers have suggested that the body and hands were used to represent alphabets in Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquity. Certainly, \"finger calculus\" systems were widespread, and capable of representing numbers up to 1024; they are still in use today in parts of the Middle East. The practice of substituting letters for numbers and vice versa, known as gematria, was also common, and it is possible that the two practices were combined to produce a finger calculus alphabet. The earliest known manual alphabet, described by the Benedictine monk Bede in 8th century Northumbria, did just that. While the usual purpose of the Latin and Greek finger alphabets described by Bede is unknown, they were unlikely to have been used by deaf people for communication --- even though Bede lost his own hearing later in life. Historian Lois Bragg concludes that these alphabets were \"only a bookish game.\"
Beginning with R. A. S. Macalister in 1938, several writers have speculated that the 5th century Irish Ogham script, with its quinary alphabet system, was derived from a finger alphabet that predates even Bede.
European monks from at least the time of Bede have made use of forms of manual communication, including alphabetic gestures, for a number of reasons: communication among the monastery while observing vows of silence, administering to the ill, and as mnemonic devices. They also may have been used as ciphers for discreet or secret communication. Clear antecedents of many of the manual alphabets in use today can be seen from the 16th century in books published by friars in Spain and Italy. From the same time, monks such as the Benedictine Fray Pedro Ponce de León began tutoring deaf children of wealthy patrons --- in some places, literacy was a requirement for legal recognition as an heir --- and the manual alphabets found a new purpose. They were originally part of the earliest known Mouth Hand Systems. The first book on deaf education, published in 1620 by Juan Pablo Bonet in Madrid, included a detailed account of the use of a manual alphabet to teach deaf students to read and speak.
This alphabet was adopted by the Abbé de l\'Épée\'s deaf school in Paris in the 18th century and then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learned it in Paris. Over time variations have emerged, brought about by the natural phonetic changes that have occurred over time, adaptations for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand) and avoidance of handshapes considered obscene in some cultures.
Meanwhile, in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication, public speaking, or used for communication by deaf people. In 1648, John Bulwer described \"Master Babington\", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, \"contryved on the joynts of his fingers\", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing. In 1680, George Dalgarno published *Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor*, in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an arthropological alphabet. Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (e.g. Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems. He described codes for both English and Latin.
The vowels of these early British manual alphabets, across the tips of the fingers, have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with *Digiti Lingua*, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted.
## Gallery
<File:Lengua> de Signos (Juan Pablo Bonet, 1620) A.jpg\|A <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) B, C, D.jpg\|B, C, D <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) E, F, G.jpg\|E, F, G <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) H, I, J.jpg\|H, I, L <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) M, N.jpg\|M, N <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) O, P, Q.jpg\|O, P, Q <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) R, S, T.jpg\|R, S, T <File:Lengua> de Signos (Bonet, 1620) V, X, Y, Z.jpg\|V, X, Y, Z
<File:Gallego> retablo panel 313.jpg\|Alphabetic gestures have been discovered in hundreds of medieval and renaissance paintings. The above is from Fernando Gallego\'s retablo panels, 1480--1488, in Ciudad Rodrigo. <File:Dalgarno> manual alphabet.jpg\|Plate from John Bulwer\'s 1648 publication *Philocophus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend* (London) <File:Public> documents of the legislature of Connecticut, session (1882) (14763332785).jpg\|American Manual Alphabet (1882). Letters are shown from a variety of orientations. <File:16> 103p from ralph major slide collection.jpg\|Antique hand memory system, three variants. Originally published in \"Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae\", in Venice, 1579.
<File:LSQ_1.jpg%7C1> <File:LSQ_2.jpg%7C2> <File:LSQ_3.jpg%7C3> <File:LSQ_4.jpg%7C4> <File:LSQ_5.jpg%7C5> <File:LSQ_6.jpg%7C6> <File:LSQ_7.jpg%7C7> <File:LSQ_8.jpg%7C8> <File:LSQ_9.jpg%7C9> <File:LSQ_10
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# Free Methodist Church
`{{Use American English|date=January 2024}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox Christian denomination
|image = FMC-Logo-Tagline-Color-wikipedia.jpg
|imagewidth = 150px
|caption = Emblem of the Free Methodist Church USA
|main_classification = [[Protestant]]
|orientation = [[Holiness movement|Holiness]]
|polity = [[Episcopal polity#American Methodist churches|Modified episcopacy]]
|founder = [[Benjamin Titus Roberts]]
|founded_date = 1860
|founded_place = Pekin, New York
|separated_from = [[Methodist Episcopal Church]]
|separations = 1881 - Vanguard Mission<ref name="BundyHammond2022"/><br />1882 - Pentecost Bands<ref name="BundyHammond2022">{{cite book |last1=Bundy |first1=David |last2=Hammond |first2=Geordan |last3=Han |first3=David Sang-Ehil |title=Holiness and Pentecostal Movements: Intertwined Pasts, Presents, and Futures |date=4 March 2022 |publisher=Penn State Press |isbn=978-0-271-09415-1 |quote=Defections from the Methodist Episcopal Church were many; those from the Free Methodist Church included the Vanguard Mission (1881) and Pentecost Bands (1882). |language=en}}</ref><br />1932 - [[Reformed Free Methodist Church]]<ref name="Jones1974">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=A guide to the study of the holiness movement |date=1974 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810807037 |language=en |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char }}</ref><br />1955 - [[United Holiness Church]] (now the [[Bible Methodist Connection of Churches]])<ref name="Melton2009"/><br />1963 - [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]]<ref name="Melton2009"/><br />1973 - [[Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches]]<ref name="Cooney2001">{{cite book |last1=Cooney |first1=Dudley Levistone |title=The Methodists in Ireland: A Short History |date=2001 |publisher=Columba Press |isbn=978-1-85607-335-6 |page=120 |language=en }}</ref>
|parent =
|merger =
|associations = [[Global Wesleyan Alliance]];<br>[[Christian Holiness Partnership]];<br>[[Christian Churches Together]];<br>[[Wesleyan Holiness Consortium]];<br>[[World Methodist Council]];<br>[[National Association of Evangelicals]]
|area = Worldwide: divided into 13 General Conferences
|congregations = 856 in the United States (average congregation size: 77)
|members = 1,200,797 (68,356 in the United States)
|website = [http://fmcusa.org/ fmcusa.org]
|website2 =
|footnotes =
}}`{=mediawiki} The **Free Methodist Church** (**FMC**) is a Methodist Christian denomination within the holiness movement, based in the United States. It is evangelical in nature and is Wesleyan--Arminian in theology.
The Free Methodist Church has members in over 100 countries, with 62,516 members in the United States and 1,547,820 members worldwide. The *Light & Life Magazine* is their official publication. The Free Methodist Church World Ministries Center is in Indianapolis, Indiana.
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# Free Methodist Church
## History
The Free Methodist Church was organized at Pekin, New York, in 1860. The founders had been members of the Methodist Episcopal Church but were excluded from its membership for earnestly advocating what they saw as the doctrines and usages of authentic Wesleyan Methodism. Under the leadership of the Rev. Benjamin Titus (B. T.) Roberts, a graduate of Wesleyan University, the movement spread rapidly. Societies were organized, churches built, and the work established.
Before the founding of the church, Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, *The Earnest Christian*. In 1868, *The Free Methodist* (now *Light & Life*) was begun. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals, and Sunday school curriculum and literature.
The name \"Methodist\" was retained for the newly organized church because the founders believed that they were continuing the authentic practice of the doctrines and standards of Methodism; to them, their expulsion from the Methodist Episcopal Church happened because of their adherence to the same. The word \"Free\" was suggested and adopted because the new church (1) was anti-slavery; (2) wanted pews to be free to all regardless of status, rather than sold or rented (as was common); (3) promoted freedom of worship in the Holy Spirit, as opposed to stifling formality; (4) upheld the principle of \"freedom\" from secret and oath-bound societies (in particular the Masonic Lodge), so as to have full loyalty to Christ; (5) stood for \"freedom\" from the abuse of ecclesiastical authority (due to the bishop\'s action in allowing expulsion of 120 clergy and lay); and (6) desired its members to experience entire sanctification via the Holy Spirit through consecration and faith.
At the 1910 session of the General Conference of the Methodist Church at Rochester, New York, a full acknowledgement was made of the wrong done to the late Roberts fifty years before, and the credentials taken from him were restored in a public meeting on his behalf to his son, Rev. Benson Roberts.
Holiness Conservatives within the Free Methodist Church left to form the Reformed Free Methodist Church in 1932, the United Holiness Church in 1966 (which joined the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches in 1994) and the Evangelical Wesleyan Church in 1963.
Free Methodist headquarters were located in Winona Lake, Indiana until 1990, when the denomination moved to Indianapolis, Indiana.
The Free Methodist Church released a 21st Century articulation of its Historic Freedoms to include the following:
1. Freedom of all races to worship together in unity.
2. Freedom for the poor to be treated with dignity in the church and with justice in the world.
3. Freedom for women and men to be treated respectfully and use their gifts equally in the church, in the home, and in the world.
4. Freedom for laity to be fairly represented in the governing bodies of the church.
5. Freedom from spiritual, political, social or conceptual alliances that compromise or subvert the exclusive allegiance we profess to Jesus Christ.
6. Freedom to engage in worship that is moved and inspired by the Holy Spirit.
7. Freedom from sin\'s power through full surrender to God.
## Statistics
The church has about 62,516 members in the United States as of 2021. Worldwide its membership is over 1,500,000. with large segments of membership in East Central Africa (Rwanda, Burundi, DRC) and other countries.
## Beliefs and practices {#beliefs_and_practices}
In doctrine, Free Methodists' beliefs are the standard beliefs of Wesleyan-Arminian Protestantism, with distinctive emphasis on the teaching of entire sanctification as held by John Wesley, to whom the Free Methodist Church traces its origins.
The Free Methodist Church, along with the United Methodist Church, shares a common heritage linked to the Methodist revival in England during the 18th century. The Free Methodist Church itself arose within the context of the holiness movement within 19th century Methodism.
The first general superintendent, B. T. Roberts, was in favor of ordaining women, but never saw it take place in his lifetime. Out of his own conviction he wrote *Ordaining Women: Biblical and Historical Insights*. The impact of his writings eventually prevailed in the church. The Free Methodist Church affirmed the ordination of women in 1911. As of June 2008, women represented 11% of ordained clergy (216 of 2,011) and 26% of candidates for the ministry.
Free Methodists recognize and license unordained persons for particular ministries. They mandate lay representation in numbers equal to clergy in the councils of the church.
As a reaction to paid musicians in the Methodist Episcopal Church, early Free Methodists enjoyed a capella congregational hymns during worship. However, the General Conference of 1943 voted to allow each Conference to vote on whether or not their churches could have instrumental music. As a result, pianos and organs became common across most conferences. Currently, many churches have worship teams composed of vocalists, drums, keyboards, guitars, and other instruments.
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# Free Methodist Church
## Organization
The Free Methodist Church\'s highest governing body is the World Conference, which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist General Conference. As the church in each country develops, its status progresses from Mission District to Annual Conference to General Conference. There are currently 20 General Conferences in the world, which are linked together through the articles of religion and common constitution of the first two chapters of the Book of Discipline, the World Conference, and the Council of Bishops. The USA branch of the Free Methodist Church is currently led by three bishops: Bishop Keith Cowart, Bishop Kaye Kolde, and Bishop Kenny Martin. Bishop Cowart was first elected in 2019 and re-elected in 2023. Bishops Kolde and Martin were first elected in 2023.
## World Missions {#world_missions}
Free Methodist World Missions oversees ministries across Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. Today, 95% of Free Methodists are located outside the United States, and that number is growing daily.
[International Child Care Ministries (ICCM)](https://www.childcareministries.org/), a child sponsorship initiative serves more than 21,000 children in 29 countries around the world. Through education, meals and medical care, children in need are given an opportunity for a better life. Each sponsored child is connected to a Free Methodist congregation or ministry at a local level.
[Set Free Movement](https://www.setfreemovement.com/) is seeking to mobilize faith communities, financial partners, and all segments of society towards ending human trafficking and creating new futures through community-based action.
[Volunteers in Service Abroad (VISA)](https://fmwm.org/visa-teams-opportunities/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213193907/https://fmwm.org/visa-teams-opportunities/ |date=2021-12-13 }}`{=mediawiki} connects volunteers from the Free Methodist Church in the US and UK with Free Methodist World Missions for hands-on ministry internationally.
The church currently has ministry over 88 countries, including:
Africa Asia Europe Latin America Middle East North America
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# Free Methodist Church
## Higher education {#higher_education}
B. T. Roberts began what is now Roberts Wesleyan College in 1866. Spring Arbor College followed in 1873 (renamed Spring Arbor University in 2001), Seattle Pacific University in 1891, and Greenville College (renamed Greenville University in 2017) in 1892. Central College began in 1914, a continuation of Orleans Seminary begun in 1884. Los Angeles Pacific College existed from 1903 to 1965.
The following educational institutions are a part of the Association of Free Methodist Educational Institutions. The schools are not owned by the denomination but meet a set of requirements to maintain this relationship.
- Central Christian College, McPherson, KS
- Greenville University, Greenville, IL
- Roberts Wesleyan University, North Chili, NY
- Spring Arbor University, Spring Arbor, MI
- Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA
In addition, the Free Methodist Church is one of several denominations supporting Azusa Pacific University (Azusa, CA). Wessington Springs College is a former, now closed institution which was located in South Dakota. Internationally, there is Osaka Christian College of the Japanese Free Methodist Church, Hope Africa University, a recently founded school in Bujumbura, Burundi, Haiti Providence University, and the Faculdade de Teologia Metodista Livre, São Paulo, Brazil.
Through the John Wesley Seminary Foundation (JWSF) graduate students who are preparing for full-time ministry in the Free Methodist Church are provided a grant or loan at the following affiliated schools:
- Asbury Theological Seminary -- (KY, FL, TN, OK, CO Campuses)
- Azusa Pacific Seminary, Azusa, CA
- Northeastern Seminary at Roberts Wesleyan College, Rochester, NY
- Portland Seminary at George Fox Evangelical Seminary, Portland, OR
- Seattle Pacific Seminary, Seattle, WA
- Wesley Biblical Seminary, Jackson, MS
- Wesley House of Studies at Baylor University's Truett Theological Seminary, Waco, TX
- Wesley Seminary at Indiana Wesleyan University, Marion, IN
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# Free Methodist Church
## Publishing
Like John Wesley before him, B. T. Roberts recognized the Christian\'s responsibility for publishing.
Before the founding of the church in 1860, B. T. Roberts began publication of a monthly journal, *The Earnest Christian*. In 1868 *The Free Methodist* (now *Light & Life* Magazine) began. A publishing house was established in 1886 to produce books, periodicals and Sunday school curriculum and literature.
### Beginnings
Early leaders, T. B. Arnold and B. T. Roberts privately financed and produced several publications.
The official publishing institution was established by the church at the 1886 General Conference. The church purchased the publishing business built by Rev. T. B. Arnold for \$8,000. Arnold was named first publisher and B. T. Roberts was elected editor of *The Free Methodist*. The Free Methodist Publishing House is recognized under its trade name Light and Life Press.
### Growth and development {#growth_and_development}
The Free Methodist Publishing House operated at three locations in Chicago, Illinois. In February 1935, it moved along with Free Methodist Headquarters to Winona Lake, Indiana.
During its history, the Free Methodist Publishing House built up a plant and accumulated property worth several hundred thousand dollars. It also contributed thousands of dollars out of its profits to other activities of the church.
Over the years, as the ministry of the Free Methodist Church expanded, various departments of the general church gradually moved into Free Methodist Publishing House accommodations. This was provided at vast cost and without the investment of any capital by the general church.
In 1960, the Free Methodist Publishing House board issued a deed in favor of the general church, whereby the church became the owner of the old property, plus nearly eight acres of land. For this the general church paid nothing, but agreed to make payments of \$5,000 per year over a ten-year period to the Free Methodist Publishing House.
### Audio publications {#audio_publications}
In 1944 the Free Methodist Church began a weekly radio show called The Light and Life Radio Hour which featured hymns, sermons, prayer, and scripture reading. The show ran until 1980 and featured several different hosts over the years including Dr. Leroy Lowell, Myron F. Boyd, and Robert Andrews.
In 2016 Josh Avery began The FMC Radio Show which was a spiritual successor to The Light and Life Radio Hour but embodied a very different focus. In a podcast format, the show is subtitled \"your officially unofficial source for all things Free Methodist\". Instead of worship and sermon, the show means to act as a uniting factor in the Free Methodist Church by informing listeners about different things that are happening in the denomination.
Today, the Light+Life podcast features ministries of the Free Methodist Church that tell their stories of ministry fruitfulness.
### Ministry
*Arnold's Commentary* was published from 1894 to 1980. In the late 1950s and early 1960s the church pioneered fully graded church school materials. In 1960 the *Aldersgate Biblical Series* was developed as the only inductive curriculum of its time.
A fully equipped printing area consisting of letterpresses, offset press, cutters, folders, bindery, linotypes etc. contributed toward making the church independent of commercial printers for the production for its printing needs at that time.
Acting on the recommendation of its executive committee, the board voted in 1988 to phase out printing operations. This decision and the 1989 General Conference decision to move the Press and Headquarters from Winona Lake to Indianapolis in 1990 shifted the focus of the Press. Where formerly, the Press produced and published Sunday school curriculum, this venture is now carried on in cooperation with other holiness denominations.
Beginning in 2008, the Wesleyan Publishing House, publishing arm of the Wesleyan Church, began serving the distribution and customer service needs of Light and Life Press.
### Mission statement {#mission_statement}
Light & Life Communications, the official publishing arm of the Free Methodist Church, is a not-for-profit corporation that exists to serve in partnership with its parent body, the Free Methodist Church. Its primary purpose is to publish and distribute materials that enable the church to fulfill its stated mission. Light & Life Communications also offers its services and materials to all who seek to make Christ known.
## Publications
- Light + Life Communications is the publishing division of the Free Methodist Church.
- [Light + Life Magazine](https://lightandlife.fm) is the official magazine of the Free Methodist Church USA, published online. It includes in-depth journalism and interviews exploring Christian faith. Each issue is also translated into Spanish and published concurrently as [Revista Luz y Vida](https://luzyvida.fm/). Jeff Finley is the magazine\'s executive editor.
- [Light + Life Bookstore](https://www.freemethodistbooks.com) is the official bookstore of Free Methodist Church USA. Free Methodist books and exclusive titles on Christian faith and Wesleyan holiness theology.
- [The Light + Life podcast](https://lightandlife.fm/) hosts conversations that deepen people\'s faith through the Light+Life of Jesus Christ.
- Free Methodist World Missions [Heartbeat](https://fmwm.org/heartbeat) is the monthly magazine of Free Methodist World Missions.
- [Free Methodist Conversations](https://freemethodistconversations.com/) is an online resource for discussing important values and issues
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# John Falstaff
**Sir John Falstaff** is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare and is eulogised in a fourth. His significance as a fully developed character is primarily formed in the plays *Henry IV, Part 1* and *Part 2*, where he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V of England. Falstaff is also featured as the buffoonish suitor of two married women in *The Merry Wives of Windsor*. Though primarily a comic figure, he embodies a depth common to Shakespeare\'s major characters. A fat, vain, and boastful knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boar\'s Head Inn with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is repudiated when Hal becomes king.
Falstaff has appeared in other works, including operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and Otto Nicolai, a \"symphonic study\" by Edward Elgar, and in Orson Welles\'s 1966 film *Chimes at Midnight*. The operas focus on his role in *The Merry Wives of Windsor*, while the film adapts the Henriad and *The Merry Wives*. Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character \"Shakespeare\'s greatest creation\". The word \"Falstaffian\" has entered the English language with connotations of corpulence, jollity, and debauchery.
## Role in the plays {#role_in_the_plays}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|right\|Mistress Page and Falstaff in *The Merry Wives of Windsor*, staged by Pacific Repertory Theatre in 1999
Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeare\'s plays: *Henry IV, Part 1*, *Henry IV, Part 2*, and *The Merry Wives of Windsor*. His death is mentioned in *Henry V*, but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into King Henry V\'s character. The most notable examples in cinema are Laurence Olivier\'s 1944 version and Kenneth Branagh\'s 1989 film, both of which draw additional material from the *Henry IV* plays.
The character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards. According to Leonard Digges, writing shortly after Shakespeare\'s death, while many plays could not get good audiences, \"let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest, you scarce shall have a room\".
### *Henry IV, Part 1* {#henry_iv_part_1}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|right\|1829 watercolour by Johann Heinrich Ramberg of Act II, Scene iv; Falstaff enacts the part of the king
King Henry is troubled by the behaviour of his son and heir, the Prince of Wales. Hal (the future Henry V) has lost his authority at court and spends his time in taverns with low companions. He has become an object of scorn to the nobility and his worthiness to succeed his father is doubted. Hal\'s main companion in enjoying the low life is Sir John Falstaff. Fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a charisma and a zest for life that captivates the Prince.
Hal likes Falstaff but makes no pretence of being like him. He enjoys insulting his dissolute friend and makes sport of him. He and Poins pretend to go along with a plan by Falstaff and three friends to carry out a highway robbery, but then attack the robbers in disguise and in turn steal their loot, after which Hal returns it to its owner. Hal tells the audience that he will soon abandon this life and assume his rightful high place in affairs by showing himself worthy through some (unspecified) noble exploits. Hal believes that this sudden change will gain him additional approval and earn him respect at court.
Falstaff, who has \"misused the King\'s press damnably\", by taking money from able-bodied men who wished to evade service and by keeping the wages of those he recruited who were killed in battle (\"food for powder, food for powder\") is obliged to play a role in the Battle of Shrewsbury. Left on his own during Hal\'s duel with Hotspur, he feigns death to avoid attack by Douglas. After Hal leaves both Hotspur and Falstaff on the field and being thought dead, Falstaff revives, stabs Hotspur\'s corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill. Though Hal knows better, he is merciful to Falstaff, who subsequently states that he wants to amend his life and begin \"to live cleanly as a nobleman should do\".
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# John Falstaff
## Role in the plays {#role_in_the_plays}
### *Henry IV, Part 2* {#henry_iv_part_2}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|right\|Falstaff with Doll Tearsheet in the Boar\'s Head tavern; illustration to Act 2, Scene 4 of the play by Eduard von Grützner The play focuses on Prince Hal\'s journey toward kingship, and his ultimate rejection of Falstaff. However, unlike *Part One*, Hal\'s and Falstaff\'s stories are almost entirely separate, as the two characters meet only twice and very briefly. The tone of much of the play is elegiac, focusing on Falstaff\'s age and his closeness to death, which parallels that of the increasingly sick king.
Falstaff is still drinking and engaging in petty criminality in the London underworld. He first appears, followed by a new character, a young page whom Prince Hal has assigned him as a joke. Falstaff enquires what the doctor has said about the analysis of his urine, and the page cryptically informs him that the urine is healthier than the patient. Falstaff delivers one of his most characteristic lines: \"I am not only witty in myself, but the cause that wit is in other men.\" Falstaff promises to outfit the page in \"vile apparel\" (ragged clothing). He then complains of his insolvency, blaming it on \"consumption of the purse.\" They go off, Falstaff vowing to find a wife \"in the stews\" (i.e., the local brothels).
The Lord Chief Justice enters, looking for Falstaff. Falstaff at first feigns deafness in order to avoid conversing with him. When this tactic fails, Falstaff pretends to mistake him for someone else. As the Chief Justice attempts to question Falstaff about a recent robbery, Falstaff insists on turning the subject of the conversation to the nature of the illness afflicting the King. He then adopts the pretense of being a much younger man than the Chief Justice: \"You that are old consider not the capacities of us that are young.\" Finally, he asks the Chief Justice for one thousand pounds to help outfit a military expedition, but is denied.
He has a relationship with Doll Tearsheet, a prostitute, who gets into a fight with Ancient Pistol, Falstaff\'s ensign. After Falstaff ejects Pistol, Doll asks him about the Prince. Falstaff is embarrassed when his derogatory remarks are overheard by Hal, who is present disguised as a musician. Falstaff tries to talk his way out of it, but Hal is unconvinced. When news of a second rebellion arrives, Falstaff joins the army again, and goes to the country to raise forces. There he encounters an old school friend, Justice Shallow, and they reminisce about their youthful follies. Shallow brings forward potential recruits for the loyalist army: Mouldy, Bullcalf, Feeble, Shadow and Wart, a motley collection of rustic yokels. Falstaff and his cronies accept bribes from two of them, Mouldy and Bullcalf, not to be conscripted.
In the final scene, Falstaff, having learned from Pistol that Hal is now King, travels to London in expectation of great rewards. But Hal rejects him, saying that he has now changed, and can no longer associate with such people. The London lowlifes, expecting a paradise of thieves under Hal\'s governance, are instead purged and imprisoned by the authorities.
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# John Falstaff
## Role in the plays {#role_in_the_plays}
### *Henry V* {#henry_v}
Although Falstaff does not appear on stage in *Henry V*, his death is the main subject of Act 2, Scene 3, in which Mistress Quickly delivers a memorable eulogy:
There is a similarity in Shakespeare\'s description of the death of Falstaff, and in Plato\'s description of the death of Socrates. In a description in Plato\'s dialogue *Phaedo*, after Socrates has drunk hemlock, the man who gave him the poison
> felt him, and after an interval examined his feet and legs; he then pinched his foot hard and asked if he would feel it, and Socrates said not. And then he felt his shins once more; and moving upwards in this way, he showed us that he was becoming cold and numb. He went on feeling him and said that when the coldness reached his heart, he would be gone.
### *The Merry Wives of Windsor* {#the_merry_wives_of_windsor}
Falstaff arrives in Windsor very short on money. To obtain financial advantage, he decides to court two wealthy married women, Mistress Ford and Mistress Page. Falstaff decides to send the women identical love letters and asks his servants -- Pistol and Nym -- to deliver them to the wives. When they refuse, Falstaff sacks them, and, in revenge, the men tell Ford and Page (the husbands) of Falstaff\'s intentions. Page is not concerned, but the jealous Ford persuades the Host of the Garter Inn to introduce him to Falstaff as a \'Master Brook\' so that he can find out Falstaff\'s plans.
When the women receive the letters, each goes to tell the other, and they quickly find that the letters are almost identical. The \"merry wives\" are not interested in the ageing, overweight Falstaff as a suitor; however, for the sake of their own amusement and to gain revenge for his indecent assumptions towards them both, they pretend to respond to his advances.
This all results in great embarrassment for Falstaff. Mr. Ford poses as \'Mr. Brook\' and says he is in love with Mistress Ford but cannot woo her as she is too virtuous. He offers to pay Falstaff to court her, saying that once she has lost her honour he will be able to tempt her himself. Falstaff cannot believe his luck, and tells \'Brook\' he has already arranged to meet Mistress Ford while her husband is out. Falstaff leaves to keep his appointment and Ford soliloquises that he is right to suspect his wife and that the trusting Page is a fool.
When Falstaff arrives to meet Mistress Ford, the merry wives trick him into hiding in a laundry basket (\"buck basket\") full of filthy, smelly clothes awaiting laundering. When the jealous Ford returns to try and catch his wife with the knight, the wives have the basket taken away and the contents (including Falstaff) dumped into the river. Although this affects Falstaff\'s pride, his ego is surprisingly resilient. He is convinced that the wives are just playing hard to get with him, so he continues his pursuit of sexual advancement, with its attendant capital and opportunities for blackmail.
Again Falstaff goes to meet the women but Mistress Page comes back and warns Mistress Ford of her husband\'s approach again. They try to think of ways to hide him other than the laundry basket which he refuses to get into again. They trick him again, this time into disguising himself as Mistress Ford\'s maid\'s obese aunt, known as \"the fat woman of Brentford\". Ford tries once again to catch his wife with the knight but ends up beating the \"old woman\", whom he despises, and throwing her out of his house. Black and blue, Falstaff laments his bad luck.
Eventually the wives tell their husbands about the series of jokes they have played on Falstaff, and together they devise one last trick which ends up with the Knight being humiliated in front of the whole town. They tell Falstaff to dress as \"Herne, the Hunter\" and meet them by an old oak tree in Windsor Forest (now part of Windsor Great Park). They then dress several of the local children as fairies and get them to pinch and burn Falstaff to punish him.
The wives meet Falstaff, and almost immediately the \"fairies\" attack. After the chaos, the characters reveal their true identities to Falstaff. Although he is embarrassed, Falstaff takes the joke surprisingly well, as he sees it was what he deserved. Ford says he must pay back the 20 pounds \'Brook\' gave him and takes the Knight\'s horses as recompense. Eventually they all leave together and Mistress Page even invites Falstaff to come with them: \"let us every one go home, and laugh this sport o\'er by a country fire; Sir John and all\".
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# John Falstaff
## Origins
### John Oldcastle {#john_oldcastle}
Shakespeare originally named Falstaff \"John Oldcastle\", a real historical personage who died in 1417. Lord Cobham, a descendant of Oldcastle, complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name. Shakespeare\'s *Henry IV* plays and *Henry V* adapted and developed the material in an earlier play called *The Famous Victories of Henry V*, in which Sir John \"Jockey\" Oldcastle appears as a dissolute companion of the young Henry. Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as \"my old lad of the castle\" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to *Henry IV, Part 2*, moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle: \"Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man.\"
The historical Oldcastle was a knight from Herefordshire who became a Lollard who was executed for heresy and rebellion, and he was respected by many Protestants as a martyr. In addition to the anonymous *The Famous Victories of Henry V*, in which Oldcastle is Henry V\'s companion, Oldcastle\'s history is described in Raphael Holinshed\'s *Chronicles*, Shakespeare\'s usual source for his histories.
### Cobhams
It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterised Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirise Oldcastle or the Cobhams. Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in Ben Jonson\'s *Every Man in His Humour* and may have been part of the reason *The Isle of Dogs* was suppressed. Shakespeare\'s desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate Roman Catholic sympathies, but Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the Main Plot to place Arbella Stuart on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds.
The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either *The Merry Wives of Windsor* or the second part of *Henry IV*. The first part of *Henry IV* was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by Master of the Revels Edmund Tilney. William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time Lord Chamberlain). As father-in-law to the newly widowed Robert Cecil, Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly. Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play *The Merry Wives of Windsor* (published after the *Henry IV* series). In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias \"Brook\" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke. At any rate, the name is Falstaff in the *Henry IV, Part 1* quarto, of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification:
### Sir John Fastolf {#sir_john_fastolf}
The new name \"Falstaff\" probably derived from the medieval knight Sir John Fastolf. The historical Fastolf fought at the Battle of Patay against Joan of Arc, which the English lost. His previous career as a soldier had earned him wide respect but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle. He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood. Fastolf appears in *Henry VI, Part 1* in which he is portrayed as an abject coward. In the*First Folio*his name is spelled \"Falstaffe\", so Shakespeare may have directly appropriated the spelling of the name he used in the earlier play.
### Robert Greene {#robert_greene}
It has been suggested that the dissolute writer Robert Greene may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff. This theory was first proposed in 1930 and has been championed by Stephen Greenblatt. Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in *Greene\'s Groats-Worth of Wit*), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare\'s characterisation.
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# John Falstaff
## Cultural adaptations {#cultural_adaptations}
There are several works about Falstaff, inspired by Shakespeare\'s plays:
### Literature
- *Falstaff\'s Wedding* (1766), a drama by William Kenrick, was set after the events of *Henry IV, Part 2*. To restore his financial position after his rejection by Hal, Falstaff is forced to marry Mistress Ursula (a character briefly mentioned by Shakespeare, whom Falstaff has \"weekly\" promised to marry). The play exists in two very different versions. In the first version Falstaff is drawn into Scroop\'s plot to murder the king, but wins back Henry\'s favour by exposing the plot. In the second this story is dropped for a purely farcical storyline.
- English lawyer and occasional writer George Radford sketched a \"biography\" of Falstaff based on clues drawn from plays in which the character appears, surmising, for example, that Falstaff was of Scandinavian descent and hailed from Norfolk.
### Music
- *Falstaff* (1799), Antonio Salieri\'s opera, with a libretto by Carlo Prospero Defranceschi, which is based upon *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.
- *Falstaff* (1838), an opera by Michael William Balfe to an Italian libretto by S. Manfredo Maggione that is based upon *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.
- *Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor* (1849) by Otto Nicolai, based upon *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.
- *Le songe d\'une nuit d\'été* (1850), an opera by Ambroise Thomas in which Shakespeare and Falstaff meet.
- *Falstaff* (1893), Giuseppe Verdi\'s last opera, with a libretto by Arrigo Boito. It is mostly based upon *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.
- *Falstaff* (1913), a \"symphonic study\" (or symphonic poem) by Edward Elgar, depicts Falstaff\'s life.
- *At the Boar\'s Head* (1925), a short opera by Gustav Holst based on the *Henry IV* plays.
- *Sir John in Love* (1929), an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams based upon *The Merry Wives of Windsor*.
- *Plump Jack* (1985/2005), an opera with both libretto and music by Gordon Getty, adapted from the text of *Henry IV* and *Henry V*.
### Stage
- *Falstaff* was a 1982 theater piece adapted from Shakespeare\'s *Henry IV* plays by Grey Cattell Johnson and Bill Cain. It was directed by Johnson and staged by the Boston Shakespeare Company.
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# John Falstaff
## Cultural adaptations {#cultural_adaptations}
### Film and television {#film_and_television}
- On film, Falstaff appeared in Laurence Olivier\'s acclaimed 1944 version of *Henry V*. Although Falstaff does not appear in the play, Olivier inserted an original scene depicting the fat knight -- played by George Robey, who first previously performed the role in a stage production of *Henry IV, Part 1* in 1935 -- as a dying, heartbroken old man attended by Mistress Quickly, pathetically reliving in his mind his rejection by Henry. This was immediately followed by the actual scene from the play of Mistress Quickly describing Falstaff\'s death to his grieving followers.
- Orson Welles\'s *Chimes at Midnight* (1965) compiles the two *Henry IV* plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from *Richard II* and *Henry V*. The film, also known as *Falstaff*, features Welles himself in the title role, with film critic Vincent Canby stating in 1975 that it \"may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made, bar none\".
- Falstaff appeared in the 1960 series *An Age of Kings*, which was actually a 15 part series depicting Shakespeare\'s history plays from *Richard II* to *Richard III*; in the *Henry IV* episodes he was played by Frank Pettingell.
- In the 1979 season of the *BBC Shakespeare* series, in both parts of *Henry IV* Falstaff was played by Anthony Quayle, and in *The Merry Wives of Windsor* which followed in the 1982 season, by Richard Griffiths.
- In Kenneth Branagh\'s acclaimed 1989 version of *Henry V*, Falstaff, here played by Robbie Coltrane, as in the Olivier version is given an original scene, this time dying in his bed and attended by Mistress Quickly, while downstairs his followers share a flashback -- put together from various bits from both parts of *Henry IV* -- showing the fat knight carousing with Henry back when he was \"madcap prince\" Hal, but it ends abruptly when the prince makes an ominous hint that some day when he becomes King he will be banishing his old friend. Later, prior to the actual scene where Mistress Quickly describes his death, there is a fleeting close-up shot of her sadly examining the knight\'s now deceased body one last time before going downstairs to his followers.
- Falstaff appeared in the Michael Bogdanov/Michael Pennington\'s English Shakespeare Company\'s presentation of Shakespeare\'s plays concerning *The Wars of the Roses*; originally taped live during their final tour with the series in 1989. In the *Henry IV* episodes, Falstaff was played by Barry Stanton, who later played the Chorus in *Henry V*. Although Falstaff never actually appeared in the production of *Henry V*, there is a humorous scene in silhouette prior to the scene where Mistress Quickly describing his funeral, depicting Falstaff\'s funeral procession, with a group of soldiers staggering under the weight of his coffin (an obvious nod to the final scene in *Chimes at Midnight*).
- Gus Van Sant\'s *My Own Private Idaho* is partially a retelling of the *Henry IV* plays, set in the contemporary US, and with the character of Bob Pigeon (William Richert) representing Falstaff. In the scene immediately following Bob\'s first appearance in the film, Scott Favor (Keanu Reeves)`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}the film\'s version of Hal`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}is seen drinking from a bottle of Falstaff brand beer. Bob Pigeon\'s final scene in the film mirrors that of Falstaff, with Scott/Prince Hal delivering a version of the famous *I know thee not, old man* speech.
- In the 2012 television series *The Hollow Crown*, which likewise consisted of Shakespeare\'s plays concerning the *Wars of the Roses*, Falstaff was played by Simon Russell Beale. Just as in Olivier\'s and Branagh\'s film versions of *Henry V*, the Falstaff in this series appeared in the *Henry V* episode as well the *Henry IV* ones, sadly recollecting his rejection by his former friend while he is dying.
- In Phyllida Lloyd\'s 2017 all-female Donmar Warehouse production of *Henry IV* (combining both parts), which was videotaped and broadcast, Sophie Stanton played Falstaff.
- In the 2019 Netflix film *The King*, Falstaff (played by Joel Edgerton) proposes to Henry V the military tactics employed by the English in the Battle of Agincourt and dies in the battle.
- In the comedy series *Upstart Crow*, William Shakespeare, played by David Mitchell, is inspired by his wastrel father\'s antics to create a character called *John Foulstuff*.
### Print
- Alexander Smith (pseud.) \"Sir John Falstaff a Notorious Highwayman\" in *A Compleat History of the Lives and Robberies of the most Notorious Highway-Men, Foot-Pads, Shop-Lifts, and Cheats, of Both Sexes* (London: J. Morphew, 1714)
- James White\'s book *Falstaff\'s Letters* (1796) purports to be a collection of letters written by Falstaff, provided by a descendant of Mistress Quickly\'s sister. She had inherited them from Mistress Quickly herself, who kept them in a drawer in the Boar\'s Head Tavern until her death in \"August 1419\".
- *The Life of Sir John Falstaff* (1858), a novel by Robert Barnabas Brough.
- *Falstaff* (1976), a novel by Robert Nye.
- Volstagg the Voluminous, a Marvel Comics character and companion to Thor, is based on Falstaff.
- \"Falstaff, Fakir\" is the alter ego of author Axel Wallengren, a name chosen to juxtapose the vanity, affluence and figure of Shakespeare\'s Falstaff with the asceticism of a fakir
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# Rage Hard
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
***Frontline*** is an Australian comedy television series which satirised Australian television current affairs programmes and reporting. It ran for three series of 13 half-hour episodes and was broadcast on ABC TV in 1994, 1995 and 1997.
## Production
The series was written, directed and produced by Jane Kennedy, Santo Cilauro, Rob Sitch and Tom Gleisner. They created and performed in the television shows *The D-Generation* and *The Late Show* before creating *Frontline* (as well as *Funky Squad* between series 1 and 2 of *Frontline*). After *Frontline* they moved into feature films, making several popular Australian movies including *The Castle* and *The Dish*, and hosted *The Panel* for several years, before moving on to *Thank God You\'re Here* and later *Have You Been Paying Attention?*.
The series was partly inspired by a *60 Minutes* special \"Has the media gone too far?\". It bears some similarity to the UK series *Drop the Dead Donkey*.
## Setting
### A commercial network {#a_commercial_network}
The series follows the fortunes of a fictional current affairs show, *Frontline*. In the show, *Frontline* competes directly with Nine\'s *A Current Affair* and Seven\'s *Real Life*, which changed its name to *Today Tonight* from 1995 onwards.
The *Frontline* office showcases and satirises the machinations of the ruthless producers, the self-obsessed airhead host, and the ambitious, cynical reporters, all of whom resort to any sort of underhanded trick to get ratings and maintain their status---including the use of hidden cameras, foot-in-the-door, bullying interview techniques, and chequebook journalism. They ingratiate themselves with the all-powerful network bosses, while the real work is in fact done by their long-suffering production staff.
The station itself also runs other television shows referenced by *Frontline* staff, such as 6 o\'clock news program, a 3-hour news review show *Sunday Forum*, a sketch show *The Komedy Bunch*, a game show *Jackpot*, a teen soap opera *Sunshine Cove* which later changed to *Rainbow Island*, also lesser mentioned shows such as the football show *Ball-to-Ball*, *Late-Night OZ*, *Cartoon Crazies*, *The Morning Show*, *Face the Press* and *Vacation*.
### As a commentary {#as_a_commentary}
The characters and situations were often thinly-disguised parodies of recent real events and real people, giving the show\'s comedy a black edge. In particular, the Season 1 episode \"The Siege\" was a replay of a controversial real life incident which had occurred just a few months earlier, told as though *Frontline* itself had covered the story.
The dim-witted, egotistical host Mike Moore was a parody of current television hosts and journalists. Sitch has claimed that none of the characters were directly based on a single person, and indeed the character of Moore was a combination of well-known characteristics of a number of high-profile television figures, including *A Current Affair* host Ray Martin, Martin\'s predecessor Mike Willesee, and *Real Life* host Stan Grant.
The ABC\'s media review show *Media Watch* was featured prominently. Much of the real life journalistic misconduct reported on *Media Watch* later appeared on *Frontline* in fictionalised form. One example of this was when *Media Watch* reported that Dave \"Sluggo\" Richardson had made a highly misleading report on Christopher Skase for *Today Tonight*. Richardson was suspended from duty for a month, and in the \"One Rule for One\" episode of *Frontline*, fictional reporter Martin di Stasio is suspended for a month for doing exactly the same thing.
Multiple episodes of *Frontline* featured *Media Watch* segments criticising the show.
## Episodes
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
## Characters
### Reporters
- **Mike Moore** (Rob Sitch) is the anchor of *Frontline*. He is self-centred and dim-witted, but his intentions are generally noble. Mike is very protective of what he calls his \"journalistic integrity\" and resents any insinuation that he is a lightweight. He believes that he is on the cutting edge of journalism, but is oblivious to most of *Frontline*{{\'}}s content, as the executive producers go to some length to keep him out of production meetings, and a running gag within the show sees Mike ignore most of the stories that *Frontline* airs despite his position as host. Mike is desperate for any sort of publicity he can get, but his public appearances are a constant source of amusement for the rest of the *Frontline* team, as they typically end in disaster. While usually harmless, Mike is not above using underhanded tactics to get his way---in \"A Hole in the Heart\" (series 3), he steals a story from Marty because viewers are responding positively to it, while in \"Addicted to Fame\", he demands that Geoffrey\'s television show be cancelled because he is jealous of the attention his friend is getting. In the first two series Mike\'s position is constantly under threat from senior reporter Brooke Vandenberg, who has a better press profile, but by the last series he has been cemented as one of the network\'s most valuable stars and considerably more effort is made to pander to his whims. While Mike is usually portrayed as simply dumb (for example, in \"A Man of His Convictions\" in series 2 he writes a letter to media commentator Stuart Littlemore full of basic spelling and grammatical errors) he occasionally surprises his colleagues with his sneakiness: in \"Give \'em Enough Rope\" (series 2) he traps the network owner into admitting to contravening the Broadcasting Act in a live interview, after first getting the owner to publicly commit to allowing him to ask difficult questions without threat to his job. Many gags centre around how easily he is manipulated by his executive producer, the most typical case being when Mike refuses to present a story and then is convinced to run it by an appeal to his supposed fearlessness or journalistic integrity. Mike used to work for the ABC until he was \"poached\" to run *Frontline*.
- **Brooke Vandenberg** (Jane Kennedy) is a reporter on *Frontline*. She is ambitious, amoral and publicity hungry. While there are constant rumours that she has affairs with male celebrities in order to build her profile, in some cases she simply creates the rumours herself; in \"The Desert Angel\" (series 1) she confesses to Pat Cash that she started a rumour about having an affair with him. Like most of the employees of *Frontline*, she has no ethical problems with any action the show takes to get a good story. She is, however, portrayed as being very hypocritical; in \"The Invisible Man\" (series 1), she has no issues with violating peoples\' privacy when she runs a story using a hidden camera to catch shoplifters in a store change room, but is outraged when a rival network violates her own privacy in the same way when broadcasting a similar story. Brooke is also very vain, and tends to edit her stories to give herself as much screen time as she can manage. When a new segment producer edits footage of Brooke out of a story in \"I Disease\" (series 3), she becomes upset to the point where she demands that the producer be fired for it. In \"A Hole in the Heart\", Brooke discovers she is pregnant to a former boyfriend and is bribed into having an abortion by a new hosting offer.
- **Martin \"Marty\" Di Stasio** (Tiriel Mora) is a senior reporter on *Frontline*. He is Mike\'s major antagonist on the team, often baiting him about sensitive topics, such as the supposedly anti-Semitic golf club of which Mike is a member (\"A Hole in the Heart\"), or whenever Mike\'s public appearances end in disaster. He is the most experienced journalist on the team: a few references are made to him winning a Walkley Award. Like Brooke, he is uncritical of the show\'s journalistic tactics (although in the episode \"Judge and Jury\", he has reservations about their persecution of a priest accused of rape, mainly because he is a lapsed Catholic); in fact he is usually the confidante of the executive producers, and the one they can trust to do what is needed to get a good story, or to persuade Mike to present a story. His position on *Frontline* is more tenuous than that of Mike or Brooke: in \"Dick on the Line\" (series 3) he tells Mike and Brooke that at his age he signs his yearly contract immediately and does not mess about negotiating.
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
## Characters
### Producers
- **Emma Ward** (Alison Whyte) is the Line Producer on *Frontline*. She questions the show\'s practices most frequently and acts as the viewers\' conscience. In \"Heroes and Villains\" (series 2), she is the only member of the team to have read the supposedly racist book the show is attacking and objects to their incendiary treatment of its author. Early in series 2 and 3, the executive producers of the time approach Marty and ask him to explain Emma. Marty explains that while she has moral qualms like Mike does, she is more difficult to handle because she is intelligent. Despite often objecting, Emma is usually party to ethically questionable practices and occasionally finds them amusing. In \"A Hole in the Heart (part 2)\", to placate a director from charity organisation Rotary, she allows the executive producer to yell at her and pretend to fire her over one of the show\'s decisions, when in reality she is receiving a large pay rise in return for her part of the act.
- **Kate Preston** (Trudy Hellier) is the segment producer. While Kate is friendly with Emma, who has a more senior position, Kate has fewer ethical qualms about stories than Emma, and tends to be in the middle of conflicts between Emma and the executive producer.
- **Brian \"Thommo\" Thompson** (Bruno Lawrence) is the executive producer during series 1. He is fired by the network in the first episode of series 2, although he is never shown on screen in that episode; the real reason for this is that Lawrence died of lung cancer between the filming of series 1 and series 2, forcing the writers to create a new executive producer character, Sam (see below).
- **Sam Murphy** (Kevin J. Wilson) is the executive producer during series 2, hired immediately after Brian is fired. Thommo\'s and Sam\'s characters are similar; a hard-nosed EP who would not hesitate to air questionable stories to attract ratings.
- **Graham \"Prowsey\" Prowse** (Steve Bisley) is the executive producer during series 3, hired after the producer who took *Frontline* to the top retires. Prowsey is much more aggressive and unpleasant than his two predecessors. He has a bad temper, is unpleasant to the staff and is unashamedly sexist: groping the female staff, dismissing bulimia as a \"chick thing\" and writing off Brooke\'s bad moods as PMS. He is, however, like his predecessors, capable of being charming when needed to deceive Mike, placate Emma or feed Brooke\'s ego.
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
## Characters
### Supporting staff {#supporting_staff}
- **Domenica Baroni** (Anita Cerdic) is the office receptionist, and the only person in the office who truly admires Mike. Her increasingly bizarre hairstyles become a running gag, culminating in \"Give \'em Enough Rope\", when she is completely bald and festooned with ribbons. Her reactions to the show usually reflect the target audience\'s responses. She is a reluctant and sometimes traitorous party to the office\'s determination to keep Mike away from production meetings. She is always very supportive of Mike and there are often hints that she actually has a crush on him. Domenica occasionally contributes to stories run by the show, such as when she receives a tipoff from a relative in \"Divide the Community, Multiply the Ratings\" or when she is the only female staff member willing to go undercover in a nightclub in \"My Generation\".
- **Shelley Cohen** (Linda Ross) is the executive producer\'s secretary. She has worked for the network for many years and is usually unfazed by the mishaps in the office.
- **Stuart \"Stu\" O\'Hallaran** (Pip Mushin) is the office\'s main cameraman and shoots most of Brooke\'s and Marty\'s stories. He, Marty and Jase are all friends and frequently make fun of Mike.
- **Jason \"Jase\" Cotter** (Torquil Neilson) is the sound recordist who works with Stu. Jase is not actually heard speaking until series 3 despite appearing in most episodes in series 1 and 2. He is fired in the episode \"I Get the Big Names\" for audio taping Brooke Vandanberg while she urinates on the toilet and then leaking it to the media.
- **Hugh Tabbagh** (Marcus Eyre) is the editor of videos, who is almost always seen editing in the audio-visual room whilst sitting, smoking cigarettes, coughing wildly and inhaling an asthma puffer.
- **Trev** (Stephen Curry) appears as Jase\'s replacement as the sound recordist towards the end of the third series.
### Network employees {#network_employees}
- **Geoffrey Salter** (Santo Cilauro) is the network\'s weatherman and Mike\'s closest friend at work. Geoff usually appears in private conversations in his office with Mike, and is often the catalyst for Mike to question the reassurance he has been given by a producer that the story of the moment is being ethically pursued. Despite his being Mike\'s closest friend, Mike frequently ignores Geoff\'s issues, and their conversations often serve to reinforce Mike\'s beliefs. Geoff is unpopular with the rest of the *Frontline* staff to the point where he is banned from the *Frontline* set, but they are all supportive when he unexpectedly achieves popularity with his own one-hour programme in \"Addicted to Fame\" (series 3), though he is unaware that Mike demanded the plans for the expansion of the show be cancelled because he was jealous of the attention Geoff was getting. He is the focus of a running gag where he will laugh hysterically along with Mike at any anecdote Mike tells him, before admitting that he does not understand it.
- **Ian Farmer** (Gerard Kennedy) is the Station Manager, the boss of the local studios. He appears only in series one. He and Brian Thompson are good friends, and frequently play golf together.
- **Bob Caville** (Peter Stratford) is the network\'s managing director, and definitively pulls the office into line.
- **Jan Whelan** (Genevieve Mooy) is the network\'s head of publicity in series 1 and 2. Jan refers to everyone as \"poppet\" and \"darling\" and has extravagantly camp mannerisms, but is in fact practical and efficient.
- **Trish** (Lynda Gibson) is the network\'s head of publicity in series 3. Gibson also appears in \"Workin\' Class Man\" from series 2 as the wife/mother of three of a working-class family who is visited by Brooke for a story regarding the difficulties of making ends meet.
- **Elliot Rhodes** (Boris Conley) is a comedian and musician, performing short musical sketches about current events at the end of Friday night episodes of *Frontline*. Mike detests his act but is required to laugh uproariously and compliment it on air every week. In two episodes, he was fired at Mike\'s request.
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
## Characters
### Special guests {#special_guests}
*Frontline* frequently featured celebrity cameos, unusually including major Australian politicians appearing as themselves, often but not always as interviewees. The most memorable appearance is that of Pauline Hanson in \"The Shadow We Cast\" (series 3), in which she turns her famous \"please explain?\" phrase on Mike. Noel Pearson appears as an interviewee later in the same episode. Other appearances include: John Hewson in \"The Soufflé Rises\" (series 1); Pat Cash in \"The Desert Angel\"; Cheryl Kernot in \"We Ain\'t Got Dames\" (series 1); Ben Elton, Bert Newton, Rosemary Margan, Amanda Keller and Anne Fulwood in \"This Night of Nights\" (series 1); Glenn Ridge in \"Add Sex and Stir\" and \"Office Mole\" (series 2); Glenn Robbins and Molly Meldrum in \"Add Sex and Stir\"; George Negus in \"Add Sex and Stir\" and \"Dick on the Line\" (series 3); and Ian Baker-Finch in \"A Hole in the Heart\". Harry Shearer appeared in the series 2 episode \"Changing the Face of Current Affairs\", where he played the character of Larry Hadges. Merv Hughes also starred in the series 2 episode \"Workin\' Class Man\".
Other guest stars appeared in mock-ups of their own shows: Mike Moore appeared on fictitious episodes of *Burke\'s Backyard* with Don Burke, Rex Hunt\'s fishing show, and *The AFL Footy Show* with Sam Newman. Stuart Littlemore, who at the time was hosting the media commentary show *Media Watch*, appeared in several fictitious episodes as a critic of *Frontline*.
## Production strategies {#production_strategies}
*Frontline* broke new ground for Australian situation comedy, by adopting some innovative production strategies. Its rapid production schedule was inspired by UK series *Drop the Dead Donkey*, where each episode was written and taped in a single week and scripts were closely based on the real news stories of the preceding seven days.
The *Frontline* scripts were likewise written and the series filmed with a short period, often within a single week. It was a fully collaborative effort, with Cilauro, Kennedy, Gleisner and Sitch all sharing writing and directing duties, and the cast all contributing ideas during all stages of production. So sometimes when the show appeared on then-current events, it was a coincidence, as episodes were delayed by several months. In other cases there was direct commentary on real events, albeit not extremely recent ones.
To create a heightened illusion of grainy documentary realism, footage was shot under fluorescent lights in an actual office building set, and taped on hand-held Hi-8 camcorders usually operated by Gleisner and Cilauro. The footage was then transferred onto film and finally transferred back to videotape (see: Kinescope). Footage that was portrayed as being part of the *Frontline* broadcast (i.e., studio or field reports) was shot at broadcast quality, to increase the \"realism\" of the satire and complement the behind-the-scenes footage.
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# Frontline (Australian TV series)
## Other airings {#other_airings}
In 1997, Channel Seven bought the rights to the series; however, they only aired a handful of episodes. The show was perceived by management as \"too close to the bone\" for a network significantly focused upon its prime-time current affairs ratings battle with rival stations. The Comedy Channel has shown the series as late as 2005. It was shown again on ABC TV in 2018 and in 2020--21.
In America, *Frontline* was shown as either *Behind the Frontline* on cable or as *Breaking News* on PBS (which already has a news series titled *Frontline*).
In the UK, series 1 and 2 were shown by the Paramount Comedy Channel. Series 3, however, was never screened.
In Canada, it was aired as *Behind the Frontline* on Showcase in 1997.
## Impact
The series was extremely popular through its run, winning a Logie Award for Most Outstanding Achievement in Comedy in 1995, and a Logie for Alison Whyte as most outstanding actress in 1997. Critics often place Frontline at or near the top of lists of \"the best Australian TV shows ever made\".
Six episodes from series one were a core text in the Year 12 English Advanced syllabus for the Higher School Certificate in New South Wales (2000--2008) for Module C: Representation and Text: Elective 1: Telling the Truth. The episodes are \"Playing the Ego Card\", \"Add Sex and Stir\", \"The Siege\", \"Smaller Fish to Fry\", \"We Ain\'t Got Dames\", and \"This Night of Nights\". The show has also been used as a text response for both Years 11 and 12 in the English units of the Victorian Certificate of Education. Episodes of *Frontline* have been analysed for the Media topic in the Year 10 English syllabus in New South Wales since at least 2001 and in Western Australia since at least 2009.
## MentalAs campaign {#mentalas_campaign}
In October 2014, Sitch reprised the role of Mike Moore and *Frontline* during a short sketch on the *Friday Night Crack Up* as part of the ABC\'s \"MentalAs\" campaign to raise money and awareness for mental health issues
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# First aid
`{{Portal|Medical}}`{=mediawiki}
**First aid** is the first and immediate assistance given to any person with a medical emergency, with care provided to preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery until medical services arrive. First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical or first response training. Mental health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover mental health, while psychological first aid is used as early treatment of people who are at risk for developing PTSD. Conflict first aid, focused on preservation and recovery of an individual\'s social or relationship well-being, is being piloted in Canada.
There are many situations that may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation, or guidance, which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain circumstances. This can include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such as an automated external defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid training within schools. Generally, five steps are associated with first aid:
1. Assess the surrounding areas.
2. Move to a safe surrounding (if not already; for example, road accidents are unsafe to be dealt with on roads).
3. Call for help: both professional medical help and people nearby who might help in first aid such as the compressions of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
4. Perform suitable first aid depending on the injury suffered by the casualty.
5. Evaluate the casualty for any fatal signs of danger, or possibility of performing the first aid again.
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# First aid
## Early history and warfare {#early_history_and_warfare}
Skills of what is now known as first aid have been recorded throughout history, especially in relation to warfare, where the care of both traumatic and medical cases is required in particularly large numbers. The bandaging of battle wounds is shown on Classical Greek pottery from c. 500 BC, whilst the parable of the Good Samaritan includes references to binding or dressing wounds. There are numerous references to first aid performed within the Roman army, with a system of first aid supported by surgeons, field ambulances, and hospitals. Roman legions had the specific role of capsarii, who were responsible for first aid such as bandaging, and are the forerunners of the modern combat medic.
Further examples occur through history, still mostly related to battle, with examples such as the Knights Hospitaller in the 11th century AD, providing care to pilgrims and knights in the Holy Land.
### Formalization of life saving treatments {#formalization_of_life_saving_treatments}
During the late 18th century, drowning as a cause of death was a major concern amongst the population. In 1767, a society for the preservation of life from accidents in water was started in Amsterdam, and in 1773, physician William Hawes began publicizing the power of artificial respiration as means of resuscitation of those who appeared drowned. This led to the formation, in 1774, of the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently Drowned, later the Royal Humane Society, who did much to promote resuscitation.
Napoleon\'s surgeon, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, is credited with creating an ambulance corps, the *ambulance volantes*, which included medical assistants, tasked to administer first aid in battle.
In 1859, Swiss businessman Jean-Henri Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, and his work led to the formation of the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of \"aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the field\". The Red Cross and Red Crescent are still the largest provider of first aid worldwide.
In 1870, Prussian military surgeon Friedrich von Esmarch introduced formalized first aid to the military, and first coined the term \"erste hilfe\" (translating to \'first aid\'), including training for soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War on care for wounded comrades using pre-learnt bandaging and splinting skills, and making use of the Esmarch bandage which he designed. The bandage was issued as standard to the Prussian combatants, and also included aide-memoire pictures showing common uses.
In 1872, the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem in England changed its focus from hospice care, and set out to start a system of practical medical help, starting with making a grant towards the establishment of the UK\'s first ambulance service. This was followed by creating its own wheeled transport litter in 1875 (the St John Ambulance), and in 1877 established the St John Ambulance Association (the forerunner of modern-day St John Ambulance) \"to train men and women for the benefit of the sick and wounded\".
Also in the UK, Surgeon-Major Peter Shepherd had seen the advantages of von Esmarch\'s new teaching of first aid, and introduced an equivalent programme for the British Army, and so being the first user of \"first aid for the injured\" in English, disseminating information through a series of lectures. Following this, in 1878, Shepherd and Colonel Francis Duncan took advantage of the newly charitable focus of St John, and established the concept of teaching first aid skills to civilians. The first classes were conducted in the hall of the Presbyterian school in Woolwich (near Woolwich barracks where Shepherd was based) using a comprehensive first aid curriculum.
First aid training began to spread through the British Empire through organisations such as St John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways.
The first recorded first aid training in the United States took place in Jermyn, Pennsylvania in 1899.
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# First aid
## Common emergences that require first aid in humans {#common_emergences_that_require_first_aid_in_humans}
List of common situations that require first aid, and information about them (in alphabetical order):
### Bleeding
*Main article: Emergency bleeding control#Wound management*
**Bleeding** or **hemorrhage** is the escape of blood from veins or arteries.
### Cardiac arrest (total stop of heartbeat) {#cardiac_arrest_total_stop_of_heartbeat}
**Cardiac arrest** is the complete stop of heart function.
### Choking
**Choking** is the obstruction of breathing caused by a blockage in the respiratory tract.
### Diabetes, hyperglycemia {#diabetes_hyperglycemia}
**Hyperglycemia** or **hyperglycaemia** is a condition in which an excessive level of glucose is present in the blood.
### Diabetes, hypoglycemia {#diabetes_hypoglycemia}
**Hypoglycemia** or **hypoglycaemia** is a condition in which an excessively low level of glucose is present in the blood.
It typically occurs due to complications with medication used to reduce blood sugar levels in diabetic patients.
### Drowning
**Drowning** in humans is a type of suffocation caused by both the nose and mouth being submerged in liquid.
The first aid for drowning is very similar to that of cardiorespiratory arrest.
### Infarction of the heart {#infarction_of_the_heart}
A **myocardial infarction**, commonly known as a **heart attack**, is the sudden reduction in or lack of blood flow in one of the coronary arteries in the heart, causing infarction (tissue death due to inadequate blood supply). Risk factors for myocardial infarctions include living a sedentary lifestyle, age (being over 45 for men and 55 for women), tobacco and alcohol use, stress, obesity, high chelesterol, family history, and diabetes.
### Stroke
A **stroke** is a sudden lack of blood supply to the brain caused by a burst or blocked artery.
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# First aid
## Aims of first aid {#aims_of_first_aid}
The primary goal of first aid is to prevent death or serious injury from worsening. The key aims of first aid can be summarized with the acronym of \'the three Ps\':
- **Preserve life:** The overriding aim of all medical care which includes first aid, is to save lives and minimize the threat of death. First aid done correctly should help reduce the patient\'s level of pain and calm them down during the evaluation and treatment process.
- **Prevent further harm:** Prevention of further harm includes addressing both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed from becoming dangerous.
- **Promote recovery:** First aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a small wound.
First aid is not medical treatment, and cannot be compared with what a trained medical professional provides. First aid involves making common sense decisions in the best interest of an injured person.
## Setting the priorities {#setting_the_priorities}
A first aid intervention would follow an order, which would try to attend in the best manner the main threats for the life and mobility of the victim.
There are some first aid protocols (such as ATLS, BATLS and SAFE-POINT) that define which are the priorities and the correct execution of the steps for saving human life. A major benefit of the use of official protocols is that they require minimum resources, time and skills, and have a great degree of success.
### ABCDE and csABCDE general protocol {#abcde_and_csabcde_general_protocol}
The **ABCDE** method is the general protocol of first aid and implies a quite general view.
It was initially developed by Dr Peter Safar in the 1950s. But it has received some modifications, improvements and variations that were intended for more specific contexts. For example: it has been completed with improvements from the ATLS (Advanced Trauma Life Support) version of the American College of Surgeons and the BATLS (Battlefield Advanced Trauma Life Support) version of the British Army.
As a result, the mnemonic of the steps of this protocol is **ABCDE**, or its improved version **(cs)ABCDE** (sometimes called **xABCDE**, the words in the mnemonic may vary), which represent:\
---An attached first part (named as \"cs\" or \"x\", or in any other way) that will always mention stopping the critical losses of blood and managing with a special and careful treatment to patients with serious damages at the spine that threaten their future mobility:
- **catastrophic-bleeding** (stopping urgently the massive external bleedings, as it is marked in the BATLS version).
- **spine-protection** (previous examination of the spine, and careful preventive treatment for its damages, as it is marked in the ATLS version).
---The ABCDE protocol itself:
- **Airway** (clearing airways).
- **Breathing** (ensuring respiration).
- **Circulation** (ensuring effective cardiac output).\
Any **Defibrillation** process for a cardiac arrest (total stop of heartbeat) would be included here, or in \'Disability\' (as a double mnemonic \'D\').
- **Disability** (neurological condition, level of glucose can also be examined).
- **Exposure** (or \'Evaluate\': other questions in an overall examination of the patient, environment).
### ABC and CABD cardiopulmonary resuscitation protocol {#abc_and_cabd_cardiopulmonary_resuscitation_protocol}
This protocol (originally named as **ABC**) is a simplified version or concrete application of the previous csABCDE (or ABCDE) protocol, that focuses in the use of cardio-pulmonary resuscitation. The American Heart Association and the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation teach it as a reference.
Its current mnemonic is **CABD** (an improvement in the sequence for most of the cases):
- **Circulation** or Chest **Compressions.**
- **Airway**: attempt to open the airway (using a head-tilt and chin-lift technique; not in the case of babies, which require avoid tilting the head).
- **Breathing** or Rescue **Breaths**.
- **Defibrillation**: use of an automated external defibrillator to recover heart function.
### Wider protocols {#wider_protocols}
These are the protocols that do not only deal with direct care to the victim but they also mention other complementary tasks (before and later).
#### European protocol {#european_protocol}
This method has been studied and employed for a long time in many European countries, as France. It is a reference, of a certain reputation, that could be applied solely or to a certain degree, usually combining it with the common csABCDE (ABCDE) method or its simplified CABD (ABC) variant about cardio-pulmonary resuscitation. The European method has a wider range than them, and their steps include tasks that are previous to the first aid techniques themselves.
These are its steps (with no official mnemonic that helps to remember them):
- **Protection** for patients and rescuers. If dangers are present, the patient would be moved to a safer place with a careful management of any detected spinal injury.
- **Evaluation** of the patient (looking for priorities as critical bleeding and cardiac arrest).
- **Alerting** to medical services and bystanders.
- **Performing** the first aid practices. The **CABD (or ABC)** method for cardio-pulmonary resuscitation and many details of the wider **csABCDE (or ABCDE)** method would be included in this step.
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# First aid
## Setting the priorities {#setting_the_priorities}
### Other mentionable protocols {#other_mentionable_protocols}
Some other known protocols that could be mentioned in many contexts (in alphabetical order):
**AMEGA protocol**
It is similar to the European protocol, because it also has a wider range than the common csABCDE (or ABCDE) protocol, and includes other tasks that are previous to the first aid techniques themselves. The order of the steps is changed, and the experience with it is lesser, but it adds the idea of a posterior \'aftermath\' phase.
The mnemonic AMEGA refers to:
- *Assess* the situation, looking for risks.
- *Make safe* the situation, after having identified the risks.
- *Emergency aid*. Performing the first aid practices.
- *Get help*. Asking for emergency help to medical services and bystanders.
- *Aftermath*. The aftermath tasks include recording and reporting, continued care of patients and the welfare of responders and the replacement of used first aid kit elements.
**ATLS and BATLS protocols**`{{See also|Advanced trauma life support|BATLS}}`{=mediawiki} `{{anchor|ATLS and BATLS}}`{=mediawiki}They are basically the common ABCDE and csABCDE protocol, but focusing in particular aspects.
The ATLS (Advanced Trauma Life Support) version was developed by the American College of Surgeons, focusing in the particular needs of trauma and specifically in the spinal injuries. And the BATLS (Battlefield Advanced Trauma Life Support) version is an improvement for the British Army that added the concept of \'catastrophic bleeding\'.
The preference for one or another among all these protocols can depend on the context and the audience.
#### Check, Call and Care protocol {#check_call_and_care_protocol}
It comes from Red Cross and, as the European protocol, has a wider range than the common csABCDE (ABCDE) method. So it could be seen as a simplification of the European protocol, and, especially, easier to remember as a guide for most of cases.
It mentions the following steps:
- *Check* the scene for safety of the rescuer and others, and check the patient\'s condition.
- *Call* to emergency medical services.
- *Care* the patient.
#### SAFE-POINT protocol {#safe_point_protocol}
Another European protocol, which appeared in the field of construction of Czech Republic to react to any emergence .
Their steps (which have not any mnemonic) are:
- *Safety of the rescuers.*
- *Calling* to emergency telephone number.
- *Bleeding*: treating the massive bleedings.
- *Freeing the airways*.
- *Resuscitation*: applying cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
- *Keeping warm* to the patient.
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# First aid
## Key basic skills {#key_basic_skills}
Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously.
### Displacement skills {#displacement_skills}
If there are dangers around (such as fire, electric dangers or others) the patient has to be moved to a safe place, (if it is safe for the first aid provider to do so), where providing the required first aid procedures is possible.
---**In case of a possible severe spinal injury:** when a patient seems to have a possible serious injury in the spinal cord (in the backbone, either at the neck part or the back part), that patient must not be moved except if that is necessary, and, when necessary, it must be done as little as possible and very carefully (see mentions about this type of injury in the gallery of drawings below). These precautions avoid many risks of causing further damages for the patient\'s mobility in the future.
Usually, the patient needs to end up lying down, in a face-up position, on a sufficiently firm surface (for example, on the floor, which allows to perform the chest compressions of cardiopulmonary resuscitation). `{{Gallery|File:Recovery_position_maneuver.jpg|—A victim with a serious injury in the spine (in the back or the neck), which indicates a risk to the future mobility, can be carefully transferred by several rescuers that work coordinately.<br />The victim’s head and back would be held in the same position they were.|File:Rautek-maneuver.png|—When there is a victim with a serious injury in the spine (in the back or the neck) and a rescuer without instruments, the rescuer can try to carry the victim carefully through the Rautek maneuver (as in the picture), trying to keep victim’s head and back in the same position they were.<br />The victim's head can be supported on the rescuer to try to soften the movements.<br />A second rescuer can hold the legs.|File:Blanket-Pull.png|—A victim without a serious injury in the spine (in the back or the neck) can be pulled through the floor, which is easier on a blanket, carpet or another tissue located under most of the body.<br />—Carrying on a base to victims with a suspected spinal injury would require to place them carefully, while keeping their head and back in the same position they were, on a higher or much thicker base (as a litter or mattress), for a better displacement.|width=225|height=225|align=center|title=Displacement of victims to a safe place}}`{=mediawiki}
### Checking skills {#checking_skills}
They evaluate the condition of the victim, first attending to the main threats for life.
The preferred initial way of checking consist of asking, commonly by touching the patient in one of his shoulders and shouting something, such as: \"can you hear me?\"
In some cases, the victim has a wound that bleeds abundantly, which requires its own additional treatment to stop the blood loss (usually, it would begin by keeping the wound pressed).
If the patient does not react, the heartbeats can be checked in the carotid pulse: placing two fingers on any side of the neck (on the left or the right side), near his head. In cases where checking the carotid pulse is impossible, heartbeats can be perceived in the radial pulse: placing two fingers on a wrist, under the part of the thumb, and applying moderate pressure. Breathing can also be checked additionally, placing an ear on the mouth and, at the same time, watching the chest rising by the effect of the air. It is recommended not to waste too much time of first aid in checking (professional rescuers are taught to take 10 seconds in it).
### Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) {#cardiopulmonary_resuscitation_cpr}
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is the method of first aid for treating victims of cardiac arrest (complete stop of heartbeat).
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# First aid
## Key basic skills {#key_basic_skills}
### Airway, Breathing, and Circulation skills {#airway_breathing_and_circulation_skills}
ABC method stands for *Airway*, *Breathing*, and *Circulation*. The same mnemonic is used by emergency health professionals.
It is focused on critical life-saving intervention, and it must be rendered before treatment of less serious injuries.
Attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear. An obstruction (choking) is a life-threatening emergency. If an object blocks the airway, it requires anti-choking procedures. Following any evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and provide rescue breathing if safe to do so.
Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions (and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients.
Some organizations add a fourth step of \"D\" for *Deadly bleeding* or *Defibrillation*, while others consider this as part of the *Circulation* step simply referred as Disability. Variations on techniques to evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider. Once the ABCs are secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments or examination, as required if they possess the proper training (such as measuring pupil dilation).
Some organizations teach the same order of priority using the \"3Bs\": *Breathing*, *Bleeding*, and *Bones* (or \"4Bs\": *Breathing*, *Bleeding*, *Burns*, and *Bones*). While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously. This includes the provision of both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse, and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway.
#### Preserving life {#preserving_life}
The patient must have an open airway---that is, an unobstructed passage that allows air to travel from the open mouth or uncongested nose, down through the pharynx and into the lungs. Conscious people maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to do so, as the part of the brain that manages spontaneous breathing may not be functioning.
Whether conscious or not, the patient may be placed in the recovery position, laying on their side. In addition to relaxing the patient, this can have the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach contents.
The airway can also become blocked by a foreign object. To dislodge the object and solve the choking case, the first aider may use anti-choking methods (such as \'back slaps, \'chest thrusts\' or \'abdominal thrusts\').
Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would reassess the patient\'s breathing. If there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally (e.g., agonal breathing), the first aider would initiate CPR, which attempts to restart the patient\'s breathing by forcing air into the lungs. They may also manually massage the heart to promote blood flow around the body.
If the choking person is an infant, the first aider may use anti-choking methods for babies. During that procedure, series of five strong blows are delivered on the infant\'s upper back after placing the infant\'s face in the aider\'s forearm. If the infant is able to cough or cry, no breathing assistance should be given. Chest thrusts can also be applied with two fingers on the lower half of the middle of the chest. Coughing and crying indicate the airway is open and the foreign object will likely to come out from the force the coughing or crying produces.
A first responder should know how to use an Automatic External Defibrillator (AED) in the case of a person having a sudden cardiac arrest. The survival rate of those who have a cardiac arrest outside of the hospital is low. Permanent brain damage sets in after five minutes of no oxygen delivery, so rapid action on the part of the rescuer is necessary. An AED is a device that can examine a heartbeat and produce electric shocks to restart the heart.
A first aider should be prepared to quickly deal with less severe problems such as cuts, grazes or bone fracture. They may be able to completely resolve a situation if they have the proper training and equipment. For situations that are more severe, complex or dangerous, a first aider might need to do the best they can with the equipment they have, and wait for an ambulance to arrive at the scene.
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# First aid
## First aid kits {#first_aid_kits}
A first aid kit consists of a strong, durable bag or transparent plastic box. They are commonly identified with a white cross on a green background. A first aid kit does not have to be bought ready-made. The advantage of ready-made first aid kits are that they have well organized compartments and familiar layouts.
### Contents
There is no universal agreement upon the list for the contents of a first aid kit. The UK Health and Safety Executive stress that the contents of workplace first aid kits will vary according to the nature of the work activities. As an example of possible contents of a kit, British Standard BS 8599 *First Aid Kits for the Workplace* lists the following items:
- Information leaflet
- Medium sterile dressings
- Large sterile dressings
- Bandages
- Triangular dressings
- Safety pins
- Adhesive dressings
- Sterile wet wipes
- Microporous tape
- Nitrile gloves
- Face shield
- Foil blanket
- Burn dressings
- Clothing shears
- Conforming bandages
- Finger dressing
- Antiseptic cream
- Scissors
- Tweezers
- Cotton
## Training principles {#training_principles}
Basic principles, such as knowing the use of adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences. However, to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training. This is especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require CPR; these procedures may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs *before* an actual emergency. And, in many countries, calling emergency medical services allows listening basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is on the way.
Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary. First aid training is often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee. This commercial training is most common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many community organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes.
1.Junior level certificate Basic Life Support
2.Senior level certificate
3.Special certificate
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# First aid
## Training principles {#training_principles}
### Types of first aid which require training {#types_of_first_aid_which_require_training}
There are several types of first aid (and first aider) that require specific additional training. These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken.
- **Aquatic/Marine first aid** is usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards, professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be faced after water-based rescue or delayed MedEvac.
- **Battlefield first aid** takes into account the specific needs of treating wounded combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict.
- Conflict First Aid focuses on support for stability and recovery of personal, social, group or system well-being and to address circumstantial safety needs.
- **Hyperbaric first aid** may be practiced by underwater diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such as decompression sickness.
- **Oxygen first aid** is the providing of oxygen to casualties with conditions resulting in hypoxia. It is also a standard first aid procedure for underwater diving incidents where gas bubble formation in the tissues is possible.
- **Wilderness first aid** is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days.
- **Mental health first aid** is taught independently of physical first aid. How to support someone experiencing a mental health problem or in a crisis situation. Also how to identify the first signs of someone developing mental ill health and guide people towards appropriate help.
## First aid services {#first_aid_services}
Some people undertake specific training in order to provide first aid at public or private events, during filming, or other places where people gather. They may be designated as a *first aider*, or use some other title. This role may be undertaken on a voluntary basis, with organisations such as the Red Cross society and St. John Ambulance, or as paid employment with a medical contractor.
People performing a first aid role, whether in a professional or voluntary capacity, are often expected to have a high level of first aid training and are often uniformed.
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# First aid
## Symbols
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross. According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the **International Red Cross and Red Crescent**, and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations. Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution.
The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown below.
Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance. Other symbols may also be used.
<File:Star> of life2.svg\|Star of Life <File:CivilDefence.svg>\|Civil defense <File:Flag> of the Red Crystal.svg\|Emblem of the Red Crystal <File:Flag> of the Red Crescent.svg\|Emblem of the Red Crescent <File:Flag> of the Red Cross.svg\|Emblem of the Red Cross <File:ISO> 7010 E003 - Crescent Symbol.svg\|ISO First Aid Symbol (Crescent variant) <File:ISO> 7010 E003 - First aid sign.svg\|ISO First Aid Symbol <File:Maltese-Cross-Heraldry
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# Foundationalism
**Foundationalism** concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon non-inferential justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises. The main rival of the **foundationalist theory of justification** is the coherence theory of justification, whereby a body of knowledge, not requiring a secure foundation, can be established by the interlocking strength of its components, like a puzzle solved without prior certainty that each small region was solved correctly.
Identifying the alternatives as either circular reasoning or infinite regress, and thus exhibiting the regress problem, Aristotle made foundationalism his own clear choice, positing basic beliefs underpinning others. Descartes, the most famed foundationalist, discovered a foundation in the fact of his own existence and in the \"clear and distinct\" ideas of reason, whereas Locke found a foundation in experience. Differing foundations may reflect differing epistemological emphases---empiricists emphasizing *experience*, rationalists emphasizing *reason*---but may blend both.
In the 1930s, debate over foundationalism revived. Whereas Moritz Schlick viewed scientific knowledge like a pyramid where a special class of statements does not require verification through other beliefs and serves as a foundation, Otto Neurath argued that scientific knowledge lacks an ultimate foundation and acts like a raft. In the 1950s, the dominance of foundationalism was challenged by a number of philosophers such as Willard Van Orman Quine and Wilfrid Sellars. Quine\'s ontological relativity found any belief networked`{{clarification needed|date=May 2021}}`{=mediawiki} to one\'s beliefs on all of reality, while auxiliary beliefs somewhere in the vast network are readily modified to protect desired beliefs.
Classically, foundationalism had posited infallibility of basic beliefs and deductive reasoning between beliefs---a strong foundationalism. Around 1975, weak foundationalism emerged. Thus recent foundationalists have variously allowed fallible basic beliefs, and inductive reasoning between them, either by enumerative induction or by inference to the best explanation. And whereas internalists require cognitive access to justificatory means, externalists find justification without such access.
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# Foundationalism
## History
Foundationalism was initiated by French early modern philosopher René Descartes. In his *Meditations*, Descartes challenged the contemporary principles of philosophy by arguing that everything he knew he learnt from or through his senses. He used various arguments to challenge the reliability of the senses, citing previous errors and the possibilities that he was dreaming or being deceived by an Evil Demon which rendered all of his beliefs about the external world false. Descartes attempted to establish the secure foundations for knowledge to avoid scepticism. He contrasted the information provided by senses, which is unclear and uncertain, with the truths of geometry, which are clear and distinct. Geometrical truths are also certain and indubitable; Descartes thus attempted to find truths which were clear and distinct because they would be indubitably true and a suitable foundation for knowledge. His method was to question all of his beliefs until he reached something clear and distinct that was indubitably true. The result was his *cogito ergo sum*---\'I think therefore I am\', or the belief that he was thinking---as his indubitable belief suitable as a foundation for knowledge. This resolved Descartes\' problem of the Evil Demon. Even if his beliefs about the external world were false, his beliefs about what he was experiencing were still indubitably true, even if those perceptions do not relate to anything in the world.
Several other philosophers of the early modern period, including John Locke, G. W. Leibniz, George Berkeley, David Hume, and Thomas Reid, accepted foundationalism as well. Baruch Spinoza was interpreted as metaphysical foundationalist by G. W. F. Hegel, a proponent of coherentism. Immanuel Kant\'s foundationalism rests on his theory of categories.
In late modern philosophy, foundationalism was defended by J. G. Fichte in his book *Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre* (1794/1795), Wilhelm Windelband in his book *Über die Gewißheit der Erkenntniss* (1873), and Gottlob Frege in his book *Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik* (1884).
In contemporary philosophy, foundationalism has been defended by Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell and John McDowell.
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# Foundationalism
## Definition
Foundationalism is an attempt to respond to the regress problem of justification in epistemology. According to this argument, every proposition requires justification to support it, but any justification also needs to be justified itself. If this goes on *ad infinitum*, it is not clear how anything in the chain could be justified. Foundationalism holds that there are \'basic beliefs\' which serve as foundations to anchor the rest of our beliefs. Strong versions of the theory assert that an indirectly justified belief is completely justified by basic beliefs; more moderate theories hold that indirectly justified beliefs require basic beliefs to be justified, but can be further justified by other factors.
Since ancient Greece, Western philosophy has pursued a solid foundation as the ultimate and eternal reference system for all knowledge. This foundation serves not only as a starting point but also as the fundamental basis for understanding the truth of existence. Thinking is the process of proving the validity of knowledge, not proving the rationality of the foundation from which knowledge is shaped. This means, with ultimate cause, the foundation is true, absolute, entire and impossible to prove. Neopragmatist philosopher Richard Rorty, a proponent of anti-foundationalism, said that the fundamentalism confirmed the existence of the *privileged representation* which constitutes the foundation, from which dominates epistemology.`{{clarify|from which dominates|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki} The earliest foundationalism is Plato\'s theory of Forms, which shows the general concept as a model for the release of existence, which is only the faint copy of the Forms of eternity, that means, understanding the expression of objects leads to acquiring all knowledge, then acquiring knowledge accompanies achieving the truth. Achieving the truth means understanding the foundation. This idea still has some appeal in for example international relations studies.
### Classical foundationalism {#classical_foundationalism}
Foundationalism holds basic beliefs exist, which are justified without reference to other beliefs, and that nonbasic beliefs must ultimately be justified by basic beliefs. Classical foundationalism maintains that basic beliefs must be infallible if they are to justify nonbasic beliefs, and that only deductive reasoning can be used to transfer justification from one belief to another. Laurence BonJour has argued that the classical formulation of foundationalism requires basic beliefs to be infallible, incorrigible, indubitable, and certain if they are to be adequately justified. Mental states and immediate experience are often taken as good candidates for basic beliefs because it is argued that beliefs about these do not need further support to be justified.
### Modest foundationalism {#modest_foundationalism}
As an alternative to the classic view, modest foundationalism does not require that basic perceptual beliefs are infallible, but holds that it is reasonable to assume that perceptual beliefs are justified unless evidence to the contrary exists. This is still foundationalism because it maintains that all non-basic beliefs must be ultimately justified by basic beliefs, but it does not require that basic beliefs are infallible and allows inductive reasoning as an acceptable form of inference. For example, a belief that \'I see red\' could be defeated with psychological evidence showing my mind to be confused or inattentive. Modest foundationalism can also be used to avoid the problem of inference. Even if perceptual beliefs are infallible, it is not clear that they can infallibly ground empirical knowledge (even if my belief that the table looks red to me is infallible, the inference to the belief that the table actually is red might not be infallible). Modest foundationalism does not require this link between perception and reality to be so strong; our perception of a table being yellow is adequate justification to believe that this is the case, even if it is not infallible.
Reformed epistemology is a form of modest foundationalism which takes religious beliefs as basic because they are non-inferentially justified: their justification arises from religious experience, rather than prior beliefs. This takes a modest approach to foundationalism---religious beliefs are not taken to be infallible, but are assumed to be *prima facie* justified unless evidence arises to the contrary.
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# Foundationalism
## Definition
### Internalism and externalism {#internalism_and_externalism}
Foundationalism can take internalist and externalist forms. Internalism requires that a believer\'s justification for a belief must be accessible to them for it to be justified. Foundationalist internalists have held that basic beliefs are justified by mental events or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs. Alternatively, basic beliefs may be justified by some special property of the belief itself, such as its being self-evident or infallible. Externalism maintains that it is unnecessary for the means of justification of a belief to be accessible to the believer.
Reliabilism is an externalist foundationalist theory, initially proposed by Alvin Goldman, which argues that a belief is justified if it is reliably produced, meaning that it will be probably true. Goldman distinguished between two kinds of justification for beliefs: belief-dependent and belief-independent. A belief-dependent process uses prior beliefs to produce new beliefs; a belief-independent process does not, using other stimuli instead. Beliefs produced this way are justified because the processes that cause them are reliable; this might be because we have evolved to reach good conclusions when presented with sense-data, meaning the conclusions we draw from our senses are usually true.
## Criticisms
Critics of foundationalism often argue that for a belief to be justified it must be supported by other beliefs; in Donald Davidson\'s phrase, \"only a belief can be a reason for another belief\". For instance, Wilfrid Sellars argued that non-doxastic mental states cannot be reasons, and so noninferential warrant cannot be derived from them. Similarly, critics of externalist foundationalism argue that only mental states or properties the believer is aware of could make a belief justified.
Postmodernists and post-structuralists such as Richard Rorty and Jacques Derrida have attacked foundationalism on the grounds that the truth of a statement or discourse is only verifiable in accordance with other statements and discourses. Rorty in particular elaborates further on this, claiming that the individual, the community, the human body as a whole have a \'means by which they know the world\' (this entails language, culture, semiotic systems, mathematics, science etc.). In order to verify particular means, or particular statements belonging to certain means (e.g., the propositions of the natural sciences), a person would have to \'step outside\' the means and critique them neutrally, in order to provide a foundation for adopting them. However, this is impossible. The only way in which one can know the world is through the means by which they know the world; a method cannot justify itself. This argument can be seen as directly related to Wittgenstein\'s theory of language, drawing a parallel between postmodernism and late logical positivism that is united in critique of foundationalism
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# Frame problem
In artificial intelligence, with implications for cognitive science, the **frame problem** describes an issue with using first-order logic to express facts about a robot in the world. Representing the state of a robot with traditional first-order logic requires the use of many axioms that simply imply that things in the environment do not change arbitrarily. For example, Hayes describes a \"block world\" with rules about stacking blocks together. In a first-order logic system, additional axioms are required to make inferences about the environment (for example, that a block cannot change position unless it is physically moved). The frame problem is the problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment.
John McCarthy and Patrick J. Hayes defined this problem in their 1969 article, *Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence*. In this paper, and many that came after, the formal mathematical problem was a starting point for more general discussions of the difficulty of knowledge representation for artificial intelligence. Issues such as how to provide rational default assumptions and what humans consider common sense in a virtual environment.
In philosophy, the frame problem became more broadly construed in connection with the problem of limiting the beliefs that have to be updated in response to actions. In the logical context, actions are typically specified by what they change, with the implicit assumption that everything else (the frame) remains unchanged.
## Description
The frame problem occurs even in very simple domains. A scenario with a door, which can be open or closed, and a light, which can be on or off, is statically represented by two propositions $\mathrm{open}$ and $\mathrm{on}$. If these conditions can change, they are better represented by two predicates $\mathrm{open}(t)$ and $\mathrm{on}(t)$ that depend on time; such predicates are called fluents. A domain in which the door is closed and the light off at time 0, and the door opened at time 1, can be directly represented in logic `{{clarify|reason=What kind of logic? [Old reason: If ordinary predicate logic is meant, what is the purpose of the 'true →' in the 3rd formula? If some other logic (situation calculus?) is meant, it should be stated explicitly here, together with the purpose of the 'true →' (e.g. some empty action?) in that logic.] (Changed, although it might need to be reverted.)|date=August 2013}}`{=mediawiki} by the following formulae:
$$\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$$
$$\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$$
$$\mathrm{open}(1)$$
The first two formulae represent the initial situation; the third formula represents the effect of executing the action of opening the door at time 1. If such an action had preconditions, such as the door being unlocked, it would have been represented by $\neg \mathrm{locked}(0) \implies \mathrm{open}(1)$. In practice, one would have a predicate $\mathrm{executeopen}(t)$ for specifying when an action is executed and a rule $\forall t . \mathrm{executeopen}(t) \implies \mathrm{open}(t+1)$ for specifying the effects of actions. The article on the situation calculus gives more details.
While the three formulae above are a direct expression in logic of what is known, they do not suffice to correctly draw consequences. While the following conditions (representing the expected situation) are consistent with the three formulae above, they are not the only ones.
: {\|
\| $\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$ \|\| $\mathrm{open}(1)$ \|- \| $\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$ \|\| $\neg \mathrm{on}(1)$ \|}
Indeed, another set of conditions that is consistent with the three formulae above is:
: {\|
\| $\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$ \|\| $\mathrm{open}(1)$ \|- \| $\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$ \|\| $\mathrm{on}(1)$ \|}
The frame problem is that specifying only which conditions are changed by the actions does not entail that all other conditions are not changed. This problem can be solved by adding the so-called "frame axioms", which explicitly specify that all conditions not affected by actions are not changed while executing that action. For example, since the action executed at time 0 is that of opening the door, a frame axiom would state that the status of the light does not change from time 0 to time 1:
$$\mathrm{on}(0) \iff \mathrm{on}(1)$$
The frame problem is that one such frame axiom is necessary for every pair of action and condition such that the action does not affect the condition.`{{clarify|reason=Shouldn't then the frame axiom be the following modification of the above rule: '∀t.executeopen(t)→open(t+1)∧(on(t+1)↔on(t))' ? In contrast, the formula 'on(0)↔on(1)' seems to be too particular taylored to the 'executeopen(0)' situation.|date=August 2013}}`{=mediawiki} In other words, the problem is that of formalizing a dynamical domain without explicitly specifying the frame axioms.
The solution proposed by McCarthy to solve this problem involves assuming that a minimal amount of condition changes have occurred; this solution is formalized using the framework of circumscription. The Yale shooting problem, however, shows that this solution is not always correct. Alternative solutions were then proposed, involving predicate completion, fluent occlusion, successor state axioms, etc.; they are explained below. By the end of the 1980s, the frame problem as defined by McCarthy and Hayes was solved`{{clarify|reason=Mention the (combination of) approach(es) by which the frame problem was solved.|date=August 2013}}`{=mediawiki}. Even after that, however, the term "frame problem" was still used, in part to refer to the same problem but under different settings (e.g., concurrent actions), and in part to refer to the general problem of representing and reasoning with dynamical domains.
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# Frame problem
## Solutions
The following solutions depict how the frame problem is solved in various formalisms. The formalisms themselves are not presented in full: what is presented are simplified versions that are sufficient to explain the full solution.
### Fluent occlusion solution {#fluent_occlusion_solution}
This solution was proposed by Erik Sandewall, who also defined a formal language for the specification of dynamical domains; therefore, such a domain can be first expressed in this language and then automatically translated into logic. In this article, only the expression in logic is shown, and only in the simplified language with no action names.
The rationale of this solution is to represent not only the value of conditions over time, but also whether they can be affected by the last executed action. The latter is represented by another condition, called occlusion. A condition is said to be *occluded* in a given time point if an action has been just executed that makes the condition true or false as an effect. Occlusion can be viewed as "permission to change": if a condition is occluded, it is relieved from obeying the constraint of inertia.
In the simplified example of the door and the light, occlusion can be formalized by two predicates $\mathrm{occludeopen}(t)$ and $\mathrm{occludeon}(t)$. The rationale is that a condition can change value only if the corresponding occlusion predicate is true at the next time point. In turn, the occlusion predicate is true only when an action affecting the condition is executed.
$$\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$$
$$\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$$
$$\mathrm{open}(1) \wedge \mathrm{occludeopen}(1)$$
$$\forall t . \neg \mathrm{occludeopen}(t) \implies (\mathrm{open}(t-1) \iff \mathrm{open}(t))$$
$$\forall t . \neg \mathrm{occludeon}(t) \implies (\mathrm{on}(t-1) \iff \mathrm{on}(t))$$
In general, every action making a condition true or false also makes the corresponding occlusion predicate true. In this case, $\mathrm{occludeopen}(1)$ is true, making the antecedent of the fourth formula above false for $t=1$; therefore, the constraint that $\mathrm{open}(t-1) \iff \mathrm{open}(t)$ does not hold for $t=1$. Therefore, $\mathrm{open}$ can change value, which is also what is enforced by the third formula.
In order for this condition to work, occlusion predicates have to be true only when they are made true as an effect of an action. This can be achieved either by circumscription or by predicate completion. It is worth noticing that occlusion does not necessarily imply a change: for example, executing the action of opening the door when it was already open (in the formalization above) makes the predicate $\mathrm{occludeopen}$ true and makes $\mathrm{open}$ true; however, $\mathrm{open}$ has not changed value, as it was true already.
### Predicate completion solution {#predicate_completion_solution}
This encoding is similar to the fluent occlusion solution, but the additional predicates denote change, not permission to change. For example, $\mathrm{changeopen}(t)$ represents the fact that the predicate $\mathrm{open}$ will change from time $t$ to $t+1$. As a result, a predicate changes if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true. An action results in a change if and only if it makes true a condition that was previously false or vice versa.
$$\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$$
$$\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$$
$$\neg \mathrm{open}(0) \implies \mathrm{changeopen}(0)$$
$$\forall t. \mathrm{changeopen}(t) \iff (\neg \mathrm{open}(t) \iff \mathrm{open}(t+1))$$
$$\forall t. \mathrm{changeon}(t) \iff (\neg \mathrm{on}(t) \iff \mathrm{on}(t+1))$$
The third formula is a different way of saying that opening the door causes the door to be opened. Precisely, it states that opening the door changes the state of the door if it had been previously closed. The last two conditions state that a condition changes value at time $t$ if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true at time $t$. To complete the solution, the time points in which the change predicates are true have to be as few as possible, and this can be done by applying predicate completion to the rules specifying the effects of actions.
### Successor state axioms solution {#successor_state_axioms_solution}
The value of a condition after the execution of an action can be determined by the fact that the condition is true if and only if:
1. the action makes the condition true; or
2. the condition was previously true and the action does not make it false.
A successor state axiom is a formalization in logic of these two facts. For example, if $\mathrm{opendoor}(t)$ and $\mathrm{closedoor}(t)$ are two conditions used to denote that the action executed at time $t$ was to open or close the door, respectively, the running example is encoded as follows.
: $\neg \mathrm{open}(0)$
: $\neg \mathrm{on}(0)$
: $\mathrm{opendoor}(0)$
: $\forall t . \mathrm{open}(t+1) \iff \mathrm{opendoor}(t) \vee (\mathrm{open}(t) \wedge \neg \mathrm{closedoor}(t))$
This solution is centered around the value of conditions, rather than the effects of actions. In other words, there is an axiom for every condition, rather than a formula for every action. Preconditions to actions (which are not present in this example) are formalized by other formulae. The successor state axioms are used in the variant to the situation calculus proposed by Ray Reiter.
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# Frame problem
## Solutions
### Fluent calculus solution {#fluent_calculus_solution}
The fluent calculus is a variant of the situation calculus. It solves the frame problem by using first-order logic terms, rather than predicates, to represent the states. Converting predicates into terms in first-order logic is called reification; the fluent calculus can be seen as a logic in which predicates representing the state of conditions are reified.
The difference between a predicate and a term in first-order logic is that a term is a representation of an object (possibly a complex object composed of other objects), while a predicate represents a condition that can be true or false when evaluated over a given set of terms.
In the fluent calculus, each possible state is represented by a term obtained by composition of other terms, each one representing the conditions that are true in state. For example, the state in which the door is open and the light is on is represented by the term $\mathrm{open} \circ \mathrm{on}$. It is important to notice that a term is not true or false by itself, as it is an object and not a condition. In other words, the term $\mathrm{open} \circ \mathrm{on}$ represent a possible state, and does not by itself mean that this is the current state. A separate condition can be stated to specify that this is actually the state at a given time, e.g., $\mathrm{state}(\mathrm{open} \circ \mathrm{on}, 10)$ means that this is the state at time $10$.
The solution to the frame problem given in the fluent calculus is to specify the effects of actions by stating how a term representing the state changes when the action is executed. For example, the action of opening the door at time 0 is represented by the formula:
: $\mathrm{state}(s \circ \mathrm{open}, 1) \iff \mathrm{state}(s,0)$
The action of closing the door, which makes a condition false instead of true, is represented in a slightly different way:
: $\mathrm{state}(s, 1) \iff \mathrm{state}(s \circ \mathrm{open}, 0)$
This formula works provided that suitable axioms are given about $\mathrm{state}$ and $\circ$, e.g., a term containing the same condition twice is not a valid state (for example, $\mathrm{state}(\mathrm{open} \circ s \circ \mathrm{open}, t)$ is always false for every $s$ and $t$).
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# Frame problem
## Solutions
### Event calculus solution {#event_calculus_solution}
The event calculus uses terms for representing fluents, like the fluent calculus, but also has one or more axioms constraining the value of fluents, like the successor state axioms. There are many variants of the event calculus, but one of the simplest and most useful employs a single axiom to represent the law of inertia:
$$\mathit{holdsAt}(F,T2) \leftarrow$$
$$[\mathit{happensAt}(E1,T1) \wedge \mathit{initiates}(E1, F, T1) \wedge (T1 < T2) \wedge$$
$$\neg \exists E2, T [\mathit{happensAt}(E2, T) \wedge \mathit{terminates}(E2, F, T) \wedge (T1 \leq T < T2)]$$
The axiom states that a fluent $F$ holds at a time $T2$, if an event $E1$ happens and initiates $F$ at an earlier time $T1$, and there is no event $E2$ that happens and terminates $F$ after or at the same time as $T1$ and before $T2$.
To apply the event calculus to a particular problem domain, it is necessary to define the $initiates$ and $terminates$ predicates for that domain. For example:
$$\mathit{initiates}(opendoor, open, T).$$
$$\mathit{terminates}(opendoor, closed, T).$$
$$\mathit{initiates}(closedoor, closed, T).$$
$$\mathit{terminates}(closeddoor, open, T).$$
To apply the event calculus to a particular problem in the domain, it is necessary to specify the events that happen in the context of the problem. For example:
: $\mathit{happensAt}(opendoor, 0)$.
: $\mathit{happensAt}(closedoor, 3)$.
To solve a problem, such as *which fluents hold at time 5?*, it is necessary to pose the problem as a goal, such as:
$$\exists Fluent [\mathit{holdsAt(Fluent, 5)}].$$
In this case, obtaining the unique solution:
$$Fluent = closed.$$
The event calculus solves the frame problem, eliminating undesired solutions, by using a non-monotonic logic, such as first-order logic with circumscription or by treating the event calculus as a logic program using negation as failure.
### Default logic solution {#default_logic_solution}
The frame problem can be thought of as the problem of formalizing the principle that, by default, \"everything is presumed to remain in the state in which it is\" (Leibniz, \"An Introduction to a Secret Encyclopædia\", *c*. 1679). This default, sometimes called the *commonsense law of inertia*, was expressed by Raymond Reiter in default logic:
: $\frac{R(x,s)\; :\ R(x,\mathrm{do}(a,s))}{R(x,\mathrm{do}(a,s))}$
(if $R(x)$ is true in situation $s$, and it can be assumed that $R(x)$ remains true after executing action $a$, then we can conclude that $R(x)$ remains true).
Steve Hanks and Drew McDermott argued, on the basis of their Yale shooting example, that this solution to the frame problem is unsatisfactory. Hudson Turner showed, however, that it works correctly in the presence of appropriate additional postulates.
### Answer set programming solution {#answer_set_programming_solution}
The counterpart of the default logic solution in the language of answer set programming is a rule with strong negation:
$$r(X,T+1) \leftarrow r(X,T),\ \hbox{not }\sim r(X,T+1)$$
(if $r(X)$ is true at time $T$, and it can be assumed that $r(X)$ remains true at time $T+1$, then we can conclude that $r(X)$ remains true).
### Separation logic solution {#separation_logic_solution}
Separation logic is a formalism for reasoning about computer programs using pre/post specifications of the form $\{\mathrm{precondition}\}\ \mathrm{code}\ \{\mathrm{postcondition}\}$. Separation logic is an extension of Hoare logic oriented to reasoning about mutable data structures in computer memory and other dynamic resources, and it has a special connective \*, pronounced \"and separately\", to support independent reasoning about disjoint memory regions.
Separation logic employs a *tight* interpretation of pre/post specs, which say that the code can *only* access memory locations guaranteed to exist by the precondition. This leads to the soundness of the most important inference rule of the logic, the *frame rule*
$\frac{ \{\mathrm{precondition}\}\ \mathrm{code}\ \{\mathrm{postcondition}\} }{ \{\mathrm{precondition} \ast \mathrm{frame}\}\ \mathrm{code}\ \{\mathrm{postcondition} \ast \mathrm{frame}\} }$
The frame rule allows descriptions of arbitrary memory outside the footprint (memory accessed) of the code to be added to a specification: this enables the initial specification to concentrate only on the footprint. For example, the inference
$\frac{ \{\operatorname{list}(x)\}\ \mathrm{code}\ \{\operatorname{sortedlist}(x)\} }{ \{\operatorname{list}(x) \ast \operatorname{sortedlist}(y)\}\ \mathrm{code}\ \{\operatorname{sortedlist}(x) \ast \operatorname{sortedlist}(y)\} }$
captures that code which sorts a list *x* does not unsort a separate list *y,* and it does this without mentioning *y* at all in the initial spec above the line.
Automation of the frame rule has led to significant increases in the scalability of automated reasoning techniques for code, eventually deployed industrially to codebases with tens of millions of lines.
There appears to be some similarity between the separation logic solution to the frame problem and that of the fluent calculus mentioned above.`{{explain|date=May 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
### Action description languages {#action_description_languages}
Action description languages elude the frame problem rather than solving it. An action description language is a formal language with a syntax that is specific for describing situations and actions. For example, that the action $\mathrm{opendoor}$ makes the door open if not locked is expressed by:
: $\mathrm{opendoor}$ causes $\mathrm{open}$ if $\neg \mathrm{locked}$
The semantics of an action description language depends on what the language can express (concurrent actions, delayed effects, etc.) and is usually based on transition systems.
Since domains are expressed in these languages rather than directly in logic, the frame problem only arises when a specification given in an action description logic is to be translated into logic. Typically, however, a translation is given from these languages to answer set programming rather than first-order logic
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# Frans Eemil Sillanpää
**Frans Eemil Sillanpää** (`{{IPA|fi|frɑns ˈeːmil ˈsilːɑmˌpæː|pron|Fi-Frans_Eemil_Sillanpää.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; 16 September 1888 -- 3 June 1964) was a Finnish writer. In 1939, he became the first Finnish writer to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature \"for his deep understanding of his country\'s peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature\".
## Early life {#early_life}
Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant farming family in Hämeenkyrö. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in Tampere. At school Sillanpää was a good student and with aid from his benefactor Henrik Liljeroos he entered the University of Helsinki in 1908 to study medicine. His acquaintances at university included the painters Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen, composer Jean Sibelius and author Juhani Aho.
## Career
In 1913 Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing. In 1914 Sillanpää wrote articles for the newspaper *Uusi Suometar*. In 1916 Sillanpää married Sigrid Maria Salomäki, whom he had met in 1914.
By principle, Sillanpää was against all forms of violence and believed in scientific optimism. In his work he portrayed rural people as living united with the land.
The novel *Hurskas kurjuus* (Meek Heritage) (1919) depicted the reasons for Finnish Civil War and was controversial at the time due to its objective approach.
Sillanpää won international fame for his novel *Nuorena nukkunut* (translated to English as *The Maid Silja*) in 1931.
In 1939, Sillanpää was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature \"for his deep understanding of his country\'s peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature.\" A few days after he received the prize, talks between Finland and Soviet Union broke down and the Winter War began. Sillanpää traveled to Stockholm to receive the Nobel Prize and donated the golden medal to be melted for funds to aid the war effort.
Before the Winter War, Sillanpää wrote the lyrics for *Sillanpään marssilaulu* to lift his spirits when his eldest son Esko was partaking in military practices at Karelian Isthmus.
In 1939, Sillanpää\'s wife Sigrid died of pneumonia leaving him with eight children. Some time after, Sillanpää married his secretary Anna von Hertzen (1900--1983).
In 1941 Sillanpää divorced his wife Anna. His alcoholism and other ailments needed hospital treatment. In 1943 he returned to public life as a bearded old \'Grandpa Sillanpää\'. His radio appearances, especially his tradition of speaking on Christmas Eve from 1945 to 1963 attracted listeners.
The asteroid 1446 Sillanpää, discovered on January 26, 1938, by Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him.
## Death
Sillanpää died on 3 June 1964 in Helsinki aged 75.
## Works
- *Elämä ja aurinko* (1916)
- *Ihmislapsia elämän saatossa* (1917)
- *Hurskas kurjuus* (translated as *Meek Heritage*) (1919)
- *Rakas isänmaani* (1919)
- *Hiltu ja Ragnar* (1923)
- *Enkelten suojatit* (1923)
- *Omistani ja omilleni* (1924)
- *Maan tasalta* (1924)
- *Töllinmäki* (1925)
- *Rippi* (1928)
- *Kiitos hetkistä, Herra\...* (1930)
- *Nuorena nukkunut* (translated as *The Maid Silja*) (1931)
- *Miehen tie* (1932)
- *Virranpohjalta* (1933)
- (translated as *People in the Summer Night*) (1934)
- *Viidestoista* (1936)
- *Elokuu* (1941)
- *Ihmiselon ihanuus ja kurjuus* (1945)
## Films
Numerous of his works have been made into films:
- *Nuorena nukkunut*, Teuvo Tulio. 1937
- *One Man\'s Faith*, Nyrki Tapiovaara and Hugo Hytönen. 1940
- *Ihmiset suviyössä*, Valentin Vaala. 1948
- *Poika eli kesäänsä*, Roland af Hällström. 1955 (based on novel *Elämä ja aurinko*)
- *The Harvest Month*, Matti Kassila. 1956
- *Silja -- nuorena nukkunut*, Jack Witikka. 1956
- *The Glory and Misery of Human Life*, Matti Kassila
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# February 28
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# Flambards
***Flambards*** is a novel for children or young adults by K. M. Peyton, first published by Oxford University Press in 1967 with illustrations by Victor Ambrus. Alternatively, \"Flambards\" is the trilogy (1967--1969) or series (1967--1981) named after its first book. The series is set in England just before, during, and after World War I.
The novel *Flambards* (book one) features a teenage orphan and heiress Christina Parsons, who comes to live at Flambards, the impoverished Essex estate owned by her crippled and tyrannical uncle, William Russell, and his two sons, Mark and Will.
## Novel summary {#novel_summary}
Christina Parsons, who has been shunted around the family since she was orphaned at the age of five years in 1901, is sent to live at Flambards with her mother\'s half-brother, the crippled Russell. Her Aunt Grace speculates that Russell plans for Christina to marry his son Mark to restore Flambards to its former glory using the money that she will inherit on her twenty-first birthday. Mark is as brutish as his father, with a great love for hunting, whereas the younger son William is terrified of horses after a hunting accident and aspires to be an aviator. Christina soon develops a love for horses and hunting. She also finds friendship with the injured William, who challenges her ideas on class boundaries. William and Christina eventually fall in love and run away from the hunt ball to London, hoping to marry.
## Series
The fourth book controversially reversed the ending of the original trilogy, twelve years later and following the television series.
- *Flambards* (Oxford, 1967)
- *The Edge of the Cloud* (Oxford, 1969)
- *Flambards in Summer* (Oxford, 1969)
- *Flambards Divided* (1981)
For *The Edge of the Cloud*, Peyton won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year\'s best children\'s book by a British subject. She was a commended runner-up for both the first and third books, the latter in competition with her Medal-winning work.
She also won the 1970 Guardian Children\'s Fiction Prize, conferred by *The Guardian* newspaper and judged by a panel of British children\'s writers. Ordinarily the prize recognises one fiction book published during the preceding calendar year; exceptionally Peyton won for the Flambards trilogy completed in 1969.
The trilogy was adapted as a 13-part television series in 1979, *Flambards*, starring Christine McKenna as Christina Parsons.
World Publishing issued a US edition of the first book in 1968, retaining the Ambrus illustrations. World (Cleveland and New York) also published US editions of the second and third books in 1969 and 1970, also with the original illustrations, although all three novels were reset with a greater page-counts
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# February 2
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# February 3
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# Free On-line Dictionary of Computing
The **Free On-line Dictionary of Computing** (**FOLDOC**) is an online, searchable, encyclopedic dictionary of computing subjects.
## History
FOLDOC was founded in 1985 by Denis Howe and was hosted by Imperial College London. In May 2015, the site was updated to state that it was \"no longer supported by Imperial College Department of Computing\". Howe has served as the editor-in-chief since the dictionary\'s inception, with visitors to the website able to make suggestions for additions or corrections to articles.
## Open sourcing {#open_sourcing}
The dictionary incorporates the text of other free resources, such as the Jargon File, as well as covering many other computing-related topics. Due to its availability under the GNU Free Documentation License, a copyleft license, it has in turn been incorporated in whole or part into other free content projects, such as Wikipedia.
## Recognition
- This site\'s brief 2001 review by a Ziff Davis publication begins \"Despite this online dictionary's pale user interface, it offers impressive functionality.\"
- Oxford University Press knows of them, and notes that it \"is maintained by volunteers.\"
- A university tells its students that FOLDOC can be used to find information about \"companies, projects, history, in fact any of the vocabulary you might expect to find in a computer dictionary
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# First-order predicate
In mathematical logic, a **first-order predicate** is a predicate that takes only individual(s) constants or variables as argument(s). Compare second-order predicate and higher-order predicate.
This is not to be confused with a **one-place predicate** or monad, which is a predicate that takes only one argument. For example, the expression \"is a planet\" is a one-place predicate, while the expression \"is father of\" is a **two-place predicate**
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# Snap (gridiron football)
A **snap** (also called a \"hike\", \"snapback\", or \"pass from center\") is the backward passing of the ball in gridiron football at the start of play from scrimmage.
## Action
The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team\'s line of scrimmage in American football; in Canadian football, the line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard past their side of the ball. The player snapping the ball (known officially as the \"snapper\" in rule books) delivers the ball to another player, and that action is the snap. The snapper may hand, throw, or even roll the ball to the other player. The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper, and the ball must leave the snapper\'s hands. The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backward. The snapper almost always passes the ball between his legs, but only in Canadian football is that required.
In the standard gridiron football formation, the center/centre is the snapper and is situated in the middle of the line of scrimmage. Only in arena football is the center required by rule to be the snapper. In other codes, a guard, tackle, running back, tight end or split end can legally deliver the snap; such scenarios, known as an *unbalanced line*, are seldom used outside of trick plays and novelties.
For a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his head up, facing opponents. For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his legs. Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (\"Fed\") have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least seven yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed). However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single \"shotgun\" formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly.
A snap is considered a backward pass, therefore if the ball is snapped and it hits the ground without any player gaining control of the ball the play is ruled as a fumble.
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# Snap (gridiron football)
## Snap count {#snap_count}
The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as \"hut\" voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the \"snap count\". Therefore, they have a considerable advantage over their opponents. The center is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap-action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the center\'s hands is the beginning of the snap.
The snap count is decided on in the huddle, usually expressed as \"\...on .\" being the final words spoken by the quarterback after calling the play but before the huddle breaks and the players go to the line of scrimmage. The snap count allows offensive players to have a small head start. The defensive players want to predict the snap, and build up speed such that they cross the line of scrimmage exactly as the play begins, to increase their chances of getting a tackle for a loss or a sack. By varying the snap count, a quarterback forces the defensive players to react to the movement of the offensive players, or risk being called for an offsides or encroachment penalty. Unfortunately for the offense, this advantage can sometimes become a disadvantage. When faced with an exceptionally loud stadium, players may be unable to hear the snap count and are forced to concentrate more on visual cues (silent snap count or a hard count), or risk false start penalties.
The offense must also be mindful of the play clock. If they fail to snap the ball in time they incur a delay of game penalty. Also, with a dwindling play clock, the defense has better chances of guessing when the ball will be snapped. It is easier to predict when the ball will be snapped with 2 seconds left on the play clock, rather than 5 seconds.
The defensive team is not allowed to simulate, by calling out numbers, the offense\'s snap count. Successfully simulating the count would cause members of the offensive team to act too early ruining co-ordination of the play and inviting penalties. Current rules, unlike earlier rules, position officials so far from the line of scrimmage for 50 minutes of the 60-minute game that it is extremely difficult to hear if the defense is simulating the count.
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# Snap (gridiron football)
## History and rationale {#history_and_rationale}
The snap, the set scrum and ruck in today\'s rugby union, and the play-the-ball in rugby league have common origins in rugby football. As the rules of rugby\'s scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap in American football.
The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage. A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a \"snap\". Later in the 19th century, the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added. The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward. The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play that did not work against a prepared defense. Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds---a throw-in or \"fair\", and \"bounding in\"---existed. Until well into the 20th century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet. The neutral zone and the right of the center not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature. As the 20th century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time `{{em|after}}`{=mediawiki} the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap.
Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three---a \"centre scrimmager\" bound on either side by props called \"side scrimmagers\". The centre scrimmager was later renamed the \"snap\", and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first. Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the Burnside rules led to the three-man scrimmage being reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted. In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football. (Though it was technically legal, the hand-to-hand snap was not used on the American side of the border until the 1930s.) Apparently, a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the US, such as the single-wing formation.
The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage. In rugby union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which rugby league has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals. In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the center) for a fraction of a second. The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively. A muffed snap can be recovered by either team
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# FIFO (computing and electronics)
thumb\|Representation of a FIFO queue
In computing and in systems theory, **first in, first out** (the first in is the first out), acronymized as **FIFO**, is a method for organizing the manipulation of a data structure (often, specifically a data buffer) where the oldest (first) entry, or \"head\" of the queue, is processed first.
Such processing is analogous to servicing people in a queue area on a first-come, first-served (FCFS) basis, i.e. in the same sequence in which they arrive at the queue\'s tail.
FCFS is also the jargon term for the FIFO operating system scheduling algorithm, which gives every process central processing unit (CPU) time in the order in which it is demanded. FIFO\'s opposite is LIFO, last-in-first-out, where the youngest entry or \"top of the stack\" is processed first. A priority queue is neither FIFO or LIFO but may adopt similar behaviour temporarily or by default. Queueing theory encompasses these methods for processing data structures, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues.
## Computer science {#computer_science}
thumb\|300px\|Representation of a FIFO queue with enqueue and dequeue operations.
Depending on the application, a FIFO could be implemented as a hardware shift register, or using different memory structures, typically a circular buffer or a kind of list. For information on the abstract data structure, see Queue (data structure). Most software implementations of a FIFO queue are not thread safe and require a locking mechanism to verify the data structure chain is being manipulated by only one thread at a time.
The following code shows a linked list FIFO C++ language implementation. In practice, a number of list implementations exist, including popular Unix systems C sys/queue.h macros or the C++ standard library std::list template, avoiding the need for implementing the data structure from scratch.
``` cpp
#include <memory>
#include <stdexcept>
using namespace std;
template <typename T>
class FIFO {
struct Node {
T value;
shared_ptr<Node> next = nullptr;
Node(T _value): value(_value) {}
};
shared_ptr<Node> front = nullptr;
shared_ptr<Node> back = nullptr;
public:
void enqueue(T _value) {
if (front == nullptr) {
front = make_shared<Node>(_value);
back = front;
} else {
back->next = make_shared<Node>(_value);
back = back->next;
}
}
T dequeue() {
if (front == nullptr)
throw underflow_error("Nothing to dequeue");
T value = front->value;
front = move(front->next);
return value;
}
};
```
In computing environments that support the pipes-and-filters model for interprocess communication, a FIFO is another name for a named pipe.
Disk controllers can use the FIFO as a disk scheduling algorithm to determine the order in which to service disk I/O requests, where it is also known by the same FCFS initialism as for CPU scheduling mentioned before.
Communication network bridges, switches and routers used in computer networks use FIFOs to hold data packets in route to their next destination. Typically at least one FIFO structure is used per network connection. Some devices feature multiple FIFOs for simultaneously and independently queuing different types of information.
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#include <stdexcept>
## Electronics
thumb\|400px\|A FIFO schedule
FIFOs are commonly used in electronic circuits for buffering and flow control between hardware and software. In its hardware form, a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic. Storage may be static random access memory (SRAM), flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage. For FIFOs of non-trivial size, a dual-port SRAM is usually used, where one port is dedicated to writing and the other to reading.
The first known FIFO implemented in electronics was by Peter Alfke in 1969 at Fairchild Semiconductor. Alfke was later a director at Xilinx.
### Synchronicity
A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing. An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing and they can introduce metastability issues. A common implementation of an asynchronous FIFO uses a Gray code (or any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable flag generation. One further note concerning flag generation is that one must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO implementations. Conversely, one may use either a leaky bucket approach or pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations.
A hardware FIFO is used for synchronization purposes. It is often implemented as a circular queue, and thus has two pointers:
- Read pointer / read address register
- Write pointer / write address register
### Status flags {#status_flags}
Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, and almost empty. A FIFO is empty when the read address register reaches the write address register. A FIFO is full when the write address register reaches the read address register. Read and write addresses are initially both at the first memory location and the FIFO queue is *empty*.
In both cases, the read and write addresses end up being equal. To distinguish between the two situations, a simple and robust solution is to add one extra bit for each read and write address which is inverted each time the address wraps. With this set up, the disambiguation conditions are:
- When the read address register equals the write address register, the FIFO is empty.
- When the read and write address registers differ only in the extra most significant bit and the rest are equal, the FIFO is full
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# Firewall (construction)
A **firewall** is a fire-resistant barrier used to prevent the spread of fire. Firewalls are built between or through buildings, structures, or electrical substation transformers, or within an aircraft or vehicle.
## Applications
Firewalls can be used to subdivide a building into separate fire areas and are constructed in accordance with the locally applicable building codes. Firewalls are a portion of a building\'s passive fire protection systems.
Firewalls can be used to separate-high value transformers at an electrical substation in the event of a mineral oil tank rupture and ignition. The firewall serves as a fire containment wall between one oil-filled transformer and other neighboring transformers, building structures, and site equipment.
## Types
There are three main classifications of *fire rated walls*: fire walls, fire barriers, and fire partitions.
- A *firewall* is an assembly of materials used to delay the spread of fire a wall assembly with a prescribed fire resistance duration and independent structural stability. This allows a building to be subdivided into smaller sections. If a section becomes structurally unstable due to fire or other causes, that section can break or fall away from the other sections in the building.
- A *fire barrier wall*, or a *fire partition*, is a fire-rated wall assembly that are not structurally self-sufficient.
Fire barrier walls are typically continuous from an exterior wall to an exterior wall, or from a floor below to a floor or roof above, or from one fire barrier wall to another fire barrier wall, having a fire resistance rating equal to or greater than the required rating for the application. Fire barriers are continuous through concealed spaces (e.g., above a ceiling) to the floor deck or roof deck above the barrier. Fire partitions are not required to extend through concealed spaces if the construction assembly forming the bottom of the concealed space, such as the ceiling, has a fire resistance rating at least equal to or greater than the fire partition.
- A *high challenge fire wall* is a wall used to subdivide a building with high fire challenge occupancies, having enhanced fire resistance ratings and enhanced appurtenance protection to prevent the spread of fire, and having structural stability.
Portions of structures that are subdivided by fire walls are permitted to be considered separate buildings, in that fire walls have sufficient structural stability to maintain the integrity of the wall in the event of the collapse of the building construction on either side of the wall.
## Characteristics
- Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, thus forming part of a fire compartment\'s passive fire protection. Germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems. Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis
- Design loads -- Fire wall must withstand a minimum 5 lb/sqft, and additional seismic loads.
- Substation transformer firewalls are typically free-standing modular walls custom designed and engineered to meet application needs.
- Building fire walls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a code-determined height above it. They are usually finished off on the top with flashing (sheet metal cap) for protection against the elements.
### Materials
- Building and structural fire walls in North America are usually made of concrete, concrete blocks, or reinforced concrete. Older fire walls, built prior to World War II, used brick materials.
- Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of drywall or gypsum board partitions with wood or metal framed studs.
- Penetrations -- Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, must be protected with a listed firestop assembly designed to prevent the spread of fire through wall penetrations. Penetrations (holes) must not defeat the structural integrity of the wall, such that the wall cannot withstand the prescribed fire duration without threat of collapse.
- Openings -- Other openings in fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated *fire door assemblies* and *fire window assemblies*.
## Performance based design {#performance_based_design}
Firewalls are used in varied applications that require specific design and performance specifications. Knowing the potential conditions that may exist during a fire are critical to selecting and installing an effective firewall. For example, a firewall designed to meet National Fire Protection Agency, (NFPA), 221-09 section A.5.7 which indicates an average temperature of 800 F, is not designed to withstand higher temperatures such as would be present in higher challenge fires, and as a result would fail to function for the expected duration of the listed wall rating.
Performance based design takes into account the potential conditions during a fire. Understanding thermal limitations of materials is essential to using the correct material for the application. Laboratory testing is used to simulate fire scenarios and wall loading conditions. The testing results in an assigned listing number for the fire-rated assembly that defines the expected fire resistance duration and wall structural integrity under the tested conditions. Designers may elect to specify a listed fire wall assembly or design a wall system that would require performance testing to certify the expected protections before use of the designed fire-rated wall system.
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# Firewall (construction)
## High-voltage transformer fire barriers {#high_voltage_transformer_fire_barriers}
Fire barriers are used around large electrical transformers as firewalls. These barriers are used to isolate one transformer in case of fire or explosions, preventing fire propagation to neighboring transformers
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# Frigg
**Frigg** (`{{IPAc-en|f|r|ɪ|g}}`{=mediawiki}; Old Norse: `{{IPA|non|ˈfriɡː|}}`{=mediawiki}) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wetland halls of Fensalir. In wider Germanic mythology, she is known in Old High German as ***Frīja***, in Langobardic as ***Frēa***, in Old English as ***Frīg***, in Old Frisian as ***Frīa***, and in Old Saxon as ***Frī***, all ultimately stemming from the Proto-Germanic theonym \**Frijjō*. Nearly all sources portray her as the wife of the god Odin.
In Old High German and Old Norse sources, she is specifically connected with Fulla, but she is also associated with the goddesses Lofn, Hlín, Gná, and ambiguously with the Earth, otherwise personified as an apparently separate entity Jörð (Old Norse: \'Earth\'). The children of Frigg and Odin include the gleaming god Baldr.
The English weekday name Friday (ultimately meaning \'Frigg\'s Day\') bears her name. After Christianization, the mention of Frigg continued to occur in Scandinavian folklore. During modern times, Frigg has appeared in popular culture, has been the subject of art and receives veneration in Germanic Neopaganism.
## Name and origin {#name_and_origin}
### Etymology
The theonyms *Frigg* (Old Norse), *Frīja* (Old High German), *Frīg* (Old English), *Frīa* (Old Frisian), and *Frī* (Old Saxon) are cognates (linguistic siblings from the same origin). They stem from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun *\*Frijjō*, which emerged as a substantivized form of the adjective \**frijaz* (\'free\') via Holtzmann\'s law. In a clan-based societal system, the meaning \'free\' arose from the meaning \'related\'. The name is indeed etymologically close to the Sanskrit *priyā* and the Avestan *fryā* (\'own, dear, beloved\'), all ultimately descending from the Proto-Indo-European stem \**priH-o-*, denoting \'one\'s own, beloved\'. The Proto-Germanic verb *\*frijōnan* (\'to love\'), as well as the nouns \**frijōndz* (\'friend\') and \**frijađwō* (\'friendship, peace\'), are also related.
An -a suffix has been sometimes applied by modern editors to denote femininity, resulting in the form *Frigga*. This spelling also serves the purpose of distancing the goddess from the English word *frig*, with a primary meaning of masturbate or to the common alternative to the English profanity *fuck*. Several place names refer to Frigg in what are now Norway and Sweden, although her name is altogether absent in recorded place names in Denmark.
### Origin of Frigg {#origin_of_frigg}
The connection with and possible earlier identification of the goddess Freyja with Frigg in the Proto-Germanic period is a matter of scholarly debate (see Frigg and Freyja common origin hypothesis). Like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name *Freyja* is not attested outside of Scandinavia. This is in contrast to the name of the goddess *Frigg*, who is also attested as a goddess among West Germanic peoples. Evidence is lacking for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which Old Norse *Freyja* descends, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of surviving sources.
Regarding the Freyja--Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy writes that \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.\"
### Origin of *Friday* {#origin_of_friday}
The English weekday name *Friday* comes from Old English *Frīġedæġ*, meaning \'day of Frig\'. It is cognate with Old Frisian *Frīadei* (≈ *Fri(g)endei*), Middle Dutch *Vridach* (≈ *Vriendach*), Middle Low German *Vrīdach* (≈ *Vrīgedach*), and Old High German *Frîatac*. The Old Norse *Frjádagr* was borrowed from a West Germanic language. All of these terms derive from Late Proto-Germanic \**Frijjōdag* (\'Day of Frijjō\'), a calque of Latin *Veneris dies* (\'Day of Venus\'; cf. modern Italian *venerdì*, French *vendredi*, Spanish *viernes*).
The Germanic goddess\' name has substituted for the Roman name of a comparable deity, a practice known as *interpretatio germanica*. Although the Old English theonym *Frīg* is only found in the name of the weekday, it is also attested as a common noun in *frīg* (\'love, affections \[plural\], embraces \[in poetry\]\'). The Old Norse weekday *Freyjudagr*, a rare synonym of *Frjádagr*, saw the replacement of the first element with the genitive of *Freyja*.
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# Frigg
## Attestations
### *Origo Gentis Langobardorum* and *Historia Langobardorum* {#origo_gentis_langobardorum_and_historia_langobardorum}
The 7th-century *Origo Gentis Langobardorum*, and Paul the Deacon\'s 8th-century *Historia Langobardorum* derived from it, recount a founding myth of the Langobards, a Germanic people who ruled a region of what is now Italy (see Lombardy). According to this legend, a \"small people\" known as the *Winnili* were ruled by a woman named Gambara who had two sons, Ybor and Agio. The Vandals, ruled by Ambri and Assi, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war. Ybor, Agio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute. Ambra and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in the *Origo*): \"Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory.\"
Meanwhile, Ybor and Agio called upon Frea, Godan\'s wife. Frea counseled them that \"at sunrise the Winnil\[i\] should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands\". At sunrise, Frea turned Godan\'s bed around to face east and woke him. Godan saw the Winnili, including their whiskered women, and asked \"who are those Long-beards?\" Frea responded to Godan, \"As you have given them a name, give them also the victory\". Godan did so, \"so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory\". Thenceforth the Winnili were known as the *Langobards* (Langobardic \"long-beards\").
### Second Merseburg Incantation {#second_merseburg_incantation}
A 10th-century manuscript found in what is now Merseburg, Germany, features an invocation known as the Second Merseburg Incantation. The incantation calls upon various continental Germanic gods, including Old High German Frija and a goddess associated with her---Volla, to assist in healing a horse:
+-------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
| : Old High German: | : Bill Griffiths translation: | |
| : *Phol ende uuodan uuoran zi holza.* | : Phol and Woden travelled to the forest. | |
| : *du uuart demo balderes uolon sin uuoz birenkit.* | : Then was for Baldur\'s foal its foot wrenched. | |
| : *thu biguol en sinthgunt, sunna era suister,* | : Then encharmed it Sindgund (and) Sunna her sister, | |
| : *thu biguol en friia, uolla era suister* | : then encharmed it Frija (and) Volla her sister, | |
| : *thu biguol en uuodan, so he uuola conda:* | : then encharmed it Woden, as he the best could, | |
| : *sose benrenki, sose bluotrenki, sose lidirenki:* | : As the bone-wrench, so for the blood wrench, (and) so the limb-wrench | |
| : *ben zi bena, bluot si bluoda,* | : bone to bone, blood to blood, | |
| : *lid zi geliden, sose gelimida sin!* | : limb to limb, so be glued. | |
+-------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
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# Frigg
## Attestations
### *Poetic Edda* {#poetic_edda}
In the *Poetic Edda*, compiled during the 13th century from earlier traditional material, Frigg is mentioned in the poems *Völuspá*, *Vafþrúðnismál*, the prose of *Grímnismál*, *Lokasenna*, and *Oddrúnargrátr*.
Frigg receives three mentions in the *Poetic Edda* poem *Völuspá*. In the first mention the poem recounts that Frigg wept for the death of her son Baldr in Fensalir. Later in the poem, when the future death of Odin is foretold, Odin is referred to as the \"beloved of Frigg\" and his future death is referred to as the \"second grief of Frigg\". Like the reference to Frigg weeping in Fensalir earlier in the poem, the implied \"first grief\" is a reference to the grief she felt upon the death of her son, Baldr.
Frigg plays a prominent role in the prose introduction to the poem, *Grímnismál*. The introduction recounts that two sons of king Hrauðungr, Agnar (age 10) and Geirröðr (age 8), once sailed out with a trailing line to catch small fish, but wind drove them out into the ocean and, during the darkness of night, their boat wrecked. The brothers went ashore, where they met a crofter. They stayed on the croft for one winter, during which the couple separately fostered the two children: the old woman fostered Agnar and the old man fostered Geirröðr. Upon the arrival of spring, the old man brought them a ship. The old couple took the boys to the shore, and the old man took Geirröðr aside and spoke to him. The boys entered the boat and a breeze came.
The boat returned to the harbor of their father. Geirröðr, forward in the ship, jumped to shore and pushed the boat, containing his brother, out and said \"go where an evil spirit may get thee.\" Away went the ship and Geirröðr walked to a house, where he was greeted with joy; while the boys were gone, their father had died, and now Geirröðr was king. He \"became a splendid man.\" The scene switches to Odin and Frigg sitting in Hliðskjálf, \"look\[ing\] into all the worlds.\" Odin says: \"\'Seest thou Agnar, thy foster-son, where he is getting children a giantess \[Old Norse *gȳgi*\] in a cave? while Geirröd, my foster son, is a king residing in his country.\' Frigg answered, \'He is so inhospitable that he tortures his guests, if he thinks that too many come.\'\"
Odin replied that this was a great untruth and so the two made a wager. Frigg sent her \"waiting-maid\" Fulla to warn Geirröðr to be wary, lest a wizard who seeks him should harm him, and that he would know this wizard by the refusal of dogs, no matter how ferocious, to attack the stranger. While it was not true that Geirröðr was inhospitable with his guests, Geirröðr did as instructed and had the wizard arrested. Upon being questioned, the wizard, wearing a blue cloak, said no more than that his name is *Grímnir*. Geirröðr has Grímnir tortured and sits him between two fires for 8 nights. Upon the 9th night, Grímnir is brought a full drinking horn by Geirröðr\'s son, Agnar (so named after Geirröðr\'s brother), and the poem continues without further mention or involvement of Frigg.
In the poem *Lokasenna*, where Loki accuses nearly every female in attendance of promiscuity and/or unfaithfulness, an aggressive exchange occurs between the god Loki and the goddess Frigg (and thereafter between Loki and the goddess Freyja about Frigg). A prose introduction to the poem describes that numerous gods and goddesses attended a banquet held by Ægir. These gods and goddesses include Odin and, \"his wife\", Frigg.
In the poem *Oddrúnargrátr*, Oddrún helps Borgny give birth to twins. In thanks, Borgny invokes vættir, Frigg, Freyja, and other unspecified deities.
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# Frigg
## Attestations
### *Prose Edda* {#prose_edda}
Frigg is mentioned throughout the *Prose Edda*, compiled in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Frigg is first mentioned in the *Prose Edda* Prologue, wherein a euhemerized account of the Norse gods is provided. The author describes Frigg as the wife of Odin, and, in a case of folk etymology, the author attempts to associate the name *Frigg* with the Latin-influenced form *Frigida*. The Prologue adds that both Frigg and Odin \"had the gift of prophecy.\"
In the next section of the *Prose Edda*, *Gylfaginning*, High tells Gangleri (the king Gylfi in disguise) that Frigg, daughter of Fjörgynn (Old Norse *Fjörgynsdóttir*) is married to Odin and that the Æsir are descended from the couple, and adds that \"the earth \[*Jörðin*\] was \[Odin\'s\] daughter and his wife.\" According to High, the two had many sons, the first of which was the mighty god Thor.
Later in *Gylfaginning*, Gangleri asks about the *ásynjur*, a term for Norse goddesses. High says that \"highest\" among them is Frigg and that only Freyja \"is highest in rank next to her.\" Frigg dwells in Fensalir \"and it is very splendid.\" In this section of *Gylfaginning*, Frigg is also mentioned in connection to other *ásynjur*: Fulla carries Frigg\'s ashen box, \"looks after her footwear and shares her secrets;\" Lofn is given special permission by Frigg and Odin to \"arrange unions\" among men and women; Hlín is charged by Frigg to protect those that Frigg deem worthy of keeping from danger; and Gná is sent by Frigg \"into various worlds to carry out her business.\"
In section 49 of *Gylfaginning*, a narrative about the fate of Frigg\'s son Baldr is told. According to High, Baldr once started to have dreams indicating that his life was in danger. When Baldr told his fellow Æsir about his dreams, the gods met together for a thing and decided that they should \"request immunity for Baldr from all kinds of danger.\" Frigg subsequently receives promises from the elements, the environment, diseases, animals, and stones, amongst other things. The request successful, the Æsir make sport of Baldr\'s newfound invincibility; shot or struck, Baldr remained unharmed. However, Loki discovers this and is not pleased by this turn of events, so, in the form of a woman, he goes to Frigg in Fensalir.
There, Frigg asks this female visitor what the Æsir are up to assembled at the thing. The woman says that all of the Æsir are shooting at Baldr and yet he remains unharmed. Frigg explains that \"Weapons and wood will not hurt Baldr. I have received oaths from them all.\" The woman asks Frigg if all things have sworn not to hurt Baldr, to which Frigg notes one exception; \"there grows a shoot of a tree to the west of Val-hall. It is called mistletoe. It seemed young to me to demand the oath from.\" Loki immediately disappears.
Now armed with mistletoe, Loki arrives at the thing where the Æsir are assembled and tricks the blind Höðr, Baldr\'s brother, into shooting Baldr with a mistletoe projectile. To the horror of the assembled gods, the mistletoe goes directly through Baldr, killing him. Standing in horror and shock, the gods are initially only able to weep due to their grief. Frigg speaks up and asks \"who there was among the Æsir who wished to earn all her love and favour and was willing to ride the road to Hel and try if he could find Baldr, and offer Hel a ransom if she would let Baldr go back to Asgard.\"
Hermóðr, Baldr\'s brother, accepts Frigg\'s request and rides to Hel. Meanwhile, Baldr is given a grand funeral attended by many beings---foremost mentioned of which are his mother and father, Frigg and Odin. During the funeral, Nanna dies of grief and is placed in the funeral pyre with Baldr, her dead husband. Hermóðr locates Baldr and Nanna in Hel. Hermodr secures an agreement for the return of Baldr and with Hermóðr Nanna sends gifts to Frigg (a linen robe) and Fulla (a finger-ring). Hermóðr rides back to the Æsir and tells them what has happened. However, the agreement fails due to the sabotage of a jötunn in a cave named Þökk (Old Norse \'thanks\'), described as perhaps Loki in disguise.
Frigg is mentioned several times in the *Prose Edda* section *Skáldskaparmál*. The first mention occurs at the beginning of the section, where the Æsir and Ásynjur are said to have once held a banquet in a hall in a land of gods, Asgard. Frigg is one of the twelve ásynjur in attendance.
### *Heimskringla* and sagas {#heimskringla_and_sagas}
In *Ynglinga saga*, the first book of *Heimskringla*, a Euhemerized account of the origin of the gods is provided. Frigg is mentioned once. According to the saga, while Odin was away, Odin\'s brothers Vili and Vé oversaw Odin\'s holdings. Once, while Odin was gone for an extended period, the Æsir concluded that he was not coming back. His brothers started to divvy up Odin\'s inheritance, \"but his wife Frigg they shared between them. However, a short while afterwards, \[Odin\] returned and took possession of his wife again.
In *Völsunga saga*, the great king Rerir and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; \"that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child. It is said that Frigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked.\"
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# Frigg
## Archaeological record {#archaeological_record}
A 12th century depiction of a cloaked but otherwise nude woman riding a large cat appears on a wall in the Schleswig Cathedral in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany. Beside her is similarly a cloaked yet otherwise nude woman riding a distaff. Due to iconographic similarities to the literary record, these figures have been theorized as depictions of Freyja and Frigg respectively.
## Scholarly reception and interpretation {#scholarly_reception_and_interpretation}
Due to numerous similarities, some scholars have proposed that the Old Norse goddesses Frigg and Freyja descend from a common entity from the Proto-Germanic period. Regarding a Freyja-Frigg common origin hypothesis, scholar Stephan Grundy comments that \"the problem of whether Frigg or Freyja may have been a single goddess originally is a difficult one, made more so by the scantiness of pre-Viking Age references to Germanic goddesses, and the diverse quality of the sources. The best that can be done is to survey the arguments for and against their identity, and to see how well each can be supported.\"
Unlike Frigg but like the name of the group of gods to which Freyja belongs, the Vanir, the name *Freyja* is not attested outside of Scandinavia, as opposed to the name of the goddess *Frigg*, who is attested as a goddess common among the Germanic peoples, and whose name is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic \**Frijjō*. Similar proof for the existence of a common Germanic goddess from which *Freyja* descends does not exist, but scholars have commented that this may simply be due to the scarcity of evidence outside of the North Germanic record.
## Modern influence {#modern_influence}
Frigg is referenced in art and literature into the modern period. In the 18th century, Gustav III of Sweden, king of Sweden, composed *Friggja*, a play, so named after the goddess, and H. F. Block and Hans Friedrich Blunck\'s *Frau Frigg und Doktor Faust* in 1937. Richard Wagner included *Fricka* in his 1870 opera Die Walküre, the second of his Der Ring des Nibelungen cycle, as the goddess wife of Wotan in a key scene for the plot of the whole cycle. Other examples include fine art works by K. Ehrenberg (*Frigg, Freyja*, drawing, 1883), John Charles Dollman (*Frigga Spinning the Clouds*, painting, c. 1900), Emil Doepler (*Wodan und Frea am Himmelsfenster*, painting, 1901), and H. Thoma (*Fricka*, drawing, date not provided)
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# February 9
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# File viewer
A **file viewer** is a utility application software on operating systems, such as Linux, macOS, or Windows. The file viewer is responsible for user access of files located on a data storage device. File viewers allow the user to open and view content on a device, such as a Personal Computer (PC) or a mobile phone.
## Overview
File viewer applications can be categorized based on their functionality:
- **File Viewer Only** applications do not allow the user to edit files.
- **File Viewer and Converter** applications allow viewing data, exporting data in a different file format, and copying information to the clipboard.
- **File Viewer and Editor** applications allow the user to view existing files, modify an existing file\'s content, or create a new file of a specific type.
Differences in functionality are often due to software licensing and proprietary file formats. Some formats can be freely viewed but require specific software for creation or modification. For example, .DBF files created in dBASE could be viewed in Norton Commander, while .PDF files require software like Adobe Photoshop, LibreOffice, or Microsoft Word for editing, whereas Acrobat Reader supports only viewing.
To function correctly, a file viewer must interpret the structural information of a file format, such as byte order, character encoding, and newline styles. Media file viewers, such as video players, often rely on codecs rather than built-in format support. This approach allows users to extend a media viewer's compatibility with additional file types.
Some editors, such as Audacity, allow users to open files as raw data, a feature sometimes used in glitch art. Additionally, some file viewers act as filters that convert binary files into text (e.g., antiword), though this may result in data loss.
Image viewers display graphic files on screen. Some viewers, such as IrfanView, can read multiple graphic file formats, while others, such as JPEGview only support a single format. Common image viewer features include thumbnail preview and creation, image zooming and rotation, color balance and gamma correction, resizing, etc.
A web browser functions as a file viewer for HTML and various other file types. While HTML files are stored as plain text, web browsers render them into a structured, human-readable format. Additionally, web browsers can display multimedia files, including images, videos, preformatted documents, and interactive content such as 3D models, augmented reality and virtual reality elements.
## Examples of File Viewers {#examples_of_file_viewers}
### Plain text files {#plain_text_files}
- Less (Unix)
- gedit (Unix)
- Most (Unix)
- pg (Unix)
- More (command)
- vi
- notepad
### Microsoft Office documents {#microsoft_office_documents}
- Microsoft Word Viewer
- Microsoft Excel Viewer
- PowerPoint Viewer
### PDF files {#pdf_files}
- Adobe Acrobat
- Atril
- Evince
- PDF
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# First Council of the Lateran
The **First Council of the Lateran** was the 9th ecumenical council recognised by the Catholic Church. The first ecumenical council to be held in Western Europe and the first since the Great Schism of 1054, it was convoked by Pope Callixtus II in December 1122, immediately after the Concordat of Worms. The council sought to bring an end to the practice of the conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by people who were laymen, free the election of bishops and abbots from secular influence, clarify the separation of spiritual and temporal affairs, re-establish the principle that spiritual authority resides solely in the Church and abolish the claim of the Holy Roman Emperor to influence papal elections.
The council was significant in size: 300 bishops and more than 600 abbots assembled at Rome\'s Lateran Palace in March 1123, and Callixtus II presided in person. During the council, the decisions of the Concordat of Worms were read and ratified. Various other decisions were promulgated.
## Background
The First Lateran Council was called by Pope Callixtus II whose reign began on 1 February 1119. It demarcated the end of the Investiture Controversy, which had begun before the time of Pope Gregory VII. The issues had been contentious and had continued with unabated bitterness for almost a century. Guido, as he had been called before his elevation to the papacy, was the son of William I, Count of Burgundy. He was closely connected with nearly all the royal houses of Europe on both sides of his family. He had been named the papal legate to France by Pope Paschal II. During Guido\'s tenure in this office, Paschal II yielded to the military threats of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, and was induced to issue the Privilegium in 1111. By that document, the Church gave up much of what had been claimed and subsequently attained by Pope Gregory VII and his Gregorian Reforms.
The concessions did not bring the expected peace but were received with violent reactionary opposition everywhere. Europe had come to expect an end to the Investiture Controversy and was not willing to return to the old days, when the Holy Roman Emperor named the pope. The greatest resistance was seen in France and was led by Guido, who still held the office of the papal legate. He had been present in the Lateran Synod of 1112 which had proclaimed the Privilegium of 1111. On his return to France, Guido convoked an assembly of the French and Burgundian bishops at Vienne (1112). There, the lay investiture of the clergy (the practice of the king, especially the Holy Roman Emperor, of naming bishops and the Pope) was denounced as heretical. A sentence of excommunication was pronounced against Henry V, who had extorted through violence from the Pope the concessions documented in the *Privilegium*. The agreement was deemed to be opposed to the interests of the Church. The decrees from the assembly of Vienne which denounced the Privilegium were sent to Paschal II with a request for confirmation. Pope Paschal II confirmed them, which were received in general terms, on 20 October 1112.
Guido was later created cardinal by Pope Paschal II. The latter did not seem to have been pleased with Guido\'s bold and forward attacks upon Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. On the death of Paschal II, 21 January 1118, Gelasius II was elected pope. He was immediately seized by the Italian allies of Henry V and on his liberation by the populace, he fled to Gaeta, where he was crowned. Henry V demanded the confirmation of the *Privilegium* and received no satisfactory reply. He then set about naming Burdinus, the archbishop of Braga, as his own pope, who assumed the name Gregory VIII but came to be known as Antipope Gregory VIII. Burdinus had already been deposed and excommunicated because he had crowned Henry V as the Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 1117.
The excommunication of Burdinus was reiterated in Canon 6 of the document produced by Lateran I. Gelasius II promptly excommunicated the antipope Gregory VIII and Henry V. Gelasius was forced to flee under duress from the army of Henry V and took refuge in the monastery of Cluny, where he died in January 1119. On the fourth day after the death of Gelasius II, 1 February 1119, mainly by the exertions of Cardinal Cuno, Guido was elected pope and assumed the title of Callixtus II. He was crowned Pope at Vienne on 9 February 1119.
Because of his close connection with the great royal families of Germany, France, England and Denmark, Callixtus II\'s papacy was received with much anticipation and celebration throughout Europe. There was a real hope throughout the Continent that the Investiture Controversy might be settled once and for all. In the interest of conciliation, even the papal embassy was received by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, at Strasburg. However, it soon became clear that Henry was not willing to concede his presumed and ancient right to name the pope and the bishops within his kingdom. Perhaps to demonstrate conciliation or because of political necessity, Henry withdrew his support for Antipope Gregory VIII.
It was agreed that Henry and Pope Callixtus II would meet at Mousson. On 8 June 1119, Callixtus II held a synod at Toulouse to proclaim the disciplinary reforms he had worked to attain in the French Church. In October, 1119, he opened the council at Reims. Louis VI of France and most of the barons of France attended this council, along with more than 400 bishops and abbots. The Pope was also to meet with Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at Mousson. However, Henry showed up with an army of 30,000 men. Callixtus II left Reims for Mousson, but upon learning of the warlike stance of Henry quickly retreated to Reims. There, the Church dealt with issues of simony and concubinage of the clergy.
It was clear by now that Henry was in no mood to reconcile, and a compromise with him was not to be had. The conclave at Reims considered the situation and determined, as an entire Church, to formally excommunicate both Henry V and the antipope Gregory VIII. This occurred on October 30, 1119. While at Reims, Callixtus II tried to effect a settlement with Henry I of England and his brother Robert, which also met with failure.
Callixtus II was determined to enter Rome, which was occupied by the German forces and Antipope Gregory VIII. There was an uprising by the population, which forced Gregory to flee the city. After much political and military intrigue in Rome and the southern Italian states, Gregory was formally deposed and Callixtus II was generally recognised as the legitimate Pope in 1121. Having become the established power in Italy, Callixtus II now returned the conflict with Henry V over the issue of lay investiture. Henry had been the recipient of great pressure from many of his barons in Germany over his conflict with the pope. Some had entered into open rebellion. Henry was forced by circumstances to seek a peace with Callixtus. Initial negotiations were conducted in October 1121 at Würzburg. Lambert, the Cardinal of Ostia, was dispatched to convoke a synod at Worms, which began on 8 September 1122. By 23 September, the Concordat of Worms, also called the Pactum Calixtinum, was concluded. On his side, the emperor gave up his claim to investiture with ring and crosier and granted the freedom of election to the episcopal sees.
The elections of bishops could be witnessed by the emperor or his representatives. Callixtus II obtained the right to name bishops throughout Germany, but still did not have that power in much of Burgundy and Italy.
The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms. The council was most representative with nearly three hundred bishops and six hundred abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present. It convened on 18 March 1123. Decrees were also passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, and forgers of Church documents; the council also reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders. The Council ruled that the crusades to the Holy Land and the Reconquista of Spain were of equal standing.
In the remaining few years of his life, Callixtus II attempted to secure the status of the Church as it had existed at the end of the reign of Pope Gregory VII. He reorganized and reformed the churches around Rome, canonized Conrad of Constance, condemned the teaching of Peter de Bruis, confirmed the Bishop Thurston of York against the wishes of Henry I of England and affirmed the freedom of York from the see of Canterbury. Callixtus II died on December 13, 1124, and was succeeded by Pope Honorius II.
Callixtus II was a strong figure who brought a relative, if tentative, peace between Germany and the Church. The Concordat of Worms and the First Lateran Council changed forever the belief in the divine right of kings to name the pope and bishops and reshaped the nature of church and state forever.
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# First Council of the Lateran
## Text of the council {#text_of_the_council}
Texts of the First Lateran Council may vary in both wording and numbering of the canons depending on source. In this translation, the precepts of the Concordat of Worms are codified in Canons 2, 4 and 10.
CANON I
Summary. Ordinations and promotions made for pecuniary considerations are devoid of every dignity.
Text. Following the example of the holy fathers and recognizing the obligation of our office, we absolutely forbid in virtue of the authority of the Apostolic See that anyone be ordained or promoted for money in the Church of God. Has anyone thus secured ordination or promotion in the Church, the rank acquired shall be devoid of every dignity.
CANON 2
Summary. Only a priest may be made provost, archpriest, and dean; only a deacon may be archdeacon.
Text. No one except a priest shall be promoted to the dignity of provost, archpriest, or dean; and no one shall be made archdeacon unless he is a deacon.
CANON 3
Summary. Priests, deacons, and subdeacons are forbidden to live with women other than such as were permitted by the Nicene Council.
Text. We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, and subdeacons to associate with concubines and women, or to live with women other than such as the Nicene Council (canon 3) for reasons of necessity permitted, namely, the mother, sister, or aunt, or any such person concerning whom no suspicion could arise.
CANON 4
Summary. Lay persons, no matter how pious they may be, have no authority to dispose of anything that belongs to the Church.
Text. In accordance with the decision of Pope Stephen, we declare that lay persons, no matter how devout they may be, have no authority to dispose of anything belonging to the Church, but according to the Apostolic canon the supervision of all ecclesiastical affairs belongs to the bishop, who shall administer them conformably to the will of God. If therefore any prince or other layman shall arrogate to himself the right of disposition, control, or ownership of ecclesiastical goods or properties, let him be judged guilty of sacrilege.
CANON 5
Summary. Marriages between blood-relatives are forbidden.
Text. We forbid marriages between blood-relatives because they are forbidden by the divine and secular laws. Those who contract such alliances, as also their offspring, the divine laws not only ostracize but declare accursed, while the civil laws brand them as infamous and deprive them of hereditary rights. We, therefore, following the example of our fathers, declare and stigmatize them as infamous.
CANON 6
Summary. Ordinations by Burdinus and the bishops consecrated by him are invalid.
Text. The ordinations made by the heresiarch Burdinus after his condemnation by the Roman Church, as also those made by the bishops consecrated by him after that point of time, we declare to be invalid.
CANON 7
Summary. No one is permitted to arrogate to himself the episcopal authority in matters pertaining to the cura animarum and the bestowal of benefices.
Text. No archdeacon, archpriest, provost, or dean shall bestow on another the care of souls or the prebends of a church without the decision or consent of the bishop; indeed, as the sacred canons point out, the care of souls and the disposition of ecclesiastical property are vested in the authority of the bishop. If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and arrogate to himself the power belonging to the bishop, let him be expelled from the Church.
CANON 8
Summary. Military persons are forbidden under penalty of anathema to invade or forcibly hold the city of Benevento.
Text. Desiring with the grace of God to protect the recognized possessions of the Holy Roman Church, we forbid under pain of anathema any military person to invade or forcibly hold Benevento, the city of St. Peter. If anyone act contrary to this, let him be anathematized.
CANON 9
Summary. Those excommunicated by one bishop, may not be restored by others.
Text. We absolutely forbid that those who have been excommunicated by their own bishops be received into the communion of the Church by other bishops, abbots, and clerics.
CANON 10
Summary. A bishop consecrated after an uncanonical election shall be deposed.
Text. No one shall be consecrated bishop who has not been canonically elected. If anyone dare do this, both the consecrator and the one consecrated shall be deposed without hope of reinstatement.
CANON 11
Summary. To those who give aid to the Christians in the Orient is granted the remission of sins, and their families and possessions are taken under the protection of the Roman Church.
Text. For effectively crushing the tyranny of the infidels, we grant to those who go to Jerusalem and also to those who give aid toward the defense of the Christians, the remission of their sins and we take under the protection of St. Peter and the Roman Church their homes, their families, and all their belongings, as was already ordained by Pope Urban II. Whoever, therefore, shall dare molest or seize these during the absence of their owners, shall incur excommunication. Those, however, who with a view of going to Jerusalem or to Spain (that is, against the Moors) are known to have attached the cross to their garments and afterward removed it, we command in virtue of our Apostolic authority to replace it and begin the journey within a year from the coming Easter. Otherwise we shall excommunicate them and interdict within their territory all divine service except the baptism of infants and the administration of the last rites to the dying.
CANON 12
Summary. The property of the porticani dying without heirs is not to be disposed of in a manner contrary to the wish of the one deceased.
Text. With the advice of our brethren and of the entire Curia, as well as with the will and consent of the prefect, we decree the abolition of that evil custom which has hitherto prevailed among the porticani, namely, of disposing, contrary to the wish of the one deceased, of the property of porticani dying without heirs; with this understanding, however, that in future the porticani remain faithful to the Roman Church, to us and to our successors.
CANON 13
Summary. If anyone violates the truce of God and after the third admonition does not make satisfaction, he shall be anathematized.
Text. If anyone shall violate the truce of God he shall be admonished three times by the bishop to make satisfaction. If he disregards the third admonition the bishop, either with the advice of the metropolitan or with that of two or one of the neighboring bishops, shall pronounce the sentence of anathema against the violator and in writing denounce him to all the bishops.
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# First Council of the Lateran
## Text of the council {#text_of_the_council}
CANON 14
Summary. Laymen are absolutely forbidden to remove offerings from the altars of Roman churches.
Text. Following the canons of the holy fathers, we absolutely and under penalty of anathema forbid laymen to remove the offerings from the altars of the churches of St. Peter, of The Savior (Lateran Basilica), of St. Mary Rotund, in a word, from the altars of any of the churches or from the crosses. By our Apostolic authority we forbid also the fortifying of churches and their conversion to profane uses.
CANON 15
Summary. Counterfeiters of money shall be excommunicated.
Text. Whoever manufactures or knowingly expends counterfeit money, shall be cut off from the communion of the faithful (excommunicated) as one accursed, as an oppressor of the poor and a disturber of the city.
CANON 16
Summary. Robbers of pilgrims and of merchants shall be excommunicated.
Text. If anyone shall dare attack pilgrims going to Rome to visit the shrines of the Apostles and the oratories of other saints and rob them of the things they have with them, or exact from merchants new imposts and tolls, let him be excommunicated till he has made satisfaction.
CANON 17
Summary. Abbots and monks may not have the cura animarum.
Text. We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penances, to visit the sick, to administer extreme unction, and to sing public masses. The chrism, holy oil, consecration of altars, and ordination of clerics they shall obtain from the bishops in whose dioceses they reside.
CANON 18
Summary. The appointment of priests to churches belongs to the bishops, and without their consent they may not receive tithes and churches from laymen.
Text. Priests shall be appointed to parochial churches by the bishops, to whom they shall be responsible for the care of souls and other matters pertaining to them. They are not permitted to receive tithes and churches from laics without the will and consent of the bishops. If they act otherwise, let them be subject to the canonical penalties.
CANON 19
Summary. Taxes paid to bishops by monks since Gregory VII must be continued. Monks may not by prescription acquire the possessions of churches and of bishops.
Text. The tax (servitium) which monasteries and their churches have rendered to the bishops since the time of Gregory VII, shall be continued. We absolutely forbid abbots and monks to acquire by prescription after thirty years the possessions of churches and of shops.
CANON 20
Summary. Churches and their possessions, as well as the person and things connected with them, shall remain safe and unmolested.
Text. Having in mind the example of our fathers and discharging the duty of our pastoral office, we decree that churches and their possessions, as well as the persons connected with them, namely, clerics and monks and their servants (conversi), also the laborers and the things they use, shall remain safe and unmolested. If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and, recognizing his crime, does not within the space of thirty days make proper amends, let him be cut off from the Church and anathematized.
CANON 21
Summary. Clerics in major orders may not marry, and marriages already contracted must be dissolved.
Text. We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, subdeacons, and monks to have concubines or to contract marriage. We decree in accordance with the definitions of the sacred canons, that marriages already contracted by such persons must be dissolved, and that the persons be condemned to do penance.
CANON 22
Summary. The alienation of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna is condemned, and the Ordinaries made by the intruders are invalid.
Text. The alienation that has been made especially by Otto, Guido, Jerome, and perhaps by Philip of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna, we condemn. In a general way we declare invalid the alienations in whatever manner made by bishops and abbots whether intruded or canonically elected, and also the ordinations conferred by them whether with the consent of the clergy of the Church or simoniacally. We also absolutely forbid any cleric in any way to alienate his prebend or any ecclesiastical benefice. If he has presumed to do this in the past or shall presume to do so in the future, his action shall be null and he shall be subject to the canonical penalties.
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# First Council of the Lateran
## Results of the council {#results_of_the_council}
Lateran I was the first of four Lateran Councils between the years 1123--1215. The first was not very original in its concept, nor one called to meet a pressing theological question. For the most part, Pope Callixtus II summoned the council to ratify the various meetings and concords which had been occurring in and around Rome for several years. The most pressing issue was that of the Investiture Controversy which had consumed nearly a century of contention and open warfare. At the heart of the question was the ancient right of the Holy Roman Emperor to name the pope as well as bishops and priests. These would be invested with some secular symbol such as a sword or scepter and the spiritual authority represented by a ring, miter and crosier. To an illiterate population, it appeared the bishop or abbot was now the king\'s inferior and owed his position to the king. This issue came to the fore in the first part of the eleventh century when Rome and the pope sought autonomy from the Holy Roman Emperor. It had been a central issue in the reign of Pope Gregory VII and his battles with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The issue was never settled. Years of teaching by Roman trained priests and bishops in Germany had led to an educated generation which rejected the idea of divine right of kings. The Third Lateran Council and the Fourth Lateran Council are generally considered to be of much greater significance than Lateran I. However, Lateran I marked the first time a general and large Council had been held in the West. All previous Councils had been in the East and dominated by Greek theologians and philosophers. In the struggle between Stephen of England and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, the English Church slipped away from the close control the Normans had exercised. Stephen was forced to make many concessions to the Church to gain some element of political control. Historians have largely considered his rule to be a disaster, calling it The Anarchy.
Because of political necessity, the Holy Roman Emperors were restrained from directly naming bishops in the kingdom. In practicality, the process continued to a certain extent. The issue of separation of church and state was simply recast in a different direction. Of all the Gregorian Reforms which were embodied by Lateran I, celibacy of the clergy was the most successful. Simony was curtailed. As time progressed, secular interference into the politics of the Church was seen to continue, albeit in different ways from that of the Investiture Controversy.
It has been argued by some historians that the Concordat of Worms and its reiteration by Lateran I were little more than face saving measures by the Church. Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor continued to name bishops within his kingdom. His control over the papacy was definitely abated. At the time, the Concordat of Worms was proclaimed as a great victory for Henry V inside the Holy Roman Empire. It did serve to constrain much of the most recent warfare in and outside the empire. In the end, Henry V died the monarch of a much diminished kingdom
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# FileMan
**FileMan** is a set of software utilities that provide a metadata function for MUMPS applications, usually used to process medical health records. The FileMan utilities allow the definition of data structures, menus and security, reports, and forms, reducing the level knowledge of the MUMPS programming language required to set up applications. It was written using MUMPS by George Timson in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
FileMan was designed to support the complex information storage and processing needs of hospitals. It was based on an active data dictionary that was able to invoke the full interpretive power of the MUMPS language from within a data reference. For example, a field called \"Length of Stay\" could invoke a MUMPS expression that would process the various dates, transfers, and discharges that would then be returned as if it were stored as a fixed data element.
The first use of FileMan was in the development of medical applications for the Veterans Administration, now called the Department of Veterans\' Affairs. Since it was created by the US federal government, the source code is in the public domain. This led to it being used across a large number of organizations for the rapid development of applications, including commercial products.
MUMPS differs from many languages in its handling of the null string. A large percentage of the FileMan internal data structures are null strings, in which the information is located in the name of the \"nothing\" being referenced. This approach does not fit the traditional Relational Data Model.
FileMan may be used standalone, or may be used with the VA Kernel, which provides an operating system neutral environment for applications
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# Forcemeat
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Squab forcemeat with cepes, anise, and combava juice `{{wiktionary}}`{=mediawiki} **Forcemeat** (derived from the French *farcir*, \"to stuff\") is a uniform mixture of lean meat with fat made by grinding or sieving the ingredients. The result may either be smooth or coarse. Forcemeats are used in the production of numerous items found in charcuterie, including quenelles, sausages, pâtés, terrines, roulades, and galantines. Forcemeats are usually produced from raw meat, except in the case of a *gratin*. Meats commonly used include pork, fish (pike, trout, or salmon), seafood, game meats (venison, boar, or rabbit), poultry, game birds, veal, and pork livers. Pork fatback is preferred as a fat, as it has a somewhat neutral flavor.
## History
Forcemeats are an ancient food and are included in *Apicius*, a collection of Roman cookery recipes usually thought to have been compiled in the late 4th or early 5th century AD.
## Types
Straight: Produced by progressively grinding equal parts pork and pork fat with a third ingredient, a dominant meat, which can be pork or another meat. The portions are cubed and then seasoned, cured, rested, ground and finally placed into the desired vessel.\
Country-style: A combination of pork and pork fat, often with the addition of pork liver and garnish ingredients. The texture of this finished product is coarse.\
Gratin: Has a portion of the main protein browned.\
Pliante: Thin slices of meat pressed together or folded, typically alternating in colour or texture, with fat layered between.\
Mousseline: Very light in texture, utilizing lean cuts of meat usually from veal, poultry, fish, or shellfish. The resulting texture comes from the addition of eggs and cream to this forcemeat.
## Secondary binders {#secondary_binders}
Often, the only binder in a forcemeat is the physical structure of the protein used. Sometimes a secondary binder is necessary to hold the mixture. These binders are generally needed when preparing country-style or *gratin* forcemeats. The three types of binders are eggs, dry milk powder, and panades. A panade can be made from starchy ingredients which aid in the binding process; these include well-cooked potatoes which have been puréed, cream-soaked bread, or *pâte à choux*
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# Forseti
thumb\|*Forseti Seated in Judgment* (1881) by Carl Emil Doepler **Forseti** (Old Norse \"the presiding one\", \"president\" in modern Icelandic and Faroese) is the god of justice and reconciliation in Norse mythology. He is generally identified with **Fosite**, a god of the Frisians.
## Name
Grimm took *Forseti*, \"*praeses, princeps*\", to be the older form of the name, first postulating the Old High German equivalent *\*forasizo* (cf. modern German *Vorsitzender* \"one who presides\", Old English *fore-sittan* \'to preside\'). but later preferring a derivation from *fors*, a \"whirling stream\" or \"cataract\", connected to the spring and the god\'s veneration by seagoing peoples. It is plausible that *Fosite* is the older name and *Forseti* a folk etymology. According to the German philologist Hans Kuhn the Germanic form Fosite is linguistically identical to Greek *Poseidon*, hence the original name may have been introduced before the Proto-Germanic sound change, possibly via Greek sailors purchasing amber (cf. *Phol* as a cognate of *Baldr*). The etymologist Wolfgang Laur, is highly critical, however, as the names of Germanic gods are composed almost exclusively of Germanic components. According to Laur, the name Forseti remains largely unexplained.
## Old Norse *Forseti* {#old_norse_forseti}
According to Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda, Forseti is the son of Baldr and Nanna. His is the best of courts; all those who come before him leave reconciled. This suggests skill in mediation and is in contrast to his fellow god Týr, who \"is not called a reconciler of men.\" However, as de Vries points out, the only basis for associating Forseti with justice seems to have been his name; there is no corroborating evidence in Norse mythology. \'Puts to sleep all suits\' or \'stills all strifes\' may have been a late addition to the strophe Snorri cites, from which he derives the information.
The first element in the name *Forsetlund* (Old Norse *Forsetalundr*), a farm in the parish of Onsøy (\'Odin\'s island\'), in eastern Norway, seems to be the genitive case of Forseti, offering evidence he was worshipped there.
### Glitnir
**Glitnir** (meaning \"one who shines\") is the hall of Forseti, and the seat of justice amongst gods and men. It is also noted to have been a place of dwelling for Baldr, Forseti\'s father in Norse and Germanic mythologies. Glitnir is symbolic of the importance of discussion rather than violence as a means of resolution of conflict within the Norse tradition. It has pillars of gold and is roofed with silver, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance. The stories of Baldr and his son Forseti may have been contaminated with legends about king Guðmundr and his son Höfundr (\'the judge\'), who inhabited the otherworld land of Glæsisvellir.
## Frisian *Fosite* {#frisian_fosite}
According to Alcuin\'s Life of St. Willebrord, the saint visited an island between Frisia and Denmark that was sacred to Fosite and was called Fositesland after the god worshipped there. There was a sacred spring from which water had to be drawn in silence, it was so holy. Willebrord defiled the spring by baptizing people in it and killing a cow there. Altfrid tells the same story of St. Liudger. Adam of Bremen retells the story and adds that the island was *Heiligland*, i.e., Heligoland.
There is also a late-medieval legend of the origins of written Frisian laws. Wishing to assemble written lawcodes for all his subject peoples, Charlemagne summoned twelve representatives of the Frisian people, the *asega\'s* (\'law-speakers\'), and demanded they recite their people\'s laws. When they could not do so after several days, he let them choose between death, slavery, or being set adrift in a rudderless boat. They chose the last and prayed for help, whereupon a thirteenth man appeared, with a golden axe on his shoulder. He steered the boat to land with the axe, then threw it ashore; a spring appeared where it landed. He taught them laws and then disappeared. The stranger and the spring have traditionally been identified with Fosite and the sacred spring of Fositesland.
This hypothesis has not met with universal acceptance.
## Reception
Jacob Grimm noted that if, as Adam of Bremen states, Fosite\'s sacred island was Heligoland, that would make him an ideal candidate for a deity known to both Frisians and Scandinavians, but that it is surprising he is never mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus.
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# Forseti
## In modern culture {#in_modern_culture}
The German neofolk band Forseti named itself after the god.
In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game *Age of Mythology*, Forseti is one of 9 minor gods Norse players can worship
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# Flag
thumb\|right\|upright=1.25\|United Nations members\' national flags thumb\|right\|upright=1.25\|Setting up a flag could also possess the meaning of conquering something. Jaan Künnap with the flag of Estonia at the top of Lenin Peak (7134 m) in 1989.
A **flag** is a piece of fabric (most often rectangular) with distinctive colours and design. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term *flag* is also used to refer to the graphic design employed, and flags have evolved into a general tool for rudimentary signalling and identification, especially in environments where communication is challenging (such as the maritime environment, where semaphore is used). Many flags fall into groups of similar designs called flag families. The study of flags is known as \"vexillology\" from the Latin *vexillum*, meaning \"flag\" or \"banner\".
National flags are patriotic symbols with widely varied interpretations that often include strong military associations because of their original and ongoing use for that purpose. Flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for decorative purposes.
Some military units are called \"flags\" after their use of flags. A *flag* (Arabic: *italic=no*) is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries. In Spain, a *flag* (Spanish: **bandera**) is a battalion-equivalent in the Spanish Legion.
## History
The origin of the flag is unknown and it remains unclear when the first flag was raised. Ships with vexilloids were represented on predynastic Egyptian pottery c. 3500 BC. In antiquity, field signs that can be categorised as vexilloid or \"flag-like\" were used in warfare, originating in ancient Egypt or Assyria. Examples include the Sassanid battle standard Derafsh Kaviani, and the standards of the Roman legions such as the eagle of Augustus Caesar\'s Xth legion and the dragon standard of the Sarmatians; the latter was allowed to fly freely in the wind, carried by a horseman, but depictions suggest that it bore more similarity to an elongated dragon kite than to a simple flag.
While the origin of the flag remains a mystery, the oldest flag discovered is made of bronze: a Derafsh or \'flag-like\' Shahdad, which was found in Shahdad, Iran, and dates back to c. 2400 BC. It features a seated man and a kneeling woman facing each other, with a star in between. This iconography was found in other Iranian Bronze Age pieces of art.
Flags made of cloth were almost certainly the invention of the ancient peoples of the Indian subcontinent or the Zhou dynasty of Ancient China. Chinese flags had iconography such as a red bird, a white tiger, or a blue dragon, and royal flags were to be treated with a level of respect similar to that given to the ruler. Indian flags were often triangular and decorated with attachments such as a yak\'s tail and the state umbrella.`{{Explain|reason=The term ''state umbrella'' needs explanation.|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki} Silk flags either spread to the Near East from China or it was just the silk itself, later fashioned by people who had independently conceptualized a rectangular cloth attached to a pole. Flags were probably transmitted to Europe via the Muslim world, where plainly coloured flags were used due to Islamic proscriptions. They are often mentioned in the early history of Islam and may have been copied from India.
In Europe, during the High Middle Ages, flags came to be used primarily as a heraldic device in battle, allowing easier identification of a knight over only the heraldic icon painted on the shield. Already during the high medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages, city states and communes such as those of the Old Swiss Confederacy also began to use flags as field signs. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period.
During the peak of the sailing age, beginning in the early 17th century, it was customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to fly flags designating their nationality; these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and maritime flags of today. Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; *see, International maritime signal flags*.
Use of flags beyond a military or naval context began with the rise of nationalism by the end of the 18th century, although some flags date back earlier. The flags of countries such as Austria, Denmark or Turkey have legendary origins while many others, including those of Poland and Switzerland, grew out of the heraldic emblems of the Middle Ages. The 17th century saw the birth of several national flags through revolutionary struggle. One of these was the flag of the Netherlands, which appeared during the 80-year Dutch rebellion which began in 1568 against Spanish domination.
Political change and social reform, allied with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people, led to the creation of new nations and flags all over the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.
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# Flag
## National flags {#national_flags}
One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolise a nation or country. Some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include:
- The flag of Denmark, the *Dannebrog*, is attested in 1478, and is the oldest national flag still in use. It inspired the cross design of the other Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, and regional Scandinavian flags for the Faroe Islands, Åland, Scania and Bornholm, as well as flags for the non-Scandinavian Shetland and Orkney.
- The flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour. Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagne\'s time, the ninth century. The coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, like Texeira\'s map of 1520. A century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Prince\'s Flag in orange--white--blue. Soon the more famous red--white--blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630. Orange made a comeback during the civil war of the late 18th century, signifying the orangist or pro-stadtholder party. During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it. Any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau. This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, which today uses red-blue. However, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, and South Africa (the 1928--94 flag as well the current flag). As the probable inspiration for the Russian flag, it is the source too for the pan-Slavic colours red, white and blue, adopted by many Slavic states and peoples as their symbols; examples are Slovakia, Serbia, and Slovenia.
- The national flag of France was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, France\'s tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations. Examples: Italy, Belgium, Ireland, Romania and Mexico.
- The Union Flag (Union Jack) of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used. British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history. Examples: Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Tuvalu, and also the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, Ontario and British Columbia, and the American state of Hawaii; *see commons:Flags based on British ensigns*.
- The flag of the United States is nicknamed *The Stars and Stripes* or *Old Glory*. Some nations imitated this flag to symbolise their similarity to the United States or the American Revolution. Examples: Liberia, Chile, Taiwan (ROC), and the French region of Brittany.
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- Ethiopia was seen as a model by emerging African states of the 1950s and 1960s, as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa. Accordingly, its flag became the source of the Pan-African colours, or \'Rasta colours\'. Examples: Benin, Togo, Senegal, Ghana, Mali, Guinea.
- The flag of Turkey, which is very similar to the last flag of the old Ottoman Empire, has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations. During the time of the Ottomans the crescent began to be associated with Islam and this is reflected on the flags of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Libya, Mauritania, Pakistan, Tunisia and Maldives.
- The Pan-Arab colours, green, white, red and black, are derived from the flag of the Great Arab Revolt as seen on the flags of Jordan, Libya, Kuwait, Sudan, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen and Palestine.
- The Soviet flag, with its golden symbols of the hammer and sickle on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other communist states, such as East Germany, the People\'s Republic of China, Vietnam, Angola, Afghanistan (1978--1980) and Mozambique.
- The flag of Venezuela, created by Francisco de Miranda to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the Gran Colombia, inspired the flags of Colombia, Ecuador, and the Federal Territories in Malaysia, all sharing three bands of yellow, blue and red with the flag of Venezuela.
- The flag of Argentina, created by Manuel Belgrano during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the United Provinces of Central America\'s flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua.
National flag designs are often used to signify nationality in other forms, such as flag patches.
### Civil flags {#civil_flags}
A *civil* flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on non-government installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past, in order to denote buildings or ships that were not crewed by the military. In some countries the civil flag is the same as the war flag or state flag, but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of Spain, and in others it is an alteration of the war flag.
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# Flag
## National flags {#national_flags}
### War flags {#war_flags}
Several countries, including the Royal Air Force, British Army and the Royal Navy (White Ensign) of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union have had unique flags flown by their armed forces separately, rather than the national flag.
Other countries\' armed forces (such as those of the United States or Switzerland) use their standard national flag; in addition, the U.S. has alongside flags and seals designed from long tradition for each of its six uniformed military services/military sub-departments in the Department of Defense and the Department of Homeland Security. The Philippines\' armed forces may use their standard national flag, but during times of war the flag is turned upside down. Bulgaria\'s flag is also turned upside down during times of war. These are also considered war flags, though the terminology only applies to the flag\'s military usage.
Large versions of the war flag flown on the warships of countries\' navies are known as battle ensigns. In addition, besides flying the national standard or a military services\' emblem flag at a military fort, base, station or post and at sea at the stern (rear) or main top mast of a warship, a Naval Jack flag and other maritime flags, pennants and emblems are flown at the bow (front). In times of war waving a white flag is a banner of truce, talks/negotiations or surrender.
Four distinctive African flags currently in the collection of the National Maritime Museum in Britain were flown in action by Itsekiri ships under the control of Nana Olomu during the conflict in the late 19th century. One is the flag generally known as the Benin Empire flag and one is referred to as Nana Olomu\'s flag.
### International flags {#international_flags}
Among international flags are the United Nations, Europe, Olympic, NATO and Paralympic flags.
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# Flag
## Maritime flags {#maritime_flags}
Flags are particularly important at sea, where they can mean the difference between life and death, and consequently where the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced. A national flag flown at sea is known as an ensign. A courteous, peaceable merchant ship or yacht customarily flies its ensign (in the usual ensign position), together with the flag of whatever nation it is currently visiting at the mast (known as a courtesy flag). To fly one\'s ensign alone in foreign waters, a foreign port or in the face of a foreign warship traditionally indicates a willingness to fight, with cannon, for the right to do so. `{{As of|2009}}`{=mediawiki}, this custom is still taken seriously by many naval and port authorities and is readily enforced in many parts of the world by boarding, confiscation and other civil penalties. In some countries yacht ensigns are different from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying cargo that requires a customs declaration. Carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be smuggling in many jurisdictions. Traditionally, a vessel flying under the courtesy flag of a specific nation, regardless of the vessel\'s country of registry, is considered to be operating under the law of her \'host\' nation.
There is a system of international maritime signal flags for numerals and letters of the alphabet. Each flag or pennant has a specific meaning when flown individually. As well, semaphore flags can be used to communicate on an *ad hoc* basis from ship to ship over short distances.
Another category of maritime flag flown by some United States government ships is the distinctive mark. Although the United States Coast Guard has its own service ensign, all other U.S. government ships fly the national ensign as their service ensign, following United States Navy practice. To distinguish themselves from ships of the Navy, such ships historically have flown their parent organisation\'s flag from a forward mast as a distinctive mark. Today, for example, commissioned ships of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) fly the NOAA flag as a distinctive mark.
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# Flag
## Shapes and designs {#shapes_and_designs}
Flags are usually rectangular in shape (often in the ratio 2:3, 1:2, or 3:5), but may be of any shape or size that is practical for flying, including square, triangular, or swallow tailed. A more unusual flag shape is that of the flag of Nepal, which is in the shape of two stacked triangles. Other unusually shaped flags include the civil flags of Ohio (a swallowtail); Tampa, Florida; and Pike County, Ohio.
Many flags are dyed through and through to be inexpensive to manufacture, such that the reverse side is the mirror image of the obverse (front) side, generally the side displayed when, from the observer\'s point of view, the flag flies from pole-side left to right. This presents two possibilities:
1. If the design is symmetrical in an axis parallel to the flag pole, obverse and reverse will be identical despite the mirror-reversal, such as the Indian Flag or Canadian Flag
2. If not, the obverse and reverse will present two variants of the same design, one with the hoist on the left (usually considered the obverse side), the other with the hoist on the right (usually considered the reverse side of the flag). This is very common and usually not disturbing if there is no text in the design.
Some complex flag designs are not intended to be shown on both sides, requiring separate obverse and reverse sides if made correctly. In these cases there is a design element (usually text) which is not symmetric and should be read in the same direction, regardless of whether the hoist is to the viewer\'s left or right. These cases can be divided into two types:
1. The same (asymmetric) design may be duplicated on both sides. Such flags can be manufactured by creating two identical through and through flags and then sewing them back to back, though this can affect the resulting combination\'s responsiveness to the wind. Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol , indicating the reverse is congruent to (rather than a mirror image of) the obverse.
2. Rarely, the reverse design may differ, in whole or in part, from that of the obverse. Examples of flags whose reverse differs from the obverse include the flag of Paraguay, the flag of Oregon, and the historical flag of the Soviet Union. Depictions of such flags may be marked with the symbol .
Common designs on flags include crosses, stripes, and divisions of the surface, or *field*, into bands or quarters---patterns and principles mainly derived from heraldry. A heraldic coat of arms may also be flown as a banner of arms, as is done on both the state flag of Maryland and the flag of Kiribati.
The *de jure* flag of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi, which consisted of a rectangular field of green, was for a long period the only national flag using a single colour and no design or insignia. However, other historical states have also used flags without designs or insignia, such as the short-lived Soviet Republic of Hungary and the more recent Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, whose flags were both a plain field of red.
Colours are normally described with common names, such as \"red\", but may be further specified using colourimetry.
The largest flag flown from a flagpole worldwide, according to Guinness World Records, is the flag of the United Arab Emirates flown in Sharjah. This flag was 2448.56 m2. The largest flag ever made was the flag of Qatar; the flag, which measures at 101,978 m2, was completed in December 2013 in Doha.
### Parts of a flag {#parts_of_a_flag}
The general parts of a flag are: canton (the upper inner section of the flag), field or ground (the entire flag except the canton), the hoist (the edge used to attach the flag to the hoist), and the fly (the furthest edge from the hoist end).
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# Flag
## Shapes and designs {#shapes_and_designs}
### Vertical flags {#vertical_flags}
Vertical flags are sometimes used in lieu of the standard horizontal flag in central and eastern Europe, particularly in the German-speaking countries. This practice came about because the relatively brisk wind needed to display horizontal flags is not common in these countries.
frameless\|center\|upright=1.25
The standard **horizontal flag** (no. 1 in the preceding illustration) is nonetheless the form most often used even in these countries.
The **vertical flag** (German: *Hochformatflagge* or *Knatterflagge*; no. 2) is a vertical form of the standard flag. The flag\'s design may remain unchanged (No. 2a) or it may change, e.g. by changing horizontal stripes to vertical ones (no. 2b). If the flag carries an emblem, it may remain centred or may be shifted slightly upwards.
The **vertical flag for hoisting from a beam** (German: *Auslegerflagge* or *Galgenflagge*; no. 3) is additionally attached to a horizontal beam, ensuring that it is fully displayed even if there is no wind.
The **vertical flag for hoisting from a horizontal pole** (German: *Hängeflagge*; no. 4) is hoisted from a horizontal pole, normally attached to a building. The topmost stripe on the horizontal version of the flag faces away from the building.
The **vertical flag for hoisting from a crossbar** or banner (German: *Bannerflagge*; no. 5) is firmly attached to a horizontal crossbar from which it is hoisted, either by a vertical pole (no. 5a) or a horizontal one (no. 5b). The topmost stripe on the horizontal version of the flag normally faces to the left.
## Religious flags {#religious_flags}
Flags can play many different roles in religion. In Buddhism, prayer flags are used, usually in sets of five differently coloured flags. Several flags and banners including the Black Standard are associated with Islam. Many national flags and other flags include religious symbols such as the cross, the crescent, or a reference to a patron saint. Flags are also adopted by religious groups and flags such as the Jain flag, Nishan Sahib (Sikhism), the Saffron flag (Hindu) and the Christian flag are used to represent a whole religion.
<File:Pro2.2.jpg%7CPoland> (Gorzów Wlkp.). Religious flags <File:Christian> flag.svg\|Christian flag adopted by several Protestant denominations <File:In-jain.svg>\|Jain flag (on occasion, the bottom black bar is replaced with a dark blue one) <File:Flag> of Buddhism.svg\|Buddhist flag <File:Nishan> Sahib.svg\|Nishan Sahib (the Sikh flag)
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# Flag
## In sports {#in_sports}
Because of their ease of signalling and identification, flags are often used in sports.
- In association football, linesmen carry small flags along the touch lines. They use the flags to indicate to the referee potential infringements of the laws, or who is entitled to possession of the ball that has gone out of the field of play, or, most famously, raising the flag to indicate an offside offence. Officials called *touch judges* use flags for similar purposes in both codes of rugby.
- In American and Canadian football, referees use penalty flags to indicate that a foul has been committed in game play. The phrase used for such an indication is *flag on the play*. The flag itself is a small, weighted handkerchief, tossed on the field at the approximate point of the infraction; the intent is usually to sort out the details after the current play from scrimmage has concluded. In American football, the flag is yellow; in Canadian football the flag is orange, but at the professional level the flag is yellow. In both the Canadian Football League and National Football League, coaches also use red challenge flags to indicate that they wish to contest a ruling on the field.
- In yacht racing, flags are used to communicate information from the race committee boat to the racers. Different flags hoisted from the committee boat may communicate a false start, changes in the course, a cancelled race, or other important information. Racing boats themselves may also use flags to symbolise a protest or distress. The flags are often part of the nautical alphabetic system of International maritime signal flags, in which 26 different flags designate the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet.
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- In auto and motorcycle racing, racing flags are used to communicate with drivers. Most famously, a checkered flag of black and white squares indicates the end of the race, and victory for the leader. A yellow flag is used to indicate caution requiring slow speed and a red flag requires racers to stop immediately. A black flag is used to indicate penalties.
:
- In addition, fans of almost all sports wave flags in the stands to indicate their support for the participants. Many sports teams have their own flags, and, in individual sports, fans will indicate their support for a player by waving the flag of his or her home country.
- Capture the flag is a popular children\'s sport.
- In Gaelic football and Hurling a green flag is used to indicate a goal while a white flag is used to indicate a point
- In Australian rules football, the goal umpire will wave two flags to indicate a goal (worth six points) and a single flag to indicate a behind (worth one point).
- For safety, dive flags indicate the locations of underwater scuba divers or that diving operations are being conducted in the vicinity.
- In water sports such as wakeboarding and Water-Skiing, an orange flag is held in between runs to indicate someone is in the water.
- In golf, the hole is almost always marked with a flag. The flagpole is designed to fit centered within the base of the hole and is removable. Many courses will use colour-coded flags to determine a hole location at the front, middle or rear of the green. However, colour-coded flags are not used in the professional tours. (A rare example of a golf course that does not use flags to mark the hole is the East Course of Merion Golf Club, which instead uses flagpoles topped by wicker baskets.)
- Flag poles with flags of all shapes and sizes are used by marching bands, drum corps, and winter guard teams use flags as a method of visual enhancement in performances.
## Diplomatic and political flags {#diplomatic_and_political_flags}
Some countries use diplomatic flags, such as the United Kingdom (see image of the Embassy flag) and the Kingdom of Thailand (see image of the Embassy flag).
The socialist movement uses red flags to represent their cause. The anarchist movement has a variety of different flags, but the primary flag associated with them is the black flag. In the Spanish Civil War, the anarchists used the red-and-black bisected flag. In the 20th century, the rainbow flag was adopted as a symbol of the LGBT social movements. Its derivatives include the Bisexual pride and Transgender pride flags.
Some of these political flags have become national flags, such as the red flag of the Soviet Union and national socialist banners for Nazi Germany. The present Flag of Portugal is based on what had been the political flag of the Portuguese Republican Party previous to the 5 October 1910 revolution which brought this party to power.
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# Flag
## Personal flags {#personal_flags}
Throughout history, monarchs have often had personal flags (including royal standards), representing the royal person, including in personal union of national monarchies.
## Vehicle flags {#vehicle_flags}
Flags are often representative of an individual\'s affinity or allegiance to a country, team or business and can be presented in various ways. A popular trend that has surfaced revolves around the idea of the \'mobile\' flag in which an individual displays their particular flag of choice on their vehicle. These items are commonly referred to as car flags and are usually manufactured from high strength polyester material and are attached to a vehicle via a polypropylene pole and clip window attachment.
## Swimming flags {#swimming_flags}
In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Philippines, Ireland and the United Kingdom, a pair of red-yellow flags is used to mark the limits of the bathing area on a beach, usually guarded by surf lifesavers. If the beach is closed, the poles of the flags are crossed. The flags are coloured with a red triangle and a yellow triangle making a rectangular flag, or a red rectangle over a yellow rectangle. On many Australian beaches there is a slight variation with beach condition signalling. A red flag signifies a closed beach (in the UK also other dangers), yellow signifies strong current or difficult swimming conditions, and green represents a beach safe for general swimming. In Ireland, a red and yellow flag indicates that it is safe to swim; a red flag that it is unsafe; and no flag indicates that there are no lifeguards on duty. Blue flags may also be used away from the yellow-red lifesaver area to designate a zone for surfboarding and other small, non-motorised watercraft.
Reasons for closing the beach include:
- dangerous rip
- hurricane warning
- no lifeguards in attendance
- overpolluted water
- sharks
- tsunami
- waves too strong
A surf flag exists, divided into four quadrants. The top left and bottom right quadrants are black, and the remaining area is white.
Signal flag \"India\" (a black circle on a yellow square) is frequently used to denote a \"blackball\" zone where surfboards cannot be used but other water activities are permitted.
The United States uses beach warning flags created by the International Life Saving Federation and endorsed and conditionally approved by the United States Lifesaving Association.
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