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# Father Christmas
## 20th century {#th_century}
Any residual distinctions between Father Christmas and Santa Claus largely faded away in the early years of the new century, and it was reported in 1915, \"The majority of children to-day \... do not know of any difference between our old Father Christmas and the comparatively new Santa Claus, as, by both wearing the same garb, they have effected a happy compromise.\"
It took many years for authors and illustrators to agree that Father Christmas\'s costume should be portrayed as red---although that was always the most common colour---and he could sometimes be found in a gown of brown, green, blue or white. Mass media approval of the red costume came following a Coca-Cola advertising campaign that was launched in 1931.
Father Christmas\'s common form for much of the 20th century was described by his entry in the *Oxford English Dictionary*. He is \"the personification of Christmas as a benevolent old man with a flowing white beard, wearing a red sleeved gown and hood trimmed with white fur, and carrying a sack of Christmas presents\". One of the OED\'s sources is a 1919 cartoon in *Punch*, reproduced here. The caption reads:
: *Uncle James (who after hours of making up rather fancies himself as Father Christmas)*. \"Well, my little man, and do you know who I am?\"
: *The Little Man.* \"No, as a matter of fact I don\'t. But Father\'s downstairs; perhaps he may be able to tell you.\"
In 1951 an editorial in *The Times* opined that while most adults may be under the impression that \[the English\] Father Christmas is home-bred, and is \"a good insular John Bull old gentleman\", many children, \"led away \... by the false romanticism of sledges and reindeer\", post letters to Norway addressed simply to Father Christmas or, \"giving him a foreign veneer, Santa Claus\".
Differences between the English and US representations were discussed in *The Illustrated London News* of 1985. The classic illustration by the US artist Thomas Nast was held to be \"the authorised version of how Santa Claus should look---in America, that is.\" In Britain, people were said to stick to the older Father Christmas, with a long robe, large concealing beard, and boots similar to Wellingtons.
Father Christmas appeared in many 20th century English-language works of fiction, including J. R. R. Tolkien\'s *Father Christmas Letters*, a series of private letters to his children written between 1920 and 1942 and first published in 1976. Other 20th century publications include C. S. Lewis\'s *The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe* (1950), Raymond Briggs\'s *Father Christmas* (1973) and its sequel *Father Christmas Goes on Holiday* (1975). The character was also celebrated in popular songs, including \"I Believe in Father Christmas\" by Greg Lake (1974) and \"Father Christmas\" by The Kinks (1977).
In 1991, Raymond Briggs\'s two books were adapted as an animated short film, *Father Christmas*, starring Mel Smith as the voice of the title character.
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# Father Christmas
## 21st century {#st_century}
Modern dictionaries consider the terms Father Christmas and Santa Claus to be synonymous. The respective characters are now to all intents and purposes indistinguishable, although some people are still said to prefer the term \'Father Christmas\' over \'Santa Claus\', nearly 150 years after Santa Claus\'s arrival in England. According to *Brewer\'s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable* (19th edn, 2012), Father Christmas is considered to be \"\[a\] British rather than a US name for Santa Claus, associating him specifically with Christmas. The name carries a somewhat socially superior cachet and is thus preferred by certain advertisers
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# Federal jurisdiction (United States)
**Federal jurisdiction** refers to the legal scope of the government\'s powers in the United States of America.
The United States is a federal republic, governed by the U.S. Constitution, containing fifty states and a federal district which elect the President and Vice President, and having other territories and possessions in its national jurisdiction. This government is variously known as the Union, the United States, or the federal government.
Under the Constitution and various treaties, the legal jurisdiction of the United States includes territories and territorial waters.
## Legislative Branch {#legislative_branch}
One aspect of federal jurisdiction is the extent of legislative power. Under the Constitution, Congress has power to legislate only in the areas that are delegated to it. Under clause 17 Article I Section 8 of the Constitution however, Congress has power to \"exercise exclusive Legislation in all cases whatsoever\" over the federal district (Washington, D.C.) and other territory ceded to the federal government by the states, such as for military installations.
Federal jurisdiction in this sense is important in criminal law because federal law does not supersede state criminal law. Congress has enacted the Assimilative Crimes Act (`{{UnitedStatesCode|18|13}}`{=mediawiki}), which provides that any act that would have been a crime under the laws of the state in which a federal enclave is situated is also a federal crime. As most such enclaves are occupied by the military, military law is especially concerned with these enclaves, especially the issue of establishing who has jurisdiction and what type of jurisdiction. In such areas, the federal government may have proprietary jurisdiction (rights as landowner), concurrent jurisdiction (with federal and state law applicable), or exclusive jurisdiction over the land where an act was committed. Courts-martial involving military members subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice apply regardless of location.
Article Four of the United States Constitution also states that the Congress has the power to enact laws *respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States.* **Federal jurisdiction** exists over any territory thus subject to laws enacted by the Congress.
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# Federal jurisdiction (United States)
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The American legal system includes both state courts and federal courts. State courts hear cases involving state law, and such federal laws as are not restricted to hearing in federal courts. Federal courts may only hear cases where federal jurisdiction can be established. Specifically, the court must have both subject-matter jurisdiction over the matter of the claim and personal jurisdiction over the parties.
The Federal Courts are courts of limited jurisdiction, meaning that they only exercise powers granted to them by the Constitution and Federal Laws. There are several forms of subject-matter jurisdiction, but the two most commonly appealed to are federal-question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. Federal question jurisdiction is available when the plaintiff raises a claim that arises under the laws, treaties, or Constitution of the United States, as opposed to claims arising under state law. By the \"Well-Pleaded Complaint\" rule, federal question jurisdiction is not available if the federal issue arises only as a defense to a state-law claim. Diversity jurisdiction, on the other hand, is available regarding state-law claims if every plaintiff is from a different state from every defendant (the requirement for so-called complete or total diversity) and the amount in controversy exceeds \$75,000.
If a Federal Court has subject matter jurisdiction over one or more of the claims in a case, it has discretion to exercise ancillary jurisdiction over other state law claims.
The Supreme Court has \"cautioned that \... Court\[s\] must take great care to \'resist the temptation\' to express preferences about \[certain types of cases\] in the form of jurisdictional rules. Judges must strain to remove the influence of the merits from their jurisdictional rules. The law of jurisdiction must remain apart from the world upon which it operates\".
Generally, when a case has successfully overcome the hurdles of standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a trial court. The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged constitutional violation(s) by the government. If the non-governmental party loses, the constitutional issue may form part of the appeal. Eventually, a petition for certiorari may be sent to the Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court grants certiorari and accepts the case, it will receive written briefs from each side (and any amici curiae or friends of the court---usually interested third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments. The Justices will closely question both parties. When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single majority opinion and one or more dissenting opinions. Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken. The majority opinion constitutes binding precedent on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court
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# Fossil Record
***Fossil Record*** is a biannual peer-reviewed scientific journal covering palaeontology. It was established in 1998 as the ***Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, Geowissenschaftliche Reihe*** and originally published on behalf of the Museum für Naturkunde by Wiley-VCH. On 1 January 2022, *Fossil Record* changed publisher to Pensoft Publishers, the editor-in-chief is Florian Witzmann.
## Abstracting and indexing {#abstracting_and_indexing}
The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded, BIOSIS Previews, The Zoological Record, and Scopus. According to the *Journal Citation Reports*, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 2.081
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# Frequency modulation synthesis
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# Show Me Love (film)
***Show Me Love*** (*\'\'\'Fucking Åmål\'\'\'*) is a 1998 Swedish romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Lukas Moodysson in his feature-length directorial debut. It stars Rebecka Liljeberg and Alexandra Dahlström as two seemingly disparate teenage girls who begin a tentative romantic relationship. The film was released theatrically in Sweden on 23 October 1998, and premiered internationally at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
It received an overwhelmingly positive reception and won four Guldbagge Awards (Sweden\'s official film awards) at the 1999 ceremony. Its international awards include the Teddy Award at the 1999 Berlin International Film Festival, and the Special Jury Prize at the 34th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The film was selected as the Swedish entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 71st Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist.
The Swedish title refers to the small town of Åmål in Västra Götaland County, western Sweden. However, only a few scenes were filmed in Åmål, and they were not included in the final product. Primary filming took place in the nearby town of Trollhättan, the location of the production company Film i Väst\'s studios.
## Plot
Two girls, Agnes and Elin, attend school in the small town of Åmål, Sweden. Elin is outgoing and popular but finds her life unsatisfying and dull. Agnes, by contrast, has no real friends and is constantly depressed. Agnes is in love with Elin but cannot find any way to express it.
Agnes\' parents worry about their daughter\'s reclusive life and try to be reassuring. Her mother decides, against Agnes\' will, to throw a 16th birthday party for her. Agnes is afraid no one will come. Viktoria, a girl in a wheelchair, shows up and Agnes shouts at her in front of her parents, telling her they are friends only because no one else will talk to them. Agnes, overcome with anger and depression, goes to her room and cries into her pillow shouting that she wishes she were dead, while her father tries to soothe her. Viktoria leaves and Agnes\'s family eats the food made for the party.
Elin arrives at Agnes\' house, mainly as an excuse to avoid going to another party, where there will be a boy (Johan, played by Mathias Rust) she wants to avoid. Elin\'s older sister, Jessica, who comes with her, dares her to kiss Agnes, who is rumoured to be a lesbian. Elin fulfills the dare and then runs out with Jessica, only to soon feel guilty for having humiliated Agnes.
After becoming drunk at the other party, Elin gets sick and throws up. Johan tries to help her and ends up professing his love to her. Elin leaves Johan and the party, only to return to Agnes\'s house to apologize for how she acted earlier. In doing so, Elin stops Agnes from cutting herself. She even manages to persuade Agnes to return with her to the other party. On the way, Elin shares her real feelings about being trapped in Åmål. She asks Agnes about being a lesbian and believes that their problems could be solved by leaving Åmål and going to Stockholm. On impulse, Elin persuades Agnes to hitchhike to Stockholm, which is a five-hour journey by car. They find a driver who agrees to take them, believing them to be sisters who are visiting their grandmother. While sitting in the back seat, they have their first real kiss. The driver sees them and, shocked at the behaviour of the two \'sisters\', orders them to leave the car.
Elin discovers that she is attracted to Agnes but is afraid to admit it. She proceeds to ignore Agnes and refuses to talk to her. Elin\'s sister Jessica sees that she is in love and pushes her to figure out who it is. To cover the fact that she is in love with Agnes, Elin lies, pretending to be in love with Johan, and loses her virginity during a short-lived relationship with him. Elin eventually admits her feelings, when, after a climactic scene in a school bathroom, they are forced to \'out\' their relationship to the school.
The film ends with Elin and Agnes sitting in Elin\'s bedroom drinking chocolate milk. Elin explains that she often adds too much chocolate until her milk is nearly black. She must fill another glass with milk and mix it and that her sister Jessica often gets mad that she finishes the chocolate. Elin has the last word saying \"It makes a lot of chocolate milk. But that doesn\'t matter\".
## Cast
- Alexandra Dahlström as Elin Olsson
- Rebecka Liljeberg as Agnes Ahlberg
- Erica Carlson as Jessica Olsson
- Mathias Rust as Johan Hulth
- Stefan Hörberg as Markus
- Josefine Nyberg as Viktoria
- Ralph Carlsson as Agnes\'s father, Olof
- Maria Hedborg as Agnes\'s mother, Karin
- Axel Widegren as Agnes\'s little brother, Oskar
- Jill Ung as Elin\'s and Jessica\'s mother, Birgitta
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# Show Me Love (film)
## Title
The original title of the film, *Fucking Åmål*, refers to the girls\' feelings about their small town: In a key scene, Elin shouts in desperation \"*varför måste vi bo i fucking jävla kuk-Åmål?*\" (which roughly translates to \"why do we have to live in fucking bloody cock-Åmål?\").
According to Moodysson, the problem with the original title started when the film was Sweden\'s candidate for the Academy Awards, though eventually it was not chosen as a nominee. The Hollywood industry magazine *Variety* refused to run an advertisement for *Fucking Åmål*. Thus, American distributor Strand Releasing asked for a new title. Moodysson took the new title from the song at the end of the film, by Robyn. Distributors in other native English-speaking countries then followed suit.
-
- (\"Discovering Love\")
- (\"School Friends\")
- (\"Love is Love\") The Czech title is based on a Lucie Bílá song of the same name, which references homosexuality.
- (`{{transliteration|ru|Pokazhi mne lyubov}}`{=mediawiki}, \"Show Me Love\")
- Hebrew: *F- Åmål*
- English: *Show Me Love*
- French (Canada): *Qui Aimes-Tu?* (\"Who do you love/like?\")
## Reception
### Political controversy {#political_controversy}
Even before the film was completed, it created controversy in the town of Åmål. Local politicians campaigned to get the title changed because they argued that it would show the town in an unfair way and even undermine it as an economic centre. Further pressure was brought on the makers of the film, the Film i Väst studio, who are partly financed by Swedish local authorities, including Åmål.
However, the local complaints had no effect on the content or release of the film. Since the release, the town of Åmål has tried to embrace the publicity generated, despite the fact that the town\'s name is missing from the English title. In the early 2000s the town founded the pop music \"Fucking Åmål Festival.\"
### Critical and commercial response {#critical_and_commercial_response}
*Fucking Åmål* received the highest audience figures for a Swedish film in 1998--9, with a total audience of 867,576 and a total audience for the whole of Europe of 2.1 million. It grossed \$6.5 million in Sweden and \$3 million in Norway. Some international reports stated that the film had outgrossed the Hollywood film *Titanic* in Sweden. In fact, *Titanic* had over twice as many viewers as *Show Me Love* in Sweden in 1998.
*Show Me Love* has an approval rating of 91% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 44 reviews, and an average rating of 7.5/10. The website\'s critical consensus states: \"A naturalistic depiction of teenage life, *Show Me Love* has a charming, authentic feel\". Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 73 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". It is among the top ten of the British Film Institute list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.
The film received consistently good reviews, including the realism and credibility of its portrayal of what it is like to be a teenager in a small town in the 1990s. In addition, the efforts of the young actors were praised. Jan-Olov Andersson at Aftonbladet felt that Dahlström\'s and Liljeberg\'s imaginative appearance and interaction was \"sensationally credible\", and Bo Ludvigsson at Svenska Dagbladet wrote that it was \"a warm, strong and confident film about the courage to be human\". Ludvigsson also believed that *Fucking Åmål*, with its storytelling drive, leave and authenticity, was well above most of the Swedish films of recent years. Anders Hansson at Göteborgs-Posten thought that director Moodysson with fairly ordinary elements created \"a film with unusual rise\".
Autostraddle placed it at number 20 on its \"Top 100 Best Lesbian Movies\" list.
### Cultural impact {#cultural_impact}
According to Russian singer Lena Katina, producer Ivan Shapovalov was inspired to create the pop duo t.A.T.u. after the release of this film. The track \"Show Me Love\" is featured in their album *200 km/h in the Wrong Lane*.
The creators of the 2018 Netflix series *Everything Sucks!* called the film the \"biggest influence\" on that show\'s creation.
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# Show Me Love (film)
## Reception
### Awards and nominations {#awards_and_nominations}
\|- ! rowspan=\"24\" \| 1999 \| rowspan=\"2\" \| Amanda Award \| Best Foreign Feature Film \| *Fucking Åmål*, director Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Best Nordic Feature Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Atlantic Film Festival \| Best International Feature \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| rowspan=\"2\" \| Berlin International Film Festival \| C.I.C.A.E. Award - Recommendation (Panorama) \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Teddy Award - Best Feature Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| British Film Institute Awards \| Sutherland Trophy - Special Mention \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Manaki Brothers Film Festival \| Special Jury Award \| Ulf Brantås \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Cinema Jove - Valencia International Film Festival \| Golden Moon of Valencia \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| European Film Awards \| Best Film \| Lars Jönsson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| rowspan=\"2\" \| Flanders International Film Festival Ghent \| Student Jury Award \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Grand Prix \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| rowspan=\"5\" \| Guldbagge Awards \| Best Film \| Lars Jönsson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Best Director \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Best Screenplay \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Best Actress in a Leading Role \| Alexandra Dahlström\
Rebecka Liljeberg \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Best Actor in a Supporting Role \| Ralph Carlsson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| rowspan=\"4\" \| Karlovy Vary International Film Festival \| Audience Award \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| FICC - The Don Quixote Prize \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Special Jury Prize \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Crystal Globe \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| rowspan=\"3\" \| Kyiv International Film Festival \"Molodist\" \| Best Full-Length Fiction Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| FIPRESCI \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Youth Jury Award - Full-Length Feature Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| Verzaubert International Gay & Lesbian Film Festival \| Rosebud - Best Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- ! rowspan=\"3\" \| 2000 \| Bodil Awards \| Best Non-American Film \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| GLAAD Media Award \| Outstanding Film -- Limited Release \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{nom}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| International Film Festival Rotterdam \| MovieZone Young Jury Award \| Lukas Moodysson \| `{{won}}`{=mediawiki} \| `{{end}}`{=mediawiki}
## Soundtrack
The film\'s soundtrack was released through Metronome Records and consists of songs in English and Swedish language. Swedish band Broder Daniel, who contributed three English language songs to *Fucking Åmål*, saw a spike in popularity after the film\'s release. The band also released an EP titled *Fucking Åmål*
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# Frances Abington
**Frances Abington** (`{{nee|'''Barton'''}}`{=mediawiki}; 1737 -- 4 March 1815) was an English actress who was also known for her sense of fashion. Writer and politician Horace Walpole described her as one of the finest actors of their time, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan was said to have written the part of Lady Teazle in *The School for Scandal* for her to perform.
## Early life {#early_life}
She was born Frances Barton (nicknamed \"Fanny\"), as the daughter of a private soldier. She began her career as a flower girl and a street singer. It was also rumoured that she recited Shakespeare in taverns at the age of 12, along with being a prostitute for a short period to help her family with financial problems. Later, she became a servant to a French milliner. During that time, she learnt about costume and learnt French. Her early nickname, Nosegay Fan, came from her time as a flower girl.
## Career
Her first appearance on stage was at Haymarket in 1755 as Miranda in Mrs Centlivre\'s play, *Busybody*. She rose to become a principal actor in October 1756 when she was cast as Lady Pliant in *The Double Dealer*at the Drury Lane. The play\'s cast also included the stars Hannah Pritchard and Kitty Clive. She also appeared in Ireland, where her Lady Townley (in *The Provoked Husband* by Vanbrugh and Cibber) was a success. David Garrick convinced her to return to Drury Lane, and they worked together there until his retirement in 1776.
From 1759 onwards she appeared in the bills as \"Mrs Abington\", following her marriage to her music tutor, the royal trumpeter James Abington. They separated shortly after their marriage as he could not cope with her popularity. They lived separately, with Fanny paying James a small annual stipend to stay away from her. She subsequently had affairs with an Irish MP, Needham, who left her a considerable estate, and William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne. The income from her estate and her stage work made her a wealthy woman.
She remained at the Drury Lane for 18 years, being the first to play more than 30 important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777) in The School for Scandal.
In April 1772, when James Northcote saw her as Miss Notable in Cibber\'s *The Lady\'s Last Stake*, he remarked to his brother `{{Blockquote|I never saw a part done so excellent in all my life, for in her acting she has all the simplicity of nature and not the least tincture of the theatrical.<ref>Letter, 8 April 1772, in William T. Whitley, ''Artists and Their Friends in England 1700–1799'' (1928) vol. II, p.289.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Her wealth and popularity meant she influenced fashion. The press reported on her hair styles: her low hair in *The School for Scandal* was praised for changing the fashion. Her performance as Kitty in \"High Life Below Stairs\" put her in the foremost rank of comic actresses and made the mob cap she wore in the role fashionable. It was soon being referred to as the \"Abington Cap\" on stage and at hatters\' shops across Ireland and England.
It was as the last character in Congreve\'s *Love for Love* that Sir Joshua Reynolds painted the best-known of his half-dozen or more portraits of her (*illustration, left*). In 1782 she left Drury Lane for Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790 until 1797, she reappeared, quitting finally in 1799.
## Death
Frances Abington died on 4 March 1815 at her home on Pall Mall, London. She was buried at St James\'s Church, Piccadilly
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# Futurama (New York World's Fair)
**Futurama** was an exhibit and ride at the 1939 New York World\'s Fair designed by Norman Bel Geddes, which presented a possible model of the world 20 years into the future (1959--1960). The installation was sponsored by the General Motors Corporation and was characterized by automated highways and vast suburbs.
## Background
Geddes had built a model city for a Shell Oil advertising campaign in 1937 that was described as the Shell Oil City of Tomorrow and was effectively a prototype for the much larger and more ambitious Futurama.
## Overview
Geddes\' \"vision of the future\" was rather achievable; the most advanced technology posited was the automated highway system of which General Motors built a working prototype by 1960. Futurama is widely held to have first introduced the general American public to the concept of a network of expressways connecting the nation. It provided a direct connection between the streamlined style which was popular in America at the time, and the concept of steady-flow which appeared in street and highway design in the same period.
Geddes expounds upon his design in his book *Magic Motorways*: `{{blockquote|Futurama is a large-scale model representing almost every type of terrain in America and illustrating how a motorway system may be laid down over the entire country—across mountains, over rivers and lakes, through cities and past towns—never deviating from a direct course and always adhering to the four basic principles of highway design: safety, comfort, speed, and economy.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://archive.org/details/magicmotorways00geddrich | title=Magic Motorways | access-date=2009-03-18 | year=1940 | first= Norman |last= Bel Geddes| publisher=[New York] Random house }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The modeled highway construction emphasized hope for the future as it served as a proposed solution to traffic congestion of the day, and demonstrated the probable development of traffic in proportion to the automotive growth of the next 20 years. Bel Geddes assumed that the automobile would be the same type of carrier and still the most common means of transportation in 1960, albeit with increased vehicle use and traffic lanes also capable of much higher speeds.
Four general ideas for improvement were incorporated into the exhibition showcase to meet these assumptions. First, each section of road was designed to receive greater capacity of traffic. Second, traffic moving in one direction could be isolated from traffic moving in any other. Third, segregating traffic by subdividing towns and cities into certain units restricted traffic and allowed pedestrians to predominate. And fourth, traffic control included maximum and minimum speeds. Through this, the exhibition was designed to inspire greater public enthusiasm and support for the constructive work and planning of streets and highways.
The popularity of the Futurama exhibit fit closely with the fair\'s overall theme of \"The World of Tomorrow\" in its emphasis on the future and its redesign of the American landscape. The highway system was supported within a 1 acre animated model of a projected America containing more than 500,000 individually designed buildings, a million trees of 13 different species, and approximately 50,000 cars, 10,000 of which traveled along a 14-lane multi-speed interstate highway. It prophesied an American utopia regulated by an assortment of cutting-edge technologies: multi-lane highways with remote-controlled semi-automated vehicles (according to Geddes\' *Magic Motorways*, these vehicles are supposed to be equipped with lane centering and lane change/blind spot assist systems), power plants, farms for artificially produced crops, rooftop platforms for individual flying machines, and various gadgets, all intended to make an ideal built environment and ultimately to reform society.
Geddes\' \"future\" was synonymous with technological progress in its simulated low-flying airplane journey through the exhibit. The aerial journey was simulated by an 18-minute ride on a conveyor system, carrying 552 seated spectators at a time, covering a ⅓-mile winding path through the model, along with light, sound, and color effects. The ride moved at a rate of approximately 120 feet per minute or 1.36 mph, allowing spectators to look down through a continuous curved pane of glass towards the model. The virtue of this elevated position allowed spectators to see multiple scales simultaneously, viewing city blocks in proportion to a highway system, as well as artificially controlled trees in glass domes. This scale was modeled off 408 topographical sections based on aerial photographs of different regions of the U.S. provided by Fairchild Aircraft Ltd.
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# Futurama (New York World's Fair)
## Reception
Before General Motors invited Bel Geddes to submit a proposal for the exhibit, they had planned to put in another production line as was featured at their exhibit in the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933 in Chicago. However, after they heard Bel Geddes outline his project all other plans were scrapped as they favored his design for its appeal to a broader audience. The Futurama exhibition was subsequently presented as one of the 1939 New York World Fair\'s main attractions, as it was the \"number-one hit show\". It was considered highly interesting by the public and critics alike, with journalists competing to find adequate words to convey Bel Geddes\' \"ingenuity\", \"daring\", \"showmanship\" and \"genius\". One neutral survey of 1000 departing fairgoers awarded the General Motors exhibit 39.4 points to only 8.5 points for second place Ford as the most interesting exhibit. *Business Week* described the scene: `{{blockquote|More than 30,000 persons daily, the show's capacity, inch along the sizzling pavement in long queues until they reach the chairs which transport them to a tourist's paradise. It unfolds a prophecy of cities, towns, and countrysides served by a comprehensive road system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fotsch |first1=P.M |year=2001 |title=The Building of a Superhighway Future at the New York World's Fair |journal=Cultural Critique |volume=48 |issue= 48 |pages=65–97|doi=10.1353/cul.2001.0033 |s2cid=144246315 }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
His ideas of the future were considered to have a remarkable degree of realism and immediacy, especially for an American audience slowly recovering from the Great Depression and that was longing for prosperity. Futurama\'s imaginary landscape of 1960 was, at the time, seen not just as a novel physical space, but as a glimpse of the future.
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# Futurama (New York World's Fair)
## Legacy
Multiple Federal-Aid Highway Act bills of legislation, which led to the Interstate Highway System, were influenced by massive attendance at Futurama that helped to popularize the concept of modern interstate highways.
The General Motors pavilion at the 1964 New York World\'s Fair included a ride, **Futurama II**, that was also known as \"The New Futurama\".
The 1964 version had a 110 foot tall front facade which was tilted toward the viewer as they approached the front of the building. Inside, moving theater seats took visitors on a multi-media ride into the future around the world, narrated by a description of all the future scenarios. After the 15 minute ride, visitors exited into a showroom of futuristic models and current General Motors products.
The October 1965 attendance statistics beat the old record from 1939 for the two-year period by about five million visitors, the largest ever attendance of any exhibit at any fair in the world.
It is the namesake of the show *Futurama*
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# Field extension
In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a **field extension** is a pair of fields $K \subseteq L$, such that the operations of *K* are those of *L* restricted to *K*. In this case, *L* is an **extension field** of *K* and *K* is a **subfield** of *L*. For example, under the usual notions of addition and multiplication, the complex numbers are an extension field of the real numbers; the real numbers are a subfield of the complex numbers.
Field extensions are fundamental in algebraic number theory, and in the study of polynomial roots through Galois theory, and are widely used in algebraic geometry.
## Subfield
A **subfield** $K$ of a field $L$ is a subset $K\subseteq L$ that is a field with respect to the field operations inherited from $L$. Equivalently, a subfield is a subset that contains the multiplicative identity $1$, and is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and taking the inverse of a nonzero element of $K$.
As `{{math|1=1 – 1 = 0}}`{=mediawiki}, the latter definition implies $K$ and $L$ have the same zero element.
For example, the field of rational numbers is a subfield of the real numbers, which is itself a subfield of the complex numbers. More generally, the field of rational numbers is (or is isomorphic to) a subfield of any field of characteristic $0$.
The characteristic of a subfield is the same as the characteristic of the larger field.
## Extension field {#extension_field}
If $K$ is a subfield of $L$, then $L$ is an **extension field** or simply **extension** of $K$, and this pair of fields is a **field extension**. Such a field extension is denoted $L/K$ (read as \"$L$ over $K$\").
If $L$ is an extension of $F$, which is in turn an extension of $K$, then $F$ is said to be an **intermediate field** (or **intermediate extension** or **subextension**) of $L/K$.
Given a field extension $L/K$, the larger field $L$ is a $K$-vector space. The dimension of this vector space is called the **degree** of the extension and is denoted by $[L:K]$.
The degree of an extension is 1 if and only if the two fields are equal. In this case, the extension is a **`{{vanchor|trivial extension}}`{=mediawiki}**. Extensions of degree 2 and 3 are called **quadratic extensions** and **cubic extensions**, respectively. A **finite extension** is an extension that has a finite degree.
Given two extensions $L/K$ and $M/L$, the extension $M/K$ is finite if and only if both $L/K$ and $M/L$ are finite. In this case, one has
$$[M : K]=[M : L]\cdot[L : K].$$
Given a field extension $L/K$ and a subset $S$ of $L$, there is a smallest subfield of $L$ that contains $K$ and $S$. It is the intersection of all subfields of $L$ that contain $K$ and $S$, and is denoted by $K(S)$ (read as \"$K$ *`{{vanchor|adjoin}}`{=mediawiki}* $S$\"). One says that $K(S)$ is the field *generated* by $S$ over $K$, and that $S$ is a generating set of $K(S)$ over $K$. When $S=\{x_1, \ldots, x_n\}$ is finite, one writes $K(x_1, \ldots, x_n)$ instead of $K(\{x_1, \ldots, x_n\}),$ and one says that $K(S)$ is `{{vanchor|finitely generated}}`{=mediawiki} over $K$. If $S$ consists of a single element $s$, the extension $K(s)/K$ is called a simple extension and $s$ is called a primitive element of the extension.
An extension field of the form $K(S)$ is often said to result from the *`{{vanchor|adjunction}}`{=mediawiki}* of $S$ to $K$.
In characteristic 0, every finite extension is a simple extension. This is the primitive element theorem, which does not hold true for fields of non-zero characteristic.
If a simple extension $K(s)/K$ is not finite, the field $K(s)$ is isomorphic to the field of rational fractions in $s$ over $K$.
## Caveats
The notation *L* / *K* is purely formal and does not imply the formation of a quotient ring or quotient group or any other kind of division. Instead the slash expresses the word \"over\". In some literature the notation *L*:*K* is used.
It is often desirable to talk about field extensions in situations where the small field is not actually contained in the larger one, but is naturally embedded. For this purpose, one abstractly defines a field extension as an injective ring homomorphism between two fields. *Every* ring homomorphism between fields is injective because fields do not possess nontrivial proper ideals, so field extensions are precisely the morphisms in the category of fields.
Henceforth, we will suppress the injective homomorphism and assume that we are dealing with actual subfields.
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# Field extension
## Examples
The field of complex numbers $\Complex$ is an extension field of the field of real numbers $\R$, and $\R$ in turn is an extension field of the field of rational numbers $\Q$. Clearly then, $\Complex/\Q$ is also a field extension. We have $[\Complex:\R] =2$ because $\{1, i\}$ is a basis, so the extension $\Complex/\R$ is finite. This is a simple extension because $\Complex = \R(i).$ $[\R:\Q] =\mathfrak c$ (the cardinality of the continuum), so this extension is infinite.
The field
$$\Q(\sqrt{2}) = \left \{ a + b\sqrt{2} \mid a,b \in \Q \right \},$$
is an extension field of $\Q,$ also clearly a simple extension. The degree is 2 because $\left\{1, \sqrt{2}\right\}$ can serve as a basis.
The field
$$\begin{align}
\Q\left(\sqrt{2}, \sqrt{3}\right) &= \Q \left(\sqrt{2}\right) \left(\sqrt{3}\right) \\
&= \left\{ a+b\sqrt{3} \mid a,b \in \Q\left(\sqrt{2}\right) \right\} \\
&= \left\{ a + b \sqrt{2} + c\sqrt{3} + d\sqrt{6} \mid a,b,c, d \in \Q \right\},
\end{align}$$
is an extension field of both $\Q(\sqrt{2})$ and $\Q,$ of degree 2 and 4 respectively. It is also a simple extension, as one can show that
$$\begin{align}
\Q(\sqrt{2}, \sqrt{3}) &= \Q (\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{3}) \\
&= \left \{ a + b (\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{3}) + c (\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{3})^2 + d(\sqrt{2} + \sqrt{3})^3 \mid a,b,c, d \in \Q\right\}.
\end{align}$$
Finite extensions of $\Q$ are also called algebraic number fields and are important in number theory. Another extension field of the rationals, which is also important in number theory, although not a finite extension, is the field of p-adic numbers $\Q_p$ for a prime number *p*.
It is common to construct an extension field of a given field *K* as a quotient ring of the polynomial ring *K*\[*X*\] in order to \"create\" a root for a given polynomial *f*(*X*). Suppose for instance that *K* does not contain any element *x* with *x*^2^ = −1. Then the polynomial $X^2+1$ is irreducible in *K*\[*X*\], consequently the ideal generated by this polynomial is maximal, and $L = K[X]/(X^2+1)$ is an extension field of *K* which *does* contain an element whose square is −1 (namely the residue class of *X*).
By iterating the above construction, one can construct a splitting field of any polynomial from *K*\[*X*\]. This is an extension field *L* of *K* in which the given polynomial splits into a product of linear factors.
If *p* is any prime number and *n* is a positive integer, there is a unique (up to isomorphism) finite field $GF(p^n) = \mathbb{F}_{p^n}$ with *p^n^* elements; this is an extension field of the prime field $\operatorname{GF}(p) = \mathbb{F}_p = \Z/p\Z$ with *p* elements.
Given a field *K*, we can consider the field *K*(*X*) of all rational functions in the variable *X* with coefficients in *K*; the elements of *K*(*X*) are fractions of two polynomials over *K*, and indeed *K*(*X*) is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring *K*\[*X*\]. This field of rational functions is an extension field of *K*. This extension is infinite.
Given a Riemann surface *M*, the set of all meromorphic functions defined on *M* is a field, denoted by $\Complex(M).$ It is a transcendental extension field of $\Complex$ if we identify every complex number with the corresponding constant function defined on *M*. More generally, given an algebraic variety *V* over some field *K*, the function field *K*(*V*), consisting of the rational functions defined on *V*, is an extension field of *K*.
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# Field extension
## Algebraic extension {#algebraic_extension}
An element *x* of a field extension $L/K$ is algebraic over *K* if it is a root of a nonzero polynomial with coefficients in *K*. For example, $\sqrt 2$ is algebraic over the rational numbers, because it is a root of $x^2-2.$ If an element *x* of *L* is algebraic over *K*, the monic polynomial of lowest degree that has *x* as a root is called the minimal polynomial of *x*. This minimal polynomial is irreducible over *K*.
An element *s* of *L* is algebraic over *K* if and only if the simple extension `{{nowrap|''K''(''s'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki} is a finite extension. In this case the degree of the extension equals the degree of the minimal polynomial, and a basis of the *K*-vector space *K*(*s*) consists of $1, s, s^2, \ldots, s^{d-1},$ where *d* is the degree of the minimal polynomial.
The set of the elements of *L* that are algebraic over *K* form a subextension, which is called the algebraic closure of *K* in *L*. This results from the preceding characterization: if *s* and *t* are algebraic, the extensions `{{nowrap|''K''(''s'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''K''(''s'')(''t'') /''K''(''s'')}}`{=mediawiki} are finite. Thus `{{nowrap|''K''(''s'', ''t'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki} is also finite, as well as the sub extensions `{{nowrap|''K''(''s'' ± ''t'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|''K''(''st'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''K''(1/''s'') /''K''}}`{=mediawiki} (if `{{nowrap|''s'' ≠ 0}}`{=mediawiki}). It follows that `{{nowrap|''s'' ± ''t''}}`{=mediawiki}, *st* and 1/*s* are all algebraic.
An *algebraic extension* $L/K$ is an extension such that every element of *L* is algebraic over *K*. Equivalently, an algebraic extension is an extension that is generated by algebraic elements. For example, $\Q(\sqrt 2, \sqrt 3)$ is an algebraic extension of $\Q$, because $\sqrt 2$ and $\sqrt 3$ are algebraic over $\Q.$
A simple extension is algebraic if and only if it is finite. This implies that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the union of its finite subextensions, and that every finite extension is algebraic.
Every field *K* has an algebraic closure, which is up to an isomorphism the largest extension field of *K* which is algebraic over *K*, and also the smallest extension field such that every polynomial with coefficients in *K* has a root in it. For example, $\Complex$ is an algebraic closure of $\R$, but not an algebraic closure of $\Q$, as it is not algebraic over $\Q$ (for example `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} is not algebraic over $\Q$).
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# Field extension
## Transcendental extension {#transcendental_extension}
Given a field extension $L/K$, a subset *S* of *L* is called algebraically independent over *K* if no non-trivial polynomial relation with coefficients in *K* exists among the elements of *S*. The largest cardinality of an algebraically independent set is called the transcendence degree of *L*/*K*. It is always possible to find a set *S*, algebraically independent over *K*, such that *L*/*K*(*S*) is algebraic. Such a set *S* is called a transcendence basis of *L*/*K*. All transcendence bases have the same cardinality, equal to the transcendence degree of the extension. An extension $L/K$ is said to be **`{{visible anchor|purely transcendental}}`{=mediawiki}** if and only if there exists a transcendence basis *S* of $L/K$ such that *L* = *K*(*S*). Such an extension has the property that all elements of *L* except those of *K* are transcendental over *K*, but, however, there are extensions with this property which are not purely transcendental---a class of such extensions take the form *L*/*K* where both *L* and *K* are algebraically closed.
If *L*/*K* is purely transcendental and *S* is a transcendence basis of the extension, it doesn\'t necessarily follow that *L* = *K*(*S*). On the opposite, even when one knows a transcendence basis, it may be difficult to decide whether the extension is purely separable, and if it is so, it may be difficult to find a transcendence basis *S* such that *L* = *K*(*S*).
For example, consider the extension $\Q(x, y)/\Q,$ where $x$ is transcendental over $\Q,$ and $y$ is a root of the equation $y^2-x^3=0.$ Such an extension can be defined as $\Q(X)[Y]/\langle Y^2-X^3\rangle,$ in which $x$ and $y$ are the equivalence classes of $X$ and $Y.$ Obviously, the singleton set $\{x\}$ is transcendental over $\Q$ and the extension $\Q(x, y)/\Q(x)$ is algebraic; hence $\{x\}$ is a transcendence basis that does not generates the extension $\Q(x, y)/\Q(x)$. Similarly, $\{y\}$ is a transcendence basis that does not generates the whole extension. However the extension is purely transcendental since, if one set $t=y/x,$ one has $x=t^2$ and $y=t^3,$ and thus $t$ generates the whole extension.
Purely transcendental extensions of an algebraically closed field occur as function fields of rational varieties. The problem of finding a rational parametrization of a rational variety is equivalent with the problem of finding a transcendence basis that generates the whole extension.
## Normal, separable and Galois extensions {#normal_separable_and_galois_extensions}
An algebraic extension $L/K$ is called normal if every irreducible polynomial in *K*\[*X*\] that has a root in *L* completely factors into linear factors over *L*. Every algebraic extension *F*/*K* admits a normal closure *L*, which is an extension field of *F* such that $L/K$ is normal and which is minimal with this property.
An algebraic extension $L/K$ is called separable if the minimal polynomial of every element of *L* over *K* is separable, i.e., has no repeated roots in an algebraic closure over *K*. A Galois extension is a field extension that is both normal and separable.
A consequence of the primitive element theorem states that every finite separable extension has a primitive element (i.e. is simple).
Given any field extension $L/K$, we can consider its **automorphism group** $\text{Aut}(L/K)$, consisting of all field automorphisms *α*: *L* → *L* with *α*(*x*) = *x* for all *x* in *K*. When the extension is Galois this automorphism group is called the Galois group of the extension. Extensions whose Galois group is abelian are called abelian extensions.
For a given field extension $L/K$, one is often interested in the intermediate fields *F* (subfields of *L* that contain *K*). The significance of Galois extensions and Galois groups is that they allow a complete description of the intermediate fields: there is a bijection between the intermediate fields and the subgroups of the Galois group, described by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory.
## Generalizations
Field extensions can be generalized to ring extensions which consist of a ring and one of its subrings. A closer non-commutative analog are central simple algebras (CSAs) -- ring extensions over a field, which are simple algebra (no non-trivial 2-sided ideals, just as for a field) and where the center of the ring is exactly the field. For example, the only finite field extension of the real numbers is the complex numbers, while the quaternions are a central simple algebra over the reals, and all CSAs over the reals are Brauer equivalent to the reals or the quaternions. CSAs can be further generalized to Azumaya algebras, where the base field is replaced by a commutative local ring.
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# Field extension
## Extension of scalars {#extension_of_scalars}
Given a field extension, one can \"extend scalars\" on associated algebraic objects. For example, given a real vector space, one can produce a complex vector space via complexification. In addition to vector spaces, one can perform extension of scalars for associative algebras defined over the field, such as polynomials or group algebras and the associated group representations. Extension of scalars of polynomials is often used implicitly, by just considering the coefficients as being elements of a larger field, but may also be considered more formally. Extension of scalars has numerous applications, as discussed in extension of scalars: applications
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# Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)
The **Fourth Council of Constantinople** was held in 879--880. It confirmed the reinstatement of Photius I as patriarch of Constantinople.
The result of this council is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox as having the authority of an ecumenical council. Eastern Orthodox sometimes call it the **eighth ecumenical council**.
## Background
The Council settled the dispute that had broken out after the deposition of Ignatius as Patriarch of Constantinople in 858. Ignatius, himself appointed to his office in an uncanonical manner, opposed Caesar Bardas, who had deposed the regent Theodora. In response, Bardas\' nephew, the youthful Emperor Michael III engineered Ignatius\'s deposition and confinement on the charge of treason. The patriarchal throne was filled with Photius, a renowned scholar and kinsman of Bardas. The deposition of Ignatius without a formal ecclesiastical trial and the sudden promotion of Photius caused scandal in the church. Pope Nicholas I and the western bishops took up the cause of Ignatius and condemned Photius\' election as uncanonical. In 863, at a synod in Rome the pope deposed Photius, and reappointed Ignatius as the rightful patriarch. However, Photius enjoined the support of the Emperor and responded by calling a Council and excommunicating the pope.
This state of affairs changed when Photius\'s patrons, Bardas and Emperor Michael III, were murdered in 866 and 867, respectively, by Basil the Macedonian, who now usurped the throne. Photius was deposed as patriarch, not so much because he was a protégé of Bardas and Michael, but because Basil was seeking an alliance with the Pope and the western emperor. Photius was removed from his office and banished about the end of September 867, and Ignatius was reinstated on 23 November. Photius was condemned by a Council held at Constantinople from 5 October 869 to 28 February 870. Photius was deposed and barred from the patriarchal office, while Ignatius was reinstated.
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# Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)
## Council of 879--880 {#council_of_879880}
After the death of Ignatius in 877, the Emperor made Photius again Patriarch of Constantinople. A council was convened in 879, held at Constantinople, comprising the representatives of all the five patriarchates, including that of Rome (all in all 383 bishops). Anthony Edward Siecienski writes: \"In 879 the emperor called for another council to meet in Constantinople in the hopes that the new pope, John VIII (872-882) would recognize the validity of Photius\'s claim upon the patriarchate. This council, sometimes called the eighth ecumenical in the East was attended by the papal legates (who had brought with them a gift from the pope---a pallium for Photius) and by over 400 bishops, and who immediately confirmed Photius as rightful patriarch.\"
The council also implicitly condemned the addition of the Filioque to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, an addition rejected at that time in Rome: \"The Creed (without the *filioque*) was read out and a condemnation pronounced against those who \'impose on it their own invented phrases \[ἰδίας εὑρεσιολογίαις\] and put this forth as a common lesson to the faithful or to those who return from some kind of heresy and display the audacity to falsify completely \[κατακιβδηλεῦσαι άποθρασυνθείη\] the antiquity of this sacred and venerable *Horos* \[Rule\] with illegitimate words, or additions, or subtractions\'.\" Eastern Orthodox Christians argue that thereby the council condemned not only the addition of the Filioque clause to the creed but also denounced the clause as heretical (a view strongly espoused by Photius in his polemics against Rome), while Roman Catholics separate the two and insist on the theological orthodoxy of the clause. According to non-Catholic Philip Schaff, \"To the Greek acts was afterwards added a (pretended) letter of Pope John VIII to Photius, declaring the Filioque to be an addition which is rejected by the church of Rome, and a blasphemy which must be abolished calmly and by degrees.\"
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# Fourth Council of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox)
## Confirmation and further reception {#confirmation_and_further_reception}
The council was held in the presence of papal legates, who approved of the proceedings.
Roman Catholic historian Francis Dvornik argues that the pope accepted the acts of the council and annulled those of the Council of 869--870. Other Catholic historians, such as Warren Carroll, dispute this view, arguing that the pope rejected the council. Siecienski says that the Pope gave only a qualified assent to the acts of the council. Philip Schaff opines that the pope, deceived by his legates about the actual proceedings, first applauded the emperor but later denounced the council. In any case, the Pope had already accepted the reinstatement of Photius as Patriarch.
On 8 March 870, three days after the end of the council, the papal and Eastern delegates met with the Bulgarian ambassadors led by the kavhan Peter to decide the status of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church. Since the Bulgarians were not satisfied with the positions of the Pope after prolonged negotiations, they reached favorable agreement with the Byzantines and the decision was taken that the Bulgarian Church should become Eastern Christian.
The Photian Schism (863--867) that led to the councils of 869 and 879 represents a break between East and West. While the previous seven ecumenical councils are recognized as ecumenical and authoritative by both East and West, many Eastern Orthodox Christians recognize the council of 879 as the Eighth Ecumenical Council, arguing that it annulled the earlier one. This council is referred to as Ecumenical in the Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs of 1848. The Catholic Church, however, recognizes the council of 869 as the eighth ecumenical council and does not place the council of 879 among its ecumenical councils
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# Fred Brooks
**Frederick Phillips Brooks Jr.** (April 19, 1931 -- November 17, 2022) was an American computer architect, software engineer, and computer scientist, best known for managing development of IBM\'s System/360 family of mainframe computers and the OS/360 software support package, then later writing candidly about those experiences in his seminal book *The Mythical Man-Month*.
In 1976, Brooks was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for \"contributions to computer system design and the development of academic programs in computer sciences\".
Brooks received many awards, including the National Medal of Technology in 1985 and the Turing Award in 1999.
## Education
Born on April 19, 1931, in Durham, North Carolina, he attended Duke University, graduating in 1953 with a Bachelor of Science degree in physics, and he received a Ph.D. in applied mathematics (computer science) from Harvard University in 1956, supervised by Howard Aiken.
Brooks served as the graduate teaching assistant for Ken Iverson at Harvard\'s graduate program in \"automatic data processing\", the first such program in the world.
## Career and research {#career_and_research}
Brooks joined IBM in 1956, working in Poughkeepsie, New York, and Yorktown, New York. He worked on the architecture of the IBM 7030 Stretch, a \$10 million scientific supercomputer of which nine were sold, and the IBM 7950 Harvest computer for the National Security Agency. Subsequently, he became manager for developing the IBM System/360 family of computers and the OS/360 software package. During this time he coined the term \"computer architecture\".
In 1964, Brooks accepted an invitation to come to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and founded the university\'s computer science department. He chaired it for 20 years. `{{As of|2013}}`{=mediawiki} he was still engaged in active research there, mainly in virtual environments and scientific visualization. The Brooks Computer Science Building on the UNC-Chapel Hill campus is named in his honor.
A few years after leaving IBM, he wrote *The Mythical Man-Month*. The seed for the book was planted by IBM\'s then-CEO Thomas J. Watson Jr., who asked in Brooks\'s exit interview why it was so much harder to manage software projects than hardware projects. In this book, Brooks made the now-famous statement: \"Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later\", which has since come to be known as Brooks\'s law. In addition to *The Mythical Man-Month*, Brooks is also known for the paper \"No Silver Bullet -- Essence and Accident in Software Engineering\".
In 2004 in a talk at the Computer History Museum and also in a 2010 interview in *Wired* magazine, Brooks was asked \"What do you consider your greatest technological achievement?\" Brooks responded, \"The most important single decision I ever made was to change the IBM 360 series from a 6-bit byte to an 8-bit byte, thereby enabling the use of lowercase letters. That change propagated everywhere.\"
A \"20th anniversary\" edition of *The Mythical Man-Month* with four additional chapters was published in 1995.
As well as *The Mythical Man-Month*, Brooks has authored or co-authored many books and peer reviewed papers including *Automatic Data Processing*, \"No Silver Bullet\", *Computer Architecture*, and *The Design of Design*.
### Service and memberships {#service_and_memberships}
Brooks served on a number of US national boards and committees, including:
- Defense Science Board (1983--86)
- Member, Artificial Intelligence Task Force (1983--84)
- Chairman, Military Software Task Force (1985--87)
- Member, Computers in Simulation and Training Task Force (1986--87)
- National Science Board (1987--92)
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# Fred Brooks
## Career and research {#career_and_research}
### Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors}
In chronological order:
- Fellow, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1968)
- W. Wallace McDowell Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Computer Art, IEEE Computer Group (1970)
- Computer Sciences Distinguished Information Services Award, Information Technology Professionals (1970)
- Guggenheim Fellowship for studies on computer architecture and human factors of computer systems, University of Cambridge, England (1975)
- Member, National Academy of Engineering (1976)
- Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1976)
- Computer Pioneer Award, IEEE Computer Society (1982)
- National Medal of Technology and Innovation (1985)
- Thomas Jefferson Award, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1986)
- Distinguished Service Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1987)
- Harry Goode Memorial Award, American Federation of Information Processing Societies (1989)
- Foreign Member, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991)
- Honorary Doctor of Technical Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich (1991)
- IEEE John von Neumann Medal, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1993)
- Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994)
- Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) (1994)
- International Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng), UK (1994)
- Allen Newell Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1994)
- Bower Award and Prize in Science, Franklin Institute (1995)
- CyberEdge Journal Annual Sutherland Award (April 1997)
- Turing Award, Association for Computing Machinery (1999)
- Member, National Academy of Sciences (2001)
- Received the Computer History Museum\'s Fellow Award, for his contributions to computer architecture, operating systems, and software engineering. (2001)
- Eckert--Mauchly Award, Association for Computing Machinery and The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers--Computer Society (2004)
- IEEE Virtual Reality Career Award (2010)
In January 2005, he gave the Turing Lecture on the subject of \"Collaboration and Telecollaboration in Design\".
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Brooks was an evangelical Christian who was active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship.
Brooks married Nancy Lee Greenwood in 1956. They have three children. He named his first son after Kenneth E. Iverson.
Brooks died on November 17, 2022, at age 91. He had been in poor health following a stroke
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# Figured bass
**Figured bass** is musical notation in which numerals and symbols appear above or below (or next to) a bass note. The numerals and symbols (often accidentals) indicate intervals, chords, and non-chord tones that a musician playing piano, harpsichord, organ, or lute (or other instruments capable of playing chords) should play in relation to the bass note. Figured bass is closely associated with basso continuo: a historically improvised accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period of Classical music (c. 1600--1750), though rarely in modern music. Figured bass is also known as **thoroughbass**.
Other systems for denoting or representing chords include plain staff notation, used in classical music; Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic analysis; chord letters, sometimes used in modern musicology; the Nashville Number System; and various chord names and symbols used in jazz and popular music (e.g., C Major or simply C; D minor, Dm, or D−; G^7^, etc.).
## Basso continuo {#basso_continuo}
Basso continuo parts, most common in the Baroque era (1600--1750), provided the harmonic structure of the music by supplying a bassline and a chord progression. The phrase is often shortened to *continuo*, and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part are called the *continuo group*. The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers (or, for a larger performance, the conductor), and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a piano, harpsichord, organ, lute, theorbo, guitar, regal, or harp. In addition, any number of instruments that play in the bass register may be included, such as cello, double bass, bass viol, or bassoon. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as operas, and organ and cello for sacred music. A double bass may be added, particularly when accompanying a lower-pitched solo voice (e.g., a bass singer).
Typically performers match the instrument families used in the full ensemble: including bassoon when the work includes oboes or other winds, but restricting it to cello and/or double bass if only strings are involved. Harps, lutes, and other handheld instruments are more typical of early 17th-century music. Sometimes instruments are specified by the composer: in *L\'Orfeo* (1607) Monteverdi calls for an exceptionally varied instrumentation, with multiple harpsichords and lutes with a bass violin in the pastoral scenes followed by lamenting to the accompaniment of *organo di legno* and *chitarrone*, while Charon stands watch to the sound of a regal.
The keyboard (or other chord-playing instrument) player *realizes* (adds in an improvised fashion) a continuo part by playing, in addition to the notated bass line, notes above it to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or improvised in performance. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are also expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices (notably the lead melody and any accidentals that might be present in it) as a guide. Experienced players sometimes incorporate motives found in the other instrumental parts into their improvised chordal accompaniment. Modern editions of such music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out in staff notation for a player, in place of improvisation. With the rise in historically informed performance, however, the number of performers who are able to improvise their parts from the figures, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.
Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, rapidly declined in the classical period (up to around 1800). A late example is C. P. E. Bach\'s Concerto in D minor for flute, strings and basso continuo (1747). Examples of its use in the 19th century are rarer, but they do exist: masses by Anton Bruckner, Beethoven, and Franz Schubert, for example, have a basso continuo part that was for an organist.
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# Figured bass
## Figured bass notation {#figured_bass_notation}
A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass line notated with notes on a musical staff plus added numbers and accidentals (or in some cases (back)slashes added to a number) beneath the staff to indicate what intervals above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played.
The phrase *tasto solo* indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered. This instructs the chord-playing instrumentalist not to play any improvised chords for a period. The reason *tasto solo* had to be specified was because it was an accepted convention that if no figures were present in a section of otherwise figured bass line, the chord-playing performer would either assume that it was a root-position triad, or deduce from the harmonic motion that another figure was implied. For example, if a continuo part in the key of C begins with a C bass note in the first measure, which descends to a B`{{music|natural}}`{=mediawiki} in the second measure, even if there were no figures, the chord-playing instrumentalist would deduce that this was most likely a first inversion dominant chord (spelled B--D--G, from bottom note of the chord to the top).
Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often specified the octave by the use of compound intervals such as 10, 11, and 15.
### Numbers
Triads
----------------
Inversion
Root position
1st inversion
2nd inversion
Seventh chords
Inversion
Root position
1st inversion
2nd inversion
3rd inversion
: Common Conventional Symbols for Figured Bass
Contemporary figured bass abbreviations for triads and seventh chords are shown in the table to the right.
The numbers indicate the number of scale steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass \<\< { c1 } \\figures { \< 6 4 \>1 } \>\> }
Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord can be realized as:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass \<\< { 1 } \>\> }
In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be understood, these are usually left out. For example:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\clef bass \<\< { \\cadenzaOn c1 b, g, } \\figures { \< \_ \>1 \< 6 \> \< 7 \> } \>\> }
has the same meaning as
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\clef bass \<\< { \\cadenzaOn c1 b, g, } \\figures { \< 5 3 \>1 \< 6 3 \> \< 7 5 3 \> } \>\> }
and can be realized as
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\clef bass \\cadenzaOn 1 \<b, d g\> \<g, b, d f\> }
although the performer may choose which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way, such as by playing them as arpeggios rather than as block chords, or by adding improvised ornaments, depending on the tempo and texture of the music.
Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or `{{su|b=2|p=4}}`{=mediawiki} indicates `{{overset|6|{{SubSup||2|4}}}}`{=mediawiki}, for example. From the figured bass-writer\'s perspective, this bass note is obviously a third inversion seventh chord, so the sixth interval is viewed as an interval that the player should automatically infer. In many cases entire figures can be left out, usually where the chord is obvious from the progression or the melody.
Sometimes the chord changes but the bass note itself is held. In these cases the figures for the new chord are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur.
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \<\< { a\'2 g\' } \\new Staff { \\clef bass { c1 } } \\figures { \< 6 \>2 \< 5 \> } \>\> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \<\< { a\'2 g\' } \\new Staff { \\clef bass \<\< { 2 \<c\' e\> } \\\\ { c1 } \>\> } \>\> }
When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures, for as long as the chord is to be held, to indicate this:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass \<\< { c2 b, } \\figures { \\bassFigureExtendersOn \< 6 \>2 \< 6\> } \>\> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 6/4 \\clef bass \<\< { 1 } \\\\ { c2 b, } \>\> }
When the bass moves the chord intervals have effectively changed, in this case from `{{su|b=3|p=6}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{su|b=4|p=7}}`{=mediawiki}, but no additional numbers are written.
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# Figured bass
## Figured bass notation {#figured_bass_notation}
### Accidentals
When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the note a third above the lowest note; most commonly, this is the third of the chord. Otherwise, if a number is shown, the accidental affects the said interval. For example, this, showing the widespread default meaning of an accidental without number as applying to the third above the bass:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\clef bass \<\< { e1 c } \\figures { \< \_+ \>1 \< 6- \_- \> } \>\> } can be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\clef bass 1 }
Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.
Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised (augmented) by a semitone (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp). A different way to indicate this is to draw a backslash through the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass \<\< { c1 c c } \\figures { \< 6! \>1 \< 6\\+ \> \<6\\\\\> } \>\> } can all be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass \<\< { 1 } \>\> }
More rarely, a \"forward\" slash through a number indicates that a pitch is to be lowered (diminished) by a semitone:
: { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass \<\< { c1 c } \\figures { \< 5- \>1 \< 5/ \> } \>\> } can both be realized as { \\override Score.TimeSignature #\'stencil = ##f \\time 4/4 \\key c \\minor \\clef bass \<\< { 1 } \>\> }
When sharps or flats are used with key signatures, they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign.
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# Figured bass
## Figured bass notation {#figured_bass_notation}
### Example in context {#example_in_context}
:
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# Figured bass
## Contemporary uses {#contemporary_uses}
In the 20th and 21st century, figured bass is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords when a composer is sketching out ideas for a new piece or when a music student is analyzing the harmony of a notated piece of music (e.g., a Bach chorale or a Chopin piano prelude). Figured bass is not generally used in modern musical compositions, except for neo-Baroque pieces.
In the 2000s, outside of professional Baroque ensembles that specialize in the performance practice of the Baroque era, the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the inversion in a harmonic analysis or composer\'s sketch context, however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure. For instance, if a piano piece had a C major triad in the right hand (C--E--G), with the bass note a G with the left hand, this would be a second inversion C major chord, which would be written G`{{su|b=4|p=6}}`{=mediawiki}. If this same C major triad had an E in the bass, it would be a first inversion chord, which would be written E`{{su|b=3|p=6}}`{=mediawiki} or E`{{sub|6}}`{=mediawiki} (this is different from the jazz notation, where a C`{{sup|6}}`{=mediawiki} means the added sixth chord C--E--G--A, i.e., a C major with an added 6th degree). The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing functional harmony, a usage called *figured Roman*; see chord symbol.
A form of figured bass is used in notation of accordion music; another simplified form is used to notate guitar chords
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# Fourier analysis
thumb\|upright=1.5\| Bass guitar time signal of open string A note (55 Hz). thumb\|upright=1.5\| Fourier transform of bass guitar time signal of open string A note (55 Hz). Fourier analysis reveals the oscillatory components of signals and functions. `{{Fourier transforms}}`{=mediawiki}
In mathematics, **Fourier analysis** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ʊr|i|eɪ|,_|-|i|ər}}`{=mediawiki}) is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Joseph Fourier, who showed that representing a function as a sum of trigonometric functions greatly simplifies the study of heat transfer.
The subject of Fourier analysis encompasses a vast spectrum of mathematics. In the sciences and engineering, the process of decomposing a function into oscillatory components is often called Fourier analysis, while the operation of rebuilding the function from these pieces is known as **Fourier synthesis**. For example, determining what component frequencies are present in a musical note would involve computing the Fourier transform of a sampled musical note. One could then re-synthesize the same sound by including the frequency components as revealed in the Fourier analysis. In mathematics, the term *Fourier analysis* often refers to the study of both operations.
The decomposition process itself is called a Fourier transformation. Its output, the Fourier transform, is often given a more specific name, which depends on the domain and other properties of the function being transformed. Moreover, the original concept of Fourier analysis has been extended over time to apply to more and more abstract and general situations, and the general field is often known as harmonic analysis. Each transform used for analysis (see list of Fourier-related transforms) has a corresponding inverse transform that can be used for synthesis.
To use Fourier analysis, data must be equally spaced. Different approaches have been developed for analyzing unequally spaced data, notably the least-squares spectral analysis (LSSA) methods that use a least squares fit of sinusoids to data samples, similar to Fourier analysis. Fourier analysis, the most used spectral method in science, generally boosts long-periodic noise in long gapped records; LSSA mitigates such problems.
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# Fourier analysis
## Applications
Fourier analysis has many scientific applications -- in physics, partial differential equations, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, digital image processing, probability theory, statistics, forensics, option pricing, cryptography, numerical analysis, acoustics, oceanography, sonar, optics, diffraction, geometry, protein structure analysis, and other areas.
This wide applicability stems from many useful properties of the transforms**:**
- The transforms are linear operators and, with proper normalization, are unitary as well (a property known as Parseval\'s theorem or, more generally, as the Plancherel theorem, and most generally via Pontryagin duality).
- The transforms are usually invertible.
- The exponential functions are eigenfunctions of differentiation, which means that this representation transforms linear differential equations with constant coefficients into ordinary algebraic ones. Therefore, the behavior of a linear time-invariant system can be analyzed at each frequency independently.
- By the convolution theorem, Fourier transforms turn the complicated convolution operation into simple multiplication, which means that they provide an efficient way to compute convolution-based operations such as signal filtering, polynomial multiplication, and multiplying large numbers.
- The discrete version of the Fourier transform (see below) can be evaluated quickly on computers using fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms.
In forensics, laboratory infrared spectrophotometers use Fourier transform analysis for measuring the wavelengths of light at which a material will absorb in the infrared spectrum. The FT method is used to decode the measured signals and record the wavelength data. And by using a computer, these Fourier calculations are rapidly carried out, so that in a matter of seconds, a computer-operated FT-IR instrument can produce an infrared absorption pattern comparable to that of a prism instrument.
Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal. For example, JPEG compression uses a variant of the Fourier transformation (discrete cosine transform) of small square pieces of a digital image. The Fourier components of each square are rounded to lower arithmetic precision, and weak components are eliminated, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly. In image reconstruction, each image square is reassembled from the preserved approximate Fourier-transformed components, which are then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image.
In signal processing, the Fourier transform often takes a time series or a function of continuous time, and maps it into a frequency spectrum. That is, it takes a function from the time domain into the frequency domain; it is a decomposition of a function into sinusoids of different frequencies; in the case of a Fourier series or discrete Fourier transform, the sinusoids are harmonics of the fundamental frequency of the function being analyzed.
When a function $s(t)$ is a function of time and represents a physical signal, the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal. The magnitude of the resulting complex-valued function $S(f)$ at frequency $f$ represents the amplitude of a frequency component whose initial phase is given by the angle of $S(f)$ (polar coordinates).
Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies. They can equally be applied to analyze *spatial* frequencies, and indeed for nearly any function domain. This justifies their use in such diverse branches as image processing, heat conduction, and automatic control.
When processing signals, such as audio, radio waves, light waves, seismic waves, and even images, Fourier analysis can isolate narrowband components of a compound waveform, concentrating them for easier detection or removal. A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal, manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation.
Some examples include**:**
- Equalization of audio recordings with a series of bandpass filters;
- Digital radio reception without a superheterodyne circuit, as in a modern cell phone or radio scanner;
- Image processing to remove periodic or anisotropic artifacts such as jaggies from interlaced video, strip artifacts from strip aerial photography, or wave patterns from radio frequency interference in a digital camera;
- Cross correlation of similar images for co-alignment;
- X-ray crystallography to reconstruct a crystal structure from its diffraction pattern;
- Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry to determine the mass of ions from the frequency of cyclotron motion in a magnetic field;
- Many other forms of spectroscopy, including infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies;
- Generation of sound spectrograms used to analyze sounds;
- Passive sonar used to classify targets based on machinery noise.
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# Fourier analysis
## Variants of Fourier analysis {#variants_of_fourier_analysis}
### (Continuous) Fourier transform {#continuous_fourier_transform}
Most often, the unqualified term **Fourier transform** refers to the transform of functions of a continuous real argument, and it produces a continuous function of frequency, known as a *frequency distribution*. One function is transformed into another, and the operation is reversible. When the domain of the input (initial) function is time ($t$), and the domain of the output (final) function is ordinary frequency, the transform of function $s(t)$ at frequency $f$ is given by the complex number**:**
$$S(f) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} s(t) \cdot e^{- i2\pi f t} \, dt.$$
Evaluating this quantity for all values of $f$ produces the *frequency-domain* function. Then $s(t)$ can be represented as a recombination of complex exponentials of all possible frequencies**:**
$$s(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} S(f) \cdot e^{i2\pi f t} \, df,$$
which is the inverse transform formula. The complex number, $S(f),$ conveys both amplitude and phase of frequency $f.$
See Fourier transform for much more information, including**:**
- conventions for amplitude normalization and frequency scaling/units
- transform properties
- tabulated transforms of specific functions
- an extension/generalization for functions of multiple dimensions, such as images.
### Fourier series {#fourier_series}
The Fourier transform of a periodic function, $s_{_P}(t),$ with period $P,$ becomes a Dirac comb function, modulated by a sequence of complex coefficients**:**
$$S[k] = \frac{1}{P}\int_{P} s_{_P}(t)\cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{k}{P} t}\, dt, \quad k\in\Z,$$ (where $\int_{P}$ is the integral over any interval of length $P$).
The inverse transform, known as **Fourier series**, is a representation of $s_{_P}(t)$ in terms of a summation of a potentially infinite number of harmonically related sinusoids or complex exponential functions, each with an amplitude and phase specified by one of the coefficients**:**
$$s_{_P}(t)\ \ =\ \ \mathcal{F}^{-1}\left\{\sum_{k=-\infty}^{+\infty} S[k]\, \delta \left(f-\frac{k}{P}\right)\right\}\ \ =\ \ \sum_{k=-\infty}^\infty S[k]\cdot e^{i2\pi \frac{k}{P} t}.$$
Any $s_{_P}(t)$ can be expressed as a periodic summation of another function, $s(t)$**:**
$$s_{_P}(t) \,\triangleq\, \sum_{m=-\infty}^\infty s(t-mP),$$
and the coefficients are proportional to samples of $S(f)$ at discrete intervals of $\frac{1}{P}$**:**
$$S[k] =\frac{1}{P}\cdot S\left(\frac{k}{P}\right).$$
Note that any $s(t)$ whose transform has the same discrete sample values can be used in the periodic summation. A sufficient condition for recovering $s(t)$ (and therefore $S(f)$) from just these samples (i.e. from the Fourier series) is that the non-zero portion of $s(t)$ be confined to a known interval of duration $P,$ which is the frequency domain dual of the Nyquist--Shannon sampling theorem.
See Fourier series for more information, including the historical development.
### Discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) {#discrete_time_fourier_transform_dtft}
The DTFT is the mathematical dual of the time-domain Fourier series. Thus, a convergent periodic summation in the frequency domain can be represented by a Fourier series, whose coefficients are samples of a related continuous time function**:**
$$S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)\ \triangleq\ \underbrace{\sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} S\left(f - \frac{k}{T}\right) \equiv \overbrace{\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n] \cdot e^{-i2\pi f n T}}^{\text{Fourier series (DTFT)}}}_{\text{Poisson summation formula}} = \mathcal{F} \left \{ \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n]\ \delta(t-nT)\right \},\,$$
which is known as the DTFT. Thus the **DTFT** of the $s[n]$ sequence is also the **Fourier transform** of the modulated Dirac comb function.
The Fourier series coefficients (and inverse transform), are defined by**:**
$$s[n]\ \triangleq\ T \int_\frac{1}{T} S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)\cdot e^{i2\pi f nT} \,df = T \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} S(f)\cdot e^{i2\pi f nT} \,df}_{\triangleq\, s(nT)}.$$
Parameter $T$ corresponds to the sampling interval, and this Fourier series can now be recognized as a form of the Poisson summation formula. Thus we have the important result that when a discrete data sequence, $s[n],$ is proportional to samples of an underlying continuous function, $s(t),$ one can observe a periodic summation of the continuous Fourier transform, $S(f).$ Note that any $s(t)$ with the same discrete sample values produces the same DTFT. But under certain idealized conditions one can theoretically recover $S(f)$ and $s(t)$ exactly. A sufficient condition for perfect recovery is that the non-zero portion of $S(f)$ be confined to a known frequency interval of width $\tfrac{1}{T}.$ When that interval is $\left[-\tfrac{1}{2T}, \tfrac{1}{2T}\right],$ the applicable reconstruction formula is the Whittaker--Shannon interpolation formula. This is a cornerstone in the foundation of digital signal processing.
Another reason to be interested in $S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)$ is that it often provides insight into the amount of aliasing caused by the sampling process.
Applications of the DTFT are not limited to sampled functions. See Discrete-time Fourier transform for more information on this and other topics, including**:**
- normalized frequency units
- windowing (finite-length sequences)
- transform properties
- tabulated transforms of specific functions
### Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) {#discrete_fourier_transform_dft}
Similar to a Fourier series, the DTFT of a periodic sequence, $s_{_N}[n],$ with period $N$, becomes a Dirac comb function, modulated by a sequence of complex coefficients (see `{{slink|DTFT|Periodic data}}`{=mediawiki})**:**
$$S[k] = \sum_n s_{_N}[n]\cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{k}{N} n}, \quad k\in\Z,$$ (where $\sum_{n}$ is the sum over any sequence of length $N.$)
The $S[k]$ sequence is customarily known as the **DFT** of one cycle of $s_{_N}.$ It is also $N$-periodic, so it is never necessary to compute more than $N$ coefficients. The inverse transform, also known as a discrete Fourier series, is given by**:**
$$s_{_N}[n] = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k} S[k]\cdot e^{i2\pi \frac{n}{N}k},$$ where $\sum_{k}$ is the sum over any sequence of length $N.$
When $s_{_N}[n]$ is expressed as a periodic summation of another function**:**
$$s_{_N}[n]\, \triangleq\, \sum_{m=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n-mN],$$ and $s[n]\, \triangleq\, T\cdot s(nT),$
the coefficients are samples of $S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)$ at discrete intervals of $\tfrac{1}{P} = \tfrac{1}{NT}$**:**
$$S[k] = S_\tfrac{1}{T}\left(\frac{k}{P}\right).$$
Conversely, when one wants to compute an arbitrary number $(N)$ of discrete samples of one cycle of a continuous DTFT, $S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f),$ it can be done by computing the relatively simple DFT of $s_{_N}[n],$ as defined above. In most cases, $N$ is chosen equal to the length of the non-zero portion of $s[n].$ Increasing $N,$ known as *zero-padding* or *interpolation*, results in more closely spaced samples of one cycle of $S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f).$ Decreasing $N,$ causes overlap (adding) in the time-domain (analogous to aliasing), which corresponds to decimation in the frequency domain. (see `{{slink|Discrete-time Fourier transform|2=L=N×I}}`{=mediawiki}) In most cases of practical interest, the $s[n]$ sequence represents a longer sequence that was truncated by the application of a finite-length window function or FIR filter array.
The DFT can be computed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, which makes it a practical and important transformation on computers.
See Discrete Fourier transform for much more information, including**:**
- transform properties
- applications
- tabulated transforms of specific functions
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# Fourier analysis
## Variants of Fourier analysis {#variants_of_fourier_analysis}
### Summary
For periodic functions, both the Fourier transform and the DTFT comprise only a discrete set of frequency components (Fourier series), and the transforms diverge at those frequencies. One common practice (not discussed above) is to handle that divergence via Dirac delta and Dirac comb functions. But the same spectral information can be discerned from just one cycle of the periodic function, since all the other cycles are identical. Similarly, finite-duration functions can be represented as a Fourier series, with no actual loss of information except that the periodicity of the inverse transform is a mere artifact.
It is common in practice for the duration of *s*(•) to be limited to the period, `{{mvar|P}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{mvar|N}}`{=mediawiki}. But these formulas do not require that condition.
Continuous frequency Discrete frequencies
----------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Transform $S(f)\, \triangleq\, \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} s(t) \cdot e^{-i2\pi f t} \,dt$ $\underbrace{\frac{1}{P}\cdot S\left(\frac{k}{P}\right)}_ {S[k]}\, \triangleq\, \frac{1}{P} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} s(t) \cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{k}{P} t}\,dt \equiv \frac{1}{P} \int_P s_{_P}(t) \cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{k}{P} t} \,dt$
Inverse $s(t) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} S(f) \cdot e^{ i2\pi f t}\, df$ $\underbrace{s_{_P}(t) = \sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} S[k] \cdot e^{i2\pi \frac{k}{P} t}}_{\text{Poisson summation formula (Fourier series)}}\,$
: $s(t)$ transforms (continuous-time)
Continuous frequency Discrete frequencies
----------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Transform $\underbrace{S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)\, \triangleq\, \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n]\cdot e^{-i2\pi f nT}}_{\text{Poisson summation formula (DTFT)}}$ $\begin{align}
\underbrace{S_\tfrac{1}{T}\left(\frac{k}{NT}\right)}_ {S[k]}\, &\triangleq\, \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n]\cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{kn}{N}}\\
&\equiv \underbrace{\sum_{N} s_{_N}[n]\cdot e^{-i2\pi \frac{kn}{N}}}_{\text{DFT}}\,
\end{align}$
Inverse $s[n] = \underbrace{T \int_\frac{1}{T} S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)\cdot e^{i2\pi f nT} \,df}_{\text{Fourier series coefficient}}$ $\sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s[n]\cdot \delta(t-nT) = \underbrace{\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} S_\tfrac{1}{T}(f)\cdot e^{i2\pi f t}\,df}_{\text{inverse Fourier transform}}\,$ $s_{_N}[n] = \underbrace{\frac{1}{N} \sum_{N} S[k]\cdot e^{i2\pi \frac{kn}{N}}}_{\text{inverse DFT}}$
: $s(nT)$ transforms (discrete-time)
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# Fourier analysis
## Symmetry properties {#symmetry_properties}
When the real and imaginary parts of a complex function are decomposed into their even and odd parts, there are four components, denoted below by the subscripts RE, RO, IE, and IO. And there is a one-to-one mapping between the four components of a complex time function and the four components of its complex frequency transform**:**
$$\begin{array}{rccccccccc}
\text{Time domain} & s & = & s_{_{\text{RE}}} & + & s_{_{\text{RO}}} & + & i s_{_{\text{IE}}} & + & \underbrace{i\ s_{_{\text{IO}}}} \\
&\Bigg\Updownarrow\mathcal{F} & &\Bigg\Updownarrow\mathcal{F} & &\ \ \Bigg\Updownarrow\mathcal{F} & &\ \ \Bigg\Updownarrow\mathcal{F} & &\ \ \Bigg\Updownarrow\mathcal{F}\\
\text{Frequency domain} & S & = & S_\text{RE} & + & \overbrace{\,i\ S_\text{IO}\,} & + & i S_\text{IE} & + & S_\text{RO}
\end{array}$$
From this, various relationships are apparent, for example**:**
- The transform of a real-valued function $(s_{_{RE}}+s_{_{RO}})$ is the *conjugate symmetric* function $S_{RE}+i\ S_{IO}.$ Conversely, a *conjugate symmetric* transform implies a real-valued time-domain.
- The transform of an imaginary-valued function $(i\ s_{_{IE}}+i\ s_{_{IO}})$ is the *conjugate antisymmetric* function $S_{RO}+i\ S_{IE},$ and the converse is true.
- The transform of a *conjugate symmetric* function $(s_{_{RE}}+i\ s_{_{IO}})$ is the real-valued function $S_{RE}+S_{RO},$ and the converse is true.
- The transform of a *conjugate antisymmetric* function $(s_{_{RO}}+i\ s_{_{IE}})$ is the imaginary-valued function $i\ S_{IE}+i\ S_{IO},$ and the converse is true.
## History
An early form of harmonic series dates back to ancient Babylonian mathematics, where they were used to compute ephemerides (tables of astronomical positions).
The Classical Greek concepts of deferent and epicycle in the Ptolemaic system of astronomy were related to Fourier series (see `{{slink|Deferent and epicycle|Mathematical formalism}}`{=mediawiki}).
In modern times, variants of the discrete Fourier transform were used by Alexis Clairaut in 1754 to compute an orbit, which has been described as the first formula for the DFT, and in 1759 by Joseph Louis Lagrange, in computing the coefficients of a trigonometric series for a vibrating string. Technically, Clairaut\'s work was a cosine-only series (a form of discrete cosine transform), while Lagrange\'s work was a sine-only series (a form of discrete sine transform); a true cosine+sine DFT was used by Gauss in 1805 for trigonometric interpolation of asteroid orbits. Euler and Lagrange both discretized the vibrating string problem, using what would today be called samples.
An early modern development toward Fourier analysis was the 1770 paper *Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations* by Lagrange, which in the method of Lagrange resolvents used a complex Fourier decomposition to study the solution of a cubic**:** Lagrange transformed the roots $x_1,$ $x_2,$ $x_3$ into the resolvents**:**
$$\begin{align}
r_1 &= x_1 + x_2 + x_3\\
r_2 &= x_1 + \zeta x_2 + \zeta^2 x_3\\
r_3 &= x_1 + \zeta^2 x_2 + \zeta x_3
\end{align}$$ where `{{mvar|ζ}}`{=mediawiki} is a cubic root of unity, which is the DFT of order 3.
A number of authors, notably Jean le Rond d\'Alembert, and Carl Friedrich Gauss used trigonometric series to study the heat equation, but the breakthrough development was the 1807 paper *Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides* by Joseph Fourier, whose crucial insight was to model *all* functions by trigonometric series, introducing the Fourier series. Independently of Fourier, astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel also introduced Fourier series to solve Kepler\'s equation. His work was published in 1819, unaware of Fourier\'s work which remained unpublished until 1822.
Historians are divided as to how much to credit Lagrange and others for the development of Fourier theory**:** Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler had introduced trigonometric representations of functions, and Lagrange had given the Fourier series solution to the wave equation, so Fourier\'s contribution was mainly the bold claim that an arbitrary function could be represented by a Fourier series.
The subsequent development of the field is known as harmonic analysis, and is also an early instance of representation theory.
The first fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm for the DFT was discovered around 1805 by Carl Friedrich Gauss when interpolating measurements of the orbit of the asteroids Juno and Pallas, although that particular FFT algorithm is more often attributed to its modern rediscoverers Cooley and Tukey.
## Time--frequency transforms {#timefrequency_transforms}
In signal processing terms, a function (of time) is a representation of a signal with perfect *time resolution*, but no frequency information, while the Fourier transform has perfect *frequency resolution*, but no time information.
As alternatives to the Fourier transform, in time--frequency analysis, one uses time--frequency transforms to represent signals in a form that has some time information and some frequency information -- by the uncertainty principle, there is a trade-off between these. These can be generalizations of the Fourier transform, such as the short-time Fourier transform, the Gabor transform or fractional Fourier transform (FRFT), or can use different functions to represent signals, as in wavelet transforms and chirplet transforms, with the wavelet analog of the (continuous) Fourier transform being the continuous wavelet transform.
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# Fourier analysis
## Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact abelian topological groups {#fourier_transforms_on_arbitrary_locally_compact_abelian_topological_groups}
The Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact Abelian topological groups, which are studied in harmonic analysis; there, the Fourier transform takes functions on a group to functions on the dual group. This treatment also allows a general formulation of the convolution theorem, which relates Fourier transforms and convolutions. See also the Pontryagin duality for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform.
More specific, Fourier analysis can be done on cosets, even discrete cosets
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# Functional linguistics
**Functional linguistics** is an approach to the study of language characterized by taking systematically into account the speaker\'s and the hearer\'s side, and the communicative needs of the speaker and of the given language community. Linguistic functionalism spawned in the 1920s to 1930s from Ferdinand de Saussure\'s systematic structuralist approach to language (1916).
Functionalism sees functionality of language and its elements to be the key to understanding linguistic processes and structures. Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analyzed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. These include the tasks of conveying meaning and contextual information.
Functional theories of grammar belong to structural and, broadly, humanistic linguistics, considering language as being created by the community, and linguistics as relating to systems theory. Functional theories take into account the context where linguistic elements are used and study the way they are instrumentally useful or functional in the given environment. This means that pragmatics is given an explanatory role, along with semantics. The formal relations between linguistic elements are assumed to be functionally-motivated. Functionalism is sometimes contrasted with formalism, but this does not exclude functional theories from creating grammatical descriptions that are *generative* in the sense of formulating rules that distinguish grammatical or well-formed elements from ungrammatical elements.
Simon Dik characterizes the functional approach as follows:
Functional theories of grammar can be divided on the basis of geographical origin or base (though it simplifies many aspects): European functionalist theories include Functional (discourse) grammar and Systemic functional grammar (among others), while American functionalist theories include Role and reference grammar and West Coast functionalism. Since the 1970s, studies by American functional linguists in languages other than English from Asia, Africa, Australia and the Americas (like Mandarin Chinese and Japanese), led to insights about the interaction of form and function, and the discovery of functional motivations for grammatical phenomena, which apply also to the English language.
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# Functional linguistics
## History
### 1920s to 1970s: early developments {#s_to_1970s_early_developments}
The establishment of functional linguistics follows from a shift from structural to functional explanation in 1920s sociology. Prague, at the crossroads of western European structuralism and Russian formalism, became an important centre for functional linguistics.
The shift was related to the organic analogy exploited by Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure had argued in his *Course in General Linguistics* that the \'organism\' of language should be studied anatomically, and not in respect with its environment, to avoid the false conclusions made by August Schleicher and other social Darwinists. The post-Saussurean functionalist movement sought ways to account for the \'adaptation\' of language to its environment while still remaining strictly anti-Darwinian.
Russian émigrés Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy disseminated insights of Russian grammarians in Prague, but also the evolutionary theory of Lev Berg, arguing for teleology of language change. As Berg\'s theory failed to gain popularity outside the Soviet Union, the organic aspect of functionalism diminished, and Jakobson adopted a standard model of functional explanation from Ernst Nagel\'s philosophy of science. It is, then, the same mode of explanation as in biology and social sciences; but it became emphasised that the word \'adaptation\' is not to be understood in linguistics in the same meaning as in biology.
Work on functionalist linguistics by the Prague school resumed in the 1950s after a hiatus caused by World War II and Stalinism. In North America, Joseph Greenberg published his 1963 seminal paper on language universals that not only revived the field of linguistic typology, but also the approach of seeking functional explanations for typological patterns. Greenberg\'s approach has been highly influential for the movement of North American functionalism that formed from the early 1970s, which has since been characterized by a profound interest in typology. Greenberg\'s paper was influenced by the Prague School and in particular it was written in response to Jakobson\'s call for an \'implicational typology\'. While North American functionalism was initially influenced by the functionalism of the Prague school, such influence has been later discontinued.
### 1980s onward: name controversy {#s_onward_name_controversy}
The term \'functionalism\' or \'functional linguistics\' became controversial in the 1980s with the rise of a new wave of evolutionary linguistics. Johanna Nichols argued that the meaning of \'functionalism\' had changed, and the terms formalism and functionalism should be taken as referring to generative grammar, and the emergent linguistics of Paul Hopper and Sandra Thompson, respectively; and that the term *structuralism* should be reserved for frameworks derived from the Prague linguistic circle. William Croft argued subsequently that it is a fact to be agreed by all linguists that form does not follow from function. He proposed that functionalism should be understood as autonomous linguistics, opposing the idea that language arises functionally from the need to express meaning:
> \"The notion of autonomy emerges from an undeniable fact of all languages, \'the curious lack of accord \... between form and function\'\"
Croft explains that, until the 1970s, functionalism related to semantics and pragmatics, or the \'semiotic function\'. But around 1980s the notion of function changed from semiotics to \"external function\", proposing a neo-Darwinian view of language change as based on natural selection. Croft proposes that \'structuralism\' and \'formalism\' should both be taken as referring to generative grammar; and \'functionalism\' to usage-based and cognitive linguistics; while neither André Martinet, Systemic functional linguistics nor Functional discourse grammar properly represents any of the three concepts.
The situation was further complicated by the arrival of evolutionary psychological thinking in linguistics, with Steven Pinker, Ray Jackendoff and others hypothesising that the human language faculty, or universal grammar, could have developed through normal evolutionary processes, thus defending an adaptational explanation of the origin and evolution of the language faculty. This brought about a functionalism versus formalism debate, with Frederick Newmeyer arguing that the evolutionary psychological approach to linguistics should also be considered functionalist.
The terms functionalism and functional linguistics nonetheless continue to be used by the Prague linguistic circle and its derivatives, including SILF, Danish functional school, Systemic functional linguistics and Functional discourse grammar; and the American framework Role and reference grammar which sees itself as the midway between formal and functional linguistics.
## Functional analysis {#functional_analysis}
Since the earliest work of the Prague School, language was conceived as a *functional system*, where term *system* references back to De Saussure structuralist approach. The term function seems to have been introduced by Vilém Mathesius, possibly influenced from works in sociology. Functional analysis is the examination of how linguistic elements function on different layers of linguistic structure, and how the levels interact with each other. Functions exist on all levels of grammar, even in phonology, where the phoneme has the function of distinguishing between lexical material.
- Syntactic functions: (e.g. Subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic expression.
- Semantic functions: (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.), describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed.
- Pragmatic functions: (Theme and Rheme, Topic and Focus, Predicate), defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction.
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# Functional linguistics
## Functional explanation {#functional_explanation}
In the functional mode of explanation, a linguistic structure is explained with an appeal to its function. Functional linguistics takes as its starting point the notion that communication is the primary purpose of language. Therefore, general phonological, morphosyntactic and semantic phenomena are thought of as being motivated by the needs of people to communicate successfully with each other. Thus, the perspective is taken that the organisation of language reflects its use value.
Many prominent functionalist approaches, like Role and reference grammar and Functional discourse grammar, are also typologically oriented, that is they aim their analysis cross-linguistically, rather than only to a single language like English (as is typical of formalist/generativism approaches).
### Economy
The concept of economy is metaphorically transferred from a social or economical context to a linguistic level. It is considered as a regulating force in language maintenance. Controlling the impact of language change or internal and external conflicts of the system, the economy principle means that systemic coherence is maintained without increasing energy cost. This is why all human languages, no matter how different they are, have high functional value as based on a compromise between the competing motivations of speaker-easiness (simplicity or *inertia*) versus hearer-easiness (clarity or *energeia*).
The principle of economy was elaborated by the French structural--functional linguist André Martinet. Martinet\'s concept is similar to Zipf\'s principle of least effort; although the idea had been discussed by various linguists in the late 19th and early 20th century. The functionalist concept of economy is not to be confused with economy in generative grammar.
### Information structure {#information_structure}
Some key adaptations of functional explanation are found in the study of information structure. Based on earlier linguists\' work, Prague Circle linguists Vilém Mathesius, Jan Firbas and others elaborated the concept of theme--rheme relations (topic and comment) to study pragmatic concepts such as sentence focus, and givenness of information, to successfully explain word-order variation. The method has been used widely in linguistics to uncover word-order patterns in the languages of the world. Its importance, however, is limited to within-language variation, with no apparent explanation of cross-linguistic word order tendencies.
### Functional principles {#functional_principles}
Several principles from pragmatics have been proposed as functional explanations of linguistic structures, often in a typological perspective.
- Theme first: languages prefer placing the theme before the rheme; and the subject typically carries the role of the theme; therefore, most languages have subject before object in their basic word order.
- Animate first: similarly, since subjects are more likely to be animate, they are more likely to precede the object.
- Given before new: already established information comes before new information.
- First things first: more important or more urgent information comes before other information.
- Lightness: light (short) constituents are ordered before heavy (long) constituents.
- Uniformity: word-order choices are generalised. For example, languages tend to have either prepositions or postpositions; and not both equally.
- Functional load: elements within a linguistic sub-system are made distinct to avoid confusion.
- Orientation: role-indicating particles including adpositions and subordinators are oriented to their semantic head.
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# Functional linguistics
## Frameworks
There are several distinct grammatical frameworks that employ a functional approach.
- The structuralist functionalism of the Prague school was the earliest functionalist framework developed in the 1920s.
- André Martinet\'s Functional Syntax, with two major books, *A functional view of language* (1962) and *Studies in Functional Syntax* (1975). Martinet is one of the most famous French linguists and can be regarded as the father of French functionalism. Founded by Martinet and his colleagues, SILF (*Société internationale de linguistique fonctionnelle*) is an international organisation of functional linguistics which operates mainly in French.
- Simon Dik\'s Functional Grammar, originally developed in the 1970s and 80s, has been influential and inspired many other functional theories. It has been developed into Functional Discourse Grammar by the linguist Kees Hengeveld.
- Michael Halliday\'s systemic functional grammar (SFG) argues that the explanation of how language works \"needed to be grounded in a functional analysis, since language had evolved in the process of carrying out certain critical functions as human beings interacted with their \... \'eco-social\' environment\". Halliday draws on the work of Bühler and Malinowski, as well as his doctoral supervisor J.R. Firth. Notably, Halliday\'s former student Robin Fawcett has developed a version of SFG called the \"Cardiff Grammar\" which is distinct from the \"Sydney Grammar\" as developed by the later Halliday and his colleagues in Australia. The link between Firthian and Hallidayan linguistics and the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead also deserves a mention.
- Role and reference grammar, developed by Robert Van Valin employs functional analytical framework with a somewhat formal mode of description. In RRG, the description of a sentence in a particular language is formulated in terms of its semantic structure and communicative functions, as well as the grammatical procedures used to express these meanings.
- Danish functional grammar combines Saussurean/Hjelmslevian structuralism with a focus on pragmatics and discourse.
- Interactional linguistics, based on Conversation Analysis, considers linguistic structures as related to the functions of e.g. action and turn-taking in interaction.
- Construction grammar is a family of different theories some of which may be considered functional, such as Croft\'s Radical Construction Grammar.
- Relational Network Theory (RNT) or Neurocognitive Linguistics (NCL), originally developed by Sydney Lamb, may be considered functionalist in the sense of being a usage-based model. In RNT, the description of linguistic structure is formulated as networks of realizational relationships, such that all linguistic units are defined only by what they realize and are realized by. RNT networks have been hypothesized to be implemented by cortical minicolumns in the human neocortex
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# Fundamental analysis
**Fundamental analysis**, in accounting and finance, is the analysis of a business\'s financial statements (usually to analyze the business\'s assets, liabilities, and earnings); health; competitors and markets. It also considers the overall state of the economy and factors including interest rates, production, earnings, employment, GDP, housing, manufacturing and management. There are two basic approaches that can be used: bottom up analysis and top down analysis. These terms are used to distinguish such analysis from other types of investment analysis, such as technical analysis.
Fundamental analysis is performed on historical and present data, but with the goal of making financial forecasts. There are several possible objectives:
- to conduct a company stock valuation and predict its probable price evolution;
- to make a projection on its business performance;
- to evaluate its management and make internal business decisions and/or to calculate its credit risk;
- to find out the intrinsic value of the share.
## The two analytical models {#the_two_analytical_models}
There are two basic methodologies investors rely upon when the objective of the analysis is to determine what stock to buy and at what price:
1. Fundamental analysis. Analysts maintain that markets may incorrectly price a security in the short run but the \"correct\" price will eventually be reached. Profits can be made by purchasing or selling the wrongly priced security and then waiting for the market to recognize its \"mistake\" and reprice the security.
2. Technical analysis. Analysts look at trends and price levels and believe that trend changes confirm sentiment changes. Recognizable price chart patterns may be found due to investors\' emotional responses to price movements. Technical analysts mainly evaluate historical trends and ranges to predict future price movement.
Investors can use one or both of these complementary methods for stock picking. For example, many fundamental investors use technical indicators for deciding entry and exit points. Similarly, a large proportion of technical investors use fundamental indicators to limit their pool of possible stocks to \"good\" companies.
The choice of stock analysis is determined by the investor\'s belief in the different paradigms for \"how the stock market works\". For explanations of these paradigms, see the discussions at efficient-market hypothesis, random walk hypothesis, capital asset pricing model, Fed model, market-based valuation, and behavioral finance.
Fundamental analysis includes:
1. Economic analysis
2. Industry analysis
3. Company analysis
The intrinsic value of the shares is determined based upon these three analyses. It is this value that is considered the true value of the share. If the intrinsic value is higher than the market price, buying the share is recommended. If it is equal to market price, it is recommended to hold the share; and if it is less than the market price, then one should sell the shares.
## Use by different portfolio styles {#use_by_different_portfolio_styles}
Investors may also use fundamental analysis within different portfolio management styles.
- Buy and hold investors believe that latching on to good businesses allows the investor\'s asset to grow with the business. Fundamental analysis lets them find \"good\" companies, so they lower their risk and the probability of wipe-out.
- Value investors restrict their attention to under-valued companies, believing that \"it\'s hard to fall out of a ditch\". The values they follow come from fundamental analysis.
- Managers may use fundamental analysis to correctly value \"good\" and \"bad\" companies.
- Managers may also consider the economic cycle in determining whether conditions are \"right\" to buy fundamentally suitable companies.
- Contrarian investors hold that \"in the short run, the market is a voting machine, not a weighing machine\". Fundamental analysis allows an investor to make his or her own decision on value, while ignoring the opinions of the market.
- Managers may use fundamental analysis to determine future growth rates for buying high priced growth stocks.
- Managers may include fundamental factors along with technical factors in computer models (quantitative analysis).
## Top-down and bottom-up approaches {#top_down_and_bottom_up_approaches}
Investors using fundamental analysis can use either a top-down or bottom-up approach.
- The top-down investor starts their analysis with global economics, including both international and national economic indicators. These may include GDP growth rates, inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, productivity, and energy prices. They subsequently narrow their search to regional/ industry analysis of total sales, price levels, the effects of competing products, foreign competition, and entry or exit from the industry. Only then do they refine their search to the best business in the area being studied.
- The bottom-up investor starts with specific businesses, regardless of their industry/region, and proceeds in reverse of the top-down approach.
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# Fundamental analysis
## Procedures
The analysis of a business\'s health starts with a financial statement analysis that includes financial ratios. It looks at dividends paid, operating cash flow, new equity issues and capital financing. The earnings estimates and growth rate projections published widely by Thomson Reuters and others can be considered either \"fundamental\" (they are facts) or \"technical\" (they are investor sentiment) based on perception of their validity.
Determined growth rates (of income and cash) and risk levels (to determine the discount rate) are used in various valuation models. The foremost is the discounted cash flow model, which calculates the present value of the future:
- dividends received by the investor, along with the eventual sale price; (Gordon model)
- earnings of the company;
- or cash flows of the company.
The simple model commonly used is the P/E ratio (price-to-earnings ratio). Implicit in this model of a perpetual annuity (time value of money) is that the inverse, or the E/P rate, is the discount rate appropriate to the risk of the business. Usage of the P/E ratio has the disadvantage that it ignores future earnings growth.
Because the future growth of the free cash flow and earnings of a company drive the fair value of the company, the PEG ratio is more meaningful than the P/E ratio. The PEG ratio incorporates the growth estimates for future earnings, e.g. of the EBIT. Its validity depends on the length of time analysts believe the growth will continue and on the reasonableness of future estimates compared to earnings growth in the past years (oftentimes the last seven years). IGAR models can be used to impute expected changes in growth from current P/E and historical growth rates for the stocks relative to a comparison index.
The amount of debt a company possesses is also a major consideration in determining its financial leverage and its health. This is meaningful because a company can reach higher earnings (and this way a higher return on equity and higher P/E ratio) simply by increasing the amount of net debt. This can be quickly assessed using the debt-to-equity ratio, the current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) and the return on capital employed (ROCE). The ROCE is the ratio of EBIT divided by the \"capital employed\", i.e. all the current and non-current assets less the operating liabilities, which is the real capital of the company no matter if it is financed by equity or debt.
## Criticisms
Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets
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# Fantasy Games Unlimited
**Fantasy Games Unlimited** (**FGU**) is a publishing house for tabletop and role-playing games. The company has no in-house design teams and relies on submitted material from outside talent.
## History
Founded in the summer of 1975 in Jericho, New York by Scott Bizar, the company\'s first publications were the wargames *Gladiators* and *Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age*. Upon the appearance and popularity of *Dungeons & Dragons* from TSR, the company turned its attentions to role-playing games, seeking and producing systems from amateurs and freelancers, paying them 10% of the gross receipts. FGU also copyrighted their games in the name of the designer so that the designer would receive any additional royalties for licensed figurines and other uses. Rather than focusing on one line and supporting it with supplements, FGU produced a stream of new games. Because of the disparate authors, the rules systems were incompatible. FGU Incorporated published dozens of role-playing games.
Fantasy Games Unlimited won the All Time Best Ancient Medieval Rules for 1979 H.G. Wells Award at Origins 1980 for *Chivalry & Sorcery*.
In 1991, Fantasy Games Unlimited Inc. was dissolved as a New York corporation. Bizar continues to publish in Arizona as a sole proprietorship called Fantasy Games Unlimited.
A new FGU website appeared in July 2006 offering the company\'s back catalog. It said that new products would be \"coming soon\". New *Aftermath!* products appeared in 2008. By 2010, much of the company\'s back catalog was available. At that time, FGU sought submissions for new adventures for their existing titles, primarily *Aftermath!, Space Opera, and Villains and Vigilantes*
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# Functional decomposition
In engineering, **functional decomposition** is the process of resolving a functional relationship into its constituent parts in such a way that the original function can be reconstructed (i.e., recomposed) from those parts.
This process of decomposition may be undertaken to gain insight into the identity of the constituent components, which may reflect individual physical processes of interest. Also, functional decomposition may result in a compressed representation of the global function, a task which is feasible only when the constituent processes possess a certain level of *modularity* (i.e., independence or non-interaction).
Interaction (statistics)`{{clarify span|(a situation in which one causal variable depends on the state of a second causal variable)|reason=The notion of 'interaction' of mathematical functions is undefined, likewise for 'observable', 'perception' etc. I guess this paragraph confuses mathematical notions (like 'function') with physical intuitions (like 'process'); this should be fixed.|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki} between the components are critical to the function of the collection. All interactions may not be `{{clarify span|[[Observability|observable]], or measured|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki}, but possibly deduced through repetitive `{{clarify span|[[perception]]|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki}, synthesis, validation and verification of composite behavior.
## Motivation for decomposition {#motivation_for_decomposition}
Decomposition of a function into non-interacting components generally permits more economical representations of the function. Intuitively, this reduction in representation size is achieved simply because each variable depends only on a subset of the other variables. Thus, variable $x_1$ only depends directly on variable $x_2$, rather than depending on the *entire set* of variables. We would say that variable $x_2$ *screens off* variable $x_1$ from the rest of the world. Practical examples of this phenomenon surround us.
Consider the particular case of \"northbound traffic on the West Side Highway.\" Let us assume this variable (${x_1}$) takes on three possible values of {\"moving slow\", \"moving deadly slow\", \"not moving at all\"}. Now, let\'s say the variable ${x_1}$ depends on two other variables, \"weather\" with values of {\"sun\", \"rain\", \"snow\"}, and \"GW Bridge traffic\" with values {\"10mph\", \"5mph\", \"1mph\"}. The point here is that while there are certainly many secondary variables that affect the weather variable (e.g., low pressure system over Canada, butterfly flapping in Japan, etc.) and the Bridge traffic variable (e.g., an accident on I-95, presidential motorcade, etc.) all these other secondary variables are not directly relevant to the West Side Highway traffic. All we need (hypothetically) in order to predict the West Side Highway traffic is the weather and the GW Bridge traffic, because these two variables *screen off* West Side Highway traffic from all other potential influences. That is, all other influences act *through* them.
## Applications
Practical applications of functional decomposition are found in Bayesian networks, structural equation modeling, linear systems, and database systems.
## Knowledge representation {#knowledge_representation}
Processes related to functional decomposition are prevalent throughout the fields of knowledge representation and machine learning. Hierarchical model induction techniques such as Logic circuit minimization, decision trees, grammatical inference, hierarchical clustering, and quadtree decomposition are all examples of function decomposition.
Many statistical inference methods can be thought of as implementing a function decomposition process in the presence of noise; that is, where functional dependencies are only expected to hold *approximately*. Among such models are mixture models and the recently popular methods referred to as \"causal decompositions\" or Bayesian networks.
## Database theory {#database_theory}
See database normalization.
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# Functional decomposition
## Machine learning {#machine_learning}
In practical scientific applications, it is almost never possible to achieve perfect functional decomposition because of the incredible complexity of the systems under study. This complexity is manifested in the presence of \"noise,\" which is just a designation for all the unwanted and untraceable influences on our observations.
However, while perfect functional decomposition is usually impossible, the spirit lives on in a large number of statistical methods that are equipped to deal with noisy systems. When a natural or artificial system is intrinsically hierarchical, the joint distribution on system variables should provide evidence of this hierarchical structure. The task of an observer who seeks to understand the system is then to infer the hierarchical structure from observations of these variables. This is the notion behind the hierarchical decomposition of a joint distribution, the attempt to recover something of the intrinsic hierarchical structure which generated that joint distribution.
As an example, Bayesian network methods attempt to decompose a joint distribution along its causal fault lines, thus \"cutting nature at its seams\". The essential motivation behind these methods is again that within most systems (natural or artificial), relatively few components/events interact with one another directly on equal footing. Rather, one observes pockets of dense connections (direct interactions) among small subsets of components, but only loose connections between these densely connected subsets. There is thus a notion of \"causal proximity\" in physical systems under which variables naturally precipitate into small clusters. Identifying these clusters and using them to represent the joint provides the basis for great efficiency of storage (relative to the full joint distribution) as well as for potent inference algorithms.
## Software architecture {#software_architecture}
Functional Decomposition is a design method intending to produce a non-implementation, architectural description of a computer program. The software architect first establishes a series of functions and types that accomplishes the main processing problem of the computer program, decomposes each to reveal common functions and types, and finally derives Modules from this activity.
## Signal processing {#signal_processing}
Functional decomposition is used in the analysis of many signal processing systems, such as LTI systems. The input signal to an LTI system can be expressed as a function, $f(t)$. Then $f(t)$ can be decomposed into a linear combination of other functions, called component signals:
$$f(t) = a_1 \cdot g_1(t) + a_2 \cdot g_2(t) + a_3 \cdot g_3(t) + \dots + a_n \cdot g_n(t)$$ Here, $\{g_1(t), g_2(t), g_3(t), \dots , g_n(t)\}$ are the component signals. Note that $\{a_1, a_2, a_3, \dots , a_n\}$ are constants. This decomposition aids in analysis, because now the output of the system can be expressed in terms of the components of the input. If we let $T\{\}$ represent the effect of the system, then the output signal is $T\{f(t)\}$, which can be expressed as:
$$T\{f(t)\} = T\{ a_1 \cdot g_1(t) + a_2 \cdot g_2(t) + a_3 \cdot g_3(t) + \dots + a_n \cdot g_n(t)\}$$
$$= a_1 \cdot T\{g_1(t)\} + a_2 \cdot T\{g_2(t)\} + a_3 \cdot T\{g_3(t)\} + \dots + a_n \cdot T\{g_n(t)\}$$ In other words, the system can be seen as acting separately on each of the components of the input signal. Commonly used examples of this type of decomposition are the Fourier series and the Fourier transform.
## Systems engineering {#systems_engineering}
Functional decomposition in systems engineering refers to the process of defining a system in functional terms, then defining lower-level functions and sequencing relationships from these higher level systems functions. The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of a block diagram can be described without an \"and\" or \"or\" in the description.
This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure function. When a system is designed as pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced. A usual side effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic. Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function.
For example, say that one needs to make a stereo system. One might functionally decompose this into speakers, amplifier, a tape deck and a front panel. Later, when a different model needs an audio CD, it can probably fit the same interfaces
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# Flirting
**Flirting** or **coquetry** is a social and sexual behavior involving body language, or spoken or written communication between humans. It is used to suggest interest in a deeper relationship with another person and for amusement. Flirting can change in intention as well as intensity, whether it is harmless fun, or employed with the design of seeking a romantic or sexual relationship.
A person might flirt with another by speaking or behaving in such a way that suggests their desire to increase intimacy in their current relationship with that person. The approach may include communicating a sense of playfulness, irony, or by using double entendres.
## Etymology
The origin of the word \"flirt\" is unknown. The first use of the word dates to 1580---with the intransitive \"flit\" and the noun form---ca 1590---with the transitive \"flick\".
Flirt has been attributed to the French *conter fleurette*, meaning to woo. *Fleurette*, meaning small flower, was used in the 16th century in some sonnets and texts, and has since fallen out of use. This expression is still used in French, often mockingly, although the English loanword, \"to flirt*\",* is in the common vernacular. Flirting in the English language has the same meaning as to \"conter fleurette\".
## Historical context {#historical_context}
During World War II, anthropologist Margaret Mead was working in Britain for the British Ministry of Information and later for the U.S. Office of War Information, delivering speeches and writing articles to help American soldiers better understand British civilians, and vice versa. Mead found a pattern of misunderstandings in the flirtations between American soldiers and British women regarding who was supposed to take which initiative. She wrote of the Americans, \"The boy learns to make advances and rely upon the girl to repulse them whenever they are inappropriate to the state of feeling between the pair\", as contrasted to the British, where \"the girl is reared to depend upon a slight barrier of chilliness\... which the boys learn to respect, and for the rest to rely upon the men to approach or advance, as warranted by the situation.\" When flirting with each other, British women could interpret an American soldier\'s gregariousness as something more intimate or serious than he had intended.
Communications theorist Paul Watzlawick researched courtship behaviors between English women and North American servicemen in late- to post-WWII, finding common misunderstandings of intent. The simple act of kissing during the \'wrong stage\' of the courtship often led both parties to believe the other was being too forward, too soon.
## Purpose
According to social anthropologist Kate Fox, there are two main types of flirting: flirting for fun, and flirting with further intent. In a 2014 review, sociologist David Henningsen identified six main motivations for flirting: sex, relational development, exploration, fun, self-esteem, and as a means to an end. Henningsen found that many flirting interactions involve more than one of these motives.
Henningsen and Fox showed that flirting can sometimes be used just for fun. People may engage in flirting to consolidate or maintain a romantic relationship with their partner.
## Human mating strategy {#human_mating_strategy}
Many studies have confirmed that sex is a motivation for flirting. A study by Messman and colleagues demonstrated that the more one was physically attracted to a person, the higher the chances one would flirt with them.
Many people flirt as a courtship initiation method. The person flirting will send out signals of sexual availability to another, and expects to see the interest returned in order to continue flirting. Flirting can involve non-verbal signs, such as an exchange of glances, hand-touching, and hair-touching; or verbal signs, such as chatting, giving flattering comments, and exchanging telephone numbers in order to initiate further contact.
## Covert and overt signaling {#covert_and_overt_signaling}
Human flirting can be either covert or overt in contrast to the typically overt courtship display of animals. If the main purpose of flirting is to signal interest to another person, then one might expect that the signaling would be done clearly and explicitly. An explanation for the ambiguous nature of human flirting lies in the costs associated with courtship. According to Gersick and colleagues, signaling interest can be socially costly, such as risking existing friendship or affect social reputation. The costs associated with interest signaling may be magnified in humans compared to the animal world, as the existence of language means information can circulate much further. For instance, information overheard by an eavesdropper can be spread to large social networks, thereby magnifying the social costs.
Flirting can assess whether other person might be interested in reciprocating while maintaining plausible deniability to reduce social costs. Online flirting can reduce perceived risks.
### Misinterpretation
Flirting is often performed subtly, and evidence shows that people are often mistaken in how they interpret flirting behaviors. A 2015 study found that covert flirting is not detected in the majority of cases.
Without consent or implied consent by the receiving party, some flirting behavior, such as double entendres, can be viewed as sexual harassment.
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# Flirting
## Cultural variations {#cultural_variations}
Flirting behavior varies between cultures due to different modes of social etiquette, such as how closely people should stand, how long to hold eye contact, how much touching is appropriate and so forth. Nonetheless, some behaviors may be universal. Ethologist Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt discovered that women from different continents (Africa and North America) behave similarly in some ways when flirting, such as nonchalantly breaking their gaze and smiling after first staring for a prolonged period of time. In \"contact cultures,\" such as those in the Mediterranean or Latin America, closer proximity is common, compared with cultures such as those in Britain or Northern Europe. The variation in social norms may lead to different interpretations of what is considered to be flirting.
Japanese courtesans had another form of flirting, emphasizing non-verbal relationships by hiding the lips and showing the eyes, as depicted in much Shunga art, the most popular print media at the time, until the late 19th century. In Japan, flirting in the street or public places is known as *nanpa*.
The fan was extensively used as a means of communication and therefore a way of flirting from the 16th century onwards in some European societies, especially England and Spain. A whole sign language was developed with the use of the fan, and etiquette books and magazines were published. Charles Francis Badini created the Original Fanology or Ladies\' Conversation Fan, which was published by William Cock in London in 1797. The use of the fan was not limited to women, as men also carried fans and learned how to convey messages with them. For instance, placing the fan near the heart meant \"I love you\", while opening a fan wide meant \"Wait for me\".
In Spain, ladies used fans to communicate with suitors or prospective suitors without attracting the notice of their families or chaperons. This use was highly popular during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
### Gendered roles {#gendered_roles}
Certain types of flirting seem to vary by gender. Henningsen and colleagues\' study demonstrated that flirting with sexual intent was found to be more prominent amongst men while flirting for relationship development purposes was more often employed by women. Henningsen also found that women may engage in \"practice flirting,\" that is, behavior to evaluate potential partners.
The parental investment theory predicts based on evolutionary biology in case of a risk of pregnancy with gender differences in parental investment, that females would be more selective than males and courtship would be more commonly initiated by males. In case of no risk of pregnancy this gendered effect is predicted to be reduced.
### Gender egalitarian roles {#gender_egalitarian_roles}
Flirting can follow gender egalitarian norms. Direct opening lines by women were evaluated as more effective by men
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# Franklin J. Schaffner
**Franklin James Schaffner** (May 30, 1920`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}July 2, 1989) was an American film, television, and stage director. He won the Academy Award for Best Director for *Patton* (1970), and is known for the films *Planet of the Apes* (1968), *Nicholas and Alexandra* (1971), *Papillon* (1973), and *The Boys from Brazil* (1978). He served as president of the Directors Guild of America between 1987 and 1989.
## Early life {#early_life}
Schaffner was born in Tokyo, Japan, the son of American missionaries Sarah Horting (née Swords) and Paul Franklin Schaffner, and was raised in Japan.
The Schaffners returned to the United States and settled in Lancaster, Pennsylvania when Franklin Schaffner was 5 years old. Franklin Schaffner attended J.P. McCaskey High School, where he appeared as Mr. Darcy in the school\'s production of *Pride and Prejudice*. In 1938, he graduated as valedictorian of McCaskey High School\'s first graduating class.
Schaffner graduated from Franklin & Marshall College (F&M) in Lancaster. As a student, Schaffner was active in the drama program at F&M\'s Green Room Theatre, where he appeared in eleven plays and served as president of the Green Room Club. He then studied law at Columbia University in New York City, but his education was interrupted by service with the U.S. Navy in World War II during which he served with amphibious forces in Europe and North Africa. In the latter stages of the war, he was sent to the Pacific Far East to serve with the Office of Strategic Services.
## Television career {#television_career}
Schaffner returned to the United States after the war. He worked for a world peace organization, then as an assistant director for the documentary film series *The March of Time*. He became a director in the news and public affairs department of CBS television, where his jobs including covering sports, beauty pageants and public-service programs.
In 1950 he directed \"The Traitor\", the first episode of *Ford Theatre*. He also did adaptations of *Alice in Wonderland* and *Treasure Island*.
He directed \"Thunder on Sycamore Street\" by Reginald Rose for *Studio One*. He and Rose reunited on *Twelve Angry Men* which won Schaffner an Emmy for Best Director.
The following year Schaffner earned another Emmy for his work on the 1955 TV adaptation of the Broadway play *The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial*, shown on the anthology series *Ford Star Jubilee*.
Schaffner became one of three regular directors on *The Kaiser Aluminum Hour*; the others were George Roy Hill and Fielder Cook. He was also a regular director on *Playhouse 90*.
He was the original director on the series, *The Defenders*, created by Rose. Schaffner\'s work earned him another Emmy.
In 1960, he directed Allen Drury\'s stage play *Advise and Consent*. This earned him the Best Director recognition in the Variety Critics Poll.
In the realm of network television, Schaffner also received widespread critical acclaim in 1962 for his groundbreaking collaboration with the First Lady of the United States Jacqueline Kennedy and CBS television\'s Musical Director Alfredo Antonini in the production of *A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy*, a television special broadcast to over 80 million viewers worldwide.
Schaffner\'s contributions in this production earned him a nomination in 1963 by the Directors Guild of America, for its award in the category of Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television.
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# Franklin J. Schaffner
## Feature films {#feature_films}
### Early films {#early_films}
In January 1960 Schaffner signed a multi picture deal with Columbia Pictures.
In May 1961 he signed to make *A Summer Place* at 20th Century Fox with Fabian and Dolores Hart. The film was not made. Schaffner directed *The Good Years* (1962) for TV with Henry Fonda and Lucille Ball. Other TV work included *The Great American Robbery*.
Instead Schaffner\'s first motion picture was *The Stripper* (1963), made at Fox from a play by William Inge, starring Richard Beymer and Joanne Woodward. The film was well-received critically, but not a commercial success.
He continued to work for TV including *The Legend of Lylah Clare*.
Schaffner later made *The Best Man* (1964) based on a play by Gore Vidal and *The War Lord* (1965), based on a play by Leslie Stevens, with Charlton Heston. In a 1966 interview he said \"as you mature you learn that the story is the most important thing.\" He announced various films for Columbia -- *The Day Lincoln Was Shot*, *The Whistle Blows for Victory* and *The Green Beret* -- but they were not made.
He went to Britain to make *The Double Man* (1967) with Yul Brynner, a film Schaffner admitted he did for the money.
### Peak
Schaffner had a huge critical and commercial hit in *Planet of the Apes* (1968) starring Heston at 20th Century Fox.
In December 1968 Schaffner signed a non-exclusive three-picture deal with Columbia.
His next film was for 20th Century Fox, however: *Patton* (1970), a biopic of General Patton starring George C. Scott. It was a major success for which Schaffner won the Academy Award for Best Director and the Directors Guild of America Award for Best Director.
He made *Nicholas and Alexandra* (1971) for producer Sam Spiegel. It was an expensive box-office failure. Schaffner followed it with *Papillon* (1973) a \$14 million epic with Steve McQueen and Dustin Hoffman that was a considerable financial success. In 1971 he said his films \"are almost always about people who are out of their time and place.\"
Schaffner intended to follow *Papillon* with *Dynasty of Western Outlaws*, about outlaws over the years in Missouri from a script by John Gay, and an adaptation of *The French Lieutenant\'s Woman*. He ended up making neither: *Dynasty* was never made, and *French Lieutenant* was made a decade later by another director.
Schaffner reunited with George C. Scott in *Islands in the Stream* (1977), based on the novel by Ernest Hemingway. He then did *The Boys from Brazil* (1978) based on a novel by Ira Levin with Gregory Peck and Laurence Olivier.
### Later work {#later_work}
His later films included *Sphinx* (1981), a \$10 million thriller about Egypt based on a novel by Robin Cook and produced by Stanley O\'Toole, who had made *Boys from Brazil* with Schaffner. It was a commercial and critical failure, as was *Yes, Giorgio* (1982), a musical comedy starring Luciano Pavarotti.
Schaffner\'s last films were the critically well-received *Lionheart* (1987) and *Welcome Home* (1989).
Schaffner was president of the Directors Guild of America from 1987 until his death in 1989.
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# Franklin J. Schaffner
## Frequent collaborators {#frequent_collaborators}
Jerry Goldsmith composed the music for seven of his films: *The Stripper*, *Planet of the Apes*, *Patton*, *Papillon*, *Islands in the Stream*, *The Boys from Brazil* and *Lionheart*. Four of them were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score.
Schaffner twice worked with actors Charlton Heston and Maurice Evans (*The War Lord*; *Planet of the Apes*), George C. Scott (*Patton*; *Islands in the Stream*) and Laurence Olivier (*Nicholas and Alexandra*; *The Boys from Brazil*).
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Schaffner married Helen Jean Gilchrist in 1948. The couple had two children, Jennie and Kate. She died in 2007.
Schaffner died on July 2, 1989, at the age of 69. He was released 10 days before his death from a hospital where he was being treated for lung cancer.
## Critical perception {#critical_perception}
Screenwriter William Goldman identified Schaffner in 1981 as being one of the three best directors (then living) at handling \"scope\" (a gift for screen epics) in films. The other two were David Lean and Richard Attenborough.
## Legacy
In 1991, Schaffner\'s widow, Jean Schaffner, established the Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal (colloquially known as the Franklin J. Schaffner Award), which is awarded by the American Film Institute at its annual ceremony to an alumnus of either the AFI Conservatory or the AFI Conservatory Directing Workshop for Women who best embodies the qualities of the late director: talent, taste, dedication and commitment to quality filmmaking. Notable recipients include David Lynch, Amy Heckerling, Terrence Malick, Darren Aronofsky, Patty Jenkins and Paul Schrader, among others.
The Directors Guild of America also began presenting a Franklin J. Schaffner Achievement Award to associate directors or stage managers in 1991.
The moving image collection of Franklin J. Schaffner is held at the Academy Film Archive.
In May 2020, the mayor of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, proclaimed Franklin Schaffner Week (May 23--30, 2020) to mark the centennial of his birth.
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Director Producer
------ -------------------------- ---------- ----------
1952 *The Wings of the Dove*
1963 *The Stripper*
1964 *The Best Man*
1965 *The War Lord*
1967 *The Double Man*
1968 *Planet of the Apes*
1970 *Patton*
1971 *Nicholas and Alexandra*
1973 *Papillon*
1976 *Islands in the Stream*
1978 *The Boys from Brazil*
1981 *Sphinx*
1982 *Yes, Giorgio*
1987 *Lionheart*
1989 *Welcome Home*
### Television
Year Title Notes
---------- ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------
1948--51 *The Ford Theatre Hour* 22 episodes
1949 *Wesley* 13 episodes
1949--56 *Studio One* 110 episodes
1951 *Tales of Tomorrow* 5 episodes
1953--59 *Person to Person* 248 episodes
1955 *The Best of Broadway* 1 episode
1955--56 *Ford Star Jubilee* 2 episodes
1956--57 *The Kaiser Aluminum Hour* 6 episodes
1957 *Producers\' Showcase* 1 episode
1957--60 *Playhouse 90* 19 episodes
1959 *Startime* 1 episode
1961--62 *The Defenders* 6 episodes
1962 *A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy* Documentary special
1962--64 *The DuPont Show of the Week* 10 episodes
1967 *ABC Stage 67* 1 episode
**TV movies**
- *Cry Vengeance!* (1961)
- *The Good Years* (1962)
- *Ambassador at Large* (1964)
- *One-Eyed Jacks Are Wild* (1966)
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# Franklin J. Schaffner
## Awards and nominations {#awards_and_nominations}
### Film {#film_1}
Year Title Academy Awards Golden Globe Awards
------------- -------------------------- ---------------- ------ ---------------------
Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations
1963 *The Stripper* 1
1964 *The Best Man* 1 2
1968 *Planet of the Apes* 2 1
1970 *Patton* 10 7 2
1971 *Nicholas and Alexandra* 6 2 3
1973 *Papillon* 1 1
1976 *Islands in the Stream* 1
1978 *The Boys from Brazil* 3 1
1982 *Yes, Giorgio* 1 1
Total 26 10 10
Year Award/Association Category Work Result
------ ------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------- ------------------------ --------
1964 Karlovy Vary International Film Festival Crystal Globe *The Best Man*
Special Jury Prize
1971 Academy Awards Best Director *Patton*
Golden Globe Awards Best Director
Directors Guild of America Award Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
1979 Saturn Awards Best Director *The Boys from Brazil*
2008 Jules Verne Award Légendaire Award *Planet of the Apes*
### Television {#television_1}
Year Title Emmy Awards
------------- ------------------------------- ------------- ------
Nominations Wins Nominations Wins
1949--56 *Studio One* 12 5
1953--59 *Person to Person* 6
1955 *The Best of Broadway* 1
1955--56 *Ford Star Jubilee* 4 3
1956--57 *The Kaiser Aluminum Hour* 1
1957 *Producers\' Showcase* 13 7
1957--60 *Playhouse 90* 34 13
1959 *Startime* 5 1
1961--62 *The Defenders* 8 14
1962--64 *The DuPont Show of the Week* 8
1967 *ABC Stage 67* 4 2
Total 96 45
Year Award/Association Category Work Episode Result
------ ---------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ --------
1955 Primetime Emmy Award Best Direction *Studio One* \"Twelve Angry Men\"
1956 *Ford Star Jubilee* \"The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial\"
Best Television Adaptation
1961 Directors Guild of America Award Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television *Playhouse 90* \"The Cruel Day\"
1962 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Drama *The Defenders* Various
1963 Directors Guild of America Award Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Television *A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F
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# False etymology
A **false etymology** (**fake etymology** or **pseudo-etymology**) is a false theory about the origin or derivation of a specific word or phrase. When a false etymology becomes a popular belief in a cultural/linguistic community, it is a **folk etymology** (or **popular etymology**). Nevertheless, folk/popular etymology may also refer to the process by which a word or phrase is changed because of a popular false etymology. To disambiguate the usage of the term \"folk/popular etymology\", Ghil\'ad Zuckermann proposes a clear-cut distinction between the **derivational-only popular etymology** (**DOPE**) and the generative popular etymology (GPE): the DOPE refers to a popular false etymology involving no neologization, and the GPE refers to neologization generated by a popular false etymology.
Such etymologies often have the feel of urban legends and can be more colorful and fanciful than the typical etymologies found in dictionaries, often involving stories of unusual practices in particular subcultures (e.g. Oxford students from non-noble families being supposedly forced to write *sine nobilitate* by their name, soon abbreviated to *s.nob.*, hence the word *snob*).
## Source and influence {#source_and_influence}
Erroneous etymologies can exist for many reasons. Some are reasonable interpretations of the evidence that happen to be false. For a given word there may often have been many serious attempts by scholars to propose etymologies based on the best information available at the time, and these can be later modified or rejected as linguistic scholarship advances. The results of medieval etymology, for example, were plausible given the insights available at the time, but have often been rejected by modern linguists. The etymologies of humanist scholars in the early modern period began to produce more reliable results, but many of their hypotheses have also been superseded.
Other false etymologies are the result of specious and untrustworthy claims made by individuals, such as the unfounded claims made by Daniel Cassidy that hundreds of common English words such as *baloney*, *grumble*, and *bunkum* derive from the Irish language.
In the United States, some of these scandalous legends have had to do with racism and slavery; common words such as *picnic*, *buck*, and *crowbar* have been alleged to stem from derogatory terms or racist practices
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# Freddy Heineken
**Alfred Henry Heineken** (4 November 1923 -- 3 January 2002) was a Dutch businessman for Heineken International, the brewing company created in 1864 by his grandfather Gerard Adriaan Heineken in Amsterdam. He served as chairman of the board of directors and CEO from 1971 until 1989. After his retirement as chairman and CEO, Heineken continued to sit on the board of directors until his death and served as chairman of the supervisory board from 1989 to 1995. At the time of his death, Heineken was one of the richest people in the Netherlands, with a net worth of 9.5 billion guilders.
## Early life {#early_life}
Heineken was born on 4 November 1923 in Amsterdam. He was the grandson of Gerard Adriaan Heineken, who was the founder of the brewery Heineken International.
## Career
On 1 June 1941, he entered the service of the Heineken company, which by then was no longer owned by the family. He bought back stock several years later, to ensure the family controlled the company again. He created the Heineken Holding that owned 50.005% of Heineken International; he held a majority stake in Heineken Holding. By the time of his resignation as chairman of the board in 1989 he had transformed Heineken from a brand that was known primarily in the Netherlands into a brand name recognized worldwide.
## Kidnapping
Freddy Heineken and his driver Ab Doderer were kidnapped in 1983 and released on payment of a ransom of 35 million Dutch guilders (around 15,800,000 euros or 17,332,600 US dollars). The kidnappers -- Cor van Hout, Willem Holleeder, Jan Boellaard, Frans Meijer, and Martin Erkamps -- were eventually caught and served prison terms. Before being extradited, Van Hout and Holleeder stayed for more than three years in France, first on the run, then in prison, and then, awaiting a change of the extradition treaty, under house arrest, and finally in prison again. Meijer escaped and lived in Paraguay for years, until he was discovered by crime reporter Peter R. de Vries and imprisoned there. In 2003, Meijer stopped resisting his extradition to the Netherlands and was transferred to a Dutch prison to serve the last part of his term.
The films *The Heineken Kidnapping* (2011) and *Kidnapping Freddy Heineken* (2015) are based on this incident.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Heineken married Lucille Cummins, an American from a Kentucky family of bourbon whiskey distillers.
Heineken was a member of the People\'s Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD).
In 1989, Heineken illegally destroyed the Villa Böhler in Oberalpina, designed by Heinrich Tessenow from 1916 to 1918.
Heineken struggled for some time with deteriorating health; in 1999 he suffered a mild stroke but recovered. Shortly before his death, he broke his arm in a fall. He died from pneumonia on 3 January 2002 at the age of 78 at his home in Noordwijk in the presence of his immediate family, including his daughter Charlene de Carvalho-Heineken, who inherited his fortune. He was buried at the General Cemetery in Noordwijk.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
A film of the kidnapping, *De Heineken Ontvoering*, with Rutger Hauer playing Freddy Heineken, was released in October 2011. A second film, *Kidnapping Mr. Heineken*, based on De Vries\' book about the kidnapping, was produced by Informant Media in 2013 based on the scenario written by William Brookfield. In this film Heineken is played by Anthony Hopkins with the kidnappers played by Jim Sturgess, Sam Worthington, Ryan Kwanten, Mark van Eeuwen and Thomas Cocquerel.
## Book
- *The United States of Europe, A Eurotopia?*, 1992
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# Farmer Giles of Ham
***Farmer Giles of Ham*** is a comic medieval fable written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1937 and published in 1949. The story describes the encounters between Farmer Giles and a wily dragon named Chrysophylax, and how Giles manages to use these to rise from humble beginnings to rival the king of the land. It is cheerfully anachronistic and light-hearted, set in Britain in an imaginary period of the Dark Ages. It features mythical creatures, medieval knights, and primitive firearms.
Scholars have noted that despite the story\'s light-hearted nature, reflected in Tolkien\'s playful use of his professional discipline, philology, it embodies several serious concerns. The setting is quasi-realistic, being the area around Oxford where Tolkien lived and worked. The story parodies multiple aspects of traditional dragon-slaying tales, and has roots in modern and medieval literature, from Norse myth to Spenser\'s *The Faerie Queene*. Its concern for the \"Little Kingdom\" embodies Tolkien\'s environmentalism, in particular his well-founded fears for the loss of the countryside of Oxfordshire and surrounding areas.
## Pseudo-translation from Latin {#pseudo_translation_from_latin}
According to Tolkien\'s Foreword, *Farmer Giles* is not an original tale but a translation, from \'very insular Latin\', of a compilation of old legends of the Little Kingdom. In token of this, the full subtitle is given as `{{quote|''Aegidii Ahenobarbi Julii Agricole de Hammo, Domini de Domito, Aule Draconarie Comitis, Regni Minimi Regis et Basilei mira facinora et mirabilis exortus, or in the vulgar tongue, The Rise and Wonderful Adventures of Farmer Giles, Lord of Tame, Count of Worminghall and King of the Little Kingdom''}}`{=mediawiki} This presages the great number of Latin-based jokes throughout the story.
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# Farmer Giles of Ham
## Plot summary {#plot_summary}
Farmer Giles (*Ægidius Ahenobarbus Julius Agricola de Hammo*, \"Giles Redbeard Julius, Farmer of Ham\") is fat and red-bearded and enjoys a slow, comfortable life. A rather deaf and short-sighted giant blunders on to his land, and Giles manages to send him away with a blunderbuss shot. The people of the village cheer: Farmer Giles has become a hero. His reputation spreads across the kingdom, and he is rewarded by the King with an unfashionable old sword.
The giant, on returning home, relates to his friends that there are no more knights in the Middle Kingdom, just stinging flies---actually the scrap metal shot from the blunderbuss---and this entices a dragon from Venedotia, Chrysophylax Dives, to investigate the area. The terrified neighbours all expect the accidental hero Farmer Giles to deal with him.
The knights sent by the King to pursue the dragon turn out to be full of excuses not to do their duty. The villagers look to Giles to do something. The local priest finds that the old sword is Caudimordax (\"Tailbiter\"), meant specifically for killing dragons.
Giles sets out and meets Chrysophylax. The sword turns out to be able to fight almost on its own; Giles hits the dragon with the sword, damaging its wing so it cannot fly, and leads it through the town. It is made to promise to bring its treasure to the villagers, but it does not keep its word.
The king sends Giles and the knights to deal with Chrysophylax. The knights have never seen any dragon apart from their Christmas dragon-tail cake made of marzipan. Chrysophylax kills them. Giles survives, and with his sword he masters the dragon and obtains part of the treasure. On his way home, he acquires the servants of the dead knights. Back at home, with servants and treasure, Giles becomes a powerful lord.
## Publication history {#publication_history}
*Farmer Giles of Ham* was originally illustrated by Pauline Baynes. The story has appeared with other works by Tolkien in omnibus editions, including *The Tolkien Reader* and *Tales from the Perilous Realm*.
Tolkien dedicated *Farmer Giles of Ham* to Cyril Hackett Wilkinson (1888--1960), a don (lecturer) he knew at Oxford University; Wilkinson had encouraged Tolkien to go ahead with writing the story for the Lovelace Society at Worcester College.
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# Farmer Giles of Ham
## Analysis
### Quasi-realistic geographical setting {#quasi_realistic_geographical_setting}
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Sketch map of real places in and around Oxfordshire in the English midlands, used for the \"Little Kingdom\" of *Farmer Giles of Ham*.
Tolkien, a philologist, sprinkled philological jokes into the tale, including intentionally false etymologies. The place-names are of places close to \[\[Oxford\|Ox\[en\]ford\]\] including Oakley, Otmoor and the Rollright Stones. At the end of the story, Giles is made Lord of Tame, and Count of Worminghall. The Tolkien scholar John Garth comments that the tale is \"an elaborate false explanation for the name of the Buckinghamshire village of Worminghall\".
+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| Worminghall in the story | Worminghall, Buckinghamshire |
+================================+================================+
| \"The hall of the Wormings\",\ | \"Field of a man named Wyrma\" |
| people descended from a man\ | |
| who tamed a *worm* (a dragon) | |
+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
: John Garth\'s analysis of Tolkien\'s etymological \"frolic\"\
in *Farmer Giles of Ham*
### Quasi-realistic historical setting {#quasi_realistic_historical_setting}
The philologist and Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey suggests that the Middle Kingdom is based on early Mercia, since the Middle Kingdom\'s capital, \"some twenty miles distant from Ham\", could well be Tamworth, once Mercia\'s capital. Giles\'s break-away realm (the Little Kingdom) is based on Frithuwald\'s Surrey.
The tale\'s Foreword states that the tale is \"a translation\" from \"insular Latin\" of events taking place \"after the days of King Coel maybe, but before Arthur or the Seven Kingdoms of the English\".
### Blunderbuss philology {#blunderbuss_philology}
Another joke puts a question concerning the definition of blunderbuss to \"the four wise clerks of Oxenford\": \"A short gun with a large bore firing many balls or slugs, and capable of doing execution \[killing people\] within a limited range without exact aim. (Now superseded, in civilised countries, by other firearms.)\" Tolkien had worked on the *Oxford English Dictionary*, and the \"four wise clerks\" are \"undoubtedly\" the four lexicographers Henry Bradley, William Craigie, James Murray, and Charles Talbut Onions. Tolkien then satirises the dictionary definition by applying it to Farmer Giles\'s weapon:
> However, Farmer Giles\'s blunderbuss had a wide mouth that opened like a horn, and it did not fire balls or slugs, but anything that he could spare to stuff in. And it did not do execution, because he seldom loaded it, and never let it off. The sight of it was usually enough for his purpose. And this country was not yet civilised, for the blunderbuss was not superseded: it was indeed the only kind of gun that there was, and rare at that.
The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey comments: \"Giles\'s blunderbuss \... defies the definition and works just the same.\"
### Parody dragon-slaying tale {#parody_dragon_slaying_tale}
Romuald Lakowski describes *Farmer Giles of Ham* as a \"delightful, and even in places brilliant, parody of the traditional dragon-slaying tale.\" The parody has many strands. The hero is a farmer, not a knight; the dragon is a coward, and is not killed, but tamed and forced to return his treasure. Lakowski derives Chrysophylax both from medieval dragons and from comic stories contemporary with Tolkien, like Edith Nesbit\'s *The Dragon Tamers* and Kenneth Grahame\'s *The Reluctant Dragon*. The story embodies a charter myth, in which Giles\'s descendants have a dragon on their crest because of his deeds. Further, it serves as a local legend, with mock etymologies of actual place-names.
Giles\'s cowardly talking dog Garm is named for the terrifying dog of the Norse underworld. Giles\'s magic named sword may derive partly from Norse myth, too; the god Freyr had a sword that could fight by itself. As for the fight with the dragon, the wounding of the monster\'s wing echoes an episode in Spenser\'s *The Faerie Queene*. Other allusions may include the legend of Saint George and the Dragon, as that dragon was brought back to the city, tamed, and led with the girdle of a maiden round its neck; and the Völsunga saga, as the dragon\'s cave sounds much like Fáfnir\'s.
### Environmentalism
Alex Lewis, in *Mallorn*, writes that Tolkien lamented the loss of the countryside in and around Oxfordshire, which formed \"the Little Kingdom\" of the story. Tolkien loved nature, especially trees, and had what Lewis calls \"well-founded\" fears for the environment, \"verg\[ing\] on the prophetic\". Lewis analyses the factors that were causing this loss. They included the growth in Oxfordshire\'s population in the 20th century (doubling between 1920 and 1960); the area\'s industrialisation by Morris Motors, and the concomitant increase in motor traffic in the city of Oxford; the building of roads, including the M40 motorway cutting across the countryside; and the suburbanisation of Oxford as commuters started to use the railway to allow them to live in Oxford but work in London. The Second World War increased the number of airfields in the area from 5 to 96, causing the Oxfordshire countryside to be \"gutted\". Lewis states that Tolkien had hoped to write a sequel to *Farmer Giles of Ham*, but found that his legendarium had \"bubbled up, infiltrated, and probably spoiled everything\", and that it was \"difficult \[in 1949\] to recapture the spirit of the former days, when we used to beat the bounds of the L\[ittle\] K\[ingdom\] in an ancient car.\" Tolkien was horrified by the change that motor traffic wreaked on Oxford, and the air pollution; he had given up his happy but dangerous driving, as depicted in his children\'s story *Mr. Bliss*, at the start of the war
| 903 |
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| 2 |
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# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
A vast number of freshwater species have successfully adapted to live in aquariums. This list gives some examples of the most common species found in home aquariums.
## Catfish
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
**Armored catfish including Aspidoras, Brochis, Callichthys, and Corydoras**
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water hardness |
+==========================================================+=============================+=======+===================================+==============================================================================================================================================================================================+=================+===========================+====================+===================+
| Brown-Point Shield Skin | *Aspidoras fuscoguttatus* | | 3.8 cm (1.5 in) | | 30 Gallons | | 5.5--6.8 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Aspidoras Cory-Cat Pygmy Aspidoras | *Aspidoras lakoi* | | | | 28 Gallons | | \|6.5-7.5 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Sixray corydoras, false corydoras | *Aspidoras pauciradiatus* | | | | 20 Gallons | | 6.0-7.2 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Loach catfish | *Aspidoras rochai* | | maximum length | | 20 Gallons | 21--25°C | \|6.0-7.5 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Britski\'s catfish | *Corydoras britskii* | | | | | | 6.5-7.2 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Hognosed brochis | *Corydoras multiradiatus* | | | | | 70--75 °F (21--24 °C) | \|6.0--7.2 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Emerald catfish | *Corydoras splendens* | | | The Emerald Cory Catfish is a very hardy and resilient fish. Disease should not be a concern provided that you maintain the aquarium to standards. | 20 Gallons | 72 -- 82 F (22 -- 27.7 C) | 5.8-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Cascarudo | *Callichthys callichthys* | | | | | 64--83 °F (18--28 °C). | 5.8--8.3 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Blacktop corydoras | *Corydoras acutus* | | | | | 22--28 °C | \|6.0--7.5 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Adolfo\'s catfish/corydoras | *Corydoras adolfoi* | | | | | | 6.0--7.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Bronze corydoras, Emerald green cory | *Corydoras aeneus* | | | | | | 6.0-8.0 \|6.0--8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Agassiz\'s corydoras | *Corydoras agassizii* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Spotted corydoras, longnose corydoras | *Corydoras ambiacus* | | | | 27 gal | 22--25 °C | \|6.5--7.2 | 71.43 - 392.86ppm |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Caracha Fairy Cory | *Corydoras atropersonatus* | | | | 20 gal | 21--27 °C | \|5.0--7.0 | 36 -- 179 ppm |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Pink corydoras Axelrod\'s Cory | *Corydoras axelrodi* | | | | 21 gal | 22--26 °C | \|6.0--8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Masked corydoras, bandit corydoras | *Corydoras metae* | | | | | | 6.0-7.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Blackstripe corydoras | *Corydoras bondi* | | | | | 20--26 °C | \|6.0--7.5 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Tailspot corydoras | *Corydoras caudimaculatus* | | | | | 20--26 °C | \|6.0--7.0 | 36 -- 179 ppm |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Barred-tail corydoras | *Corydoras cochui* | | | | | 70--75 °F | \|6.0 -- 7.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| False blochi catfish | *Corydoras delphax* | | | | | 22--27 °C | \|5.5--7.5 | 36 -- 215 ppm |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Ehrhardt\'s corydoras | *Corydoras ehrhardti* | | | | | 18-23 °C | \|6.5--7.5 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Elegant corydoras | *Corydoras elegans* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Horseman\'s cory | *Corydoras eques* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Evelyn\'s cory | *Corydoras evelynae* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Geoffrey\'s Corydora | *Corydoras geoffroy* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Skunk corydoras | *Corydoras granti* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Guapore corydoras | *Corydoras guapore* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Salt and pepper catfish/corydoras | *Corydoras habrosus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras | *Corydoras haraldschultzi* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Dwarf corydoras | *Corydoras hastatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Julii corydoras | *Corydoras julii* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras latus* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| False spotted catfish | *Corydoras leucomelas* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Loxozonus cory | *Corydoras loxozonus* | | | | | 21-24 °C | \|6.0-7.2 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Bluespotted corydoras spotted cory | *Corydoras melanistius* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-7.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Gold laser cory | *Corydoras melanotaenia* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Long nosed arched cory Long-nosed Skunk Cory | *Corydoras narcissus* | | | | | 23-45 °C | \|6.0-7.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Blue corydoras Natterer\'s Cory | *Corydoras nattereri* | | | | | 20-23 °C | \|6.0-7.6 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras ornatus* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-7.2 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras osteocarus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Peppered corydoras, salt and pepper catfish | *Corydoras paleatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Panda corydoras | *Corydoras panda* | | | | | | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Pastaza corydoras | *Corydoras pastazensis* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras polystictus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Pygmy corydoras | *Corydoras pygmaeus* | | | A very peaceful species, that does not make an ideal community fish due to its small adult size. It is easily intimidated by larger tank mates and will not compete well with them for food. | 42.4 L (11 gal) | 72 to 79 °F (22 to 26 °C) | \|6.4 to 7.4 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Rust corydoras | *Corydoras rabauti* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Mosaic corydoras, reticulated corydoras | *Corydoras reticulatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Banner-tail corydoras, flagtail corydoras | *Corydoras robineae* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Schwartz\'s catfish | *Corydoras schwartzi* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras semiaquilus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras septentrionalis* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras simulatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| False network catfish | *Corydoras sodalis* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Sterba\'s corydoras | *Corydoras sterbai* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Sychr\'s catfish | *Corydoras sychri* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Threestripe corydoras, leopard catfish, false julii cory | *Corydoras trilineatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Corydoras undulatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Xingu corydoras | *Corydoras xinguensis* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Corydoras nain | *Corydoras nanus* | | | | | 22--26 °C | \|6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Flagtail catfish | *Dianema urostriatum* | | | | | | 6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Spotted hoplo | *Megalechis thoracata* | | | | | 64--83 °F (18--28 °C). | \|6-8 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| | *Scleromystax prionotos* | | | | | | \| | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Sailfin corydoras | *Scleromystax macropterus* | | | | | | \|6.0 -- 8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
| Banded corydoras | *Scleromystax barbatus* | | | | | 68-82 °F (20-28 °C) | 6.0-8.0 | |
+----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------+---------------------------+--------------------+-------------------+
-------------------------------------------------------------
**Armored suckermouth catfish (plecos, oto, and whiptail)**
-------------------------------------------------------------
| 1,311 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 0 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Catfish
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=========================================+==============================+=======+===================================+================================================================================================================================================================================================+===================+==============================+===========+================+
| Bristlenose pleco, bushynose pleco | *Ancistrus* spp. | | | The bristlenose genus has at least 59 identified species and many others yet to be named. Males and female both have long \"bristles\" on their nose, the males having distinctly longer ones. | | 72-84 F (20-27 C) | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Adonis pleco, polka dot lyre-tail pleco | *Acanthicus adonis* | | | | | 77-86 F (25-30 C) | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Ancistomus* spp. | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Gold nugget pleco | Baryancistrus xanthellus | | | further information on species variation, L-Numbers, and naming at page for Baryancistrus genus | | 77-86 F (25-30 C) | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Dekeyseria* spp. | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Hemiancistrus* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Zebra pleco | *Hypancistrus* spp. | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Hypostomus* spp. | | | | | 72-86 F (22-30 C) | \|6.5-7.5 | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Lasiancistrus* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Leporacanthicus* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Panaque | *Panaque* spp. | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| | *Panaqolus* spp. | | | genus includes popular aquarium species such as the Clown Pleco, *Panaqolus maccus* | 20 gal | 23.0-28.0 °C or 73.4-82.4 °F | 6.8 - 7.6 | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Peckoltia* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Pseudacanthicus* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Pineapple pleco, orange cheek pleco | *Pseudorinelepis genibarbis* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Sunshine pleco | *Scobinancistrus aureatus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Whiptail catfish | *Rineloricaria* spp. | | | It is a peaceful fish that is best kept in good sized groups (6+) in a mature tank with plenty of shady hiding spots amongst plants, driftwood, slate caves, and PVC pipes. | | 75-82 F (24-28 C) | \|6.0-7.2 | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Twig catfish | *Farlowella* spp. | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Sturisomatichthys* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| \| *Hypoptopoma* spp. | | | | | | \| | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Golden dwarf sucker, golden oto | *Otocinclus macrospilus* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Zebra dwarf sucker, zebra oto | *Otocinclus cocama* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+------------------------------+-----------+----------------+
----------------------------
**Long-whiskered catfish**
----------------------------
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==================================================+==================================+=======+===================================+=========+=======================================================================================================================================+=======================+============+================+
| Bolt catfish | *Aguarunichthys torosus* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Gold Zebra catfish | *Brachyplatystoma juruense* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Zebra shovelnose | *Brachyplatystoma tigrinum* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Vulture Catfish, zamurito | *Calophysus macropterus* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| | *Leiarius marmoratus* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| | *Leiarius pictus* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Redtail catfish | *Phractocephalus hemioliopterus* | | | | Needs at least a 2,600 USgal tank when mature, even though this does not provide them with the space to show their natural behaviour. | 70--79 °F (21--26 °C) | \|6.0--7.5 | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Spotted pimelodus, pictus, pictus catfish | *Pimelodus pictus* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Sturgeon catfish | *Platystomatichthys sturio* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Barred sorubim | *Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Tiger sorubim | *Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Firewood catfish, (planiceps) shovelnose catfish | *Sorubimichthys planiceps* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| Lima shovelnose catfish | *Sorubim lima* | | | | | | \| | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------+------------+----------------+
---------------------------------------
**Squeakers and upside-down catfish**
---------------------------------------
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===========================================================+=============================+=======+===================================+=============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+=============+================+
| Brichard\'s syno | *Synodontis brichardi* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Cuckoo squeaker | *Synodontis multipunctatus* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Clown squeaker | *Synodontis decorus* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Even-spotted squeaker, dwarf lake syno, false cuckoo syno | *Synodontis petricola* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Featherfin squeaker | *Synodontis eupterus* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Malawi squeaker | *Synodontis njassae* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Polka dot squeaker, angel squeaker | *Synodontis angelicus* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Orangestriped squeaker, pyjama syno | *Synodontis flavitaeniata* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Upside-down catfish | *Synodontis nigriventris* | | | *S. nigriventris* prefers bottom feeding on *Tubifex* (or similar worms), but its main diet consists of algae. The blotched upside-down catfish is well suited to aquariums because of its small size (typically 9 or 10 cm or less) and peaceful demeanor. | | | \|6.0 - 7.5 | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
| Yellow marbled syno, vermiculated syno | *Synodontis schoutedeni* | | | | | | \| | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+-------------+----------------+
-------------------
**Other catfish**
-------------------
| 1,040 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 1 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Catfish
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==========================================+==================================+=======+======+=================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Three-striped African catfish | *Pareutropius buffei* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giraffe catfish | *Auchenoglanis occidentalis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Electric catfish | *Malapterurus electricus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eel catfish | *Channallabes apus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black lancer catfish | *Bagrichthys macracanthus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Harlequin lancer catfish | *Bagroides melapterus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Crystal-eyed catfish | *Hemibagrus wyckii* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Shadow catfish | *Hyalobagrus flavus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Mystus bimaculatus* | | | | | | \| | | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf bumblebee catfish | *Pseudomystus leiacanthus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Pseudeutropius moolenburghae* | | | | | | \| | | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glass catfish | *Kryptopterus vitreolus* | | . | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped glass catfish | *Kryptopterus macrocephalus* | | . | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Goonch | *Bagarius lica* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chocolate frogmouth catfish | *Chaca bankanensis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian banjo catfish | *Acrochordonichthys rugosus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Walking catfish | *Clarias batrachus* | | | The albino form is common in the aquarium trade. This fish can survive out of the water and \"walk\" as long as kept wet, for a very long time. | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black catfish, Narrowfront tandan | *Neosilurus ater* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Stinging catfish | *Heteropneustes fossilis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Sun catfish | *Horabagrus brachysoma* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian redtail catfish | *Hemibagrus wyckioides* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian upside down catfish | *Mystus leucophasis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian bumblebee catfish | *Pseudomystus siamensis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Indawgyi stream catfish | *Akysis prashadi* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian stone catfish | *Hara jerdoni* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Iridescent shark | *Pangasianodon hypophthalmus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chao Phraya giant shark, giant pangasius | *Pangasius sanitwongsei* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Colombian shark catfish | *Ariopsis seemanni* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue whale catfish | *Cetopsis coecutiens* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Banjo catfish | *Bunocephalus coracoideus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giant raphael catfish | *Megalodoras uranoscopus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ripsaw catfish | *Oxydoras niger* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped raphael catfish | *Platydoras armatulus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted raphael catfish | *Agamyxis pectinifrons* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bottlenose catfish | *Ageneiosus inermis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gulper catfish | *Asterophysus batrachus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Midnight catfish | *Auchenipterichthys coracoideus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Oil catfish | *Duringlanis perugiae* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jaguar catfish | *Liosomadoras oncinus* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Tatia intermedia* | | | | | | \| | | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pygmy driftwood catfish | *Trachelyichthys exilis* | | | | | | \| | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Trachelyopterus fisheri* | | | | | | \| | | |
+------------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 759 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 2 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Characoids
------------
**Tetras**
------------
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+======================================+==================================+=======+===================================+======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+==================+=========================+==========+================+
| Arowana tetra | *Gnathocharax steindachneri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black phantom tetra | *Hyphessobrycon megalopterus* | | | The black phantom tetra enjoy being in groups of 6 or more and a slightly shaded tank. Males may claim small territories and occasionally minor battles may occur. The Phantom tetra goes well with other tetras of similar size. They also prefer floating plants. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black neon tetra | *Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black tetra, skirt tetra | *Gymnocorymbus ternetzi* | | | A highly spirited fish that may occasionally chase its own species as well as harass slow moving fish with long fins. This fish is very hardy and can stand a variety of water qualities. Disease is not a big problem with the black tetra. The black tetra is also known as the black skirt tetra. The female black tetra is more robust and larger than the male. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black morpho tetra | *Poecilocharax weitzmani* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bleeding heart tetra | *Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma* | | | The bleeding heart tetra is distinguished by the small red spot on both sides of the fish. This fish is very prone to diseases, and can grow larger than most tetra species. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bloodfin tetra | *Aphyocharax anisitsi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue tetra | *Knodus borki* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blueberry tetra | *Hyphessobrycon wadai* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Brittanichthys axelrodi* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bucktooth tetra | *Exodon paradoxus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Buenos Aires tetra | *Hyphessobrycon anisitsi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cardinal tetra | *Paracheirodon axelrodi* | | | Similar to the Neon Tetra, but slightly larger and doesn\'t prefer to school as much. They need much larger tanks, although their temperament is similar. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cave tetra, blind tetra | *Astyanax mexicanus* | | | The cave tetra is the blind cave form of the Mexican tetra. This tetra prefers low to moderate lighting. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cochu\'s blue tetra | *Boehlkea fredcochui* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Colombian tetra | *Hyphessobrycon columbianus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Diamond tetra | *Moenkhausia pittieri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dawn tetra | *Aphyocharax paraguayensis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ember tetra | *Hyphessobrycon amandae* | | | Ember tetras have been known to live ten years or more. May become stressed by the presence of larger fish. | | | 5 - 7 pH | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Emperor tetra | *Nematobrycon palmeri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flame tetra | *Hyphessobrycon flammeus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flame-back Bleeding heart tetra | *Hyphessobrycon pyrrhonotus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Garnet tetra, pretty tetra | *Hemigrammus pulcher* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glass bloodfin tetra | *Prionobrama filigera* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glowlight tetra | *Hemigrammus erythrozonus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Golden pristella tetra | *Pristella maxillaris* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Green neon tetra | *Paracheirodon simulans* | | | Similar to Neon Tetras and Cardinal Tetras, they are the same to Neon Tetras beside having a green tiny near their top dorsal fin | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Head and tail light tetra | *Hemigrammus ocellifer* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hummingbird tetra | *Trochilocharax ornatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| January tetra | *Hemigrammus hyanuary* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lemon tetra | *Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Neon tetra | *Paracheirodon innesi* | | | Neon tetras must be kept in groups of at least a half-dozen, as they are a shoaling species. With peaceful dispositions, they are also able to be kept with other species of non-aggressive fish. | 38 L (10 gal) | 68 to 79 F (20 to 26 C) | 6.0--7.0 | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ornate tetra | *Hyphessobrycon bentosi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Penguin tetra, blackline penguinfish | *Thayeria boehlkei* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Peruvian tetra | *Hyphessobrycon peruvianus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow tetra | *Nematobrycon lacortei* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red and Blue Peru tetra | *Hyphessobrycon margitae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red eye tetra Lamp eye tetra | *Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-line lizard tetra | *Iguanodectes geisleri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red phantom tetra | *Hyphessobrycon sweglesi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Redflank bloodfin | *Aphyocharax rathbuni* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rosy tetra | *Hyphessobrycon rosaceus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Royal tetra | *Inpaichthys kerri* | | | Possesses an adipose fin allowing it to be differentiated from the Emperor tetra | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ruby tetra | *Axelrodia riesei* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rummy-nose tetra | *Hemigrammus rhodostomus* | | | This common name is used for three different species of schooling fish with similar patterns: *Hemigrammus rhodostomus, Hemigrammus bleheri*, and *Petitella georgiae.* | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| False rummy-nose tetra | *Petitella georgiae* | | | This common name is used for three different species of schooling fish with similar patterns: *Hemigrammus rhodostomus, Hemigrammus bleheri*, and *Petitella georgiae.* | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Splash tetra | *Copella arnoldi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted splashing tetra | *Copella meinkeni* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Pyrrhulina spilota* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Serpae tetra | *Hyphessobrycon serpae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Silvertip tetra | *Hasemania nana* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Tucanoichthys tucano* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| X-ray tetra | *Pristella maxillaris* | | | Also just called the X-ray fish. | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow phantom tetra | *Hyphessobrycon roseus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| African moon tetra | *Bathyaethiops caudomaculatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Congo tetra | *Phenacogrammus interruptus* | | | Peaceful but may scare shy species with its active swimming and large adult size. Recommended for most community tanks however. Do not keep Congo tetras with fin-nipping species as the spectacular fins of the males will be destroyed. | 108 L (28.5 gal) | 73-82 °F (23-28 °C) | 6.0-7.5 | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Phenacogrammus aurantiacus* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jellybean tetra | *Ladigesia roloffi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Long-fin tetra | *Brycinus longipinnis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Niger tetra | *Arnoldichthys spilopterus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Alestopetersius brichardi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow-tailed Congo tetra | *Alestopetersius caudalis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------+-------------------------+----------+----------------+
-----------------
**Hatchetfish**
-----------------
| 1,394 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 3 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Characoids
+--------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==========================+============================+=======+===================================+==============================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Common hatchetfish | *Gasteropelecus sternicla* | | | Requires a varied diet including fruit flies | | | | |
+--------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Marbled hatchetfish | *Carnegiella strigata* | | | Requires a varied diet including fruit flies | | | | |
+--------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black-winged hatchetfish | *Carnegiella marthae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pygmy hatchetfish | *Carnegiella myersi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
-------------------
**Pencil fishes**
-------------------
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=================================+=============================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Golden pencilfish | *Nannostomus beckfordi* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hockeystick pencilfish | *Nannostomus eques* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Barred pencilfish | *Nannostomus espei* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf pencilfish | *Nannostomus marginatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Coral-red pencilfish | *Nannostomus mortenthaleri* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Nannostomus nigrotaeniatus* | | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Three-lined pencilfish | *Nannostomus trifasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| One-lined Pencilfish | *Nannostomus unifasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------+-----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
---------------------------------------------------------
**Serrasalminae (pacus, piranhas, and silver dollars)**
---------------------------------------------------------
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===============================+============================+=======+===================================+====================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Silver dollar | *Metynnis argenteus* | | | The name \"silver dollar\" may also refer to *Metynnis hypsauchen*, *Metynnis maculatus*, or other related fishes. | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Schreitmuller\'s metynnis | *Metynnis hypsauchen* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted silver dollar | *Metynnis lippincottianus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-bellied pacu | *Colossoma bidens* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red piranha | *Pygocentrus nattereri* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Redeye piranha, black piranha | *Serrasalmus rhombeus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Wimple piranha | *Catoprion mento* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Mylossoma aureum* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Disk tetra | *Myleus schomburgkii* | | | | | 23 °C to 27 °C | 5.0--7.0 | |
+-------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
---------------------
**Other Characins**
---------------------
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===========================================+============================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| African pike characin | *Hepsetus odoe* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Goliath tigerfish | *Hydrocynus goliath* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted pike-characin | *Boulengerella maculata* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hujeta gar | *Ctenolucius hujeta* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Slender hemiodus | *Hemiodus gracilis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Kissing prochilodus, flagtail Prochilodus | *Semaprochilodus insignis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Marbled headstander | *Abramites hypselonotus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Banded leporinus | *Leporinus fasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped headstander | *Anostomus anostomus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Synaptolaemus latofasciatus* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Siver distichodus | *Distichodus affinis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Six-banded distichodus | *Distichodus sexfasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Neolebias ansorgii* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Payara | *Hydrolycus scomberoides* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pink-tail chalceus | *Chalceus macrolepidotus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red wolf fish | *Erythrinus erythrinus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red tail barracuda | *Acestrorhynchus falcatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted headstander | *Chilodus punctatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 768 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 4 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Cichlids
--------------------------
**Lake Malawi cichlids**
--------------------------
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===========================================+====================================+=======+===================================+===========================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Sunshine peacock cichlid | *Aulonocara baenschi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red shoulder peacock | *Aulonocara hansbaenschi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eureka red peacock | *Aulonocara jacobfreibergi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Aulonocara chizumulu | *Aulonocara korneliae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pale Usisya aulonocara | *Aulonocara steveni* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flavescent peacock | *Aulonocara stuartgranti* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spilo | *Champsochromis spilorhynchus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Copadichromis azureus* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red fin hap | *Copadichromis borleyi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue dolphin cichlid, lumphead cichlid | *Cyrtocara moorii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Afra cichlid, dogtooth cichild | *Cynotilapia afra* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Malawi eyebiter | *Dimidiochromis compressiceps* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rusty cichlid, lavender cichild | *Iodotropheus sprengerae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Electric yellow cichlid | *Labidochromis caeruleus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fuelleborn\'s cichlid, Blue mbuna | *Labeotropheus fuelleborni* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Scrapermouth mbuna | *Labeotropheus trewavasae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hongi, Red-top kimpumpa | *Labidochromis* sp. \"Hongi\" | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow Top Mbamba | *Labidochromis* sp. \"Mbamba Bay\" | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Aurora | *Maylandia aurora* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cobalt blue cichlid, cobalt zebra cichlid | *Maylandia callainos* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red zebra cichlid | *Maylandia estherae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Kenyi cichlid | *Maylandia lombardoi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra mbuna | *Maylandia zebra* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Auratus cichlid, Malawi golden cichlid | *Melanochromis auratus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chipokee cichlid | *Melanochromis chipokae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue johanni cichlid, Maingano | *Melanochromis cyaneorhabdos* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pearl of Likoma | *Melanochromis joanjohnsonae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fusco | *Nimbochromis fuscotaeniatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Livingston\'s cichlid | *Nimbochromis livingstonii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Kaligono | *Nimbochromis polystigma* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Venustus cichlid, giraffe cichild | *Nimbochromis venustus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Deep-water hap | *Placidochromis electra* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fenestratus | *Protomelas fenestratus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red empress cichlid | *Protomelas taeniolatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow-tail acei | *Pseudotropheus sp. \"acei\"* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bumblebee cichlid, hornet cichlid | *Pseudotropheus crabro* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf Mbuna | *Pseudotropheus demasoni* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Johanni cichlid | *Pseudotropheus johannii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Saulosi | *Pseudotropheus saulosi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pindani | *Chindongo socolofi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Malawi barracuda | *Rhamphochromis macrophthalmus* | | | academic sources disagree on whether same as *Rhamphochromis longiceps* - one of several unrelated fish commonly called the \"Tigerfish\" | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Electric blue cichlid | *Sciaenochromis fryeri* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Big-mouth hap | *Tyrannochromis macrostoma* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
------------------------------
**Lake Tanganyika cichlids**
------------------------------
| 740 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 5 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Cichlids
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==================================+=================================+=======+=======================================================================================================================================================+================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Calvus | *Altolamprologus calvus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Compressiceps | *Altolamprologus compressiceps* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \|*Benthochromis tricoti* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Boulengerochromis microlepis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Callochromis pleurospilus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Chalinochromis brichardi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Cyathopharynx furcifer* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Frontosa cichild | *Cyphotilapia frontosa* | | | Ongoing academic discussion currently specifies *C. frontosa* as *Cyphotilapia* from the northern half of Lake Tanganyika, while *C. gibberosa* are those from the south. Further tentative species are under review. | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Frontosa cichild | *Cyphotilapia gibberosa* | | | Since the relatively recent discovery of *C. gibberosa* (2003), the name \"Frontosa Cichlid\" has been applied by some to both members of the genus. Whether this trend will continue, or *C. gibberosa* will be given its own common name remains to be seen. | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Herring cichlid, sardine cichlid | *Cyprichromis leptosoma* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Descamp\'s strange-tooth cichlid | *Ectodus descampsii* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Brown julie | *Julidochromis dickfeldi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Marlier\'s julie | *Julidochromis marlieri* | | fem / 10 cm male | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Golden julie | *Julidochromis ornatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Convict julie | *Julidochromis regani* | | fem / 10 cm male | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Masked julie | *Julidochromis transcriptus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Lamprologus ocellatus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Lamprologus signatus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Neolamprologus brevis* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lyretail cichlid, fairy cichlid | *Neolamprologus brichardi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lemon cichlid | *Neolamprologus leleupi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Neolamprologus multifasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Neolamprologus similis* | | | A small shell-dwelling cichlid from Lake Tanganyika. Very similar to *N. multifsciatus* but *similis* has striping from the body continue to the head | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Five-barred lamprologus | *Neolamprologus tretocephalus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Featherfin | *Ophthalmotilapia ventralis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Petrochromis trewavasae* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Simochromis pleurospilus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Tropheus duboisi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Tropheus moorii* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Tropheus polli* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | *Variabilichromis moorii* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow sand cichlid | *Xenotilapia flavipinnis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
----------------------------
**Lake Victoria cichlids**
----------------------------
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+================================+==========================================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Allauad\'s haplo | *Astatoreochromis alluaudi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Haplochromis aeneocolor* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra obliquidens | *Haplochromis latifasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flameback | *Haplochromis nyererei* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Haplochromis thereuterion* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hippo Point Salmon | *Ptyochromis* sp. \"Hippo Point Salmon\" | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
----------------------------------------------------
**Miscellaneous African cichlids (non-Rift Lake)**
----------------------------------------------------
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=================================================+================================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| African butterfly cichlid | *Anomalochromis thomasi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf Egyptian mouthbrooder | *Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Guenther\'s mouthbrooder | *Chromidotilapia guntheri* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jewel cichlid, two-spotted jewel cichlid | *Rubricatochromis bimaculatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lifalili jewel cichlid, blood-red jewel cichlid | *Rubricatochromis lifalili* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ocellated kribensis | *Pelvicachromis subocellatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow krib | *Pelvicachromis pulcher* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped kribensis | *Pelvicachromis taeniatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellow kribensis | *Wallaceochromis humilis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lionhead cichlid | *Steatocranus casuarius* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Nanochromis parilus* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
-------------------------------
**Central American cichlids**
-------------------------------
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+====================================+================================+=======+===================================+=====================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Bay snook | *Petenia splendida* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blackbelt cichlid | *Vieja maculicauda* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Convict cichlid | *Amatitlania nigrofasciata* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Amatitlania myrnae* | | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Firemouth cichlid | *Thorichthys meeki* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jack Dempsey cichlid | *Rocio octofasciata* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jaguar cichlid, managuense cichlid | *Parachromis managuensis* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mayan cichlid | *Mayaheros urophthalmus* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Midas cichlid | *Amphilophus citrinellus* | | | commonly confused with red devil cichlids, but it is an entirely different species | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Nicaraguan cichlid, moga | *Hypsophrys nicaraguensis* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Poor man\'s tropheus | *Neetroplus nematopus* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow cichlid | *Herotilapia multispinosa* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red terror, guayas cichlid | *Mesoheros festae* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Salvin\'s cichlid | *Trichromis salvini* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Texas cichlid, Rio Grande cichlid | *Herichthys cyanoguttatus* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| T-bar cichlid | *Amatitlania sajica* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Wolf cichlid | *Parachromis dovii* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yellowjacket cichlid | *Parachromis friedrichsthalii* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| False yellowjacket cichlid | *Parachromis motaguensis* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
-----------------------------
**South American cichlids**
-----------------------------
| 1,272 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 6 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Cichlids
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=========================================+==============================+=======+===================================+============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+=======================+==========+================+
| Blue acara | *Andinoacara pulcher* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Thread-finned acara | *Acarichthys heckelii* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Angelfish | *Pterophyllum scalare* | | | In an enclosed tank habitat, the fish\'s territorial, aggressive nature is heightened, so don\'t house angelfish with shy species that are intimidated by pushy, boisterous fish. | | 75--82 °F (25--28 °C) | 6.8 -- 7 | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Altum angelfish | *Pterophyllum altum* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted angelfish | *Pterophyllum leopoldi* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chocolate cichlid | *Hypselecara temporalis* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common discus, red discus | *Symphysodon discus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue discus, green discus | *Symphysodon aequifasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eartheater cichlid | *Geophagus altifrons* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Demon eartheater | *Satanoperca jurupari* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Threespot eartheater | *Satanoperca daemon* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flag cichlid | *Mesonauta festivus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Greenstreaked eartheater, cupid cichlid | *Biotodoma cupido* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Green terror | *Andinoacara rivulatus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Oscar | *Astronotus ocellatus* | | | Many people that purchase these fish do not realize that the fish could grow to a foot long (30 cm) within a year. Due to their fast growth rate and large size as an adult, they are often kept in aquariums that are too small for them. | | 72-80 °F (22-27 °C) | 6.0-7.5 | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Butterfly peacock bass | *Cichla ocellaris* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Orinoco peacock bass | *Cichla orinocensis* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Speckled peacock bass, speckled pavon | *Cichla temensis* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pearl cichlid | *Geophagus brasiliensis* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Severum | *Heros efasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Uaru, waroo | *Uaru amphiacanthoides* | | | Also known as the Triangle Cichlid. | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra Pike Cichlid | *Crenicichla zebrina* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------+------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-----------------------+----------+----------------+
-----------------------------------------------------
**Dwarf cichlids (apistogrammas, rams and others)**
-----------------------------------------------------
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===================================================+===============================+=======+===================================+================================================================================================================================================+===========+===========================+============+================+
| Agassiz\'s dwarf cichlid | *Apistogramma agassizii* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Umbrella cichlid | *Apistogramma borellii* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Cockatoo cichlid | *Apistogramma cacatuoides* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Apistogramma nijsseni* | | | | | 24-28 °C | 5.0-6.5 | 0-72 ppm | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Three-striped dwarf ichlid | *Apistogramma trifasciata* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Two-striped dwarf cichlid, banded dwarf cichlid | *Apistogramma bitaeniata* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Keyhole cichlid | *Cleithracara maronii* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Lyretail checkerboard cichlid, chessboard cichlid | *Dicrossus filamentosus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Zebra acara | *Ivanacara adoketa* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Dwarf flag cichlid | *Laetacara curviceps* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Blue ram, German ram, ram cichlid German blue ram | *Mikrogeophagus ramirezi* | | | These small and colorful fish require precise water parameters, and if you don\'t meet those parameters, your fish could be severely impacted. | | 78 - 85 F (25.5 - 29.4 C) | 6.0 -- 7.5 | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Bolivian ram | *Mikrogeophagus altispinosus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
| Goldeneye cichlid | *Nannacara anomala* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------------+------------+----------------+
--------------------
**Other cichlids**
--------------------
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+======================+=================================================+=======+===================================+============================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Canara pearlspot | *Etroplus canarensis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Green chromide | *Etroplus suratensis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Orange chromide | *Pseudetroplus maculatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pinstripe damba | *Paretroplus menarambo* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blood parrot cichlid | (*Amphilophus citrinellus* × *Vieja melanurus*) | | | Not considered a separate species of cichlid but a hybrid. | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flowerhorn cichlid | *Cichlasoma sp.* | | | Not considered a separate species of cichlid but a hybrid. | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------+-------------------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 906 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 7 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Cyprinids
-----------
**Barbs**
-----------
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+========================================+================================+=======+===================================+============================================================================+============================+============================+==========+================+
| African banded barb | *Enteromius fasciolatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| African butterfly barb | *Enteromius hulstaerti* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jae barb | *Enteromius jae* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Arulius barb | *Dawkinsia arulius* | | | | | 66 °F to 77 °F (19°-25 °C) | 6 -- 8 | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bigspot barb, Duncker\'s barb | *Barbodes dunckeri* | | | | | 72 - 85 °F (22 - 29 °C) | 6 - 7 | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black ruby barb | *Pethia nigrofasciata* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cherry barb | *Puntius titteya* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Denison\'s barb, red line torpedo barb | *Sahyadria denisonii* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Drape fin barb | *Oreichthys crenuchoides* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gold barb | *Barbodes semifasciolatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Golden barb | *Pethia gelius* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Odessa barb | *Pethia padamya* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Melon barb | *Haludaria fasciata* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mascara Barb | *Dawkinsia assimilis* | | | | | 66 °F to 77 °F (19°-25 °C) | 6 -- 8 | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Dawkinsia rohani* | | | | | 66 °F to 77 °F (19°-25 °C) | 6 -- 8 | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Dawkinsia tambraparniei* | | | | | 66 °F to 77 °F (19°-25 °C) | 6 -- 8 | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Narayan barb | *Pethia setnai* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rosy barb | *Pethia conchonius* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Sawbwa barb | *Sawbwa resplendens* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tic-tac-toe barb | *Pethia stoliczkana* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spanner barb, t-barb | *Barbodes lateristriga* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fiveband barb, pentazona barb | *Desmopuntius hexazona* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Snakeskin barb | *Desmopuntius rhomboocellatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Eirmotus octozona* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Checker barb | *Oliotius oligolepis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tiger barb, sumatra barb | *Puntigrus tetrazona* | | | Keep in shoals of 8 or 10 to prevent aggression | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tinfoil barb | *Barbonymus schwanenfeldii* | | | Genus of large \'barbs\' in some ways more closely reated to classic carps | | | | |
+----------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
---------------------
**Other cyprinids**
---------------------
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=================================================+================================+=======+===================================+=============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Giant sword minnow | *Macrochirichthys macrochirus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hampala barb | *Hampala macrolepidota* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mad barb | *Leptobarbus hoevenii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bala shark | *Balantiocheilus melanopterus* | | | Grows large, needs lots of swimming room and is a schooling fish so a 125-gallon would be good for 3-4 | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black shark | *Labeo chrysophekadion* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Apollo Shark | *Luciosoma setigerum* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Siamese algae eater, fringe barb | *Crossocheilus langei* | | | Many other fish in the order Cypriniformes are also sold under this name. Very likely to jump out of the aquarium especially after reaching adult size. Very useful for getting rid of algae when it is young but prefer fish food upon reaching adulthood. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Cyclocheilichthys janthochir* | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Flying fox (fish) | *Epalzeorhynchos kalopterus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-tailed black shark | *Epalzeorhynchos bicolor* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow shark | *Epalzeorhynchos frenatum* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cambodian log sucker, false Siamese algae eater | *Ceratogarra cambodgiensis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Jullien\'s golden carp | *Probarbus jullieni* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Panda garra | *Garra flavatra* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chinese algae eater | *Gyrinocheilus aymonieri* | | | This species may be sold under a variety of common names, including Siamese algae eater, Chinese algae eater, golden algae eater, or sucking loach. A gold colored form also exists. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Medaka | *Oryzias latipes* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Javanese ricefish | *Oryzias javanicus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Daisy\'s Ricefish | *Oryzias woworae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
--------------
**Rasboras**
--------------
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=================================================================================+===============================+=======+===================================+=============================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Harlequin rasbora | *Trigonostigma heteromorpha* | | | Also known as Harlequin tetra or Harlequin barb. | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glowlight rasbora | *Trigonostigma hengeli* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-striped rasbora | *Trigonopoma pauciperforatum* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Graceful Rasbora | *Trigonopoma gracile* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chili rasbora | *Boraras brigittae* | | | Should be kept in acidic water which can be difficult to maintain for most beginners in the aquarium hobby. | | | 5-6 | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf rasbora | *Boraras maculatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Phoenix rasbora | *Boraras merah* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eyespot rasbora | *Brevibora dorsiocellata* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Brittans Rasbora | *Kottelatia brittani* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Porthole Rasbora | *Rasbora cephalotaenia* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Brilliant rasbora | *Rasbora einthovenii* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Clown rasbora | *Rasbora kalochroma* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Patrick\'s Rasbora | *Rasbora patrickyapi* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Scissortail rasbora | *Rasbora trilineata* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Volcano rasbora | *Rasbora vulcanus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Kubotai Rasbora, Green Kubotai Rasbora, Green Neon Rasbora, Yellow Neon Rasbora | *Microdevario kubotai* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blackline rasbora, red-tailed rasbora | *Rasbora borapetensis* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Espei rasbora | *Trigonostigma espei* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fire rasbora | *Rasboroides vaterifloris* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Least rasbora | *Boraras urophthalmoides* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
--------------------------------
**Danios and other danionins**
--------------------------------
| 1,311 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 8 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Cyprinids
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==========================+=========================+=======+===================================+==============================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| \| *Sundadanio axelrodi* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pearl danio | *Danio albolineatus* | | | subspecies:blue-redstripe danio, Kedah danio | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Barred danio | *Devario pathirana* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Celestial Pearl danio | *Danio margaritatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Emerald dwarf danio | *Danio erythromicron* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fireline devario | *Devario sondhii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giant danio | *Devario aequipinnatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lake Inle Danio | *Devario auropurpureus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glowlight danio | *Danio choprae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gold-ring danio | *Danio tinwini* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Malabar danio | *Devario malabaricus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ocelot danio | *Danio kyathit* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted danio | *Danio nigrofasciatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Turquoise danio | *Danio kerri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra danio | *Danio rerio* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Opsarius ardens* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Opsarius pulchellus* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+-------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
--------------------------
**Cold-water cyprinids**
--------------------------
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===============================+==========================+=======+===================================+===================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Goldfish | *Carassius auratus* | | 15+ cm (6+ in) | variations: Black Moor, Bubble Eye, Butterfly Tail, Calico, Celestial Eye, Comet, Common, Fantail, Lionchu, Lionhead, Oranda, Panda Moor, Pearlscale, Pompom, Ranchu, Ryukin, Shubunkin, Telescope eye, Veiltail. | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Koi, common carp | *Cyprinus carpio* | | 30+ cm (12+ in) | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| White Cloud Mountain minnow | *Tanichthys albonubes* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red shiner | *Cyprinella lutrensis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow shiner | *Notropis chrosomus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chinese high fin banded shark | *Myxocyprinus asiaticus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tench | *Tinca tinca* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Amur bitterling | *Rhodeus sericeus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 495 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 9 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Loaches
-------------
**Loaches**
-------------
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range |
+===============================+=================================+=======+===================================+========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+=========================+===============+
| Borneo hillstream loach | *Gastromyzon ctenocephalus* | | | Eats mainly algae. High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim) | | | 6.5 -- 8.0 pH |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Borneo hillstream loach | *Gastromyzon zebrinus* | | | See above | | | 6.5 -- 8.0 pH |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Clown loach | *Chromobotia macracanthus* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Green tiger loach | *Syncrossus hymenophysa* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Fire-eyed loach | *Barbucca diabolica* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Fork-tailed loach | *Vaillantella maassi* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Horseface loach | *Acantopsis dialuzona* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Pangio anguillaris* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Pangio cuneovirgata* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Java loach | *Pangio oblonga* | | | | | | 6.2 to 7.0 |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Pangio shelfordii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Kuhli loach, coolie loach | *Pangio semicincta* | | | The natural habitat of the kuhli loach is the sandy beds of slow-moving rivers and clean mountain streams. They are a social fish and are typically found in small clusters (they are not schooling fish but enjoy the company of their species), but are cautious and nocturnal by nature and swim near the bottom where they feed around obstacles. Kuhli loaches are scavengers, so they will eat anything that reaches the bottom. | | | 5.5 -- 6.5 |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Saddle-back Loach | *Homaloptera orthogoniata* | | | The Saddleback Loach will thrive in an aquarium with a good amount of water flow and aeration, considerable amounts of hiding places formed by rocks or driftwood and smooth pebbles and stones to graze on. | | 68 - 78 F (20 - 25.6 C) | 6 - 7.5 |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Dwarf botia | *Ambastaia sidthimunki* | | | Formerly named *Botia sidthimunki.* | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Bengal loach | *Botia dario* | | | Also known as the Queen loach. | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Botia histrionica* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Gangetic loach | *Botia rostrata* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Polka-Dot Loach | *Botia kubotai* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Yoyo loach | *Botia almorhae* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Zebra loach | *Botia striata* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Redtail loach | *Yasuhikotakia modesta* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Skunk loach | *Yasuhikotakia morleti* | | | Formerly named *Botia morleti* | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Yasuhikotakia splendida* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Banded tiger loach | *Syncrossus helodes* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Redfin tiger loach | *Syncrossus berdmorei* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Golden zebra loach | *Sinibotia pulchra* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Imperial flower loach | *Leptobotia elongata* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Butterfly hillstream loach | *Beaufortia kweichowensis* | | | Eats mainly algae. High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim) | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Panda loach | *Yaoshania pachychilus* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Tiger hillstream loach | *Sewellia lineolata* | | | Eats mainly algae. High oxygen level and water quality are greatly appreciated in addition to a strong current (but not needed as many sources claim) | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Rosy loach | *Physoschistura mango* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Sumo loach | *Schistura balteata* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Zodiac loach | *Mesonoemacheilus triangularis* | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| \| *Serpenticobitis octozona* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| Weather Loach | *Misgurnus anguillicaudatus* | | | Sensitive to changes in barometric pressure | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+---------------+
| 770 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 10 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Live-bearers {#live_bearers}
-------------------------
**Guppies and mollies**
-------------------------
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+====================================+=======================+=======+===================================+===================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===============================+==========+================+
| Guppy Fancy Guppy | *Poecilia reticulata* | | | Many color and tail pattern varieties exist. They generally need a ratio of 1 male to 2 females or more. All guppies and mollies are hardy fish that tolerate lower oxygen levels and temperatures than most aquarium fish, give birth to live young, and readily breed in home tanks. can live in full sea water | | 66 °F - 84 °F (19 °C - 29 °C) | 7 - 8 | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Endler\'s livebearer | *Poecilia wingei* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black molly | *Poecilia sphenops* | | | Can live in full sea water | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Sailfin molly | *Poecilia latipinna* | | | Gold and silver varieties commonly found; also thrive in brackish water/ full sea water | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Yucatán molly, giant sailfin molly | *Poecilia velifera* | | | | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dalmatian molly | hybrid | | | The dalmatian molly is a hybrid color variation that can be generated by crossing some species of *Poecilia*, like *P. sphenops* and *P. latipinna*. The variety \"Dalmatian\" is spotted alike to a Dalmatian dog. Can live in full sea water | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lyretail Molly | hybrid | | | Lyretail Mollies are available in all of these species, can be cross bred with any species of Molly. Can live in full sea water | | | | |
+------------------------------------+-----------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------------+----------+----------------+
----------------------------
**Platies and swordtails**
----------------------------
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=====================+==========================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Southern platy | *Xiphophorus maculatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Variable platy | *Xiphophorus variatus* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Green swordtail | *Xiphophorus hellerii* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Montezuma swordtail | *Xiphophorus montezumae* | | | | | | | |
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+---------------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
-----------------------
**Other livebearers**
-----------------------
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+============================+================================+=======+===================================+==================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+====================+==========+================+
| Largescale four-eyed fish | *Anableps anableps* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pike topminnow | *Belonesox belizanus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Redtail splitfin | *Xenotoca eiseni* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cuban lima | *Limia vittata* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Knife livebearer | *Alfaro cultratus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Least killifish | *Heterandria formosa* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eastern mosquitofish | *Gambusia holbrooki* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Western mosquitofish | *Gambusia affinis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Metallic livebearer | *Girardinus metallicus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf merry widow | *Phallichthys tico* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tanganyika killifish | *Lamprichthys tanganicanus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Norman\'s lampeye | *Poropanchax normani* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Large finned lampeye | *Procatopus nototaenia* | | | | | 20-25 °C | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Variable lampeye | *Procatopus similis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Celebes halfbeak | *Nomorhamphus liemi* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Wrestling halfbeak | *Dermogenys pusilla* | | | Wrestling Halfbeaks are best kept in groups, composed of either a single male with several females, or, in more spacious quarters with ample visual barriers, larger mixed groups containing at least six males. | | 75-82 F (24-28 C) | 7 - 8 | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| Forest halfbeak | *Hemirhamphodon pogonognathus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Hemirhamphodon tengah* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------+----------+----------------+
| 760 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 11 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Killifish
-------------------------
**African killifishes**
-------------------------
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+===============================================+============================+=======+===================================+=========+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Broken-line killifish | *Aphyosemion ogoense* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gabon killifish | *Aphyosemion gabunense* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gabon jewelfish | *Aphyosemion cyanostictum* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lyretail panchax | *Aphyosemion australe* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-striped killifish | *Aphyosemion striatum* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Two-striped killifish | *Aphyosemion bitaeniatum* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Twostripe lyretail | *Aphyosemion bivittatum* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue lyretail | *Fundulopanchax gardneri* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue gularis | *Fundulopanchax sjostedti* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Fundulopanchax scheeli* | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Clown Killifish, rocket killifish | *Epiplatys annulatus* | | | | | | 6 - 7 pH | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Redchin panchax | *Epiplatys dageti* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bluefin Notho, Rachow\'s Notho, Rainbow Notho | *Nothobranchius rachovii* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Redtail notho | *Nothobranchius guentheri* | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Nothobranchius eggersi* | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Nothobranchius korthausae* | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Nothobranchius palmqvisti* | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+---------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
-----------------------
**Other killifishes**
-----------------------
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+================================+============================+=======+===================================+============================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Blue panchax | *Aplocheilus panchax* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ceylon killifish | *Aplocheilus dayi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped panchax, Golden Wonder | *Aplocheilus lineatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Madagascar panchax | *Pachypanchax sakaramyi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Playfair\'s panchax | *Pachypanchax playfairii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Powder-blue Panchax | *Pachypanchax omalonotus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| American flagfish | *Jordanella floridae* | | | Native to SE United States | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Golden topminnow | *Fundulus chrysotus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Arabian toothcarp | *Aphaniops dispar* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Argentine pearl | *Austrolebias nigripinnis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Laimosemion xiphidius* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lyrefin pearlfish | *Simpsonichthys boitonei* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Saberfin killie | *Terranatos dolichopterus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------+----------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 555 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 12 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Labyrinth fish {#labyrinth_fish}
-------------
**Gourami**
-------------
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==================================================+================================+=======+===================================+=============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+============================+==========+================+
| Ceylonese combtail | *Belontia signata* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Siamese fighting fish (sometimes Betta, esp. US) | *Betta splendens* | | | Betta is the name of the genus that includes more than 60 species other than the Siamese fighting fish. | 5 gal | | 6.5-7.5 | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Emerald betta | *Betta smaragdina* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotfin betta | *Betta macrostoma* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Frail gourami | *Ctenops nobilis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black paradisefish | *Macropodus spechti* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Paradise fish | *Macropodus opercularis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Round tail paradisefish | *Macropodus ocellatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ornate paradisefish | *Malpulutta kretseri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Eyespot gourami | *Parasphaerichthys ocellatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Brown Spike-tailed paradisefish | *Pseudosphromenus dayi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Honey gourami | *Trichogaster chuna* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf gourami | *Trichogaster lalius* | | | Suitable for small to mid-sized aquariums but cannot compete with more aggressive fish and males kept together may fight. Several color varieties available. Massive inbreeding has led to high rates of Dwarf gourami iridovirus (DGIV) in pet store fish. | | 72 -- 82 °F (22 -- 27 °C) | 6 - 7.5 | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Thick-lipped gourami | *Trichogaster labiosa* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Moonlight gourami | *Trichopodus microlepis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Snakeskin gourami | *Trichopodus pectoralis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pygmy gourami, Sparkling gourami | *Trichopsis pumila* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Malay combtail | *Belontia hasselti* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta albimarginata* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta brownorum* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta burdigala* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta channoides* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Scarlet betta | *Betta coccina* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta foerschi* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta hendra* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Crescent betta | *Betta imbellis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta mandor* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta persephone* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Toba betta | *Betta rubra* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta rutilans* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Betta uberis* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giant pikehead | *Luciocephalus pulcher* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Peppermint pikehead | *Luciocephalus aura* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus anjunganensis* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus bintan* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus deissneri* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus filamentosus* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus linkei* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus opallios* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus ornaticauda* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus phoenicurus* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| \| *Parosphromenus quindecim* | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Chocolate gourami | *Sphaerichthys osphromenoides* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Crossband chocolate gourami | *Sphaerichthys selatanensis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Samurai gourami | *Sphaerichthys vaillanti* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pearl gourami | *Trichopodus leerii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Three spot gourami | *Trichopodus trichopterus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Croaking gourami | *Trichopsis vittata* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giant gourami | *Osphronemus goramy* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------------------------+----------+----------------+
----------------------------
**Other labyrinth fishes**
----------------------------
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==========================+===========================+=======+===================================+=====================================================+===========+===================+==========+================+
| Kissing gourami | *Helostoma temminckii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Climbing perch | *Anabas testudineus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Leopard bush fish | *Ctenopoma acutirostre* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mottled ctenopoma | *Ctenopoma weeksii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tailspot ctenopoma | *Ctenopoma kingsleyae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ornate ctenopoma | *Microctenopoma ansorgii* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blue badis | *Badis badis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Scarlet badis | *Dario dario* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black tiger dario | *Dario tigris* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bornean leaffish | *Nandus nebulosus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Malayan leaffish | *Pristolepis fasciata* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Forest snakehead | *Channa lucius* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf snakehead | *Channa gachua* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Emperor snakehead | *Channa marulioides* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Giant snakehead | *Channa micropeltes* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ocellated snakehead | *Channa pleurophthalma* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Orange-spotted snakehead | *Channa aurantimaculata* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Barca snakehead | *Channa barca* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| Rainbow snakehead | *Channa bleheri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| African snakehead | *Parachanna obscura* | | | Illegal to possess live in the USA without a permit | | | | |
+--------------------------+---------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+----------+----------------+
| 1,245 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 13 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Rainbowfish
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==========================+====================================+=======+===================================+==============================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+==========================+===========+================+
| Bleher\'s rainbowfish | *Chilatherina bleheri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Red rainbowfish | *Glossolepis incisus* | | | Almost all rainbowfish species are bred in captivity and wild populations may be protected. | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Threadfin rainbowfish | *Iriatherina werneri* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| New Guinea rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia affinis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Boeseman\'s rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia boesemani* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Lake Kurumoi rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia parva* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Neon rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia praecox* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Lake Wanam rainbowfish | *Glossolepis wanamensis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Western rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia australis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Duboulayi\'s rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia duboulayi* | | | a.k.a. Crimson-Spotted rainbowfish | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Australian rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia fluviatilis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Lake Tebera rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia herbertaxelrodi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Lake Kutubu rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia lacustris* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Parkinson\'s rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia parkinsoni* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Eastern rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia splendida splendida* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Banded rainbowfish | *Melanotaenia trifasciata* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Celebes rainbow | *Marosatherina ladigesi* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Spotted blue-eye | *Pseudomugil gertrudae* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Red neon blue-eye | *Pseudomugil luminatus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Delicate blue-eye | *Pseudomugil tenellus* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Forktail blue-eye | *Pseudomugil furcatus* | | | These fish need a larger aquarium than their size suggests. Though they only grow to a length of about 2 inches, they are happiest in groups of 8 -- 10 or more, and they appreciate lots of swimming space. | | 75 - 79 °F (24 - 26 °C) | 6.5 - 8.0 | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Neon blue-eye | *Pseudomugil cyanodorsalis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Pacific blue-eye | *Pseudomugil signifer* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| Madagascar rainbowfish | *Bedotia madagascariensis* | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+--------------------------+------------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------------------+-----------+----------------+
| 481 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 14 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Gobies and sleepers {#gobies_and_sleepers}
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+==================================+==================================+=======+===================================+================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+===================+============+================+
| Bumblebee goby | *Brachygobius doriae* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Mugilogobius rexi* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Knight goby | *Stigmatogobius sadanundio* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Barred mudskipper | *Periophthalmus argentilineatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Stiphodon annieae* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Rainbow stiphodon | *Stiphodon ornatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Cobalt blue goby | *Stiphodon semoni* | | \| 4 - | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Sicyopus exallisquamulus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Sicyopus zosterophorus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Bearded worm goby | *Taenioides cirratus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Banded mogurnda | *Mogurnda cingulata* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Tropical carp-gudgeon | *Hypseleotris cyprinoides* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Crazy fish | *Butis butis* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Marbled goby | *Oxyeleotris marmorata* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Rhinogobius duospilus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| \| *Stiphodon percnopterygionus* | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Golden-red stiphodon | *Stiphodon rutilaureus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Atlantic mudskipper | *Periophthalmus barbarus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Desert goby | *Chlamydogobius eremius* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Dragon goby, Violet goby | *Gobioides broussonnetii* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Empire gudgeon | *Hypseleotris compressa* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Purple sleeper gudgeon | *Mogurnda mogurnda* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Peacock gudgeon, Peacock goby | *Tateurndina ocellicauda* | | | A little territorial with its own kind but is suitable for many communities of small, peaceful fish. Ideal tankmates are other species from Papua New Guinea, such as *Popondetta* sp. rainbowfishes; but tetras, rasboras, *Corydoras* cats and virtually any other small peaceful species are also suitable. | | | 6.5 7.5 pH | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| Striped sleeper goby | *Dormitator maculatus* | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+-------+-----------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------+------------+----------------+
| 464 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 15 |
11,748 |
# List of freshwater aquarium fish species
## Other fish {#other_fish}
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Common name | Scientific name | Image | Size | Remarks | Tank size | Temperature range | pH range | Water Hardness |
+=================================================+=================================+=======+=====================================+=============================================================================================================================================================================================+===========+=====================+==========+================+
| West African lungfish | *Protopterus annectens* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted lungfish | *Protopterus dolloi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| South American lungfish | *Lepidosiren paradoxa* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Australian lungfish | *Neoceratodus forsteri* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ocellate river stingray | *Potamotrygon motoro* | | | has venomous barbs that contain a protein based poison, if you happen to accidentally get stung you should submerge the wound in as hot as water as you can as this breaks down the protein | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black devil stingray | *Potamotrygon leopoldi* | | | see above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Marbled whipray | *Fluvitrygon oxyrhynchus* | | | see above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gray bichir, Senegal bichir, or dinosaur bichir | *Polypterus senegalus* | | maximum length 40.0 cm in captivity | Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth | | | 6.0-8.0 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Ornate bichir | *Polypterus ornatipinnis* | | maximum length | Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth | | | 6.0--8.0 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Retropinnis bichir | *Polypterus retropinnis* | | | Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth | | | 6.5--7.5 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Barred bichir | *Polypterus delhezi* | | | Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth | | | 6-8 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Saddled bichir | *Polypterus endlicherii* | | | Peaceful but preys on anything smaller than its mouth | | | 6-8 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Reedfish | *Erpetoichthys calabaricus* | | at maturity, 37 cm maximum length | | | | 6.0--8.0 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Sterlet | *Acipenser ruthenus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Shovelnose Sturgeon | *Scaphirhynchus platorynchus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| American paddlefish | *Polyodon spathula* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Bowfin | *Amia calva* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted Gar | *Lepisosteus oculatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Longnose Gar | *Lepisosteus osseus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Florida Gar | *Lepisosteus platyrhincus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Alligator Gar | *Atractosteus spatula* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Cuban Gar | *Atractosteus tristoechus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tropical Gar | *Atractosteus tropicus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Blunt-jawed elephantnose | *Campylomormyrus tamandua* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Peters\' elephant nose | *Gnathonemus petersii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African butterflyfish | *Pantodon buchholzi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Aba aba | *Gymnarchus niloticus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Reticulated knifefish | *Papyrocranus afer* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African brown knifefish | *Xenomystus nigri* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Royal knifefish | *Chitala blanci* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Clown knifefish | *Chitala ornata* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Asian arowana | *Scleropages formosus* | | | Preys on anything smaller than its mouth. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Gulf saratoga | *Scleropages jardinii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Southern saratoga | *Scleropages leichardti* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Silver arowana | *Osteoglossum bicirrhosum* | | | Preys on anything smaller than its mouth. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black arowana | *Osteoglossum ferreirai* | | | Preys on anything smaller than its mouth. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Pirarucu | *Arapaima gigas* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African arowana | *Heterotis niloticus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Freshwater moray | *Gymnothorax polyuranodon* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hingemouth | *Phractolaemus ansorgii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Black ghost knifefish | *Apteronotus albifrons* | | | Not to be confused with the featherback \"knifefish\" of the Bonytongue group (see above) | | 23-28C (73-82F) | 6.0-8.0 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Brown ghost knifefish | *Apteronotus leptorhynchus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glass knifefish | *Eigenmannia virescens* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Electric eel | *Electrophorus electricus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Northern pike | *Esox lucius* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Humphead glassfish | *Parambassis pulcinella* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Indian glassy fish | *Parambassis ranga* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Glassfish Glass perch | *Gymnochanda filamentosa* | | | | | 24-28 °C | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mouth almighty | *Glossamia aprion* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Amazon leaffish | *Monocirrhus polyacanthus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African leaffish | *Polycentropsis abbreviata* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Nile perch | *Lates niloticus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Indonesian tigerfish | *Datnioides microlepis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Silver tigerfish | *Datnioides polota* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| New Guinea tigerfish | *Datnioides campbelli* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Banded archerfish | *Toxotes jaculatrix* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Seven-spot archerfish | *Toxotes chatareus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Spotted scat | *Scatophagus argus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African scat | *Scatophagus tetracanthus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Striped scat, spotbanded scat | *Selenotoca multifasciata* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Silver moony | *Monodactylus argenteus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African moony | *Monodactylus sebae* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Freshwater pipefish | *Doryichthys martensii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| African freshwater pipefish | *Enneacampus ansorgii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra blenny | *Omobranchus zebra* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Freshwater blenny | *Salariopsis fluviatilis* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fire eel | *Mastacembelus erythrotaenia* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Tire track eel | *Mastacembelus armatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Peacock eel | *Macrognathus siamensis* | | | They require clean water and are vulnerable to parasites, fungal diseases, and the copper-based drugs used to treat these conditions. | | 73-82 °F (23-28 °C) | 6.0-8.0 | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Zebra spiny eel | *Macrognathus zebrinus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Half-banded spiny eel | *Macrognathus circumcinctus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Lesser spiny eel | *Macrognathus tapirus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Freshwater needlefish | *Xenentodon cancila* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Grunting toadfish | *Allenbatrachus grunniens* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Leaf goblinfish | *Neovespicula depressifrons* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Freshwater sole | *Achiroides melanorhynchus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Golden puffer | *Auriglobus modestus* | | | Pufferfish inflating out of water can cause death. | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Green spotted puffer | *Dichotomyctere nigroviridis* | | | See above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Figure 8 pufferfish | *Dichotomyctere ocellatus* | | | See above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Humpback Puffer | *Pao palembangensis* | | | See above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Red-tail dwarf puffer | *Carinotetraodon irrubesco* | | | See above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Arrowhead puffer | *Pao suvattii* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Hairy pufferfish | *Pao baileyi* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Dwarf Pufferfish, Pea Puffer | *Carinotetraodon travancoricus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Fahaka puffer | *Tetraodon lineatus* | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Mbu puffer | *Tetraodon mbu* | | | This fish also occurs in estuaries. largest freshwater pufferfish, they are very peaceful with most fish except, other Mbu pufferfish, other fish that will harass them. see above | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+-------+-------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------+---------------------+----------+----------------+
| Congo pufferfish | *Tetraodon miurus* | | | As it is an ambush pufferfish it is best to house it alone as it will attack tank mates. See above
| 1,594 |
List of freshwater aquarium fish species
| 16 |
11,751 |
# Foresight Institute
The **Foresight Institute** (Foresight) is a San Francisco-based research non-profit that promotes the development of nanotechnology and other emerging technologies, such as safe AGI, biotech and longevity.
Foresight runs four cross-disciplinary program tracks to research, advance, and govern maturing technologies for the long-term benefit of life and the biosphere: Molecular machines nanotechnology for building better materials, biotechnology for health extension, and computer science and crypto commerce for intelligent global cooperation.
Foresight also runs a program on \"existential hope\", pushing forward the concept coined by Toby Ord and Owen Cotton-Barratt in their 2015 paper \"Existential risk and Existential hope: Definitions\", in which they wrote `{{blockquote|we want to be able to refer to the chance of an existential eucatastrophe; upside risk on a large scale. We could call such a chance an existential hope.{{nbsp}}... Some people are trying to identify and avert specific threats to our future – reducing existential risk. Others are trying to steer us towards a world where we are robustly well-prepared to face whatever obstacles come – they are seeking to increase existential hope.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/Existential-risk-and-existential-hope.pdf | title=Existential Risk and Existential Hope: Definitions | author1=Owen Cotton-Barratt | author2=Toby Ord | publisher=Foresight Institute | year=2015}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Foresight\'s stated strategy is to focus on creating a community that promotes beneficial uses of new technologies and reduce misuse and accidents potentially associated with them.
Foresight runs a one-year Fellowship program aimed at giving researchers and innovators the support and mentorship to accelerate their projects while they continue to work in their existing career.
Since 2021, Foresight has hosted a podcast about grand futures called \"The Foresight Institute Podcast\" and shares all their material as open source via YouTube with lectures from scientists and other relevant actors within their fields of interest.
In addition, Foresight hosts Vision Weekend, an annual conferences focused on envisioning positive, long-term futures enabled by science and technology. The institute holds conferences on molecular nanotechnology and awards yearly prizes for developments in the field.
## History
The Foresight Institute was founded in 1986 by Christine Peterson, K. Eric Drexler, and James C. Bennett to support the development of nanotechnology. Many of the institute\'s initial members came to it from the L5 Society, who were hoping to form a smaller group more focused on nanotechnology. In 1991, the Foresight Institute created two suborganizations with funding from tech entrepreneur Mitch Kapor; the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing and the Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology. In the 1990s, the Foresight Institute launched several initiatives to provide funding to developers of nanotechnology. In 1993, it created the Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology, named after physicist Richard Feynman. In May 2005, the Foresight Institute changed its name to \"Foresight Nanotech Institute\", though it reverted to its original name in June 2009.
In 2020, following the COVID-19 pandemic, the institute moved its programs online.
## Prizes
The Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology is an award given by the Foresight Institute for significant advances in nanotechnology. Between 1993 and 1997, one prize was given biennially. Since 1997, two prizes have been given each year, divided into the categories of theory and experimentation. The prize is named in honor of physicist Richard Feynman, whose 1959 talk \"There\'s Plenty of Room at the Bottom\" is considered to have inspired and informed the start of the field of nanotechnology. Author Colin Milburn refers to the prize as an example of \"fetishizing\" its namesake Feynman, due to his \"prestige as a scientist and his fame among the broader public.\"
The Foresight Institute also offers the Feynman Grand Prize, a \$250,000 award to the first persons to create both a nanoscale robotic arm capable of precise positional control and a nanoscale 8-bit adder, with both conditions conforming to given specifications. The Feynman Grand Prize is intended to emulate historical prizes such as the Longitude prize, Orteig Prize, Kremer prize, Ansari X Prize, and two prizes that were offered by Richard Feynman personally as challenges during his 1959 \"There\'s Plenty of Room at the Bottom\" talk. In 2004, X-Prize Foundation founder Peter Diamandis was selected to chair the Feynman Grand Prize committee
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# List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species
This is a list of invertebrates, animals without a backbone, that are commonly kept in freshwater aquaria by hobby aquarists. Numerous shrimp species of various kinds, crayfish, a number of freshwater snail species, and at least one freshwater clam species are found in freshwater aquaria or \'0\' salinity water body.
## Crustaceans
### Shrimp
- *Arachnochium kulsiense*, Sand shrimp
- *Atya gabonensis*, African giant shrimp
- *Atyaephyra desmaresti*, Iberian/European dwarf shrimp
- *Atyoida pilipes*, Green lace shrimp
- *Atyopsis moluccensis*, Bamboo Shrimp
- *Caridina cf. babaulti var. green*, green shrimp
- *Caridina babaulti var. malaya*, Malayan dwarf shrimp
- *Caridina babaulti var. stripes*, striped shrimp
- *Caridina caerulea*, blue leg Poso shrimp
- *Caridina gracilirostris*, red-nose shrimp, Pinocchio shrimp
- *Caridina cf. gracilirostris*, white-nose Shrimp
- *Caridina multidentata*, Amano shrimp
- *Caridina cf. cantonensis var. bee*, bee shrimp
- *Caridina cf. cantonensis var. blue tiger*, blue tiger shrimp
- *Caridina cf. cantonensis var. crystal black*, crystal black shrimp
- *Caridina cf. cantonensis var. crystal red*, crystal red shrimp
- *Caridina cf. cantonensis var. tiger*, tiger shrimp
- *Caridina cf. serrata var. chinese zebra*, Chinese zebra shrimp
- *Caridina sp.*, Indian Dwarf Shrimp
- *Caridina sp.*, Indian Whitebanded Shrimp
- *Caridina woltereckae*, Sulawesi harlequin shrimp
- *Caridina spongicola*, Sulawesi harlequin shrimp
- *Caridina dennerli*, Sulawesi cardinal shrimp
- *Caridina cf. breviata*, bumblebee shrimp
- *Caridina sp.*, black midget shrimp
- *Caridina serratirostris*, Ninja Shrimp
- *Caridina thambipillai*, sunkist shrimp
- *Caridina typus*, Australian amano shrimp
- *Caridina pareparensis parvidentata*, Malawa shrimp
- *Caridina simoni simoni*, Sri Lankan Dwarf shrimp
- *Desmocaris elongata*, Guinea Swamp Shrimp
- *Euryrhynchus amazoniensis*, Amazon zebra shrimp
- *Macrobrachium assamensis*, Red claw shrimp
- *Macrobrachium dayanum*, Rusty longarm shrimp
- *Macrobrachium eriocheirum*, Fuzzy claw shrimp
- *Macrobrachium faustinum*, Caribbean longarm shrimp
- *Macrobrachium lanchesteri*, a.k.a. *Cryphiops lanchesteri*, Riceland prawn
- *Micratya poeyi*, Caribbean dwarf filter shrimp
- *Neocaridina davidi (wild type)*, Wild type cherry shrimp
- *Neocaridina davidi var. red*, Cherry shrimp
- *Neocaridina davidi var. yellow*, Yellow shrimp
- *Neocaridina davidi var. blue*, Taiwan Pale Blue Shrimp
- *Neocaridina palmata*, Marbled dwarf shrimp
- *Neocaridina cf. zhangjiajiensis var. blue pearl*, Blue pearl shrimp
- *Neocaridina cf. zhangjiajiensis var. white*, Snowball shrimp
- *Palaemonetes kadiakensis*, Mississippi grass shrimp
- *Palaemonetes ivonicus*, amazon glass shrimp
- *Palaemonetes paludosus*, American ghost (glass, grass) shrimp
- *Potamalpheops sp.*, purple zebra shrimp
- *Xiphocaris elongata*, Yellow nose shrimp
### Crayfish
- *Cambarellus diminutus* least dwarf crayfish
- *Cambarellus montezumae*, Acocil
- *Cambarellus shufeldtii*, Cajun Dwarf Crayfish
- *Cambarellus patzcuarensis*, Mexican Dwarf Crayfish
- *Cherax boesemani*, supernova crayfish
- *Cherax destructor*, Common Yabby
- *Cherax peknyi*, zebra crayfish
- *Cherax quadricarinatus*, Australian Red Claw Crayfish
- *Cherax snowden*, emerald fire crayfish
- *Faxonius immunis*, paper shell crayfish
- *Faxonius limosus*, spiny cheek crayfish
- *Pacifastacus leniusculus*, Signal Crayfish
- *Procambarus alleni*, Blue crayfish
- *Procambarus braswelli*, Waccamaw crayfish
- *Procambarus clarkii*, Red Swamp Crayfish
- *Procambarus milleri*, Miami cave crayfish
- *Procambarus virginalis*, Marbled Crayfish
### Crabs
- *Limnopilos naiyanetri*, Thai Micro Crabs
- *Parathelphusa pantherina*, Panther Crabs
- *Ptychognathus barbatus*, freshwater pom pom crab
### Branchiopods
- *Lepidurus apus*, golden tadpole shrimp
- *Triops longicaudatus*, longtail tadpole shrimp
- *Triops australiensis*, Australian tadpole shrimp
- *Triops cancriformis*, European tadpole shrimp
- *Triops granarius*, Asian tadpole shrimp
- *Triops newberryi*, desert tadpole shrimp
- *Branchinella thailandensis*, Thai fairy shrimp
- *Branchinecta mackini*, alkali fairy shrimp
- *Branchinecta gigas*, giant fairy shrimp
- *Thamnocephalus platyurus*, beavertail fairy shrimp
- *Streptocephalus sealii*, redtail fairy shrimp
- *Streptocephalus sp.*, dry lake fairy shrimp
- *Brachinecta sp.*, winter fairy shrimp
- *Daphnia magna*, large water flea
- *Daphnia pulex*, common water flea
- *Moina*, Japanese water flea
- *Diplostraca*, clam shrimp
### Isopods
- *Asellus aquaticus*, water slater
- *Trachelipus rathkii*, Rathki\'s Isopod(lives in periodical floods)
### Amphipods
- *Gammarus pulex*, freshwater scud
- *Hyalella azteca*, Mexican freshwater scud
### Copepods
- *Cyclops sp.*, water flea
### Hermit crab {#hermit_crab}
- *Clibanarius fonticola*, freshwater hermit crab
## Molluscs
### Gastropods
- *Asolene spixii* (zebra apple snail)
- *Marisa cornuarietis* (Colombian ramshorn apple snail)
- Planorbidae species (ramshorn snails)
- *Pomacea diffusa* (spike-topped apple snail)
- *Pomacea canaliculata* (channeled apple snail)
- Physidae species (bladder or tadpole snails)
- Lymnaeidae (pond and melantho snails)
- *Lymnaea stagnalis* (great pond snail)
- *Planorbarius corneus* (Great Ramshorn)
- *Melanoides tuberculata* (red-rimmed melania or Malaysian trumpet snail)
- *Tarebia granifera* (quilted melania or spike-tail trumpet snail)
- *Cipangopaludina malleata* (Japanese trapdoor snail)
- *Clithon corona* (horned nerite snail)
- *Neritina natalensis* (zebra nerite snail)
- *Vittina semiconica* (red onion or tire tracked nerite snail)
- *Neritina reclivata* (olive nerite snail)
- *Neripteron violaceum* \"Red Lips\" (Red Lip Nerite Snail)
- *Septaria porcellana* (freshwater limpet)
- *Neritina* sp. (mosaic nerite snail)
- *Neritina* sp. (tribal nerite snail)
- *Brotia pagodula* (horned armour snail)
- *Pachymelania byronensis* (west African freshwater snail)
- *Neritina pulligera* (dusky nerite)
- *Paludomus sulcatus* (bella snail)
- *Thiara cancellata* (hairy tower lid snail)
- *Taia naticoides* (piano snail)
- *Brotia herculea* (giant tower cap snail)
- *Planorbella duryi* (miniature red ramshorn snail)
- *Tylomelania* species (Tylo or Sulawesi snails)
- *Tylomelania sp. Poso* \"Yellow\"
- *Tylomelania sp
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# Fonni
**Fonni** (*Fonne*) is a town and *comune* in Sardinia, in the province of Nuoro (Italy).
It is the highest town in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. Fonni is a winter sports centre with a ski lift to Monte Spada and Bruncu Spina.
## Etymology
The term \"Fonni/-e\" probably derives from the Latin *fons*, meaning \"fountain\" or \"god of the sources\". In fact the village contains numerous spring water fountains.
## Climate
## Culture
The local costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men\'s costume is similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black.
## Neighborhoods
Neighborhoods in Fonni are called \"Rioni\" of these the oldest is called *su piggiu* or the peak, probably derived by the fact this is the highest and first layer of the village. Others include *puppuai* and *cresiedda* to the south, and *logotza* to the east
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# Fast combat support ship
The **fast combat support ship** (US Navy hull classification symbol: **AOE**) is a type of replenishment auxiliary ship. Different from traditional logistic ships, the fast combat support ship is designed with high speed to keep up with the carrier battle group/carrier strike group, while the multi-product station is capable of supplying all types of necessities for the fleet.
## History
### US Navy {#us_navy}
The fast combat support ship is designed to perform the functions of three old logistic ship types in one hull - fleet oiler (AO), ammunition ship (AE), and refrigerated stores ship (AF). Aside from supplying ships, fast combat support ships need the speed, weapons, sensors, and communications equipment, to serve as an integrated component of the carrier strike battle group. The concept of fast combat support ship was envisioned by United States Navy admiral Arleigh Burke, who laid out the concept as the solution to logistics problems he encountered in World War II.
The first class of the fast combat support ship was the `{{sclass|Sacramento|fast combat support ship|0}}`{=mediawiki}, built with multi-product supply stations, the largest fuel capacity, and the largest ammunition capacity in the US Navy at the time. The four ships of the *Sacramento*-class were 53,000 tons at full load, 796 feet overall length, and carried two Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters. The *Sacramento*-class was retired in 2005.
After replacing the *Sacramento*-class, the `{{sclass|Supply|fast combat support ship|0}}`{=mediawiki} became the largest combat logistics ship in the United States. They can carry more than 177,000 barrels of oil, 2,150 tons of ammunition, 500 tons of dry stores, and 250 tons of refrigerated stores. They receive petroleum products, ammunition, and stores from various shuttle ships and redistributes these items when needed to ships in the carrier strike group. This greatly reduces the number of service ships needed to travel with carrier strike groups. The ships of the class displaced 48,800 tons full load and carried two Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight or two Sikorsky MH-60S Knighthawk helicopters.
Air defense includes the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow radar and infrared surface-to-air missile in eight-cell launchers to provide point defense with 15km to 25km range. There are also two 20mm Phalanx CIWS (close-in weapon systems) and two Mk38 25mm cannons. All *Supply*-class combat support ships were commissioned until 2001, and then were transferred to Military Sealift Command.
A program to replace the *Supply*-class ships, the\" T-AOE(X) station-ship replacement project\", was cancelled in 2005 by US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld.
As of early 2023, USNS *Rainier* and USNS *Bridge* have been taken out of service and struck. Along with the remaining two *Supply*-class ships, US Navy fleets are currently supplied by `{{sclass|Lewis and Clark|dry cargo ship}}`{=mediawiki}s as well as `{{sclass|Henry J. Kaiser|replenishment oiler|0}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{sclass|John Lewis|replenishment oiler}}`{=mediawiki}s.
### PLA Navy {#pla_navy}
In the 21st century, China also developed the Type 901 fast combat support ship, which serves a similar mission in their navy
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# FASA
**FASA Corporation** was an American publisher of role-playing games, wargames and board games between 1980 and 2001, after which they closed publishing operations for several years, becoming an IP holding company under the name FASA Inc. In 2012, a wholly owned subsidiary called FASA Games Inc. went into operation, using the name and logo under license from the parent company. FASA Games Inc. works alongside Ral Partha Europe, also a subsidiary of FASA Corporation, to bring out new editions of existing properties such as Earthdawn and Demonworld, and to develop new properties within the FASA cosmology.
FASA first appeared as a *Traveller* licensee, producing supplements for that Game Designers\' Workshop role-playing game, especially the work of the Keith Brothers. The company went on to establish itself as a major gaming company with the publication of the *Star Trek* RPG, then several successful original games. Noteworthy lines included *BattleTech* and *Shadowrun*. Their *Star Trek* role-playing supplements and tactical ship game enjoyed popularity outside the wargaming community since, at the time, official descriptions of the *Star Trek* universe were not common, and the gaming supplements offered details fans craved.
The highly successful *BattleTech* line led to a series of video games, some of the first virtual reality gaming suites, called Virtual World (created by a subdivision of the company known at the time of development as ESP, an acronym for \"Extremely Secret Project\") and a Saturday-morning animated TV series.
Originally, the name FASA was an acronym for \"Freedonian Aeronautics and Space Administration\", a joking allusion to the Marx Brothers film *Duck Soup*. This tongue-in-cheek attitude was carried over in humorous self-references in its games. For example, in *Shadowrun*, a tactical nuclear device was detonated near FASA\'s offices at 1026 W. Van Buren St in Chicago, Illinois.
## History
FASA Corporation was founded by Jordan Weisman and L. Ross Babcock III in 1980 with a starting capital of \$350 (\$1,200 adjusted for inflation). The two were fellow gamers at the United States Merchant Marine Academy. Mort Weisman, Jordan\'s father, joined the company in 1985 to lead the company\'s operational management, having sold his book publishing business, Swallow Press.
Under the new commercial direction and with Mort\'s capital injection, the company diversified into books and miniature figures. After consulting their UK distributor, Chart Hobby Distributors, FASA licensed the manufacture of its *BattleTech* figurines to Miniature Figurines (also known as Minifigs). FASA would later acquire the U.S. figures manufacturer Ral Partha, which was the US manufacturer of Minifigs. While Mort ran the paper and metal based sides of the business, the company\'s founders focused on the development of computer-based games. They were particularly interested in virtual reality (particularly the BattleTech Centers / Virtual World) but also developed desktop computer games.
When Microsoft acquired the FASA Interactive subsidiary, Babcock went with that company. After the sale of Virtual World, Jordan turned his attention to the founding of a new games venture called WizKids.
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# FASA
## Current status and intellectual property {#current_status_and_intellectual_property}
FASA unexpectedly ceased active operations on April 30, 2001, but still exists as a corporation holding intellectual property rights, which it licenses to other publishers. Contrary to popular belief, the company did not go bankrupt. Allegedly, the owners decided to quit while the company was still financially sound in a market they perceived as going downhill. Mort Weisman had been talking of retirement for some years, and his confidence in the future of the paper-based games business was low. He considered the intellectual property of FASA to be of high value, but did not wish to continue working as he had been for the last decade or more. Unwilling to wrestle with the complexities of dividing up the going concern, the owners issued a press release on January 25, 2001, announcing the immediate closure of the business.
The *BattleTech* and *Shadowrun* properties were sold to WizKids, who in turn licensed their publication to FanPro LLC and then to Catalyst Game Labs. The *Earthdawn* license was sold to WizKids, and then back to FASA. Living Room Games published *Earthdawn* (Second Edition), RedBrick published *Earthdawn* (Classic and Third Editions), but the license has now returned to FASA Corporation, and FASA Games, Inc. is the current license holder for new material. *Crimson Skies* was originally developed by Zipper Interactive under the FASA Interactive brand in late 2000 and used under license by FASA; FASA Interactive had been purchased by Microsoft, so rights to *Crimson Skies* stayed with Microsoft. Rights to the miniatures game *VOR: The Maelstrom* reverted to the designer Mike \"Skuzzy\" Nielsen, but it has not been republished in any form due partly to legal difficulties. Microsoft officially closed the FASA team in the company\'s gaming division on September 12, 2007.
On December 6, 2007, FASA founder Jordan Weisman announced that his new venture, Smith & Tinker, had licensed the electronic gaming rights to *MechWarrior*, *Shadowrun*, and *Crimson Skies* from Microsoft.
On April 28, 2008, Mike \"Skuzzy\" Nielsen announced plans to create *Vor 2.0*.
At Gen Con 2012, FASA Games, Inc. was revealed, which includes FASA Corporation co-founder Ross Babcock on the board of directors. While FASA Corporation still owns and manages the FASA IP and brands, FASA Games, Inc would release new games and content. As of 2020, FASA Games has released contents for 2 games; a 4th edition for Earthdawn and the new game 1879 which aims to replace and/or create an alternate future \'6th Age\' in \'replacement\' to Shadowrun.
## Notable games {#notable_games}
### Role-playing games {#role_playing_games}
- *Star Trek: The Role Playing Game* (1982)
- *Star Trek: Starship Tactical Combat Simulator*
- *Doctor Who* (1985)
- *MechWarrior* (1986)
- *Shadowrun* (1989)
- *Legionnaire* (1990)
- *Earthdawn* (1993)
### Board games {#board_games}
- *BattleTech* (released in 1984 as *BattleDroids*, titled *BattleTech* as of 1985)
- *Battledroids* (1984)
- *Classic BattleTech* (1985)
- *Renegade Legion* (1989)
- *Crimson Skies* (1998)
### Miniature games {#miniature_games}
- *VOR: The Maelstrom* (1999)
- *Demonworld* (second edition: 2011, miniatures by Ral Partha Europe
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# McDonnell FH Phantom
The **McDonnell FH Phantom** is a twinjet, straight-wing, carrier-based fighter aircraft designed and first flown during late World War II for the United States Navy. As a first-generation jet fighter, the Phantom was the first purely jet-powered aircraft to land on an American aircraft carrier{{#tag:ref\|The first aircraft to land on an American carrier under jet power was the unconventional composite propeller-jet Ryan FR Fireball, designed to utilize its piston engine during takeoff and landing. On 6 November 1945, the piston engine of an FR-1 failed on final approach; the pilot started the jet engine and landed, thereby performing the first jet-powered carrier landing, albeit unintentionally.\|group=N}} and the first jet deployed by the United States Marine Corps. Although only 62 FH-1s were built it helped prove the viability of carrier-based jet fighters. As McDonnell\'s first successful fighter, it led to the development of the follow-on F2H Banshee, which was one of the two most important naval jet fighters of the Korean War; combined, the two established McDonnell as an important supplier of navy aircraft.
McDonnell chose to bring the name back with the third-generation, Mach 2-capable McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, the most versatile and widely used Western combat aircraft of the Vietnam War era.
The FH Phantom was originally designated the **FD Phantom**, but this was changed as the aircraft entered production.
## Design and development {#design_and_development}
In early 1943, aviation officials at the United States Navy were impressed with McDonnell\'s audacious XP-67 Bat project. McDonnell was invited by the navy to cooperate in the development of a shipboard jet fighter, using an engine from the turbojets under development by Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Three prototypes were ordered on 30 August 1943 and the designation XFD-1{{#tag:ref\|The U.S. Navy had earlier used the XFD-1 designation for the prototype Douglas XFD biplane fighter, which did not enter production due to changing Navy requirements.\|group=N}} was assigned. Under the 1922 United States Navy aircraft designation system, the letter \"D\" before the dash designated the aircraft\'s manufacturer. The Douglas Aircraft Company had previously been assigned this letter, but the USN elected to reassign it to McDonnell because Douglas had not provided any fighters for navy service in years.
McDonnell engineers evaluated a number of engine combinations, varying from eight 9.5 in diameter engines down to two engines of 19 in diameter. The final design used the two 19 in engines after it was found to be the lightest and simplest configuration. The engines were buried in the wing root to keep intake and exhaust ducts short, offering greater aerodynamic efficiency than underwing nacelles, and the engines were angled slightly outwards to protect the fuselage from the hot exhaust blast. Placement of the engines in the middle of the airframe, behind the center of gravity, required the cockpit with its bubble-style canopy to be placed ahead of the wing, also granting the pilot excellent visibility in all directions. The long nose allowed designers to use tricycle gear, thereby elevating the engine exhaust path and reducing the risk that the hot blast would damage the aircraft carrier deck. The construction methods and aerodynamic design of the Phantom were fairly conventional for the time; the aircraft had unswept wings, a conventional empennage, and an aluminum monocoque structure with flush riveted aluminum skin. Folding wings were used to reduce the width of the aircraft in storage configuration. Provisions for four .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were made in the nose, while racks for eight 5 in High Velocity Aircraft Rockets could be fitted under the wings, although these were seldom used in service. Adapting a jet to carrier use was a much greater challenge than producing a land-based fighter because of slower landing and takeoff speeds required on a small carrier deck. The Phantom used split flaps on both the folding and fixed wing sections to enhance low-speed landing performance, but no other high-lift devices were used. Provisions were also made for Rocket Assisted Take Off (RATO) bottles to improve takeoff performance.
When the first XFD-1, serial number *48235*, was completed in January 1945, only one Westinghouse 19XB-2B engine was available for installation. Ground runs and taxi tests were conducted with the single engine, and such was the confidence in the aircraft that the first flight on 26 January 1945 was made with only the one turbojet engine.{{#tag:ref\|McDonnell assistant Chief Engineer Kendall Perkins has stated that this \"first flight\" was no more than a \"hop\", and that the real first flight would wait until a second engine was fitted a few days later.\|group=N}} During flight tests, the Phantom became the first U.S. Navy aircraft to exceed 500 mph (434 kn, 805 km/h). With successful completion of tests, a production contract was awarded on 7 March 1945 for 100 FD-1 aircraft. With the end of the war, the Phantom production contract was reduced to 30 aircraft, but was soon increased back to 60.
The first prototype was lost in a fatal crash on 1 November 1945, but the second and final Phantom prototype (serial number *48236*) was completed early the next year and became the first purely jet-powered aircraft to operate from an American aircraft carrier, completing four successful takeoffs and landings on 21 July 1946, from `{{USS|Franklin D. Roosevelt|CV-42|2}}`{=mediawiki} near Norfolk, Virginia. At the time, she was the largest carrier serving with the U.S. Navy, allowing the aircraft to take off without assistance from a catapult. The second prototype crashed on 26 August 1946.
Production Phantoms incorporated a number of design improvements. These included provisions for a flush-fitting centerline drop tank, an improved gunsight, and the addition of speed brakes. Production models used Westinghouse J30-WE-20 engines with 1,600 lbf of thrust per engine. The top of the vertical tail had a more square shape than the rounder tail used on the prototypes, and a smaller rudder was used to resolve problems with control surface clearance discovered during test flights. The horizontal tail surfaces were shortened slightly, while the fuselage was stretched by 19 in. The amount of framing in the windshield was reduced to enhance pilot visibility.
Halfway through the production run, the navy reassigned the designation letter \"D\" back to Douglas, with the Phantom being redesignated FH-1. Including the two prototypes, a total of 62 Phantoms were finally produced, with the last FH-1 rolling off the assembly line in May 1948.
Realizing that the production of more powerful jet engines was imminent, McDonnell engineers proposed a more powerful variant of the Phantom while the original aircraft was still under development -- a proposal that would lead to the design of the Phantom\'s replacement, the F2H Banshee. Although the new aircraft was originally envisioned as a modified Phantom, the need for heavier armament, greater internal fuel capacity, and other improvements eventually led to a substantially heavier and bulkier aircraft that shared few parts with its agile predecessor. Despite this, the two aircraft were similar enough that McDonnell was able to complete its first **F2H-1** in August 1948, a mere three months after the last **FH-1** had rolled off the assembly line.
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# McDonnell FH Phantom
## Operational history {#operational_history}
The first Phantoms were delivered to USN fighter squadron VF-17A (later redesignated VF-171) in August 1947; the squadron received a full complement of 24 aircraft on 29 May 1948. Beginning in November 1947, Phantoms were delivered to United States Marine Corps squadron VMF-122, making it the first USMC combat squadron to deploy jets. VF-17A became the USN\'s first fully operational jet carrier squadron when it deployed aboard `{{USS|Saipan|CVL-48|6}}`{=mediawiki} on 5 May 1948.{{#tag:ref\|Squadron VF-5A, flying the North American FJ-1 Fury, had conducted the navy\'s first all-jet aircraft carrier operations at sea on 10 March 1948 aboard `{{USS|Boxer|CV-21|2}}`{=mediawiki}, but the entire squadron was not considered operational at the time.\|group=N}}
The Phantom was one of the first jets used by the U.S. military for exhibition flying. Three Phantoms used by the Naval Air Test Center were used by a unique demonstration team called the Gray Angels, whose members consisted entirely of naval aviators holding the rank of rear admiral (Daniel V. Gallery, Apollo Soucek and Edgar A. Cruise.) The team\'s name was an obvious play on the name of the recently formed U.S. Navy Blue Angels, who were still flying propeller-powered Grumman F8F Bearcats at the time. The \"Grays\" flew in various air shows during the summer of 1947, but the team was abruptly disbanded after their poorly timed arrival at a September air show in Cleveland, Ohio, nearly caused a head-on low-altitude collision with a large formation of other aircraft; their Phantoms were turned over to test squadron VX-3. The VMF-122 Phantoms were later used for air show demonstrations until they were taken out of service in 1949, with the team being known alternately as the Marine Phantoms or the Flying Leathernecks.
The Phantom\'s service as a frontline fighter would be short-lived. Its limited range and light armament -- notably, its inability to carry bombs -- made it best suited for duty as a point-defence interceptor aircraft. However, its speed and rate of climb were only slightly better than existing propeller-powered fighters and fell short of other contemporary jets, such as the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star, prompting concerns that the Phantom would be outmatched by future enemy jets it might soon face. Moreover, recent experience in World War II had demonstrated the value of naval fighters that could double as fighter-bombers, a capability the Phantom lacked. Finally, the aircraft exhibited some design deficiencies -- its navigational avionics were poor, it could not accommodate newly developed ejection seats, and the location of the machine guns in the upper nose caused pilots to be dazzled by muzzle flash.
The F2H Banshee and Grumman F9F Panther, both of which began flight tests around the time of the Phantom\'s entry into service, better satisfied the navy\'s desire for a versatile, long-range, high-performance jet. Consequently, the FH-1 saw little weapons training, and was primarily used for carrier qualifications to transition pilots from propeller-powered fighters to jets in preparation for flying the Panther or Banshee. In June 1949, VF-171 (VF-17A) re-equipped with the Banshee, and their Phantoms were turned over to VF-172; this squadron, along with the NATC, VX-3, and VMF-122, turned over their Phantoms to the United States Naval Reserve by late 1949 after receiving F2H-1 Banshees. The FH-1 would see training duty with the USNR until being replaced by the F9F Panther in July 1954; none ever saw combat, having been retired from frontline service prior to the outbreak of the Korean War.
### Civilian use {#civilian_use}
In 1964, Progressive Aero, Incorporated of Fort Lauderdale, Florida purchased three surplus Phantoms, intending to use them to teach civilians how to fly jets. A pair were stripped of military equipment and restored to flying condition, but the venture was unsuccessful, and the aircraft were soon retired once again.
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# McDonnell FH Phantom
## Variants
XFD-1
: Company designation **Model 11A**, prototype aircraft powered by 1165 lbf Westinghouse 19XB-2B engines (J-30). Two built.
FH-1 (FD-1)
: Company designation **Model 23**, production version with 1600 lbf Westinghouse J30-WE-20 engines (originally designated FD-1). 60 built.
FD-1N
: Proposed night fighter variant.
## Operators
`{{USA}}`{=mediawiki}
- United States Navy
- VX-3
- VF-171 (VF-17A)
- VF-172
- Naval Air Reserve
- United States Marine Corps
- VMF-122
- VMF-311
## Aircraft on display {#aircraft_on_display}
FH-1
- BuNo 111759 - National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., United States. This aircraft served with Marine Fighter Squadron 122 (VMF-122). It was retired in April 1954, with a total of 418 flight hours. The aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian by the U.S. Navy in 1959.
- BuNo 111768 - Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona, on loan from the National Museum of the Marine Corps, Triangle, Virginia. It has had a busy post-retirement life. Formerly a Progressive Aero aircraft c/n 456 (civil registration N4283A) it was placed on display at the Marine Corps Museum. The aircraft was later transferred to the St. Louis Aviation Museum, and then the National Warplane Museum in Geneseo, New York. In 2006 the aircraft was moved to the Wings of Eagles Discovery Center in Horseheads, New York., and moved to Tucson in 2016.
- BuNo 111793 - National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. This aircraft was accepted by the navy on 28 February 1948. After flying for a brief time with Marine Fighter Squadron (VMF) 122, the first Marine jet squadron, at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point, North Carolina, it was stricken from the naval inventory in 1949. The museum acquired the aircraft from National Jets, Inc., of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1983
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# Fricative
A **fricative** is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of `{{IPA|[f]}}`{=mediawiki}; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German `{{IPA|[x]}}`{=mediawiki} (the final consonant of *Bach*); or the side of the tongue against the molars, in the case of Welsh `{{IPA|[ɬ]}}`{=mediawiki} (appearing twice in the name *Llanelli*). This turbulent airflow is called **frication**.
A particular subset of fricatives are the sibilants. When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition, the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth. English `{{IPA|[s]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[z]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʃ]}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|[ʒ]}}`{=mediawiki} are examples of sibilants.
The usage of two other terms is less standardized: \"**Spirant**\" is an older term for fricatives used by some American and European phoneticians and phonologists for non-sibilant fricatives. \"**Strident**\" could mean just \"sibilant\", but some authors`{{Who|date=May 2019}}`{=mediawiki} include also labiodental and uvular fricatives in the class.
## Types
The airflow is not completely stopped in the production of fricative consonants. In other words, the airflow experiences friction.
### Sibilants
- voiceless coronal sibilant, as in English *s*ip
- voiced coronal sibilant, as in English *z*ip
- voiceless dental sibilant
- voiced dental sibilant
- voiceless apical sibilant
- voiced apical sibilant
- voiceless predorsal sibilant (laminal, with tongue tip at lower teeth)
- voiced predorsal sibilant (laminal)
- voiceless postalveolar sibilant (laminal)
- voiced postalveolar sibilant (laminal)
- voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as in English *sh*ip
- voiced palato-alveolar sibilant (domed, partially palatalized), as the *si* in English vi*si*on
- voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
- voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant (laminal, palatalized)
- voiceless retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)
- voiced retroflex sibilant (apical or subapical)
All sibilants are coronal, but may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or palatal (retroflex) within that range. However, at the postalveolar place of articulation, the tongue may take several shapes: domed, laminal, or apical, and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name. Prototypical retroflexes are subapical and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols.
### Central non-sibilant fricatives {#central_non_sibilant_fricatives}
- voiceless bilabial fricative
- voiced bilabial fricative
- voiceless labiodental fricative, as in English *f*ine
- voiced labiodental fricative, as in English *v*ine
- voiceless linguolabial fricative
- voiced linguolabial fricative
- voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative, as in English *th*ing
- voiced dental non-sibilant fricative, as in English *th*at
- voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative
- voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative
- Voiceless alveolar fricative trill
- Voiced alveolar fricative trill
- voiceless palatal fricative
- voiced palatal fricative
- voiceless velar fricative
- voiced velar fricative
- voiceless palatal-velar fricative (articulation disputed)
The IPA also has letters for epiglottal fricatives,
- voiceless epiglottal fricative
- voiced epiglottal fricative
with allophonic trilling, but these might be better analyzed as pharyngeal trills.
- voiceless velopharyngeal fricative (often occurs with a cleft palate)
- voiced velopharyngeal fricative
### Lateral fricatives {#lateral_fricatives}
- voiceless dental lateral fricative
- voiced dental lateral fricative
- voiceless alveolar lateral fricative
- voiced alveolar lateral fricative
- voiceless postalveolar lateral fricative (Mehri)
- voiced postalveolar lateral fricative
- or extIPA `{{IPA|[ꞎ]}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless retroflex lateral fricative
- or extIPA `{{IPA|[𝼅]}}`{=mediawiki} Voiced retroflex lateral fricative (in Ao)
- or `{{IPA|[ʎ̝̥]}}`{=mediawiki} or extIPA `{{IPA|[𝼆]}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless palatal lateral fricative
- or extIPA `{{IPA|[𝼆̬]}}`{=mediawiki} voiced palatal lateral fricative (allophonic in Jebero)
- or extIPA `{{IPA|[𝼄]}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless velar lateral fricative
- or extIPA `{{IPA|[𝼄̬]}}`{=mediawiki} voiced velar lateral fricative
The lateral fricative occurs as the *ll* of Welsh, as in *Lloyd*, *Llewelyn*, and *Machynlleth* (`{{IPA|[maˈxənɬɛθ]}}`{=mediawiki}, a town), as the unvoiced \'hl\' and voiced \'dl\' or \'dhl\' in the several languages of Southern Africa (such as Xhosa and Zulu), and in Mongolian.
- or `{{IPA|[ɬ͜s]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[θ͜ɬ]}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless lateral-median fricative (a laterally lisped `{{IPA|[s]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[θ]}}`{=mediawiki}) (Modern South Arabian)
- or `{{IPA|[ɮ͜z]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ð͜ɮ]}}`{=mediawiki} voiced lateral-median fricative (a laterally lisped `{{IPA|[z]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[ð]}}`{=mediawiki}) (Modern South Arabian)
### IPA letters used for both fricatives and approximants {#ipa_letters_used_for_both_fricatives_and_approximants}
- voiceless uvular fricative
- voiced uvular fricative
- voiceless pharyngeal fricative
- voiced pharyngeal fricative
No language distinguishes fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeal, approximants are more numerous than fricatives. A fricative realization may be specified by adding the uptack to the letters, `{{IPA|[χ̝, ʁ̝, ħ̝, ʕ̝]}}`{=mediawiki}. Likewise, the downtack may be added to specify an approximant realization, `{{IPA|[χ̞, ʁ̞, ħ̞, ʕ̞]}}`{=mediawiki}.
(The bilabial approximant and dental approximant do not have dedicated symbols either and are transcribed in a similar fashion: `{{IPA|[β̞, ð̞]}}`{=mediawiki}. However, the base letters are understood to specifically refer to the fricatives.)
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| 0 |
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# Fricative
## Types
### Pseudo-fricatives {#pseudo_fricatives}
- voiceless glottal transition, as in English *hat*
- breathy-voiced glottal transition
In many languages, such as English or Korean, the glottal \"fricatives\" are unaccompanied phonation states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner, fricative or otherwise. They may be mistaken for real glottal constrictions in a number of languages, such as Finnish.
### `{{anchor|Aspiration}}`{=mediawiki}Aspirated fricatives {#aspirated_fricatives}
Fricatives are very commonly voiced, though cross-linguistically voiced fricatives are not nearly as common as tenuis (\"plain\") fricatives. Other phonations are common in languages that have those phonations in their stop consonants. However, phonemically aspirated fricatives are rare. `{{IPA|/s~sʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} contrasts with a tense, unaspirated `{{IPA|/s͈/}}`{=mediawiki} in Korean; aspirated fricatives are also found in a few Sino-Tibetan languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, in the Siouan language Ofo (`{{IPA|/sʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/fʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}), and in the (central?) Chumash languages (`{{IPA|/sʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/ʃʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}). The record may be Cone Tibetan, which has four contrastive aspirated fricatives: `{{IPA|/sʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} `{{IPA|/ɕʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/ʂʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|/xʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Nasalized fricatives {#nasalized_fricatives}
Phonemically nasalized fricatives are rare. Umbundu has `{{IPA|/ṽ/}}`{=mediawiki} and Kwangali and Souletin Basque have `{{IPA|/h̃/}}`{=mediawiki}. In Coatzospan Mixtec, `{{IPA|[β̃, ð̃, s̃, ʃ̃]}}`{=mediawiki} appear allophonically before a nasal vowel, and in Igbo nasality is a feature of the syllable; when `{{IPA|/f v s z ʃ ʒ/}}`{=mediawiki} occur in nasal syllables they are themselves nasalized.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
<table>
<caption>Types of fricative</caption>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th></th>
<th><p>bilabial</p></th>
<th><p>labio-<br />
dental</p></th>
<th><p>linguo-<br />
labial</p></th>
<th><p>inter-<br />
dental</p></th>
<th><p>dental</p></th>
<th><p>denti-<br />
alveolar</p></th>
<th><p>alveolar</p></th>
<th><p>post-<br />
alveolar</p></th>
<th><p>palatal/<br />
retroflex</p></th>
<th><p>velar</p></th>
<th><p>uvular</p></th>
<th><p>pharyn-<br />
geal</p></th>
<th><p>glottal</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>central non-sibilant</p></td>
<td rowspan="2"></td>
<td rowspan="2"><p><br />
</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
(apical)</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>(laminal)<br />
(apical)</p></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>lateral fricative</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
(apical)</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>laminal sibilant</p></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
<td><p>()<br />
<br />
</p></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>apical sibilant</p></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p><br />
<br />
ʃʰ ʒʱ</p></td>
<td><p><br />
</p></td>
<td colspan="4"></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>fricative trill</p></td>
<td colspan="6"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>fricative flap</p></td>
<td colspan="6"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>nasalized fricative</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
: Types of fricative
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# Fricative
## Occurrence
Until its extinction, Ubykh may have been the language with the most fricatives (29 not including `{{IPA|/h/}}`{=mediawiki}), some of which did not have dedicated symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants). By contrast, approximately 8.7% of the world\'s languages have no phonemic fricatives at all. This is a typical feature of Australian Aboriginal languages, where the few fricatives that exist result from changes to plosives or approximants, but also occurs in some indigenous languages of New Guinea and South America that have especially small numbers of consonants. However, whereas `{{IPA|[h]}}`{=mediawiki} is *entirely* unknown in indigenous Australian languages, most of the other languages without true fricatives do have `{{IPA|[h]}}`{=mediawiki} in their consonant inventory.
Voicing contrasts in fricatives are largely confined to Europe, Africa, and Western Asia. Languages of South and East Asia, such as Mandarin Chinese, Korean, and the Austronesian languages, typically do not have such voiced fricatives as `{{IPA|[z]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[v]}}`{=mediawiki}, which are familiar to many European speakers. In some Dravidian languages they occur as allophones. These voiced fricatives are also relatively rare in indigenous languages of the Americas. Overall, voicing contrasts in fricatives are much rarer than in plosives, being found only in about a third of the world\'s languages as compared to 60 percent for plosive voicing contrasts.
About 15 percent of the world\'s languages, however, have *unpaired voiced fricatives*, i.e. a voiced fricative without a voiceless counterpart. Two-thirds of these, or 10 percent of all languages, have unpaired voiced fricatives but no voicing contrast between any fricative pair.
This phenomenon occurs because voiced fricatives have developed from lenition of plosives or fortition of approximants. This phenomenon of unpaired voiced fricatives is scattered throughout the world, but is confined to nonsibilant fricatives with the exception of a couple of languages that have `{{IPA|[ʒ]}}`{=mediawiki} but lack `{{IPA|[ʃ]}}`{=mediawiki}. (Relatedly, several languages have the voiced affricate `{{IPAblink|dʒ}}`{=mediawiki} but lack `{{IPA|[tʃ]}}`{=mediawiki}, and vice versa.) The fricatives that occur most often without a voiceless counterpart are -- in order of ratio of unpaired occurrences to total occurrences -- `{{IPA|[ʝ]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[β]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ð]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|[ʁ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ɣ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Fricative
## Acoustics
Fricatives appear in waveforms as somewhat random noise caused by the turbulent airflow, upon which a periodic pattern is overlaid if voiced. Fricatives produced in the front of the mouth tend to have energy concentration at higher frequencies than ones produced in the back. The centre of gravity (*CoG*), i.e. the average frequency in a spectrum weighted by the amplitude (also known as *spectral mean*), may be used to determine the place of articulation of a fricative relative to that of another
| 86 |
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| 3 |
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# Frost
thumb\|upright=1.35\|A patch of grass showing three zones. `{{ordered list|
|crystalline frost in the below-freezing shade (blue, lower right)
|frost in the warming but still below freezing strip most recently exposed to sunlight (white, center)
|frost-free region: here, the previous frost has melted from a more prolonged exposure to sunlight (green, upper left.)}}`{=mediawiki}
**Frost** is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor that deposits onto a freezing surface. Frost forms when the air contains more water vapor than it can normally hold at a specific temperature. The process is similar to the formation of dew, except it occurs below the freezing point of water typically without crossing through a liquid state.
Air always contains a certain amount of water vapor, depending on temperature. Warmer air can hold more than colder air. When the atmosphere contains more water than it can hold at a specific temperature, its relative humidity rises above 100% becoming supersaturated, and the excess water vapor is forced to deposit onto any nearby surface, forming seed crystals. The temperature at which frost will form is called the dew point, and depends on the humidity of the air. When the temperature of the air drops below its dew point, excess water vapor is forced out of solution, resulting in a phase change directly from water vapor (a gas) to ice (a solid). As more water molecules are added to the seeds, crystal growth occurs, forming ice crystals. Crystals may vary in size and shape, from an even layer of numerous microscopic-seeds to fewer but much larger crystals, ranging from long dendritic crystals (tree-like) growing across a surface, acicular crystals (needle-like) growing outward from the surface, snowflake-shaped crystals, or even large, knifelike blades of ice covering an object, which depends on many factors such as temperature, air pressure, air motion and turbulence, surface roughness and wettability, and the level of supersaturation. For example, water vapor adsorbs to glass very well, so automobile windows will often frost before the paint, and large hoar-frost crystals can grow very rapidly when the air is very cold, calm, and heavily saturated, such as during an ice fog.
Frost may occur when warm, moist air comes into contact with a cold surface, cooling it below its dew point, such as warm breath on a freezing window. In the atmosphere, it more often occurs when both the air and the surface are below freezing, when the air experiences a drop in temperature bringing it below its dew point, for example, when the temperature falls after the sun sets. In temperate climates, it most commonly appears on surfaces near the ground as fragile white crystals; in cold climates, it occurs in a greater variety of forms. The propagation of crystal formation occurs by the process of nucleation, in specific, water nucleation, which is the same phenomenon responsible for the formation of clouds, fog, snow, rain and other meteorological phenomena.
The ice crystals of frost form as the result of fractal process development. The depth of frost crystals varies depending on the amount of time they have been accumulating, and the concentration of the water vapor (humidity). Frost crystals may be invisible (black), clear (translucent), or, if a mass of frost crystals scatters light in all directions, the coating of frost appears white.
Types of frost include crystalline frost (hoar frost or radiation frost) from deposition of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions, window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold surfaces, black frost without visible ice at low temperatures and very low humidity, and rime under supercooled wet conditions.
Plants that have evolved in warmer climates suffer damage when the temperature falls low enough to freeze the water in the cells that make up the plant tissue. The tissue damage resulting from this process is known as \"frost damage\". Farmers in those regions where frost damage has been known to affect their crops often invest in substantial means to protect their crops from such damage.
| 676 |
Frost
| 0 |
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# Frost
## Formation
If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding humid air, and the surface itself is colder than freezing, ice will form on it. If the water deposits as a liquid that then freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline, depending on its type. Depending on context, that process may also be called atmospheric icing. The ice it produces differs in some ways from crystalline frost, which consists of spicules of ice that typically project from the solid surface on which they grow.
The main difference between the ice coatings and frost spicules arises because the crystalline spicules grow directly from desublimation of water vapour from air, and desublimation is not a factor in icing of freezing surfaces. For desublimation to proceed, the surface must be below the frost point of the air, meaning that it is sufficiently cold for ice to form without passing through the liquid phase. The air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation. The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, and how long they have been growing undisturbed.
As a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air. For instance, frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the warmer ground beneath. Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals, hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails.
The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, the absorptivity and specific heat of the ground strongly influence the temperature that the trapped air attains.
| 345 |
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| 1 |
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# Frost
## Types
### Hoar frost {#hoar_frost}
`{{anchor|hoarfrost_anchor}}`{=mediawiki} **Hoar frost**, also **hoarfrost**, **radiation frost**, or **pruina**, refers to white ice crystals deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects, such as wires or leaves. They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates into outer space faster than it can be replaced from nearby warm objects or brought in by the wind. Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point of the surrounding air, well below the freezing point of water. Such freezing may be promoted by effects such as **flood frost** or **frost pocket**. These occur when ground-level radiation cools air until it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of very cold air in valleys and hollows. Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing.
The word \"hoar\" comes from an Old English adjective that means \"showing signs of old age\". In this context, it refers to the frost that makes trees and bushes look like white hair.
Hoar frost may have different names depending on where it forms:
- **Air hoar** is a deposit of hoar frost on objects above the surface, such as tree branches, plant stems, and wires.
- **Surface hoar** refers to fern-like ice crystals directly deposited on snow, ice, or already frozen surfaces.
- **Crevasse hoar** consists of crystals that form in glacial crevasses where water vapour can accumulate under calm weather conditions.
- **Depth hoar** refers to faceted crystals that have slowly grown large within cavities beneath the surface of banks of dry snow. Depth hoar crystals grow continuously at the expense of neighbouring smaller crystals, so typically are visibly stepped and have faceted hollows.
When surface hoar covers sloping snowbanks, the layer of frost crystals may create an avalanche risk; when heavy layers of new snow cover the frosty surface, furry crystals standing out from the old snow hold off the falling flakes, forming a layer of voids that prevents the new snow layers from bonding strongly to the old snow beneath. Ideal conditions for hoarfrost to form on snow are cold, clear nights, with very light, cold air currents conveying humidity at the right rate for growth of frost crystals. Wind that is too strong or warm destroys the furry crystals, and thereby may permit a stronger bond between the old and new snow layers. However, if the winds are strong enough and cold enough to lay the crystals flat and dry, carpeting the snow with cold, loose crystals without removing or destroying them or letting them warm up and become sticky, then the frost interface between the snow layers may still present an avalanche danger, because the texture of the frost crystals differs from the snow texture, and the dry crystals will not stick to fresh snow. Such conditions still prevent a strong bond between the snow layers.
In very low temperatures where fluffy surface hoar crystals form without subsequently being covered with snow, strong winds may break them off, forming a dust of ice particles and blowing them over the surface. The ice dust then may form *yukimarimo*, as has been observed in parts of Antarctica, in a process similar to the formation of dust bunnies and similar structures. Hoar frost and white frost also occur in man-made environments such as in freezers or industrial cold-storage facilities. If such cold spaces or the pipes serving them are not well insulated and are exposed to ambient humidity, the moisture will freeze instantly depending on the freezer temperature. The frost may coat pipes thickly, partly insulating them, but such inefficient insulation still is a source of heat loss.
### Advection frost {#advection_frost}
**Advection frost** (also called **wind frost**) refers to tiny ice spikes that form when very cold wind is blowing over tree branches, poles, and other surfaces. It looks like rimming on the edges of flowers and leaves, and usually forms against the direction of the wind. It can occur at any hour, day or night.
### Window frost {#window_frost}
**Window frost** (also called **fern frost** or **ice flowers**) forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and warmer, moderately moist air on the inside. If the pane is a bad insulator (for example, if it is a single-pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass, forming frost patterns. With very low temperatures outside, frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double-pane energy-efficient windows because the air convection between two panes of glass ensures that the bottom part of the glazing unit is colder than the top part. On unheated motor vehicles, the frost usually forms on the outside surface of the glass first. The glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches, or dust can modify the way ice nucleates. The patterns in window frost form a fractal with a fractal dimension greater than one, but less than two. This is a consequence of the nucleation process being constrained to unfold in two dimensions, unlike a snowflake, which is shaped by a similar process, but forms in three dimensions and has a fractal dimension greater than two.
If the indoor air is very humid, rather than moderately so, water first condenses in small droplets, and then freezes into clear ice.
Similar patterns of freezing may occur on other smooth vertical surfaces, but they seldom are as obvious or spectacular as on clear glass.
<File:Frost> patterns 1.jpg <File:Frost> patterns 2.jpg <File:Frost> patterns 3.jpg <File:Frost> patterns 4.jpg <File:Frost> patterns 5.jpg <File:Frost> patterns 25.jpg <File:WindowFrostNewmarketOntario1986.jpg> <File:Frost> on a plastic container in a -30 C freezer.jpg <File:PXL> 20210220 150158529.PORTRAIT.jpg
### White frost {#white_frost}
**White frost** is a solid deposition of ice that forms directly from water vapour contained in air.
White frost forms when relative humidity is above 90% and the temperature below −8 °C (18 °F), and it grows against the wind direction, since air arriving from windward has a higher humidity than leeward air, but the wind must not be strong, else it damages the delicate icy structures as they begin to form. White frost resembles a heavy coating of hoar frost with big, interlocking crystals, usually needle-shaped.
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# Frost
## Types
### Rime
**Rime** is a type of ice deposition that occurs quickly, often under heavily humid and windy conditions. Technically speaking, it is not a type of frost, since usually supercooled water drops are involved, in contrast to the formation of hoar frost, in which water vapour desublimates slowly and directly. Ships travelling through Arctic seas may accumulate large quantities of rime on the rigging. Unlike hoar frost, which has a feathery appearance, rime generally has an icy, solid appearance.
### Black frost {#black_frost}
**Black frost** (or \"killing frost\") is not strictly speaking frost at all, because it is the condition seen in crops when the humidity is too low for frost to form, but the temperature falls so low that plant tissues freeze and die, becoming blackened, hence the term \"black frost\". Black frost often is called \"killing frost\" because white frost tends to be less cold, partly because the latent heat of freezing of the water reduces the temperature drop.
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# Frost
## Effect on plants {#effect_on_plants}
### Damage
Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost. This varies with the type of plant, the tissue exposed, and how low temperatures get; a \"light frost\" of -2 to damages fewer types of plants than a \"hard frost\" below -2 C.
Plants likely to be damaged even by a light frost include vines---such as beans, grapes, squashes, melons---along with nightshades such as tomatoes, eggplants, and peppers. Plants that may tolerate (or even benefit from) frosts include:
- root vegetables (e.g. beets, carrots, parsnips, onions)
- leafy greens (e.g. lettuces, spinach, chard, cucumber)
- cruciferous vegetables (e.g. cabbages, cauliflower, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, radishes, kale, collard, mustard, turnips, rutabagas)
Even those plants that tolerate frost may be damaged once temperatures drop even lower (below -4 C). Hardy perennials, such as *Hosta*, become dormant after the first frosts and regrow when spring arrives. The entire visible plant may turn completely brown until the spring warmth, or may drop all of its leaves and flowers, leaving the stem and stalk only. Evergreen plants, such as pine trees, withstand frost although all or most growth stops. Frost crack is a bark defect caused by a combination of low temperatures and heat from the winter sun.
Vegetation is not necessarily damaged when leaf temperatures drop below the freezing point of their cell contents. In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a supercooled liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of -4 to. However, once frost forms, the leaf cells may be damaged by sharp ice crystals. Hardening is the process by which a plant becomes tolerant to low temperatures. See also Cryobiology.
Certain bacteria, notably *Pseudomonas syringae*, are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about -2 C. Bacteria lacking ice nucleation-active proteins (ice-minus bacteria) result in greatly reduced frost damage.
### Protection methods {#protection_methods}
Typical measures to prevent frost or reduce its severity include one or more of:
- Deploying powerful blowers to simulate wind, thereby preventing the formation of accumulations of cold air. There are variations on this theme. One variety is the wind machine, an engine-driven propeller mounted on a vertical pole that blows air almost horizontally. Wind machines were introduced as a method for frost protection in California during the 1920s, but they were not widely accepted until the 1940s and 1950s. Now, they are commonly used in many parts of the world. Another is the selective inverted sink, a device which prevents frost by drawing cold air from the ground and blowing it up through a chimney. It was originally developed to prevent frost damage to citrus fruits in Uruguay. In New Zealand, helicopters are used in similar fashion, especially in the vineyard regions such as Marlborough. By dragging down warmer air from the inversion layers, and preventing the ponding of colder air on the ground, the low-flying helicopters prevent damage to the fruit buds. As the operations are conducted at night, and have in the past involved up to 130 aircraft per night in one region, safety rules are strict. Although not a dedicated method, wind turbines have a similar (although smaller) effect of vertically mixing air layers of different temperature.
- For high-value crops, farmers may wrap trees and use physical crop coverings.
- For high-value crops grown over small areas, heating to slow the drop in temperature may be practical.
- Production of smoke to reduce cooling by radiation, now thought to be of little benefit.
- Spraying crops with a layer of water releases latent heat, preventing harmful freezing of the tissues of the plants that it coats.
Such measures need to be applied with discretion, because they may do more harm than good; for example, spraying crops with water can cause damage if the plants become overburdened with ice. An effective, **low cost** method for small crop farms and plant nurseries, exploits the latent heat of freezing. A pulsed irrigation timer delivers water through existing overhead sprinklers at a low volumes to combat frosts down to -5 C. If the water freezes, it gives off its latent heat, preventing the temperature of the foliage from falling much below zero.
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# Frost
## Frost-free areas {#frost_free_areas}
Frost-free areas are found mainly in the lowland tropics, where they cover almost all land except at altitudes above about 3000 m near the equator and around 2000 m in the semiarid areas in tropical regions. Some areas on the oceanic margins of the subtropics are also frost-free, as are highly oceanic areas near windward coasts. The most poleward frost-free areas are the lower altitudes of the Azores, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and Tristan da Cunha.
In the contiguous United States, southern Florida around Miami Beach and the Florida Keys are the only reliably frost-free areas, as well as the Channel Islands off the coast of California. The hardiness zones in these regions are 11a and 11b.
## Permafrost
Permafrost is a layer of frozen earth underground which never heats above freezing even during summer months, remaining frozen year round. Although not frost in the atmospheric sense, it consists of dirt, soil, sand, rocks, clay, or organic matter (peat) bound firmly together by ice crystals, making the material very hard and difficult to penetrate. Permafrost exists in the colder climates of the Arctic and Antarctic, such as Russia, Canada, Alaska, Norway, Greenland, or Antarctica, where the warmer conditions of summer are insufficient to penetrate the insulation of the Earth to reach deep enough to thaw the permafrost layer. The permafrost may begin from the surface of the ground or many meters beneath it, and may extend from just a meter to over a thousand meters in thickness. Permafrost contains a significant portion of the Earth\'s water and carbon, and prevents surface water from penetrating very deep into the ground, making it responsible in part for the typical taiga and spruce bog environments common in northern latitudes.
## Personifications
Frost is personified in Russian culture as Ded Moroz. Indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Mordvins have their own traditions of frost deities.
English folklore tradition holds that Jack Frost, an elfish creature, is responsible for feathery patterns of frost found on windows on cold mornings.
## On other planets {#on_other_planets}
In 2024, two European Space Agency spacecraft, Exomars TGO and Mars Express, discovered a thin but very wide layer of water frost on the peak of Olympus Mons, the highest mountain on Mars. This layer of frost appears for a few hours around sunrise, and then evaporates into the atmosphere for the rest of the Martian day. This was the first instance of frost discovered in the equatorial region of Mars.
## Gallery
<File:Frost> on a nettle, Netherlands.jpg\|Frost on a nettle <File:Fern> Frost.JPG\|Fern frost on a window <File:Dülmen>, Hausdülmen, Distel \-- 2021 \-- 5079.jpg\|Frost on a thistle in Hausdülmen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany <File:Window-Frost.jpg%7CWindow> frost <File:Frost-covered> lifebuoy, Lake Siskiyou.jpg\|Frost-covered lifebuoy, Lake Siskiyou, California <File:Frost> on leaves.jpg\|Frost on plant leaves in the Himalayas <File:Hoar> Frost.JPG\|Surface hoar in Alaska <File:Hoar> frost on a snow field.jpg\|Hoar frost in Julian Alps <File:Frost> on Birch Tree in Stockholm 20180110.jpg\|Frost on birch tree in Stockholm <File:Frost> in Ranu Pani on 4 August 2018 by Susanto Tan 6.jpg\|Frost on grass in Ranu Pani, East Java, Indonesia <File:Frost> on birch tree.jpg\|Frost on birch stem in Norway <File:Sydneyfrost.jpg%7CLight> frost on grass in Western Sydney, New South Wales, Australia <File:Leaf> with frost
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# Field ion microscope
The **field-ion microscope** (FIM) was invented by Müller in 1951. It is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip.
On October 11, 1955, Erwin Müller and his Ph.D. student, Kanwar Bahadur (Pennsylvania State University) observed individual tungsten atoms on the surface of a sharply pointed tungsten tip by cooling it to 21 K and employing helium as the imaging gas. Müller & Bahadur were the first persons to observe individual atoms directly.
## Introduction
In FIM, a sharp (\<50 nm tip radius) metal tip is produced and placed in an ultra high vacuum chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as helium or neon. The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures (20--100 K). A positive voltage of 5 to 10 kilovolts is applied to the tip. Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the strong electric field in the vicinity of the tip (thus, \"field ionization\"), becoming positively charged and being repelled from the tip. The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification --- ions are repelled in a direction roughly perpendicular to the surface (a \"point projection\" effect). A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions; the image formed from all the collected ions can be of sufficient resolution to image individual atoms on the tip surface.
Unlike conventional microscopes, where the spatial resolution is limited by the wavelength of the particles which are used for imaging, the FIM is a projection type microscope with atomic resolution and an approximate magnification of a few million times.
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# Field ion microscope
## Design, limitations and applications {#design_limitations_and_applications}
FIM like field-emission microscopy (FEM) consists of a sharp sample tip and a fluorescent screen (now replaced by a multichannel plate) as the key elements. However, there are some essential differences as follows:
1. The tip potential is positive.
2. The chamber is filled with an imaging gas (typically, He or Ne at 10^−5^ to 10^−3^ Torr).
3. The tip is cooled to low temperatures (\~20-80K).
Like FEM, the field strength at the tip apex is typically a few V/Å. The experimental set-up and image formation in FIM is illustrated in the accompanying figures.
In FIM the presence of a strong field is critical. The imaging gas atoms (He, Ne) near the tip are polarized by the field and since the field is non-uniform the polarized atoms are attracted towards the tip surface. The imaging atoms then lose their kinetic energy performing a series of hops and accommodate to the tip temperature. Eventually, the imaging atoms are ionized by tunneling electrons into the surface and the resulting positive ions are accelerated along the field lines to the screen to form a highly magnified image of the sample tip.
In FIM, the ionization takes place close to the tip, where the field is strongest. The electron that tunnels from the atom is picked up by the tip. There is a critical distance, xc, at which the tunneling probability is a maximum. This distance is typically about 0.4 nm. The very high spatial resolution and high contrast for features on the atomic scale arises from the fact that the electric field is enhanced in the vicinity of the surface atoms because of the higher local curvature. The resolution of FIM is limited by the thermal velocity of the imaging ion. Resolution of the order of 1Å (atomic resolution) can be achieved by effective cooling of the tip.
Application of FIM, like FEM, is limited by the materials which can be fabricated in the shape of a sharp tip, can be used in an ultra high vacuum (UHV) environment, and can tolerate the high electrostatic fields. For these reasons, refractory metals with high melting temperature (e.g. W, Mo, Pt, Ir) are conventional objects for FIM experiments. Metal tips for FEM and FIM are prepared by electropolishing (electrochemical polishing) of thin wires. However, these tips usually contain many asperities. The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage. Field evaporation is a field induced process which involves the removal of atoms from the surface itself at very high field strengths and typically occurs in the range 2-5 V/Å. The effect of the field in this case is to reduce the effective binding energy of the atom to the surface and to give, in effect, a greatly increased evaporation rate relative to that expected at that temperature at zero fields. This process is self-regulating since the atoms that are at positions of high local curvature, such as adatoms or ledge atoms, are removed preferentially. The tips used in FIM is sharper (tip radius is 100\~300 Å) compared to those used in FEM experiments (tip radius \~1000 Å).
FIM has been used to study dynamical behavior of surfaces and the behavior of adatoms on surfaces. The problems studied include adsorption-desorption phenomena, surface diffusion of adatoms and clusters, adatom-adatom interactions, step motion, equilibrium crystal shape, etc. However, there is the possibility of the results being affected by the limited surface area (i.e. edge effects) and by the presence of large electric field
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# Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
**Frederick I of Ansbach and Bayreuth** (also known as **Frederick V**; *Friedrich V. von Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach* or *Friedrich der Ältere*; 8 May 1460 -- 4 April 1536) was born at Ansbach as the eldest son of Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg by his second wife Anna, daughter of Frederick II, Elector of Saxony. His elder half-brother was the Elector John Cicero of Brandenburg. Friedrich succeeded his father as Margrave of Ansbach in 1486 and his younger brother Siegmund as Margrave of Bayreuth in 1495.
After depleting the finances of the margraviate with his lavish lifestyle, Frederick I was deposed by his two elder sons, Casimir and George, in 1515. He was then locked up at Plassenburg Castle by his eldest son Casimir in a tower room from which he could not escape for 12 years. Thereupon, his son Casimir took up the rule of the Margraviate of Bayreuth (Kulmbach) and his son George took up the rule of the Margraviate of Ansbach. However, the overthrow of Frederick did outrage his other younger sons and led to far-reaching political countermeasures. When Elector Joachim I of Brandenburg visited Kulmbach during his journey to Augsburg, and wanted to plead for Frederick\'s release, he was nevertheless denied entry to Plassenburg Castle. The dispute was finally cleared when an agreement was reached in 1522, in which the demands of the younger sons of Frederick were met.
## Family and children {#family_and_children}
On 14 February 1479, at Frankfurt (Oder), Frederick I was married to Princess Sophia of Poland (6 April 1464 -- 5 October 1512), daughter of King Casimir IV of Poland by his wife Elisabeth of Austria, and sister of King Sigismund I of Poland. They had seventeen children:
1. Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (27 September 1481, Ansbach -- 21 September 1527, Buda).
2. Elisabeth, died young.
3. Margarete of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (10 January 1483, Ansbach -- 10 July 1532).
4. George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (4 March 1484, Ansbach -- 27 December 1543, Ansbach).
5. Sophie of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (10 March 1485, Ansbach -- 24 May 1537, Liegnitz), married on 14 November 1518 to Duke Frederick II of Legnica.
6. Anna of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (5 May 1487, Ansbach -- 7 February 1539), married on 1 December 1518 to Duke Wenceslaus II of Cieszyn.
7. Barbara, died young.
8. Albert, 1st Duke of Prussia (17 May 1490, Ansbach -- 20 March 1568, Castle Tapiau), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order from 1511 to 1525, and first Duke of Prussia from 1525.
9. Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (13 June 1491, Ansbach -- ca. 1497).
10. Johann, Viceroy of Valencia (9 January 1493, Plassenburg -- 5 July 1525, Valencia)
11. Elisabeth of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (25 March 1494, Ansbach -- 31 May 1518, Pforzheim), married in Pforzheim on 29 September 1510 to Margrave Ernest of Baden-Durlach.
12. Barbara of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (24 September 1495, Ansbach -- 23 September 1552), married in Plassenburg on 26 July 1528 to Landgrave George III of Leuchtenberg.
13. Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (17 January 1497, Ansbach -- 20 August 1536, Genoa), a canon in Würzburg and Salzburg.
14. Wilhelm, Archbishop of Riga (30 June 1498, Ansbach -- 4 February 1563, Riga)
15. John Albert, Archbishop of Magdeburg (20 September 1499, Ansbach -- 17 May 1550, Halle)
16. Frederick Albert, died young.
17. Gumprecht of Brandenburg-Ansbach-Kulmbach (16 July 1503, Ansbach -- 25 June 1528, Naples), a canon in Bamberg
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# Felsic
In geology, **felsic** is a modifier describing igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are richer in magnesium and iron. Felsic refers to silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. Molten felsic magma and lava is more viscous than molten mafic magma and lava. Felsic magmas and lavas have lower temperatures of melting and solidification than mafic magmas and lavas.
Felsic rocks are usually light in color and have specific gravities less than 3. The most common felsic rock is granite. Common felsic minerals include quartz, muscovite, orthoclase, and the sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars (albite-rich).
## Terminology
### Acid rock {#acid_rock}
In modern usage, the term *acid rock*, although sometimes used as a synonym, normally now refers specifically to a high-silica-content (greater than 63% SiO~2~ by weight) volcanic rock, such as rhyolite. Older, broader usage is now considered archaic. That usage, with the contrasting term \"basic rock\" (MgO, FeO, mafic), was based on an ancient concept, dating from the 19th century, that \"silicic acid\" (H~4~SiO~4~ or Si(OH)~4~) was the chief form of silicon occurring in siliceous rocks. Although this intuition makes sense from an acid-base perspective in aquatic chemistry considering water-rock interactions and silica dissolution, siliceous rocks are not formed by this protonated monomeric species, but by a tridimensional network of SiO~4~^4--^ tetrahedra connected to each other. Once released in water and hydrolyzed, these silica entities can indeed form silicic acid in aqueous solution.
### Etymology
The term \"felsic\" is a derivation of the words \"**fel**dspar\" and \"**si**lica\". The similarity of the resulting term *felsic* to the German *felsig*, \"rocky\" (from *Fels*, \"rock\"), is accidental. *Feldspar* is from the German *Feldspat*, a compound of the German *Feld*, meaning field, plus *spat\[h\]*, meaning mineral.
## Classification of felsic rocks {#classification_of_felsic_rocks}
In order for a rock (rather than a mineral) to be classified as felsic, it generally needs to contain more than 75% felsic minerals (namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase). Rocks with greater than 90% felsic minerals can also be called leucocratic, from the Greek words for white and dominance.
Felsite is a petrologic field term used to refer to very fine-grained or aphanitic, light-colored volcanic rocks which might be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or chemical analysis.
In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain phenocrysts of mafic minerals, usually hornblende, pyroxene or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their phenocryst mineral, such as \'hornblende-bearing felsite\'.
The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the TAS classification of Le Maitre (1975). However, this only applies to volcanic rocks. If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but is metamorphic and has no definite volcanic protolith, it may be sufficient to simply call it a \'felsic schist\'. There are examples known of highly sheared granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites.
For phaneritic felsic rocks, the QAPF diagram should be used, and a name given according to the granite nomenclature. Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance, hornblende-bearing granite, pyroxene tonalite or augite megacrystic monzonite, because the term \"granite\" already assumes content with feldspar and quartz.
The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock
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# Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
**Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti** (`{{IPA|it|fiˈlippo tomˈmaːzo mariˈnetti|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 22 December 1876 -- 2 December 1944) was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist and founder of the Futurist movement. He was associated with the utopian and Symbolist artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908. Marinetti is best known as the author of the *Manifesto of Futurism*, which was written and published in 1909, and as a co-author of the Fascist Manifesto, in 1919.
## Childhood and adolescence {#childhood_and_adolescence}
Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti (some documents give his name as \"Filippo Achille Emilio Marinetti\") spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father, Enrico Marinetti, and mother, Amalia Grolli, lived together *more uxorio* (as if married). Enrico was a lawyer from Piedmont, and his mother was the daughter of a literary professor from Milan. They had come to Egypt in 1865 at the invitation of Khedive Isma\'il Pasha to act as legal advisers for foreign companies that were taking part in his modernization program.
Marinetti\'s love for literature developed during the school years. His mother was an avid reader of poetry and introduced her young son to the Italian and other European classics. At 17, he started his first school magazine, *Papyrus*; the Jesuits threatened to expel him for publicizing Émile Zola\'s scandalous novels in the school.
He studied in Egypt and then in Paris, obtained a *baccalauréat* degree in 1894 at the Sorbonne University and in Italy, and graduated in law at the University of Pavia in 1899.
He decided not to be a lawyer but to develop a literary career. He experimented with every type of literature (poetry, narrative, theatre, *words in liberty*) and signed everything \"Filippo Tommaso Marinetti\".
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# Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
## Futurism
Marinetti and Constantin Brâncuși were visitors of the Abbaye de Créteil around 1908, along with young writers like Roger Allard (one of the first to defend Cubism), Pierre Jean Jouve and Paul Castiaux, who wanted to publish their works through the Abbaye. The Abbaye de Créteil was a *phalanstère* community founded in the autumn of 1906 by the painter Albert Gleizes, and the poets René Arcos, Henri-Martin Barzun, Alexandre Mercereau and Charles Vildrac. The movement drew its inspiration from the *Abbaye de Thélème*, a fictional creation by Rabelais in his novel *Gargantua*. It was closed down by its members in early 1908.
Marinetti is known best as the author of the *Futurist Manifesto*, which he wrote in 1909. It was published in French on the front page of the most prestigious French daily newspaper, *Le Figaro*, on 20 February 1909. Marinetti declared in it, \"Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice\". Georges Sorel, who influenced the entire political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism, also argued for the importance of violence. Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements; Marinetti later became an active supporter of Benito Mussolini.
Marinetti, who admired speed, had a minor car crash outside Milan in 1908 after he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists. He referred to the crash in the *Futurist Manifesto*. The Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to end the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style. He discussed a new and strongly revolutionary programme with his friends, in which they should end every artistic relationship with the past, \"destroy the museums, the libraries, every type of academy\". Together, he wrote, \"We will glorify war---the world\'s only hygiene---militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for woman\".
The *Futurist Manifesto* was read and debated all across Europe, but Marinetti\'s first \'Futurist works were not as successful. In April, the opening night of his drama *Le Roi bombance* (The Feasting King), written in 1905, was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling by the audience and by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another element of Futurism, \"the desire to be heckled\". Marinetti, however, fought a duel with a critic whom he considered too harsh.
His drama *La donna è mobile* (Poupées électriques), first presented in Turin, was not successful either. Nowadays, the play is remembered through a later version, *Elettricità sessuale* (Sexual Electricity), mainly for the appearance onstage of humanoid automatons ten years before the Czech writer Karel Čapek invented the term *robot*.
In 1910, his first novel, *Mafarka il futurista*, was cleared of all charges by an obscenity trial. That year, Marinetti discovered some allies in three young painters (Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà and Luigi Russolo), who adopted the Futurist philosophy. Together with them and poets such as Aldo Palazzeschi, Marinetti began a series of Futurist Evenings, theatrical spectacles in which Futurists declaimed their manifestos in front of a crowd that in part attended the performances to throw vegetables at them.
The most successful \"happening\" of that period was the publicization of the \"Manifesto Against Past-Loving Venice\" in Venice. In the flier, Marinetti demands \"fill(ing) the small, stinking canals with the rubble from the old, collapsing and leprous palaces\" to \"prepare for the birth of an industrial and militarized Venice, capable of dominating the great Adriatic, a great Italian lake\".
In 1911, the Italo-Turkish War began, and Marinetti departed for Libya as a war correspondent for a French newspaper. His articles were eventually collected and published in *The Battle of Tripoli*. He then covered the First Balkan War of 1912--1913 and witnessed the surprise success of Bulgarian troops against the Ottoman Empire during the Siege of Adrianople. In this period, he also made a number of visits to London, which he considered \'the Futurist city par excellence\' and where a number of exhibitions, lectures and demonstrations of Futurist music were staged.
Marinetti sought to establish an English Futurism and initially had an ally in Harold Monro, the editor of *Poetry and Drama*, a London literary journal. Monro devoted the September 1913 issue to Futurism, praising Marinetti in a long editorial. However, although a number of artists, including Wyndham Lewis, were interested in the new movement, only one British convert was made, the young artist C.R.W. Nevinson. Marinetti\'s campaign both threatened and influenced Ezra Pound, who founded his own literary movement, Imagism and wrote manifestos to publicize it and attack Futurism. One result of Pound\'s strong reaction to Marinetti was his advocacy of James Joyce and T.S. Eliot. Joyce was exposed to Futurism while living in Trieste. The movement\'s techniques are reflected in *Ulysses* and in *Finnegans Wake*, one section of which alludes to "crucial elements of Futurism\".
Futurism was an important influence upon Lewis\'s Vorticist philosophy. Vorticism, named by Pound, was founded with the publication of Blast to which Pound was a major contributor. An advertisement promised that *Blast* would cover \"Cubism, Futurism, Imagisme and All Vital Forms of Modern Art\". *Blast* was published only twice, in 1914 and 1915. Writing to Monro, Marinetti said that he was saddened by the reviews of Vorticism in the English press unfavorably comparing it with Futurism and would rather have worked in collaboration with the Vorticists. He and Pound later became friends, and in Canto LXXII, written in Italian, Pound meets the spirit of the recently deceased Marinetti.
Meanwhile, Marinetti worked on a very anti-Catholic and anti-Austro-Hungarian verse-novel, *Le monoplan du Pape* (*The Pope\'s Aeroplane*, 1912), and edited an anthology of futurist poets, but his attempts to renew the style of poetry did not satisfy him. So much so that, in his foreword to the anthology, he declared a new revolution: it was time to be done with traditional syntax and to use \"words in freedom\" (*parole in libertà*). His sound-poem *Zang Tumb Tumb*, an account of the Battle of Adrianople, exemplifies words in freedom. Recordings can be heard of Marinetti reading some of his sound poems: *Battaglia, Peso + Odore* (1912); *Dune, parole in libertà* (1914); *La Battaglia di Adrianopoli* (1926) (recorded 1935).
## First World War {#first_world_war}
Marinetti agitated for Italian involvement in the First World War and, once Italy had been engaged, promptly volunteered for service. In the fall of 1915, he and several other Futurists who were members of the Lombard Volunteer Cyclists were stationed at Lake Garda, in Trentino Province, high in the mountains along the Italo-Austrian border. They endured several weeks of fighting in harsh conditions before the cyclists units, deemed inappropriate for mountain warfare, were disbanded.
Marinetti spent most of 1916 supporting Italy\'s war effort with speeches, journalism and theatrical work and then returned to military service as a regular army officer in 1917. In May 1917, he was seriously wounded while serving with an artillery battalion on the Isonzo Front. He returned to service after a long recovery and participated in the decisive Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto in October 1918.
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# Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
## Marriage
After an extended courtship, in 1923`{{Disputed inline|Marriage|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Marinetti married Benedetta Cappa (1897--1977), a writer and painter and a pupil of Giacomo Balla. Born in Rome, she had joined the Futurists in 1917. They had met in 1918, moved in together in Rome, and chose to marry only to avoid legal complications on a lecture tour of Brazil. They had three daughters: Vittoria, Ala, and Luce.
Cappa and Marinetti collaborated on a genre of mixed-media assemblages in the mid-1920s they called *tattilismo* (\"Tactilism\"), and she was a strong proponent and practitioner of the aeropittura movement after its inception in 1929. She also produced three experimental novels. Cappa\'s major public work is likely a series of five murals at the Palermo Post Office (1926--1935) for the Fascist public-works architect Angiolo Mazzoni.
## Fascism
In early 1918, Marinetti founded the Futurist Political Party, which only a year later merged with Benito Mussolini\'s *Fasci Italiani di Combattimento*. Marinetti was one of the first affiliates of the Italian Fascist Party. In 1919, he co-wrote with Alceste De Ambris the *Fascist Manifesto*, the original manifesto of Italian Fascism. He opposed Fascism\'s later exaltation of existing institutions, terming them \"reactionary\". After walking out of the 1920 Fascist party congress in disgust, he withdrew from politics for three years; however, he remained a notable force in developing the party philosophy throughout the regime\'s existence. For example, at the end of the *Congress of Fascist Culture* that was held in Bologna on 30 March 1925, Giovanni Gentile addressed Sergio Panunzio on the need to define Fascism more purposefully by way of Marinetti\'s opinion: \"Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations---what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse---have lost their force. We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts---this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it.\"
As part of his campaign to overturn tradition, Marinetti also attacked traditional Italian food. His *Manifesto of Futurist Cooking* was published in the Turin *Gazzetta del Popolo* on 28 December 1930. Arguing that \"People think, dress\[,\] and act in accordance with what they drink and eat\", Marinetti proposed wide-ranging changes to diet. He condemned pasta, blaming it for lassitude, pessimism, and lack of virility, --- and promoted the eating of Italian-grown rice. In that as in other ways, his proposed Futurist cooking was nationalistic by rejecting foreign foods and food names. It was also militaristic by seeking to stimulate men to be fighters.
Marinetti also sought to increase creativity. His attraction to whatever was new made scientific discoveries appealing to him, but his views on diet were not scientifically based. He was fascinated with the idea of processed food, predicted that someday pills would replace food as a source of energy, and called for the creation of \"plastic complexes\" to replace natural foods. Food, in turn, would become a matter of artistic expression. Many of the meals Marinetti described and ate resemble performance art, such as the \"Tactile Dinner\", recreated in 2014 for an exhibit at the Guggenheim Museum. Participants wore pajamas decorated with sponge, sandpaper, and aluminum, and ate salads without using cutlery.
During the Fascist regime, Marinetti sought to make Futurism the official state art of Italy but failed to do so. Mussolini was personally uninterested in art and chose to give patronage to numerous styles to keep artists loyal to the regime. Opening the exhibition of art by the Novecento Italiano group in 1923, he said: \"I declare that it is far from my idea to encourage anything like a state art. Art belongs to the domain of the individual. The state has only one duty: not to undermine art, to provide humane conditions for artists, to encourage them from the artistic and national point of view.\" Mussolini\'s mistress, Margherita Sarfatti, successfully promoted the rival Novecento Group, and even persuaded Marinetti to be part of its board.
In Fascist Italy, modern art was tolerated and even approved by the Fascist hierarchy. Towards the end of the 1930s, some Fascist ideologues (for example, the ex-Futurist Ardengo Soffici) wished to import the concept of \"degenerate art\" from Germany to Italy and condemned modernism although their demands were ignored by the regime. In 1938, hearing that Adolf Hitler wanted to include Futurism in a traveling exhibition of degenerate art, Marinetti persuaded Mussolini to refuse to let it enter Italy.
On 17 November 1938, Italy passed the Racial Laws, discriminating against Italian Jews, much like the discrimination by Germany pronounced by the Nuremberg Laws. The antisemitic trend in Italy resulted in attacks against modern art, which was judged too foreign, radical and anti-nationalist. In the 11 January 1939 issue of the Futurist journal, *Artecrazia*, Marinetti expressed his condemnation of such attacks on modern art by noting that Futurism was both Italian and nationalist, not foreign, and stating that there were no Jews in Futurism. Furthermore, he claimed Jews were not active in the development of modern art. Regardless, the Italian state shut down *Artecrazia*.
Marinetti made numerous attempts to ingratiate himself with the regime by becoming less radical and avant garde with each attempt. He relocated from Milan to Rome. He became an academician despite his condemnation of academies and said, \"It is important that Futurism be represented in the Academy\".
He was an atheist, but by the mid-1930s, he had come to accept the influence of the Catholic Church on Italian society. In *Gazzetta del Popolo*, 21 June 1931, Marinetti proclaimed that \"Only Futurist artists\...are able to express clearly\...the simultaneous dogmas of the Catholic faith, such as the Holy Trinity, the Immaculate Conception and Christ\'s Calvary.\" In his last works, written just before his death in 1944 *L\'aeropoema di Gesù* (\"The Aeropoem of Jesus\") and *[Quarto d\'ora di poesia per the X Mas](https://archive.org/details/marinetti-quarto-dora-di-poesia-della-x-mas-musica-di-sentimenti-1945)* (\"A Fifteen Minutes\' Poem of the tenth MAS\"), Marinetti sought to reconcile his newfound love for God and his passion for the action that accompanied him throughout his life.
There were other contradictions in his character: despite his nationalism, he was international, had been educated in Egypt and France, wrote his first poems in French, published the Futurist Manifesto in a French newspaper and travelled to promote his ideas.
Marinetti volunteered for active service in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and the Second World War, serving on the Eastern Front for a few weeks in the summer and the autumn of 1942 at the age of 65.
He died of cardiac arrest in Bellagio on 2 December 1944 while he was working on a collection of poems praising the wartime achievements of the Decima Flottiglia MAS.
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# Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
## Writings
- Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, *Il Fascino dell\'Egitto (The Charm of Egypt),* A. Mondadori -- Editore, 1933, <https://archive.org/details/marinetti_fascino_1933A/page/n3/mode/2up>, [Italian version available online](https://archive.org/details/marinetti-il-fascino-dellegitto-1933)
- Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: *Mafarka the Futurist. An African novel*, Middlesex University Press, 1998, `{{ISBN|1-898253-10-2}}`{=mediawiki}, French version available online
- Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: *Selected Poems and Related Prose*, Yale University Press, 2002, `{{ISBN|0-300-04103-9}}`{=mediawiki}
- Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: *Critical Writings*, ed. byGünter Berghaus, New York : Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2006, 549p., `{{ISBN|0-374-26083-4}}`{=mediawiki}, pocket edition 2008: `{{ISBN|0-374-53107-2}}`{=mediawiki}
- Carlo Schirru, Per un'analisi interlinguistica d'epoca: Grazia Deledda e contemporanei, Rivista Italiana di Linguistica e di Dialettologia, Fabrizio Serra editore, Pisa-Roma, Anno XI, 2009, pp. 9--32
- Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, *Le Futurisme*, textes annotés et préfacés par Giovanni Lista, L'Age d'Homme, Lausanne, 1980
- Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, *Les Mots en liberté futuristes*, préfacés par Giovanni Lista, L'Age d'Homme, Lausanne, 1987
- Giovanni Lista, *F. T. Marinetti*, Éditions Seghers, Paris, 1976
- *Marinetti et le futurisme*, poèmes, études, documents, iconographie, réunis et préfacés par Giovanni Lista, bibliographie établie par Giovanni Lista, L'Age d'Homme, Lausanne, 1977
- Giovanni Lista, *F. T. Marinetti, l'anarchiste du futurisme*, Éditions Séguier, Paris, 1995
- Giovanni Lista, *Le Futurisme : création et avant-garde*, Éditions L'Amateur, Paris, 2001
- Giovanni Lista, *Le Futurisme, une avant-garde radicale*, coll. \"Découvertes Gallimard\" (n° 533), Éditions Gallimard, Paris, 2008.
- Giovanni Lista, *Journal des Futurismes*, Éditions Hazan, coll. \"Bibliothèque\", Paris, 2008 (`{{ISBN|978-2-7541-0208-7}}`{=mediawiki})
- Antonino Reitano, *L\'onore, la patria e la fede nell\'ultimo Marinetti*, Angelo Parisi Editore, 2006
- Barbara Meazzi, *Il fantasma del romanzo. Le futurisme italien et l\'écriture romanesque (1909--1929)*, Chambéry, Presses universitaires Savoie Mont Blanc, 2021, 430 pp
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# Foix–Alajouanine syndrome
**Foix--Alajouanine syndrome**, also called **subacute ascending necrotizing myelitis**, is a disease caused by an arteriovenous malformation of the spinal cord. In particular, most cases involve dural arteriovenous malformations that present in the lower thoracic or lumbar spinal cord. The condition is named after Charles Foix and Théophile Alajouanine who first described the condition in 1926.
## Signs and symptoms {#signs_and_symptoms}
The patients can present with symptoms indicating spinal cord involvement such as (paralysis of arms and legs, numbness and loss of sensation and sphincter dysfunction), and pathological examination reveals disseminated nerve cell death in the spinal cord.
## Diagnosis
Clinically, the patient may present with neurological symptoms such as numbness, weakness, loss of reflexes, or even sudden or progressive paralysis. The affected portion of the body will correlate to where the lesion lies within the spinal cord. The disease typically has an insidious onset, but symptoms may manifest suddenly. A thorough physical exam may lead a physician toward targeted imaging, with MRI being the most appropriate imaging modality for initial diagnosis. A spinal MRA will serve as a superior imaging technique to visualize the extent of the arteriovenous malformation within the cord and may be especially useful if surgical treatment is attempted.
## Treatment
Surgical treatment may be attempted with endovascular embolization or ligation of the arteriovenous malformation within the spinal cord. Corticosteroids may be used acutely to help slow the progression of symptoms or they may be used chronically in a poor surgical candidate. In either case, physical therapy will be an important part of the recovery process in helping the patient regain strength and coordination
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# Ferromagnetism
`{{Condensed matter physics}}`{=mediawiki} **Ferromagnetism** is a property of certain materials (such as iron) that results in a significant, observable magnetic permeability, and in many cases, a significant magnetic coercivity, allowing the material to form a permanent magnet. Ferromagnetic materials are noticeably attracted to a magnet, which is a consequence of their substantial magnetic permeability.
Magnetic permeability describes the induced magnetization of a material due to the presence of an external magnetic field. For example, this temporary magnetization inside a steel plate accounts for the plate\'s attraction to a magnet. Whether or not that steel plate then acquires permanent magnetization depends on both the strength of the applied field and on the coercivity of that particular piece of steel (which varies with the steel\'s chemical composition and any heat treatment it may have undergone).
In physics, multiple types of material magnetism have been distinguished. Ferromagnetism (along with the similar effect ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type and is responsible for the common phenomenon of everyday magnetism. A common example of a permanent magnet is a refrigerator magnet. Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields by three other types of magnetism---paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism---but the forces are usually so weak that they can be detected only by lab instruments.
Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that are strongly attracted to them. Relatively few materials are ferromagnetic; the common ones are the metals iron, cobalt, nickel and most of their alloys, and certain rare-earth metals.
Ferromagnetism is widely used in industrial applications and modern technology, in electromagnetic and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, magnetic storage (including tape recorders and hard disks), and nondestructive testing of ferrous materials.
Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically \"soft\" materials (like annealed iron) having low coercivity, which do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically \"hard\" materials having high coercivity, which do. Permanent magnets are made from hard ferromagnetic materials (such as alnico) and ferrimagnetic materials (such as ferrite) that are subjected to special processing in a strong magnetic field during manufacturing to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them difficult to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a magnetic field must be applied. The threshold at which demagnetization occurs depends on the coercivity of the material. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, its total magnetic flux. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.
## Terms
Historically, the term *ferromagnetism* was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field; that is, any material that could become a magnet. This definition is still in common use.
In a landmark paper in 1948, Louis Néel showed that two levels of magnetic alignment result in this behavior. One is ferromagnetism in the strict sense, where all the magnetic moments are aligned. The other is *ferrimagnetism*, where some magnetic moments point in the opposite direction but have a smaller contribution, so spontaneous magnetization is present.
In the special case where the opposing moments balance completely, the alignment is known as *antiferromagnetism*; antiferromagnets do not have a spontaneous magnetization.
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