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# History of the Internet
## Use and culture {#use_and_culture}
### Email and Usenet {#email_and_usenet}
Email has often been called the killer application of the Internet. It predates the Internet, and was a crucial tool in creating it. Email started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the history is undocumented, among the first systems to have such a facility were the System Development Corporation (SDC) Q32 and the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) at MIT.
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the evolution of electronic mail. An experimental inter-system transferred mail on the ARPANET shortly after its creation. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson created what was to become the standard Internet electronic mail addressing format, using the @ sign to separate mailbox names from host names.
A number of protocols were developed to deliver messages among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as UUCP and IBM\'s VNET email system. Email could be passed this way between a number of networks, including ARPANET, BITNET and NSFNET, as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP. See the history of SMTP protocol.
In addition, UUCP allowed the publication of text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by Steve Daniel and Tom Truscott in 1979 was used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This quickly grew into discussion groups, known as newsgroups, on a wide range of topics. On ARPANET and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via mailing lists, discussing both technical issues and more culturally focused topics (such as science fiction, discussed on the sflovers mailing list).
During the early years of the Internet, email and similar mechanisms were also fundamental to allow people to access resources that were not available due to the absence of online connectivity. UUCP was often used to distribute files using the \'alt.binary\' groups. Also, FTP e-mail gateways allowed people that lived outside the US and Europe to download files using ftp commands written inside email messages. The file was encoded, broken in pieces and sent by email; the receiver had to reassemble and decode it later, and it was the only way for people living overseas to download items such as the earlier Linux versions using the slow dial-up connections available at the time. After the popularization of the Web and the HTTP protocol such tools were slowly abandoned.
### File sharing {#file_sharing}
Resource or file sharing has been an important activity on computer networks from well before the Internet was established and was supported in a variety of ways including bulletin board systems (1978), Usenet (1980), Kermit (1981), and many others. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for use on the Internet was standardized in 1985 and is still in use today. A variety of tools were developed to aid the use of FTP by helping users discover files they might want to transfer, including the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) in 1991, Gopher in 1991, Archie in 1991, Veronica in 1992, Jughead in 1993, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) in 1988, and eventually the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1991 with Web directories and Web search engines.
In 1999, Napster became the first peer-to-peer file sharing system. Napster used a central server for indexing and peer discovery, but the storage and transfer of files was decentralized. A variety of peer-to-peer file sharing programs and services with different levels of decentralization and anonymity followed, including: Gnutella, eDonkey2000, and Freenet in 2000, FastTrack, Kazaa, Limewire, and BitTorrent in 2001, and Poisoned in 2003.
All of these tools are general purpose and can be used to share a wide variety of content, but sharing of music files, software, and later movies and videos are major uses. And while some of this sharing is legal, large portions are not. Lawsuits and other legal actions caused Napster in 2001, eDonkey2000 in 2005, Kazaa in 2006, and Limewire in 2010 to shut down or refocus their efforts. The Pirate Bay, founded in Sweden in 2003, continues despite a trial and appeal in 2009 and 2010 that resulted in jail terms and large fines for several of its founders. File sharing remains contentious and controversial with charges of theft of intellectual property on the one hand and charges of censorship on the other.
### File hosting services {#file_hosting_services}
File hosting allowed for people to expand their computer\'s hard drives and \"host\" their files on a server. Most file hosting services offer free storage, as well as larger storage amount for a fee. These services have greatly expanded the internet for business and personal use.
Google Drive, launched on April 24, 2012, has become the most popular file hosting service. Google Drive allows users to store, edit, and share files with themselves and other users. Not only does this application allow for file editing, hosting, and sharing. It also acts as Google\'s own free-to-access office programs, such as Google Docs, Google Slides, and Google Sheets. This application served as a useful tool for University professors and students, as well as those who are in need of Cloud storage.
Dropbox, released in June 2007 is a similar file hosting service that allows users to keep all of their files in a folder on their computer, which is synced with Dropbox\'s servers. This differs from Google Drive as it is not web-browser based. Now, Dropbox works to keep workers and files in sync and efficient.
Mega, having over 200 million users, is an encrypted storage and communication system that offers users free and paid storage, with an emphasis on privacy. Being three of the largest file hosting services, Google Drive, Dropbox, and Mega all represent the core ideas and values of these services.
## Online piracy {#online_piracy}
The earliest form of online piracy began with a P2P (peer to peer) music sharing service named Napster, launched in 1999. Sites like LimeWire, The Pirate Bay, and BitTorrent allowed for anyone to engage in online piracy, sending ripples through the media industry. With online piracy came a change in the media industry as a whole.
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# History of the Internet
## Mobile telephone data traffic {#mobile_telephone_data_traffic}
Total global mobile data traffic reached 588 exabytes during 2020, a 150-fold increase from 3.86 exabytes/year in 2010. Most recently, smartphones accounted for 95% of this mobile data traffic with video accounting for 66% by type of data. Mobile traffic travels by radio frequency to the closest cell phone tower and its base station where the radio signal is converted into an optical signal that is transmitted over high-capacity optical networking systems that convey the information to data centers. The optical backbones enable much of this traffic as well as a host of emerging mobile services including the Internet of things, 3-D virtual reality, gaming and autonomous vehicles. The most popular mobile phone application is texting, of which 2.1 trillion messages were logged in 2020. The texting phenomenon began on December 3, 1992, when Neil Papworth sent the first text message of \"Merry Christmas\" over a commercial cell phone network to the CEO of Vodafone.
The first mobile phone with Internet connectivity was the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996. The viability of Internet services access on mobile phones was limited until prices came down from that model, and network providers started to develop systems and services conveniently accessible on phones. NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, i-mode, in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone Internet services. In 2001, the mobile phone email system by Research in Motion (now BlackBerry Limited) for their BlackBerry product was launched in America. To make efficient use of the small screen and tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a specific document and networking model was created for mobile devices, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP). Most mobile device Internet services operate using WAP. The growth of mobile phone services was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing resources by phone rather than by PC. Developing countries followed, with India, South Africa, Kenya, the Philippines, and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic users accessed the Internet from a mobile phone rather than a PC. The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet access was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20--30% in most Western countries. The cross-over occurred in 2008, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user.
## Growth in demand {#growth_in_demand}
Global Internet traffic continues to grow at a rapid rate, rising 23% from 2020 to 2021 when the number of active Internet users reached 4.66 billion people, representing half of the global population. Further demand for data, and the capacity to satisfy this demand, are forecast to increase to 717 terabits per second in 2021. This capacity stems from the optical amplification and WDM systems that are the common basis of virtually every metro, regional, national, international and submarine telecommunications networks. These optical networking systems have been installed throughout the 5 billion kilometers of fiber optic lines deployed around the world. Continued growth in traffic is expected for the foreseeable future from a combination of new users, increased mobile phone adoption, machine-to-machine connections, connected homes, 5G devices and the burgeoning requirement for cloud and Internet services such as Amazon, Facebook, Apple Music and YouTube.
## Historiography
There are nearly insurmountable problems in supplying a historiography of the Internet\'s development. The process of digitization represents a twofold challenge both for historiography in general and, in particular, for historical communication research. A sense of the difficulty in documenting early developments that led to the internet can be gathered from the quote:
Notable works on the subject were published by Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, *Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet* (1996), Roy Rosenzweig, *Wizards, Bureaucrats, Warriors, and Hackers: Writing the History of the Internet* (1998), and Janet Abbate, *Inventing the Internet* (2000).
Most scholarship and literature on the Internet lists ARPANET as the prior network that was iterated on and studied to create it, although other early computer networks and experiments existed alongside or before ARPANET.
These histories of the Internet have since been criticized as teleologies or Whig history; that is, they take the present to be the end point toward which history has been unfolding based on a single cause:
In addition to these characteristics, historians have cited methodological problems arising in their work: `{{Blockquote|text="Internet history" ... tends to be too close to its sources. Many Internet pioneers are alive, active, and eager to shape the histories that describe their accomplishments. Many museums and historians are equally eager to interview the pioneers and to publicize their stories.|author=Andrew L. Russell (2012)<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Russell |first=Andrew |date=2012 |title=Histories of Networking vs. the History of the Internet |url=https://arussell.org/papers/russell-SIGCIS-2012
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# Hogshead
thumb\|upright=1.4\|A hogshead in relation to other barrels A **hogshead** (abbreviated \"hhd\", plural \"hhds\") is a large cask of liquid (or, less often, of a food commercial product) for manufacturing and sale. It refers to a specified volume, measured in either imperial or US customary measures, primarily applied to alcoholic beverages, such as wine, ale, or cider.
## Etymology
English philologist Walter William Skeat (1835--1912) noted the origin is to be found in the name for a cask or liquid measure appearing in various forms in Germanic languages, in Dutch *oxhooft* (modern *okshoofd*), Danish *oxehoved*, Old Swedish *oxhuvud*, etc. The *Encyclopædia Britannica* of 1911 conjectured that the word should therefore be \"oxhead\", \"hogshead\" being a mere corruption.
## Varieties and standardisation {#varieties_and_standardisation}
A **tobacco hogshead** was used in British and American colonial times to transport and store tobacco. It was a very large wooden barrel. A standardized hogshead measured 48 in long and 30 in in diameter at the head (at least 550 L, depending on the width in the middle). Fully packed with tobacco, it weighed about 1000 lb.
A **hogshead** in Britain contains about 300 L.
The *Oxford English Dictionary* (OED) notes that the hogshead was first standardized by an act of Parliament (2 Hen. 6. c. 14) in 1423, though the standards continued to vary by locality and content. For example, the OED cites an 1897 edition of *Whitaker\'s Almanack*, which specified the gallons of wine in a hogshead varying most particularly across fortified wines: claret/Madeira 46 impgal, port 57 impgal, sherry 54 impgal. The *American Heritage Dictionary* claims that a hogshead can consist of anything from (presumably) 62.5 to. A hogshead of Madeira wine was approximately equal to 45--48 gallons (0.205--0.218 m^3^). A hogshead of brandy was approximately equal to 56--61 gallons (0.255--0.277 m^3^).
Eventually, a hogshead of wine came to be 52.5 impgal (or 63 US gallons), while a hogshead of beer or ale came to be 54 gallons (249.54221 L with the pre-1824 beer and ale gallon, or 245.48886 L with the imperial gallon).
A hogshead was also used as unit of measurement for sugar in Louisiana for most of the 19th century. Plantations were listed in sugar schedules by the number of hogsheads of sugar or molasses produced. Used for sugar in the 18th and 19th centuries in the British West Indies, a hogshead weighed on average 16 cwt / 813kg. A hogshead was also used for the measurement of herring fished for sardines in Blacks Harbour, New Brunswick and Cornwall
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# Handball
**Handball** (also known as **team handball**, **European handball**, **Olympic handball** or **indoor handball**) is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six outcourt players and a goalkeeper) pass a ball using their hands with the aim of throwing it into the goal of the opposing team. A standard match consists of two periods of 30 minutes, and the team that scores more goals wins.
Modern handball is played on a court of 40 by, with a goal in the middle of each end. The goals are surrounded by a 6 metre zone where only the defending goalkeeper is allowed; goals must be scored by throwing the ball from outside the zone or while \"diving\" into it. The sport is usually played indoors, but outdoor variants exist in the forms of field handball, Czech handball (which were more common in the past) and beach handball. The game is fast and high-scoring: professional teams now typically score between 20 and 35 goals each, though lower scores were not uncommon until a few decades ago. Body contact is permitted for the defenders trying to stop the attackers from approaching the goal. No protective equipment is mandated, but players may wear soft protective bands, pads and mouth guards.
The modern set of rules was published in 1917 by Karl Schelenz, Max Heiser, and Erich Konigh, on 29 October in Berlin, which is seen as the date of birth of the sport. The rules have had several revisions since. The first official handball match was played in 1917 in Germany. Karl Schelenz modified the rules in 1919. The first international games were played (under these rules) with men in 1925 (between Germany and Belgium) and with women in 1930 (between Germany and Austria).
Men\'s handball was first played at the Olympics in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin outdoors, and the next time at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich indoors; handball has been an Olympic sport since then. Women\'s handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics.
The International Handball Federation was formed in 1946 and, `{{as of|2016|lc=1}}`{=mediawiki}, has 197 member federations. The sport is most popular in Europe, and European countries have won all medals but one in the men\'s world championships since 1938. In the women\'s world championships, only two non-European countries have won the title: South Korea and Brazil. The game also enjoys popularity in East Asia, North Africa and parts of South America.
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# Handball
## Origins and development {#origins_and_development}
Games similar to handball were played in Ancient Greece and are represented on amphorae and stone carvings. Although detailed textual reference is rare, there are numerous descriptions of ball games being played where players throw the ball to one another; sometimes this is done in order to avoid interception by a player on the opposing team. Such games were played widely and served as both a form of exercise and a social event.
There is evidence of ancient Roman women playing a version of handball called *expulsim ludere*. There are records of handball-like games in medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland, in the Middle Ages. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of *håndbold* from Denmark, *házená* in the Czech Republic, *handbol* in Ukraine, and *torball* in Germany.
The team handball game of today was codified at the end of the 19th century in northern Europe: primarily in Denmark, Germany, Norway, and Sweden. The first written set of team handball rules was published in 1906 by the Danish gym teacher, lieutenant and Olympic medalist Holger Nielsen from Ordrup grammar school, north of Copenhagen. The modern set of rules was published by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, and Erich Konigh in 1917 on 29 October in Berlin, Germany; this day is therefore seen as the \"date of birth\" of the sport. The first official handball match was played on 2 December 1917 in Berlin. In 1919 the rules were modified by Karl Schelenz. The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and Austria by men in 1925 and between Germany and Austria by women in 1930.
In 1926, the Congress of World Athletics (then known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation) nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in 1928 and later the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946.
Men\'s field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. During the next several decades, indoor handball flourished and evolved in the Scandinavian countries. The sport re-emerged onto the world stage as men\'s team handball for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. Women\'s team handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. Due to its popularity in the region, the Eastern European countries that refined the event became the dominant force in the sport when it was reintroduced.
The International Handball Federation organised the men\'s world championship in 1938 and every four (sometimes three) years from World War II to 1995. Since the 1995 world championship in Iceland, the competition has been held every two years. The women\'s world championship has been held since 1957. The IHF also organizes women\'s and men\'s junior world championships. By July 2009, the IHF listed 166 member federations -- approximately 795,000 teams and 19 million players.
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# Handball
## Rules
The rules are laid out in the IHF\'s set of rules, most recently published in 2024.
### Summary
Two teams of seven players (six court players plus one goalkeeper) take the court and attempt to score points by putting the game ball into the opposing team\'s goal. In handling the ball, players are subject to the following restrictions:
- After receiving the ball, players can pass, keep possession, or shoot the ball.
- Players are not allowed to touch the ball with their feet. The goalkeeper is the only player allowed to use their feet, but only within the goal area.
- If possessing the ball, players must dribble (comparable to a basketball dribble), or can take up to three steps for up to three seconds at a time without dribbling.
- No attacking or defending players other than the defending goalkeeper are allowed to touch the floor of the goal area (within six metres of the goal). A shot or pass in the goal area is valid if completed *before touching the floor*. Goalkeepers are allowed outside the goal area, but are not allowed to cross the goal area boundary with the ball in their hands.
- The ball may not be passed back to the goalkeeper when they are positioned in the goal area.
Notable scoring opportunities can occur when attacking players jump into the goal area. For example, an attacking player may catch a pass while launching toward the inside of the goal area, and then shoot or pass before touching the floor. *Doubling* occurs when a diving attacking player passes to another diving teammate.
### Playing court {#playing_court}
Handball is played on a court 40 x, with a goal in the centre of each end. The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular area, called the zone or the crease, defined by a line six metres from the goal. A dashed near-semicircular line nine metres from the goal marks the free-throw line. Each line on the court is part of the area it encompasses; the centre line belongs to both halves at the same time.
#### Goals
The goals are two metres high and three metres wide. They must be securely bolted either to the floor or the wall behind.
The goal posts and the crossbar must be made out of the same material (e.g., wood or aluminium) and feature a quadratic cross section with sides of 8 cm. The three sides of the beams visible from the playing court must be painted alternatingly in two contrasting colors which both have to contrast against the background. The colors on both goals must be the same.
Each goal must feature a net. This must be fastened in such a way that a ball thrown into the goal does not leave or pass the goal under normal circumstances. If necessary, a second net may be clasped to the back of the net on the inside.
#### Crease
The goals are surrounded by the crease, also called the zone. This area is delineated by two quarter circles with a radius of six metres around the far corners of each goal post and a connecting line parallel to the goal line. Only the defending goalkeeper is allowed inside this zone. Court players may catch and touch the ball in the air within it as long as the player starts their jump outside the zone and releases the ball before they land (landing inside the perimeter is allowed in this case as long as the ball has been released).
If a player without the ball contacts the ground inside the goal perimeter, or the line surrounding the perimeter, they must take the most direct path out of it. Should a player cross the zone in an attempt to gain an advantage (e.g., better position) their team cedes the ball. Similarly, violation of the zone by a defending player is penalized only if they do so in order to gain an advantage in defending.
#### Substitution area {#substitution_area}
Outside of one long edge of the court to both sides of the middle line are the substitution areas for each team. Team officials, substitutes, and suspended players must wait within this area. A team\'s area is the same side as the goal the team is defending; during halftime, substitution areas are swapped. Any player entering or leaving the play must cross the substitution line which is part of the side line and extends 4.5 m from the middle line to the team\'s side.
### Duration
A standard match has two 30-minute halves with a 10- or 15-minute (major Championships/Olympics) halftime intermission. At half-time, teams switch sides of the court as well as benches. For youths, the length of the halves is reduced---25 minutes at ages 12 to 15, and 20 minutes at ages 8 to 11; though national federations of some countries may differ in their implementation from the official guidelines.
If a decision must be reached in a particular match (e.g., in a tournament) and it ends in a draw after regular time, there are at maximum two overtimes, each consisting of two straight 5-minute periods with a one-minute break in between. If these does not decide the game either, then the winning team is determined in a penalty shootout (best-of-five rounds; if still tied, extra rounds are added until one team wins).
The referees may call *timeout* according to their sole discretion; typical reasons are injuries, suspensions, or court cleaning. Penalty throws should trigger a timeout only for lengthy delays, such as a change of the goalkeeper.
Since 2012, teams can call 3 *team timeouts* per game (up to two per half), which last one minute each. This right may only be invoked by the team in possession of the ball. Team representatives must show a green card marked with a black *T* on the timekeeper\'s desk. The timekeeper then immediately interrupts the game by sounding the buzzer to stop the clock. Before 2012, teams were allowed only one timeout per half. For the purpose of calling timeouts, overtime and shootouts are extensions of the second half.
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# Handball
## Rules
### Referees
A handball match is adjudicated by two equal referees. Some national bodies allow games with only a single referee in special cases like illness on short notice. Should the referees disagree on any occasion, a decision is made on mutual agreement during a short timeout; or, in case of punishments, the more severe of the two comes into effect. The referees are obliged to make their decisions \"on the basis of their observations of facts\". Their judgements are final and can be appealed against only if not in compliance with the rules. Officials can look to TV replays, as needed.
thumb\|upright=1.35\|The referees (blue shirts) keep both teams between them.
The referees position themselves in such a way that the team players are confined between them. They stand diagonally aligned so that each can observe one side line. Depending on their positions, one is called *court referee* and the other *goal referee*. These positions automatically switch on ball turnover. They physically exchange their positions approximately every 10 minutes (long exchange), and change sides every five minutes (short exchange).
The IHF defines 18 hand signals for quick visual communication with players and officials. The signal for warning is accompanied by a yellow card. A disqualification for the game is indicated by a red card, followed by a blue card if the disqualification will be accompanied by a report. The referees also use whistle blows to indicate infractions or to restart the play.
The referees are supported by a *scorekeeper* and a *timekeeper* who attend to formal things such as keeping track of goals and suspensions, or starting and stopping the clock, respectively. They also keep an eye on the benches and notify the referees on substitution errors. Their desk is located between the two substitution areas.
### Team players, substitutes, and officials {#team_players_substitutes_and_officials}
Each team consists of seven players on court and seven substitute players on the bench. One player on the court must be the designated goalkeeper, differing in his clothing from the rest of the court players. Substitution of players can be done in any number and at any time during game play. An exchange takes place over the substitution line. A prior notification of the referees is not necessary.
Some national bodies, such as the Deutsche Handball Bund (DHB, \"German Handball Federation\"), allow substitution in junior teams only when in ball possession or during timeouts. This restriction is intended to prevent early specialization of players to offence or defence.
#### Court players {#court_players}
Court players are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their bodies above and including the knee. As in several other team sports, a distinction is made between catching and dribbling. A player who is in possession of the ball may stand stationary for only three seconds, and may take only three steps. They must then either shoot, pass, or dribble the ball. Taking more than three steps at any time is considered travelling, and results in a turnover. A player may dribble as many times as they want (though, since passing is faster, it is the preferred method of attack), as long as during each dribble the hand contacts only the top of the ball. Therefore, carrying is completely prohibited, and results in a turnover. After the dribble is picked up, the player has the right to another three seconds or three steps. The ball must then be passed or shot, as further holding or dribbling will result in a *double dribble* turnover and a free throw for the other team. Other offensive infractions that result in a turnover include charging and setting an illegal screen. Carrying the ball into the six-metre zone results either in ball possession by the goalkeeper (by attacker) or turnover (by defender).
#### Goalkeeper
Only the goalkeepers are allowed to move freely within the goal perimeter, although they may not cross the goal perimeter line while carrying or dribbling the ball. Within the zone, they are allowed to touch the ball with all parts of their bodies, including their feet, with a defensive aim (for other actions, they are subject to the same restrictions as the court players). The goalkeepers may participate in the normal play of their teammates. A regular court player may substitute for the goalkeeper if a team elects to use this scheme in order to outnumber the defending players. Prior to 2015, this court player became the designated goalkeeper on the court and had to wear some vest or bib the same color as the goalkeeper\'s shirt to be identified as such. A rule change meant to make the game more offensive now allows any player to substitute for the goalkeeper without becoming a designated goalkeeper. The new rule resembles the one used in ice hockey. This rule was first used in the women\'s world championship in December 2015 and has since been used by the men\'s European championship in January 2016 and by both genders in the Olympic tournament in 2016. This rule change has led to a drastic increase of empty net goals.
If either goalkeeper deflects the ball over the outer goal line, their team stays in possession of the ball, in contrast to other sports like football. The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from within the zone (\"goalkeeper throw\"). In a penalty shot or directly taken free throw, throwing the ball against the head of a goalkeeper who is not moving will lead to a direct disqualification (\"red card\"). Hitting a non-moving goalkeeper\'s head out of regular play will lead to a two-minute suspension as long as the player threw without obstruction.
Outside of own D-zone, the goalkeeper is treated as an ordinary court player, and has to follow court players\' rules; holding or tackling an opponent player outside the area risks a direct disqualification.`{{clarify|date=August 2016}}`{=mediawiki} The goalkeeper may not return to the area with the ball. Passing to one\'s own goalkeeper results in a turnover.
#### Team officials {#team_officials}
Each team is allowed to have a maximum of four team officials seated on the benches. An official is anybody who is neither player nor substitute. One official must be the designated representative who is usually the team manager. Since 2012, representatives can call up to 3 team timeouts (up to twice per half), and may address the scorekeeper, timekeeper, and referees (before that, it was once per half); overtime and shootouts are considered extensions of the second half. Other officials typically include physicians or managers. No official is allowed to enter the playing court without the permission of the referees.
### Ball
The ball is spherical and must be made either of leather or a synthetic material. It is not allowed to have a shiny or slippery surface. As the ball is intended to be operated by a single hand, its official sizes vary depending on age and gender of the participating teams.
+------+----------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+---------+
| Size | Class | Circumference\ | Circumference\ | Weight\ | Weight\ |
| | | (cm) | (in) | (g) | (oz) |
+======+============================+================+================+=========+=========+
| III | Men over 16 | | | | |
+------+----------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+---------+
| II | Women over 14, men over 12 | | | | |
+------+----------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+---------+
| I | Junior over 8 | | | | |
+------+----------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+---------+
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# Handball
## Rules
### Awarded throws {#awarded_throws}
The referees may award a special throw to a team. This usually happens after certain events such as scored goals, off-court balls, turnovers and timeouts. All of these special throws require the thrower to obtain a certain position, and pose restrictions on the positions of all other players. Sometimes the execution must wait for a whistle blow by the referee.
Throw-off: A throw-off takes place from the center of the court. The thrower must touch the middle line with one foot, and all the other offensive players must stay in their half until the referee restarts the game. The defending players must keep a distance of at least three metres from the thrower until the ball leaves his hand. A throw-off occurs at the beginning of each period and after the opposing team scores a goal. It must be cleared by the referees.
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: Modern handball introduced the \"fast throw-off\" concept; i.e., the play will be immediately restarted by the referees as soon as the executing team fulfills its requirements. Many teams leverage this rule to score easy goals before the opposition has time to form a stable defense line.
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Throw-in: The team which did not touch the ball last is awarded a throw-in when the ball fully crosses the side line or touches the ceiling. If the ball crosses the outer goal line, a throw-in is awarded only if the defending court players touched the ball last. Execution requires the thrower to place one foot on the nearest outer line to the cause. All defending players must keep a distance of 3 m. They are allowed to stand immediately outside their own goal area even when the distance is less than three metres.
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Goalkeeper-throw: If the ball crosses the outer goal line without interference from the defending team or when deflected by the defending team\'s goalkeeper, or when the attacking team violates the D-zone as described above, a goalkeeper-throw is awarded to the defending team. This is the most common turnover. The goalkeeper resumes the play with a throw from anywhere within the goal area.
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Free-throw: A free-throw restarts the play after an interruption by the referees. It takes places from the spot where the interruption was caused, as long as this spot is outside of the free-throw line of the opposing team. In the latter case, the throw is deferred to the nearest spot on the free-throw line. Free-throws are the equivalent to free-kicks in association football; conceding them is typically not seen as poor sportsmanship for the defending side, and in itself, they carry no major disadvantages. (In particular, being awarded a free throw while being on warning for passive play will not reset the warning, whereas a shot on goal will.) The thrower may take a direct attempt for a goal, which is rarely feasible if the defending team has organised a defense. If a free throw is awarded and the half or game ends, a direct throw at the goal is typically attempted, which occasionally goes in.
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Seven-metre throw: A seven-metre throw is awarded when a clear chance of scoring is illegally prevented anywhere on the court by an opposing team player, official, or spectator. It is awarded also when the referees have interrupted a legitimate scoring chance for any reason. The thrower steps with one foot behind the seven-metre line with only the defending goalkeeper between him and the goal. The goalkeeper must keep a distance of three metres away, which is marked by a short tick on the floor. All other players must remain behind the free-throw line until execution and the defending court players must keep a distance of three metres. The thrower must await the whistle blow of the referee. A seven-metre throw is the equivalent to a penalty kick in association football; it is far more common and typically occurs several times in a single game. It is thus tactically similar to free throw percentage in basketball and teams will try to have their best seven metre throwers execute those throws.
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# Handball
## Rules
### Penalties
Penalties are given to players, in progressive format, for fouls that require more punishment than just a free-throw. Actions directed mainly at the opponent and not the ball (such as reaching around, holding, pushing, tripping, and jumping into opponent) as well as contact from the side, from behind a player or impeding the opponent\'s counterattack are all considered illegal and are subject to penalty. Any infraction that prevents a clear scoring opportunity will result in a seven-metre penalty shot.
Typically the referee will give a warning yellow card for an illegal action; but, if the contact was particularly dangerous, like striking the opponent in the head, neck or throat, the referee can forego the warning for an immediate two-minute suspension. Players are warned once before given a yellow card; they risk being red-carded if they receive three two-minute suspensions.
A red card results in an ejection from the game and a two-minute penalty for the team. A player may receive a red card directly for particularly rough penalties. For instance, any contact from behind during a fast break is now being treated with a red card; as does any deliberate intent to injure opponents. A red-carded player has to leave the playing area completely. A player who is disqualified may be substituted with another player after the two-minute penalty is served. A coach or official can also be penalized progressively. Any coach or official who receives a two-minute suspension will have to pull out one of their players for two minutes. The player is not the one punished, and can be substituted in again, as the penalty consists of the team playing with one fewer player than the opposing team.
After referees award the ball to the opponents for whatever reason, the player currently in possession of the ball has to lay it down quickly, or risk a two-minute suspension. Also, gesticulating or verbally questioning the referee\'s order, as well as arguing with the officials\' decisions, will normally risk a yellow card. If the suspended player protests further, does not walk straight off the court to the bench, or if the referee deems the tempo deliberately slow, that player risks a double yellow card. Illegal substitution (outside of the dedicated area, or if the replacement player enters too early) is prohibited; if they do, they risk a yellow card.
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# Handball
## Gameplay
### Formations
thumb\|upright=1.35\|right\|Positions of attacking (red) and defending players (blue), in a 5--1 defense formation thumb\|upright=1.35\|right\|Positions of attacking (red) and defending players (blue), in a 6--0 defense formation Players are typically referred to by the positions they are playing. The positions are always denoted from the view of the respective goalkeeper, so that a defender on the right opposes an attacker on the left. Not all of the following positions may be occupied depending on the formation or potential suspensions.
#### Offense
- Left and right wingman. These typically are fast players who excel at ball control and wide jumps from the outside of the goal perimeter in order to get into a better shooting angle at the goal. Teams usually try to occupy the left position with a right-handed player and vice versa.
- Left and right backcourt. Goal attempts by these players are typically made by jumping high and shooting over the defenders. Thus, it is usually advantageous to have tall players with a powerful shot for these positions.
- Centre backcourt. A player with experience is preferred on this position who acts as playmaker and the handball equivalent of a basketball point guard.
- Pivot (left and right, if applicable), also commonly called \"line player\". This player tends to intermingle with the defence, setting picks and attempting to disrupt the defence\'s formation. This position requires the least jumping skills; but ball control and physical strength are advantages.
Sometimes, the offense uses formations with two pivot players. Formations with no pivots and 4 backs are rare, but not unheard of.
#### Defense
There are many variations in defensive formations. Usually, they are described as *n:m* formations, where *n* is the number of players defending at the goal line and *m* the number of players defending more offensive. Exceptions are the 3:2:1 defense and n+m formation (e.g. 5+1), where m players defend some offensive player in man coverage (instead of the usual zone coverage).
- Far left and far right. The opponents of the wingmen.
- Half left and half right. The opponents of the left and right backcourts.
- Back center (left and right). Opponent of the pivot.
- Front center. Opponent of the center backcourt, may also be set against another specific backcourt player.
#### Late match defence {#late_match_defence}
Close to only seen in close matches with less than a minute left, where the defence is behind, the defence can go into a full field press, where the defensive line starts wherever the offence has the ball. This is a highly committal choice that often leads to an open chance for the offence.
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# Handball
## Gameplay
### Offensive play {#offensive_play}
Attacks are played with all court players on the side of the defenders. Depending on the speed of the attack, one distinguishes between three attack *waves* with a decreasing chance of success:
First wave: *First wave* attacks are characterised by the absence of defending players around their goal perimeter. The chance of success is very high, as the throwing player is unhindered in his scoring attempt. Such attacks typically occur after an intercepted pass or a steal, and if the defending team can switch fast to offence. The far left or far right will usually try to run the attack, as they are not as tightly bound in the defence. On a turnover, they immediately sprint forward and receive the ball halfway to the other goal. Thus, these positions are commonly held by quick players.
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Second wave: If the first wave is not successful and some defending players have gained their positions around the zone, the second wave comes into play: the remaining players advance with quick passes to locally outnumber the retreating defenders. If one player manages to step up to the perimeter or catches the ball at this spot, he becomes unstoppable by legal defensive means. From this position, the chance of success is naturally very high. Second wave attacks became much more important with the \"fast throw-off\" rule.
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Third wave: The time during which the second wave may be successful is very short, as then the defenders closed the gaps around the zone. In the *third wave*, the attackers use standardised attack patterns usually involving crossing and passing between the back court players who either try to pass the ball through a gap to their pivot, take a jumping shot from the backcourt at the goal, or lure the defence away from a wingman.
The third wave evolves into the normal offensive play when all defenders not only reach the zone, but gain their accustomed positions. Some teams then substitute specialised offence players. This implies that these players must play in the defence should the opposing team be able to switch quickly to offence. The latter is another benefit for fast playing teams.
If the attacking team does not make sufficient progress (eventually releasing a shot on goal), the referees can call **passive play** (since 1995, the referee gives an advance warning by holding one hand high, signalling that the attacking team should release a shot soon), turning control over to the other team. A shot on goal or an infringement leading to a yellow card or two-minute penalty will mark the start of a new attack, causing the hand to be taken down; but a shot blocked by the defense or a normal free throw will not. This rule prevents an attacking team from stalling the game indefinitely, as it is difficult to intercept a pass without at the same time conceding dangerous openings towards the goal.
### Defensive play {#defensive_play}
The usual formations of the defense are 6--0, when all the defense players line up between the 6 m and 9 m lines to form a wall; the 5--1, when one of the players cruises outside the 9 m perimeter, usually targeting the center forwards while the other 5 line up on the 6 m line; and the less common 4--2 when there are two such defenders out front. Very fast teams will also try a 3--3 formation which is close to a switching man-to-man style. The formations vary greatly from country to country, and reflect each country\'s style of play. 6--0 is sometimes known as \"flat defense\", and all other formations are usually called \"offensive defense\".
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# Handball
## Organization
Handball teams are usually organised as clubs. On a national level, the clubs are associated in federations which organize matches in leagues and tournaments.
### International body {#international_body}
The International Handball Federation (IHF) is the administrative and controlling body for international handball. Handball is an Olympic sport played during the Summer Olympics.
The IHF organizes world championships, held in odd-numbered years, with separate competitions for men and women. The IHF World Men\'s Handball Championship 2025 title holders are Denmark. The IHF World Women\'s Handball Championship 2023 title holder is France.
The IHF is composed of five continental federations: Asian Handball Federation, African Handball Confederation, Pan-American Team Handball Federation, European Handball Federation and Oceania Handball Federation. These federations organize continental championships held every other second year. Handball is played during the Pan American Games, All-Africa Games, and Asian Games. It is also played at the Mediterranean Games. In addition to continental competitions between national teams, the federations arrange international tournaments between club teams.
### International competitions {#international_competitions}
- Nor.Ca. Handball Championship (men, women)
### National competitions {#national_competitions}
#### Europe
- Austria: Handball Liga Austria
- Belgium: BENE-League Handball (shared competition with the Netherlands)
- Bosnia and Herzegovina: Handball Championship of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Croatia: Croatian First League of Handball
- Czech Republic: Czech Handball Extraliga
- Denmark: Damehåndboldligaen (women), Jack & Jones Ligaen (men)
- England: England Handball Association
- Finland: Finnish Handball League
- France: Liqui Moly Starligue (men), Ligue Butagaz Énergie (women)
- Germany: Handball-Bundesliga, Handball-Bundesliga (women)
- Greece: Greek Men\'s handball championship
- Hungary: Nemzeti Bajnokság I (men), Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women)
- Iceland: Olís deildin
- Israel: Ligat Winner
- Italy: Serie A Gold
- Montenegro: First League (men), First League (women), Second League (men), Second League (women)
- Netherlands: BENE-League Handball (shared competition with Belgium), Eredivisie (women)
- North Macedonia: Macedonian Handball Super League
- Norway: Eliteserien (men\'s handball), Eliteserien (women\'s handball)
- Poland: Polish Superliga (men\'s handball), Ekstraklasa (women\'s handball)
- Portugal: Andebol 1 (men), 1ª Divisão Feminino (women)
- Romania: Liga Națională (men), Liga Naţională (women)
- Russia: Men\'s Championship, Women\'s Championship, Women\'s Handball Cup, Men\'s Handball Cup, Women\'s Handball Super Cup, Men\'s Handball Super Cup
- Scotland: Scottish Handball League
- Serbia: Serbian First League of Handball
- Slovakia: Slovenská hadzanárska extraliga
- Slovenia: Slovenian First League of Handball, Handball Cup of Slovenia
- Spain: Liga ASOBAL, División de Plata de Balonmano
- Sweden: Handbollsligan (men), Svensk handbollselit (women)
- Turkey: Handball Super League (men), Women\'s Handball Super League (women)
#### Other
- Angola: Angola Men\'s Handball League (men), Angola Women\'s Handball League (women)
- Argentina: Confederación Argentina de Handball
- Australia: Australian Handball Club Championship, Handball League Australia, Australian National Handball Championship (States)
- Egypt: Egyptian Handball League
- Japan: Japan Handball League
- Korea: Handball Korea League
- Tahiti: Tahitian Handball League
- United States: USA Team Handball Nationals, USA Team Handball College Nationals
## Attendance records {#attendance_records}
The worldwide attendance record for seven-a-side handball was set on 10 January 2024 in Düsseldorf, Germany, during the two opening matches of the 2024 European Men\'s Handball Championship. The two games (France versus North Macedonia and Germany against Switzerland) were played in front of 53,586 spectators.
## Commemorative coins {#commemorative_coins}
Handball events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors\' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Handball commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. On the coin, the modern athlete directs the ball in his hands towards his target, while in the background the ancient athlete is just about to throw a ball, in a game known as *cheirosphaira*, in a representation taken from a black-figure pottery vase of the Archaic period.
The most recent commemorative coin featuring handball is the British 50 pence coin, part of the series of coins commemorating the London 2012 Olympic Games
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# Harry Connick Jr.
**Joseph Harry Fowler Connick Jr.** (born September 11, 1967) is an American singer, pianist, composer, actor, and former television host. As of 2019, he has sold over 30 million records worldwide. Connick is ranked among the top 60 best-selling male artists in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America, with 16 million in certified sales. He has had seven top 20 U.S. albums, and ten number-one U.S. jazz albums, earning more number-one albums than any other artist in U.S. jazz chart history as of 2009.
Connick\'s best-selling album in the United States is his Christmas album *When My Heart Finds Christmas* (1993). His highest-charting album is *Only You* (2004), which reached No. 5 in the U.S. and No. 6 in Britain. He has won three Grammy Awards and two Emmy Awards. He played Leo Markus, the husband of Grace Adler (played by Debra Messing) on the NBC sitcom *Will & Grace* from 2002 to 2006.
Connick began his acting career playing a tail gunner in the World War II film *Memphis Belle* (1990). He played a serial killer in *Copycat* (1995) before being cast as a fighter pilot in the blockbuster *Independence Day* (1996). Connick\'s first role as a leading man was in *Hope Floats* (1998) with Sandra Bullock. He also lent his voice to the animated cult classic *The Iron Giant* (1999). His first thriller film since *Copycat* was *Basic* (2003) with John Travolta. Additionally, he played a violent ex-husband in *Bug* (2006), and starred in two romantic comedies: *P.S. I Love You* (2007), and *New in Town* (2009) with Renée Zellweger. In 2011, he appeared in the family film *Dolphin Tale* as Dr. Clay Haskett and in its 2014 sequel.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Early life {#early_life}
Harry Connick Jr. was born and raised in New Orleans. His mother, Anita Frances Livingston (née Levy), was a lawyer and judge in New Orleans. His father, Harry Connick Sr. (1926--2024), was the district attorney of Orleans Parish from 1973 to 2003. He has an older sister named Suzanna.
His parents also owned a record store. Connick\'s father was a Roman Catholic of Northern Irish descent, while his mother, who died of ovarian cancer when he was 13 years old, was Jewish and from New York; his part-Jewish heritage would later inspire him to play Jewish doctor Leo on *Will & Grace*. In addition to his career as a prosecutor, Connick Sr. also had a career performing weekly gigs at French Quarter Clubs. Connick and his sister, Suzanna, were raised in the Lakeview neighborhood of New Orleans. Harry Connick began learning to play keyboards at age three, playing publicly at age five, and recording with a local jazz band when he was ten. At the age of nine, Connick performed Beethoven\'s Piano Concerto No. 3 Opus 37 with the New Orleans Symphony Orchestra (now the Louisiana Philharmonic).
Later he played a duet with Eubie Blake at the Royal Orleans Esplanade Lounge in New Orleans. The song was \"I\'m Just Wild About Harry\". It was recorded for a Japanese documentary called *Jazz Around the World*. The clip was also shown in a Bravo special called *Worlds of Harry Connick, Junior.* in 1999. His musical talents were developed at the New Orleans Center for Creative Arts and under the tutelage of Ellis Marsalis Jr. and James Booker.
Connick attended Jesuit High School, Isidore Newman School, Lakeview School, and the New Orleans Center for Creative Arts, all in New Orleans. After an unsuccessful attempt studying jazz at Loyola University New Orleans as well as giving recitals in the classical and jazz piano programs at Loyola, he left the city. He lived at the 92nd Street YMHA in New York City while he was a student at Hunter College and the Manhattan School of Music.
There he met Columbia Records executive George Butler, who persuaded him to sign with the label. His first record, *Harry Connick Jr.*, was mainly an album of instrumental standards. He soon acquired a reputation in jazz because of his regular performances at various high-profile New York City venues. His next album, *20*, featured vocals and added to his success.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Career
### *When Harry Met Sally\...*, success on charts and in movies {#when_harry_met_sally..._success_on_charts_and_in_movies}
Connick\'s reputation was growing, and director Rob Reiner asked him to provide a soundtrack for his romantic comedy *When Harry Met Sally\...* (1989), starring Meg Ryan and Billy Crystal. The soundtrack consisted of several standards, including \"It Had to Be You\", \"Let\'s Call the Whole Thing Off\" and \"Don\'t Get Around Much Anymore\". The soundtrack earned double-platinum status in the United States. Connick won his first Grammy Award for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance for his work on the soundtrack.
Connick made his screen debut in *Memphis Belle* (1990), based on a true story about a B-17 Flying Fortress bomber crew in World War II. In that year, he began a two-year world tour. In addition, he released two albums in July 1990: the instrumental jazz trio album *Lofty\'s Roach Souffle* and a big-band album of mostly original songs titled *We Are in Love*, which also went double platinum. *We Are in Love* earned him his second consecutive Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal.
\"Promise Me You\'ll Remember\", his contribution to the *Godfather III* soundtrack, was nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award in 1991. In a year of recognition, he was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Best Performance in a Variety Special for his PBS special *Swingin\' Out Live*, which was also released as a video. In October 1991, he released his third consecutive multi-platinum album, *Blue Light, Red Light*, on which he wrote and arranged the songs. Also in October 1991, he starred in *Little Man Tate*, directed by Jodie Foster, playing the friend of a child prodigy who goes to college.
In November 1992, Connick released *25*, a solo piano collection of standards that again went platinum. He also re-released the album *Eleven*. Connick contributed \"A Wink and a Smile\" to the *Sleepless in Seattle* soundtrack, released in 1993. His multi-platinum album of holiday songs, *When My Heart Finds Christmas*, was the best-selling Christmas album in 1993.
### Mid-1990s: funk {#mid_1990s_funk}
In 1994, Connick decided to branch out. He released *She*, an album of New Orleans funk that also went platinum. In addition, he released a song called \"(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name\" for the soundtrack of *The Mask*, starring Jim Carrey, which is his most successful single in the United States to date.
Connick took his funk music on a tour of the United Kingdom in 1994, an effort that did not please some of his fans, who were expecting a jazz crooner. Connick also went on a tour of the People\'s Republic of China in 1995, playing at the Shanghai Center Theatre. The performance was televised live in China for what became known as the Shanghai Gumbo special. In his third film *Copycat* (1995), Connick played a serial killer who terrorizes a psychiatrist (played by Sigourney Weaver). The following year, he released his second funk album, *Star Turtle*, which did not sell as well as previous albums, although it did reach No. 38 on the charts. However, he appeared in the most successful movie of 1996, *Independence Day*, with Will Smith and Jeff Goldblum.
### Late 1990s: Jazz and *Hope Floats* {#late_1990s_jazz_and_hope_floats}
For his 1997 release *To See You*, Connick recorded original love songs, touring the United States and Europe with a full symphony orchestra backing him and his piano in each city. As part of his tour, he played at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway, with his final concert of that tour in Paris being recorded for a Valentine\'s Day special on PBS in 1998. He also continued his film career, starring in *Excess Baggage* (1997) opposite Alicia Silverstone and Benicio del Toro.
In May 1998, he had his first leading role in director Forest Whitaker\'s *Hope Floats*, with Sandra Bullock being the female lead. In 1999 he released *Come By Me*, his first album of big band music in eight years, and embarked on a world tour, visiting the United States, Europe, Japan, and Australia. In addition, he provided the voice of Dean McCoppin in the animated film *The Iron Giant*.
### 2000--2002: Broadway debut, musicals, *Will & Grace* {#broadway_debut_musicals_will_grace}
Connick wrote the score for Susan Stroman\'s Broadway musical *Thou Shalt Not*, based on Émile Zola\'s novel *Thérèse Raquin* which was written in 2000. The play premiered in 2001. His music and lyrics earned him a Tony Award nomination. He was also the narrator of the film *My Dog Skip*, released in that year.
In March 2001, Connick starred in a television production of *South Pacific* with Glenn Close; it was televised on the ABC network. He also starred in *Mickey*, a movie; John Grisham wrote the screenplay. In October 2001, he released two albums: *Songs I Heard*, featuring big band re-workings of children\'s show themes, and *30*, featuring Connick on piano with guest appearances by several musical artists. *Songs I Heard* won Connick a Grammy for Best Traditional Pop Album; he toured performing songs from the album, holding matinees. At the performances each parent in attendance had to be accompanied by a child.
In 2002, he received a `{{US patent|6348648}}`{=mediawiki} for a \"system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra.\" Connick appeared as Grace Adler\'s boyfriend and later husband, Leo Markus on the NBC sitcom *Will & Grace* from 2002 to 2006.
### 2003--2005: *Connick on Piano* and *Only You* {#connick_on_piano_and_only_you}
In July 2003, Connick released his first instrumental album in fifteen years, *Other Hours Connick on Piano Volume 1*. It was released on Branford Marsalis\' new label Marsalis Music leading to a short tour of nightclubs and small theaters. Connick appeared in the film *Basic*. In October 2003, he released his second Christmas album, *Harry for the Holidays; it* went gold and reached No. 12 on the *Billboard* 200 albums chart. He also had a television special on NBC featuring Whoopi Goldberg, Nathan Lane, Marc Anthony, and Kim Burrell. *Only You*, his seventeenth album for Columbia Records, was released in February 2004. A collection of 1950s and 1960s ballads, *Only You*, was in the top ten on both sides of the Atlantic and was certified gold in the United States in March 2004. The *Only You* big band toured the U.S., Australia, with a few stops in Asia. *Harry for the Holidays* was certified platinum in November 2004.
A music DVD *Harry Connick Jr.`{{nsmdns}}`{=mediawiki}\"Only You\" in Concert* was released in March 2004, after it had first aired as a *Great Performances* special on PBS. The special won him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Direction. The DVD received a Gold & Platinum Music Video`{{nsmdns}}`{=mediawiki}Long Form awards from the RIAA in November 2005.
An animated holiday special, *The Happy Elf* aired on NBC in December 2005; Connick was the composer, the narrator, and one of the executive producers. The show was released on DVD soon afterwards. The holiday special was based on his original song *The Happy Elf*, from his 2003 album *Harry for the Holidays*. Another album from Marsalis Music was recorded in 2005, *Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2*, a duo album with Harry Connick Jr. on piano and Branford Marsalis on saxophone. A music DVD, *A Duo Occasion* was filmed at the Ottawa International Jazz Festival 2005 in Canada; it was released in November 2005.
He appeared in another episode of the *Will & Grace* sitcom in November 2005, he was in three more episodes in 2006.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Career
### 2006--2008: *The Pajama Game*, *Bug,* and *P.S. I Love You* {#the_pajama_game_bug_and_p.s._i_love_you}
*Bug*, a film directed by William Friedkin, is a psychological thriller filmed in 2005 starring Connick, Ashley Judd, and Michael Shannon. The film was released in 2007. He starred in the Broadway revival of *The Pajama Game*, produced by the Roundabout Theater Company, along with Michael McKean and Kelli O\'Hara, at the *American Airlines Theatre* in 2006. It ran from February 23 to June 17, 2006; five benefit performances ran rom June 13 to 17. Connick\'s performance was highly acclaimed; David Rooney wrote in *Variety*, \"With his handsome wholesomeness and those mellifluous Sinatra-esque pipes, it\'s hard to imagine a leading man more tailor-made for this 1954 show.\" The *Pajama Game* cast recording was nominated for a Grammy, after being released as part of Connick\'s double disc album Harry on Broadway, Act I.
He hosted The Weather Channel\'s miniseries *100 Biggest Weather Moments* which aired in 2007. He was part of the documentary Note by Note: The Making of Steinway L1037, released in November 2007. He sat in playing piano on Bob French\'s 2007 album *Marsalis Music Honors Series: Bob French*. He appeared in the film *P.S. I Love You*, released in December 2007.
The third album in the *Connick on Piano* series, *Chanson du Vieux Carré* was released in 2007, and Connick received two Grammy nominations for the track \"Ash Wednesday\" for the Grammy awards in 2008. *Chanson du Vieux Carré* was released simultaneously with the album *Oh, My NOLA*. He toured North America and Europe in 2007, and toured Asia and Australia in 2008 as part of his My New Orleans Tour. Connick wrote two songs and did the arrangements for Kelli O\'Hara\'s album which was released in May 2008; he also sang a duet on the recording. He was the featured singer at the Concert of Hope immediately preceding Pope Benedict XVI\'s mass at Yankee Stadium in April 2008. He had the starring role of Dr. Dennis Slamon in the Lifetime television film *Living Proof* (2008). His third Christmas album, *What a Night!*, was released in November 2008.
Connick has a vast knowledge of musical genres and vocalists, even gospel music. One of his favorite gospel artists is Stellar Award winner and Grammy nominated artist Kim Burrell of Houston. Chris Gray of the Houston Press said, \"\... when Harry Connick Jr. assembled a symphony orchestra for Pope Benedict XVI\'s appearance at Yankee Stadium in 2008, he wanted Burrell on vocals\"
### 2009--2011: *New in Town and* *Your Songs* {#new_in_town_and_your_songs}
The film *New in Town* starring Connick and Renée Zellweger began filming in January 2008; it was released in January 2009. Connick\'s album *Your Songs* was released on CD, September 22, 2009. In contrast to Connick\'s previous albums, this album is a collaboration with a record company producer, the multiple Grammy Award winning music executive Clive Davis.
Connick starred in the Broadway revival of *On a Clear Day You Can See Forever*, which opened at the St. James Theatre in November 2011 in previews. It closed in January 2012, after 29 previews and 57 performances.
Connick appeared on the May 4, 2010, episode of *American Idol* season 9, where he acted as a mentor for the top 5 finalists. He appeared again the next night on May 5 to perform \"And I Love Her\". In 2011, he appeared in the family film *Dolphin Tale* as Dr. Clay Haskett and in its 2014 sequel.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Career
### 2012--2019: *Law & Order: Special Victims Unit*, *Harry*, and *Every Man Should Know* {#law_order_special_victims_unit_harry_and_every_man_should_know}
On January 6, 2012, NBC president Robert Greenblatt announced at the Television Critics Association winter press tour that Connick had been cast in a four-episode arc of NBC\'s long-running legal drama *Law & Order: Special Victims Unit* as new Executive ADA, David Haden, a prosecutor who is assigned a case with Detective Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay).
On June 11, 2013, Connick released a new album of all original music titled *Every Man Should Know*. Connick debuted the title track live on the May 2, 2013, episode of *American Idol* and appeared on *The Ellen DeGeneres Show* the following week to discuss his new project. A 2013 US summer tour was announced in support of the album.
Connick returned to *American Idol* to mentor the top four of season 12. He performed \"Every Man Should Know\" on the results show the following night. Connick was on the judging panel for seasons 13, 14 and 15 of *American Idol*, airing in 2014 to 2016.
*Angels Sing*, a family Christmas movie released in November 2013 by Lionsgate, afforded Connick an onscreen collaboration with fellow musician Willie Nelson. The two wrote a special song exclusively for the movie. Shot in Austin, Texas, *Angels Sing* features actor/musicians Connie Britton, Lyle Lovett, and Kris Kristofferson and is directed by Tim McCanlies, who previously worked with Connick in *The Iron Giant*.
A one-hour weekday daytime talk show starring Connick called *Harry* debuted on September 12, 2016. The series ran until May 23, 2018. Connick was nominated for a Daytime Emmy as Outstanding Entertainment Talk Show Host for both years of the show.
In January 2019, it was announced that Connick was hired by piano instruction software company Playground Sessions as a video instructor.
On October 25, 2019, he released a new album of Cole Porter compositions rearranged by Connick himself, including "Anything Goes" and "You Do Something To Me." After selecting the songs, and writing and orchestrating the arrangements, he assembled and conducted the orchestra which features his longtime touring band with additional horns and a full string section. Along with his album, Connick announced his return to Broadway on September 16, 2019, with *Harry Connick Jr. --- A Celebration of Cole Porter*, a multimedia celebration of the Cole Porter songbook. The production was conceived and directed by Connick himself with the addition of theatrical and film elements accompanied by a company of dancers and an onstage orchestra.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Career
### 2020--present: *Alone With My Faith and* *Annie* {#present_alone_with_my_faith_and_annie}
Harry released his new album *Alone With My Faith* on March 19, 2021. With the Coronavirus pandemic casting a long shadow in 2020, Connick retreated to his home studio during the lockdown and emerged with an album of new music. He arranged all of the songs, played every instrument, and sang every part. In addition to the familiar, traditional songs, Connick wrote and recorded new tracks that tell the story of his experience coping during lockdown and feeling the full spectrum of emotions that came with it. Both the album cover and the music videos for "Amazing Grace" and "Alone With My Faith" were conceived and directed by Harry\'s daughter Georgia Connick. *Alone With My Faith* earned Connick his 16th career GRAMMY nomination for Best Roots Gospel Album as part of the 64th annual GRAMMY awards.
Harry joined the cast of Annie Live! as Sir Oliver \"Daddy\" Warbucks - opposite Taraji P. Henson\'s devious Miss Hannigan. The live production aired December 2, 2021, on NBC and also coincided with the release of the *Annie Live! Cast Album* -- the original soundtrack of the NBC television event.
Connick Jr. was a judge in the 2023 revival of *Australian Idol* and the Australian version of *The Piano*, released in 2025. He starred as the main character John Allman in the 2024 Netflix film *Find Me Falling*.
## Touring Big Band members {#touring_big_band_members}
**The following musicians have toured as the Harry Connick Jr. Big Band since its inception in 1990**:
- Piano and vocals`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Harry Connick Jr.
- Drums`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Shannon Powell, Duffy Jackson, Arthur Latin II (Winard Harper, Jeff \"Tain\" Watts`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}subs)
- Bass`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Ben Wolfe, Neal Caine
- Guitar`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Jonathan Dubose Jr., Evan Vidar (Bryan Sutton`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}subs)
- Piano, Keyboards`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Harry Connick Jr., Howard Kaplan, Jonathan Batiste
- Lead trumpet`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Roger Ingram (Dave Stahl, Walter White, Walt Johnson`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}subs)
- 2nd trumpet`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Dan Miller, Derrick Gardner, Bijon Watson, Sal Cracchiolo (Earl Gardner, Greg Gisbert, Darryl Shaw`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}subs)
- 3rd trumpet`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Jeremy Davenport, Joe Magnarelli, Mark Braud
- 4th trumpet`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Leroy Jones, Mark Braud
- Lead alto saxophone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Brad Leali, Mike Smith, Jon Gordon, Ned Goold, Geoff Burke
- 2nd alto saxophone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Mark Sterbank, Will Campbell, Ned Goold
- 1st tenor saxophone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Jerry Weldon (Geoff Burke `{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}sub)
- 2nd tenor saxophone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Jimmy Greene, Ned Goold
- Baritone saxophone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Dave Schumacher (Howard Johnson`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}sub)
- Clarinet`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Louis Ford
- Lead trombone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Mark Mullins, John Allred, Jeff Bush
- 2nd trombone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Craig Klein, John Allred
- 3rd trombone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Lucien Barbarin, Craig Klein
- Bass trombone`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Joe Barati
- Vocals`{{snds}}`{=mediawiki}Jonathan Dubose Jr., Jonathan Batiste (The Honolulu Heartbreakers -- subs)
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Connick and New Orleans, Hurricane Katrina {#connick_and_new_orleans_hurricane_katrina}
Connick, a New Orleans native, is a founder of the Krewe of Orpheus which is a music-based New Orleans krewe. Its name is derived from Orpheus of classical mythology. The Krewe of Orpheus has parades on St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street in New Orleans on Lundi Gras (Fat Monday)`{{nsmdns}}`{=mediawiki}, which is the day before Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday).
On September 2, 2005, Connick helped organize and appeared in the NBC-sponsored live telethon concert, *A Concert for Hurricane Relief*, for relief in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. He spent several days touring the city to draw attention to the plight of citizens stranded at the Ernest N. Morial Convention Center and other places. At the concert he paired with host Matt Lauer and entertainers including Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Kanye West, Mike Myers, and John Goodman.
On September 6, 2005, Connick was made the honorary chair of Habitat for Humanity\'s Operation Home Delivery, a long-term rebuilding plan for families who survived Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and along the Gulf Coast. His actions in New Orleans earned him a Jefferson Award for Public Service.
Connick\'s album *Oh, My NOLA*, and *Chanson du Vieux Carré* were released in 2007; a tour called the My New Orleans Tour followed.
### Musicians\' Village {#musicians_village}
Connick and Branford Marsalis devised an initiative to help restore New Orleans\' musical heritage. Habitat for Humanity and New Orleans Area Habitat for Humanity, working with Connick and Marsalis announced on December 6, 2005, plans for a Musicians\' Village in New Orleans. The Musicians\' Village includes Habitat-constructed homes, with an *Ellis Marsalis Center for Music*, as the area\'s centerpiece. The Habitat-built homes provide musicians, and anyone else who qualifies, the opportunity to buy decent, affordable housing.
In 2012, Connick and Marsalis received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Connick married former Victoria\'s Secret model Jill Goodacre, the daughter of sculptor Glenna Goodacre, at New Orleans\' St. Louis Cathedral on April 16, 1994. The song \"Jill\" from his album *Blue Light, Red Light* (1991) is about her. They have three daughters named Georgia (born 1996), Sarah (born 1997), and Charlotte (born 2002). The family previously lived in both New Orleans and New Canaan, Connecticut. Connick briefly relocated his family to Sydney whilst he worked on *Australian Idol* in 2023, and all three of his daughters opted to remain there instead of returning to the U.S. with their parents when his work finished.
In December 1992, Connick was arrested by New York\'s Port Authority Police and charged with possessing a 9 mm pistol at JFK International Airport. After spending the day in jail, he agreed to make a public service television commercial warning against carrying a pistol in New York City without a license. The court agreed to drop all charges if he stayed out of trouble for six months.
Connick is a practicing Catholic, though he also identifies with his Jewish heritage. As a Louisiana native of mixed Irish Catholic and Jewish descent, he has also been described as a Creole. He is a supporter of his hometown NFL team, the New Orleans Saints. He was caught on camera in 2010 at Super Bowl XLIV, which the Saints won, by the television crew of *The Ellen DeGeneres Show* during the post-game celebrations. DeGeneres\' mother Betty was on the sidelines watching the festivities when she spotted Connick in the stands sporting a Drew Brees jersey.
Connick wrote his daughter Sarah\'s debut song \"A Lot Like Me\" in 2011, which she released under the name Kate Connick, using her middle name professionally. The song was released to celebrate the debut of American Girl\'s newest historical characters Cecile Rey and Marie Grace Gardner. The proceeds from the song went towards the Ellis Marsalis Center for Music.
## Discography
- *Dixieland Plus* (1977)
- *Pure Dixieland* (1979)
- *Harry Connick Jr.* (1987)
- *20* (1988)
- *When Harry Met Sally* (1989) \[Soundtrack album\]
- *We Are in Love* (1990)
- *Lofty\'s Roach Souffle* (1990)
- *Blue Light, Red Light* (1991)
- *25* (1992)
- *Eleven* (1992) \[Re-release of *Pure Dixieland*\]
- *When My Heart Finds Christmas* (1993)
- *Forever For Now* (1993) \[Compilation album released in the UK\]
- *She* (1994)
- *Star Turtle* (1996)
- *To See You* (1997)
- *Come by Me* (1999)
- *30* (2001)
- *Songs I Heard* (2001)
- *Thou Shalt Not* (2002) \[Cast recording\]
- *Other Hours: Connick on Piano, Volume 1* (2003)
- *Harry for the Holidays* (2003)
- *Only You* (2004)
- *Occasion: Connick on Piano, Volume 2* (2005)
- *Harry on Broadway, Act I* (2006) \[Cast recording\]
- *Oh, My NOLA* (2007)
- *Chanson du Vieux Carré : Connick on Piano, Volume 3* (2007)
- *What a Night! A Christmas Album* (2008)
- *Your Songs* (2009)
- *In Concert on Broadway* (2011) \[Live album\]
- *Music from The Happy Elf: Connick on Piano, Volume 4* (2011)
- *Smokey Mary* (2013)
- *Every Man Should Know* (2013)
- *That Would Be Me* (2015)
- *True Love: A Celebration of Cole Porter* (2019)
- *Alone With My Faith* (2021)
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Filmography
### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ --------------------- -------------------------- ------------
1990 *Memphis Belle* Sgt. Clay Busby
1991 *Little Man Tate* Eddie
1995 *Copycat* Daryll Lee Cullum
1996 *Independence Day* Captain Jimmy Wilder
1997 *Excess Baggage* Greg Kistler
1998 *Hope Floats* Justin Matisse
1999 *The Iron Giant* Dean McCoppin Voice only
*Wayward Son* Jesse Banks Rhodes
2000 *My Dog Skip* Narrator
*The Simian Line* Rick
2001 *South Pacific* Lt. Joseph Cable
*Life Without Dick* Daniel Gallagher
2003 *Basic* Pete Vilmer
2004 *Mickey* Glen Ryan (Tripp Spence)
2005 *The Happy Elf* Lil\' Farley (narrator)
2006 *Bug* Jerry Goss
2007 *P.S. I Love You* Daniel Connelly
2008 *Living Proof* Dr. Dennis Slamon
2009 *New in Town* Ted Mitchell
2011 *Dolphin Tale* Clay Haskett
2013 *Angels Sing* Michael Walker
2014 *Dolphin Tale 2* Clay Haskett
2021 *Fear of Rain* John Burroughs
2024 *Find Me Falling* John Allman
### Television
Year Title Role Notes
------------------ --------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1992 *Cheers* Russell Boyd Episode: \"A Diminished Rebecca with a Suspended Cliff\"
1994 *Ghostwriter* Himself Episode: \"What\'s Up with Alex?: Part 1\"
1997 *Action League Now!* Big Baby (voice) Episode: \"Rock-A-Big-Baby\"
2002--2006, 2017 *Will & Grace* Leo Markus 25 episodes
2004 *Sesame Street* Himself Episode: 4080
2008 *This Old House* Himself Episode: \"New Orleans Project: Part 1\"
2009 *Hey Hey It\'s Saturday: The Reunion* Himself -- guest judge
*Australian Idol* Himself -- guest judge
2010 *American Idol* Himself -- guest mentor
2012 *Law & Order: Special Victims Unit* Executive A.D.A. David Haden Episodes: \"Official Story\", \"Father\'s Shadow\", \"Hunting Ground\", and \"Justice Denied\"
2013 *American Idol* Himself -- guest mentor
2014--2016 *American Idol* Himself -- judge Seasons 13--15 with Jennifer Lopez and Keith Urban
2015 *Repeat After Me* Himself 1 episode
2016--2018 *Harry* Himself 164 episodes
2017 *Kevin Can Wait* Himself Episode: \"Kenny Can Wait\"
2021 *American Idol* Himself - guest performer Episode: Comeback Show
*Annie Live!* Daddy Warbucks Television special
2023 *Australian Idol* Himself - judge Season 8 with Kyle Sandilands, Meghan Trainor and Amy Shark
2025 *Piano* (Australian version) Himself - judge Season 1 with Andrea Lam
Year Title Role Notes
------ ---------------------------------------------- -------------- ----------------------------------------
1990 *Carly in Concert: My Romance* Guest artist
1992 *Super Bowl XXVI* Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"
1993 *The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special* Himself CBS special
1996 *Road Rules: USA -- The Second Adventure* Himself Cameo appearance
1998 *Harry Connick Jr.: Romance in Paris* Himself PBS special
1999 *The Worlds of Harry Connick Jr.* Himself
2001 *Evening at Pops* Himself
2003 *Harry for the Holidays* Himself NBC special
2004 *Only You: In Concert* Himself PBS special
2007 *100 Biggest Weather Moments* Host
*Note by Note: The Making of Steinway L1037* Himself
2010 *Daytona 500* Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"
2013 *World Series* Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"
2017 *Kentucky Derby* Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"
2020 *NFL Draft on ABC* Himself Performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\"
: Non-fictional appearances
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# Harry Connick Jr.
## Broadway
- 1990 *An Evening with Harry Connick Jr. and His Orchestra* (special, concert)
- 2001 *Thou Shalt Not* (Broadway Musical)`{{nsmdns}}`{=mediawiki}composer
- 2006 *The Pajama Game* (Broadway Musical)
- 2010 *Harry Connick Jr.: In Concert on Broadway* (special, concert)
- 2011 *On a Clear Day You Can See Forever* (Broadway Musical)
- 2019 *Harry Connick, Jr
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# Hull (watercraft)
A **hull** is the watertight body of a ship, boat, submarine, or flying boat. The hull may open at the top (such as a dinghy), or it may be fully or partially covered with a deck. Atop the deck may be a deckhouse and other superstructures, such as a funnel, derrick, or mast. The line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline.
## General features {#general_features}
There is a wide variety of hull types that are chosen for suitability for different usages, the hull shape being dependent upon the needs of the design. Shapes range from a nearly perfect box, in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. The shape is chosen to strike a balance between cost, hydrostatic considerations (accommodation, load carrying, and stability), hydrodynamics (speed, power requirements, and motion and behavior in a seaway) and special considerations for the ship\'s role, such as the rounded bow of an icebreaker or the flat bottom of a landing craft.
In a typical modern steel ship, the hull will have watertight decks, and major transverse members called bulkheads. There may also be intermediate members such as girders, stringers and webs, and minor members called ordinary transverse frames, frames, or longitudinals, depending on the structural arrangement. The uppermost continuous deck may be called the \"upper deck\", \"weather deck\", \"spar deck\", \"main deck\", or simply \"deck\". The particular name given depends on the context---the type of ship or boat, the arrangement, or even where it sails.
In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames (often referred to as ribs) and bulkheads, which are further tied together by longitudinal stringers or ceiling. Often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, or be of a monocoque arrangement. In many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb, or other material.
Perhaps the earliest proper hulls were built by the Ancient Egyptians, who by 3000 BC knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull.
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# Hull (watercraft)
## Hull shapes {#hull_shapes}
Hulls come in many varieties and can have composite shape, (e.g., a fine entry forward and inverted bell shape aft), but are grouped primarily as follows:
- Chined and hard-chined. Examples are the flat-bottom (chined), v-bottom, and multi-chine hull (several gentler hard chines, still not smooth). These types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length.
- Moulded, round bilged or soft-chined. These hull shapes all have smooth curves. Examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull.
### Planing and displacement hulls {#planing_and_displacement_hulls}
- Displacement hull: here the hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy. Vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length except for especially narrow hulls such as sailing multihulls that are less limited this way.
- Planing hull: here, the planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the wetted surface and therefore also the drag. Such hulls are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged. The most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at higher speeds , although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with good sea keeping. Sailboats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds.
- Semi-displacement, or semi-planing: here the hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift; however, most of the vessel\'s weight is still supported through buoyancy.
### Hull forms {#hull_forms}
At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull.
With a small payload, such a craft has less of its hull below the waterline, giving less resistance and more speed. With a greater payload, resistance is greater and speed lower, but the hull\'s outward bend provides smoother performance in waves. As such, the inverted bell shape is a popular form used with planing hulls.`{{clarify|This description only applies to a minority of hull shapes|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Chined and hard-chined hulls {#chined_and_hard_chined_hulls}
A chined hull does not have a smooth rounded transition between bottom and sides. Instead, its contours are interrupted by sharp angles where predominantly longitudinal panels of the hull meet. The sharper the intersection (the more acute the angle), the \"harder\" the chine. More than one chine per side is possible.
The Cajun \"pirogue\" is an example of a craft with hard chines.
Benefits of this type of hull include potentially lower production cost and a (usually) fairly flat bottom, making the boat faster at planing. A hard chined hull resists rolling (in smooth water) more than does a hull with rounded bilges (the chine creates turbulence and drag resisting the rolling motion, as it moves through the water, the rounded-bilge provides less flow resistance around the turn). In rough seas, this can make the boat roll more, as the motion drags first down, then up, on a chine: round-bilge boats are more seakindly in waves, as a result.
Chined hulls may have one of three shapes:
- Flat-bottom chined hulls
- Multi-chined hulls
- V-bottom chined hulls. Sometimes called hard chine.
Each of these chine hulls has its own unique characteristics and use. The flat-bottom hull has high initial stability but high drag. To counter the high drag, hull forms are narrow and sometimes severely tapered at bow and stern. This leads to poor stability when heeled in a sailboat. This is often countered by using heavy interior ballast on sailing versions. They are best suited to sheltered inshore waters. Early racing power boats were fine forward and flat aft. This produced maximum lift and a smooth, fast ride in flat water, but this hull form is easily unsettled in waves. The multi-chine hull approximates a curved hull form. It has less drag than a flat-bottom boat. Multi chines are more complex to build but produce a more seaworthy hull form. They are usually displacement hulls. V or arc-bottom chine boats have a V shape between 6° and 23°. This is called the `{{nautical term|deadrise}}`{=mediawiki} angle. The flatter shape of a 6-degree hull will plane with less wind or a lower-horsepower engine but will pound more in waves. The deep V form (between 18 and 23 degrees) is only suited to high-powered planing boats. They require more powerful engines to lift the boat onto the plane but give a faster, smoother ride in waves. Displacement chined hulls have more wetted surface area, hence more drag, than an equivalent round-hull form, for any given displacement.
#### Smooth curve hulls {#smooth_curve_hulls}
Smooth curve hulls are hulls that use, just like the curved hulls, a centreboard, or an attached keel.
Semi round bilge hulls are somewhat less round. The advantage of the semi-round is that it is a nice middle between the S-bottom`{{clarify|explain, define, or link S-bottom, show that it is a term used in English|date=January 2022}}`{=mediawiki} and chined hull. Typical examples of a semi-round bilge hull can be found in the Centaur and Laser sailing dinghies.
S-bottom hulls are sailing boat hulls with a midships transverse half-section shaped like an *s*.`{{clarify|date=March 2019}}`{=mediawiki} In the s-bottom, the hull has round bilges and merges smoothly with the keel, and there are no sharp corners on the hull sides between the keel centreline and the sheer line. Boats with this hull form may have a long fixed deep keel, or a long shallow fixed keel with a centreboard swing keel inside. Ballast may be internal, external, or a combination. This hull form was most popular in the late 19th and early to mid 20th centuries. Examples of small sailboats that use this s-shape are the Yngling and Randmeer.
## Appendages
- Control devices such as a rudder, trim tabs or stabilizing fins may be fitted.
- A keel may be fitted on a hull to increase the transverse stability, directional stability or to create lift.
- Retractable appendages include centreboards and daggerboards.
- A forward protrusion below the waterline is called a bulbous bow. These are fitted on some hulls to reduce the wave making resistance drag and thereby increase fuel efficiency.
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# Hull (watercraft)
## Terms
- **Baseline** is a level reference line from which vertical distances are measured.
- **Bow** is the front part of the hull.
- **`{{nautical term|Amidships}}`{=mediawiki}** is the middle portion of the vessel in the fore and aft direction.
- **Port** is the left side of the vessel when facing the bow from on board.
- **Starboard** is the right side of the vessel when facing the bow from on board.
- **Stern** is the rear part of the hull.
- **Waterline** is an imaginary line circumscribing the hull that matches the surface of the water when the hull is not moving.
## Metrics
Hull forms are defined as follows:
**Block measures** that define the principal dimensions. They are:
- Beam or breadth (**B**) is the width of the hull. (ex: BWL is the maximum beam at the waterline)
- Draft (**d**) or (**T**) is the vertical distance from the bottom of the keel to the waterline.
- Freeboard (**FB**) is **depth** plus the height of the keel structure minus **draft**.
- Length at the waterline (**LWL**) is the length from the forwardmost point of the waterline measured in profile to the stern-most point of the waterline.
- Length between perpendiculars (**LBP** or **LPP**) is the length of the summer load waterline from the stern post to the point where it crosses the stem. (see also p/p)
- Length overall (**LOA**) is the extreme length from one end to the other.
- Moulded depth (**D**) is the vertical distance measured from the top of the keel to the underside of the upper deck at side.
**Form derivatives** that are calculated from the shape and the block measures. They are:
- Displacement (**Δ**) is the weight of water equivalent to the immersed volume of the hull.
- Longitudinal centre of buoyancy (**LCB**) is the longitudinal position of the centroid of the displaced volume, often given as the distance from a point of reference (often midships) to the centroid of the static displaced volume. Note that the longitudinal centre of gravity or centre of the weight of the vessel must align with the LCB when the hull is in equilibrium.
- Longitudinal centre of flotation (**LCF**) is the longitudinal position of the centroid of the waterplane area, usually expressed as longitudinal distance from a point of reference (often midships) to the centre of the area of the static waterplane. This can be visualized as being the area defined by the water\'s surface and the hull.
- Vertical centre of buoyancy (**VCB**) is the vertical position of the centroid of displaced volume, generally given as a distance from a point of reference (such as the baseline) to the centre of the static displaced volume.
- Volume (**V** or **∇**) is the volume of water displaced by the hull.
**Coefficients** help compare hull forms as well:
1. (**C~b~**) is the volume (V) divided by the L~WL~ × B~WL~ × T~WL~. If you draw a box around the submerged part of the ship, it is the ratio of the box volume occupied by the ship. It gives a sense of how much of the block defined by the L~WL~, beam (B) & draft (T) is filled by the hull. Full forms such as oil tankers will have a high C~b~ where fine shapes such as sailboats will have a low C~b~.
C_b = \\frac {V}{L\_{WL} \\cdot B\_{WL} \\cdot T\_{WL}}
1. Midship coefficient (**C~m~** or **C~x~**) is the cross-sectional area (A~x~) of the slice at midships (or at the largest section for C~x~) divided by beam x draft. It displays the ratio of the largest underwater section of the hull to a rectangle of the same overall width and depth as the underwater section of the hull. This defines the fullness of the underbody. A low C~m~ indicates a cut-away mid-section and a high C~m~ indicates a boxy section shape. Sailboats have a cut-away mid-section with low C~x~ whereas cargo vessels have a boxy section with high C~x~ to help increase the C~b~.
C_m = \\frac {A_m}{ B\_{WL} \\cdot T\_{WL}}
1. Prismatic coefficient (**C~p~**) is the volume (V) divided by L~WL~x A~x~. It displays the ratio of the immersed volume of the hull to a volume of a prism with equal length to the ship and cross-sectional area equal to the largest underwater section of the hull (midship section). This is used to evaluate the distribution of the volume of the underbody. A low or fine C~p~ indicates a full mid-section and fine ends, a high or full C~p~ indicates a boat with fuller ends. Planing hulls and other highspeed hulls tend towards a higher C~p~. Efficient displacement hulls travelling at a low Froude number will tend to have a low C~p~.
C_p = \\frac {V}{L\_{WL} \\cdot A_m}
1. Waterplane coefficient (**C~w~**) is the waterplane area divided by L~WL~ x B~WL~. The waterplane coefficient expresses the fullness of the waterplane, or the ratio of the waterplane area to a rectangle of the same length and width. A low C~w~ figure indicates fine ends and a high C~w~ figure indicates fuller ends. High C~w~ improves stability as well as handling behavior in rough conditions.
C_w = \\frac {A_w}{L\_{WL} \\cdot B\_{WL}}
**Note:** $C_b = C_{p} \cdot C_{m}$
## Computer-aided design {#computer_aided_design}
Use of computer-aided design has superseded paper-based methods of ship design that relied on manual calculations and lines drawing. Since the early 1990s, a variety of commercial and freeware software packages specialized for naval architecture have been developed that provide 3D drafting capabilities combined with calculation modules for hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. These may be referred to as geometric modeling systems for naval architecture
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# History of physics
`{{TopicTOC-Physics}}`{=mediawiki}
Physics is a branch of science in which the primary objects of study are matter and energy. These topics were discussed across many cultures in ancient times by philosophers, but they had no means to distinguish causes of natural phenomena from superstitions.
The Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, especially the discovery of the law of gravity, began a process of knowledge accumulation and specialization that gave rise to the field of physics.
Mathematical advances of the 18th century gave rise to classical mechanics, and the increased used of the experimental method led to new understanding of thermodynamics.
In the 19th century, the basic laws of electromagnetism and statistical mechanics were discovered.
At the beginning of the 20th century, physics was transformed by the discoveries of quantum mechanics, relativity, and atomic theory.
Physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics.
## Ancient history {#ancient_history}
Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. These mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such as Archimedes and Ptolemy. Ancient philosophy, meanwhile, included what was called \"Physics\".
### Greek concept {#greek_concept}
The move towards a rational understanding of nature began at least since the Archaic period in Greece (650--480 BCE) with the Pre-Socratic philosophers. The philosopher Thales of Miletus (7th and 6th centuries BCE), dubbed \"the Father of Science\" for refusing to accept various supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaimed that every event had a natural cause. Thales also made advancements in 580 BCE by suggesting that water is the basic element, experimenting with the attraction between magnets and rubbed amber and formulating the first recorded cosmologies. Anaximander, developer of a proto-evolutionary theory, disputed Thales\' ideas and proposed that rather than water, a substance called *apeiron* was the building block of all matter. Around 500 BCE, Heraclitus proposed that the only basic law governing the Universe was the principle of change and that nothing remains in the same state indefinitely. He, along with his contemporary Parmenides were among the first scholars to contemplate on the role of time in the universe, a key concept that is still an issue in modern physics.
During the classical period in Greece (6th, 5th and 4th centuries BCE) and in Hellenistic times, natural philosophy developed into a field of study. Aristotle (*Ἀριστοτέλης*, *Aristotélēs*) (384--322 BCE), a student of Plato, promoted the concept that observation of physical phenomena could ultimately lead to the discovery of the natural laws governing them. Aristotle\'s writings cover physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology. He wrote the first work which refers to that line of study as \"Physics\" -- in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle founded the system known as Aristotelian physics. He attempted to explain ideas such as motion (and gravity) with the theory of four elements. Aristotle believed that all matter was made of aether, or some combination of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. According to Aristotle, these four terrestrial elements are capable of inter-transformation and move toward their natural place, so a stone falls downward toward the center of the cosmos, but flames rise upward toward the circumference. Eventually, Aristotelian physics became popular for many centuries in Europe, informing the scientific and scholastic developments of the Middle Ages. It remained the mainstream scientific paradigm in Europe until the time of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
Early in Classical Greece, knowledge that the Earth is spherical (\"round\") was common. Around 240 BCE, as the result of a seminal experiment, Eratosthenes (276--194 BCE) accurately estimated its circumference. In contrast to Aristotle\'s geocentric views, Aristarchus of Samos (*Ἀρίσταρχος*; c. 310) presented an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the Solar System, i.e. for placing the Sun, not the Earth, at its centre. Seleucus of Seleucia, a follower of Aristarchus\' heliocentric theory, stated that the Earth rotated around its own axis, which, in turn, revolved around the Sun. Though the arguments he used were lost, Plutarch stated that Seleucus was the first to prove the heliocentric system through reasoning.
In the 3rd century BCE, the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse *Ἀρχιμήδης\]\]* (287--212 BCE) -- generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time -- laid the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and calculated the underlying mathematics of the lever. A scientist of classical antiquity, Archimedes also developed elaborate systems of pulleys to move large objects with a minimum of effort. The Archimedes\' screw underpins modern hydroengineering, and his machines of war helped to hold back the armies of Rome in the First Punic War. Archimedes even tore apart the arguments of Aristotle and his metaphysics, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions. Furthermore, in his work *On Floating Bodies*, around 250 BCE, Archimedes developed the law of buoyancy, also known as Archimedes\' principle. In mathematics, Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi. He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers. He also developed the principles of equilibrium states and centers of gravity, ideas that would influence future scholars like Galileo, and Newton.
Hipparchus (190--120 BCE), focusing on astronomy and mathematics, used sophisticated geometrical techniques to map the motion of the stars and planets, even predicting the times that Solar eclipses would happen. He added calculations of the distance of the Sun and Moon from the Earth, based upon his improvements to the observational instruments used at that time. Another of the early physicists was Ptolemy (90--168 CE) during the time of the Roman Empire. Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the *Almagest* (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, \"The Great Treatise\", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, \"Mathematical Treatise\"). The second is the *Geography*, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world.
Much of the accumulated knowledge of the ancient world was lost. Even of the works of the many respectable thinkers, few fragments survive. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, almost nothing of Hipparchus\' direct work survived. Of the 150 reputed Aristotelian works, only 30 exist, and some of those are \"little more than lecture notes\".`{{According to whom|date=June 2018}}`{=mediawiki}
### India and China {#india_and_china}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas. Important physical and mathematical traditions also existed in ancient Chinese and Indian sciences.
left\|thumb\|upright=1.6\|Star maps by the 11th century Chinese polymath Su Song are the oldest known woodblock-printed star maps to have survived to the present day. This example, dated 1092, employs the cylindricalequirectangular projection.
In Indian philosophy, Maharishi Kanada was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around 200 BCE though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE. It was further elaborated by the Buddhist atomists Dharmakirti and Dignāga during the 1st millennium CE. Pakudha Kaccayana, a 6th-century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. The Vaisheshika school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in space. It was also first to depict relations between motion and force applied. Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation.
In Indian astronomy, Aryabhata\'s *Aryabhatiya* (499 CE) proposed the Earth\'s rotation, while Nilakantha Somayaji (1444--1544) of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics proposed a semi-heliocentric model resembling the Tychonic system.
The study of magnetism in Ancient China dates to the 4th century BCE (in the *Book of the Devil Valley Master*). A main contributor to this field was Shen Kuo (1031--1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, as well as establishing the concept of true north. In optics, Shen Kuo independently developed a camera obscura.
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# History of physics
## Ancient history {#ancient_history}
### Islamic world {#islamic_world}
In the 7th to 15th centuries, scientific progress occurred in the Muslim world. Many classic works in Indian, Assyrian, Sassanian (Persian) and Greek, including the works of Aristotle, were translated into Arabic. Important contributions were made by Ibn al-Haytham (965--1040), an Arab or Persian scientist, considered to be a founder of modern optics. Ptolemy and Aristotle theorised that light either shone from the eye to illuminate objects or that \"forms\" emanated from objects themselves, whereas al-Haytham (known by the Latin name \"Alhazen\") suggested that light travels to the eye in rays from different points on an object. The works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni (973--1050), a Persian scientist, eventually passed on to Western Europe where they were studied by scholars such as Roger Bacon and Vitello.
Ibn al-Haytham used controlled experiments in his work on optics, although to what extent it differed from Ptolemy is debated. Arabic mechanics like Bīrūnī and Al-Khazini developed sophisticated \"science of weight\", carrying out measurements of specific weights and volumes.
Ibn Sīnā (980--1037), known as \"Avicenna\", was a polymath from Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) responsible for important contributions to physics, optics, philosophy and medicine. He published his theory of motion in *Book of Healing* (1020), where he argued that an impetus is imparted to a projectile by the thrower. He viewed it as persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it. Ibn Sina made a distinction between \'force\' and \'inclination\' (called \"mayl\"), and argued that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent. This conception of motion is consistent with Newton\'s first law of motion, inertia, which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it is acted on by an external force. This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was later described as \"impetus\" by John Buridan, who was likely influenced by Ibn Sina\'s *Book of Healing*.
upright=1.2\|thumb\|A page from al-Khwārizmī\'s *Algebra*.
Hibat Allah Abu\'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (c. 1080) adopted and modified Ibn Sina\'s theory on projectile motion. In his *Kitab al-Mu\'tabar*, Abu\'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination (*mayl qasri*) on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover. He also proposed an explanation of the acceleration of falling bodies by the accumulation of successive increments of power with successive increments of velocity. According to Shlomo Pines, al-Baghdaadi\'s theory of motion was \"the oldest negation of Aristotle\'s fundamental dynamic law \[namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion\], \[and is thus an\] anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics \[namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration\].\" Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony later referred to Abu\'l-Barakat in explaining that the acceleration of a falling body is a result of its increasing impetus.
Ibn Bajjah (c. 1085--1138), known as \"Avempace\" in Europe, proposed that for every force there is always a reaction force. Ibn Bajjah was a critic of Ptolemy and he worked on creating a new theory of velocity to replace the one theorized by Aristotle. Two future philosophers supported the theories Avempace created, known as Avempacean dynamics. These philosophers were Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic priest, and John Duns Scotus. Galileo went on to adopt Avempace\'s formula \"that the velocity of a given object is the difference of the motive power of that object and the resistance of the medium of motion\".
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201--1274), a Persian astronomer and mathematician who died in Baghdad, introduced the Tusi couple an important mathematical theorem and founded the Maragha School of astronomy. Geocentric (but not heliocentric) astronomical models developed by the Maragha School have many striking parallels with models developed by Nicolaus Copernicus. The possibility that Maragha results may have influenced Copernicus has a been investigated in some detail.
### Medieval Europe {#medieval_europe}
Awareness of ancient works re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin. Their re-introduction, combined with Judeo-Islamic theological commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas. Scholastic European scholars, who sought to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with Christian theology, proclaimed Aristotle the greatest thinker of the ancient world. In cases where they did not directly contradict the Bible, Aristotelian physics became the foundation for the physical explanations of the European Churches. Quantification became a core element of medieval physics.
Based on Aristotelian physics, Scholastic physics described things as moving according to their essential nature. Celestial objects were described as moving in circles, because perfect circular motion was considered an innate property of objects that existed in the uncorrupted realm of the celestial spheres. Motions below the lunar sphere were seen as imperfect, and thus could not be expected to exhibit consistent motion. More idealized motion in the \"sublunary\" realm could only be achieved through artifice, and prior to the 17th century, many did not view artificial experiments as a valid means of learning about the natural world. Physical explanations in the sublunary realm revolved around tendencies. Stones contained the element earth, and earthly objects tended to move in a straight line toward the centre of the earth (and the universe in the Aristotelian geocentric view) unless otherwise prevented from doing so.
Aristotle\'s physics was not scrutinized until John Philoponus, who relied on observation rather than verbal argument like Aristotle. Philoponus\' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration for Galileo Galilei ten centuries later, during the Scientific Revolution. Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works when arguing that Aristotelian physics was flawed. In the 1300s Jean Buridan, a teacher in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris, developed the concept of impetus. It was a step toward the modern ideas of inertia and momentum.
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# History of physics
## Scientific Revolution {#scientific_revolution}
During the 16th and 17th centuries, a large advancement of scientific progress known as the Scientific Revolution took place in Europe. Dissatisfaction with older philosophical approaches had begun earlier and had produced other changes in society, such as the Protestant Reformation, but the revolution in science began when natural philosophers began to mount a sustained attack on the Scholastic philosophical programme and supposed that mathematical descriptive schemes adopted from such fields as mechanics and astronomy could actually yield universally valid characterizations of motion and other concepts.
### Nicolaus Copernicus {#nicolaus_copernicus}
A breakthrough in astronomy was made by Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473--1543) when, in 1543, he gave strong arguments for the heliocentric model of the Solar System, ostensibly as a means to render tables charting planetary motion more accurate and to simplify their production. In heliocentric models of the Solar system, the Earth orbits the Sun along with other bodies in Earth\'s galaxy, a contradiction according to the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century CE; see above), whose system placed the Earth at the center of the Universe and had been accepted for over 1,400 years. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310) had suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but Copernicus\'s reasoning led to lasting general acceptance of this \"revolutionary\" idea. Copernicus\'s book presenting the theory (*De revolutionibus orbium coelestium*, \"On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres\") was published just before his death in 1543 and, as it is now generally considered to mark the beginning of modern astronomy, is also considered to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. Copernicus\'s new perspective, along with the accurate observations made by Tycho Brahe, enabled German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571--1630) to formulate his laws regarding planetary motion that remain in use today.
### Galileo Galilei {#galileo_galilei}
The Italian mathematician, astronomer, and physicist Galileo Galilei (1564--1642) was a supporter of Copernicanism who made numerous astronomical discoveries, carried out empirical experiments and improved the telescope. As a mathematician, Galileo\'s role in the university culture of his era was subordinated to the three major topics of study: law, medicine, and theology (which was closely allied to philosophy). Galileo, however, felt that the descriptive content of the technical disciplines warranted philosophical interest, particularly because mathematical analysis of astronomical observations -- notably, Copernicus\'s analysis of the relative motions of the Sun, Earth, Moon, and planets -- indicated that philosophers\' statements about the nature of the universe could be shown to be in error. Galileo also performed mechanical experiments, insisting that motion itself -- regardless of whether it was produced \"naturally\" or \"artificially\" (i.e. deliberately) -- had universally consistent characteristics that could be described mathematically.
Galileo\'s early studies at the University of Pisa were in medicine, but he was soon drawn to mathematics and physics. At age 19, he discovered (and, subsequently, verified) the isochronal nature of the pendulum when, using his pulse, he timed the oscillations of a swinging lamp in Pisa\'s cathedral and found that it remained the same for each swing regardless of the swing\'s amplitude. He soon became known through his invention of a hydrostatic balance and for his treatise on the center of gravity of solid bodies. While teaching at the University of Pisa (1589--1592), he initiated his experiments concerning the laws of bodies in motion that brought results so contradictory to the accepted teachings of Aristotle that strong antagonism was aroused. He found that bodies do not fall with velocities proportional to their weights. The story in which Galileo is said to have dropped weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is apocryphal, but he did find that the path of a projectile is a parabola and is credited with conclusions that anticipated Newton\'s laws of motion (e.g. the notion of inertia). Among these is what is now called Galilean relativity, the first precisely formulated statement about properties of space and time outside three-dimensional geometry.
Galileo has been called the \"father of modern observational astronomy\", the \"father of modern physics\", the \"father of science\", and \"the father of modern science\". According to Stephen Hawking, \"Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science.\" As religious orthodoxy decreed a geocentric or Tychonic understanding of the Solar system, Galileo\'s support for heliocentrism provoked controversy and he was tried by the Inquisition. Found \"vehemently suspect of heresy\", he was forced to recant and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
The contributions that Galileo made to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus; his discovery, in 1609, of Jupiter\'s four largest moons (subsequently given the collective name of the \"Galilean moons\"); and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also pursued applied science and technology, inventing, among other instruments, a military compass. His discovery of the Jovian moons was published in 1610, enabling him to obtain the position of mathematician and philosopher to the Medici court. As such, he was expected to engage in debates with philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition and received a large audience for his own publications such as the *Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences* (published abroad following his arrest for the publication of *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*) and *The Assayer*. Galileo\'s interest in experimenting with and formulating mathematical descriptions of motion established experimentation as an integral part of natural philosophy. This tradition, combining with the non-mathematical emphasis on the collection of \"experimental histories\" by philosophical reformists such as William Gilbert and Francis Bacon, drew a significant following in the years leading to and following Galileo\'s death, including Evangelista Torricelli and the participants in the Accademia del Cimento in Italy; Marin Mersenne and Blaise Pascal in France; Christiaan Huygens in the Netherlands; and Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle in England.
### Johannes Kepler {#johannes_kepler}
upright=1.4\|thumb\|Artist\'s rendition of Kepler-62f, a potentially habitable exoplanet discovered using data transmitted by Kepler space telescope, named for Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571--1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and a key figure in the 17th century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books *Astronomia nova*, *Harmonice Mundi*, and *Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae*, influencing among others Isaac Newton, providing one of the foundations for his theory of universal gravitation. The variety and impact of his work made Kepler one of the founders of modern astronomy, the scientific method, natural and modern science.
Kepler was partly driven by his belief that there is an intelligible plan that is accessible through reason. Kepler described his new astronomy as \"celestial physics\", as \"an excursion into Aristotle\'s *Metaphysics*\", and as \"a supplement to Aristotle\'s *On the Heavens*{{-\"}}, treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.
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# History of physics
## Scientific Revolution {#scientific_revolution}
### René Descartes {#rené_descartes}
The French philosopher René Descartes (1596--1650) was well-connected to, and influential within, experimental philosophy networks. Descartes had an agenda, however, which was geared toward replacing the Scholastic philosophical tradition. Questioning the reality interpreted through the senses, Descartes sought to re-establish philosophical explanations by reducing all phenomena to the motion of an invisible sea of \"corpuscles\". (Notably, he reserved human thought and God from his scheme, holding these to be separate from the physical universe). In proposing this philosophical framework, Descartes supposed that different kinds of motion, such as that of planets versus that of terrestrial objects, were not fundamentally different, but were manifestations of an endless chain of corpuscular motions obeying universal principles. Particularly influential were his explanations for circular astronomical motions in terms of the vortex motion of corpuscles in space (Descartes argued, in accord with the beliefs, if not the methods, of the Scholastics, that a vacuum could not exist), and his explanation of gravity in terms of corpuscles pushing objects downward.
Descartes, like Galileo, was convinced of the importance of mathematical explanation, and he and his followers were key figures in the development of mathematics and geometry in the 17th century. Cartesian mathematical descriptions of motion held that all mathematical formulations had to be justifiable in terms of direct physical action, a position held by Huygens and the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz, who, while following in the Cartesian tradition, developed his own philosophical alternative to Scholasticism, which he outlined in his 1714 work, the *Monadology*. Descartes has been dubbed the \"Father of Modern Philosophy\", and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his *Meditations on First Philosophy* continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes\' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system -- allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system -- was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, important to the discovery of calculus and analysis.
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# History of physics
## Scientific Revolution {#scientific_revolution}
### Christiaan Huygens {#christiaan_huygens}
The Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor Christiaan Huygens (1629--1695) was the leading scientist in Europe between Galileo and Newton. Huygens came from a family of nobility that had an important position in the Dutch society of the 17th century; a time in which the Dutch Republic flourished economically and culturally. This period -- roughly between 1588 and 1702 -- of the history of the Netherlands is also referred to as the Dutch Golden Age, an era during the Scientific Revolution when Dutch science was among the most acclaimed in Europe. At this time, intellectuals and scientists like René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Bayle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, John Locke and Hugo Grotius resided in the Netherlands. It was in this intellectual environment that Christiaan Huygens grew up. Christiaan\'s father, Constantijn Huygens, was, apart from an important poet, the secretary and diplomat for the Princes of Orange. He knew many scientists of his time because of his contacts and intellectual interests, including René Descartes and Marin Mersenne, and it was because of these contacts that Christiaan Huygens became aware of their work, especially Descartes, whose mechanistic philosophy was going to have a huge influence on Huygens\' own work. Descartes was later impressed by the skills Huygens showed in geometry, as was Mersenne, who christened him \"the new Archimedes\" (which led Constantijn to refer to his son as \"my little Archimedes\").
A child prodigy, Huygens began his correspondence with Marin Mersenne when he was 17 years old. Huygens became interested in games of chance when he encountered the work of Fermat, Blaise Pascal and Girard Desargues. It was Pascal who encouraged him to write *Van Rekeningh in Spelen van Gluck*, which Frans van Schooten translated and published as *De Ratiociniis in Ludo Aleae* in 1657. The book is the earliest known scientific treatment of the subject, and at the time the most coherent presentation of a mathematical approach to games of chance. Two years later Huygens derived geometrically the now standard formulae in classical mechanics for the centripetal- and centrifugal force in his work *De vi Centrifuga* (1659). Around the same time Huygens\' research in horology resulted in the invention of the pendulum clock; a breakthrough in timekeeping and the most accurate timekeeper for almost 300 years. The theoretical research of the way the pendulum works eventually led to the publication of one of his most important achievements: the Horologium Oscillatorium. This work was published in 1673 and became one of the three most important 17th century works on mechanics (the other two being Galileo\'s *Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences* (1638) and Newton\'s *Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica* (1687)). The *Horologium Oscillatorium* is the first modern treatise in which a physical problem (the accelerated motion of a falling body) is idealized by a set of parameters then analyzed mathematically and constitutes one of the seminal works of applied mathematics. It is for this reason, Huygens has been called the first theoretical physicist and one of the founders of modern mathematical physics. Huygens\' *Horologium Oscillatorium* influenced the work of Isaac Newton, who admired the work. For instance, the laws Huygens described in the *Horologium Oscillatorium* are structurally the same as Newton\'s first two laws of motion.
Five years after the publication of his *Horologium Oscillatorium*, Huygens described his wave theory of light. Though proposed in 1678, it was not published until 1690 in his Traité de la Lumière. His mathematical theory of light was initially rejected in favour of Newton\'s corpuscular theory of light, until Augustin-Jean Fresnel adopted Huygens\' principle to give a complete explanation of the rectilinear propagation and diffraction effects of light in 1821. Today this principle is known as the Huygens--Fresnel principle.
As an astronomer, Huygens began grinding lenses with his brother Constantijn Jr. to build telescopes for astronomical research. He was the first to identify the rings of Saturn as \"a thin, flat ring, nowhere touching, and inclined to the ecliptic,\" and discovered the first of Saturn\'s moons, Titan, using a refracting telescope.
Huygens was also the first who brought mathematical rigor to the description of physical phenomena. Because of this, and the fact that he developed institutional frameworks for scientific research on the continent, he has been referred to as \"the leading actor in \'the making of science in Europe{{\'\"}}
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# History of physics
## Scientific Revolution {#scientific_revolution}
### Isaac Newton {#isaac_newton}
Cambridge University physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642--1727) was a fellow of the Royal Society of England, who created a single system for describing the workings of the universe. Newton formulated three laws of motion which formulated the relationship between motion and objects and also the law of universal gravitation, the latter of which could be used to explain the behavior not only of falling bodies on the earth but also planets and other celestial bodies. To arrive at his results, Newton invented one form of an entirely new branch of mathematics: calculus (also invented independently by Gottfried Leibniz), which was to become an essential tool in much of the later development in most branches of physics. Newton\'s findings were set forth in his *Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica* (\"Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy\"), the publication of which in 1687 marked the beginning of the modern period of mechanics and astronomy.
Newton refuted the Cartesian mechanical tradition that all motions should be explained with respect to the immediate force exerted by corpuscles. Using his three laws of motion and law of universal gravitation, Newton removed the idea that objects followed paths determined by natural shapes and instead demonstrated that all the future motions of any body could be deduced mathematically based on knowledge of their existing motion, their mass, and the forces acting upon them. However, observed celestial motions did not precisely conform to a Newtonian treatment, and Newton, who was also deeply interested in theology, imagined that God intervened to ensure the continued stability of the solar system.
Newton\'s principles (but not his mathematical treatments) proved controversial with Continental philosophers, who found his lack of metaphysical explanation for movement and gravitation philosophically unacceptable. Beginning around 1700, a bitter rift opened between the Continental and British philosophical traditions, which were stoked by heated, ongoing, and viciously personal disputes between the followers of Newton and Leibniz concerning priority over the analytical techniques of calculus, which each had developed independently. Initially, the Cartesian and Leibnizian traditions prevailed on the Continent (leading to the dominance of the Leibnizian calculus notation everywhere except Britain). Newton himself remained privately disturbed at the lack of a philosophical understanding of gravitation while insisting in his writings that none was necessary to infer its reality. As the 18th century progressed, Continental natural philosophers increasingly accepted the Newtonians\' willingness to forgo ontological metaphysical explanations for mathematically described motions.
Newton built the first functioning reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color, published in *Opticks*, based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours forming the visible spectrum. While Newton explained light as being composed of tiny particles, a rival theory of light which explained its behavior in terms of waves was presented in 1690 by Christiaan Huygens. However, the belief in the mechanistic philosophy coupled with Newton\'s reputation meant that the wave theory saw relatively little support until the 19th century. Newton also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, investigated power series, demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem and developed a method for approximating the roots of a function. His work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin\'s decimals. Most importantly, Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, which were neither capricious nor malevolent. By demonstrating the consistency between Kepler\'s laws of planetary motion and his own theory of gravitation, Newton also removed the last doubts about heliocentrism. By bringing together all the ideas set forth during the Scientific Revolution, Newton effectively established the foundation for modern society in mathematics and science.
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# History of physics
## Scientific Revolution {#scientific_revolution}
### Other achievements {#other_achievements}
Other branches of physics also received attention during the period of the Scientific Revolution. William Gilbert, court physician to Queen Elizabeth I, described how the earth itself behaves like a giant magnet. Robert Boyle (1627--1691) studied the behavior of gases enclosed in a chamber and formulated the gas law named for him; he also contributed to physiology and to the founding of modern chemistry.
Another factor in the Scientific Revolution was the rise of learned societies and academies in various countries. The earliest of these were in Italy and Germany and were short-lived. More influential were the Royal Society of England (1660) and the Academy of Sciences in France (1666). The former was a private institution in London and included John Wallis, William Brouncker, Thomas Sydenham, John Mayow, and Christopher Wren (who contributed not only to architecture but also to astronomy and anatomy); the latter, in Paris, was a government institution and included as a foreign member the Dutchman Huygens. In the 18th century, important royal academies were established at Berlin (1700) and at St. Petersburg (1724). The societies and academies provided the principal opportunities for the publication and discussion of scientific results during and after the scientific revolution. In 1690, James Bernoulli showed that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone problem; and the following year, in 1691, Johann Bernoulli showed that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary, the curve with the lowest possible center of gravity available to any chain hung between two fixed points. He then showed, in 1696, that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem.
#### Early thermodynamics {#early_thermodynamics}
A precursor of the engine was designed by the German scientist Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, designed and built the world\'s first vacuum pump to create a vacuum as demonstrated in the Magdeburg hemispheres experiment. He was driven to make a vacuum to disprove Aristotle\'s long-held supposition that \'Nature abhors a vacuum\'. Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Boyle had learned of Guericke\'s designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation for a gas: *PV* = *k*, where *P* is pressure, *V* is volume and *k* is a constant: this relationship is known as Boyle\'s law. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore, Boyle\'s publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring. Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law. But, already before the establishment of the ideal gas law, an associate of Boyle\'s named Denis Papin built in 1679 a bone digester, which is a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confines steam until a high pressure is generated.
Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin\'s designs, engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. Hence, prior to 1698 and the invention of the Savery Engine, horses were used to power pulleys, attached to buckets, which lifted water out of flooded salt mines in England. In the years to follow, more variations of steam engines were built, such as the Newcomen Engine, and later the Watt Engine. In time, these early engines would replace horses. Thus, each engine began to be associated with a certain amount of \"horse power\" depending upon how many horses it had replaced. The main problem with these first engines was that they were slow and clumsy, converting less than 2% of the input fuel into useful work. In other words, large quantities of coal (or wood) had to be burned to yield a small fraction of work output; the need for a new science of engine dynamics was born.
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# History of physics
## 18th-century developments {#th_century_developments}
During the 18th century, the mechanics founded by Newton was developed by several scientists as more mathematicians learned calculus and elaborated upon its initial formulation. The application of mathematical analysis to problems of motion was known as rational mechanics, or mixed mathematics (and was later termed classical mechanics).
### Mechanics
In 1714, Brook Taylor derived the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving a differential equation. The Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700--1782) made important mathematical studies of the behavior of gases, anticipating the kinetic theory of gases developed more than a century later, and has been referred to as the first mathematical physicist. In 1733, Daniel Bernoulli derived the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving a differential equation. In 1734, Bernoulli solved the differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end. Bernoulli\'s treatment of fluid dynamics and his examination of fluid flow was introduced in his 1738 work *Hydrodynamica*.
Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis, and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of legitimate means of analytical approximation. A representative contemporary textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath. By the end of the century analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the Solar System solely on the basis of Newton\'s laws without reference to divine intervention -- even as deterministic treatments of systems as simple as the three body problem in gravitation remained intractable. In 1705, Edmond Halley predicted the periodicity of Halley\'s Comet, William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, and Henry Cavendish measured the gravitational constant and determined the mass of the Earth in 1798. In 1783, John Michell suggested that some objects might be so massive that not even light could escape from them.
In 1739, Leonhard Euler solved the ordinary differential equation for a forced harmonic oscillator and noticed the resonance phenomenon. In 1742, Colin Maclaurin discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids. In 1742, Benjamin Robins published his *New Principles in Gunnery*, establishing the science of aerodynamics. British work, carried on by mathematicians such as Taylor and Maclaurin, fell behind Continental developments as the century progressed. Meanwhile, work flourished at scientific academies on the Continent, led by such mathematicians as Bernoulli and Euler, as well as Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, and Adrien-Marie Legendre. In 1743, Jean le Rond d\'Alembert published his *Traité de dynamique*, in which he introduced the concept of generalized forces for accelerating systems and systems with constraints, and applied the new idea of virtual work to solve dynamical problem, now known as D\'Alembert\'s principle, as a rival to Newton\'s second law of motion. In 1747, Pierre Louis Maupertuis applied minimum principles to mechanics. In 1759, Euler solved the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum. In 1764, Euler examined the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and found one of the Bessel function solutions. In 1776, John Smeaton published a paper on experiments relating power, work, momentum and kinetic energy, and supporting the conservation of energy. In 1788, Lagrange presented his equations of motion in *Mécanique analytique*, in which the whole of mechanics was organized around the principle of virtual work. In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier stated the law of conservation of mass. The rational mechanics developed in the 18th century received expositions in both Lagrange\'s *Mécanique analytique* and Laplace\'s *Traité de mécanique céleste* (1799--1825).
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# History of physics
## 18th-century developments {#th_century_developments}
### Thermodynamics
During the 18th century, thermodynamics was developed through the theories of weightless \"imponderable fluids\", such as heat (\"caloric\"), electricity, and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Lavoisier\'s identification of oxygen gas late in the century). Assuming that these concepts were real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical reactions. This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden Jar; and new kinds of measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones, such as the thermometer. Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black\'s notion of latent heat and Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin\'s characterization of electrical fluid as flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of positive and negative charges). Franklin also showed that lightning is electricity in 1752.
The accepted theory of heat in the 18th century viewed it as a kind of fluid, called caloric; although this theory was later shown to be erroneous, a number of scientists adhering to it nevertheless made important discoveries useful in developing the modern theory, including Joseph Black (1728--1799) and Henry Cavendish (1731--1810). Opposed to this caloric theory, which had been developed mainly by the chemists, was the less accepted theory dating from Newton\'s time that heat is due to the motions of the particles of a substance. This mechanical theory gained support in 1798 from the cannon-boring experiments of Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), who found a direct relationship between heat and mechanical energy.
While it was recognized early in the 18th century that finding absolute theories of electrostatic and magnetic force akin to Newton\'s principles of motion would be an important achievement, none were forthcoming. This impossibility only slowly disappeared as experimental practice became more widespread and more refined in the early years of the 19th century in places such as the newly established Royal Institution in London. Meanwhile, the analytical methods of rational mechanics began to be applied to experimental phenomena, most influentially with the French mathematician Joseph Fourier\'s analytical treatment of the flow of heat, as published in 1822. Joseph Priestley proposed an electrical inverse-square law in 1767, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb introduced the inverse-square law of electrostatics in 1798.
At the end of the century, the members of the French Academy of Sciences had attained clear dominance in the field. At the same time, the experimental tradition established by Galileo and his followers persisted. The Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences were major centers for the performance and reporting of experimental work. Experiments in mechanics, optics, magnetism, static electricity, chemistry, and physiology were not clearly distinguished from each other during the 18th century, but significant differences in explanatory schemes and, thus, experiment design were emerging. Chemical experimenters, for instance, defied attempts to enforce a scheme of abstract Newtonian forces onto chemical affiliations, and instead focused on the isolation and classification of chemical substances and reactions.
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# History of physics
## 19th century {#th_century}
### Mechanics {#mechanics_1}
In 1821, William Hamilton began his analysis of Hamilton\'s characteristic function. In 1835, he stated Hamilton\'s canonical equations of motion.
In 1813, Peter Ewart supported the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper *On the measure of moving force*. In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduced the terms of work (force times distance) and kinetic energy with the meanings they have today. In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, wrote a paper on the conservation of energy, although his lack of academic training led to its rejection. In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz formally stated the law of conservation of energy.
### Electromagnetism
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery (known as the voltaic pile) and thus improved the way electric currents could also be studied. A year later, Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light -- which received strong experimental support from the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel -- and the principle of interference. In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted found that a current-carrying conductor gives rise to a magnetic force surrounding it, and within a week after Ørsted\'s discovery reached France, André-Marie Ampère discovered that two parallel electric currents will exert forces on each other. In 1821, Michael Faraday built an electricity-powered motor, while Georg Ohm stated his law of electrical resistance in 1826, expressing the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit.
In 1831, Faraday (and independently Joseph Henry) discovered the reverse effect, the production of an electric potential or current through magnetism -- known as electromagnetic induction; these two discoveries are the basis of the electric motor and the electric generator, respectively.
In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell published *A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism*, which described the transmission of energy in wave form through a \"luminiferous ether\", and suggested that light was such a wave. This was confirmed in 1888 when Helmholtz student Heinrich Hertz generated and detected electromagnetic radiation in the laboratory.
### Laws of thermodynamics {#laws_of_thermodynamics}
In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s. In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments (including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s. The relation between heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published. Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion of the efficiency of an idealized engine. Sadi Carnot\'s work provided a basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics -- a restatement of the law of conservation of energy -- which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms of work to formulate the first law. Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics, which was originally formulated in terms of the fact that heat does not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a warmer one. Other formulations followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson and Peter Guthrie Tait\'s influential work *Treatise on Natural Philosophy*) and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law\'s general implications. The second Law -- the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion -- had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, but had fallen out of favor, and was revived by Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault measured the speed of light in water and found that it is slower than in air, in support of the wave model of light. In 1852, Joule and Thomson demonstrated that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule--Thomson effect or Joule--Kelvin effect. Hermann von Helmholtz put forward the idea of the heat death of the universe in 1854, the same year that Clausius established the importance of *dQ/T* (Clausius\'s theorem) (though he did not yet name the quantity).
### Statistical mechanics {#statistical_mechanics}
Further information: History of statistical mechanics In 1860, James Clerk Maxwell worked out the mathematics of the distribution of velocities of the molecules of a gas, known today as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist John Dalton and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws of thermodynamics.
The kinetic theory in turn led to a revolutionary approach to science, the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann (1844--1906) and Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839--1903), which studies the statistics of microstates of a system and uses statistics to determine the state of a physical system. Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term \"entropy\" to describe the disorganization of a state). The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as \"Maxwell\'s demon\"), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. In 1902, James Jeans found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.
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# History of physics
## 19th century {#th_century}
### Other developments {#other_developments}
In 1822, botanist Robert Brown discovered Brownian motion: pollen grains in water undergoing movement resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid.
In 1834, Carl Jacobi discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids (the Jacobi ellipsoid).
In 1834, John Russell observed a nondecaying solitary water wave (soliton) in the Union Canal near Edinburgh, Scotland, and used a water tank to study the dependence of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water depth. In 1835, Gaspard Coriolis examined theoretically the mechanical efficiency of waterwheels, and deduced the Coriolis effect. In 1842, Christian Doppler proposed the Doppler effect.
In 1851, Léon Foucault showed the Earth\'s rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum).
There were important advances in continuum mechanics in the first half of the century, namely formulation of laws of elasticity for solids and discovery of Navier--Stokes equations for fluids.
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# History of physics
## 20th century: birth of modern physics {#th_century_birth_of_modern_physics}
At the end of the 19th century, physics had evolved to the point at which classical mechanics could cope with highly complex problems involving macroscopic situations; thermodynamics and kinetic theory were well established; geometrical and physical optics could be understood in terms of electromagnetic waves; and the conservation laws for energy and momentum (and mass) were widely accepted. So profound were these and other developments that it was generally accepted that all the important laws of physics had been discovered and that, henceforth, research would be concerned with clearing up minor problems and particularly with improvements of method and measurement.
However, around 1900 serious doubts arose about the completeness of the classical theories -- the triumph of Maxwell\'s theories, for example, was undermined by inadequacies that had already begun to appear -- and their inability to explain certain physical phenomena, such as the energy distribution in blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, while some of the theoretical formulations led to paradoxes when pushed to the limit. Prominent physicists such as Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert and Wilhelm Wien believed that some modification of Maxwell\'s equations might provide the basis for all physical laws. These shortcomings of classical physics were never to be resolved and new ideas were required. At the beginning of the 20th century, a major revolution shook the world of physics, which led to a new era, generally referred to as modern physics.
### Radiation experiments {#radiation_experiments}
In the 19th century, experimenters began to detect unexpected forms of radiation: Wilhelm Röntgen caused a sensation with his discovery of X-rays in 1895; in 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that certain kinds of matter emit radiation on their own accord. In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the electron, and new radioactive elements found by Marie and Pierre Curie raised questions about the supposedly indestructible atom and the nature of matter. Marie and Pierre coined the term \"radioactivity\" to describe this property of matter, and isolated the radioactive elements radium and polonium. Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy identified two of Becquerel\'s forms of radiation with electrons and the element helium. Rutherford identified and named two types of radioactivity and in 1911 interpreted experimental evidence as showing that the atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Classical theory, however, predicted that this structure should be unstable. Classical theory had also failed to explain successfully two other experimental results that appeared in the late 19th century. One of these was the demonstration by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley -- known as the Michelson--Morley experiment -- which showed there did not seem to be a preferred frame of reference, at rest with respect to the hypothetical luminiferous ether, for describing electromagnetic phenomena. Studies of radiation and radioactive decay continued to be a preeminent focus for physical and chemical research through the 1930s, when the discovery of nuclear fission by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch opened the way to the practical exploitation of what came to be called \"atomic\" energy.
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# History of physics
## 20th century: birth of modern physics {#th_century_birth_of_modern_physics}
### Albert Einstein\'s theory of relativity {#albert_einsteins_theory_of_relativity}
In 1905, a 26-year-old German physicist named Albert Einstein (then a patent clerk in Bern, Switzerland) showed how measurements of time and space are affected by motion between an observer and what is being observed. Einstein\'s radical theory of relativity revolutionized science. Although Einstein made many other important contributions to science, the theory of relativity alone is one of the greatest intellectual achievements of all time. Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by Einstein, he recognised that the speed of light in vacuum is constant, i.e., the same for all observers, and an absolute upper limit to speed. This does not impact a person\'s day-to-day life since most objects travel at speeds much slower than light speed. For objects travelling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity shows that clocks associated with those objects will run more slowly and that the objects shorten in length according to measurements of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the equation, `{{nowrap|1=''E'' = ''mc''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}, which expresses the equivalence of mass and energy.
#### Special relativity {#special_relativity}
Einstein argued that the speed of light was a constant in all inertial reference frames and that electromagnetic laws should remain valid independent of reference frame -- assertions which rendered the ether \"superfluous\" to physical theory, and that held that observations of time and length varied relative to how the observer was moving with respect to the object being measured (what came to be called the \"special theory of relativity\"). It also followed that mass and energy were interchangeable quantities according to the equation *E*=*mc*^2^. In another paper published the same year, Einstein asserted that electromagnetic radiation was transmitted in discrete quantities (\"quanta\"), according to a constant that the theoretical physicist Max Planck had posited in 1900 to arrive at an accurate theory for the distribution of blackbody radiation -- an assumption that explained the strange properties of the photoelectric effect.
The special theory of relativity is a formulation of the relationship between physical observations and the concepts of space and time. The theory arose out of contradictions between electromagnetism and Newtonian mechanics and had great impact on both those areas. The original historical issue was whether it was meaningful to discuss the electromagnetic wave-carrying \"ether\" and motion relative to it and also whether one could detect such motion, as was unsuccessfully attempted in the Michelson--Morley experiment. Einstein demolished these questions and the ether concept in his special theory of relativity. However, his basic formulation does not involve detailed electromagnetic theory. It arises out of the question: \"What is time?\" Newton, in the *Principia* (1686), had given an unambiguous answer: \"Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration.\" This definition is basic to all classical physics.
Einstein had the genius to question it, and found that it was incomplete. Instead, each \"observer\" necessarily makes use of his or her own scale of time, and for two observers in relative motion, their time-scales will differ. This induces a related effect on position measurements. Space and time become intertwined concepts, fundamentally dependent on the observer. Each observer presides over his or her own space-time framework or coordinate system. There being no absolute frame of reference, all observers of given events make different but equally valid (and reconcilable) measurements. What remains absolute is stated in Einstein\'s relativity postulate: \"The basic laws of physics are identical for two observers who have a constant relative velocity with respect to each other.\"
Special relativity had a profound effect on physics: started as a rethinking of the theory of electromagnetism, it found a new symmetry law of nature, now called *Poincaré symmetry*, that replaced Galilean symmetry.
Special relativity exerted another long-lasting effect on dynamics. Although initially it was credited with the \"unification of mass and energy\", it became evident that relativistic dynamics established a *distinction* between rest mass, which is an invariant (observer independent) property of a particle or system of particles, and the energy and momentum of a system. The latter two are separately conserved in all situations but not invariant with respect to different observers. The term *mass* in particle physics underwent a semantic change, and since the late 20th century it almost exclusively denotes the rest (or *invariant*) mass. Further information: mass in special relativity
#### General relativity {#general_relativity}
By 1916, Einstein was able to generalize this further, to deal with all states of motion including non-uniform acceleration, which became the general theory of relativity. In this theory, Einstein also specified a new concept, the curvature of space-time, which described the gravitational effect at every point in space. The curvature of space-time replaced Newton\'s universal law of gravitation. According to Einstein, gravitational force in the normal sense is an illusion caused by the geometry of space. The presence of a mass causes a curvature of space-time in the vicinity of the mass, and this curvature dictates the space-time path that all freely-moving objects follow. It was also predicted from this theory that light should be subject to gravity -- all of which was verified experimentally. This aspect of relativity explained the phenomena of light bending around the sun, predicted black holes as well as properties of the Cosmic microwave background radiation -- a discovery rendering fundamental anomalies in the classic Steady-State hypothesis. For his work on relativity, the photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation, Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921.
The gradual acceptance of Einstein\'s theories of relativity and the quantized nature of light transmission, and of Niels Bohr\'s model of the atom created as many problems as they solved, leading to a full-scale effort to reestablish physics on new fundamental principles. Expanding relativity to cases of accelerating reference frames (the \"general theory of relativity\") in the 1910s, Einstein posited an equivalence between the inertial force of acceleration and the force of gravity, leading to the conclusion that space is curved and finite in size, and the prediction of such phenomena as gravitational lensing and the distortion of time in gravitational fields.
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# History of physics
## 20th century: birth of modern physics {#th_century_birth_of_modern_physics}
### Quantum mechanics {#quantum_mechanics}
Although relativity resolved the electromagnetic phenomena conflict demonstrated by Michelson and Morley, a second theoretical problem was the explanation of the distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body; experiment showed that at shorter wavelengths, toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy approached zero, but classical theory predicted it should become infinite. This glaring discrepancy, known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, was solved by the new theory of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is the theory of atoms and subatomic systems. Approximately the first 30 years of the 20th century represent the time of the conception and evolution of the theory. The basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck (1858--1947), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918 for his discovery of the quantified nature of energy. The quantum theory (which previously relied in the \"correspondence\" at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the \"classical\" world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave in much the same way as electromagnetic waves behave like particles (wave--particle duality).
In 1905, Einstein used the quantum theory to explain the photoelectric effect, and in 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr used the same constant to explain the stability of Rutherford\'s atom as well as the frequencies of light emitted by hydrogen gas. The quantized theory of the atom gave way to a full-scale quantum mechanics in the 1920s. New principles of a \"quantum\" rather than a \"classical\" mechanics, formulated in matrix-form by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan in 1925, were based on the probabilistic relationship between discrete \"states\" and denied the possibility of causality. Quantum mechanics was extensively developed by Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, and Erwin Schrödinger, who established an equivalent theory based on waves in 1926; but Heisenberg\'s 1927 \"uncertainty principle\" (indicating the impossibility of precisely and simultaneously measuring position and momentum) and the \"Copenhagen interpretation\" of quantum mechanics (named after Bohr\'s home city) continued to deny the possibility of fundamental causality, though opponents such as Einstein would metaphorically assert that \"God does not play dice with the universe\". The new quantum mechanics became an indispensable tool in the investigation and explanation of phenomena at the atomic level. Also in the 1920s, the Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose\'s work on photons and quantum mechanics provided the foundation for Bose--Einstein statistics, the theory of the Bose--Einstein condensate.
The spin--statistics theorem established that any particle in quantum mechanics may be either a boson (statistically Bose--Einstein) or a fermion (statistically Fermi--Dirac). It was later found that all fundamental bosons transmit forces, such as the photon that transmits electromagnetism.
Fermions are particles \"like electrons and nucleons\" and are the usual constituents of matter. Fermi--Dirac statistics later found numerous other uses, from astrophysics (see Degenerate matter) to semiconductor design.
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# History of physics
## 20th century: birth of modern physics {#th_century_birth_of_modern_physics}
### Division into classical and modern {#division_into_classical_and_modern}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.2\|1927 Solvay Conference included prominent physicists Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Hendrik Lorentz, Niels Bohr, Marie Curie, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac
The conceptual differences between physics theories discussed in the 19th century and those that were most historically prominent in the first decades of the 20th century lead to a characterization of the earlier sciences as \"classical physics\" while the work based on quantum and relativity theories became known as \"modern physics\". Initially applied to mechanics, as in \"classical mechanics\", the divide eventually came to characterize quantum and relativistic effects. This characterization was driven initially by physicists like Max Planck and Hendrik Lorentz, established scientists who nevertheless saw issues that established theories could not explain. Their involvement and contributions to the 1911 Solvay Conference lead to the introduction of this split as a concept.
This division is reflected in the titles of many physics textbooks. For example, the preface of Goldstein\'s Classical mechanics explains why the topic is still relevant for physics students. In *Concepts of Modern Physics* Arthur Beiser starts with a definition of modern physics: `{{blockquote| Modern physics began in 1900 with Max Planck’s discovery of the role of energy quantization in blackbody radiation, a revolutionary idea soon followed by Albert Einstein’s equally revolutionary theory of relativity and quantum theory of light.}}`{=mediawiki} Kenneth Krane\'s *Modern physics* begins a text on quantum and relativity theories with a few pages on deficiencies of classical physics. E.T. Whittaker\'s two-volume History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity subtitles volume one *The Classical Theories* and volume two *The Modern Theories (1900--1926).*
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# History of physics
## Contemporary physics {#contemporary_physics}
### Quantum field theory {#quantum_field_theory}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|A Feynman diagram representing (left to right) the production of a photon (blue sine wave) from the annihilation of an electron and its complementary antiparticle, the positron. The photon becomes a quark--antiquark pair and a gluon (green spiral) is released. thumb\|upright=0.8\|Richard Feynman\'s Los Alamos ID badge As the philosophically inclined continued to debate the fundamental nature of the universe, quantum theories continued to be produced, beginning with Paul Dirac\'s formulation of a relativistic quantum theory in 1928. However, attempts to quantize electromagnetic theory entirely were stymied throughout the 1930s by theoretical formulations yielding infinite energies. This situation was not considered adequately resolved until after World War II, when Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga independently posited the technique of renormalization, which allowed for an establishment of a robust quantum electrodynamics (QED).
Meanwhile, new theories of fundamental particles proliferated with the rise of the idea of the quantization of fields through \"exchange forces\" regulated by an exchange of short-lived \"virtual\" particles, which were allowed to exist according to the laws governing the uncertainties inherent in the quantum world. Notably, Hideki Yukawa proposed that the positive charges of the nucleus were kept together courtesy of a powerful but short-range force mediated by a particle with a mass between that of the electron and proton. This particle, the \"pion\", was identified in 1947 as part of what became a slew of particles discovered after World War II. Initially, such particles were found as ionizing radiation left by cosmic rays, but increasingly came to be produced in newer and more powerful particle accelerators.
Outside particle physics, significant advances of the time were:
- the invention of the laser (1964 Nobel Prize in Physics);
- the theoretical and experimental research of superconductivity, especially the invention of a quantum theory of superconductivity by Vitaly Ginzburg and Lev Landau (1962 Nobel Prize in Physics) and, later, its explanation via Cooper pairs (1972 Nobel Prize in Physics). The Cooper pair was an early example of quasiparticles.
### Unified field theories {#unified_field_theories}
Einstein deemed that all fundamental interactions in nature can be explained in a single theory. Unified field theories were numerous attempts to \"merge\" several interactions. One of many formulations of such theories (as well as field theories in general) is a *gauge theory*, a generalization of the idea of symmetry. Eventually the Standard Model (see below) succeeded in unification of strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. All attempts to unify gravitation with something else failed.
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# History of physics
## Contemporary physics {#contemporary_physics}
### Particle physics and the Standard Model {#particle_physics_and_the_standard_model}
left\|thumb\|upright=1.6\|The Standard Model When parity was broken in weak interactions by Chien-Shiung Wu in her experiment, a series of discoveries were created thereafter. The interaction of these particles by scattering and decay provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories. Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne\'eman brought some order to these new particles by classifying them according to certain qualities, beginning with what Gell-Mann referred to as the \"Eightfold Way\". While its further development, the quark model, at first seemed inadequate to describe strong nuclear forces, allowing the temporary rise of competing theories such as the S-Matrix, the establishment of quantum chromodynamics in the 1970s finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a \"standard model\" based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravitation, and which remains generally accepted within its domain of application.
The Standard Model, based on the Yang--Mills theory groups the electroweak interaction theory and quantum chromodynamics into a structure denoted by the gauge group SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1). The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. Electroweak theory was later confirmed experimentally (by observation of neutral weak currents), and distinguished by the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Since the 1970s, fundamental particle physics has provided insights into early universe cosmology, particularly the Big Bang theory proposed as a consequence of Einstein\'s general theory of relativity. However, starting in the 1990s, astronomical observations have also provided new challenges, such as the need for new explanations of galactic stability (\"dark matter\") and the apparent acceleration in the expansion of the universe (\"dark energy\").
While accelerators have confirmed most aspects of the Standard Model by detecting expected particle interactions at various collision energies, no theory reconciling general relativity with the Standard Model has yet been found, although supersymmetry and string theory were believed by many theorists to be a promising avenue forward. The Large Hadron Collider, however, which began operating in 2008, has failed to find any evidence that is supportive of supersymmetry and string theory.
### Cosmology
Cosmology may be said to have become a serious research question with the publication of Einstein\'s General Theory of Relativity in 1915 although it did not enter the scientific mainstream until the period known as the \"Golden age of general relativity\".
About a decade later, in the midst of what was dubbed the \"Great Debate\", Edwin Hubble and Vesto Slipher discovered the expansion of universe in the 1920s measuring the redshifts of Doppler spectra from galactic nebulae. Using Einstein\'s general relativity, Georges Lemaître and George Gamow formulated what would become known as the Big Bang theory. A rival, called the steady state theory, was devised by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Jayant Narlikar and Hermann Bondi.
Cosmic microwave background radiation was verified in the 1960s by Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, and this discovery favoured the big bang at the expense of the steady state scenario. Later work was by George Smoot et al. (1989), among other contributors, using data from the Cosmic Background explorer (CoBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) satellites refined these observations. The 1980s (the same decade of the COBE measurements) also saw the proposal of inflation theory by Alan Guth.
Recently the problems of dark matter and dark energy have risen to the top of the cosmology agenda.
### Higgs boson {#higgs_boson}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated proton--proton collision. It decays almost immediately into two jets of hadrons and two electrons, visible as lines. On July 4, 2012, physicists working at CERN\'s Large Hadron Collider announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the Higgs boson, a potential key to an understanding of why elementary particles have mass and indeed to the existence of diversity and life in the universe. For now, some physicists are calling it a \"Higgslike\" particle. Joe Incandela, of the University of California, Santa Barbara, said, \"It\'s something that may, in the end, be one of the biggest observations of any new phenomena in our field in the last 30 or 40 years, going way back to the discovery of quarks, for example.\" Michael Turner, a cosmologist at the University of Chicago and the chairman of the physics center board, said:
Peter Higgs was one of six physicists, working in three independent groups, who, in 1964, invented the notion of the Higgs field (\"cosmic molasses\"). The others were Tom Kibble of Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen of the University of Rochester; Gerald Guralnik of Brown University; and François Englert and Robert Brout, both of Université libre de Bruxelles.
Although they have never been seen, Higgslike fields play an important role in theories of the universe and in string theory. Under certain conditions, according to the strange accounting of Einsteinian physics, they can become suffused with energy that exerts an antigravitational force. Such fields have been proposed as the source of an enormous burst of expansion, known as inflation, early in the universe and, possibly, as the secret of the dark energy that now seems to be accelerating the expansion of the universe.
### Physical sciences {#physical_sciences}
With increased accessibility to and elaboration upon advanced analytical techniques in the 19th century, physics was defined as much, if not more, by those techniques than by the search for universal principles of motion and energy, and the fundamental nature of matter. Fields such as acoustics, geophysics, astrophysics, aerodynamics, plasma physics, low-temperature physics, and solid-state physics joined optics, fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and mechanics as areas of physical research. In the 20th century, physics also became closely allied with such fields as electrical, aerospace and materials engineering, and physicists began to work in government and industrial laboratories as much as in academic settings. Following World War II, the population of physicists increased dramatically, and came to be centered on the United States, while, in more recent decades, physics has become a more international pursuit than at any time in its previous history
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# Henri Chopin
**Henri Chopin** (18 June 1922 -- 3 January 2008) was a French avant-garde poet and musician.
## Life
Henri Chopin was born in Paris, 18 June 1922, one of three brothers, and the son of an accountant. Both his siblings died during the war. One was shot by a German soldier the day after an armistice was declared in Paris, the other while sabotaging a train.`{{r|Acquaviva2008}}`{=mediawiki}
Chopin was a French practitioner of concrete and sound poetry, well known throughout the second half of the 20th century. His work, though iconoclastic, remained well within the historical spectrum of poetry as it moved from a spoken tradition to the printed word and now back to the spoken word again.`{{r|Wendt1996_112}}`{=mediawiki} He created a large body of pioneering recordings using early tape recorders, studio technologies and the sounds of the manipulated human voice. His emphasis on sound is a reminder that language stems as much from oral traditions as from classic literature, of the relationship of balance between order and chaos.
Chopin is significant above all for his diverse spread of creative achievement, as well as for his position as a focal point of contact for the international arts. As poet, painter, graphic artist and designer, typographer, independent publisher, filmmaker, broadcaster and arts promoter, Chopin\'s work is a barometer of the shifts in European media between the 1950s and the 1970s.`{{r|Goldsmith2020_1789}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1966 he was with Gustav Metzger, Otto Muehl, Wolf Vostell, Peter Weibel and others a participant of the Destruction in Art Symposium (*DIAS*) in London.`{{r|Solodyankina2015}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1964 he created *OU*, one of the most notable reviews of the second half of the 20th century, and he ran it until 1974. *OU*\'s contributors included William S. Burroughs, Brion Gysin, Gil J. Wolman, François Dufrêne, Bernard Heidsieck, John Furnival, Tom Phillips, and the Austrian sculptor, writer and Dada pioneer Raoul Hausmann.
His books included *Le Dernier Roman du Monde* (1971), *Portrait des 9* (1975), *The Cosmographical Lobster* (1976), *Poésie Sonore Internationale* (1979), *Les Riches Heures de l\'Alphabet* (1992) and *Graphpoemesmachine* (2006). Henri also created many graphic works on his typewriter: the typewriter poems (also known as dactylopoèmes) feature in international art collections such as those of Francesco Conz in Verona, the Morra Foundation in Naples and Ruth and Marvin Sackner in Miami, and have been the subject of Australian, British and French retrospectives.`{{r|Acquaviva2008}}`{=mediawiki}
His publication and design of the classic audio-visual magazines *Cinquième Saison* and *OU* between 1958 and 1974, each issue containing recordings as well as texts, images, screenprints and multiples, brought together international contemporary writers and artists such as members of Lettrisme and Fluxus, Jiri Kolar, Ian Hamilton Finlay, Tom Phillips, Brion Gysin, William S. Burroughs and many others, as well as bringing the work of survivors from earlier generations such as Raoul Hausmann and Marcel Janco to a fresh audience.
From 1968 to 1986 Henri Chopin lived in Ingatestone, Essex, but with the death of his wife Jean in 1985, he moved back to France.
In 2001 with his health failing, he returned to England, living with his daughter and family at Dereham, Norfolk until his death on 3 January 2008.`{{r|Acquaviva2008}}`{=mediawiki}
## Aesthetics
Chopin\'s *poesie sonore* aesthetics included a deliberate cultivation of a *barbarian* approach in production, using raw or crude sound manipulations to explore the area between distortion and intelligibility. He avoided high-quality, professional recording machines, preferring to use very basic equipment and *bricolage* methods, such as sticking matchsticks in the erase heads of a second-hand tape recorder, or manually interfering with the tape path.`{{r|Wendt1985_167}}`{=mediawiki}
## Books
- Chopin, Henri. 1979. *Poesie Sonore Internationale*, edited by Jean-Michel Place. Paris: Trajectoires.
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# Henri Chopin
## Films on Henri Chopin {#films_on_henri_chopin}
- *De Henri à Chopin, le dernier pape* by Frédéric Acquaviva and Maria Faustino, DV, 3h10mn, 2002--2008
- *Henri Chopin, reflecting on OU*, by Silva Gabriela Béju, DV, 28\', 2001, published in 2016 in \"CRU\"n°2 magazine (La Plaque Tournante, Berlin, dir
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# Hassium
**Hassium** is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol **Hs** and atomic number 108. It is highly radioactive: its most stable known isotopes have half-lives of about ten seconds. One of its isotopes, `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, has magic numbers of protons and neutrons for deformed nuclei, giving it greater stability against spontaneous fission. Hassium is a superheavy element; it has been produced in a laboratory in very small quantities by fusing heavy nuclei with lighter ones. Natural occurrences of hassium have been hypothesized but never found.
In the periodic table, hassium is a transactinide element, a member of period 7 and group 8; it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium, reacting readily with oxygen to form a volatile tetroxide. The chemical properties of hassium have been only partly characterized, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements.
The main innovation that led to the discovery of hassium was cold fusion, where the fused nuclei do not differ by mass as much as in earlier techniques. It relied on greater stability of target nuclei, which in turn decreased excitation energy. This decreased the number of neutrons ejected during synthesis, creating heavier, more stable resulting nuclei. The technique was first tested at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, in 1974. JINR used this technique to attempt synthesis of element 108 in 1978, in 1983, and in 1984; the latter experiment resulted in a claim that element 108 had been produced. Later in 1984, a synthesis claim followed from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany. The 1993 report by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), concluded that the report from Darmstadt was conclusive on its own whereas that from Dubna was not, and major credit was assigned to the German scientists. GSI formally announced they wished to name the element *hassium* after the German state of Hesse (Hassia in Latin), home to the facility in 1992; this name was accepted as final in 1997.
## Introduction to the heaviest elements {#introduction_to_the_heaviest_elements}
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# Hassium
## Discovery
alt=Apparatus for creating superheavy elements\|right\|thumb\|upright=2.00\|Scheme of an apparatus for creating superheavy elements, based on the Dubna Gas-Filled Recoil Separator set up in the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in JINR. The trajectory within the detector and the beam focusing apparatus changes because of a dipole magnet in the former and quadrupole magnets in the latter.
### Cold fusion {#cold_fusion}
Nuclear reactions used in the 1960s resulted in high excitation energies that required expulsion of four or five neutrons; these reactions used targets made of elements with high atomic numbers to maximize the size difference between the two nuclei in a reaction. While this increased the chance of fusion due to the lower electrostatic repulsion between target and projectile, the formed compound nuclei often broke apart and did not survive to form a new element. Moreover, fusion inevitably produces neutron-poor nuclei, as heavier elements need more neutrons per proton for stability; therefore, the necessary ejection of neutrons results in final products that are typically shorter-lived. As such, light beams (six to ten protons) allowed synthesis of elements only up to 106.
To advance to heavier elements, Soviet physicist Yuri Oganessian at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, proposed a different mechanism, in which the bombarded nucleus would be lead-208, which has magic numbers of protons and neutrons, or another nucleus close to it. Each proton and neutron has a fixed rest energy; those of all protons are equal and so are those of all neutrons. In a nucleus, some of this energy is diverted to binding protons and neutrons; if a nucleus has a magic number of protons and/or neutrons, then even more of its rest energy is diverted, which makes the nuclide more stable. This additional stability requires more energy for an external nucleus to break the existing one and penetrate it. More energy diverted to binding nucleons means less rest energy, which in turn means less mass (mass is proportional to rest energy). More equal atomic numbers of the reacting nuclei result in greater electrostatic repulsion between them, but the lower mass excess of the target nucleus balances it. This leaves less excitation energy for the new compound nucleus, which necessitates fewer neutron ejections to reach a stable state. Due to this energy difference, the former mechanism became known as \"hot fusion\" and the latter as \"cold fusion\".
Cold fusion was first declared successful in 1974 at JINR, when it was tested for synthesis of the yet-undiscovered element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}106. These new nuclei were projected to decay via spontaneous fission. The physicists at JINR concluded element 106 was produced in the experiment because no fissioning nucleus known at the time showed parameters of fission similar to what was observed during the experiment and because changing either of the two nuclei in the reactions negated the observed effects. Physicists at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL; originally Radiation Laboratory, RL, and later Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBNL) of the University of California in Berkeley, California, United States, also expressed great interest in the new technique. When asked about how far this new method could go and if lead targets were a physics\' Klondike, Oganessian responded, \"Klondike may be an exaggeration \[\...\] But soon, we will try to get elements 107`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... 108 in these reactions.\"
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# Hassium
## Discovery
### Reports
Synthesis of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 was first attempted in 1978 by a team led by Oganessian at JINR. The team used a reaction that would generate element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108, specifically, the isotope `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}108, from fusion of radium (specifically, the isotope `{{nowrap|{{Nuclide|radium|226}})}}`{=mediawiki} and calcium `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|calcium|48}})}}`{=mediawiki}. The researchers were uncertain in interpreting their data, and their paper did not unambiguously claim to have discovered the element. The same year, another team at JINR investigated the possibility of synthesis of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 in reactions between lead `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|lead|208}})}}`{=mediawiki} and iron `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|iron|58}})}}`{=mediawiki}; they were uncertain in interpreting the data, suggesting the possibility that element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 had not been created. thumb\|upright=1.15\|alt=GSI\'s particle accelerator UNILAC\|GSI\'s linear particle accelerator UNILAC, where hassium was discovered and where its chemistry was first observed\|left
In 1983, new experiments were performed at JINR. The experiments probably resulted in the synthesis of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108; bismuth `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|bismuth|209}})}}`{=mediawiki} was bombarded with manganese `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|manganese|55}})}}`{=mediawiki} to obtain `{{sup|263}}`{=mediawiki}108, lead (`{{sup|207, 208}}`{=mediawiki}Pb) was bombarded with iron (`{{sup|58}}`{=mediawiki}Fe) to obtain `{{sup|264}}`{=mediawiki}108, and californium `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|californium|249}})}}`{=mediawiki} was bombarded with neon `{{nowrap|({{Nuclide|neon|22}})}}`{=mediawiki} to obtain `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}108. These experiments were not claimed as a discovery and Oganessian announced them in a conference rather than in a written report.
In 1984, JINR researchers in Dubna performed experiments set up identically to the previous ones; they bombarded bismuth and lead targets with ions of manganese and iron, respectively. Twenty-one spontaneous fission events were recorded; the researchers concluded they were caused by `{{sup|264}}`{=mediawiki}108.
Later in 1984, a research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; *Institute for Heavy Ion Research*) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, tried to create element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108. The team bombarded a lead (`{{sup|208}}`{=mediawiki}Pb) target with accelerated iron (`{{sup|58}}`{=mediawiki}Fe) nuclei. GSI\'s experiment to create element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 was delayed until after their creation of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}109 in 1982, as prior calculations had suggested that even--even isotopes of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 would have spontaneous fission half-lives of less than one microsecond, making them difficult to detect and identify. The element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 experiment finally went ahead after `{{sup|266}}`{=mediawiki}109 had been synthesized and was found to decay by alpha emission, suggesting that isotopes of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 would do likewise, and this was corroborated by an experiment aimed at synthesizing isotopes of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}106. GSI reported synthesis of three atoms of `{{sup|265}}`{=mediawiki}108. Two years later, they reported synthesis of one atom of the even--even `{{sup|264}}`{=mediawiki}108.
### Arbitration
In 1985, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) formed the Transfermium Working Group (TWG) to assess discoveries and establish final names for elements with atomic numbers greater than 100. The party held meetings with delegates from the three competing institutes; in 1990, they established criteria for recognition of an element and in 1991, they finished the work of assessing discoveries and disbanded. These results were published in 1993.
According to the report, the 1984 works from JINR and GSI simultaneously and independently established synthesis of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108. Of the two 1984 works, the one from GSI was said to be sufficient as a discovery on its own. The JINR work, which preceded the GSI one, \"very probably\" displayed synthesis of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108. However, that was determined in retrospect given the work from Darmstadt; the JINR work focused on chemically identifying remote granddaughters of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 isotopes (which could not exclude the possibility that these daughter isotopes had other progenitors), while the GSI work clearly identified the decay path of those element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 isotopes. The report concluded that the major credit should be awarded to GSI. In written responses to this ruling, both JINR and GSI agreed with its conclusions. In the same response, GSI confirmed that they and JINR were able to resolve all conflicts between them.
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# Hassium
## Discovery
### Naming
Historically, a newly discovered element was named by its discoverer. The first regulation came in 1947, when IUPAC decided naming required regulation in case there are conflicting names. These matters were to be resolved by the Commission of Inorganic Nomenclature and the Commission of Atomic Weights. They would review the names in case of a conflict and select one; the decision would be based on a number of factors, such as usage, and would not be an indicator of priority of a claim. The two commissions would recommend a name to the IUPAC Council, which would be the final authority. The discoverers held the right to name an element, but their name would be subject to approval by IUPAC. The Commission of Atomic Weights distanced itself from element naming in most cases.
In Mendeleev\'s nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, hassium would be called \"eka-osmium\", as in \"the first element below osmium in the periodic table\" (from Sanskrit *eka* meaning \"one\"). In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called \"unniloctium\" (symbol \"Uno\"), a systematic element name as a placeholder until the element was discovered and the discovery then confirmed, and a permanent name was decided. Although these recommendations were widely followed in the chemical community, the competing physicists in the field ignored them. They either called it \"element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108\", with the symbols *E108*, *(108)* or *108*, or used the proposed name \"hassium\". thumb\|upright=0.6\|Coat of arms of the German state of Hesse, after which hassium is named
In 1990, in an attempt to break a deadlock in establishing priority of discovery and naming of several elements, IUPAC reaffirmed in its nomenclature of inorganic chemistry that after existence of an element was established, the discoverers could propose a name. (Also, the Commission of Atomic Weights was excluded from the naming process.) The first publication on criteria for an element discovery, released in 1991, specified the need for recognition by TWG.
Armbruster and his colleagues, the officially recognized German discoverers, held a naming ceremony for the elements 107 through 109, which had all been recognized as discovered by GSI, on 7`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}September 1992. For element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108, the scientists proposed the name \"hassium\". It is derived from the Latin name *Hassia* for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located. This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements, signed 29 September 1992.
The process of naming of element 108 was a part of a larger process of naming a number of elements starting with element 101; three teams---JINR, GSI, and LBL---claimed discovery of several elements and the right to name those elements. Sometimes, these claims clashed; since a discoverer was considered entitled to naming of an element, conflicts over priority of discovery often resulted in conflicts over names of these new elements. These conflicts became known as the Transfermium Wars. Different suggestions to name the whole set of elements from 101 onward and they occasionally assigned names suggested by one team to be used for elements discovered by another. However, not all suggestions were met with equal approval; the teams openly protested naming proposals on several occasions.
In 1994, IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry recommended that element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 be named \"hahnium\" (Hn) after German physicist Otto Hahn so elements named after Hahn and Lise Meitner (it was recommended element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}109 should be named meitnerium, following GSI\'s suggestion) would be next to each other, honouring their joint discovery of nuclear fission; IUPAC commented that they felt the German suggestion was obscure. GSI protested, saying this proposal contradicted the long-standing convention of giving the discoverer the right to suggest a name; the American Chemical Society supported GSI. The name \"hahnium\", albeit with the different symbol Ha, had already been proposed and used by the American scientists for element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}105, for which they had a discovery dispute with JINR; they thus protested the confusing scrambling of names. Following the uproar, IUPAC formed an ad hoc committee of representatives from the national adhering organizations of the three countries home to the competing institutions; they produced a new set of names in 1995. Element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 was again named *hahnium*; this proposal was also retracted. The final compromise was reached in 1996 and published in 1997; element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 was named *hassium* (Hs). Simultaneously, the name *dubnium* (Db; from Dubna, the JINR location) was assigned to element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}105, and the name *hahnium* was not used for any element.
The official justification for this naming, alongside that of darmstadtium for element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}110, was that it completed a set of geographic names for the location of the GSI; this set had been initiated by 19th-century names europium and germanium. This set would serve as a response to earlier naming of americium, californium, and berkelium for elements discovered in Berkeley. Armbruster commented on this, \"this bad tradition was established by Berkeley. We wanted to do it for Europe.\" Later, when commenting on the naming of element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}112, Armbruster said, \"I did everything to ensure that we do not continue with German scientists and German towns.\"
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# Hassium
## Isotopes
Hassium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioisotopes have been synthesized in the lab, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. As of 2019, the quantity of all hassium ever produced was on the order of hundreds of atoms. Thirteen isotopes with mass numbers 263 through 277 (except for 274 and 276) have been reported, six of which---`{{sup|265, 266, 267, 269, 271, 277}}`{=mediawiki}Hs---have known metastable states, though that of `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Hs is unconfirmed. Most of these isotopes decay mainly through alpha decay; this is the most common for all isotopes for which comprehensive decay characteristics are available; the only exception is `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, which undergoes spontaneous fission. Lighter isotopes were usually synthesized by direct fusion of two nuclei, whereas heavier isotopes were typically observed as decay products of nuclei with larger atomic numbers.
Atomic nuclei have well-established nuclear shells, which make nuclei more stable. If a nucleus has certain numbers (magic numbers) of protons or neutrons, that complete a nuclear shell, then the nucleus is even more stable against decay. The highest known magic numbers are 82 for protons and 126 for neutrons. This notion is sometimes expanded to include additional numbers between those magic numbers, which also provide some additional stability and indicate closure of \"sub-shells\". Unlike the better-known lighter nuclei, superheavy nuclei are deformed. Until the 1960s, the liquid drop model was the dominant explanation for nuclear structure. It suggested that the fission barrier would disappear for nuclei with \~280`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}nucleons. It was thus thought that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly before nuclei could form a structure that could stabilize them; it appeared that nuclei with Z`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}≈`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}103 were too heavy to exist for a considerable length of time.
The later nuclear shell model suggested that nuclei with \~300 nucleons would form an island of stability where nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will mainly undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives, and the next doubly magic nucleus (having magic numbers of both protons and neutrons) is expected to lie in the center of the island of stability near *Z*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}110--114 and the predicted magic neutron number *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}184. Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated. They also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects, against alpha decay and especially against spontaneous fission. The center of the region on a chart of nuclides that would correspond to this stability for deformed nuclei was determined as `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, with 108 expected to be a magic number for protons for deformed nuclei---nuclei that are far from spherical---and 162 a magic number for neutrons for such nuclei. Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei, as well as those closer to the expected island, have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.
Theoretical models predict a region of instability for some hassium isotopes to lie around *A*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}275 and *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}168--170, which is between the predicted neutron shell closures at *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}162 for deformed nuclei and *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}184 for spherical nuclei. Nuclides in this region are predicted to have low fission barrier heights, resulting in short partial half-lives toward spontaneous fission. This prediction is supported by the observed 11-millisecond half-life of `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Hs and the 5-millisecond half-life of the neighbouring isobar `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Mt because the hindrance factors from the odd nucleon were shown to be much lower than otherwise expected. The measured half-lives are even lower than those originally predicted for the even--even `{{sup|276}}`{=mediawiki}Hs and `{{sup|278}}`{=mediawiki}Ds, which suggests a gap in stability away from the shell closures and perhaps a weakening of the shell closures in this region.
In 1991, Polish physicists Zygmunt Patyk and Adam Sobiczewski predicted that 108 is a proton magic number for deformed nuclei and 162 is a neutron magic number for such nuclei. This means such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but have high, narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively long spontaneous-fission half-lives. Computational prospects for shell stabilization for `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs made it a promising candidate for a deformed doubly magic nucleus. Experimental data is scarce, but the existing data is interpreted by the researchers to support the assignment of *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}162 as a magic number. In particular, this conclusion was drawn from the decay data of `{{sup|269}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, and `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs.`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}162 (^273^Ds has 163 neutrons and ^269^Hs has 161). A similar observation and conclusion were made after measurement of decay energy of ^271^Hs and ^267^Sg.}} In 1997, Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk calculated that the isotope `{{sup|292}}`{=mediawiki}Hs may be the most stable superheavy nucleus against alpha decay and spontaneous fission as a consequence of the predicted *N*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}184 shell closure.
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# Hassium
## Natural occurrence {#natural_occurrence}
thumb\|upright=1.00\|alt=Dark reflective crystal of molybdenite\|Molybdenite\|right
Hassium is not known to occur naturally on Earth; all its known isotopes are so short-lived that no primordial hassium would survive to today. This does not rule out the possibility of unknown, longer-lived isotopes or nuclear isomers, some of which could still exist in trace quantities if they are long-lived enough. As early as 1914, German physicist Richard Swinne proposed element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108 as a source of X-rays in the Greenland ice sheet. Though Swinne was unable to verify this observation and thus did not claim discovery, he proposed in 1931 the existence of \"regions\" of long-lived transuranic elements, including one around *Z*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108.
In 1963, Soviet geologist and physicist Viktor Cherdyntsev, who had previously claimed the existence of primordial curium-247, claimed to have discovered element`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}108---specifically the `{{sup|267}}`{=mediawiki}108 isotope, which supposedly had a half-life of 400 to 500`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}million years---in natural molybdenite and suggested the provisional name *sergenium* (symbol Sg); this name comes from the name for the Silk Road and was explained as \"coming from Kazakhstan\" for it. His rationale for claiming that sergenium was the heavier homologue to osmium was that minerals supposedly containing sergenium formed volatile oxides when boiled in nitric acid, similarly to osmium.
Soviet physicist Vladimir Kulakov criticized Cherdyntsev\'s findings on the grounds that some of the properties Cherdyntsev claimed sergenium had, were inconsistent with then-current nuclear physics. The chief questions Kulakov raised were that the claimed alpha decay energy of sergenium was many orders of magnitude lower than expected and the half-life given was eight orders of magnitude shorter than what would be predicted for a nuclide alpha-decaying with the claimed decay energy. At the same time, a corrected half-life in the region of 10`{{sup|16}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}years would be impossible because it would imply the samples contained \~100 milligrams of sergenium. In 2003, it was suggested that the observed alpha decay with energy 4.5`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}MeV could be due to a low-energy and strongly enhanced transition between different hyperdeformed states of a hassium isotope around `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, thus suggesting that the existence of superheavy elements in nature was at least possible, but unlikely.
In 2006, Russian geologist Alexei Ivanov hypothesized that an isomer of `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs might have a half-life of \~`{{val|2.5e8|0.5}}`{=mediawiki} years, which would explain the observation of alpha particles with energies of \~4.4`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}MeV in some samples of molybdenite and osmiridium. This isomer of `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs could be produced from the beta decay of `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Bh and `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Sg, which, being homologous to rhenium and molybdenum respectively, should occur in molybdenite along with rhenium and molybdenum if they occurred in nature. Because hassium is homologous to osmium, it should occur along with osmium in osmiridium if it occurs in nature. The decay chains of `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Bh and `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Sg are hypothetical and the predicted half-life of this hypothetical hassium isomer is not long enough for any sufficient quantity to remain on Earth. It is possible that more `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs may be deposited on the Earth as the Solar System travels through the spiral arms of the Milky Way; this would explain excesses of plutonium-239 found on the ocean floors of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Finland. However, minerals enriched with `{{sup|271}}`{=mediawiki}Hs are predicted to have excesses of its daughters uranium-235 and lead-207; they would also have different proportions of elements that are formed by spontaneous fission, such as krypton, zirconium, and xenon. The natural occurrence of hassium in minerals such as molybdenite and osmiride is theoretically possible, but very unlikely.
In 2004, JINR started a search for natural hassium in the Modane Underground Laboratory in Modane, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France; this was done underground to avoid interference and false positives from cosmic rays. In 2008--09, an experiment run in the laboratory resulted in detection of several registered events of neutron multiplicity (number of emitted free neutrons after a nucleus is hit by a neutron and fissioned) above three in natural osmium, and in 2012--13, these findings were reaffirmed in another experiment run in the laboratory. These results hinted natural hassium could potentially exist in nature in amounts that allow its detection by the means of analytical chemistry, but this conclusion is based on an explicit assumption that there is a long-lived hassium isotope to which the registered events could be attributed.
Since `{{sup|292}}`{=mediawiki}Hs may be particularly stable against alpha decay and spontaneous fission, it was considered as a candidate to exist in nature. This nuclide, however, is predicted to be very unstable toward beta decay and any beta-stable isotopes of hassium such as `{{sup|286}}`{=mediawiki}Hs would be too unstable in the other decay channels to be observed in nature. A 2012 search for `{{sup|292}}`{=mediawiki}Hs in nature along with its homologue osmium at the Maier-Leibnitz Laboratory in Garching, Bavaria, Germany, was unsuccessful, setting an upper limit to its abundance at `{{val|3|e=-15|u=grams}}`{=mediawiki} of hassium per gram of osmium.
| 798 |
Hassium
| 5 |
13,764 |
# Hassium
## Predicted properties {#predicted_properties}
Various calculations suggest hassium should be the heaviest group 8 element so far, consistently with the periodic law. Its properties should generally match those expected for a heavier homologue of osmium; as is the case for all transactinides, a few deviations are expected to arise from relativistic effects.
Very few properties of hassium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that hassium (and its parents) decays very quickly. A few singular chemistry-related properties have been measured, such as enthalpy of adsorption of hassium tetroxide, but properties of hassium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.
### Relativistic effects {#relativistic_effects}
left\|thumb\|upright=1.50\|alt=Energy levels of outermost orbitals of Hs and Os\|Energy levels of outermost orbitals of hassium and osmium atoms in electronvolts, with and without taking relativistic effects into account. Note the lack of spin--orbit splitting (and thus the lack of distinction between d`{{sub|3/2}}`{=mediawiki} and d`{{sub|5/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals) in nonrelativistic calculations.
Relativistic effects in hassium should arise due to the high charge of its nuclei, which causes the electrons around the nucleus to move faster---so fast their speed is comparable to the speed of light. There are three main effects: the direct relativistic effect, the indirect relativistic effect, and spin--orbit splitting. (The existing calculations do not account for Breit interactions, but those are negligible, and their omission can only result in an uncertainty of the current calculations of no more than 2%.)
As atomic number increases, so does the electrostatic attraction between an electron and the nucleus. This causes the velocity of the electron to increase, which leads to an increase in its mass. This in turn leads to contraction of the atomic orbitals, most specifically the s and p`{{sub|1/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals. Their electrons become more closely attached to the atom and harder to pull from the nucleus. This is the direct relativistic effect. It was originally thought to be strong only for the innermost electrons, but was later established to significantly influence valence electrons as well.
Since the s and p`{{sub|1/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals are closer to the nucleus, they take a bigger portion of the electric charge of the nucleus on themselves (\"shield\" it). This leaves less charge for attraction of the remaining electrons, whose orbitals therefore expand, making them easier to pull from the nucleus. This is the indirect relativistic effect. As a result of the combination of the direct and indirect relativistic effects, the Hs`{{sup|+}}`{=mediawiki} ion, compared to the neutral atom, lacks a 6d electron, rather than a 7s electron. In comparison, Os`{{sup|+}}`{=mediawiki} lacks a 6s electron compared to the neutral atom. The ionic radius (in oxidation state +8) of hassium is greater than that of osmium because of the relativistic expansion of the 6p`{{sub|3/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals, which are the outermost orbitals for an Hs`{{sup|8+}}`{=mediawiki} ion (although in practice such highly charged ions would be too polarized in chemical environments to have much reality).
There are several kinds of electron orbitals, denoted s, p, d, and f (g orbitals are expected to start being chemically active among elements after element 120). Each of these corresponds to an azimuthal quantum number *l*: s to 0, p to 1, d to 2, and f to 3. Every electron also corresponds to a spin quantum number *s*, which may equal either +1/2 or −1/2. Thus, the total angular momentum quantum number *j = l* + *s* is equal to *j* = *l* ± 1/2 (except for *l* = 0, for which for both electrons in each orbital *j =* 0 + 1/2 = 1/2). Spin of an electron relativistically interacts with its orbit, and this interaction leads to a split of a subshell into two with different energies (the one with *j* = *l* − 1/2 is lower in energy and thus these electrons more difficult to extract): for instance, of the six 6p electrons, two become 6p`{{sub|1/2}}`{=mediawiki} and four become 6p`{{sub|3/2}}`{=mediawiki}. This is the spin--orbit splitting (also called subshell splitting or *jj* coupling). It is most visible with p electrons, which do not play an important role in the chemistry of hassium, but those for d and f electrons are within the same order of magnitude (quantitatively, spin--orbit splitting in expressed in energy units, such as electronvolts).
These relativistic effects are responsible for the expected increase of the ionization energy, decrease of the electron affinity, and increase of stability of the +8 oxidation state compared to osmium; without them, the trends would be reversed. Relativistic effects decrease the atomization energies of hassium compounds because the spin--orbit splitting of the d orbital lowers binding energy between electrons and the nucleus and because relativistic effects decrease ionic character in bonding.
### Physical and atomic {#physical_and_atomic}
The previous members of group`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 have high melting points: Fe, 1538°C; Ru, 2334°C; Os, 3033°C. Like them, hassium is predicted to be a solid at room temperature though its melting point has not been precisely calculated. Hassium should crystallize in the hexagonal close-packed structure (`{{sup|''c''}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{sub|''a''}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1.59), similarly to its lighter congener osmium. Pure metallic hassium is calculated to have a bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression) of 450`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}GPa, comparable with that of diamond, 442`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}GPa. Hassium is expected to be one of the densest of the 118 known elements, with a predicted density of 27--29 g/cm`{{sup|3}}`{=mediawiki} vs. the 22.59 g/cm`{{sup|3}}`{=mediawiki} measured for osmium.
Hassium\'s atomic radius is expected to be ≈126`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}pm. Due to relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Hs`{{sup|+}}`{=mediawiki} ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of \[Rn\]`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}5f`{{sup|14}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}6d`{{sup|5}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7s`{{sup|2}}`{=mediawiki}, giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behaviour of its lighter homologues. The Hs`{{sup|2+}}`{=mediawiki} ion is expected to have electron configuration \[Rn\]`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}5f`{{sup|14}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}6d`{{sup|5}}`{=mediawiki}`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7s`{{sup|1}}`{=mediawiki}, analogous to that calculated for the Os`{{sup|2+}}`{=mediawiki} ion. In chemical compounds, hassium is calculated to display bonding characteristic for a d-block element, whose bonding will be primarily executed by 6d`{{sub|3/2}}`{=mediawiki} and 6d`{{sub|5/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals; compared to the elements from the previous periods, 7s, 6p`{{sub|1/2}}`{=mediawiki}, 6p`{{sub|3/2}}`{=mediawiki}, and 7p`{{sub|1/2}}`{=mediawiki} orbitals should be more important.
| 1,002 |
Hassium
| 6 |
13,764 |
# Hassium
## Predicted properties {#predicted_properties}
### Chemical
Element Stable oxidation states
----------- -------------------------
iron
ruthenium +8
osmium +8
: Stable oxidation states in group 8
Hassium is the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and is expected to be much like the platinum group metals. Some of these properties were confirmed by gas-phase chemistry experiments. The group`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 elements portray a wide variety of oxidation states but ruthenium and osmium readily portray their group oxidation state of +8; this state becomes more stable down the group. This oxidation state is extremely rare: among stable elements, only ruthenium, osmium, and xenon are able to attain it in reasonably stable compounds. Hassium is expected to follow its congeners and have a stable +8 state, but like them it should show lower stable oxidation states such as +6, +4, +3, and +2. Hassium(IV) is expected to be more stable than hassium(VIII) in aqueous solution. Hassium should be a rather noble metal. The standard reduction potential for the Hs^4+^/Hs couple is expected to be 0.4`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}V.
The group 8 elements show a distinctive oxide chemistry. All the lighter members have known or hypothetical tetroxides, MO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki}. Their oxidizing power decreases as one descends the group. FeO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki} is not known due to its extraordinarily large electron affinity---the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion---which results in the formation of the well-known oxyanion ferrate(VI), `{{chem|FeO|4|2-}}`{=mediawiki}. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO~4~, which is formed by oxidation of ruthenium(VI) in acid, readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate(VI), `{{chem|RuO|4|2-}}`{=mediawiki}. Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide, RuO~2~. In contrast, osmium burns to form the stable tetroxide, OsO~4~, which complexes with the hydroxide ion to form an osmium(VIII) -*ate* complex, \[OsO~4~(OH)~2~\]^2−^. Therefore, hassium should behave as a heavier homologue of osmium by forming of a stable, very volatile tetroxide HsO~4~, which undergoes complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate(VIII), \[HsO~4~(OH)~2~\]^2−^. Ruthenium tetroxide and osmium tetroxide are both volatile due to their symmetrical tetrahedral molecular geometry and because they are charge-neutral; hassium tetroxide should similarly be a very volatile solid. The trend of the volatilities of the group`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 tetroxides is experimentally known to be RuO~4~`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\<`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}OsO~4~`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\>`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}HsO~4~, which confirms the calculated results. In particular, the calculated enthalpies of adsorption---the energy required for the adhesion of atoms, molecules, or ions from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface---of HsO~4~, −(45.4`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}±`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1)`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}kJ/mol on quartz, agrees very well with the experimental value of −(46`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}±`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}2)`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}kJ/mol.
| 412 |
Hassium
| 7 |
13,764 |
# Hassium
## Experimental chemistry {#experimental_chemistry}
The first goal for chemical investigation was the formation of the tetroxide; it was chosen because ruthenium and osmium form volatile tetroxides, being the only transition metals to display a stable compound in the +8 oxidation state. Despite this selection for gas-phase chemical studies being clear from the beginning, chemical characterization of hassium was considered a difficult task for a long time. Although hassium was first synthesized in 1984, it was not until 1996 that a hassium isotope long-lived enough to allow chemical studies was synthesized. Unfortunately, this isotope, `{{sup|269}}`{=mediawiki}Hs, was synthesized indirectly from the decay of `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Cn; not only are indirect synthesis methods not favourable for chemical studies, but the reaction that produced the isotope `{{sup|277}}`{=mediawiki}Cn had a low yield---its cross section was only 1`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}pb---and thus did not provide enough hassium atoms for a chemical investigation. Direct synthesis of `{{sup|269}}`{=mediawiki}Hs and `{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs in the reaction `{{sup|248}}`{=mediawiki}Cm(`{{sup|26}}`{=mediawiki}Mg,*x*n)`{{sup|274−''x''}}`{=mediawiki}Hs (*x*`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}=`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}4 or 5) appeared more promising because the cross section for this reaction was somewhat larger at 7`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}pb. This yield was still around ten times lower than that for the reaction used for the chemical characterization of bohrium. New techniques for irradiation, separation, and detection had to be introduced before hassium could be successfully characterized chemically.
Ruthenium and osmium have very similar chemistry due to the lanthanide contraction but iron shows some differences from them; for example, although ruthenium and osmium form stable tetroxides in which the metal is in the +8 oxidation state, iron does not. In preparation for the chemical characterization of hassium, research focused on ruthenium and osmium rather than iron because hassium was expected to be similar to ruthenium and osmium, as the predicted data on hassium closely matched that of those two.
The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001, using the synthetic osmium radioisotopes `{{sup|172, 173}}`{=mediawiki}Os as a reference. During the experiment, seven hassium atoms were synthesized using the reactions `{{sup|248}}`{=mediawiki}Cm(`{{sup|26}}`{=mediawiki}Mg,5n)`{{sup|269}}`{=mediawiki}Hs and `{{sup|248}}`{=mediawiki}Cm(`{{sup|26}}`{=mediawiki}Mg,4n)`{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs. They were then thermalized and oxidized in a mixture of helium and oxygen gases to form hassium tetroxide molecules.
: Hs + 2 O`{{sub|2}}`{=mediawiki} → HsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki}
The measured deposition temperature of hassium tetroxide was higher than that of osmium tetroxide, which indicated the former was the less volatile one, and this placed hassium firmly in group 8. The enthalpy of adsorption for HsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki} measured, `{{val|−46|2|u=[[kilojoule per mole|kJ/mol]]}}`{=mediawiki}, was significantly lower than the predicted value, `{{val|−36.7|1.5|u=kJ/mol}}`{=mediawiki}, indicating OsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki} is more volatile than HsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki}, contradicting earlier calculations that implied they should have very similar volatilities. For comparison, the value for OsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{val|−39|1|u=kJ/mol}}`{=mediawiki}. (The calculations that yielded a closer match to the experimental data came after the experiment, in 2008.) It is possible hassium tetroxide interacts differently with silicon nitride than with silicon dioxide, the chemicals used for the detector; further research is required to establish whether there is a difference between such interactions and whether it has influenced the measurements. Such research would include more accurate measurements of the nuclear properties of `{{sup|269}}`{=mediawiki}Hs and comparisons with RuO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki} in addition to OsO`{{sub|4}}`{=mediawiki}.
In 2004, scientists reacted hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction that is well known with osmium. This was the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound, forming sodium hassate(VIII):
: \+ 2 NaOH → `{{chem|Na|2|[HsO|4|(OH)|2|]}}`{=mediawiki}
The team from the University of Mainz planned in 2008 to study the electrodeposition of hassium atoms using the new TASCA facility at GSI. Their aim was to use the reaction `{{sup|226}}`{=mediawiki}Ra(`{{sup|48}}`{=mediawiki}Ca,4n)`{{sup|270}}`{=mediawiki}Hs. Scientists at GSI were hoping to use TASCA to study the synthesis and properties of the hassium(II) compound hassocene, Hs(C`{{sub|5}}`{=mediawiki}H`{{sub|5}}`{=mediawiki})`{{sub|2}}`{=mediawiki}, using the reaction `{{sup|226}}`{=mediawiki}Ra(`{{sup|48}}`{=mediawiki}Ca,*x*n). This compound is analogous to the lighter compounds ferrocene, ruthenocene, and osmocene, and is expected to have the two cyclopentadienyl rings in an eclipsed conformation like ruthenocene and osmocene and not in a staggered conformation like ferrocene. Hassocene, which is expected to be a stable and highly volatile compound, was chosen because it has hassium in the low formal oxidation state of +2---although the bonding between the metal and the rings is mostly covalent in metallocenes---rather than the high +8 state that had previously been investigated, and relativistic effects were expected to be stronger in the lower oxidation state. The highly symmetrical structure of hassocene and its low number of atoms make relativistic calculations easier. `{{As of|2021||df=}}`{=mediawiki}, there are no experimental reports of hassocene
| 725 |
Hassium
| 8 |
13,770 |
# Hercules
**Hercules** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɜːr|k|j|ʊ|ˌ|l|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAc-en|US|-|k|j|ə|-|}}`{=mediawiki}) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Greek hero\'s iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name *Hercules*. In later Western art and literature and in popular culture, *Hercules* is more commonly used than *Heracles* as the name of the hero. Hercules is a multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in the later tradition.
## Mythology
### Birth and early life {#birth_and_early_life}
In Roman mythology, although Hercules was seen as the champion of the weak and a great protector, his personal problems started at birth. Juno sent two witches to prevent the birth, but they were tricked by one of Alcmene\'s servants and sent to another room. Juno then sent serpents to kill him in his cradle, but Hercules strangled them both. In one version of the myth, Alcmene abandoned her baby in the woods in order to protect him from Juno\'s wrath, but he was found by the goddess Minerva who brought him to Juno, claiming he was an orphan child left in the woods who needed nourishment. Juno suckled Hercules at her own breast until the infant bit her nipple, at which point she pushed him away, spilling her milk across the night sky and so forming the Milky Way. She then gave the infant back to Minerva and told her to take care of the baby herself. In feeding the child from her own breast, the goddess inadvertently imbued him with further strength and power.
### Death
| 299 |
Hercules
| 0 |
13,770 |
# Hercules
## Roman era {#roman_era}
The Latin name *Hercules* was borrowed through Etruscan, where it is represented variously as Heracle, Hercle, and other forms. Hercules was a favorite subject for Etruscan art, and appears often on bronze mirrors. The Etruscan form *Herceler* derives from the Greek *Heracles* via syncope. A mild oath invoking Hercules (*Hercule!* or *Mehercle!*) was a common interjection in Classical Latin.
Hercules had a number of myths that were distinctly Roman. One of these is Hercules\' defeat of Cacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome. The hero was associated with the Aventine Hill through his son Aventinus. Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperor Commodus. Hercules received various forms of religious veneration, including as a deity concerned with children and childbirth, in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because he fathered countless children. Roman brides wore a special belt tied with the \"knot of Hercules\", which was supposed to be hard to untie. The comic playwright Plautus presents the myth of Hercules\' conception as a sex comedy in his play *Amphitryon*; Seneca wrote the tragedy *Hercules Furens* about his bout with madness. During the Roman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally from Hispania through Gaul.
### Germanic association {#germanic_association}
Tacitus records a special affinity of the Germanic peoples for Hercules. In chapter 3 of his *Germania*, Tacitus states:
Some have taken this as Tacitus equating the Germanic *Þunraz* with Hercules by way of *interpretatio romana*.
In the Roman era Hercules\' Club amulets appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, distributed over the empire (including Roman Britain, cf. Cool 1986), mostly made of gold, shaped like wooden clubs. A specimen found in Köln-Nippes bears the inscription \"DEO HER\[culi\]\", confirming the association with Hercules.
In the 5th to 7th centuries, during the Migration Period, the amulet is theorized to have rapidly spread from the Elbe Germanic area across Europe. These Germanic \"Donar\'s Clubs\" were made from deer antler, bone or wood, more rarely also from bronze or precious metals. The amulet type is replaced by the Viking Age Thor\'s hammer pendants in the course of the Christianization of Scandinavia from the 8th to 9th century.
## Late ancient and medieval mythography {#late_ancient_and_medieval_mythography}
After the Roman Empire became Christianized, mythological narratives were often reinterpreted as allegory, influenced by the philosophy of late antiquity. In the 4th century, Servius had described Hercules\' return from the underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or the earth itself as a consumer of bodies. In some early patristic texts, Hercules was identified with the biblical figure Samson.
In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, while the monsters he battles were regarded as moral obstacles. One glossator noted that when Hercules became a constellation, he showed that strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.
Medieval mythography was written almost entirely in Latin, and original Greek texts were little used as sources for Hercules\' myths.
## Renaissance mythography {#renaissance_mythography}
The Renaissance and the invention of the printing press brought a renewed interest in and publication of Greek literature. Renaissance mythography drew more extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized name Hercules, or the alternate name Alcides. In a chapter of his book *Mythologiae* (1567), the influential mythographer Natale Conti collected and summarized an extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero under his Roman name Hercules. Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle Ages:
> Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was justly famous and renowned for his great courage. His great and glorious reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he\'ll always be remembered. In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars, ceremonies, and priests. But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just aren\'t good enough.
In 1600, the citizens of Avignon bestowed on Henry of Navarre (the future King Henry IV of France) the title of the *Hercule Gaulois* (\"Gallic Hercules\"), justifying the extravagant flattery with a genealogy that traced the origin of the House of Navarre to a nephew of Hercules\' son Hispalus.
| 731 |
Hercules
| 1 |
13,770 |
# Hercules
## Worship
### Road of Hercules {#road_of_hercules}
The Road of Hercules is a route across Southern Gaul that is associated with the path Hercules took during his 10th labor of retrieving the Cattle of Geryon from the Red Isles. Hannibal took the same path on his march towards Italy and encouraged the belief that he was the second Hercules. Primary sources often make comparisons between Hercules and Hannibal. Hannibal further tried to invoke parallels between himself and Hercules by starting his march on Italy by visiting the shrine of Hercules at Gades. While crossing the alps, he performed labors in a heroic manner. A famous example was noted by Livy, when Hannibal fractured the side of a cliff that was blocking his march.
### Worship from women {#worship_from_women}
In ancient Roman society women were usually limited to two types of cults: those that addressed feminine matters such as childbirth, and cults that required virginal chastity. However, there is evidence suggesting there were female worshippers of Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Hercules. Some scholars believe that women were completely prohibited from any of Hercules\'s cults. Others believe it was only the \"Ara Maxima\" at which they were not allowed to worship. Macrobius in his first book of *Saturnalia* paraphrases from Varro: \"For when Hercules was bringing the cattle of Geryon through Italy, a woman replied to the thirsty hero that she could not give him water because it was the day of the Goddess Women and it was unlawful for a man to taste what had been prepared for her. Hercules, therefore, when he was about to offer a sacrifice forbid the presence of women and ordered Potitius and Pinarius who were in charge of his rites, not to allow any women from taking part\". Macrobius states that women were restricted in their participation in Hercules cults, but to what extent remains ambiguous. He mentions that women were not allowed to participate in Sacrum which is general term used to describe anything that was believed to have belonged to the gods. This could include anything from a precious item to a temple. Due to the general nature of a Sacrum, we can not judge the extent of the prohibition from Macrobius alone. There are also ancient writings on this topic from Aulus Gellius when speaking on how Romans swore oaths. He mentioned that Roman women do not swear on Hercules, nor do Roman men swear on Castor. He went on to say that women refrain from sacrificing to Hercules. Propertius in his poem 4.9 also mentions similar information as Macrobius. This is evidence that he was also using Varro as a source.
### Worship in myth {#worship_in_myth}
There is evidence of Hercules worship in myth in the Latin epic poem, the *Aeneid*. In the 8th book of the poem Aeneas finally reaches the future site of Rome, where he meets Evander and the Arcadians making sacrifices to Hercules on the banks of the Tiber river. They share a feast, and Evander tells the story of how Hercules defeated the monster Cascus, and describes him as a triumphant hero. Translated from the Latin text of Vergil, Evander stated: \"Time brought to us in our time of need the aid and arrival of a god. For there came that mightiest avenger, the victor Hercules, proud with the slaughter and the spoils of threefold Geryon, and he drove the mighty bulls here, and the cattle filled both valley and riverside.
Hercules was also mentioned in the Fables of Gaius Julius Hyginus. For example, in his fable about Philoctetes he tells the story of how Philoctetes built a funeral pyre for Hercules so his body could be consumed and raised to immortality.
### Hercules and the Roman triumph {#hercules_and_the_roman_triumph}
According to Livy (9.44.16) Romans were commemorating military victories by building statues to Hercules as early as 305 BCE. Also, philosopher Pliny the Elder dates Hercules worship back to the time of Evander, by accrediting him with erecting a statue in the Forum Boarium of Hercules. Scholars agree that there would have been 5--7 temples in Augustan Rome. There are believed to be related Republican *triumphatores*, however, not necessarily triumphal dedications. There are two temples located in the Campus Martius. One, being the Temple of Hercules Musarum, dedicated between 187 and 179 BCE by M. Fulvius Nobilior. And the other being the Temple of Hercules Custos, likely renovated by Sulla in the 80s BCE.
### In art {#in_art}
In Roman works of art and in Renaissance and post-Renaissance art, Hercules can be identified by his attributes, the lion skin and the gnarled club (his favorite weapon); in mosaic he is shown tanned bronze, a virile aspect.
In the twentieth century, the *Farnese Hercules* has inspired artists such as Jeff Koons, Matthew Darbyshire and Robert Mapplethorpe to reinterpret Hercules for new audiences. The choice of deliberately white materials by Koons and Darbyshire has been interpreted as perpetuation of colourism in how the classical world is viewed. Mapplethorpe\'s work with black model Derrick Cross can be seen as a reaction to Neo-classical colourism, resisting the portrayal of Hercules as white.
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# Hercules
## Worship
### Roman era {#roman_era_1}
<File:Heracles> Pio-Clementino Inv252.jpg\|*Hercules of the Forum Boarium* (Hellenistic, 2nd century BCE) <File:Affresco> romano eracle ebbro e onfale.JPG\|Hercules drunk and Omphale. Fresco from House of the Prince of Montenegro, Pompeii, 25--35 CE <File:Hercules> Nessus MAN Napoli Inv9001.jpg\|Hercules carrying his son Hyllus looks at the centaur Nessus, who is about to carry Deianira across the river on his back. Fresco from Pompeii, 30--45 CE <File:Herculaneum> Collegio degli Augustali Ercole sull\'Olimpo.jpg\|Hercules in Olympus with Juno and Minerva, fresco from Herculaneum, 1st century CE <File:Hercules> and Iolaus mosaic - Anzio Nymphaeum.jpg\|Hercules and Iolaus (1st century CE mosaic from the Anzio Nymphaeum, Rome) <File:Hercules> Hatra Iraq Parthian period 1st 2nd century CE.jpg\|Hercules (Hatra, Iraq, Parthian period, 1st--2nd century CE) <File:Muze> 001.jpg\|Hercules bronze statuette, 2nd century CE (museum of Alanya, Turkey) <File:Missorium> Herakles lion Cdm Paris 56-345 n3.jpg\|Hercules and the Nemean Lion (detail), silver plate, 6th century (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris) <File:Affresco> romano - eracle ed onfale - area vesuviana.JPG\|Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco, Pompeian Fourth Style (45--79 CE), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy <File:Tesoro> di hildesheim, argento, I sec ac-I dc ca., piatto da parata con ercole bambino e i serpenti 01.JPG\|A Roman gilded silver bowl depicting the boy Hercules strangling two serpents, from the Hildesheim Treasure, 1st century CE, Altes Museum <File:Head> from statue of Herakles (Hercules) Roman 117-188 CE from villa of the emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, Italy BM 2.jpg\|Head from statue of Herakles (Hercules) Roman 117--188 CE from villa of the emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, Italy at the British Museum <File:Herakles> with the Apples of the Hesperides Roman 1st century CE from a temple at Byblos Lebanon BM.jpg\|Hercules (Herakles) with the Apples of the Hesperides Roman 1st century CE from a temple at Byblos, Lebanon at the British Museum <File:Hercules> from Cappadocia or Caesarea 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Walters Art Museum.jpg\|Hercules from Cappadocia or Caesarea 1st century BCE -- 1st century CE, Walters Art Museum <File:Hercules> slaying the Hydra Roman copy of 4th century BCE original by Lysippos Capitoline Museum.jpg\|Hercules slaying the Hydra Roman copy of 4th century BCE original by Lysippos, Capitoline Museum <File:Hercules> Roman 1st century BCE - 1st century CE Walters Art Museum.jpg\|Hercules Roman 1st century BCE -- 1st century CE, Walters Art Museum <File:Herakles> and Telephos Louvre MR219.jpg\|Herakles and Telephos Louvre MR219 <File:Ercole> seduto (epitrapezios), 50 ac-50 dc ca., con braccia, clava e gambe sotto il ginocchio di restauro 02.JPG\|Hercules, 50 BCE -- 50 CE, MAN Florence
### Modern era {#modern_era}
<File:Hendrik> Goltzius, The Great Hercules, 1589, NGA 70311.jpg\|*The Giant Hercules* (1589) by Hendrik Goltzius <File:Lucas> Faydherbe - Hercules.jpg\|Lucas Faydherbe, Bust of Hercules -- collection King Baudouin Foundation <File:Peter> Paul Rubens cat01.jpg\|*The Drunken Hercules* (1612--1614) by Rubens <File:HerculeDejanire.jpg>\|*Hercules and Deianira* (18th century copy of a lost original), from I Modi <File:Brooklyn> Museum - Les Écuries d\'Augias - Honoré Daumier.jpg\|Hercules in the Augean stable (1842, Honoré Daumier) <File:Hercules> Comic Cover.JPG\| Comic book cover (c. 1958) <File:Bartholomäus> Spranger - Hercules, Deianira and the Centaur Nessus - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Hercules, Deianira and the Centaur Nessus*, by Bartholomäus Spranger, 1580--1582 <File:Henry> IV en Herculeus terrassant l Hydre de Lerne cad La ligue Catholique Atelier Toussaint Dubreuil circa 1600.jpg\|Henry IV of France, as Hercules vanquishing the Lernaean Hydra (i.e. the Catholic League), by Toussaint Dubreuil, c. 1600. Louvre Museum <File:Herakles> pyre Coustou Louvre MR1809.jpg\|Hercules on the Pyre by Guillaume Coustou The Elder, 1704, Louvre MR1809
### In numismatics {#in_numismatics}
Hercules was among the earliest figures on ancient Roman coinage, and has been the main motif of many collector coins and medals since. One example is the Austrian 20 euro Baroque Silver coin issued on September 11, 2002. The obverse side of the coin shows the Grand Staircase in the town palace of Prince Eugene of Savoy in Vienna, currently the Austrian Ministry of Finance. Gods and demi-gods hold its flights, while Hercules stands at the turn of the stairs.
<File:Æ> Triens 2710028.jpg\|Juno, with Hercules fighting a Centaur on reverse (Roman, 215--15 BCE) <File:Denarius> Publius Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus 1 Obverse.jpg\|Club over his shoulder on a Roman denarius (c. 100 BCE) <File:MAXIMINUS> II-RIC VI 77-251201.jpg\|Maximinus II and Hercules with club and lionskin (Roman, 313 CE) <File:5> French francs Hercule de Dupré 1996 F346-2 obverse.jpg\|Commemorative 5-franc piece (1996), Hercules in center <File:Caracalla> Denarius Hercules RIC192.jpg\|Hercules, as seen on a Denarius of the Roman Emperor Caracalla. Dated 212 CE
### Military
Six successive ships of the British Royal Navy, from the 18th to the 20th century, bore the name HMS *Hercules*.
In the French Navy, there were no less than nineteen ships called *Hercule*, plus three more named *Alcide* which is another name of the same hero.
Hercules\' name was also used for five ships of the US Navy, four ships of the Spanish Navy, four of the Argentine Navy and two of the Swedish Navy, as well as for numerous civilian sailing and steam ships.
In modern aviation a military transport aircraft produced by Lockheed Martin carries the title Lockheed C-130 Hercules.
Operation Herkules was the German code-name given to an abortive plan for the invasion of Malta during the Second World War.
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# Hercules
## Worship
### Other cultural references {#other_cultural_references}
<File:PillarsHerculesPeutingeriana.jpg>\|Pillars of Hercules, representing the Strait of Gibraltar (19th-century conjecture of the *Tabula Peutingeriana*) <File:Maczuga> Herkulesa (background Castle Pieskowa Skała).jpg\|*The Cudgel of Hercules*, a tall limestone rock formation, with Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background <File:Royal> Coat of Arms of Greece.svg\|Hercules as heraldic supporters in the royal arms of Greece, in use 1863--1973. The phrase \"Ηρακλείς του στέμματος\" (\"Defenders of the Crown\") has pejorative connotations (\"chief henchmen\") in Greek.
### In films {#in_films}
A series of nineteen Italian Hercules movies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The actors who played Hercules in these films were Steve Reeves, Gordon Scott, Kirk Morris, Mickey Hargitay, Mark Forest, Alan Steel, Dan Vadis, Brad Harris, Reg Park, Peter Lupus (billed as Rock Stevens) and Michael Lane. A number of English-dubbed Italian films that featured the name of Hercules in their title were not intended to be movies about Hercules
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# Hradčany
**Hradčany** (`{{IPA|cs|ˈɦratʃanɪ|-|Cs-Hradcany.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; *Hradschin*), is the district of the city of Prague, Czech Republic surrounding Prague Castle.
The castle is one of the biggest in the world at about 570 m in length and an average of about 130 m wide. Its history stretches back to the 9th century. St Vitus Cathedral is located in the castle area.
Most of the district consists of noble historical palaces. There are many other attractions for visitors: romantic nooks, peaceful places and beautiful lookouts.
Hradčany was an independent borough until 1784, when the four independent boroughs that had formerly constituted Prague were proclaimed a single city. The other three were Malá Strana (*links=no*, Lesser Quarter), Staré Město (*links=no*, Old Town) and Nové Město (*links=no*, New Town).
## Demographics
## Photo gallery {#photo_gallery}
NearPrazhskyHrad.jpg\|The architecture of Hradčany Neighborhood Hradcany11.jpg\|In a quiet corner of Hradčany neighborhood. Hradcany1927.JPG\|The promenade at Hradčany Nanebevzetí Panny Marie Na Strahově, Strahovský Klášter, Hradčany, Praha, Hlavní Město Praha, Česká Republika (48790717818).jpg\|Church at Hradčany HardcanyLittlePark
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# Hebrew calendar
`{{Infobox calendar date today}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Jewish culture}}`{=mediawiki} The **Hebrew calendar** (*translit=halLūaḥ hāʿĪḇrī}}*), also called the **Jewish calendar**, is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance and as an official calendar of Israel. It determines the dates of Jewish holidays and other rituals, such as *yahrzeits* and the schedule of public Torah readings. In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture, and is an official calendar for civil holidays alongside the Gregorian calendar.
Like other lunisolar calendars, the Hebrew calendar consists of months of 29 or 30 days which begin and end at approximately the time of the new moon. As 12 such months comprise a total of just 354 days, an extra lunar month is added every 2 or 3 years so that the long-term average year length closely approximates the actual length of the solar year.
Originally, the beginning of each month was determined based on physical observation of a new moon, while the decision of whether to add the leap month was based on observation of natural agriculture-related events in ancient Israel. Between the years 70 and 1178, these empirical criteria were gradually replaced with a set of mathematical rules. Month length now follows a fixed schedule which is adjusted based on the molad interval (a mathematical approximation of the mean time between new moons) and several other rules, while leap months are now added in 7 out of every 19 years according to the Metonic cycle.
Nowadays, Hebrew years are generally counted according to the system of *\[\[Anno Mundi\]\]* (Latin: \"in the year of the world\"; *מבריאת העולם}}*, \"from the creation of the world\", abbreviated AM). This system attempts to calculate the number of years since the creation of the world according to the Genesis creation narrative and subsequent Biblical stories. The current Hebrew year, AM {{#time:xjY}}, began at sunset on {{#time:j F Y\|@`{{Hebrew year/rhdatum}}`{=mediawiki}-1 day}} and will end at sunset on {{#time:j F Y\|@`{{Hebrew year/rhdatum|{{#expr:{{#time:xjY}}`{=mediawiki}+1}}}}-1 day}}.
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# Hebrew calendar
## Components
### Days
Based on the classic rabbinic interpretation of `{{Bibleverse|Genesis|1:5|HE}}`{=mediawiki} (\"There was evening and there was morning, one day\"), a day in the rabbinic Hebrew calendar runs from sunset (the start of \"the evening\") to the next sunset. Similarly, Yom Kippur, Passover, and Shabbat are described in the Bible as lasting \"from evening to evening\". The days are therefore figured locally.
Halachically, the exact time when days begin or end is uncertain: this time could be either sundown (*shekiah*) or else nightfall (*tzait ha\'kochavim*, \"when the stars appear\"). The time between sundown and nightfall (*bein hashmashot*) is of uncertain status. Thus (for example) observance of Shabbat begins before sundown on Friday and ends after nightfall on Saturday, to be sure that Shabbat is not violated no matter when the transition between days occurs.
Instead of the International Date Line convention, there are varying opinions as to where the day changes. (See International date line in Judaism.)
### Hours
Judaism uses multiple systems for dividing hours. In one system, the 24-hour day is divided into fixed hours equal to `{{frac|1|24}}`{=mediawiki} of a day, while each hour is divided into 1080 *halakim* (parts, singular: *helek*). A part is `{{frac|3|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} seconds (`{{frac|1|18}}`{=mediawiki} minute). The ultimate ancestor of the *helek* was a Babylonian time period called a *barleycorn*, equal to `{{frac|1|72}}`{=mediawiki} of a Babylonian *time degree* (1° of celestial rotation). These measures are not generally used for everyday purposes; their best-known use is for calculating and announcing the molad.
In another system, the daytime period is divided into 12 relative hours (*sha\'ah z\'manit*, also sometimes called \"halachic hours\"). A relative hour is defined as `{{frac|1|12}}`{=mediawiki} of the time from sunrise to sunset, or dawn to dusk, as per the two opinions in this regard. Therefore, an hour can be less than 60 minutes in winter, and more than 60 minutes in summer; similarly, the 6th hour ends at solar noon, which generally differs from 12:00. Relative hours are used for the calculation of prayer times (zmanim); for example, the Shema must be recited in the first three relative hours of the day.
Neither system is commonly used in ordinary life; rather, the local civil clock is used. This is even the case for ritual times (e.g. \"The latest time to recite Shema today is 9:38 AM\").
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# Hebrew calendar
## Components
### Weeks
The Hebrew week (*שבוע*, *shavua*) is a cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven-day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created.
The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week. The week begins with Day 1 (Sunday) and ends with Shabbat (Saturday). (More precisely, since days begin in the evening, weeks begin and end on Saturday evening. Day 1 lasts from Saturday evening to Sunday evening, while Shabbat lasts from Friday evening to Saturday evening.)
Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday.
In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example *יום א׳* (*Day 1*, or *Yom Rishon* (*יום ראשון*)):
Hebrew name Abbreviation Translation English equivalent
------------------------- -------------- ------------- -------------------------------------------
Yom Rishon (יום ראשון) First day Sunset on Saturday to sunset on Sunday
Yom Sheni (יום שני) Second day Sunset on Sunday to sunset on Monday
Yom Shlishi (יום שלישי) Third day Sunset on Monday to sunset on Tuesday
Yom Revii (יום רביעי) Fourth day Sunset on Tuesday to sunset on Wednesday
Yom Hamishi (יום חמישי) Fifth day Sunset on Wednesday to sunset on Thursday
Yom Shishi (יום שישי) Sixth day Sunset on Thursday to sunset on Friday
Yom Shabbat (יום שבת) Sabbath day Sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday
The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the Genesis creation account. For example, Genesis 1:8 \"\... And there was evening and there was morning, a second day\" corresponds to *Yom Sheni* meaning \"second day\". (However, for days 1, 6, and 7 the modern name differs slightly from the version in Genesis.)
The seventh day, Shabbat, as its Hebrew name indicates, is a day of rest in Judaism. In Talmudic Hebrew, the word *Shabbat* (*שַׁבָּת*) can also mean \"week\", so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like \"Yom Reviʻi beShabbat\" means \"the fourth day in the week\".
#### Days of week of holidays {#days_of_week_of_holidays}
Jewish holidays can only fall on the weekdays shown in the following table:
The period from 1 Adar (or Adar II, in leap years) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all of the festivals specified in the Bible (Purim, Passover, Shavuot, Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Shemini Atzeret). The lengths of months in this period are fixed, meaning that the day of week of Passover dictates the day of week of the other Biblical holidays. However, the lengths of the months of Marcheshvan and Kislev can each vary by a day (due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules which are used to adjust the year length). As a result, the holidays falling after Marcheshvan (starting with Chanukah) can fall on multiple days for a given row of the table.
A common mnemonic is \"*לא אד\"ו ראש, ולא בד\"ו פסח*\", meaning: \"Rosh HaShana cannot be on Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, and Passover cannot be on Monday, Wednesday or Friday\" with each day\'s numerical equivalent, in gematria, is used, such that א\' = 1 = Sunday, and so forth. From this rule, every other date can be calculated by adding weeks and days until that date\'s possible day of the week can be derived.
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# Hebrew calendar
## Components
### Months
The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar, meaning that months are based on lunar months, but years are based on solar years. The calendar year features twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days, with an additional lunar month (\"leap month\") added periodically to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the longer solar year. These extra months are added in seven years (3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19) out of a 19-year cycle, known as the Metonic cycle (See Leap months, below).
The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon. Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses (as is still done in Karaite Judaism and Islam), nowadays Jewish months have generally fixed lengths which approximate the period between new moons. For these reasons, a given month does not always begin on the same day as its astronomical conjunction.
The mean period of the lunar month (precisely, the synodic month) is very close to 29.5 days. Accordingly, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days:
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| Month number\* | | Hebrew month | Length |
+==================================================================+=======+==============================+============================+
| Ecclesiastical/\ | Civil | First day | Last day |
| biblical | | | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 1 | 7 | Nisan | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 2 | 8 | Iyar | 29 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 3 | 9 | Sivan | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 4 | 10 | Tammuz | 29 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 5 | 11 | Av | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 6 | 12 | Elul | 29 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 7 | 1 | Tishrei | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 8 | 2 | Cheshvan (or Marcheshvan) | 29 (or 30) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 9 | 3 | Kislev | 30 (or 29) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 10 | 4 | Tevet | 29 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 11 | 5 | Shevat | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 12 | 6 | Adar I (only in leap years) | 30 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| 12 | 6 | Adar (Adar II in leap years) | 29 |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| Total | | | 354 (or 353 or 355)\ |
| | | | 30 days more in leap years |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
| \* -- For the distinction between numbering systems, see {{slink | | | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------+-------+------------------------------+----------------------------+
Thus, the year normally contains twelve months with a total of 354 days. In such a year, the month of Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. However, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, in some years Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days.
Normally the 12th month is named Adar. During leap years, the 12th and 13th months are named Adar I and Adar II (Hebrew: *Adar Aleph* and *Adar Bet*---\"first Adar\" and \"second adar\"). Sources disagree as to which of these months is the \"real\" Adar, and which is the added leap month.
#### Justification for leap months {#justification_for_leap_months}
The Bible does not directly mention the addition of leap months (also known as \"embolismic\" or \"intercalary\" months). The insertion of the leap month is based on the requirement that Passover occur at the same time of year as the spring barley harvest (*aviv*). (Since 12 lunar months make up less than a solar year, the date of Passover would gradually move throughout the solar year if leap months were not occasionally added.) According to the rabbinic calculation, this requirement means that Passover (or at least most of Passover) should fall after the March equinox. Similarly, the holidays of Shavuot and Sukkot are presumed by the Torah to fall in specific agricultural seasons.
Maimonides, discussing the calendrical rules in his Mishneh Torah (1178), notes:
> By how much does the solar year exceed the lunar year? By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so-called embolismic (intercalated) year. For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so-and-so many days, since it is said: \"throughout the months of the year\", which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days.
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# Hebrew calendar
## Components
### Years
#### New year {#new_year}
The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah, the first day of Tishrei. However, the Jewish calendar also defines several additional new years, used for different purposes. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil \"calendar years\", \"tax or fiscal years\", \"academic years\", and so on. The *Mishnah* (c. 200 CE) identifies four new-year dates:
> The 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and festivals. The 1st of Elul is the new year for the cattle tithe, Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Shimon say on the first of Tishrei. The 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the Shmita and Jubilee years, for planting and for vegetables. The 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees---so the school of Shammai, but the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof.
Two of these dates are especially prominent:
- 1 Nisan is the *ecclesiastical new year*, i.e. the date from which months and festivals are counted. Thus Passover (which begins on 15 Nisan) is described in the Torah as falling \"in the first month\", while Rosh Hashana (which begins on 1 Tishrei) is described as falling \"in the seventh month\".
- 1 Tishrei is the *civil new year*, and the date on which the year number advances. This date is known as Rosh Hashanah (`{{lit|head of the year}}`{=mediawiki}). Tishrei marks the end of one *agricultural* year and the beginning of another, and thus 1 Tishrei is considered the new year for most agriculture-related commandments, including Shmita, Yovel, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani.
For the dates of the Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000--2050.
#### Anno Mundi {#anno_mundi}
The Jewish year number is generally given by **Anno Mundi** (from Latin \"in the year of the world\", often abbreviated *AM* or *A.M.*). In this calendar era, the year number equals the number of years that have passed since the creation of the world, according to an interpretation of Biblical accounts of the creation and subsequent history. From the eleventh century, *anno mundi* dating became the dominant method of counting years throughout most of the world\'s Jewish communities, replacing earlier systems such as the Seleucid era. As with *\[\[Anno Domini\]\]* (A.D. or AD), the words or abbreviation for *Anno Mundi* (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly *precede* the date rather than follow it.
The reference junction of the Sun and the Moon (Molad 1) is considered to be at 5 hours and 204 halakim, or 11:11:20 p.m., on the evening of Sunday, 6 October 3761 BCE. According to rabbinic reckoning, this moment was *not* Creation, but about one year \"before\" Creation, with the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) called *molad tohu* (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing). It is about one year *before* the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon the *Seder Olam Rabbah*. Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian calendar year number starting from 1 CE will yield the Hebrew year. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy; *see Missing years (Jewish calendar)*.
In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: with the thousands, called *לפרט גדול* (\"major era\"), and without the thousands, called *לפרט קטן* (\"minor era\"). Thus, the current year is written as ***{{#time:xhxjY*}}** ({{#time:xjY}}) using the \"major era\" and ***{{#time:xhxjY*\|3\|-1}}}}** ({{#expr:{{#time:xjY}}mod1000}}) using the \"minor era\".
#### Cycles of years {#cycles_of_years}
Since the Jewish calendar has been fixed, leap months have been added according to the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months, and 7 are leap years of 13 months. This 19-year cycle is known in Hebrew as the *Machzor Katan* (\"small cycle\").
Because the Julian years are `{{frac|365|1|4}}`{=mediawiki} days long, every 28 years the weekday pattern repeats. This is called the sun cycle, or the *Machzor Gadol* (\"great cycle\") in Hebrew. The beginning of this cycle is arbitrary. Its main use is for determining the time of Birkat Hachama.
Because every 50 years is a Jubilee year, there is a jubilee (*yovel*) cycle. Because every seven years is a sabbatical year, there is a seven-year release cycle. The placement of these cycles is debated. Historically, there is enough evidence to fix the sabbatical years in the Second Temple Period. But it may not match with the sabbatical cycle derived from the biblical period; and there is no consensus on whether or not the Jubilee year is the fiftieth year or the latter half of the forty ninth year.
Every 247 years, or 13 cycles of 19 years, form a period known as an *iggul*, or the *Iggul of Rabbi Nahshon*. This period is notable in that the precise details of the calendar almost always (but not always) repeat over this period. This occurs because the *molad* interval (the average length of a Hebrew month) is 29.530594 days, which over 247 years results in a total of 90215.965 days. This is almost exactly 90216 days -- a whole number and multiple of 7 (equalling the days of the week). So over 247 years, not only does the 19-year leap year cycle repeat itself, but the days of the week (and thus the days of Rosh Hashanah and the year length) typically repeat themselves.
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# Hebrew calendar
## Calculations
### Leap year calculations {#leap_year_calculations}
To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the remainder. (Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.) For example, the Jewish year {{#time:xjY}} divided by 19 results in a remainder of {{#expr:{{#time:xjY}}mod 19}}, indicating that it is year {{#ifexpr:{{#time:xjY}}mod 19\|{{#expr:{{#time:xjY}}mod 19}}\|19}} of the Metonic cycle. The Jewish year used is the *anno mundi* year, in which the year of creation according to the Rabbinical Chronology (3761 BCE) is taken as year 1. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years. The Hebrew mnemonic GUCHADZaT *גוחאדז״ט* refers to these years, while another memory aid refers to musical notation.
Whether a year is a leap year can also be determined by a simple calculation (which also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes). To determine whether year *n* of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing \[(7 × *n*) + 1\] by 19. If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not. For example, the `{{Hebrew calendar/c|{{#time:xjY}}`{=mediawiki}}} The `{{Hebrew calendar/c|{{#expr:{{#time:xjY}}`{=mediawiki}+1}}}} This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years the difference between the solar and lunar years increases by `{{frac|7|19}}`{=mediawiki} month per year. When the difference goes above `{{frac|18|19}}`{=mediawiki} month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.
The Hebrew calendar assumes that a month is uniformly of the length of an average synodic month, taken as exactly `{{frac|29|13753|25920}}`{=mediawiki} days (about 29.530594 days, which is less than half a second from the modern scientific estimate); it also assumes that a tropical year is exactly `{{frac|12|7|19}}`{=mediawiki} times that, i.e., about 365.2468 days. Thus it overestimates the length of the tropical year (365.2422 days) by 0.0046 days (about 7 minutes) per year, or about one day in 216 years. This error is less than the Julian years (365.2500 days) make (0.0078 days/year, or one day in 128 years), but much more than what the Gregorian years (365.2425 days/year) make (0.0003 days/year, or one day in 3333 years).
| 405 |
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Calculations
### Rosh Hashanah postponement rules {#rosh_hashanah_postponement_rules}
Besides the adding of leap months, the year length is sometimes adjusted by adding one day to the month of Marcheshvan, or removing one day from the month of Kislev. Because each calendar year begins with Rosh Hashanah, adjusting the year length is equivalent to moving the day of the next Rosh Hashanah. Several rules are used to determine when this is performed.
To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon) of Tishrei in that year is calculated. The molad is calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad (whose weekday is known) by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 \"parts\" in an hour, so that one part is equal to `{{frac|3|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} seconds). The very first molad, the molad tohu, fell on Sunday evening at 11:11:20 pm in the local time of Jerusalem, 6 October 3761 BCE (Proleptic Julian calendar) 20:50:23.1 UTC, or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts. The exact time of a molad in terms of days after midnight between 29 and 30 December 1899 (the form used by many spreadsheets for date and time) is
: -2067022+(23+34/3/60)/24+(29.5+793/1080/24)\**N*
where *N* is the number of lunar months since the beginning. (`{{nowrap|''N'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 71440}} for the beginning of the 305th Machzor Katan on 1 October 2016.) Adding 0.25 to this converts it to the Jewish system in which the day begins at 6 pm.
In calculating the number of months that will have passed since the known molad that one uses as the starting point, one must remember to include any leap months that falls within the elapsed interval, according to the cycle of leap years. A 19-year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, a common year of 12 synodic months has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while a leap year of 13 synodic months has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 parts.
Four conditions are considered to determine whether the date of Rosh Hashanah must be postponed. These are called the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, or *deḥiyyot*. The two most important conditions are:
- If the molad occurs at or later than noon, Rosh Hashanah is postponed to the following day. This is called *deḥiyyat molad zaken* (*דְחִיַּת מוֹלָד זָקֵן*, literally, \"old birth\", i.e., late new moon). This rule is mentioned in the Talmud, and is used nowadays to prevent the molad falling on the second day of the month. This ensures that the long-term average month length is 29.530594 days (equal to the molad interval), rather than the 29.5 days implied by the standard alternation between 29- and 30-day months.
- If the molad occurs on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, Rosh Hashanah is postponed to the following day. If the application of *deḥiyyah molad zaken* would place Rosh Hashanah on one of these days, then it is postponed a second day. This is called *deḥiyyat lo ADU* (*דְחִיַּת לֹא אד״ו*), an acronym that means \"not \[weekday\] one, four, or six\".
: This rule is applied for religious reasons, so that Yom Kippur does not fall on a Friday or Sunday, and Hoshana Rabbah does not fall on Shabbat. Since Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, if either day falls immediately before the other, it would not be possible to make necessary preparations for the second day (such as candle lighting). Additionally, the laws of Shabbat override those of Hoshana Rabbah, so that if Hoshana Rabbah were to fall on Shabbat, the Hoshana Rabbah *aravah* ritual could not be performed.
: Thus Rosh Hashanah can only fall on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. The *kevi\'ah* uses the letters ה ,ג ,ב and ז (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) to denote the starting day of Rosh Hashana and the year.
Another two rules are applied much less frequently and serve to prevent impermissible year lengths. Their names are Hebrew acronyms that refer to the ways they are calculated:
- If the molad in a common year falls on a Tuesday, on or after 9 hours and 204 parts, Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Thursday. This is *deḥiyyat GaTaRaD* (*דְחִיַּת גטר״ד*, where the acronym stands for \"3 \[Tuesday\], 9, 204\").
- If the molad following a leap year falls on a Monday, on or after 15 hours and 589 parts after the Hebrew day began (for calculation purposes, this is taken to be 6 pm Sunday), Rosh Hashanah is postponed to Tuesday. This is *deḥiyyat BeTUTeKaPoT* (*דְחִיַּת בט״ו תקפ״ט*), where the acronym stands for \"2 \[Monday\], 15, 589\".
### Deficient, regular, and complete years {#deficient_regular_and_complete_years}
The rules of postponement of Rosh HaShanah make it that a Jewish common year will have 353, 354, or 355 days while a leap year (with the addition of Adar I which always has 30 days) has 383, 384, or 385 days.
- A `{{transliteration|he|chaserah}}`{=mediawiki} year (Hebrew for \"deficient\" or \"incomplete\") is 353 or 383 days long. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 29 days.
- A `{{transliteration|he|kesidrah}}`{=mediawiki} year (\"regular\" or \"in-order\") is 354 or 384 days long. Cheshvan has 29 days while Kislev has 30 days.
- A `{{transliteration|he|shlemah}}`{=mediawiki} year (\"complete\" or \"perfect\", also \"abundant\") is 355 or 385 days long. Both Cheshvan and Kislev have 30 days.
Whether a year is deficient, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah observances and the leap year.
A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19-year cycle. This gives an average of 6,939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle. But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (preceding section) a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6,939, 6,940, 6,941, or 6,942 days in duration. For any given year in the Metonic cycle, the molad moves forward in the week by 2 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts every 19 years. The greatest common divisor of this and a week is 5 parts, so the Jewish calendar repeats exactly following a number of Metonic cycles equal to the number of parts in a week divided by 5, namely 7×24×216 = 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a near-repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of 50 minutes `{{frac|16|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} seconds (905 parts).
Contrary to popular impression, one\'s Hebrew birthday does not necessarily fall on the same Gregorian date every 19 years, since the length of the Metonic cycle varies by several days (as does the length of a 19-year Gregorian period, depending whether it contains 4 or 5 leap years).
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Calculations
### Keviah
Days in year → 353 354 355 383 384 385
---------------------- --------------------------- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Day of Rosh HaShanah English *Kevi\'ah* symbol
Monday (2) 2D3 2C5 2D5 2C7
Tuesday (3) 3R5 3R7
Thursday (5) 5R7 5C1 5D1 5C3
Saturday (7) 7D1 7C3 7D3 7C5
There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another: whether it is a leap year or a common year; on which of four permissible days of the week the year begins; and whether it is a deficient, regular, or complete year. Mathematically, there are 24 (2×4×3) possible combinations, but only 14 of them are valid.
Each of these patterns is known by a *kevi\'ah* (*קביעה* for \'a setting\' or \'an established thing\'), which is a code consisting of two numbers and a letter. In English, the code consists of the following:
- The left number is the day of the week of `{{nowrap|1 Tishrei}}`{=mediawiki}, Rosh Hashanah `{{nowrap|(2 3 5 7; Hebrew: ב ג ה ז)}}`{=mediawiki}
- The letter indicates whether that year is deficient (D, \"ח\", from *Chasera*), regular (R, \"כ\", from *Kesidra*), or complete (C, \"ש\", from *Shlema*)
- The right number is the day of the week of `{{nowrap|15 Nisan}}`{=mediawiki}, the first day of Passover or Pesach `{{nowrap|(1 3 5 7; Hebrew: א ג ה ז)}}`{=mediawiki}, within the same Hebrew year (next Julian/Gregorian year)
The `{{transliteration|he|kevi'ah}}`{=mediawiki} in Hebrew letters is written right-to-left, so their days of the week are reversed, the right number for `{{nowrap|1 Tishrei}}`{=mediawiki} and the left for `{{nowrap|15 Nisan}}`{=mediawiki}.
The *kevi\'ah* also determines the Torah reading cycle (which *parshiyot* are read together or separately.
### The four gates {#the_four_gates}
The *keviah*, and thus the annual calendar, of a numbered Hebrew year can be determined by consulting the table of Four Gates, whose inputs are the year\'s position in the 19-year cycle and its molad Tishrei. In this table, the years of a 19-year cycle are organized into four groups (called \"gates\"): common years after a leap year but before a common year `{{nowrap|(1 4 9 12 15)}}`{=mediawiki}; common years between two leap years `{{nowrap|(7 18)}}`{=mediawiki}; common years after a common year but before a leap year `{{nowrap|(2 5 10 13 16)}}`{=mediawiki}; and leap years `{{nowrap|(3 6 8 11 14 17 19)}}`{=mediawiki}.
This table numbers the days of the week and hours for the limits of molad Tishrei in the Hebrew manner for calendrical calculations, that is, both begin at `{{nowrap|6 pm}}`{=mediawiki}, thus `{{nowrap|7d 18h 0p}}`{=mediawiki} is noon Saturday, with the week starting on `{{nowrap|1d 0h 0p}}`{=mediawiki} (Saturday 6pm, i.e. the beginning of Sunday reckoned in the Hebrew manner). The oldest surviving table of Four Gates was written by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in 824.
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| molad\ | Year of 19-year cycle |
| Tishrei ≥ | |
+=============+=======================================+
| 1 4 9 12 15 | 7 18 |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 7d 18h 0p | style=\"border: 1px solid #707070; \| |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 1d 9h 204p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 1d 20h 491p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 2d 15h 589p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 2d 18h 0p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 3d 9h 204p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 3d 18h 0p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 4d 11h 695p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 5d 9h 204p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 5d 18h 0p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 6d 0h 408p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 6d 9h 204p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
| 6d 20h 491p | |
+-------------+---------------------------------------+
: **Four gates** or **Table of Limits**
#### Incidence
Comparing the days of the week of molad Tishrei with those in the `{{transliteration|he|kevi'ah}}`{=mediawiki} shows that during 39% of years `{{nowrap|1 Tishrei}}`{=mediawiki} is not postponed beyond the day of the week of its molad Tishrei, 47% are postponed one day, and 14% are postponed two days. This table also identifies the seven types of common years and seven types of leap years. Most are represented in any 19-year cycle, except one or two may be in neighboring cycles. The most likely type of year is 5R7 in 18.1% of years, whereas the least likely is 5C1 in 3.3% of years. The day of the week of `{{nowrap|15 Nisan}}`{=mediawiki} is later than that of `{{nowrap|1 Tishrei}}`{=mediawiki} by one, two or three days for common years and three, four or five days for leap years in deficient, regular or complete years, respectively.
common years
-------------- -------
**5R7** 18.05
**7C3** 13.72
**2C5** 11.8
**3R5** 6.25
**2D3** 5.71
**7D1** 4.33
**5C1** 3.31
: Incidence (percentage)
| 745 |
Hebrew calendar
| 7 |
13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Calculations
### Worked example {#worked_example}
Given the length of the year, the length of each month is fixed as described above, so the real problem in determining the calendar for a year is determining the number of days in the year. In the modern calendar, this is determined in the following manner.
The day of Rosh Hashanah and the length of the year are determined by the time and the day of the week of the Tishrei *molad*, that is, the moment of the average conjunction. Given the Tishrei *molad* of a certain year, the length of the year is determined as follows:
First, one must determine whether each year is an ordinary or leap year by its position in the 19-year Metonic cycle. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are leap years.
Secondly, one must determine the number of days between the starting Tishrei *molad* (TM1) and the Tishrei *molad* of the next year (TM2). For calendar descriptions in general the day begins at 6 pm, but for the purpose of determining Rosh Hashanah, a *molad* occurring on or after noon is treated as belonging to the next day (the first *deḥiyyah*). All months are calculated as 29d, 12h, 44m, `{{fraction|3|1|3}}`{=mediawiki}s long (MonLen). Therefore, in an ordinary year TM2 occurs 12 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 354 calendar days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after 3:11:20 am and before noon, it will be 355 days. Similarly, in a leap year, TM2 occurs 13 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 384 days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after noon and before `{{fraction|2:27:16|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} pm, TM2 will be only 383 days after TM1. In the same way, from TM2 one calculates TM3. Thus the four natural year lengths are 354, 355, 383, and 384 days.
However, because of the holiday rules, Rosh Hashanah cannot fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, so if TM2 is one of those days, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 is postponed by adding one day to year 1 (the second *deḥiyyah*). To compensate, one day is subtracted from year 2. It is to allow for these adjustments that the system allows 385-day years (long leap) and 353-day years (short ordinary) besides the four natural year lengths.
But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days? That is why the third and fourth *deḥiyyah*s are needed.
If year 1 is already a long ordinary year of 355 days, there will be a problem if TM1 is on a Tuesday, as that means TM2 falls on a Sunday and will have to be postponed, creating a 356-day year. In this case, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed from Tuesday (the third *deḥiyyah*). As it cannot be postponed to Wednesday, it is postponed to Thursday, and year 1 ends up with 354 days.
On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday. because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long. In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth *deḥiyyah*), and year 2 will have 383 days.
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Hebrew calendar
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Calculations
### Holidays
For calculated dates of Jewish holidays, see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000--2050
| 19 |
Hebrew calendar
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Accuracy
### Molad interval {#molad_interval}
A \"new moon\" (astronomically called a lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is the moment at which the sun and moon have the same ecliptic longitude (i.e. they are aligned horizontally with respect to a north--south line). The period between two new moons is a synodic month. The actual length of a synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Accordingly, for convenience, the Hebrew calendar uses a long-term average month length, known as the **molad interval**, which equals the mean synodic month of ancient times. The molad interval is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 \"parts\" (1 \"part\" = ^1^/~18~ minute = 3^1^/~3~ seconds) (i.e., 29.530594 days), and is the same value determined by the Babylonians in their System B about 300 BCE and was adopted by Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) and by Ptolemy in the *Almagest* (2nd century CE). Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the current true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE. In the Talmudic era, when the mean synodic month was slightly shorter than at present, the molad interval was even more accurate, being \"essentially a perfect fit\" for the mean synodic month at the time.
Currently, the accumulated drift in the moladot since the Talmudic era has reached a total of approximately 97 minutes. This means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (97 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = nearly 7% of years. Therefore, the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year, and sometimes (due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules) also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year.
The rate of calendar drift is increasing with time, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale (such as that provided by an atomic clock) the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth\'s rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time.
### Metonic cycle drift {#metonic_cycle_drift}
A larger source of error is the inaccuracy of the Metonic cycle. Nineteen Jewish years average 6939d 16h 33m 03`{{fraction|1|3}}`{=mediawiki}s, compared to the 6939d 14h 26m 15s of nineteen mean solar years. Thus, the Hebrew calendar drifts by just over 2 hours every 19 years, or approximately one day every 216 years. Due to accumulation of this discrepancy, the earliest date on which Passover can fall has drifted by roughly eight days since the 4th century, and the 15th of Nisan now falls only on or after 26 March (the date in 2013), five days after the actual equinox on 21 March. In the distant future, this drift is projected to move Passover much further in the year. If the calendar is not amended, then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around approximately AM 16652 (12892 CE).
| 554 |
Hebrew calendar
| 10 |
13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Accuracy
### Implications for Jewish ritual {#implications_for_jewish_ritual}
When the calendar was fixed in the 4th century, the earliest Passover (in year 16 of the Metonic cycle) began on the first full moon after the March equinox. This is still the case in about 80% of years; but, in about 20% of years, Passover is a month late by this criterion. Presently, this occurs after the \"premature\" insertion of a leap month in years 8, 11, and 19 of each 19-year cycle, which causes Passover to fall especially far after the March equinox in such years. Calendar drift also impacts the observance of Sukkot, which will shift into Israel\'s winter rainy season, making dwelling in the sukkah less practical. It also affects the logic of the Shemini Atzeret prayer for rain, which will be more often recited once rains are already underway.
Modern scholars have debated at which point the drift could become ritually problematic, and proposed adjustments to the fixed calendar to keep Passover in its proper season. The seriousness of the calendar drift is discounted by many, on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits. However, some writers and researchers have proposed \"corrected\" calendars (with modifications to the leap year cycle, molad interval, or both) which would compensate for these issues:
- Irv Bromberg has suggested a 353-year cycle of 4,366 months, which would include 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter *molad* interval, which would keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than seven millennia. The 353 years would consist of 18 Metonic cycles, as well as an 11-year period in which the last 8 years of the Metonic cycle are omitted.
- Other authors have proposed to use cycles of 334 or 687 years.
- Another suggestion is to delay the leap years gradually so that a whole intercalary month is taken out at the end of Iggul 26; while also changing the synodic month to be the more accurate 29.53058868 days. Thus, the length of the year would be `{{nowrap|(235 × 13 × 26 − 1)/(19 × 13 × 26) {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 365.2422 days,}} very close to the actual tropical year. The result is the \"Hebrew Calendar\" in the program CalMaster2000.
Religious questions abound about how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community.
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## Usage
### In Auschwitz {#in_auschwitz}
While imprisoned in Auschwitz, Jews made every effort to preserve Jewish tradition in the camps, despite the monumental dangers in doing so. The Hebrew calendar, which is a tradition with great importance to Jewish practice and rituals was particularly dangerous since no tools of telling of time, such as watches and calendars, were permitted in the camps. The keeping of a Hebrew calendar was a rarity amongst prisoners and there are only two known surviving calendars that were made in Auschwitz, both of which were made by women. Before this, the tradition of making a Hebrew calendar was greatly assumed to be the job of a man in Jewish society.
### In contemporary Israel {#in_contemporary_israel}
Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far-flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: major Jewish holidays such as Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot correspond to major points of the country\'s agricultural year such as planting and harvest. Accordingly, in the early 20th century the Hebrew calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar.
After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of the official calendars of Israel, along with the Gregorian calendar. Holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition were to be fixed according to the Hebrew calendar date. For example, the Israeli Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, Yom HaAliyah on 10 Nisan, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on 27 Nisan.
The Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on cheques and other documents), and on the mastheads of newspapers.
The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two-day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secular Israelis celebrate the Gregorian New Year (usually known as \"Silvester Night\"---*ליל סילבסטר*) on the night between 31 December and 1 January. Prominent rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants.
Wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids. Most are organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but begin in September, when the Jewish New Year usually falls, and provide the Jewish date in small characters.
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13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## History
### Early formation {#early_formation}
Lunisolar calendars similar to the Hebrew calendar, consisting of twelve lunar months plus an occasional 13th intercalary month to synchronize with the solar/agricultural cycle, were used in all ancient Middle Eastern civilizations except Egypt, and likely date to the 3rd millennium BCE. While there is no mention of this 13th month anywhere in the Hebrew Bible, still most Biblical scholars hold that the intercalation process was almost certainly a regularly occurring aspect of the early Hebrew calendar keeping process.
### Month names {#month_names}
Biblical references to the pre-exilic calendar include ten of the twelve months identified by number rather than by name.
Prior to the Babylonian captivity, the names of only four months are referred to in the Tanakh: *Aviv* (first month), *Ziv* (second month), *Ethanim* (seventh month), and *Bul* (eighth month). All of these are believed to be Canaanite names. The last three of these names are only mentioned in connection with the building of the First Temple and Håkan Ulfgard suggests that the use of what are rarely used Canaanite (or in the case of Ethanim perhaps Northwest Semitic) names indicates that \"the author is consciously utilizing an archaizing terminology, thus giving the impression of an ancient story\...\". Alternatively, these names may be attributed to the presence of Phoenician scribes in Solomon\'s court at the time of the building of the Temple.
During the Babylonian captivity, the Jewish people adopted the Babylonian names for the months. The Babylonian calendar descended directly from the Sumerian calendar. These Babylonian month-names (such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri and Adar) are shared with the modern Levantine solar calendar (currently used in the Arabic-speaking countries of the Fertile Crescent) and the modern Assyrian calendar, indicating a common origin. The origin is thought to be the Babylonian calendar.
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| \# | Hebrew | Tiberian | Academy | Common/\ | Length | Babylonian analog | Holidays/\ | Notes |
| | | | | Other | | | Notable days | |
+=========+========+===========+============+==============+=========+===================+=======================+===================================================+
| 1 | | Nīsān | Nisan | Nissan | | *Nisanu* | Passover | Called *Abib**Hebrew-English Bible*, {{bibleverse |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 2 | | ʼIyyār | Iyyar | Iyar | 29 days | *Ayaru* | Pesach Sheni\ | Called *Ziv* |
| | | | | | | | Lag B\'Omer | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 3 | | Sīwān | Sivan | Siwan | 30 days | *Simanu* | Shavuot | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 4 | | Tammūz | Tammuz | Tamuz | 29 days | *Dumuzu* | Seventeenth of Tammuz | Named for the Babylonian god Dumuzi |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 5 | | ʼĀḇ | Av | Ab | 30 days | *Abu* | Tisha B\'Av\ | |
| | | | | | | | Tu B\'Av | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 6 | | ʼĔlūl | Elul | | 29 days | *Ululu* | | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 7 | | Tišrī | Tishri | Tishrei | 30 days | *Tashritu* | \ | Called *Ethanim* in Kings 8:2.\ |
| | | | | | | | Yom Kippur\ | First month of civil year. |
| | | | | | | | Sukkot\ | |
| | | | | | | | Shemini Atzeret\ | |
| | | | | | | | Simchat Torah | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 8 | | Marḥešwān | Marẖeshvan | Marcheshvan\ | 29 or\ | *Arakhsamna* | | Called *Bul* in Kings 6:38. |
| | | | | Cheshvan\ | 30 days | | | |
| | | | | Marẖeshwan | | | | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 9 | | Kislēw | Kislev | Kislev\ | 29 or\ | *Kislimu* | Hanukkah | |
| | | | | Chisleu\ | 30 days | | | |
| | | | | Chislev | | | | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 10 | | Ṭēḇēṯ | Tevet | Tebeth | 29 days | *Tebetu* | Tenth of Tevet | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 11 | | Šəḇāṭ | Shvat | Shevat\ | 30 days | *Shabatu* | Tu Bishvat | |
| | | | | Shebat\ | | | | |
| | | | | Sebat | | | | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 12L^\*^ | | | Adar I^\*^ | | 30 days | | | ^\*^Only in Leap years. |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
| 12 | | ʼĂḏār | | | 29 days | *Adaru* | Purim | |
+---------+--------+-----------+------------+--------------+---------+-------------------+-----------------------+---------------------------------------------------+
: Hebrew names of the months with their Babylonian analogs
### Past methods of dividing years {#past_methods_of_dividing_years}
According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring. If the barley was not ripe, an intercalary month would be added before Nisan.
In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while --
> Moses\...appointed Nisan\...as the first month for the festivals\...the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order \[i. e. the year beginning with Tishrei\].\"
Edwin Thiele concluded that the ancient northern Kingdom of Israel counted years using the ecclesiastical new year starting on 1 Aviv/Nisan (Nisan-years), while the southern Kingdom of Judah counted years using the civil new year starting on 1 Tishrei (Tishri-years). The practice of the Kingdom of Israel was also that of Babylon, as well as other countries of the region. The practice of Judah is continued in modern Judaism and is celebrated as Rosh Hashana.
| 943 |
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| 13 |
13,782 |
# Hebrew calendar
## History
### Past methods of numbering years {#past_methods_of_numbering_years}
Before the adoption of the current *Anno Mundi* year numbering system, other systems were used. In early times, the years were counted from some significant event such as the Exodus. During the period of the monarchy, it was the widespread practice in western Asia to use era year numbers according to the accession year of the monarch of the country involved. This practice was followed by the united kingdom of Israel, kingdom of Judah, kingdom of Israel, Persia, and others. Besides, the author of Kings coordinated dates in the two kingdoms by giving the accession year of a monarch in terms of the year of the monarch of the other kingdom, though some commentators note that these dates do not always synchronise. Other era dating systems have been used at other times. For example, Jewish communities in the Babylonian diaspora counted the years from the first deportation from Israel, that of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE. The era year was then called \"year of the captivity of Jehoiachin\".
During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucid era counting was used, at least in the Land of Israel (under Greek influence at the time). The Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid era dating exclusively, as did Josephus writing in the Roman period. From the 1st to 10th centuries, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East (primarily Iraq and Palestine), and Jews in these regions also used Seleucid era dating, which they called the \"Era of Contracts \[or Documents\]\"; this counting is still sometimes used by Yemenite Jews. The Talmud states:
> Rav Aha bar Jacob then put this question: How do we know that our Era \[of Documents\] is connected with the Kingdom of Greece at all? Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years and giving the years of the next thousand? In that case, the document is really post-dated!\
> Said Rav Nahman: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.\
> He \[Rav Aha\] thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught \[in a Baraita\]: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era \"became meaningless\", and thus was replaced by the *anno mundi* system. The use of the Seleucid era continued till the 16th century in the East, and was employed even in the 19th century among Yemenite Jews.
Occasionally in Talmudic writings, reference was made to other starting points for eras, such as destruction era dating, being the number of years since the 70 CE destruction of the Second Temple.
### Leap months {#leap_months}
According to Rabbinic Judaism, `{{Bibleverse|Exodus|12:1–2|HE}}`{=mediawiki} requires that the months be determined by a proper court with the necessary authority to sanctify the months. Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision. When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not a leap month was added depended on three factors: \'aviv \[i.e., the ripeness of barley\], fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone. It may be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, *Aviv*, literally means \"spring\". Thus, if Adar was over and spring had not yet arrived, an additional month was observed.
| 596 |
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# Hebrew calendar
## History
### Determining the new month in the Mishnaic period {#determining_the_new_month_in_the_mishnaic_period}
The Tanakh contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle, and records changes that have taken place to the Hebrew calendar. Numbers 10:10 stresses the importance in Israelite religious observance of the new month (Hebrew: *ראש חודש*, Rosh Chodesh, \"beginning of the month\"): \"\... in your new moons, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt-offerings\...\" Similarly in Numbers 28:11. \"The beginning of the month\" meant the appearance of a new moon, and in Exodus 12:2. \"This month is to you\".
According to the *Mishnah* and Tosefta, in the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, new months were determined by the sighting of a new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset. The practice in the time of Gamaliel II (c. 100 CE) was for witnesses to select the appearance of the moon from a collection of drawings that depicted the crescent in a variety of orientations, only a few of which could be valid in any given month. These observations were compared against calculations.
At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent. The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside Israel before mid-month High Holy Days (Succot and Passover) led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than one, observing the second feast-day of the Jewish diaspora because of uncertainty of whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days.
#### Historicity
It has been noted that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar. Fire-signals, for example, or smoke-signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca. Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar. Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain. Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it cannot be known in advance whether a year\'s lease is for twelve or thirteen months. Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period.
The accuracy of the Mishnah\'s claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late Second Temple period is less certain. One scholar has noted that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year. This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months.
| 520 |
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# Hebrew calendar
## History
### The fixing of the calendar {#the_fixing_of_the_calendar}
Between 70 and 1178 CE, the observation-based calendar was gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one.
The Talmuds indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar. Samuel of Nehardea (c. 165--254) stated that he could determine the dates of the holidays by calculation rather than observation. According to a statement attributed to Yose (late 3rd century), Purim could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest Yom Kippur fall on a Friday or a Sunday. This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar. Elsewhere, Shimon ben Pazi is reported to have counseled \"those who make the computations\" not to set Rosh Hashana or Hoshana Rabbah on Shabbat. This indicates that there was a group who \"made computations\" and controlled, to some extent, the day of the week on which Rosh Hashana would fall.
There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (died 1038 CE), that Hillel II was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle \"in the year 670 of the Seleucid era\" (i.e., 358--359 CE). Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon\'s words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel II in response to persecution of Jews. Maimonides (12th century) stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used \"until the days of Abaye and Rava\" (c. 320--350 CE), and that the change came when \"the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left.\" Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel II (whom they identify with the mid-4th-century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian, and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius) instituted the computed Hebrew calendar because of persecution. H. Graetz linked the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of the Christian emperor Constantius and Gallus. Saul Lieberman argued instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers.
Both the tradition that Hillel II instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned. Furthermore, two Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that some of its arithmetic rules were established in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (7th to 8th centuries). Most likely, the procedure established in 359 involved a fixed molad interval slightly different from the current one, Rosh Hashana postponement rules similar but not identical to current rules, and leap months were added based on when Passover preceded a fixed cutoff date rather than through a repeated 19-year cycle. The Rosh Hashana rules apparently reached their modern form between 629 and 648, the modern molad interval was likely fixed in 776, while the fixed 19-year cycle also likely dates to the late 8th century.
Except for the epoch year number (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1, which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar), the calendar rules reached their current form by the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in 823. Al-Khwarizmi\'s study of the Jewish calendar describes the 19-year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrei shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar. Not all the rules were in place by 835.
In 921, Aaron ben Meïr had a debate with Saadya Gaon about one of the rules of the calendar. This indicates that the rules of the modern calendar were not so clear and set. In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al-Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch.
In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year, in his work *Mishneh Torah*. He wrote that he had chosen the epoch from which calculations of all dates should be as \"the third day of Nisan in this present year \... which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world\" (22 March 1178). Today, these rules are generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.
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# Hebrew calendar
## Other calendars {#other_calendars}
Outside of Rabbinic Judaism, evidence shows a diversity of practice.
### Karaite calendar {#karaite_calendar}
Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabbinic calendar in a number of ways. The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabbinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar, observation based, calendar to the current, mathematically based, calendar used in Rabbinic Judaism today.
In the lunar Karaite calendar, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon. This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. The day is usually \"picked up\" in the next month.
The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage (defined by Karaite tradition) (called aviv), rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of rabbinic Judaism. Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of other Jews using the calculated rabbinic calendar. The \"lost\" month would be \"picked up\" in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not.
Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the rabbinic calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.
Also, the four rules of postponement of the rabbinic calendar are not applied, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.
In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, because it was not possible to retrieve accurate aviv barley data from the land of Israel. However, since the establishment of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six-Day War, the Karaite Jews that have made *aliyah* can now again use the observational calendar.
### Samaritan calendar {#samaritan_calendar}
The Samaritan community\'s calendar also relies on lunar months and solar years. Calculation of the Samaritan calendar has historically been a secret reserved to the priestly family alone, and was based on observations of the new crescent moon. More recently, a 20th-century Samaritan High Priest transferred the calculation to a computer algorithm. The current High Priest confirms the results twice a year, and then distributes calendars to the community.
The epoch of the Samaritan calendar is year of the entry of the Children of Israel into the Land of Israel with Joshua. The month of Passover is the first month in the Samaritan calendar, but the year number increments in the sixth month. Like in the Rabbinic calendar, there are seven leap years within each 19-year cycle. However, the Rabbinic and Samaritan calendars\' cycles are not synchronized, so Samaritan festivals---notionally the same as the Rabbinic festivals of Torah origin---are frequently one month off from the date according to the Rabbinic calendar. Additionally, as in the Karaite calendar, the Samaritan calendar does not apply the four rules of postponement, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one or two days.
### The Qumran calendar {#the_qumran_calendar}
Many of the Dead Sea Scrolls have references to a unique calendar, used by the people there, who are often assumed to have been Essenes. The year of this calendar used the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of twelve 30-day months, to which were added 4 days at the equinoxes and solstices (cardinal points), making a total of 364 days.
With only 364 days, the calendar would be very noticeably different from the actual seasons after a few years, but there is nothing to indicate what was done about this problem. Various scholars have suggested that nothing was done and the calendar was allowed to change with respect to the seasons, or that changes were made irregularly when the seasonal anomaly was too great to be ignored any longer.
### Other calendars used by ancient Jews {#other_calendars_used_by_ancient_jews}
Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.
The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March. Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city \"hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi\", suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between Phamenoth 10 (6 March in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (5 April).
Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar (south of the Dead Sea), dated from the 3rd to the 5th century, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar. The inscriptions, however, reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month
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# Hilaire Rouelle
**Hilaire Marin Rouelle** (`{{IPA|fr|ilɛʁ maʁɛ̃ ʁwɛl}}`{=mediawiki}; 15 February 1718 -- 7 April 1779) was an 18th-century French chemist. Commonly cited as the 1773 discoverer of urea, he was not the first to do so. Dutch scientist Herman Boerhaave had discovered this chemical as early as 1727. Rouelle is known as \"le cadet\" (the younger) to distinguish him from his older brother, Guillaume-François Rouelle, who was also a chemist
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# Henry Rollins
**Henry Lawrence Garfield** (born February 13, 1961), known professionally as **Henry Rollins**, is an American singer, writer, spoken word artist, actor, comedian, and presenter. After performing in the short-lived hardcore punk band State of Alert in 1980, Rollins fronted the California hardcore band Black Flag from 1981 to 1986. Following the band\'s breakup, he established the record label and publishing company 2.13.61 to release his spoken word albums, and formed the Rollins Band, which toured with a number of lineups from 1987 to 2003 and in 2006.
Rollins has hosted numerous radio shows, such as *Harmony in My Head* on Indie 103, and television shows such as *The Henry Rollins Show* and *120 Minutes*. He had recurring dramatic roles in the second season of *Sons of Anarchy* as A.J. Weston, in the final 2 seasons of the animated series *The Legend of Korra* as Zaheer, and has also had roles in several films. He has campaigned for various political causes in the United States, including the promotion of gay rights, World Hunger Relief, the West Memphis Three, and an end to all war. He currently hosts a weekly radio show on KCRW, is a regular columnist for *Rolling Stone Australia*, and was a regular columnist for *LA Weekly*.
## Early life {#early_life}
Rollins was born Henry Lawrence Garfield in Washington, D.C., on February 13, 1961, the only child of Iris and Paul Garfield. His mother is of Irish descent, and his father was from a Jewish family. Rollins\'s paternal great-grandfather, Henach Luban, fled to the U.S. from Rēzekne, Latvia, (then part of the Russian Empire) and changed his first name to Henry. When Rollins was three years old, his parents divorced and he was raised by his mother in the Washington neighborhood of Glover Park. As a child and teenager, Rollins was sexually assaulted, and he suffered from depression and low self-esteem. In fourth grade, he was diagnosed with hyperactivity and was prescribed Ritalin for several years to focus during school.
Rollins attended The Bullis School, then an all-male preparatory school in Potomac, Maryland. According to Rollins, the school helped him to develop a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic. It was at Bullis that he began writing. After high school, he attended American University in Washington for one semester, but dropped out in December 1979. He began working minimum-wage jobs, including a job as a courier for kidney samples at the National Institutes of Health. In 1987, he said that he had not seen his father since the age of 18, and, in 2019, wrote, \"What my father thinks of me, or if he is still alive, I have no idea.\"
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# Henry Rollins
## Music career {#music_career}
### State of Alert {#state_of_alert}
Initially into hard rock acts like Van Halen and Ted Nugent, Rollins soon developed an interest in punk with his friend Ian MacKaye.
From 1979 to 1980, Rollins was working as a roadie for D.C. bands, including Teen Idles. When the band\'s singer, Nathan Strejcek, failed to appear for practice sessions, Rollins convinced the Teen Idles to let him sing. Word of Rollins\'s ability spread around the punk rock scene in Washington D.C.; Bad Brains singer H.R. would sometimes have Rollins on stage to sing with him. In 1980, the Washington punk band the Extorts lost their frontman Lyle Preslar to Minor Threat. Rollins joined the other members of the band and formed State of Alert (S.O.A.) and became its frontman and vocalist. He put words to the band\'s five songs and wrote several more. S.O.A. recorded their sole EP, *No Policy*, and released it in 1981 on MacKaye\'s Dischord Records.
Around April 1981, drummer Simon Jacobsen was replaced by Ivor Hanson. At the time, Hanson\'s father was a top admiral in the U.S. Navy and his family shared living quarters with the U.S. vice president at the Naval Observatory. The band held their practices there and would have to be let in by Secret Service agents.
S.O.A. disbanded after a total of a dozen concerts and one EP. Rollins had enjoyed being the band\'s frontman, and had earned a reputation for fighting in shows. He later said, \"I was like nineteen and a young man all full of steam and *loved* to get in the dust-ups.\" By this time, Rollins had become the assistant manager of the Georgetown Häagen-Dazs ice cream store; his steady employment had helped to finance the S.O.A. EP.
### Black Flag {#black_flag}
thumb\|upright=0.9\|Rollins in 1981 In 1980, a friend gave Rollins and MacKaye a copy of Black Flag\'s *Nervous Breakdown* EP. Rollins soon became a fan of the band, exchanging letters with bassist Chuck Dukowski and later inviting the band to stay in his parents\' home when Black Flag toured the East Coast in December 1980. When Black Flag returned to the East Coast in 1981, Rollins attended as many of their concerts as he could. At an impromptu show in a New York bar, Black Flag\'s vocalist Dez Cadena allowed Rollins to sing \"Clocked In\", a song Rollins had asked the band to play in light of the fact that he had to drive back to Washington, D.C., to begin work.
Unbeknownst to Rollins, Cadena wanted to switch to guitar, and the band was looking for a new vocalist. The band was impressed with Rollins\'s singing and stage demeanor, and the next day, after a semi-formal audition at Tu Casa Studio in New York City, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist. Despite some doubts, he accepted, in part because of MacKaye\'s encouragement. His high level of energy and intense personality suited the band\'s style, but Rollins\'s diverse tastes in music were a key factor in his being selected as singer; Black Flag\'s founder Greg Ginn was growing restless creatively and wanted a singer who was willing to move beyond simple, three-chord punk.
After joining Black Flag in 1981, Rollins quit his job at Häagen-Dazs, sold his car, and moved to Los Angeles. Upon arriving in Los Angeles, Rollins got the Black Flag logo tattooed on his left biceps and on the back of his neck, and chose the stage name of Rollins, a surname he and MacKaye had used as teenagers. Rollins played his first show with Black Flag on July 25, 1981, at Cuckoo\'s Nest in Costa Mesa, California. Rollins was in a different environment in Los Angeles; the police soon realized he was a member of Black Flag, and he was hassled as a result. Rollins later said: \"That really scared me. It freaked me out that an adult would do that. \... My little eyes were opened big time.\"
Before concerts, as the others of the band tuned up, Rollins would stride about the stage dressed only in a pair of black shorts, grinding his teeth; to focus before the show, he would squeeze a pool ball. His stage persona impressed several critics; after a 1982 show in Anacortes, Washington, *Sub Pop* critic Calvin Johnson wrote: \"Henry was incredible. Pacing back and forth, lunging, lurching, growling; it was all real, the most intense emotional experiences I have ever seen.\"
By 1983, Rollins\'s stage persona was increasingly alienating him from the rest of Black Flag. During a show in England, Rollins assaulted a member of the audience who attacked Ginn; Ginn later scolded Rollins, calling him a \"macho asshole\". A legal dispute with Unicorn Records held up further Black Flag releases until 1984, and Ginn was slowing the band\'s tempo down so that they would remain innovative. In August 1983, guitarist Dez Cadena had left the band; a stalemate lingered between Dukowski and Ginn, who wanted Dukowski to leave, before Ginn fired Dukowski outright. 1984\'s heavy metal music-influenced *My War* featured Rollins screaming and wailing throughout many of the songs; the band\'s members also grew their hair to confuse the band\'s hardcore punk audience.
Black Flag\'s change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans, who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth, stabbing him with pens, or scratching him with their nails, among other things. He often fought back, frequently dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them. During a Black Flag concert, Rollins repeatedly punched a fan in the face who had continuously reached for his microphone. Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience; in his tour diary, Rollins wrote \"When they spit at me, when they grab at me, they aren\'t hurting me. When I push out and mangle the flesh of another, it\'s falling so short of what I really want to do to them.\" During the Unicorn legal dispute, Rollins had started a weight-lifting program, and by their 1984 tours, he had become visibly well-built; journalist Michael Azerrad later commented that \"his powerful physique was a metaphor for the impregnable emotional shield he was developing around himself.\" Rollins has since replied that \"no, the training was just basically a way to push myself.\"
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# Henry Rollins
## Music career {#music_career}
### Rollins Band, solo releases, and spoken word {#rollins_band_solo_releases_and_spoken_word}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|left\|Rollins performing with the Rollins Band in 1993 Before Black Flag disbanded in August 1986, Rollins had already toured as a solo spoken-word artist. He released two solo records in 1987, *Hot Animal Machine*, a collaboration with guitarist Chris Haskett, and *Drive by Shooting*, recorded as \"Henrietta Collins and the Wifebeating Childhaters\"; Rollins also released his second spoken word album, *Big Ugly Mouth*, in the same year. Along with Haskett, Rollins soon added Andrew Weiss and Sim Cain, both former members of Ginn\'s side-project Gone, and called the new group Rollins Band. The band toured relentlessly, and their 1987 debut album, *Life Time*, was quickly followed by the outtakes and live collection *Do It*. The band continued to tour throughout 1988; in 1989 another Rollins Band album, *Hard Volume*, was released. Another live album, *Turned On*, and another spoken word release, *Live at McCabe\'s*, followed in 1990.
In 1991, the Rollins Band signed a distribution deal with Imago Records and appeared at the Lollapalooza festival; both improved the band\'s presence. However, in December 1991, Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were accosted by two armed robbers outside Rollins\'s home. Cole was murdered by a gunshot to the head; Rollins escaped without injury but police suspected him in the murder and detained him for ten hours. Although traumatized by Cole\'s death, as chronicled in his book *Now Watch Him Die*, Rollins continued to release new material; the spoken-word album *Human Butt* appeared in 1992 on his own record label, 2.13.61. The Rollins Band released *The End of Silence*, Rollins\'s first charting album.
The following year, Rollins released a spoken-word double album, *The Boxed Life*. The Rollins Band embarked upon the *End of Silence* tour; bassist Weiss was fired toward its end, and replaced by funk and jazz bassist Melvin Gibbs. According to critic Steve Huey, 1994 was Rollins\'s \"breakout year\". The Rollins Band appeared at Woodstock 94 and released *Weight*, which ranked on the Billboard Top 40. Rollins released *Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag*, a double-disc set of him reading from his Black Flag tour diary of the same name; he won the Grammy for Best Spoken Word Recording as a result. Rollins was named 1994\'s \"Man of the Year\" by the American men\'s magazine *Details* and became a contributing columnist to the magazine. With the increased exposure, Rollins made several appearances on American music channels MTV and VH1 around this time, and made his Hollywood film debut in 1994 in *The Chase* playing a police officer.
In 1995, the Rollins Band\'s record label, Imago Records, declared itself bankrupt. Rollins began focusing on his spoken word career. He released *Everything*, a recording of a chapter of his book *Eye Scream* with free jazz backing, in 1996. He continued to appear in various films, including *Heat*, *Johnny Mnemonic* and *Lost Highway*. The Rollins Band signed to Dreamworks Records in 1997 and soon released *Come In and Burn*, but it did not receive as much critical acclaim as their previous material. Rollins continued to release spoken-word book readings, releasing *Black Coffee Blues* in the same year. In 1998, Rollins released *Think Tank*, his first set of non-book-related spoken material in five years.
By 1998, Rollins felt that the relationship with his backing band had run its course, and the line-up disbanded. He had produced a Los Angeles hard rock band called Mother Superior, and invited them to form a new incarnation of the Rollins Band. Their first album, *Get Some Go Again*, was released two years later. The Rollins Band released several more albums, including 2001\'s *Nice* and 2003\'s *Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three*. After 2003, the band became inactive as Rollins focused on radio and television work. During a 2006 appearance on *Tom Green Live!*, Rollins stated that he \"may never do music again\", a feeling which he reiterated in 2011 when talking to *Trebuchet* magazine. In an interview with *Culture Brats*, Rollins admitted he had sworn off music for good -- \"\... and I must say that I miss it every day. I just don\'t know honestly what I could do with it that\'s different.\" On the same topic, Rollins more recently said in 2016 \"For me, music was a time and a place. I never really enjoyed being in a band. It was in me and it needed to come out, like a 25-year exorcism. One day, I woke up, and I didn\'t have any more lyrics. I just had nothing to contribute to the form, and I was done with band practice and traveling in groups.\"
Rollins is a guest star on Damian Cowell\'s 2017 album *Get Yer Dag On!*
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# Henry Rollins
## Music career {#music_career}
### Musical style {#musical_style}
As a vocalist, Rollins has adopted a number of styles through the years. He was noted in the Washington, D.C. hardcore scene for what journalist Michael Azerrad described as a \"compelling, raspy howl\". With State of Alert, Rollins \"spat out the lyrics like a bellicose auctioneer.\" He adopted a similar style after joining Black Flag in 1981. By their album *Damaged*, however, Black Flag began to incorporate a swing beat into their style. Rollins then abandoned his State of Alert \"bark\" and adopted the band\'s swing. Rollins later explained: \"What I was doing kind of matched the vibe of the music. The music was intense and, well, I was as intense as you needed.\"
In both incarnations of the Rollins Band, Rollins combined spoken word with his traditional vocal style in songs such as \"Liar\" (the song begins with a one-minute spoken diatribe by Rollins), barked his way through songs (such as \"Tearing\" and \"Starve\"), and employed the loud-quiet dynamic. *Rolling Stone*{{\'}}s Anthony DeCurtis names Rollins a \"screeching hate machine\" and his \"hallmark\" as \"the sheets-of-sound assault\".
With the Rollins Band, his lyrics focused \"almost exclusively on issues relating to personal integrity\", according to critic Geoffrey Welchman.
### As producer {#as_producer}
In the 1980s, Rollins produced an album of acoustic songs for convict Charles Manson titled *Completion*. The record was supposed to be released by SST Records, but the project was canceled because the label received death threats for working with Manson. Only five test presses of *Completion* were pressed, two of which remain in Rollins\'s possession.
In 1995, Rollins produced Australian hard rock band the Mark of Cain\'s third full-length album *Ill at Ease*.
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# Henry Rollins
## Media work {#media_work}
### Television
As Rollins rose to prominence with the Rollins Band, he began to present and appear on television. These included *Alternative Nation* and *MTV Sports* in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Rollins also co-starred in *The Chase* with Charlie Sheen. In 1995 Rollins co-starred in Johnny Mnemonic and also appeared on an episode of *Unsolved Mysteries* that explored the murder of his best friend Joe Cole and presented *State of the Union Undressed* on Comedy Central. Rollins began to present and narrate *VH1 Legends* in 1996. Rollins, busy with the Rollins Band, did not present more programs until 2001, but made appearances on a number of other television shows, including *Welcome to Paradox* in 1998 in the episode \"All Our Sins Forgotten\", as a therapist who develops a device that can erase the bad memories of his patients. Rollins also voiced Mad Stan in *Batman Beyond* in 1999 and 2000.
Rollins was a host of film review programme *Henry\'s Film Corner* on the Independent Film Channel , before presenting the weekly *The Henry Rollins Show* on the channel. *The Henry Rollins Show* is now`{{when|date=January 2016}}`{=mediawiki} being shown weekly on Film24 along with *Henry Rollins Uncut*. The show also lead to a promotional tour in Europe that led to Rollins being dubbed a \"bad boy goodwill ambassador\" by a NY reviewer. He also hosted Fox\'s short-lived 2001 horror anthology series *Night Visions*. The show\'s creators wanted Gary Oldman to host this show, but Fox insisted on having Rollins instead.
In 2002, Rollins guest-starred on an episode of the sitcom *The Drew Carey Show* as a man Oswald found on eBay and paid to come to his house and \"kick his ass\". He co-hosted the British television show *Full Metal Challenge*, in which teams built vehicles to compete in various driving and racing contests, from 2002 to 2003 on Channel 4 and TLC. He has made a number of cameo appearances in television series such as MTV{{\'}}s *Jackass* and an episode of *Californication*, where he played himself hosting a radio show. In 2006, Rollins appeared in a documentary series by VH1 and The Sundance Channel called *The Drug Years*.
Rollins appears in FX\'s *Sons of Anarchy*{{\'}}s second season, which premiered in the fall of 2009 in the United States. Rollins plays A.J. Weston, a white supremacist gang leader and new antagonist in the show\'s fictional town of Charming, California, who poses a deadly threat to the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club. In 2009, Rollins voiced \"Trucker\" in *American Dad!*{{\'}}s fourth season (episode eight). Rollins voiced Benjamin Knox/Bonk in the 2000 animated film *Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker*.
In 2010, Rollins appeared in an episode of the German documentary television series *Durch die Nacht mit \...* with Iranian artist Shirin Neshat.
Also in 2010, Rollins appeared as a guest judge on season 2 episode 6 of *RuPaul\'s Drag Race*.
In 2011, he was interviewed in the *National Geographic Explorer* episode \"Born to Rage\", regarding his possible link to the MAOA gene (warrior gene) and violent behavior. In 2012, he hosted the *National Geographic Wild* series \"Animal Underworld\", investigating where the real boundaries lie in human-animal relationships. Rollins also appeared in the *Hawaii Five-0* episode \"Hoʻopio\" that aired on May 6, 2013.
In November 2013, Rollins started hosting the show *10 Things You Don\'t Know About* on the History Channel\'s H2. In 2014, he voiced the antagonist Zaheer in the third season of the animated series *The Legend of Korra*.
Rollins played the part of Lt. Mueller in episodes 1--3 of the fourth season of the TV series *Z Nation*, which originally aired on Syfy in 2017.
In 2019, Rollins began appearing as a disillusioned poisons instructor in the TV series *Deadly Class*.
He was on episode 1 of season 8 of Portlandia. He played a member of the band Riot Spray, also featuring Krist Novoselic.
### Radio and podcast {#radio_and_podcast}
#### Weekly radio show (2004--2009) {#weekly_radio_show_20042009}
On May 19, 2004, Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show, *Harmony in My Head*, on Indie 103.1 radio in Los Angeles. The show aired every Monday evening, with Rollins playing music ranging from early rock and jump blues to hard rock, blues rock, folk rock, punk rock, heavy metal and rockabilly, and touching on hip hop, jazz, world music, reggae, classical music and more. *Harmony in my Head* often emphasizes B-sides, live bootlegs and other rarities, and nearly every episode has featured a song either by the Beastie Boys or British group The Fall.
Rollins put the show on a short hiatus from early to late 2005, to undertake a spoken-word tour. Upon resuming the show, Rollins kicked off his return by playing the show\'s namesake Buzzcocks song. In 2008, the show was continuing each week, despite Rollins\'s constant touring, with new pre-recorded shows between live broadcasts. The show ended when the station went off the air in 2009.
#### Weekly radio show (2009--present) {#weekly_radio_show_2009present}
On February 18, 2009, KCRW announced that Rollins would be hosting a live show on Saturday nights starting March 7, 2009, which has since been moved to Sunday nights at 8:00`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}p.m. As of Aug 2023, Rollins has hosted 748 episodes.
#### Podcasts
In 2011, Rollins was interviewed on Episode 121 of American Public Media\'s podcast, *The Dinner Party Download*, posted on November 3, 2011.
In February 2015, Rollins began recording a semi-regular podcast with his longtime manager Heidi May, titled *Henry & Heidi*. In describing the show, Rollins stated, \"One day Heidi mentioned that I\'ve told her a lot of stories that never made it to the stage and we should do a podcast so I could tell them \... I thought it was a good idea and people seem to like how the two of us get along. We\'ve been working together for over 20 years and are very good friends.\" The podcast has received positive reviews from *Rolling Stone* and *The A.V. Club*.
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# Henry Rollins
## Media work {#media_work}
### Filmography
Rollins began his film career appearing in several independent films featuring the band Black Flag. His film debut was in 1982\'s *The Slog Movie*, about the West Coast punk scene. An appearance in 1985\'s *Black Flag Live* followed. Rollins\'s first film appearance without Black Flag was the short film *The Right Side of My Brain* with Lydia Lunch in 1985. Following the band\'s breakup, Rollins did not appear in any films until 1994\'s *The Chase*. Rollins appeared in the 2007 direct-to-DVD sequel to *Wrong Turn* (2003), *Wrong Turn 2: Dead End* as a retired Marine Corps officer who hosts his own show which tests the contestants\' will to survive. Rollins has also appeared in *Punk: Attitude*, a documentary on the punk scene, and in *American Hardcore* (2006). In 2012, Rollins appeared in a short documentary entitled \"Who Shot Rock and Roll\" discussing the early punk scene in Los Angeles as well as photographs of himself in Black Flag taken by photographer Edward Colver. Rollins also inspired the characterization of Negan in *The Walking Dead* comic and auditioned to play the character in the television series, but eventually lost the role to Jeffrey Dean Morgan.
#### Film
Year Title Role Notes
------ -------------------------------------- ----------------- -----------------
1990 *Kiss Napoleon Goodbye* Jackson
1994 *Jugular Wine: A Vampire Odyssey* Self
1994 *The Chase* Officer Dobbs
1995 *Johnny Mnemonic* Spider
1995 *Heat* Hugh Benny
1997 *Lost Highway* Guard Henry
1998 *Jack Frost* Sid Gronic
2000 *Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker* Bonk Voice
2001 *Morgan\'s Ferry* Monroe
2001 *Dogtown and Z-Boys* Self Documentary
2001 *Scenes of the Crime* Greg
2002 *The New Guy* Warden
2002 *Jackass: The Movie* Self
2003 *Bad Boys II* TNT Leader
2003 *A House on a Hill* Arthur
2004 *Deathdealer: A Documentary* Vincent
2005 *Feast* Coach
2006 *The Alibi* Putty
2006 *American Hardcore* Self Documentary
2007 *Wrong Turn 2: Dead End* Dale
2009 *The Devil\'s Tomb* Father Fulton Direct-to-Video
2009 *H for Hunger* Self Documentary
2009 *William Shatner\'s Gonzo Ballet* Self Documentary
2009 *Suck* Rockin\' Roger
2011 *Green Lantern: Emerald Knights* Kilowog Voice
2012 *West of Memphis* Self Documentary
2013 *Downloaded* Self Documentary
2014 *Salad Days* Self Documentary
2015 *He Never Died* Jack
2015 *Gutterdämmerung* Priest Svengali
2016 *The Last Heist* Bernard
2019 *Dreamland* Hercules
2021 *Music* Ebo\'s Neighbor
#### Television {#television_1}
Year Title Role Notes
------------ ------------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------
1997 *Saturday Night Live* Musical Guest (Rollins Band) 1 episode
1999--2001 *Batman Beyond* Stanley Labowski / Mad Stan Voice, 3 episodes
2004 *Teen Titans* Johnny Rancid Voice, 2 episodes
2006 *Shorty McShorts\' Shorts* Skylar Voice, 3 episodes
2007 *Odd Job Jack* Larry Voice, episode: \"Insecticidal Tendencies\"
2009 *American Dad!* Trucker Voice, episode: \"Chimdale\"
2009 *Sons of Anarchy* A.J. Weston 10 Episodes
2010--2016 *Adventure Time* Bob Rainicorn, Cookie Man Voice, 3 episodes
2010 *Batman: The Brave and the Bold* Cliff Steele / Robotman Voice, episode: \"The Last Patrol!\"
2013 *Hawaii Five-0* Ray Beckett episode: \"Ho\'opio!\"
2013 *The Eric Andre Show* Himself Episode: Chance the Rapper/Mel B
2014 *The Legend of Korra* Zaheer Voice, 13 episodes
*Uncle Grandpa* Skeletony Voice, episode: \"Hide and Seek\"
2014 *You\'re the Worst* Cameo appearance Episode: Other Things You Could Be Doing
2015 *Stitchers* Robert Barbiero Episode: \"Full Stop\"
2016 *Sheriff Callie\'s Wild West* Speedy Silverado Voice, episode: \"Blazing Skaters\"
2017 *Stretch Armstrong and the Flex Fighters* Mickey Simmons, Prison Guard Voice, episode: \"The Gangs of Old Town\"
2017 *Z Nation* Lt. Mueller 3 episodes
2018 *Mr. Pickles* Govt. Agent Commander Voice, episode: \"S.H.O.E.S.\"
2021 *Masters of the Universe: Revelation* Tri-Klops Voice
2023 *The Patrick Star Show* FitzPatrick Voice, episode: \"FitzPatrick\"
: List of performances on television
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# Henry Rollins
## Media work {#media_work}
### Books and audiobooks {#books_and_audiobooks}
Rollins has written a variety of books, including *Black Coffee Blues*, *Do I Come Here Often?*, *The First Five* (a compilation of *High Adventure in the Great Outdoors*, *Pissing in the Gene Pool*, *Bang!*, *Art to Choke Hearts*, and *One From None*), *See a Grown Man Cry*, *Now Watch Him Die*, *Smile, You\'re Traveling*, *Get in the Van*, *Eye Scream*, *Broken Summers*, *Roomanitarian*, and *Solipsist*.
For the audiobook version of the 2006 novel *World War Z*, Rollins voiced the character of T. Sean Collins, a mercenary hired to protect celebrities during a mass panic caused by an onslaught of the undead. Rollins\' other audiobook recordings include *3:10 to Yuma* and his own autobiographical book, *Get in the Van*, for which he won a Grammy Award.
In early 2005, with his weekly show on hiatus, Rollins posted playlists and commentary on-line;`{{where|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} these lists were expanded with more information and published in book form as *Fanatic!* in November 2005. In 2007 and 2008, Rollins published *Fanatic! Vol. 2* and *Fanatic! Vol. 3*, respectively.
Rollins continued to take notes of the music featured on his show, and wanted to preserve them in book form along with scans of set lists, flyers and other music-related materials he had been collecting since the 70s. These volumes *Stay Fanatic!!! Vol. 1*, *Stay Fanatic!!! Vol. 2* and *Stay Fanatic!!! Vol. 3* were published in 2018, 2021 and 2022, respectively.
### Online journalism {#online_journalism}
In September 2008, Rollins began contributing to the \"Politics & Power\" blog at the online version of *Vanity Fair* magazine. Since March 2009, his posts have appeared under their own sub-title, *Straight Talk Espresso*. His posts consistently criticize conservative politicians and pundits, although he does occasionally target those on the left. In August 2010, he began writing a music column for *LA Weekly* in Los Angeles. In 2012, Rollins began publishing articles with *HuffPost* and alternative news website *WordswithMeaning!* In the months leading up to the 2012 United States Presidential election, Rollins broadcast a YouTube series called \"Capitalism 2012\", in which he toured the capital cities of the US states, interviewing people about current issues.
### Spoken word {#spoken_word}
Since the 1980s, Rollins has toured around the world doing spoken word performances and his shows frequently last for over three hours. His spoken word style encompasses stand-up comedy, accounts of experiences he has had in the world of music and during his extensive travels around the globe, self-deprecating stories about his own shortcomings, introspective recollections from his own life (such as the death of his friend, Joe Cole), commentaries on society and playful anecdotes. \"The talking shows are more demanding, because it\'s only me on stage\", Rollins explained in regards to his spoken word shows. \"It\'s like comparing surgery with construction -- one requires super concentration and the other is just physical.\"
### Video games {#video_games}
Rollins was a playable character in both *Def Jam: Fight for NY* and *Def Jam Fight for NY: The Takeover*. Rollins is also the voice of Mace Griffin in *Mace Griffin: Bounty Hunter*.
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# Henry Rollins
## Campaigning and activism {#campaigning_and_activism}
Rollins has become an outspoken human rights activist, most vocally for gay rights. In high school, a gay classmate of Rollins\' was bullied by classmates to the point of attempting suicide. Rollins has cited this as the main catalyst of his \"anti-homophobia\". Rollins frequently speaks out on justice on his spoken word tours and promotes equality, regardless of sexuality. He was the host of the WedRock benefit concert, which raised money for a pro-gay-marriage organization.
During the Iraq War, he started touring with the United Service Organizations to entertain troops overseas while remaining against the war, leading him to once cause a stir at a base in Kyrgyzstan when he told the crowd: \"Your commander would never lie to you. That\'s the vice president\'s job.\" Rollins believes it is important that he performs for the troops so that they have multiple points of contact with other parts of the world, stating that \"they can get really cut loose from planet earth.\" He has made eight tours, including visits to bases in Djibouti, Kuwait, Iraq, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan (twice), Egypt, Turkey, Qatar, Honduras, Japan, Korea and the United Arab Emirates.
He has also been active in the campaign to free the \"West Memphis Three\", three young men who are believed by their supporters to have been wrongfully convicted of murder, and who have since been released from prison, but not exonerated. Rollins appears with Public Enemy frontman Chuck D on the Black Flag song \"Rise Above\" on the 2002 benefit album *Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three*, the first time Rollins had performed Black Flag\'s material since 1986.
Continuing his activism on behalf of US troops and veterans, Rollins joined Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA) in 2008 to launch a public service advertisement campaign, CommunityofVeterans.org, which helps veterans coming home from war reintegrate into their communities. In April 2009, Rollins helped IAVA launch the second phase of the campaign which engages the friends and family of Iraq and Afghanistan veterans at SupportYourVet.org. On December 3, 2009, Rollins wrote of his support for the victims of the Bhopal disaster in India, in an article for *Vanity Fair* 25 years--to the day--after the methyl isocyanate gas leak from the Union Carbide Corporation\'s pesticide factory exposed more than half a million local people to poisonous gas and resulted in the deaths of 17,000 people. He spent time in Bhopal with the people, to listen to their stories. In a later radio interview in February 2010 Rollins summed up his approach to activism, \"This is where my anger takes me, to places like this, not into abuse but into proactive, clean movement.\"
Rollins is an advocate for the legalization of cannabis. Rollins has stated he does not personally consume cannabis but views the issue as an important matter of civil rights, arguing that its illegality is based in \"bigotry and racism and financing the prison--industrial complex\". Rollins has shared his views on the subject as keynote speaker at the Oregon Marijuana Business Conference and the International Cannabis Business Conference.
In August 2015, Rollins discussed his support for Bernie Sanders as a candidate in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries.
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# Henry Rollins
## Personal life {#personal_life}
### Views and relationships {#views_and_relationships}
Rollins has said that he does not have religious or spiritual beliefs, though he also does not consider himself an atheist. He has mostly avoided recreational drugs throughout his life, but experimented a few times with alcohol, cannabis, and LSD during his teens and early 20s.
Rollins is childless by choice, and says that he has not been in a romantic relationship since his 20s. Rollins said, \"I am not that interested in having someone to account to and be romantic with on a regular basis. Every once in a while I think I want it, but it\'s like holding on to sand. It always slips away. Falling in love does not interest me.\" A lifelong bachelor, Rollins considers himself a solitary person, and maintains few deep relationships outside of his professional ones. One of his closest personal friends is Minor Threat lead singer Ian MacKaye, with whom he has been close with since they met as children. He also enjoys a friendship with actor William Shatner, which developed after he performed on Shatner\'s album *Has Been*.
After nearly 40 years of living in Los Angeles, Rollins mentioned during his \"Good to see you\" tour that he had relocated to Nashville.
In an interview with Jason Tanamor of Zoiks! Online, when asked about a longtime rumor of Rollins being homosexual, the singer said, \"Perhaps wishful thinking. If I were gay, believe me, you would know.\"
### Murder of Joe Cole {#murder_of_joe_cole}
In December 1991, Rollins and his best friend Joe Cole were the victims of an armed robbery and shooting when they were assaulted by robbers outside their shared home in Venice Beach, California. Cole died after being shot in the face, but Rollins escaped. The murder remains unsolved. In an April 1992 *Los Angeles Times* interview, Rollins revealed he kept a plastic container full of soil soaked with Cole\'s blood: \"I dug up all the earth where his head fell---he was shot in the face---and I\'ve got all the dirt here, and so Cole\'s in the house. I say good morning to him every day. I got his phone, too, so I got a direct line to him. So that feels good.\"
In a 2001 interview with Howard Stern, Rollins was asked about rumors that he kept Cole\'s brain in his house. He stated that he has only the soil from the spot where Cole was killed. During the interview, he also speculated that the reason they were targeted may have been because, days prior to the incident, record producer Rick Rubin had requested to hear the newly recorded album *The End of Silence* and parked his Rolls-Royce outside their house while carrying a cell phone. Because of the notoriety of the neighborhood, Rollins suspected that this would bring trouble because of the implication that there was money in the home. He even wrote in his journal the night of Rubin\'s visit that his home \"is going to get popped\".
Rollins has included Cole\'s story in his spoken word performances.
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# Henry Rollins
## Works
### Musical releases {#musical_releases}
#### With State of Alert {#with_state_of_alert}
- *No Policy* (1981)
- *Flex Your Head* (1982)
#### With Black Flag {#with_black_flag}
- *Damaged* (1981)
- *My War* (1984)
- *Family Man* (1984)
- *Slip It In* (1984)
- *Live \'84* (1984)
- *Loose Nut* (1985)
- *In My Head* (1985)
- *Who\'s Got the 10½?* (1986)
#### Solo
- *Hot Animal Machine* (1987)
- *Drive by Shooting* (1987)
- *Live* (1987) -- split album with Gore
#### With Rollins Band {#with_rollins_band}
- *Life Time* (1987, re-release 1999)
- *Hard Volume* (1989, re-release 1999)
- *Turned On* (1990)
- *The End of Silence* (1992, double-CD re-release 2002) #160 US
- *Weight* (1994) #33 US, #22 UK
- *Come In and Burn* (1997) #89 US
- *Insert Band Here* (1999)
- *A Clockwork Orange Stage* (2000)
- *Get Some Go Again* (2000) #180 US
- *Nice* (2001) #178 US
- *A Nicer Shade of Red* (2002)
- *End of Silence Demos* (2002)
- *The Only Way to Know for Sure: Live in Chicago* (2002)
- *Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three* (2002)
- *Weighting* (2004)
#### With Wartime {#with_wartime}
- *Fast Food For Thought* (1990)
### Spoken word {#spoken_word_1}
- *Short Walk on a Long Pier* (1985)
- *Big Ugly Mouth* (1987)
- *Sweatbox* (1989)
- *Live at McCabe\'s* (1990)
- *Human Butt* (1992)
- *The Boxed Life* (1993)
- *Think Tank* (1998)
- *Eric the Pilot* (1999)
- *A Rollins in the Wry* (2001)
- *Live at the Westbeth Theater* (2001)
- *Talk Is Cheap: Volume 1* (2003)
- *Talk Is Cheap: Volume 2* (2003)
- *Talk Is Cheap: Volume 3* (2004)
- *Talk Is Cheap: Volume 4* (2004)
- *Provoked* (2008)
- *Spoken Word Guy* (2010)
- *Spoken Word Guy 2* (2010)
Spoken word videos
- *Talking from the Box* (1993)
- *Henry Rollins Goes to London* (1995)
- *You Saw Me Up There* (1998)
- *Up for It* (2001)
- *Live at Luna Park* (2004)
- *Shock & Awe: The Tour* (2005)
- *Uncut from NYC* (2006)
- *Uncut from Israel* (2006)
- *San Francisco 1990* (2007)
- *Live in the Conversation Pit* (2008)
- *Provoked: Live From Melbourne* (2008)
- *50* (2012)
- *Keep Talking, Pal* (2018)
### Audio books {#audio_books}
- *Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag* (1994)
- *Everything* (1996)
- *Black Coffee Blues* (1997)
- *Nights Behind the Tree Line* (2004)
- *World War Z* (2007)
### Guest appearances and collaborations {#guest_appearances_and_collaborations}
Song Artist Album Year
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------------------------
Minor Threat\'s First Demo -- provided additional Vocals (credited as Henry Garfield) Minor Threat *First Demo Tape EP* 1981
\"We Are 138\" Misfits *Evilive* 1982
\"Kick Out the Jams\" Bad Brains *Pump Up the Volume Soundtrack* 1990
\"Let There Be Rock\" Hard-Ons Released as a single 1991
\"Bottom\" (Spoken word monologue by Henry, 3:14 minutes into the song) Tool *Undertow* 1993
\"Wild America\" Iggy Pop *American Caesar* 1993
\"Sexual Military Dynamics\" Mike Watt *Ball-Hog or Tugboat?* 1995
\"Delicate Tendrils\" Les Claypool and the Holy Mackerel *Highball with the Devil* 1996
\"T-4 Strain\" Goldie *Spawn: The Album* 1997
\"War\" Bone Thugs-n-Harmony, Tom Morello & Flea *Small Soldiers* 1998
\"Laughing Man (In the Devil Mask)\" Tony Iommi *Iommi* 2000
\"I Can\'t Get Behind That\" William Shatner *Has Been* 2004
All tracks The Flaming Lips *The Flaming Lips and Stardeath and White Dwarfs with Henry Rollins and Peaches Doing the Dark Side of the Moon* 2009
\"Grey 11\" The Mark of Cain *Songs of the Third and Fifth* 2012
\"Come On Waleed\" Damian Cowell\'s Disco Machine *Get Yer Dag On* 2017
\"Jingle Bells\" William Shatner *Shatner Claus* 2018
\"Jingle Bells (Punk Rock Version)\" William Shatner *Shatner Claus* 2018
\"All tracks\" Charles Manson *Completion* Additional production- Henry Rollins
: Henry Rollins discography
### Essays
- *I Am an Audiophile*, an editorial essay in *Stereophile*.
- *Iron and the Soul*, an editorial essay in *Details*
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# History of Hebrew grammar
Hebrew grammar is attested from Biblical Hebrew grammar, with reconstructions of pre-Hebrew, and continues with Modern Hebrew grammar.
## History of studies in Hebrew grammar {#history_of_studies_in_hebrew_grammar}
The Masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century Judah ibn Kuraish discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher refined the Tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible.
The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad around the 7th century. The *Diqduq* (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.
Solomon ibn Gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, Ibn Barun compared the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition. 11th to 12th century grammarians of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain included Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimhi, Moses Kimhi and David Kimhi. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his *Moznayim* (1140). Profiat Duran published an influential grammar in 1403.
Judah Messer Leon\'s 1454 grammar is a product of the Italian Renaissance. Hebrew grammars by Christian authors appeared during the Renaissance. Hieronymus Buclidius, a friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of Hebrew studies at Louvain in Flanders. Elijah Levita was called to the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris. Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526). Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first Christian author to write a vocabulary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506). A more detailed grammar was published in 1590 by Otto Walper. Conrad Gesner (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books. Paul Fagius and Elia Levita operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-Yiddish dictionary.
Through the influence of Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. Gesenius\' *Hebrew Grammar* appeared in 1813.
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# History of Hebrew grammar
## Eras
The Hebrew language is subdivided by era, with significant differences apparent between the varieties. All varieties, from Biblical to Modern, use a typically Semitic templatic morphology with triconsonantal stems, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have significant borrowed components of the lexicon that do not fit into this pattern. Verbal morphology has remained relatively unchanged, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have lost some modal distinctions of Biblical Hebrew and created others through the use of auxiliary verbs.
Significant syntactic changes have arisen in Modern Hebrew as a result of non-Semitic substrate influences. In particular:
- In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with status constructus, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, \"construct\" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, \"absolute\" form. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this construction for phrases where the two components form a unified concept, whereas ordinary possession is more commonly expressed analytically with the preposition *shel* \'of\' (etymologically consisting of the relativizer *she*- \'that\' and the preposition *le*- \'to\').
- Possession in pronouns is expressed with pronominal suffixes added to the noun. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this for a limited number of nouns, but usually prefers to use the preposition *shel*, as in the previous case.
- Biblical Hebrew often expresses a pronoun direct object by appending a pronominal suffix directly to the verb, as an alternative to appending it to the preposition that signals a definite direct object. The latter construction is the one generally used in Modern Hebrew.
- The tense--aspect that is formed by prefixes could denote either the present (especially frequentative) or the future, as well as frequentative past in Biblical Hebrew (some scholars argue that it simply denoted imperfective aspect), while in modern Hebrew it is always future. The suffixed form denotes what is commonly translated as past in both cases, though some scholars argue that it denoted perfective aspect.
- Biblical Hebrew employs the so-called waw consecutive construction, in which the conjunction \"and\" seemingly reverses the tense of a verb (though its exact meaning is a matter of debate). This is not typical of Modern Hebrew.
- The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is VSO, while Modern Hebrew is SVO.
However, most Biblical Hebrew constructions are still permissible in Modern Hebrew in formal, literary, archaic or poetic style
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# Hang gliding
**Hang gliding** is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorised, fixed-wing heavier-than-air aircraft called a **hang glider**. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered with synthetic sailcloth to form a wing. Typically the pilot is in a harness suspended from the airframe, and controls the aircraft by shifting body weight in opposition to a control frame.
Early hang gliders had a low lift-to-drag ratio, so pilots were restricted to gliding down small hills. By the 1980s this ratio significantly improved, and since then pilots have been able to soar for hours, gain thousands of meters of altitude in thermal updrafts, perform aerobatics, and glide cross-country for hundreds of kilometers. The Federation Aeronautique Internationale and national airspace governing organisations control some regulatory aspects of hang gliding. Obtaining the safety benefits of being instructed is highly recommended and indeed a mandatory requirement in many countries.
## History
In 1853, George Cayley invented a slope-launched, piloted glider. Most early glider designs were not conducive to safe flight; the problem was that early flight pioneers did not sufficiently understand the underlying principles that made a bird\'s wing work. Starting in the 1880s, technical and scientific advancements were made that led to the first truly practical gliders, such as those developed in the United States by John Joseph Montgomery. Otto Lilienthal built controllable gliders in the 1890s, with which he could ridge soar. His rigorously documented work influenced later designers, making Lilienthal one of the most influential early aviation pioneers. His aircraft was controlled by weight shift and is similar to a modern hang glider.
Hang gliding saw a stiffened flexible wing hang glider in 1904, when Jan Lavezzari flew a double lateen sail hang glider off Berck Beach, France. In 1910 in Breslau, the triangle control frame with hang glider pilot hung behind the triangle in a hang glider, was evident in a gliding club\'s activity. The biplane hang glider was very widely publicized in public magazines with plans for building; such biplane hang gliders were constructed and flown in several nations since Octave Chanute and his tailed biplane hang gliders were demonstrated. In April 1909, a how-to article by Carl S. Bates proved to be a seminal hang glider article that seemingly affected builders even of contemporary times. Many builders would have their first hang glider made by following the plan in his article. Volmer Jensen with a biplane hang glider in 1940 called VJ-11 allowed safe three-axis control of a foot-launched hang glider.
On 23 November 1948, Francis Rogallo and Gertrude Rogallo applied for a kite patent for a fully flexible kited wing with approved claims for its stiffenings and gliding uses; the *flexible wing* or Rogallo wing, which in 1957 the American space agency NASA began testing in various flexible and semi-rigid configurations in order to use it as a recovery system for the Gemini space capsules. The various stiffening formats and the wing\'s simplicity of design and ease of construction, along with its capability of slow flight and its gentle landing characteristics, did not go unnoticed by hang glider enthusiasts. In 1960--1962 Barry Hill Palmer adapted the flexible wing concept to make foot-launched hang gliders with four different control arrangements. In 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a towable kite-hang glider he called Skiplane. In 1963, John W. Dickenson adapted the flexible wing airfoil concept to make another water-ski kite glider; for this, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale vested Dickenson with the Hang Gliding Diploma (2006) for the invention of the \"modern\" hang glider. Since then, the Rogallo wing has been the most used airfoil of hang gliders.
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# Hang gliding
## Components
### Hang glider sailcloth {#hang_glider_sailcloth}
Hang glider sailcloth is normally made from woven or laminated fiber, such as dacron or mylar, respectively.
Woven polyester sailcloth is a very tight weave of small diameter polyester fibers that has been stabilized by the hot-press impregnation of a polyester resin. The resin impregnation is required to provide resistance to distortion and stretch. This resistance is important in maintaining the aerodynamic shape of the sail. Woven polyester provides the best combination of light weight and durability in a sail, with the best overall handling qualities.
Laminated sail materials using polyester film achieve superior performance by using a lower stretch material that is better at maintaining sail shape, but is still relatively light in weight. The disadvantages of polyester film fabrics are that the reduced elasticity under load generally results in stiffer and less responsive handling, and polyester laminated fabrics are generally not as durable or long-lasting as the woven fabrics.
### Triangle control frame {#triangle_control_frame}
In most hang gliders, the pilot is ensconced in a harness suspended from the airframe, and exercises control by shifting body weight in opposition to a stationary control frame, also known as a triangle control frame, or an A-frame. The control frame normally consists of 2 \"down-tubes\" and a control bar/base bar/base-tube. Either end of the control bar is attached to an upright tube or a more aerodynamic strut (a \"down-tube\"), where both extend from the base-tube and are connected to the apex of the control frame/ the keel of the glider. This creates the shape of a triangle or \'A-frame\'. In many of these configurations additional wheels or other equipment can be suspended from the bottom bar or rod ends.
Images showing a triangle control frame on Otto Lilienthal\'s 1892 hang glider shows that the technology of such frames has existed since the early design of gliders, but he did not mention it in his patents. A control frame for body weight shift was also shown in Octave Chanute\'s designs. It was a major part of the now common design of hang gliders by George A. Spratt from 1929. The most simple A-frame that is cable-stayed was demonstrated in a Breslau gliding club hang gliding meet in a battened wing foot-launchable hang glider in the year 1908 by W. Simon; hang glider historian Stephan Nitsch has collected instances also of the U control frame used in the first decade of the 1900s; the U is variant of the A-frame.
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# Hang gliding
## Training and safety {#training_and_safety}
Due to the poor safety record of early hang gliding pioneers, the sport has traditionally been considered unsafe. Advances in pilot training and glider construction have led to a much improved safety record. Modern hang gliders are very sturdy when constructed to Hang Glider Manufacturers Association, BHPA, Deutscher Hängegleiterverband, or other certified standards using modern materials. Although lightweight, they can be easily damaged, either through misuse or by continued operation in unsafe wind and weather conditions. All modern gliders have built-in dive recovery mechanisms such as luff lines in kingposted gliders, or \"sprogs\" in topless gliders.
Pilots fly in harnesses that support their bodies. Several different types of harnesses exist. At least one set of hang glider construction plans (Hall\'s Hawk) had instructions for constructing a harness. Pod harnesses are put on like a jacket and the leg portion is behind the pilot during launch. Once in the air the feet are tucked into the bottom of the harness. They are zipped up in the air with a rope and unzipped before landing with a separate rope. A cocoon harness is slipped over the head and lies in front of the legs during launch. After takeoff, the feet are tucked into it and the back is left open. A knee hanger harness is also slipped over the head but the knee part is wrapped around the knees before launch and just pick up the pilots leg automatically after launch. A supine or suprone harness is a seated harness. The shoulder straps are put on before launch and after takeoff the pilot slides back into the seat and flies in a seated position.
Pilots carry a parachute enclosed in the harness. In case of serious problems, the parachute is manually deployed (either by hand or with a ballistic assist) and carries both pilot and glider down to earth. Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry other safety items such as knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for communication with other pilots or ground crew), and first-aid equipment.
The accident rate from hang glider flying has been dramatically decreased by pilot training. Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error and gliders were sometimes home-built. Training programs have been developed for today\'s pilot with emphasis on flight within safe limits, as well as the discipline to cease flying when weather conditions are unfavorable, for example: excess wind or risk cloud suck.
In the UK, a 2011 study reported there is one death per 116,000 flights, a risk comparable to sudden cardiac death from running a marathon or playing tennis. An estimate of worldwide mortality rate is one death per 1,000 active pilots per year.
Most pilots learn at recognised courses which lead to the internationally recognised International Pilot Proficiency Information card issued by the FAI.
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# Hang gliding
## Launch
Launch techniques include launching from a hill/cliff/mountain/sand dune/any raised terrain on foot, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind a powered aircraft), powered harnesses, and being towed up by a boat. Modern winch tows typically utilize hydraulic systems designed to regulate line tension, this reduces scenarios for lock out as strong aerodynamic forces will result in additional rope spooling out rather than direct tension on the tow line. Other more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot air balloon drops from very high altitude. When weather conditions are unsuitable to sustain a soaring flight, this results in a top-to-bottom flight and is referred to as a \"sled run\". In addition to typical launch configurations, a hang glider may be so constructed for alternative launching modes other than being foot launched; one practical avenue for this is for people who physically cannot foot-launch.
In 1983 Denis Cummings re-introduced a safe tow system that was designed to tow through the centre of mass and had a gauge that displayed the towing tension, it also integrated a \'weak link\' that broke when the safe tow tension was exceeded. After initial testing, in the Hunter Valley, Denis Cummings, pilot, John Clark, (Redtruck), driver and Bob Silver, officianado, began the Flatlands Hang gliding competition at Parkes, NSW. The competition quickly grew, from 16 pilots the first year to hosting a World Championship with 160 pilots towing from several wheat paddocks in western NSW. In 1986 Denis and \'Redtruck\' took a group of international pilots to Alice Springs to take advantage of the massive thermals. Using the new system many world records were set. With the growing use of the system, other launch methods were incorporated, static winch and towing behind an ultralight trike or an ultralight airplane.
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# Hang gliding
## Soaring flight and cross-country flying {#soaring_flight_and_cross_country_flying}
A glider in flight is continuously descending, so to achieve an extended flight, the pilot must seek air currents rising faster than the sink rate of the glider. Selecting the sources of rising air currents is the skill that has to be mastered if the pilot wants to achieve flying long distances, known as cross-country (XC). Rising air masses derive from the following sources:
**Thermals**
: The most commonly used source of lift is created by the Sun\'s energy heating the ground which in turn heats the air above it. This warm air rises in columns known as thermals. Soaring pilots quickly become aware of land features which can generate thermals and their trigger points downwind, because thermals have a surface tension with the ground and roll until hitting a trigger point. When the thermal lifts, the first indicator are the swooping birds feeding on the insects being carried aloft, or dust devils or a change in wind direction as the air is pulled in below the thermal. An instrument developed by Frank Colver in the early 1970\'s specifically for hang gliders called the Colver Variometer made a very big difference as pilots were then able to HEAR when they were rising or at least descending slower. The variometer emitted a tone when it was turned on. After launch, as the sink rate increased, the instrument emitted a lower tone. As the sink rate decreased, the tone became higher, passing through the zero sink rate and then rising higher and higher as the rate of climb increased. As the thermal climbs, bigger soaring birds indicate the thermal. The thermal rises until it either forms into a cumulus cloud or hits an inversion layer, which is where the surrounding air is becoming warmer with height, and stops the thermal developing into a cloud. Also, nearly every glider contains an instrument known as a variometer (a very sensitive vertical speed indicator) which shows visually (and often audibly) the presence of lift and sink. Having located a thermal, a glider pilot will circle within the area of rising air to gain height. In the case of a cloud street, thermals can line up with the wind, creating rows of thermals and sinking air. A pilot can use a cloud street to fly long straight-line distances by remaining in the row of rising air.
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Ridge lift
: Ridge lift occurs when the wind encounters a mountain, cliff, hill, sand dune, or any other raised terrain. The air is pushed up the windward face of the mountain, creating lift. The area of lift extending from the ridge is called the lift band. Providing the air is rising faster than the gliders sink rate, gliders can soar and climb in the rising air by flying within the lift band parallel to the ridge. Ridge soaring is also known as slope soaring.
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Mountain waves
: The third main type of lift used by glider pilots is the lee waves that occur near mountains. The obstruction to the airflow can generate standing waves with alternating areas of lift and sink. The top of each wave peak is often marked by lenticular cloud formations.
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Convergence
: Another form of lift results from the convergence of air masses, as with a sea-breeze front. More exotic forms of lift are the polar vortices which the Perlan Project hopes to use to soar to great altitudes. A rare phenomenon known as Morning Glory has also been used by glider pilots in Australia.
## Performance
With each generation of materials and with the improvements in aerodynamics, the performance of hang gliders has increased. One measure of performance is the glide ratio. For example, a ratio of 12:1 means that in smooth air a glider can travel forward 12 metres while only losing 1 metre of altitude.
Some performance figures as of 2006:
- Topless gliders (no kingpost): glide ratio \~17:1, speed range \~30 -, best glide at 45 -
- Rigid wings: glide ratio \~20:1, speed range \~35 -, best glide at \~50 -. .
Ballast
: The extra weight provided by ballast is advantageous if the lift is likely to be strong. Although heavier gliders have a slight disadvantage when climbing in rising air, they achieve a higher speed at any given glide angle. This is an advantage in strong conditions when the gliders spend only little time climbing in thermals.
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# Hang gliding
## Stability and equilibrium {#stability_and_equilibrium}
Because hang gliders are most often used for recreational flying, a premium is placed on gentle behaviour, especially at the stall and natural pitch stability. The wing loading must be very low in order to allow the pilot to run fast enough to get above stall speed. Unlike a traditional aircraft with an extended fuselage and empennage for maintaining stability, hang gliders rely on the natural stability of their flexible wings to return to equilibrium in yaw and pitch. Roll stability is generally set to be near neutral. In calm air, a properly designed wing will maintain balanced trimmed flight with little pilot input. The flex wing pilot is suspended beneath the wing by a strap attached to their harness. The pilot lies prone (sometimes supine) within a large, triangular, metal control frame. Controlled flight is achieved by the pilot pushing and pulling on this control frame, thus shifting their weight fore or aft, and right or left in coordinated maneuvers.
Roll
: Most flexible wings are set up with near neutral roll due to sideslip (anhedral effect). In the roll axis, the pilot shifts their body mass using the wing control bar, applying a rolling moment directly to the wing. The flexible wing is built to flex differentially across the span in response to the pilot applied roll moment. For example, if the pilot shifts their weight to the right, the right wing trailing edge flexes up more than the left, creating dissimilar lift that rolls the glider to the right.
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Yaw
: The yaw axis is stabilized through the backward-sweep of the wings. The swept platform, when yawed out of the relative wind, creates more lift on the advancing wing and also more drag, stabilizing the wing in yaw. If one wing advances ahead of the other, it presents more area to the wind and causes more drag on that side. This causes the advancing wing to go slower and to retreat back. The wing is at equilibrium when the aircraft is travelling straight and both wings present the same amount of area to the wind.
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Pitch
: The pitch control response is direct and very efficient. It is partially stabilized by the washout combined with the sweep of the wings, which results in a different angle of attack of the rear most lifting surfaces of the glider. The wing centre of gravity is close to the hang point and, at the trim speed, the wing will fly \"hands off\" and return to trim after being disturbed. The weight-shift control system only works when the wing is positively loaded (right side up). Positive pitching devices such as reflex lines or washout rods are employed to maintain a minimum safe amount of washout when the wing is unloaded or even negatively loaded (upside down). Flying faster than trim speed is accomplished by moving the pilot\'s weight forward in the control frame; flying slower by shifting the pilot\'s weight aft (pushing out).
Furthermore, the fact that the wing is designed to bend and flex, provides favourable dynamics analogous to a spring suspension. This provides a gentler flying experience than a similarly sized rigid-winged hang glider.
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# Hang gliding
## Instruments
To maximize a pilot\'s understanding of how the hang glider is flying, most pilots carry flight instruments. The most basic being a variometer and altimeter---often combined. Some more advanced pilots also carry airspeed indicators and radios. When flying in competition or *cross country*, pilots often also carry maps and/or GPS units. Hang gliders do not have instrument panels as such, so all the instruments are mounted to the control frame of the glider or occasionally strapped to the pilot\'s forearm.
### Variometer
Gliding pilots are able to sense the acceleration forces when they first hit a thermal, but have difficulty gauging constant motion. Thus it is difficult to detect the difference between constantly rising air and constantly sinking air. A variometer is a very sensitive vertical speed indicator. The variometer indicates climb rate or sink rate with audio signals (beeps) and/or a visual display. These units are generally electronic, vary in sophistication, and often include an altimeter and an airspeed indicator. More advanced units often incorporate a barograph for recording flight data and/or a built-in GPS. The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the \'core\' of a thermal to maximize height gain, and conversely indicating when he or she is in sinking air and needs to find rising air. Variometers are sometimes capable of electronic calculations to indicate the optimal speed to fly for given conditions. The MacCready theory answers the question on how fast a pilot should cruise between thermals, given the average lift the pilot expects in the next thermal climb and the amount of lift or sink he encounters in cruise mode. Some electronic variometers make the calculations automatically, allowing for factors such as the glider\'s theoretical performance (glide ratio), altitude, hook in weight, and wind direction.
### Radio
left\|thumb\|upright=.5\|Aircraft radio
Pilots sometimes use 2-way radios for training purposes, for communicating with other pilots in the air, and with their ground crew when traveling on cross-country flights.
One type of radio used are PTT (push-to-talk) handheld transceivers, operating in VHF FM. Usually a microphone is worn on the head or incorporated in the helmet, and the PTT switch is either fixed to the outside of the helmet, or strapped to a finger. Operating a VHF band radio without an appropriate license is illegal in most countries that have regulated airwaves (including United States, Canada, Brazil, etc.), so additional information must be obtained with the national or local Hang Gliding association or with the competent radio regulatory authority.
As aircraft operating in airspace occupied by other aircraft, hang glider pilots may also use the appropriate type of radio (i.e. the aircraft transceiver into Aero Mobile Service VHF band). It can, of course, be fitted with a PTT switch to a finger and speakers inside the helmet. The use of aircraft transceivers is subject to regulations specific to the use in the air such as frequencies restrictions, but has several advantages over FM (i.e. frequency modulated) radios used in other services. First is the great range it has (without repeaters) because of its amplitude modulation (i.e. AM). Second is the ability to contact, inform and be informed directly by other aircraft pilots of their intentions thereby improving collision avoidance and increasing safety. Third is to allow greater liberty regarding distance flights in regulated airspaces, in which the aircraft radio is normally a legal requirement. Fourth is the universal emergency frequency monitored by all other users and satellites and used in case of emergency or impending emergency.
### GPS
GPS (global positioning system) can be used to aid in navigation. For competitions, it is used to verify the contestant reached the required check-points.
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# Hang gliding
## Records
Records are sanctioned by the FAI. The world record for straight distance is held by Dustin B. Martin, with a distance of 764 km in 2012, originating from Zapata, Texas.
Judy Leden (GBR) holds the altitude record for a balloon-launched hang glider: 11,800 m (38,800 ft) at Wadi Rum, Jordan on 25 October 1994. Leden also holds the gain of height record: 3,970 m (13,025 ft), set in 1992.
The altitude records for balloon-launched hang gliders:
Altitude (ft) Location Pilot Date Reference
--------------- ---------------------------------- ----------------- ------------------ -----------
38,800 Wadi Rum, Jordan Judy Leden 25 October 1994
33,000 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada John Bird 29 August 1982
32,720 California City, California, USA Stephan Dunoyer 9 September 1978
31,600 Mojave Desert, California, USA Bob McCaffrey 21 November 1976
17,100 San Jose, California, USA Dennis Kulberg 25 December 1974
## Competition
Competitions started with \"flying as long as possible\" and spot landings. With increasing performance, cross-country flying has largely replaced them. Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal. In the late 1990s low-power GPS units were introduced and have completely replaced photographs of the goal. Every two years there is a world championship. The Rigid and Women\'s World Championship in 2006 was hosted by `{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/19970408064109/http://questairforce.com/ Quest Air in Florida]}}`{=mediawiki}. Big Spring, Texas hosted the 2007 World Championship. Hang gliding is also one of the competition categories in World Air Games organized by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (World Air Sports Federation - FAI), which maintains a chronology of the FAI World Hang Gliding Championships.
Other forms of competition include Aerobatic competitions, and Speedgliding competitions, wherein the goal is to descend from a mountain as fast as possible while passing through various gates in a manner similar to down-hill skiing.
### Classes
For competitive purposes, there are three classes of hang glider:
- Class 1 The *flexible wing* hang glider, having flight controlled by virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a paraglider. Class 1 hang gliders sold in the United States are usually rated by the Hang Gliders Manufacturers\' Association.
- Class 5 The *rigid wing* hang glider, having flight controlled by spoilers, typically on top of the wing. In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing.
- Class 2 (designated by the FAI as Sub-Class O-2) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing. These offer the best performance and are the most expensive.
## Aerobatics
There are four basic aerobatic maneuvers in a hang glider:
- Loop --- a maneuver that starts in a wings level dive, climbs, without any rolling, to the apex where the glider is upside down, wings level (heading back where it came from), and then returning to the start altitude and heading, again without rolling, having completed an approximately circular path in the vertical plane.
- Spin --- A spin is scored from the moment one wing stalls and the glider rotates noticeably into the spin. The entry heading is noted at this point. The glider must remain in the spin for at least 1/2 of a revolution to score any versatility spin points.
- Rollover --- a maneuver where the apex heading is less than 90° left or right of the entry heading.
- Climb over --- a maneuver where the apex heading is greater than 90° left or right of the entry heading.
## Comparison of hang gliders, paragliders, and gliders {#comparison_of_hang_gliders_paragliders_and_gliders}
Paragliders and hang gliders are both foot-launched glider aircraft from which cases the pilot is suspended (\"hangs\") below the lift surface, but hang gliders include a rigid aluminum frame, while paragliders are entirely flexible and look more similar to a parachute. Gliders and sailplanes are structured from composite materials and may have wheels, propellers, and engines.
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# Hang gliding
## Hang gliding in media {#hang_gliding_in_media}
- 1971: Early rock video featuring hang gliding, Sweeney\'s Glider, is produced. It was made by Fitz Weatherby and featured Terry Sweeney.
- 1973: First film made on the sport of hang gliding, *Hang Gliding: The New Freedom*, directed by Ron Underwood. It was distributed by Paramount Communications, a short film division of Paramount Pictures
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# Hayling Island
**Hayling Island** is an island off the south coast of England, in the borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire, east of Portsmouth.
## History
An Iron Age shrine in the north of Hayling Island, later developed into a Roman temple in the 1st century BC, was first recorded in Richard Scott\'s *Topographical and Historical Account of Hayling Island* (1826). The site was dug between 1897 and 1907 and again from 1976 to 1978. The remains are now buried under farmland. The first coin credited to Commius that was found in an archaeological dig was found at the temple. This Commius was probably the son of the Commius mentioned by Julius Caesar, although it is possible the coin was issued by the same Commius.
Salt production was an industry on the island from the 11th century, and the Domesday Book records a saltpan on the island. This industry continued until the late 19th century.
The monks of Jumièges Abbey, Normandy, began to build Northwode Chapel about 1140; this became the site of the present St Peter\'s Church, now the oldest surviving church on the island. St Peter\'s three bells, cast in about 1350, are one of the oldest peals in England. St Mary\'s Church is a standard design for the churches of its era, but the walls were built with a mortar of local shells and beach pebbles. The ancient yew tree in the churchyard is believed to be the oldest yew in the county, with a girth of some 9 m. Estimates of its age range from over a thousand to nearly two thousand years old.
The grave of Princess Catherine Yurievskaya (1878--1959), a daughter of Alexander II of Russia, who lived in North Hayling for many years, is in St Peter\'s churchyard; and that of George Glas Sandeman, nephew of the founder of Sandeman Port and second head of that company, is prominent in the north-east part of St Mary\'s graveyard.
In May 1944, the island was the location of a mock invasion during the military Exercise Fabius, rehearsing the preparations for D-Day.
In 1982, the English Court of Appeal recognised prior art by Peter Chilvers, who in 1958 as a 12-year-old boy on Hayling Island assembled his first board combined with a sail. It had all the elements of the modern windsurfer. The court found that later innovations were \"merely an obvious extension\" and upheld the defendant\'s claim based on film footage. This court case set a significant precedent for patent law in the United Kingdom, in terms of Inventive step and non-obviousness. The case, Chilvers, Hayling, and a replica of Chilvers\'s original board were featured on an episode of the BBC\'s *The One Show* in 2009.
On 20 October 2013, at least one hundred properties on the island were damaged when it was hit by a tornado. No injuries were reported.
## Geography
Hayling Island is a true island, surrounded by water. Looking at its north-to-south orientation, it is shaped like an inverted T, about 6.5 km long and 6.5 km wide. A road bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of England at Langstone. The Hayling Ferry is a small pedestrian ferry connecting to the Eastney area of the city of Portsmouth on the neighbouring Portsea Island. To the west is Langstone Harbour and to the east is Chichester Harbour.
The natural beach at Hayling was predominantly sandy, but in recent years it has been mechanically topped with shingle dredged from the bed of the Solent in an effort to reduce beach erosion and reduce the potential to flood low-lying land. At low tide, the East Winner sandbank is visible, extending a mile out to sea. The coastline in this area has substantially changed since Roman times: it is believed much land has been lost from the coasts of Hayling and Selsey by erosion and subsequent flooding.
## Climate
As with the rest of the British Isles and Southern England, Hayling Island experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. Temperatures have never fallen into double figures below freezing, illustrating the relative warmth of the island -- comparable to the far southwest of England and its neighbour, the Isle of Wight. Temperature extremes between 1960 and 2010 have ranged from -9.4 C during January 1963, up to 32.1 C during June 1976.
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