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# Horse breeding
**Horse breeding** is reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed. Planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics in domesticated horses. Furthermore, modern breeding management and technologies can increase the rate of conception, a healthy pregnancy, and successful foaling.
## Terminology
The male parent of a horse, a stallion, is commonly known as the *sire* and the female parent, the mare, is called the *dam*. Both are genetically important, as each parent\'s genes can be existent with a 50% probability in the foal. Contrary to popular misuse, \"colt\" refers to a young male horse only; \"filly\" is a young female. Though many horse owners may simply breed a family mare to a local stallion in order to produce a companion animal, most professional breeders use selective breeding to produce individuals of a given phenotype, or breed. Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, create a new breed with specific characteristics.
A horse is \"bred\" where it is foaled (born). Thus a colt conceived in England but foaled in the United States is regarded as being bred in the US. In some cases, most notably in the Thoroughbred breeding industry, American- and Canadian-bred horses may also be described by the state or province in which they are foaled. Some breeds denote the country, or state, where conception took place as the origin of the foal.
Similarly, the \"breeder\", is the person who owned or leased the mare at the time of foaling. That individual may not have had anything to do with the mating of the mare. It is important to review each breed registry\'s rules to determine which applies to any specific foal.
In the horse breeding industry, the term \"half-brother\" or \"half-sister\" only describes horses which have the same dam, but different sires. Horses with the same sire but different dams are simply said to be \"by the same sire\", and no sibling relationship is implied. \"Full\" (or \"own\") siblings have both the same dam and the same sire. The terms paternal half-sibling, and maternal half-sibling are also often used. Three-quarter siblings are horses out of the same dam, and are by sires that are either half-brothers (i.e. same dam) or who are by the same sire.
Thoroughbreds and Arabians are also classified through the \"distaff\" or direct female line, known as their \"family\" or \"`{{glossary link|glossary=Glossary of equestrian terms|tail-female}}`{=mediawiki}\" line, tracing back to their taproot foundation bloodstock or the beginning of their respective stud books. The female line of descent always appears at the bottom of a tabulated pedigree and is therefore often known as the *bottom line*. In addition, the maternal grandfather of a horse has a special term: `{{glossary link|glossary=Glossary of equestrian terms|damsire}}`{=mediawiki}.
\"Linebreeding\" technically is the duplication of fourth-generation or more distant ancestors. However, the term is often used more loosely, describing horses with duplication of ancestors closer than the fourth generation. It also is sometimes used as a euphemism for the practice of inbreeding, a practice that is generally frowned upon by horse breeders, though used by some in an attempt to change certain traits.
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# Horse breeding
## Estrous cycle of the mare {#estrous_cycle_of_the_mare}
### Effects on the reproductive system during the estrous cycle {#effects_on_the_reproductive_system_during_the_estrous_cycle}
Changes in hormone levels can have great effects on the physical characteristics of the reproductive organs of the mare, thereby preparing, or preventing, her from conceiving.
- **Uterus**: increased levels of estrogen during estrus cause edema within the uterus, making it feel heavier, and the uterus loses its tone. This edema decreases following ovulation, and the muscular tone increases. High levels of progesterone do not cause edema within the uterus. The uterus becomes flaccid during anestrus.
- **Cervix**: the cervix starts to relax right before estrus occurs, with maximal relaxation around the time of ovulation. The secretions of the cervix increase. High progesterone levels (during diestrus) cause the cervix to close and become toned.
- **Vagina**: the portion of the vagina near the cervix becomes engorged with blood right before estrus. The vagina becomes relaxed and secretions increase.
- **Vulva**: relaxes right before estrus begins. Becomes dry, and closes more tightly, during diestrus.
### Hormones involved in the estrous cycle, during foaling, and after birth {#hormones_involved_in_the_estrous_cycle_during_foaling_and_after_birth}
The cycle is controlled by several hormones which regulate the estrous cycle, the mare\'s behavior, and the reproductive system of the mare. The cycle begins when the increased day length causes the pineal gland to reduce the levels of melatonin, thereby allowing the hypothalamus to secrete GnRH.
- **GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone)**: secreted by the hypothalamus, causes the pituitary to release two gonadotrophins: LH and FSH.
- **LH (Luteinizing hormone)**: levels are highest 2 days following ovulation, then slowly decrease over 4--5 days, dipping to their lowest levels 5--16 days after ovulation. Stimulates maturation of the follicle, which then in turn secretes estrogen. Unlike most mammals, the mare does not have an increase of LH right before ovulation.
- **FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)**: secreted by the pituitary, causes the ovarian follicle to develop. Levels of FSH rise slightly at the end of estrus, but have their highest peak about 10 days before the next ovulation. FSH is inhibited by inhibin (see below), at the same time LH and estrogen levels rise, which prevents immature follicles from continuing their growth. Mares may however have multiple FSH waves during a single estrous cycle, and diestrus follicles resulting from a diestrus FSH wave are not uncommon, particularly in the height of the natural breeding season.
- **Estrogen**: secreted by the developing follicle, it causes the pituitary gland to secrete more LH (therefore, these 2 hormones are in a positive feedback loop). Additionally, it causes behavioral changes in the mare, making her more receptive toward the stallion, and causes physical changes in the cervix, uterus, and vagina to prepare the mare for conception (see above). Estrogen peaks 1--2 days before ovulation, and decreases within 2 days following ovulation.
- **Inhibin**: secreted by the developed follicle right before ovulation, \"turns off\" FSH, which is no longer needed now that the follicle is larger.
- **Progesterone**: prevents conception and decreases sexual receptibility of the mare to the stallion. Progesterone is therefore lowest during the estrus phase, and increases during diestrus. It decreases 12--15 days after ovulation, when the corpus luteum begins to decrease in size.
- **Prostaglandin**: secreted by the endrometrium 13--15 days following ovulation, causes luteolysis and prevents the corpus luteum from secreting progesterone
- **eCG -- equine chorionic gonadotropin -- also called PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotropin)**: chorionic gonadotropins secreted if the mare conceives. First secreted by the endometrial cups around the 36th day of gestation, peaking around day 60, and decreasing after about 120 days of gestation. Also help to stimulate the growth of the fetal gonads.
- **Prolactin**: stimulates lactation
- **Oxytocin**: stimulates the uterus to contract
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# Horse breeding
## Breeding and gestation {#breeding_and_gestation}
While horses in the wild mate and foal in mid to late spring, in the case of horses domestically bred for competitive purposes, especially horse racing, it is desirable that they be born as close to January 1 in the northern hemisphere or August 1 in the southern hemisphere as possible, so as to be at an advantage in size and maturity when competing against other horses in the same age group. When an early foal is desired, barn managers will put the mare \"under lights\" by keeping the barn lights on in the winter to simulate a longer day, thus bringing the mare into estrus sooner than she would in nature. Mares signal estrus and ovulation by urination in the presence of a stallion, raising the tail and revealing the vulva. A stallion, approaching with a high head, will usually nicker, nip and nudge the mare, as well as sniff her urine to determine her readiness for mating. During copulation, the stallion usually ejaculates after 6 to 8 pelvic thrusts.
Once fertilized, the oocyte (egg) remains in the oviduct for approximately 5.5 more days, and then descends into the uterus. The initial single cell combination is already dividing and by the time of entry into the uterus, the egg might have already reached the blastocyst stage.
The gestation period lasts for about eleven months, or about 340 days (normal average range 320--370 days). During the early days of pregnancy, the conceptus is mobile, moving about in the uterus until about day 16 when \"fixation\" occurs. Shortly after fixation, the embryo proper (so called up to about 35 days) will become visible on trans-rectal ultrasound (about day 21) and a heartbeat should be visible by about day 23. After the formation of the endometrial cups and early placentation is initiated (35--40 days of gestation) the terminology changes, and the embryo is referred to as a fetus. True implantation -- invasion into the endometrium of any sort -- does not occur until about day 35 of pregnancy with the formation of the endometrial cups, and true placentation (formation of the placenta) is not initiated until about day 40-45 and not completed until about 140 days of pregnancy. The fetus\'s sex can be determined by day 70 of the gestation using ultrasound. Halfway through gestation the fetus is the size of between a rabbit and a beagle. The most dramatic fetal development occurs in the last 3 months of pregnancy when 60% of fetal growth occurs.
Colts are carried on average about 4 days longer than fillies.
### Care of the pregnant mare {#care_of_the_pregnant_mare}
Domestic mares receive specific care and nutrition to ensure that they and their foals are healthy. Mares are given vaccinations against diseases such as the Rhinopneumonitis (EHV-1) virus (which can cause miscarriage) as well as vaccines for other conditions that may occur in a given region of the world. Pre-foaling vaccines are recommended 4--6 weeks prior to foaling to maximize the immunoglobulin content of the colostrum in the first milk. Mares are dewormed a few weeks prior to foaling, as the mare is the primary source of parasites for the foal.
Mares can be used for riding or driving during most of their pregnancy. Exercise is healthy, though should be moderated when a mare is heavily in foal. Exercise in excessively high temperatures has been suggested as being detrimental to pregnancy maintenance during the embryonic period; however ambient temperatures encountered during the research were in the region of 100 degrees F and the same results may not be encountered in regions with lower ambient temperatures.`{{original research inline|date=August 2014}}`{=mediawiki}
During the first several months of pregnancy, the nutritional requirements do not increase significantly since the rate of growth of the fetus is very slow. However, during this time, the mare may be provided supplemental vitamins and minerals, particularly if forage quality is questionable. During the last 3--4 months of gestation, rapid growth of the fetus increases the mare\'s nutritional requirements. Energy requirements during these last few months, and during the first few months of lactation are similar to those of a horse in full training. Trace minerals such as copper are extremely important, particularly during the tenth month of pregnancy, for proper skeletal formation. Many feeds designed for pregnant and lactating mares provide the careful balance required of increased protein, increased calories through extra fat as well as vitamins and minerals. Overfeeding the pregnant mare, particularly during early gestation, should be avoided, as excess weight may contribute to difficulties foaling or fetal/foal related problems.
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# Horse breeding
## Foaling
Mares due to foal are usually separated from other horses, both for the benefit of the mare and the safety of the soon-to-be-delivered foal. In addition, separation allows the mare to be monitored more closely by humans for any problems that may occur while giving birth. In the northern hemisphere, a special foaling stall that is large and clutter free is frequently used, particularly by major breeding farms. Originally, this was due in part to a need for protection from the harsh winter climate present when mares foal early in the year, but even in moderate climates, such as Florida, foaling stalls are still common because they allow closer monitoring of mares. Smaller breeders often use a small pen with a large shed for foaling, or they may remove a wall between two box stalls in a small barn to make a large stall. In the milder climates seen in much of the southern hemisphere, most mares foal outside, often in a paddock built specifically for foaling, especially on the larger stud farms. Many stud farms worldwide employ technology to alert human managers when the mare is about to foal, including webcams, closed-circuit television, or assorted types of devices that alert a handler via a remote alarm when a mare lies down in a position to foal.
On the other hand, some breeders, particularly those in remote areas or with extremely large numbers of horses, may allow mares to foal out in a field amongst a herd, but may also see higher rates of foal and mare mortality in doing so.
Most mares foal at night or early in the morning, and prefer to give birth alone when possible. Labor is rapid, often no more than 30 minutes, and from the time the feet of the foal appear to full delivery is often only about 15 to 20 minutes. Once the foal is born, the mare will lick the newborn foal to clean it and help blood circulation. In a very short time, the foal will attempt to stand and get milk from its mother. A foal should stand and nurse within one hour after birth.
To create a bond with her foal, the mare licks and nuzzles the foal, enabling her to distinguish the foal from others. Some mares are aggressive when protecting their foals, and may attack other horses or unfamiliar humans that come near their newborns.
After birth, a foal\'s navel is dipped in antiseptic to prevent infection. The foal is sometimes given an enema to help clear the meconium from its digestive tract. The newborn is monitored to ensure that it stands and nurses without difficulty. While most horse births happen without complications, many owners have first aid supplies prepared and a veterinarian on call in case of a birthing emergency. People who supervise foaling should also watch the mare to be sure that she passes the placenta in a timely fashion, and that it is complete with no fragments remaining in the uterus. Retained fetal membranes can cause a serious inflammatory condition (endometritis) and/or infection. If the placenta is not removed from the stall after it is passed, a mare will often eat it, an instinct from the wild, where blood would attract predators.
### Foal care {#foal_care}
Foals develop rapidly, and within a few hours a wild foal can travel with the herd. In domestic breeding, the foal and dam are usually separated from the herd for a while, but within a few weeks are typically pastured with the other horses. A foal will begin to eat hay, grass and grain alongside the mare at about 4 weeks old; by 10--12 weeks the foal requires more nutrition than the mare\'s milk can supply. Foals are typically weaned at 4--8 months of age, although in the wild a foal may nurse for a year.
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# Horse breeding
## How breeds develop {#how_breeds_develop}
Beyond the appearance and conformation of a specific type of horse, breeders aspire to improve physical performance abilities. This concept, known as matching \"form to function,\" has led to the development of not only different breeds, but also families or bloodlines within breeds that are specialists for excelling at specific tasks.
For example, the Arabian horse of the desert naturally developed speed and endurance to travel long distances and survive in a harsh environment, and domestication by humans added a trainable disposition to the animal\'s natural abilities. In the meantime, in northern Europe, the locally adapted heavy horse with a thick, warm coat was domesticated and put to work as a farm animal that could pull a plow or wagon. This animal was later adapted through selective breeding to create a strong but rideable animal suitable for the heavily armored knight in warfare.
Then, centuries later, when people in Europe wanted faster horses than could be produced from local horses through simple selective breeding, they imported Arabians and other oriental horses to breed as an outcross to the heavier, local animals. This led to the development of breeds such as the Thoroughbred, a horse taller than the Arabian and faster over the distances of a few miles required of a European race horse or light cavalry horse. Another cross between oriental and European horses produced the Andalusian, a horse developed in Spain that was powerfully built, but extremely nimble and capable of the quick bursts of speed over short distances necessary for certain types of combat as well as for tasks such as bullfighting.
Later, the people who settled America needed a hardy horse that was capable of working with cattle. Thus, Arabians and Thoroughbreds were crossed on Spanish horses, both domesticated animals descended from those brought over by the Conquistadors, and feral horses such as the Mustangs, descended from the Spanish horse, but adapted by natural selection to the ecology and climate of the west. These crosses ultimately produced new breeds such as the American Quarter Horse and the Criollo of Argentina. In Canada, the Canadian Horse descended from the French stock Louis XIV sent to Canada in the late 17th century.\[6\] The initial shipment, in 1665, consisted of two stallions and twenty mares from the Royal Stables in Normandy and Brittany, the centre of French horse breeding.\[7\] Only 12 of the 20 mares survived the trip. Two more shipments followed, one in 1667 of 14 horses (mostly mares, but with at least one stallion), and one in 1670 of 11 mares and a stallion. The shipments included a mix of draft horses and light horses, the latter of which included both pacing and trotting horses.\[1\] The exact origins of all the horses are unknown, although the shipments probably included Bretons, Normans, Arabians, Andalusians and Barbs.
In modern times, these breeds themselves have since been selectively bred to further specialize at certain tasks. One example of this is the American Quarter Horse. Once a general-purpose working ranch horse, different bloodlines now specialize in different events. For example, larger, heavier animals with a very steady attitude are bred to give competitors an advantage in events such as team roping, where a horse has to start and stop quickly, but also must calmly hold a full-grown steer at the end of a rope. On the other hand, for an event known as cutting, where the horse must separate a cow from a herd and prevent it from rejoining the group, the best horses are smaller, quick, alert, athletic and highly trainable. They must learn quickly, have conformation that allows quick stops and fast, low turns, and the best competitors have a certain amount of independent mental ability to anticipate and counter the movement of a cow, popularly known as \"cow sense.\"
Another example is the Thoroughbred. While most representatives of this breed are bred for horse racing, there are also specialized bloodlines suitable as show hunters or show jumpers. The hunter must have a tall, smooth build that allows it to trot and canter smoothly and efficiently. Instead of speed, value is placed on appearance and upon giving the equestrian a comfortable ride, with natural jumping ability that shows bascule and good form.
A show jumper, however, is bred less for overall form and more for power over tall fences, along with speed, scope, and agility. This favors a horse with a good galloping stride, powerful hindquarters that can change speed or direction easily, plus a good shoulder angle and length of neck. A jumper has a more powerful build than either the hunter or the racehorse.
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# Horse breeding
## History of horse breeding {#history_of_horse_breeding}
The history of horse breeding goes back millennia. Though the precise date is in dispute, humans could have domesticated the horse as far back as approximately 4500 BCE. However, evidence of planned breeding has a more blurry history. It is well known, for example, that the Romans did breed horses and valued them in their armies, but little is known regarding their breeding and husbandry practices: all that remains are statues and artwork. Mankind has plenty of equestrian statues of Roman emperors, horses are mentioned in the Odyssey by Homer, and hieroglyphics and paintings left behind by Egyptians tell stories of pharaohs hunting elephants from chariots. Nearly nothing is known of what became of the horses they bred for hippodromes, for warfare, or even for farming.
One of the earliest people known to document the breedings of their horses were the Bedouin of the Middle East, the breeders of the Arabian horse. While it is difficult to determine how far back the Bedouin passed on pedigree information via an oral tradition, there were written pedigrees of Arabian horses by CE 1330. The Akhal-Teke of West-Central Asia is another breed with roots in ancient times that was also bred specifically for war and racing. The nomads of the Mongolian steppes bred horses for several thousand years as well, and the Caspian horse is believed to be a very close relative of Ottoman horses from the earliest origins of the Turks in Central Asia.
The types of horse bred varied with culture and with the times. The uses to which a horse was put also determined its qualities, including smooth amblers for riding, fast horses for carrying messengers, heavy horses for plowing and pulling heavy wagons, ponies for hauling cars of ore from mines, packhorses, carriage horses and many others.
Medieval Europe bred large horses specifically for war, called destriers. These horses were the ancestors of the great heavy horses of today, and their size was preferred not simply because of the weight of the armor, but also because a large horse provided more power for the knight\'s lance. Weighing almost twice as much as a normal riding horse, the destrier was a powerful weapon in battle meant to act like a giant battering ram that could quite literally run down men on an enemy line.
On the other hand, during this same time, lighter horses were bred in northern Africa and the Middle East, where a faster, more agile horse was preferred. The lighter horse suited the raids and battles of desert people, allowing them to outmaneuver rather than overpower the enemy. When Middle Eastern warriors and European knights collided in warfare, the heavy knights were frequently outmaneuvered. The Europeans, however, responded by crossing their native breeds with \"oriental\" type horses such as the Arabian, Barb, and Turkoman horse This cross-breeding led both to a nimbler war horse, such as today\'s Andalusian horse, but also created a type of horse known as a Courser, a predecessor to the Thoroughbred, which was used as a message horse.
During the Renaissance, horses were bred not only for war, but for haute ecole riding, derived from the most athletic movements required of a war horse, and popular among the elite nobility of the time. Breeds such as the Lipizzan and the now extinct Neapolitan horse were developed from Spanish-bred horses for this purpose, and also became the preferred mounts of cavalry officers, who were derived mostly from the ranks of the nobility. It was during this time that firearms were developed, and so the light cavalry horse, a faster and quicker war horse, was bred for \"shoot and run\" tactics rather than the shock action as in the Middle Ages. Fine horses usually had a well muscled, curved neck, slender body, and sweeping mane, as the nobility liked to show off their wealth and breeding in paintings of the era.
After Charles II retook the British throne in 1660, horse racing, which had been banned by Cromwell, was revived. The Thoroughbred was developed 40 years later, bred to be the ultimate racehorse, through the lines of three foundation Arabian stallions and one Turkish horse.
In the 18th century, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo noted the importance of selecting appropriate parentage to achieve desired outcomes of successive generations. Monboddo worked more broadly in the abstract thought of species relationships and evolution of species. The Thoroughbred breeding hub in Lexington, Kentucky was developed in the late 18th century, and became a mainstay in American racehorse breeding.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more of a need for fine carriage horses in Europe, bringing in the dawn of the warmblood. The warmblood breeds have been exceptionally good at adapting to changing times, and from their coach horse beginnings they easily transitioned during the 20th century into a sport horse type. Today\'s warmblood breeds are frequently used in competitive driving, but are more often seen competing in show jumping or dressage.
The Thoroughbred continues to dominate the horse racing world, although its lines have been more recently used to improve warmblood breeds and to develop sport horses. The French saddle horse is an excellent example as is the Irish Sport Horse, the latter being an unusual combination between a Thoroughbred and a draft breed.
The American Quarter Horse was developed early in the 18th century, mainly for quarter racing (racing ¼ of a mile). Colonists did not have racetracks or any of the trappings of Europe that the earliest Thoroughbreds had at their disposal, so instead the owners of Quarter Horses would run their horses on roads that lead through town as a form of local entertainment. As the USA expanded West, the breed went with settlers as a farm and ranch animal, and \"cow sense\" was particularly valued: their use for herding cattle increased on rough, dry terrain that often involved sitting in the saddle for long hours.
However, this did not mean that the original ¼-mile races that colonists held ever went out of fashion, so today there are three types: the stock horse type, the racer, and the more recently evolving sport type. The racing type most resembles the finer-boned ancestors of the first racing Quarter Horses, and the type is still used for ¼-mile races. The stock horse type, used in western events and as a farm and patrol animal is bred for a shorter stride, an ability to stop and turn quickly, and an unflappable attitude that remains calm and focused even in the face of an angry charging steer. The first two are still to this day bred to have a combination of explosive speed that exceeds the Thoroughbred on short distances clocked as high as 55 mph, but they still retain the gentle, calm, and kindly temperament of their ancestors that makes them easily handled.
The Canadian horse\'s origin corresponds to shipments of French horses, some of which came from Louis XIV\'s own stable and most likely were Baroque horses meant to be gentlemen\'s mounts. These were ill-suited to farm work and to the hardscrabble life of the New World, so like the Americans, early Canadians crossed their horses with natives escapees. In time they evolved along similar lines as the Quarter Horse to the South as both the US and Canada spread westward and needed a calm and tractable horse versatile enough to carry the farmer\'s son to school but still capable of running fast and running hard as a cavalry horse, a stockhorse, or a horse to pull a conestoga wagon.
Other horses from North America retained a hint of their mustang origins by being either derived from stock that Native Americans bred that came in a rainbow of color, like the Appaloosa and American Paint Horse, with those East of the Mississippi River increasingly bred to impress and mimic the trends of the upper classes of Europe: The Tennessee Walking Horse and Saddlebred were originally plantation horses bred for their gait and comfortable ride in the saddle as a plantation master would survey his vast lands like an English lord.
Horses were needed for heavy draft and carriage work until replaced by the automobile, truck, and tractor. After this time, draft and carriage horse numbers dropped significantly, though light riding horses remained popular for recreational pursuits. Draft horses today are used on a few small farms, but today are seen mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work. Heavy harness horses are now used as an outcross with lighter breeds, such as the Thoroughbred, to produce the modern warmblood breeds popular in sport horse disciplines, particularly at the Olympic level.
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# Horse breeding
## Choosing breeding stock {#choosing_breeding_stock}
Some breeders consider the quality of the sire to be more important than the quality of the dam. However, other breeders maintain that the mare is the most important parent. Because stallions can produce far more offspring than mares, a single stallion can have a greater overall impact on a breed. Research from Nagoya University supports the belief that the most important factor affecting a thoroughbred\'s race performance is the quality of its sire, whereas the effect of the age of its broodmare is negligible. However, the mare may have a greater influence on an individual foal because its physical characteristics influence the developing foal in the womb and the foal also learns habits from its dam when young. Foals may also learn the \"language of intimidation and submission\" from their dam, and this imprinting may affect the foal\'s status and rank within the herd. Many times, a mature horse will achieve status in a herd similar to that of its dam; the offspring of dominant mares become dominant themselves. (See also Horse behavior.)
## Covering the mare {#covering_the_mare}
There are two general ways to \"cover\" or breed the mare:
- **Live cover**: the mare is brought to the stallion\'s residence and is covered \"live\" in the breeding shed. She may also be turned out in a pasture with the stallion for several days to breed naturally (\'pasture bred\'). The former situation is often preferred, as it provides a more controlled environment, allowing the breeder to ensure that the mare was covered, and places the handlers in a position to remove the horses from one another should one attempt to kick or bite the other. However, this causes more stress for the mare as she feels like she is being forced to undergo this procedure.
- **Artificial Insemination (AI)**: the mare is inseminated by a veterinarian or an equine reproduction manager, using either fresh, cooled or frozen semen.
After the mare is bred or artificially inseminated, she is checked using ultrasound 14--16 days later to see if she \"took\", and is pregnant. A second check is usually performed at 28 days. If the mare is not pregnant, she may be bred again during her next cycle.
It is considered safe to breed a mare to a stallion of much larger size. Because of the mare\'s type of placenta and its attachment and blood supply, the foal will be limited in its growth within the uterus to the size of the mare\'s uterus, but will grow to its genetic potential after it is born. Test breedings have been done with draft horse stallions bred to small mares with no increase in the number of difficult births.
### Live cover {#live_cover}
When breeding live cover, the mare is usually boarded at the stud. She may be \"teased\" several times with a stallion that will not breed to her, usually with the stallion being presented to the mare over a barrier. Her reaction to the teaser, whether hostile or passive, is noted. A mare that is in heat will generally tolerate a teaser (although this is not always the case), and may present herself to him, holding her tail to the side. A veterinarian may also determine if the mare is ready to be bred, by ultrasound or palpating daily to determine if ovulation has occurred. Live cover can also be done in liberty on a paddock or on pasture, although due to safety and efficacy concerns, it is not common at professional breeding farms.
When it has been determined that the mare is ready, both the mare and intended stud will be cleaned. The mare will then be presented to the stallion, usually with one handler controlling the mare and one or more handlers in charge of the stallion. Multiple handlers are preferred, as the mare and stallion can be easily separated should there be any trouble.
The Jockey Club, the organization that oversees the Thoroughbred industry in the United States, requires all registered foals to be bred through live cover. Artificial insemination, listed below, is not permitted. Similar rules apply in other countries, such as Australia.
By contrast, the U.S. standardbred industry allows registered foals to be bred by live cover, or by artificial insemination (AI) with fresh or frozen (not dried) semen. No other artificial fertility treatment is allowed. In addition, foals bred via AI of frozen semen may only be registered if the stallion\'s sperm was collected during his lifetime, and used no later than the calendar year of his death or castration.
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# Horse breeding
## Covering the mare {#covering_the_mare}
### Artificial insemination {#artificial_insemination}
Whereas the various national Thoroughbred associations typically require live cover, by 2009 most horse breeds allowed for the artificial insemination of mares with cooled, frozen or even fresh semen.
Artificial insemination (AI) has several advantages over live cover, and has a very similar conception rate:
- The mare and stallion never have to come in contact with each other, which therefore reduces breeding accidents, such as the mare kicking the stallion.
- AI opens up the world to international breeding, as semen may be shipped across continents to mares that would otherwise be unable to breed to a particular stallion.
- A mare also does not have to travel to the stallion, so the process is less stressful on her, and if she already has a foal, the foal does not have to travel.
- AI allows more mares to be bred from one stallion, as the ejaculate may be split between mares.
- AI reduces the chance of spreading sexually transmitted diseases between mare and stallion.
- AI allows mares or stallions with health issues, such as sore hocks which may prevent a stallion from mounting, to continue to breed.
- Frozen semen may be stored and used to breed mares even after the stallion is dead, allowing his lines to continue. However, the semen of some stallions does not freeze well. Some breed registries may not permit the registration of foals resulting from the use of frozen semen after the stallion\'s death, although other large registries accept such usage and provide registrations. The overall trend is toward permitting use of frozen semen after the death of the stallion.
A stallion is usually trained to mount a phantom (or dummy) mare, although a live mare may be used, and he is most commonly collected using an artificial vagina (AV) which is heated to simulate the vagina of the mare. The AV has a filter and collection area at one end to capture the semen, which can then be processed in a lab. The semen may be chilled or frozen and shipped to the mare owner or used to breed mares \"on-farm\". When the mare is in heat, the person inseminating introduces the semen directly into her uterus using a syringe and pipette.
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# Horse breeding
## Covering the mare {#covering_the_mare}
### Advanced reproductive techniques {#advanced_reproductive_techniques}
Often an owner does not want to take a valuable competition mare out of training to carry a foal. This presents a problem, as the mare will usually be quite old by the time she is retired from her competitive career, at which time it is more difficult to impregnate her. Other times, a mare may have physical problems that prevent or discourage breeding. However, there are now several options for breeding these mares. These options also allow a mare to produce multiple foals each breeding season, instead of the usual one. Therefore, mares may have an even greater value for breeding.
- **Embryo transfer**: This relatively new method involves flushing out the mare\'s fertilized embryo a few days following insemination, and transferring to a surrogate mare, which has been synchronized to be in the same phase of the estrous cycle as the donor mare.
- **Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)**: The mare\'s ovum and the stallion\'s sperm are deposited in the oviduct of a surrogate dam. This technique is very useful for subfertile stallions, as fewer sperm are needed, so a stallion with a low sperm count can still successfully breed.
- **Egg transfer**: An oocyte is removed from the mare\'s follicle and transferred into the oviduct of the recipient mare, who is then bred. This is best for mares with physical problems, such as an obstructed oviduct, that prevent breeding.
- **Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)**: Used in horses due to lack of successful co-incubation of female and male gametes in simple IVF. A plug of the zona pellucida is removed and a single sperm cell is injected into the ooplasm of the mature oocyte. An advantage of ICSI over IVF is that lower quality sperm can be used since the sperm does not have to penetrate the zona pellucida. The success rate of ICSI is 23-44% blastocyst development.
The world\'s first cloned horse, Prometea, was born in 2003. Other notable instances of horse cloning are:
- In 2006, Scamper, an extremely successful barrel racing horse, a gelding, was cloned. The resulting stallion, Clayton, became the first cloned horse to stand at stud in the U.S.
- In 2007, a renowned show jumper and Thoroughbred, Gem Twist, was cloned by Frank Chapot and his family. In September 2008, Gemini was born. Other clones followed, leading to the development of a breeding line from Gem Twist.
- In 2010, the first lived equine cloned of a Criollo horse was born in Argentina, and was the first horse clone produced in Latin America. In the same year a cloned polo horse was sold for \$800,000 - the highest known price ever paid for a polo horse.
- In 2013, the world-famous polo star Adolfo Cambiaso helped his high-handicap team La Dolfina win the Argentine National Open, scoring nine goals in the 16-11 match. Two of those he scored atop a horse named Show Me, a clone, and the first to ride onto the Argentine pitch
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# Hopewell Centre (Hong Kong)
**Hopewell Centre** (Chinese: 合和中心) is a 222 m, 64-storey skyscraper at 183 Queen\'s Road East, in Wan Chai, Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong. The tower is the first circular skyscraper in Hong Kong. It is named after Hong Kong--listed property firm Hopewell Holdings Limited, which constructed the building. Hopewell Holdings Limited\'s headquarters are in the building and its chief executive officer, Gordon Wu, has his office on the top floor.
## Description
Construction started in 1977 and was completed in 1980. Upon completion, Hopewell Centre surpassed Jardine House as Hong Kong\'s tallest building. It was also the second tallest building in Asia at the time. It kept its title in Hong Kong until 1989, when the Bank of China Tower was completed. The building is now the 20th tallest building in Hong Kong.
The building has a circular floor plan. Although the front entrance is on the \'ground floor\', commuters are taken through a set of escalators to the 3rd floor lift lobby. Hopewell Centre stands on the slope of a hill so steep that the building has its back entrance on the 17th floor towards Kennedy Road. There is a circular private swimming pool on the roof of the building built for feng shui reasons because people thought the building resembled a cigarette.
A revolving restaurant located on the 62nd floor, called \"Revolving 66\", overlooks other tall buildings below and the harbour. It was originally called Revolving 62, but soon changed its name as locals kept calling it Revolving 66. It completes a 360-degree rotation each hour. Passengers take either office lifts (faster) or the scenic lifts (with a view) to the 56/F, where they transfer to smaller lifts up to the 62/F. The restaurant is now named The Grand Buffet.
The building comprises several groups of lifts. Lobbies are on the 3rd and 17th floor, and are connected to Queen\'s Road East and Kennedy Road respectively. A mini-skylobby is on the 56th floor and serves as a transfer floor for diners heading to the 60/F and 62/F restaurants. The building\'s white \'bumps\' between the windows have built in window-washer guide rails.
This skyscraper was the filming location for R&B group Dru Hill\'s music video for \"How Deep Is Your Love,\" directed by Brett Ratner, who also directed the movie Rush Hour, whose soundtrack features the song. The circular private swimming pool is well visible in this music video. This swimming pool has also featured in an Australian television advertisement by one of that country\'s major gaming companies, Tattersall\'s Limited, promoting a weekly lottery competition.
The skyscraper was also featured on the cover of post-hardcore band Fugazi\'s 1998 album *End Hits*.
It is connected to the Hopewell Mall, which was opened on 1 November 2024.
## Privatisation
Hopewell shares shot up 31 per cent at one point, after the developer unveiled a privatisation plan worth HK\$21.26 billion. The company was privatised in 2019 and its stock ticker 54 was removed from the exchange.
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# Hopewell Centre (Hong Kong)
## Floors
- Basement: Supermarket
- Ground floor, Floor 2: Shops, Queen\'s Road East Entrance
- Floor 3: Stores, lift lobby to office buildings
- Floors 4--5: Car park for trucks (with the entrance located on Spring Garden Lane)
- Floors 6--8: Chinese Restaurant, used to be the Hopewell City Restaurant, operated by Hopewell Holdings. The restaurant closed in September 2000 and is now leased to other food catering groups)
- Floors 9--15 (no 13th floor): Car park (with the entrance located in the Kennedy Road lobby (17th floor))
- Floors 16, 18--31, 33--44, 46--57, 59--60, 63, and 64: Office
- 17th floor: Stores, Polestar Space Hong Kong, Kennedy Road Entrance, lift and sightseeing lift lobby
- 17th, 17M Floor and 46th Floor: Computershare
- 18th Floor: Hong Kong Deposit Protection Board (Room 1802-10)
- 25th Floor: `{{Flag decoration|Poland}}`{=mediawiki} Consulate General of Poland in Hong Kong (Room 2506), `{{Flag decoration|Mexico}}`{=mediawiki} Consulate General of Mexico in Hong Kong (Room 2507-09), Lau & Ngan, Solicitors LLP (Room 2504-5)
- 32nd, 45th and 58th floors: Refuge Floor
- 33rd Floor: FCL Group, Fotocine Advertising Ltd, WestcomZivo, iPrinciple, Tung Fang Mei Enterprise Co., Ltd., WMKY Ltd (Architects - Engineers)
- 34th Floor: Environmental Protection Department
- 36th Floor: FWD Group
- 37th Floor: Hong Kong Insurance Agency Co., Ltd., Hexin Insurance and Reinsurance Consultants Co., Ltd., First Direct Holdings Ltd., IT People Limited, Hong Kong Chamber of Commerce of Listed Companies
- 44th Floor: Hong Kong Council on Smoking and Health (Room 4402-03)
- 54th Floor: Blue Cross (Asia Pacific) Insurance Limited
- 57th Floor: MetLife
- 61st Floor: Kitchen of The Grand Buffet
- 62nd Floor: The Grand Buffet by Lisboa Food & Wines Ltd.
- Floors 59, 60, 63 and 64: Hopewell Holdings Limited Offices (Hopewell Holdings Limited, Hopewell Real Estate Agency Limited, Hopewell Hong Kong Properties Limited), `{{Flag decoration|Croatia}}`{=mediawiki} Honorary Consulate of Croatia in Hong Kong
Note 1: To get there, people going to floors 59, 60, 62-64 must transfer to different lifts on floor 56.\
Note 2: The building has two cargo lifts serving floors 2--58 and 61.
## Access
- MTR Wan Chai station Exit D, followed by a 5-minute walk south through Lee Tung Avenue.
- Bus - Routes 1P, 6, 6A, 6X, 10, 15, 24A, 24M, 56, 56A, 56B, 66, 90C, 109, 113, A17 all stop at Hopewell Centre.
## Gallery
\
<File:Hopewell> Centre 17Floor Lobby 2015.jpg\|Hopewell Centre Lobby at 17/F <File:The> Grand Buffet 201504.JPG\|The Grand Buffet Restaurant at 62/F <File:Hopewell> Centre Upper.jpg\|Hopewell Centre front entrance at street level <File:Hopewell> Centre View
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# History of the Americas
The human **history of the Americas** is thought to begin with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an ice age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the people of the \"Old World\" until the coming of Europeans in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus.
The ancestors of today\'s American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via Beringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the Bering Strait. Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname \"big-game hunters.\" Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.
Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions: Mesoamerica and the Andean civilizations. Mesoamerican cultures include Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Mixtec, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people, Purépecha, Izapa and Mazatec. Andean cultures include Inca, Caral-Supe, Wari, Tiwanaku, Chimor, Moche, Muisca, Chavin, Paracas, and Nazca.
After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish and later Portuguese, English, French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while England established colonies on the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast and in most of Canada. France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam -- now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America.
European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions, peoples and institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from Great Britain much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867 and received legal independence in 1931. Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, while French Guiana, the Falkland Islands, Bermuda and several Caribbean islands remain part of a European power to this day.
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# History of the Americas
## Pre-colonization {#pre_colonization}
### Migration into the continents {#migration_into_the_continents}
### Lithic stage (before 8000 BCE) {#lithic_stage_before_8000_bce}
The Lithic stage or *Paleo-Indian period*, is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering the Late Pleistocene epoch. The time period derives its name from the appearance of \"Lithic flaked\" stone tools. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in the Americas. Lithic reduction stone tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.
### Archaic stage (8000--1000 BCE) {#archaic_stage_80001000_bce}
Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE. Particular archaeological cultures can be identified and easily classified throughout the Archaic period.
In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of Peru, a complex civilization arose which has been termed the Norte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization originated independently and indigenously in the ancient world, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. It pre-dated the Mesoamerican Olmec civilization by nearly two millennia. It was contemporaneous with the Egypt following the unification of its kingdom under Narmer and the emergence of the first Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Monumental architecture, including earthwork platform mounds and sunken plazas have been identified as part of the civilization. Archaeological evidence points to the use of textile technology and the worship of common god symbols. Government, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to have been required to manage the region. However, numerous questions remain about its organization. In archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic period. It appears to have lacked ceramics and art.
Ongoing scholarly debate persists over the extent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest between coastal and inland sites. The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subject of scholarly debate. In 1973, examining the Aspero region of Norte Chico, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing. This theory, later termed \"maritime foundation of Andean Civilization\" was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that civilization arose as a result of intensive grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence of civilizations in northeast Africa (Egypt) and southwest Asia (Mesopotamia).
While earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such as squash, beans, lúcuma, guava, pacay, and camote at Caral, publications by Haas and colleagues have added avocado, achira, and maize (Zea Mays) to the list of foods consumed in the region. In 2013, Haas and colleagues reported that maize was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of 3000 to 1800 BC. Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets and textiles. Jonathan Haas noted a mutual dependency, whereby \"The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish.\"
In the 2005 book *1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus*, journalist Charles C. Mann surveyed the literature at the time, reporting a date \"sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before 3500 BC\" as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico. He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in the (inland) Fortaleza area. The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BC as more powerful centers appeared to the south and north along its coast, and to the east within the Andes Mountains.
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# History of the Americas
## Pre-colonization {#pre_colonization}
### Mesoamerica, the Woodland Period, and Mississippian culture (2000 BCE -- 500 CE) {#mesoamerica_the_woodland_period_and_mississippian_culture_2000_bce_500_ce}
After the decline of the Norte Chico civilization, numerous complex civilizations and centralized polities developed in the Western Hemisphere: The Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Cañaris, Chimu, Pachacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Andes; the Muisca, Tairona, Miskito, Huetar, and Talamanca in the Intermediate Area; the Taínos in the Caribbean; and the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs, Purepecha and Nicoya in Mesoamerica.
The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600--1400 BC and ending around 400 BC. Mesoamerica is considered one of the six sites around the globe in which civilization developed independently and indigenously. This civilization is considered the mother culture of the Mesoamerican civilizations. The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.
Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early. The domestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest record of lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC. Agriculture continued to be mixed with a hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were relying on maize, and living mostly in villages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. By 1300/1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of city-states, united in religious and commercial concerns. The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, aqueducts and walled plazas. The first of these centers was at San Lorenzo (until 900 BC). La Venta was the last great Olmec centre. Olmec artisans sculpted jade and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads -- believed to be of Olmec rulers -- stood in every major city.
The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La Venta, two of the major cities. It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700--600 BC. Olmec influences continued to appear in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.
Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia, located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois, may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America. Monk\'s Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.
These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 2--5 cm in length to perhaps 10--15 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, beans (greens), pumpkins, avocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. By the 15th century, maize was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico. The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans.
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# History of the Americas
## Pre-colonization {#pre_colonization}
### Classic stage (800 BCE -- 1533 CE) {#classic_stage_800_bce_1533_ce}
#### Cahokia
Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.
##### Haudenosaune
The Iroquois League of Nations or \"People of the Long House\", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.
Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe; the Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each; the Onondagas held fourteen; the Cayuga had ten seats; and the Seneca had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power. The Onondaga were the \"firekeepers\", responsible for raising topics to be discussed. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.)
Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century Beaver Wars.
Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.
#### Oasisamerica
##### Pueblo people {#pueblo_people}
Chaco Canyon Chetro Ketl great kiva plaza NPS.jpg\|The Great Kiva of Chetro Ketl at the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, World Heritage Site mesaverde cliffpalace 20030914.752.jpg\|Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a World Heritage Site NMtrip-05-047.jpg\|Taos Pueblo, a World Heritage Site, belonging to a Native American tribe of Pueblo people, marking cultural development during the Pre-Columbian era Canyon de Chelly1.jpg\|White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National Monument
The Pueblo people of what is now occupied by the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas. thumb\|upright=.7\|K\'inich Kan B\'alam II, the Classic period ruler of Palenque, as depicted on a stela
#### Aridoamerica
##### Chichimeca
Chichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the European term \"barbarian\". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico.
#### Mesoamerica
##### Olmec
The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE. Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose.
##### Purepecha
The Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 CE in Mesoamerica. They flourished from 1100 CE to 1530 CE. They continue to live on in the state of Michoacán. Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination.
##### Maya
Maya history spans 3,000 years. The Classic Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century.
##### Toltec
The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th--12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs.
##### Teotihuacan
Teotihuacan (4th century BCE -- 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica.
##### Aztec
The Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.
#### South America {#south_america}
##### Valdivia culture {#valdivia_culture}
The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived along the coast of Santa Elena peninsula in Santa Elena Province of Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE.
##### Norte Chico {#norte_chico}
One of the oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico\'s prominence.
##### Chavín
The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.
#### Upano Valley {#upano_valley}
The Upano Valley sites in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies, spanning from approximately 500 BCE to 300-600 CE.
##### Inca
Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as *Tawantinsuyu*, or \"the land of the four regions\", in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful trepanation of the skull in Inca civilization.
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# History of the Americas
## European colonization {#european_colonization}
Around 1000, the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, now known as L\'Anse aux Meadows. Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars.
Spain sponsored a major exploration led by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492; it quickly led to extensive European colonization of the Americas. The Europeans brought Old World diseases which are thought to have caused catastrophic epidemics and a huge decrease of the native population. Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout Europe. It was also a time of growing religious, imperial and economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies.
### Colonial period {#colonial_period}
15th to 19th century colonies in the New World:
- Spanish colonization of the Americas (1492)
- Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535--1821)
- Viceroyalty of Peru (1542--1824)
- Spanish Main
- Spanish West Indies
- Captaincy General of Guatemala
- British America / Thirteen Colonies (1584/1607 -- 1776/20th century)
- French Saint-Domingue (1659--1804)
- Danish West Indies
- New Netherland
- New France
- Captaincy General of Venezuela
- Portuguese colonization of the Americas (1499--1822)
- Colonial Brazil (1500--1815)
### Decolonization
The formation of sovereign states in the New World began with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776. The American Revolutionary War lasted through the period of the Siege of Yorktown---its last major campaign---in the early autumn of 1781, with peace being achieved in 1783. In 1804, after the French of Napoleon Bonaparte were defeated during the Haitian Revolution under the black leadership of Jean-Jacques Dessalines declare the colony of Saint-Domingue independence of the Haitian Declaration of Independence as he renamed the country *Ayiti* meaning (Land of Mountains), Haiti became the world\'s first black-led republic in the New World, the first Caribbean state as well as the first Latin American country and the second oldest independent nation in the Western Hemisphere after the United States to win independence from Britain in 1783.
The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the Spanish American wars of independence. Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín, among others, led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of Latin America politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific. (See Latin American integration.) In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country\'s independence in 1822 and became Brazil\'s first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation.
### Effects of slavery {#effects_of_slavery}
Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development of the New World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. The cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries.
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# History of the Americas
## 20th century {#th_century}
### North America {#north_america}
As a part of the British Empire, Canada immediately entered World War I when it broke out in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war, including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on 1 July 1916, the First day on the Somme.
The United States stayed out of the conflict until 1917, when it joined the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe. Mexico was not part of the war, as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.
The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada. From 1926 to 1929, there was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.
Once again, Canada found itself at war before its neighbors, with numerically modest but significant contributions overseas such as the Battle of Hong Kong and the Battle of Britain. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies. Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico\'s neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to enter the conflict with a declaration of war on the Axis nations. The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs, especially the United States, which emerged as a \"superpower\".
The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. In Canada, Quebec was transformed by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism. Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as *\"El Milagro Mexicano\"* (the Mexican miracle). The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.
The civil rights movement in the U.S. ended Jim Crow and empowered black voters in the 1960s, which allowed black citizens to move into high government offices for the first time since Reconstruction. However, the dominant New Deal coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s in disputes over race and the Vietnam War, and the conservative movement began its rise to power, as the once dominant liberalism weakened and collapsed. Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. In 1982, at the end of his tenure, Canada enshrined a new constitution.
Canada\'s Brian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989. Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 1980s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 1980s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and regulation to stimulate the economy.
The end of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On 1 January 1994, Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world\'s largest free trade area. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United States\' later move to invade Iraq, however.
In the U.S. the Reagan Era of conservative national policies, deregulation and tax cuts took control with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. By 2010, political scientists were debating whether the election of Barack Obama in 2008 represented an end of the Reagan Era, or was only a reaction against the bubble economy of the 2000s (decade), which burst in 2008 and became the Late-2000s recession with prolonged unemployment.
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| Country or\ | Area\ | Population\ | Population density\ | Capital |
| Territory with flag | (km^2^) (sq mi) | (2021 est.)`{{UN Population|ref}}`{=mediawiki} | per km^2^ (per sq mi) | |
+============================+=================+================================================+=========================+==================+
| (United Kingdom) | | 64,185 | /sq mi)}} | Hamilton |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| | | 39,858,480 | /sq mi)}} | Ottawa |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| Clipperton Island (France) | | Uninhabited | /sq mi)}} | N/A |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| (Denmark) | | 56,583 | /sq mi)}} | Nuuk |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| | | 129,875,529 | /sq mi)}} | Mexico City |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| (France) | | 6,008 | /sq mi)}} | Saint-Pierre |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| | | 336,997,624 | /sq mi)}} | Washington, D.C. |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| Total | | 506,807,509 | 28.3/km^2^ (73.2/sq mi) | |
+----------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+-------------------------+------------------+
| 1,008 |
History of the Americas
| 5 |
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# History of the Americas
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Central America {#central_america}
Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856--1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by United States adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).
In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created. On 13 December 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market (\"CACM\"). Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 \"Football War\" between El Salvador and Honduras. A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| Country or\ | Area\ | Population\ | Population density\ | Capital |
| Territory with flag | (km^2^) (sq mi) | (2021 est.)`{{UN Population|ref}}`{=mediawiki} | per km^2^ (per sq mi) | |
+=====================+=================+================================================+==========================+================+
| | | 441,471 | /sq mi)}} | Belmopan |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 5,044,197 | /sq mi)}} | San José |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 6,602,370 | /sq mi)}} | San Salvador |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 17,980,803 | /sq mi)}} | Guatemala City |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 9,571,352 | /sq mi)}} | Tegucigalpa |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 6,359,689 | /sq mi)}} | Managua |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| | | 4,337,768 | /sq mi)}} | Panama City |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| Total | | 50,337,650 | 96.4/km^2^ (249.6/sq mi) | |
+---------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+----------------+
| 374 |
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# History of the Americas
## 20th century {#th_century}
### South America {#south_america_1}
In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships. These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor). Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the United States Cold War doctrine of \"National Security\" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.
International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina\'s default in the early 21st century. In recent years, South American governments have drifted to the left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist. With the founding of the Union of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the European Union style.
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| Country or\ | Area\ | Population\ | Population density\ | Capital |
| Territory with flag | (km^2^) (sq mi) | (2021 est.)`{{UN Population|ref}}`{=mediawiki} | per km^2^ (per sq mi) | |
+========================+======================================================================================================+================================================+==========================================================================================+===================+
| | | 45,276,780 | /sq mi)}} | Buenos Aires |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 12,079,472 | /sq mi)}} | Sucre; La Paz |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 214,326,223 | /sq mi)}} | Brasília |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 19,493,184 | /sq mi)}} | Santiago |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 51,516,562 | /sq mi)}} | Bogotá |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 17,797,737 | /sq mi)}} | Quito |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| (United Kingdom) | | 3,398 | /sq mi)}} | Stanley |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| French Guiana (France) | | 294,071 | /sq mi)}} | Cayenne |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 804,567 | /sq mi)}} | Georgetown |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 6,831,306 | /sq mi)}} | Asunción |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 33,715,471 | /sq mi)}} | Lima |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | aright\" \| `{{sort|0003093| {{convert|3093|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}}}`{=mediawiki} | 20 | /sq mi)}} | King Edward Point |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 612,985 | /sq mi)}} | Paramaribo |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 3,477,780 | /sq mi)}} | Montevideo |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| | | 28,199,867 | /sq mi)}} | Caracas |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| Total | | | 24.4/km^2^ (`{{formatnum:{{#expr: 24.4 * 2.589988110336 round 1}}`{=mediawiki} }}/sq mi) | |
+------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------------+
| 474 |
History of the Americas
| 7 |
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# History of the Americas
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Caribbean
Throughout the 20th century, several island countries, such as Jamaica and Barbados gained independence from British rule. As a result, many of the English-speaking states and territories shifted their economies to tourism and offshore bank industries.
During the Cold War, the Caribbean has faced a series of military interventions from the United States, such as the Banana Wars and the Cuban Missile Crisis.
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Country or\ | Area\ | Population\ | Population density\ | Capital |
| Territory with flag | (km^2^) (sq mi) | (2021 est.)`{{UN Population|ref}}`{=mediawiki} | per km^2^ (per sq mi) | |
+=======================================+=================+================================================+===========================+==================+
| (United Kingdom) | | 15,753 | /sq mi)}} | The Valley |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 93,219 | /sq mi)}} | St. John\'s |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 106,537 | /sq mi)}} | Oranjestad |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 407,906 | /sq mi)}} | Nassau |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United States / Colombia / Jamaica) | | Uninhabited | /sq mi)}} | N/A |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 287,025 | /sq mi)}} | Bridgetown |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 20,104 | /sq mi)}} | Kralendijk |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United Kingdom) | | 31,122 | /sq mi)}} | Road Town |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United Kingdom) | | 68,136 | /sq mi)}} | George Town |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 11,256,372 | /sq mi)}} | Havana |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 190,338 | /sq mi)}} | Willemstad |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 72,412 | /sq mi)}} | Roseau |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 11,117,873 | /sq mi)}} | Santo Domingo |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Venezuela) | | 2,155 | /sq mi)}} | N/A |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 124,610 | /sq mi)}} | St. George\'s |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Guadeloupe (France) | | 396,051 | /sq mi)}} | Basse-Terre |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 11,447,569 | /sq mi)}} | Port-au-Prince |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 2,827,695 | /sq mi)}} | Kingston |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Martinique (France) | | 368,796 | /sq mi)}} | Fort-de-France |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United Kingdom) | | 4,417 | /sq mi)}} | Plymouth; Brades |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United States / Haiti) | | Uninhabited | /sq mi)}} | Lulu Town |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United States) | | 3,256,028 | /sq mi)}} | San Juan |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 1,537 | /sq mi)}} | The Bottom |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Saint Barthélemy (France) | | 7,448 | /sq mi)}} | Gustavia |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 47,606 | /sq mi)}} | Basseterre |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 179,651 | /sq mi)}} | Castries |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Saint Martin (France) | | 29,820 | /sq mi)}} | Marigot |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 104,332 | /sq mi)}} | Kingstown |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United States / Colombia / Honduras) | | Uninhabited | /sq mi)}} | N/A |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 2,739 | /sq mi)}} | Oranjestad |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (Netherlands) | | 44,042 | /sq mi)}} | Philipsburg |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| | | 1,525,663 | /sq mi)}} | Port of Spain |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United Kingdom) | | 45,144 | /sq mi)}} | Cockburn Town |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| (United States) | | 100,091 | /sq mi)}} | Charlotte Amalie |
+---------------------------------------+-----------------+------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+------------------+
| Total | | 44,182,191 | 188.3/km^2^ (487
| 552 |
History of the Americas
| 8 |
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# Historical African place names
This is a list of **historical African place names**. The names on the left are linked to the corresponding subregion(s) from History of Africa
| 29 |
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| 0 |
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# Holomorphic function
`{{Complex analysis sidebar}}`{=mediawiki}
In mathematics, a **holomorphic function** is a complex-valued function of one or more complex variables that is complex differentiable in a neighbourhood of each point in a domain in complex coordinate space `{{tmath|\C^n}}`{=mediawiki}. The existence of a complex derivative in a neighbourhood is a very strong condition: It implies that a holomorphic function is infinitely differentiable and locally equal to its own Taylor series (is *analytic*). Holomorphic functions are the central objects of study in complex analysis.
Though the term *analytic function* is often used interchangeably with \"holomorphic function\", the word \"analytic\" is defined in a broader sense to denote any function (real, complex, or of more general type) that can be written as a convergent power series in a neighbourhood of each point in its domain. That all holomorphic functions are complex analytic functions, and vice versa, is a major theorem in complex analysis.
Holomorphic functions are also sometimes referred to as *regular functions*. A holomorphic function whose domain is the whole complex plane is called an entire function. The phrase \"holomorphic at a point `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}\" means not just differentiable at `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}, but differentiable everywhere within some close neighbourhood of `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} in the complex plane.
## Definition
Given a complex-valued function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} of a single complex variable, the **derivative** of `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} at a point `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} in its domain is defined as the limit
$$f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \to z_0} \frac{f(z) - f(z_0)}{ z - z_0 }.$$
This is the same definition as for the derivative of a real function, except that all quantities are complex. In particular, the limit is taken as the complex number `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki} tends to `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}, and this means that the same value is obtained for any sequence of complex values for `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki} that tends to `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}. If the limit exists, `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is said to be **complex differentiable** at `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}. This concept of complex differentiability shares several properties with real differentiability: It is linear and obeys the product rule, quotient rule, and chain rule.
A function is **holomorphic** on an open set `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} if it is *complex differentiable* at *every* point of `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}. A function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is *holomorphic* at a point `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} if it is holomorphic on some neighbourhood of `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki}. A function is *holomorphic* on some non-open set `{{tmath|A}}`{=mediawiki} if it is holomorphic at every point of `{{tmath|A}}`{=mediawiki}.
A function may be complex differentiable at a point but not holomorphic at this point. For example, the function $\textstyle f(z) = |z|\vphantom{l}^2 = z\bar{z}$ *is* complex differentiable at `{{tmath|0}}`{=mediawiki}, but *is not* complex differentiable anywhere else, esp. including in no place close to `{{tmath|0}}`{=mediawiki} (see the Cauchy--Riemann equations, below). So, it is *not* holomorphic at `{{tmath|0}}`{=mediawiki}.
The relationship between real differentiability and complex differentiability is the following: If a complex function `{{tmath|1= f(x+ iy) = u(x,y) + i\,v(x, y)}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic, then `{{tmath|u}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|v}}`{=mediawiki} have first partial derivatives with respect to `{{tmath|x}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|y}}`{=mediawiki}, and satisfy the Cauchy--Riemann equations:
$$\frac{\partial u}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} \qquad \mbox{and} \qquad \frac{\partial u}{\partial y} = -\frac{\partial v}{\partial x}\,$$ or, equivalently, the Wirtinger derivative of `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} with respect to `{{tmath|\bar z}}`{=mediawiki}, the complex conjugate of `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki}, is zero:
$$\frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}} = 0,$$ which is to say that, roughly, `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is functionally independent from `{{tmath|\bar z}}`{=mediawiki}, the complex conjugate of `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki}.
If continuity is not given, the converse is not necessarily true. A simple converse is that if `{{tmath|u}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|v}}`{=mediawiki} have *continuous* first partial derivatives and satisfy the Cauchy--Riemann equations, then `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic. A more satisfying converse, which is much harder to prove, is the Looman--Menchoff theorem: if `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is continuous, `{{tmath|u}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|v}}`{=mediawiki} have first partial derivatives (but not necessarily continuous), and they satisfy the Cauchy--Riemann equations, then `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic.
An immediate useful consequence of the Cauchy Riemann Equations above is that the complex derivative can be defined explicitly in terms of real partial derivatives. If $f(z)$ is a complex function that is complex differentiable about a point $z = x+ iy$ then (as we did earlier in the article) we can write $f(z) = f(x+iy) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y)$ and then the complex derivative of the function can be written as $f'(z) = \frac{\partial u}{\partial x} + i \frac{\partial v}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial v}{\partial y} - i \frac{\partial u}{\partial y}$
## Terminology
The term *holomorphic* was introduced in 1875 by Charles Briot and Jean-Claude Bouquet, two of Augustin-Louis Cauchy\'s students, and derives from the Greek ὅλος (*hólos*) meaning \"whole\", and μορφή (*morphḗ*) meaning \"form\" or \"appearance\" or \"type\", in contrast to the term *meromorphic* derived from μέρος (*méros*) meaning \"part\". A holomorphic function resembles an entire function (\"whole\") in a domain of the complex plane while a meromorphic function (defined to mean holomorphic except at certain isolated poles), resembles a rational fraction (\"part\") of entire functions in a domain of the complex plane. Cauchy had instead used the term *synectic*.
Today, the term \"holomorphic function\" is sometimes preferred to \"analytic function\". An important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow obviously from the definitions. The term \"analytic\" is however also in wide use.
| 856 |
Holomorphic function
| 0 |
14,110 |
# Holomorphic function
## Properties
Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is not zero. That is, if functions `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|g}}`{=mediawiki} are holomorphic in a domain `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}, then so are `{{tmath|f+g}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|f-g}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath| fg}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{tmath|f \circ g}}`{=mediawiki}. Furthermore, `{{tmath|f/g }}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic if `{{tmath|g}}`{=mediawiki} has no zeros in `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}; otherwise it is meromorphic.
If one identifies `{{tmath|\C}}`{=mediawiki} with the real plane `{{tmath|\textstyle \R^2}}`{=mediawiki}, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables with continuous first derivatives which solve the Cauchy--Riemann equations, a set of two partial differential equations.
Every holomorphic function can be separated into its real and imaginary parts `{{tmath|1=f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + i\,v(x,y)}}`{=mediawiki}, and each of these is a harmonic function on `{{tmath|\textstyle \R^2}}`{=mediawiki} (each satisfies Laplace\'s equation `{{tmath|1=\textstyle \nabla^2 u = \nabla^2 v = 0}}`{=mediawiki}), with `{{tmath|v}}`{=mediawiki} the harmonic conjugate of `{{tmath|u}}`{=mediawiki}. Conversely, every harmonic function `{{tmath|u(x, y)}}`{=mediawiki} on a simply connected domain `{{tmath|\textstyle \Omega \subset \R^2}}`{=mediawiki} is the real part of a holomorphic function: If `{{tmath|v}}`{=mediawiki} is the harmonic conjugate of `{{tmath|u}}`{=mediawiki}, unique up to a constant, then `{{tmath|1=f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + i\,v(x, y)}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic.
Cauchy\'s integral theorem implies that the contour integral of every holomorphic function along a loop vanishes:
$$\oint_\gamma f(z)\,\mathrm{d}z = 0.$$
Here `{{tmath|\gamma}}`{=mediawiki} is a rectifiable path in a simply connected complex domain `{{tmath|U \subset \C}}`{=mediawiki} whose start point is equal to its end point, and `{{tmath|f \colon U \to \C}}`{=mediawiki} is a holomorphic function.
Cauchy\'s integral formula states that every function holomorphic inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk\'s boundary. Furthermore: Suppose `{{tmath|U \subset \C}}`{=mediawiki} is a complex domain, `{{tmath|f\colon U \to \C}}`{=mediawiki} is a holomorphic function and the closed disk $D \equiv \{ z : | z - z_0 | \leq r \}$ is completely contained in `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}. Let `{{tmath|\gamma}}`{=mediawiki} be the circle forming the boundary of `{{tmath|D}}`{=mediawiki}. Then for every `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki} in the interior of `{{tmath|D}}`{=mediawiki}:
$$f(a) = \frac{ 1 }{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma \frac{f(z)}{z-a}\,\mathrm{d}z$$
where the contour integral is taken counter-clockwise.
The derivative `{{tmath|{f'}(a)}}`{=mediawiki} can be written as a contour integral using Cauchy\'s differentiation formula:
$$f'\!(a) = \frac{ 1 }{2\pi i} \oint_\gamma \frac{f(z)}{(z-a)^2}\,\mathrm{d}z,$$
for any simple loop positively winding once around `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki}, and
$$f'\!(a) = \lim\limits_{\gamma\to a} \frac{ i }{2\mathcal{A}(\gamma)} \oint_{\gamma}f(z)\,\mathrm{d}\bar{z},$$
for infinitesimal positive loops `{{tmath|\gamma}}`{=mediawiki} around `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki}.
In regions where the first derivative is not zero, holomorphic functions are conformal: they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures.
Every holomorphic function is analytic. That is, a holomorphic function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} has derivatives of every order at each point `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki} in its domain, and it coincides with its own Taylor series at `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki} in a neighbourhood of `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki}. In fact, `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} coincides with its Taylor series at `{{tmath|a}}`{=mediawiki} in any disk centred at that point and lying within the domain of the function.
From an algebraic point of view, the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a commutative ring and a complex vector space. Additionally, the set of holomorphic functions in an open set `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} is an integral domain if and only if the open set `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} is connected. In fact, it is a locally convex topological vector space, with the seminorms being the suprema on compact subsets.
From a geometric perspective, a function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic at `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} if and only if its exterior derivative `{{tmath|\mathrm{d}f}}`{=mediawiki} in a neighbourhood `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} is equal to `{{tmath| f'(z)\,\mathrm{d}z}}`{=mediawiki} for some continuous function `{{tmath|f'}}`{=mediawiki}. It follows from
$$0 = \mathrm{d}^2 f = \mathrm{d}(f'\,\mathrm{d}z) = \mathrm{d}f' \wedge \mathrm{d}z$$
that `{{tmath|\mathrm{d}f'}}`{=mediawiki} is also proportional to `{{tmath|\mathrm{d}z}}`{=mediawiki}, implying that the derivative `{{tmath|\mathrm{d}f'}}`{=mediawiki} is itself holomorphic and thus that `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is infinitely differentiable. Similarly, `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{d}(f\,\mathrm{d}z ) = f'\,\mathrm{d}z \wedge \mathrm{d}z = 0}}`{=mediawiki} implies that any function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} that is holomorphic on the simply connected region `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} is also integrable on `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}.
(For a path `{{tmath|\gamma}}`{=mediawiki} from `{{tmath|z_0}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki} lying entirely in `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}, define `{{tmath|1= F_\gamma(z) = F(0) + \int_\gamma f\,\mathrm{d}z }}`{=mediawiki}; in light of the Jordan curve theorem and the generalized Stokes\' theorem, `{{tmath|F_\gamma(z)}}`{=mediawiki} is independent of the particular choice of path `{{tmath|\gamma}}`{=mediawiki}, and thus `{{tmath|F(z)}}`{=mediawiki} is a well-defined function on `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} having `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{d}F = f\,\mathrm{d}z}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{tmath|1= f = \frac{\mathrm{d}F}{\mathrm{d}z} }}`{=mediawiki}.)
## Examples
All polynomial functions in `{{tmath|z}}`{=mediawiki} with complex coefficients are entire functions (holomorphic in the whole complex plane `{{tmath|\C}}`{=mediawiki}), and so are the exponential function `{{tmath|\exp z}}`{=mediawiki} and the trigonometric functions `{{tmath|1= \cos{z} = \tfrac{1}{2} \bigl( \exp(+iz) + \exp(-iz)\bigr)}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= \sin{z} = -\tfrac{1}{2} i \bigl(\exp(+iz) - \exp(-iz)\bigr)}}`{=mediawiki} (cf. Euler\'s formula). The principal branch of the complex logarithm function `{{tmath|\log z}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic on the domain `{{tmath|\C \smallsetminus \{ z \in \R : z \le 0\} }}`{=mediawiki}. The square root function can be defined as `{{tmath|\sqrt{z} \equiv \exp \bigl(\tfrac{1}{2} \log z\bigr) }}`{=mediawiki} and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm `{{tmath|\log z}}`{=mediawiki} is. The reciprocal function `{{tmath|\tfrac{1}{z} }}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic on `{{tmath| \C \smallsetminus \{ 0 \} }}`{=mediawiki}. (The reciprocal function, and any other rational function, is meromorphic on `{{tmath|\C}}`{=mediawiki}.)
As a consequence of the Cauchy--Riemann equations, any real-valued holomorphic function must be constant. Therefore, the absolute value `{{nobr|<math>|z|</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} the argument `{{tmath|\arg z}}`{=mediawiki}, the real part `{{tmath|\operatorname{Re}(z)}}`{=mediawiki} and the imaginary part `{{tmath|\operatorname{Im}(z)}}`{=mediawiki} are not holomorphic. Another typical example of a continuous function which is not holomorphic is the complex conjugate `{{tmath|\bar z.}}`{=mediawiki} (The complex conjugate is antiholomorphic.)
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# Holomorphic function
## Several variables {#several_variables}
The definition of a holomorphic function generalizes to several complex variables in a straightforward way. A function `{{tmath|f \colon ( z_1, z_2, \ldots, z_n ) \mapsto f( z_1, z_2, \ldots, z_n ) }}`{=mediawiki} in `{{tmath|n}}`{=mediawiki} complex variables is **analytic** at a point `{{tmath|p}}`{=mediawiki} if there exists a neighbourhood of `{{tmath|p}}`{=mediawiki} in which `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is equal to a convergent power series in `{{tmath|n}}`{=mediawiki} complex variables; the function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is **holomorphic** in an open subset `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{tmath|\C^n}}`{=mediawiki} if it is analytic at each point in `{{tmath|U}}`{=mediawiki}. Osgood\'s lemma shows (using the multivariate Cauchy integral formula) that, for a continuous function `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki}, this is equivalent to `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} being holomorphic in each variable separately (meaning that if any `{{tmath|n-1}}`{=mediawiki} coordinates are fixed, then the restriction of `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is a holomorphic function of the remaining coordinate). The much deeper Hartogs\' theorem proves that the continuity assumption is unnecessary: `{{tmath|f}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic if and only if it is holomorphic in each variable separately.
More generally, a function of several complex variables that is square integrable over every compact subset of its domain is analytic if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy--Riemann equations in the sense of distributions.
Functions of several complex variables are in some basic ways more complicated than functions of a single complex variable. For example, the region of convergence of a power series is not necessarily an open ball; these regions are logarithmically-convex Reinhardt domains, the simplest example of which is a polydisk. However, they also come with some fundamental restrictions. Unlike functions of a single complex variable, the possible domains on which there are holomorphic functions that cannot be extended to larger domains are highly limited. Such a set is called a domain of holomorphy.
A complex differential `{{tmath|(p,0)}}`{=mediawiki}-form `{{tmath|\alpha}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic if and only if its antiholomorphic Dolbeault derivative is zero: `{{tmath|1= \bar{\partial}\alpha = 0}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Extension to functional analysis {#extension_to_functional_analysis}
The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of functional analysis. For instance, the Fréchet or Gateaux derivative can be used to define a notion of a holomorphic function on a Banach space over the field of complex numbers
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# History of Zimbabwe
Until roughly 2,000 years ago, what would become Zimbabwe was populated by ancestors of the San people. Bantu inhabitants of the region arrived and developed ceramic production in the area. A series of trading empires emerged, including the Kingdom of Mapungubwe and Kingdom of Zimbabwe. In the 1880s, the British South Africa Company began its activities in the region, leading to the colonial era in Southern Rhodesia.
In 1965, the colonial government declared itself independent as Rhodesia, but largely failed to secure international recognition and faced sustained internal opposition in the Rhodesian Bush War.
After fifteen years of war, following the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979 there was a transition to internationally recognised majority rule in 1980. The United Kingdom, which had never recognised Rhodesian independence, briefly imposed direct rule in order to grant independence on 18 April that year as the new country of Zimbabwe. In the 2000s Zimbabwe\'s economy began to deteriorate due to various factors, including the imposition of economic sanctions by Western countries led by the United Kingdom and widespread corruption in government. Economic instability caused many Zimbabweans to emigrate. Prior to its recognized independence as Zimbabwe in 1980, the nation had been known by several names: Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia.
## Pre-Colonial era (150,000 BCE -- 1852 CE) {#pre_colonial_era_150000_bce_1852_ce}
### Prehistory
By 150,000 BC, *Homo sapiens* had migrated to the region now known as Zimbabwe from East Africa. Prior to the arrival of Bantu speakers in present-day Zimbabwe the region was populated by ancestors of the San people. The first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion around 2000 years ago.
These Bantu speakers were the makers of early Iron Age pottery belonging to the Silver Leaves or Matola tradition, of the third to fifth centuries A.D., found in southeast Zimbabwe. This tradition was part of the eastern stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kwale) which originated west of the Great Lakes, spreading to the coastal regions of southeastern Kenya and north eastern Tanzania, and then southwards to Mozambique, south eastern Zimbabwe and Natal. More substantial in numbers in Zimbabwe were the makers of the Ziwa and Gokomere ceramic wares, of the fourth century A.D. Their early Iron Age ceramic tradition belonged to the highlands facies of the eastern stream, which moved inland to Malawi and Zimbabwe. Imports of beads have been found at Gokomere and Ziwa sites, possibly in return for gold exported to the coast.
A later phase of the Gokomere culture was the Zhizo in southern Zimbabwe. Zhizo communities settled in the Shashe-Limpopo area in the tenth century. Their capital there was Schroda (just across the Limpopo River from Zimbabwe). Many fragments of ceramic figurines have been recovered from there, including figures of animals and birds, and also fertility dolls. The inhabitants produced ivory bracelets and other ivory goods. Imported beads found there and at other Zhizo sites, are evidence of trade, probably of ivory and skins, with traders on the Indian Ocean coast.
Pottery belonging to a western stream of Bantu expansion (sometimes called Kalundu) has been found at sites in northeastern Zimbabwe, dating back to the seventh century. (The western stream originated in the same area as the eastern stream: both belong to the same style system, called by Phillipson the Chifumbadze system, which has general acceptance by archaeologists.) The terms eastern and western streams represent the expansion of the Bantu-speaking peoples in terms of their culture. Another question is about the branches of the Bantu languages which they spoke. It seems that the makers of the Ziwa/Gokomere wares were not the ancestral speakers of the Shona languages of today\'s Zimbabwe, who did not arrive in there until around the tenth century, from south of the Limpopo river, and whose ceramic culture belonged to the western stream. The linguist and historian Ehret believes that in view of the similarity of the Ziwa/Gokomere pottery to the Nkope of the ancestral Nyasa language speakers, the Ziwa/Gokomere people spoke a language closely related to the Nyasa group. Their language, whatever it was, was superseded by the ancestral Shona languages, although Ehret says that a set of Nyasa words occur in central Shona dialects today.
The evidence that the ancestral Shona speakers came from South Africa is that the ceramic styles associated with Shona speakers in Zimbabwe from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries can be traced back to western stream (Kalunndu) pottery styles in South Africa. The Ziwa /Gokomere and Zhizo traditions were superseded by Leopards Kopje and Gumanye wares of the Kalundu tradition from the tenth century.
Although the western stream Kalundu tradition was ancestral to Shona ceramic wares, the closest relationships of the ancestral Shona language according to many linguists were with a southern division of eastern Bantu -- such languages as the southeastern languages (Nguni, Sotho-Tswana, Tsonga), Nyasa and Makwa. While it may well be the case that the people of the western stream spoke a language belonging to a wider Eastern Bantu division, it is a puzzle which remains to be resolved that they spoke a language most closely related to the languages just mentioned, all of which are today spoken in southeastern Africa.
After the Shona speaking people moved into the present day Zimbabwe many different dialects developed over time in the different parts of the country. Among these was Kalanga.
It is believed that Kalanga speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the early 12th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Kalanga states. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal. They traded in gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1250 until 1450, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. This Kalanga state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe\'s stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdom\'s capital of Great Zimbabwe. From c. 1450--1760, Zimbabwe gave way to the Kingdom of Mutapa. This Kalanga state ruled much of the area that is known as Zimbabwe today, and parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwenemutapa was known for its gold trade routes with Arabs and the Portuguese. António Fernandes, a Portuguese explorer, first entered the area in 1511 from Sofala and encountered the Manyika people. He returned in 1513 and explored the northern region of the territory, coming into contact with Chikuyo Chisamarengu, the ruler of Mutapa. In the early 17th century, Portuguese settlers destroyed the trade and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse. As a direct response to Portuguese aggression in the interior, a new Kalanga state emerged called the Rozvi Empire. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozvi (which means \"destroyers\") removed the Portuguese from the Zimbabwe plateau by force of arms. The Rozvi continued the stone building traditions of the Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe kingdoms while adding guns to its arsenal and developing a professional army to protect its trade routes and conquests. Around 1821, the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled from King Shaka and created his own clan, the Ndebele. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane. When Boer trekkers converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward.
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. During the pre-colonial period, the Ndebele social structure was stratified. It was composed mainly of three social groups, abeZansi, Enhla and Amahole. The Zansi were the ruling class of the original Khumalo people who migrated from south of Limpopo with Mzilikazi. The Enhla and Amahole groups were made up of other tribes and ethnics who had been incorporated into the empire during the migration. However, with the passage of time, this stratification has slowly disappeared The Ndebele people have for long ascribed to the worship of Unkunkulu as their supreme being. Their religious life in general, rituals, ceremonies, practices, devotion and loyalty revolves around the worship of this Supreme Being. However, with the popularisation of Christianity and other religions, Ndebele traditional religion is now uncommon.
Mzilikazi died in 1868 and, following a violent power struggle, was succeeded by his son, Lobengula. King Mzilikazi had established the Ndebele Kingdom, with Shona subjects paying tribute to him. The nascent kingdom encountered European powers for the first time and Lobengula signed various treaties with the various nations jostling for power in the region, playing them off one another in order to preserve the sovereignty of his kingdom and gain the aid of the Europeans should the kingdom become involved in a war.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## Colonial era (1890--1980) {#colonial_era_18901980}
In the 1880s, British diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes\' British South Africa Company (BSAC) started to make inroads into the region. In 1898, the name Southern Rhodesia was adopted. In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele peoples. Cecil Rhodes presented this concession to persuade the British government to grant a royal charter to his British South Africa Company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland. Rhodes sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika, then known as \'Zambesia\'. In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, Cecil Rhodes promoted the immigration of white settlers into the region, as well as the establishment of mines, primarily to extract the diamond ores present. In 1895 the BSAC adopted the name \'Rhodesia\' for the territory of Zambesia, in honour of Cecil Rhodes. In 1898, \'Southern Rhodesia\' became the official denotation for the region south of the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe. The region to the north was administered separately by the BSAC and later named Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).
The Shona waged unsuccessful wars (known as Chimurenga) against encroachment upon their lands by clients of BSAC and Cecil Rhodes in 1896 and 1897. Following the failed insurrections of 1896--97 the Ndebele and Shona groups became subject to Rhodes\'s administration thus precipitating European settlement en masse in the new colony.
The colony\'s first formal constitution was drafted in 1899, and copied various pieces of legislation directly from that of the Union of South Africa; Rhodesia was meant to be, in many ways, a shadow colony of the Cape. Many within the administrative framework of the BSAC assumed that Southern Rhodesia, when its \"development\" was \"suitably advanced\", would \"take its rightful place as a member of\" the Union of South Africa after the Second Boer War (1898--1902), when the four South African colonies joined under the auspices of one flag and began to work towards the creation of a unified administrative structure. The territory was made open to white settlement, and these settlers were then in turn given considerable administrative powers, including a franchise that, while on the surface non-racial, ensured \"a predominantly European electorate\" which \"operated to preclude Great Britain from modifying her policy in Southern Rhodesia and subsequently treating it as a territory inhabited mainly by Africans whose interests should be paramount and to whom British power should be transferred\".
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# History of Zimbabwe
## Colonial era (1890--1980) {#colonial_era_18901980}
### World War I {#world_war_i}
As a British territory, Southern Rhodesia immediately joined World War I after the UK declared war on the Central Powers, in August 1914. Rhodesia was noted for its patriotic zeal in joining the war. The main priority of British forces in Southern Africa was the capture of the German colony of South-West Africa, modern-day Namibia. A Rhodesian unit was sent to guard Victoria Falls from a possible German invasion via the Caprivi Strip. Meanwhile, a force was sent to assist British forces in South Africa suppressing the pro-German Maritz Rebellion. Afterwards, Rhodesians participated in the invasion of German South-West Africa.
Following the British victory over German forces in Southern Africa, many Rhodesian units, mostly white, were sent to the Western Front in Europe, where they took part in major battles of the war. A small number of Rhodesian soldiers saw action in the Salonika Front in Macedonia, and some even joined the Royal Flying Corps. Other Rhodesian regiments were sent to participate in the invasion of German East Africa, now Tanzania, in early 1915. A guerrilla war in the German colony began, and the fierce fighting and disease devastated the 2nd Rhodesian Regiment, leading to more regiments of native Africans being raised. By November 1918, the Central Powers surrendered to the Allies, ending World War I.
Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony in October 1923, subsequent to a referendum held the previous year. The British government took full command of the British South Africa Company\'s holdings, including both Northern and Southern Rhodesia. Northern Rhodesia retained its status as a colonial protectorate; Southern Rhodesia was given responsible self-government -- with limitations and still annexed to the crown as a colony. Many studies of the country see it as a state that operated independently within the Commonwealth; nominally under the rule of the Crown, but technically able to do as it pleased. And in theory, Southern Rhodesia was able to govern itself, draft its own legislation, and elect its own parliamentary leaders. But in reality, this was self-government subject to supervision. Until the white minority settler government\'s declaration of unilateral independence in 1965, London remained in control of the colony\'s external affairs, and all legislation was subject to approval from the United Kingdom Government and the Queen.
In 1930, the Land Apportionment Act divided rural land along racial lines, creating four types of land: white-owned land that could not be acquired by Africans; purchase areas for those Africans who could afford to purchase land; Tribal Trust Lands designated as the African reserves; and Crown lands owned by the state, reserved for future use and public parks. Fifty one percent of the land was given to approximately 50,000 white inhabitants, with 29.8 per cent left for over a million Africans.
Many Rhodesians served on behalf of the United Kingdom during World War II, mainly in the East African Campaign against Axis forces in Italian East Africa.
In 1953, the British government consolidated the two colonies of Rhodesia with Nyasaland (now Malawi) in the ill-fated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. This move was heavily opposed by the residents of Nyasaland, who feared coming under the domination of white Rhodesians. In 1962, however, with growing African nationalism and general dissent, the British government declared that Nyasaland had the right to secede from the Federation; soon afterwards, they said the same for Northern Rhodesia.
After African-majority governments had assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, the white-minority Southern Rhodesian government led by Ian Smith made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. The United Kingdom deemed this an act of rebellion, but did not re-establish control by force. The white minority government declared itself a republic in 1970. A civil war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo\'s ZAPU and Robert Mugabe\'s ZANU using assistance from the governments of Zambia and Mozambique. Although Smith\'s declaration was not recognised by the United Kingdom nor any other foreign power, Southern Rhodesia dropped the designation \"Southern\", and claimed nation status as the Republic of Rhodesia in 1970 although this was not recognised internationally.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## Independence and the 1980s {#independence_and_the_1980s}
The country gained official independence as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980. The government held independence celebrations in Rufaro stadium in Salisbury, the capital. Lord Christopher Soames, the last Governor of Southern Rhodesia, watched as Charles, Prince of Wales, gave a farewell salute and the Rhodesian Signal Corps played \"God Save the Queen\". Many foreign dignitaries also attended, including Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India, President Shehu Shagari of Nigeria, President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, President Seretse Khama of Botswana, and Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of Australia, representing the Commonwealth of Nations. Bob Marley sang \'Zimbabwe\', a song he wrote, at the government\'s invitation in a concert at the country\'s independence festivities.
President Shagari pledged \$15 million at the celebration to train Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe and expatriates in Nigeria. Mugabe\'s government used part of the money to buy newspaper companies owned by South Africans, increasing the government\'s control over the media. The rest went to training students in Nigerian universities, government workers in the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria in Badagry, and soldiers in the Nigerian Defence Academy in Kaduna. Later that year Mugabe commissioned a report by the BBC on press freedom in Zimbabwe. The BBC issued its report on 26 June, recommending the privatisation of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation and its independence from political interests.
Mugabe\'s government changed the capital\'s name from Salisbury to Harare on 18 April 1982 in celebration of the second anniversary of independence. The government renamed the main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique.
In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980. The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988 and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years. Enrollment increased by 232 per cent one year after primary education was made free and secondary school enrolment increased by 33 per cent in two years. These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio. Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps. However, the gaps remained considerable. In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men. Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband.
The new Constitution provided for an executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. Reverend Canaan Banana served as the first President. In government amended the Constitution in 1987 to provide for an Executive President and abolished the office of Prime Minister. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as president. The bicameral Parliament of Zimbabwe had a directly elected House of Assembly and an indirectly elected Senate, partly made up of tribal chiefs. The Constitution established two separate voters rolls, one for the black majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament, and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as Coloureds, people of mixed race, and Asians, who held 20%. The government amended the Constitution in 1986, eliminating the voter rolls and replacing the white seats with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU which then reappointed them. In 1990 the government abolished the Senate and increased the House of Assembly\'s membership to include members nominated by the President.
Prime Minister Mugabe kept Peter Walls, the head of the army, in his government and put him in charge of integrating the Zimbabwe People\'s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and the Rhodesian Army. While Western media outlets praised Mugabe\'s efforts at reconciliation with the white minority, tension soon developed. On 17 March 1980, after several unsuccessful assassination attempts Mugabe asked Walls, \"Why are your men trying to kill me?\" Walls replied, \"If they were my men you would be dead.\" BBC News interviewed Walls on 11 August 1980. He told the BBC that he had asked British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher to annul the 1980 election prior to the official announcement of the result on the grounds that Mugabe used intimidation to win the election. Walls said Thatcher had not replied to his request. On 12 August British government officials denied that they had not responded, saying Antony Duff, Deputy Governor of Salisbury, told Walls on 3 March that Thatcher would not annul the election.
Minister of Information Nathan Shamuyarira said the government would not be \"held ransom by racial misfits\" and told \"all those Europeans who do not accept the new order to pack their bags.\" He also said the government continued to consider taking \"legal or administrative action\" against Walls. Mugabe, returning from a visit with United States President Jimmy Carter in New York City, said, \"One thing is quite clear---we are not going to have disloyal characters in our society.\" Walls returned to Zimbabwe after the interview, telling Peter Hawthorne of *Time* magazine, \"To stay away at this time would have appeared like an admission of guilt.\" Mugabe drafted legislation that would exile Walls from Zimbabwe for life and Walls moved to South Africa.
Ethnic divisions soon came back to the forefront of national politics. Tension between ZAPU and ZANU erupted with guerrilla activity starting again in Matabeleland in south-western Zimbabwe. Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. In 1982 government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, accusing Nkomo and his followers of plotting to overthrow the government. Mugabe fired Nkomo and his closest aides from the cabinet. Seven MPs, members of the Rhodesian Front, left Smith\'s party to sit as \"independents\" on 4 March 1982, signifying their dissatisfaction with his policies. As a result of what they saw as persecution of Nkomo and his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, army deserters began a campaign of dissidence against the government. Centring primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were at the time PF-ZAPU\'s main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987. It involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.
Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and democratic sentiments, the government kept in force a \"state of emergency\". This gave the government widespread powers under the \"Law and Order Maintenance Act,\" including the right to detain persons without charge which it used quite widely. In 1983 to 1984 the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress members of the Ndebele tribe. The pacification campaign, known as the Gukuruhundi, or strong wind, resulted in at least 20,000 civilian deaths perpetrated by an elite, North Korean-trained brigade, known in Zimbabwe as the Gukurahundi.
ZANU-PF increased its majority in the 1985 elections, winning 67 of the 100 seats. The majority gave Mugabe the opportunity to start making changes to the constitution, including those with regard to land restoration. Fighting did not cease until Mugabe and Nkomo reached an agreement in December 1987 whereby ZAPU became part of ZANU-PF and the government changed the constitution to make Mugabe the country\'s first executive president and Nkomo one of two vice-presidents.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 1990s
Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. Election observers estimated voter turnout at only 54% and found the campaign neither free nor fair, though balloting met international standards. Unsatisfied with a *de facto* one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a *de jure* one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The government began further amending the constitution. The judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticised the first amendments enacted in April 1991 because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government. The general health of the civilian population also began to significantly flounder and by 1997 25% of the population of Zimbabwe had been infected by HIV, the AIDS virus.
During the 1990s students, trade unionists, and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in 1991 and 1992 when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers also criticised the government during this time. In 1992 police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994 widespread industrial unrest weakened the economy. In 1996 civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.
On 9 December 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by ZANLA ex-combatants, war veterans, who had been the heart of incursions 20 years earlier in the Bush War. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. The discontent with the government spawned draconian government crackdowns which in turn started to destroy both the fabric of the state and of society. This in turn brought with it further discontent within the population. Thus a vicious downward spiral commenced.
Although many whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring South Africa, those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of arable land. Mugabe raised this issue of land ownership by white farmers. In a calculated move, he began forcible land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called \'war veterans\' and youth militia. This led to a mass migration of White Zimbabweans out of Zimbabwe. At present almost no arable land is in the possession of white farmers.
### The economy during the 1980s and 1990s {#the_economy_during_the_1980s_and_1990s}
The economy was run along corporatist lines with strict governmental controls on all aspects of the economy. Controls were placed on wages, prices and massive increases in government spending resulting in significant budget deficits. This experiment met with very mixed results and Zimbabwe fell further behind the first world and unemployment. Some market reforms in the 1990s were attempted. A 40 per cent devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar was allowed to occur and price and wage controls were removed. These policies also failed at that time. Growth, employment, wages, and social service spending contracted sharply, inflation did not improve, the deficit remained well above target, and many industrial firms, notably in textiles and footwear, closed in response to increased competition and high real interest rates. The incidence of poverty in the country increased during this time.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 1999 to 2000 {#to_2000}
However, Zimbabwe began experiencing a period of considerable political and economic upheaval in 1999. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government grew considerably after the mid-1990s in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions brought about by the seizure of farmland owned by white farmers and economic sanctions imposed by Western countries in response. The Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) was established in September 1999 as an opposition party founded by trade unionist Morgan Tsvangirai.
The MDC\'s first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorised government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organised group of war veterans, some of the so-called war veterans judging from their age were not war veterans as they were too young to have fought in the chimurenga, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterised by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.
Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localised violence, electoral irregularities, and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.
## 2002
Presidential elections were held in March 2002. In the months leading up to the poll, ZANU-PF, with the support of the army, security services, and especially the so-called \'war veterans\', -- very few of whom actually fought in the Second Chimurenga against the Smith regime in the 1970s -- set about wholesale intimidation and suppression of the MDC-led opposition. Despite strong international criticism, these measures, together with organised subversion of the electoral process, ensured a Mugabe victory . The government\'s behaviour drew strong criticism from the EU and the US, which imposed limited sanctions against the leading members of the Mugabe regime. Since the 2002 election, Zimbabwe has suffered further economic difficulty and growing political chaos.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 2003--2005 {#section_1}
Divisions within the opposition MDC had begun to fester early in the decade, after Morgan Tsvangirai (the president of the MDC) was lured into a government sting operation that videotaped him talking of Mr. Mugabe\'s removal from power. He was subsequently arrested and put on trial on treason charges. This crippled his control of party affairs and raised questions about his competence. It also catalysed a major split within the party. In 2004 he was acquitted, but not until after suffering serious abuse and mistreatment in prison. The opposing faction was led by Welshman Ncube who was the general secretary of the party. In mid-2004, vigilantes loyal to Mr. Tsvangirai began attacking members who were mostly loyal to Ncube, climaxing in a September raid on the party\'s Harare headquarters in which the security director was nearly thrown to his death.
An internal party inquiry later established that aides to Tsvangirai had tolerated, if not endorsed, the violence. Divisive as the violence was, it was a debate over the rule of law that set off the party\'s final break-up in November 2005. These division severely weakened the opposition. In addition the government employed its own operatives to both spy on each side and to undermine each side via acts of espionage. Zimbabwean parliamentary election, 2005 were held in March 2005 in which ZANU-PF won a two-thirds majority, were again criticised by international observers as being flawed. Mugabe\'s political operatives were thus able to weaken the opposition internally and the security apparatus of the state was able to destabilise it externally by using violence in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting. Some voters were \'turned away\' from polling station despite having proper identification, further guaranteeing that the government could control the results. Additionally Mugabe had started to appoint judges sympathetic to the government, making any judicial appeal futile. Mugabe was also able to appoint 30 of the members of parliament.
As Senate elections approached further opposition splits occurred. Ncube\'s supporters argued that the M.D.C. should field a slate of candidates; Tsvangirai\'s argued for a boycott. When party leaders voted on the issue, Ncube\'s side narrowly won, but Mr. Tsvangirai declared that as president of the party he was not bound by the majority\'s decision. Again the opposition was weakened. As a result, the elections for a new Senate in November 2005 were largely boycotted by the opposition. Mugabe\'s party won 24 of the 31 constituencies where elections were held amid low voter turnout. Again, evidence surfaced of voter intimidation and fraud.
In May 2005 the government began Operation Murambatsvina. It was officially billed to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. In practice its purpose was to punish political opponents. The UN estimates 700,000 people have been left without jobs or homes as a result. Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government\'s statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe\'s winter., . The government interfered with non-governmental organisation (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances. Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced.
Human Rights Watch said the evictions had disrupted treatment for people with HIV/AIDS in a country where 3,000 die from the disease each week and about 1.3 million children have been orphaned. The operation was \"the latest manifestation of a massive human rights problem that has been going on for years\", said Amnesty International. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006, albeit on a lesser scale.
In September 2005 Mugabe signed constitutional amendments that reinstituted a national senate (abolished in 1987) and that nationalised all land. This converted all ownership rights into leases. The amendments also ended the right of landowners to challenge government expropriation of land in the courts and marked the end of any hope of returning any land that had been hitherto grabbed by armed land invasions. Elections for the senate in November resulted in a victory for the government. The MDC split over whether to field candidates and partially boycotted the vote. In addition to low turnout there was widespread government intimidation. The split in the MDC hardened into factions, each of which claimed control of the party. The early months of 2006 were marked by food shortages and mass hunger. The sheer extremity of the siltation was revealed by the fact that in the courts, state witnesses said they were too weak from hunger to testify.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 2006 to 2007 {#to_2007}
In August 2006 runaway inflation forced the government to replace its existing currency with a revalued one. In December 2006, ZANU-PF proposed the \"harmonisation\" of the parliamentary and presidential election schedules in 2010; the move was seen by the opposition as an excuse to extend Mugabe\'s term as president until 2010.
Morgan Tsvangirai was badly beaten on 12 March 2007 after being arrested and held at Machipisa Police Station in the Highfield suburb of Harare. The event garnered an international outcry and was considered particularly brutal and extreme, even considering the reputation of Mugabe\'s government. Kolawole Olaniyan, Director of Amnesty International\'s Africa Programme said \"We are very concerned by reports of continuing brutal attacks on opposition activists in Zimbabwe and call on the government to stop all acts of violence and intimidation against opposition activists\".
The economy has shrunk by 50% from 2000 to 2007. In September 2007 the inflation rate was put at almost 8,000%, the world\'s highest. There are frequent power and water outages. Harare\'s drinking water became unreliable in 2006 and as a consequence dysentery and cholera swept the city in December 2006 and January 2007. Unemployment in formal jobs is running at a record 80%. There was widespread hunger, manipulated by the government so that opposition strongholds suffer the most. Availability of bread was severely constrained after a poor wheat harvest and the closure of all bakeries.
The country, which used to be one of Africa\'s richest, became one of its poorest. Many observers now view the country as a \'failed state\'. The settlement of the Second Congo War brought back Zimbabwe\'s substantial military commitment, although some troops remain to secure the mining assets under their control. The government lacks the resources or machinery to deal with the ravages of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, which affects 25% of the population. With all this and the forced and violent removal of white farmers in a brutal land redistribution program, Mugabe has earned himself widespread scorn from the international arena.
The regime has managed to cling to power by creating wealthy enclaves for government ministers, and senior party members. For example, Borrowdale Brook, a suburb of Harare is an oasis of wealth and privilege. It features mansions, manicured lawns, full shops with fully stocked shelves containing an abundance of fruit and vegetables, big cars and a golf club give is the home to President Mugabe\'s out-of-town retreat.
Zimbabwe\'s bakeries shut down in October 2007 and supermarkets warned that they would have no bread for the foreseeable future due to collapse in wheat production after the seizure of white-owned farms. The ministry of agriculture has also blamed power shortages for the wheat shortfall, saying that electricity cuts have affected irrigation and halved crop yields per acre. The power shortages are because Zimbabwe relies on Mozambique for some of its electricity and that due to an unpaid bill of \$35 million Mozambique had reduced the amount of electrical power it supplies. On 4 December 2007, The United States imposed travel sanctions against 38 people with ties to President Mugabe because they \"played a central role in the regime\'s escalated human rights abuses.\"
On 8 December 2007, Mugabe attended a meeting of EU and African leaders in Lisbon, prompting UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown to decline to attend. While German chancellor Angela Merkel criticised Mugabe with her public comments, the leaders of other African countries offered him statements of support.
### Deterioration of the educational system {#deterioration_of_the_educational_system}
The educational system in Zimbabwe, which was once regarded as among the best in Africa, went into crisis in 2007 because of the country\'s economic meltdown. One foreign reporter witnessed hundreds of children at Hatcliffe Extension Primary School in Epworth, 12 mi west of Harare, writing in the dust on the floor because they had no exercise books or pencils. The high school exam system unravelled in 2007. Examiners refused to mark examination papers when they were offered just Z\$79 a paper, enough to buy three small candies. Corruption has crept into the system and may explain why in January 2007 thousands of pupils received no marks for subjects they had entered, while others were deemed \"excellent\" in subjects they had not sat. However, as of late`{{When|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} the education system has recovered and is still considered the best in Southern Africa.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 2008 {#section_2}
### 2008 elections
Zimbabwe held a presidential election along with a 2008 parliamentary election of 29 March. The three major candidates were incumbent President Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union -- Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change -- Tsvangirai (MDC-T), and Simba Makoni, an independent. As no candidate received an outright majority in the first round, a second round was held on 27 June 2008 between Tsvangirai (with 47.9% of the first round vote) and Mugabe (43.2%). Tsvangirai withdrew from the second round a week before it was scheduled to take place, citing violence against his party\'s supporters. The second round went ahead, despite widespread criticism, and led to victory for Mugabe.
Because of Zimbabwe\'s dire economic situation the election was expected to provide President Mugabe with his toughest electoral challenge to date. Mugabe\'s opponents were critical of the handling of the electoral process, and the government was accused of planning to rig the election; Human Rights Watch said that the election was likely to be \"deeply flawed\". After the first round, but before the counting was completed, Jose Marcos Barrica, the head of the Southern African Development Community observer mission, described the election as \"a peaceful and credible expression of the will of the people of Zimbabwe.\"
No official results were announced for more than a month after the first round. The failure to release results was strongly criticised by the MDC, which unsuccessfully sought an order from the High Court to force their release. An independent projection placed Tsvangirai in the lead, but without the majority needed to avoid a second round. The MDC declared that Tsvangirai won a narrow majority in the first round and initially refused to participate in any second round. ZANU-PF has said that Mugabe will participate in a second round; the party alleged that some electoral officials, in connection with the MDC, fraudulently reduced Mugabe\'s score, and as a result a recount was conducted.
After the recount and the verification of the results, the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) announced on 2 May that Tsvangirai won 47.9% and Mugabe won 43.2%, thereby necessitating a run-off, which was to be held on 27 June 2008. Despite Tsvangirai\'s continuing claims to have won a first round majority, he refused to participate in the second round. The period following the first round was marked by serious political violence caused by ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF blamed the MDC supporters for perpetrating this violence; Western governments and prominent Western organisations have blamed ZANU-PF for the violence which seems very likely to be true. On 22 June 2008, Tsvangirai announced that he was withdrawing from the run-off, describing it as a \"violent sham\" and saying that his supporters risked being killed if they voted for him. The second round nevertheless went ahead as planned with Mugabe as the only actively participating candidate, although Tsvangirai\'s name remained on the ballot. Mugabe won the second round by an overwhelming margin and was sworn in for another term as president on 29 June.
The international reaction to the second round have varied. The United States and states of the European Union have called for increased sanctions. On 11 July, the United Nations Security Council voted to impose sanctions on the Zimbabwe; Russia and China vetoed. The African Union has called for a \"government of national unity.\"
Preliminary talks to set up conditions for official negotiations began between leading negotiators from both parties on 10 July, and on 22 July, the three party leaders met for the first time in Harare to express their support for a negotiated settlement of disputes arising out of the presidential and parliamentary elections. Negotiations between the parties officially began on 25 July and are currently proceeding with very few details released from the negotiation teams in Pretoria, as coverage by the media is barred from the premises where the negotiations are taking place. The talks were mediated by South African President Thabo Mbeki.
On 15 September 2008, the leaders of the 14-member Southern African Development Community witnessed the signing of the power-sharing agreement, brokered by South African leader Thabo Mbeki. With symbolic handshake and warm smiles at the Rainbow Towers hotel, in Harare, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed the deal to end the violent political crisis. As provided, Robert Mugabe will remain president, Morgan Tsvangirai will become prime minister, ZANU-PF and the MDC will share control of the police, Mugabe\'s Zanu (PF) will command the Army, and Arthur Mutambara becomes deputy prime minister.
### Marange diamond fields massacre {#marange_diamond_fields_massacre}
In November 2008 the Air Force of Zimbabwe was sent, after some police officers began refusing orders to shoot the illegal miners at Marange diamond fields. Up to 150 of the estimated 30,000 illegal miners were shot from helicopter gunships. In 2008 some Zimbabwean lawyers and opposition politicians from Mutare claimed that Shiri was the prime mover behind the military assaults on illegal diggers in the diamond mines in the east of Zimbabwe. Estimates of the death toll by mid-December range from 83 reported by the Mutare City Council, based on a request for burial ground, to 140 estimated by the (then) opposition Movement for Democratic Change - Tsvangirai party.
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# History of Zimbabwe
## 2009 to present {#to_present}
### 2009--2017 {#section_3}
In January 2009, Morgan Tsvangirai announced that he would do as the leaders across Africa had insisted and join a coalition government as prime minister with his nemesis, President Robert Mugabe . On 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe. By 2009 inflation had peaked at 500 billion % per year under the Mugabe government and the Zimbabwe currency was worthless. The opposition shared power with the Mugabe regime between 2009 and 2013, Zimbabwe switched to using the US dollar as currency and the economy improved reaching a growth rate of 10% per year.
In 2013 the Mugabe government won an election which The Economist described as \"rigged,\" doubled the size of the civil service and embarked on \"\...misrule and dazzling corruption.\" However, the United Nations, African Union and SADC endorsed the elections as free and fair. By 2016 the economy had collapsed, nationwide protests took place throughout the country and the finance minister admitted \"Right now we literally have nothing.\" There was the introduction of bond notes to literally fight the biting cash crisis and liquidity crunch. Special Historical bonds was created to help the economy but never seen the light and was kept by the then President Robert Mugabe. Cash became scarce on the market in the year 2017.
On Wednesday 15 November 2017 the military placed President Mugabe under house arrest and removed him from power. The military stated that the president was safe. The military placed tanks around government buildings in Harare and blocked the main road to the airport. Public opinion in the capital favored the dictators removal although they were uncertain about his replacement with another dictatorship. The Times reported that Emmerson Mnangagwa helped to orchestrate the coup. He had recently been sacked by Mr Mugabe so that the path could be smoothed for Grace Mugabe to replace her husband. A Zimbabwean army officer, Major General Sibusiso Moyo, went on television to say the military was targeting \"criminals\" around President Mugabe but not actively removing the president from power. However the head of the African Union described it as such.
Ugandan writer Charles Onyango-Obbo stated on Twitter \"If it looks like a coup, walks like a coup and quacks like a coup, then it\'s a coup\". Naunihal Singh, an assistant professor at the U.S. Naval War College and author of a book on military coups, described the situation in Zimbabwe as a coup. He tweeted that \"\'The President is safe\' is a classic coup catch-phrase\" of such an event.
Robert Mugabe resigned 21 November 2017. Second Vice-president Phelekezela Mphoko became the Acting President. Former Vice-president and new ZANU-PF -leader, Emmerson Mnangagwa, was sworn in as president on 24 November 2017.
### 2018--2019 {#section_4}
General elections were held on 30 July 2018 to elect the president and members of both houses of parliament. Ruling party ZANU-PF won the majority of seats in parliament, incumbent President Emmerson Mnangagwa was declared the winner after receiving 50.8% of votes. The opposition accused the government of rigging the vote. In subsequent riots by MDC supporters, the army opened fire and killed three people, while three others died of their injuries the following day.
In January 2019 following a 130% increase in the price of fuel thousands of Zimbabweans protested and the government responded with a coordinated crackdown that resulted in hundreds of arrests and multiple deaths.
In September 2019, former president Robert Mugabe died in Singapore, aged 95.
In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country\'s land to the carbon offset company Blue Carbon.
**Economic statistics 2021**
GDP growth in Zimbabwe is projected to reach 3.9% in 2021, a significant improvement after a two-year recession, according to the World Bank Zimbabwe Economic Update.
### 2023 Zimbabwean general election {#zimbabwean_general_election}
In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second term in an outcome of the election rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers
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# Hertz
, `{{val|1.0|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{val|2.0|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, at 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 flashes per second, respectively. The time between each flash -- the *period* *T* -- is given by `{{frac|1|''f''}}`{=mediawiki} (the reciprocal of *f*`{{px1}}`{=mediawiki}); that is, 2, 1 and 0.5 seconds, respectively. \| standard = SI \| quantity = frequency \| symbol = Hz \| dimension = T^−1^ \| namedafter = Heinrich Hertz \| extralabel = In SI base units \| extradata = s^−1^ }}
The **hertz** (symbol: **Hz**) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), often described as being equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose formal expression in terms of SI base units is 1/s or s^−1^, meaning that one hertz is one per second or the reciprocal of one second. It is used only in the case of periodic events. It is named after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857--1894), the first person to provide conclusive proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. For high frequencies, the unit is commonly expressed in multiples: kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), gigahertz (GHz), terahertz (THz).
Some of the unit\'s most common uses are in the description of periodic waveforms and musical tones, particularly those used in radio- and audio-related applications. It is also used to describe the clock speeds at which computers and other electronics are driven. The units are sometimes also used as a representation of the energy of a photon, via the Planck relation *E* = *hν*, where *E* is the photon\'s energy, *ν* is its frequency, and *h* is the Planck constant.
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# Hertz
## Definition
The hertz is defined as one per second for periodic events. The International Committee for Weights and Measures defined the second as \"the duration of `{{val|9192631770}}`{=mediawiki} periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom\" and then adds: \"It follows that the hyperfine splitting in the ground state of the caesium 133 atom is exactly `{{val|9192631770|u=hertz}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nowrap|1=''ν''<sub>hfs Cs</sub> = {{val|9192631770|u=Hz}}}}`{=mediawiki}.\" The dimension of the unit hertz is 1/time (T^−1^). Expressed in base SI units, the unit is the reciprocal second (1/s).
In English, \"hertz\" is also used as the plural form. As an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed; commonly used multiples are kHz (kilohertz, `{{val|e=3|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}), MHz (megahertz, `{{val|e=6|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}), GHz (gigahertz, `{{val|e=9|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}) and THz (terahertz, `{{val|e=12|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}). One hertz (i.e. one per second) simply means \"one periodic event occurs per second\" (where the event being counted may be a complete cycle); `{{val|100|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} means \"one hundred periodic events occur per second\", and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event---for example, a clock might be said to tick at `{{val|1|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}, or a human heart might be said to beat at `{{val|1.2|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}.
The occurrence rate of aperiodic or stochastic events is expressed in *reciprocal second* or *inverse second* (1/s or s^−1^) in general or, in the specific case of radioactivity, in becquerels. Whereas `{{val|1|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} (one per second) specifically refers to one cycle (or periodic event) per second, `{{val|1|u=Bq}}`{=mediawiki} (also one per second) specifically refers to one radionuclide event per second on average.
Even though frequency, angular velocity, angular frequency and radioactivity all have the dimension T^−1^, of these only frequency is expressed using the unit hertz. Thus a disc rotating at 60 revolutions per minute (rpm) is said to have an angular velocity of 2`{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} rad/s and a frequency of rotation of `{{val|1|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}. The correspondence between a frequency *f* with the unit hertz and an angular velocity *ω* with the unit radians per second is
$$\omega = 2\pi f$$ and $f = \frac{\omega}{2\pi} .$
## History
The hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857--1894), who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in 1935. It was adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) (*Conférence générale des poids et mesures*) in 1960, replacing the previous name for the unit, \"cycles per second\" (cps), along with its related multiples, primarily \"kilocycles per second\" (kc/s) and \"megacycles per second\" (Mc/s), and occasionally \"kilomegacycles per second\" (kMc/s). The term \"cycles per second\" was largely replaced by \"hertz\" by the 1970s.`{{Failed verification|date=June 2022|reason=The 1967 citation obviously doesn't say what happened in the 1970s.}}`{=mediawiki}
In some usage, the \"per second\" was omitted, so that \"megacycles\" (Mc) was used as an abbreviation of \"megacycles per second\" (that is, megahertz (MHz)).
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# Hertz
## Applications
thumb\|upright=1.8\|A sine wave with varying frequency thumb\|upright=1.8\|A heartbeat is an example of a non-sinusoidal periodic phenomenon that may be analyzed in terms of frequency. Two cycles are illustrated.
### Sound and vibration {#sound_and_vibration}
Sound is a traveling longitudinal wave, which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive the frequency of a sound as its pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a particular frequency. An infant\'s ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from `{{val|20|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{val|20000|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}; the average adult human can hear sounds between `{{val|20|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{val|16000|u=Hz}}`{=mediawiki}. The range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtohertz into the terahertz range and beyond.
### `{{anchor|Electricity}}`{=mediawiki} Electromagnetic radiation {#electromagnetic_radiation}
Electromagnetic radiation is often described by its frequency---the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second---expressed in hertz.
Radio frequency radiation is usually measured in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), or gigahertz (GHz), with the latter known as microwaves. Light is electromagnetic radiation that is even higher in frequency, and has frequencies in the range of tens of terahertz (THz, infrared) to a few petahertz (PHz, ultraviolet), with the visible spectrum being 400--790 THz. Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the low terahertz range (intermediate between those of the highest normally usable radio frequencies and long-wave infrared light) is often called terahertz radiation. Even higher frequencies exist, such as that of X-rays and gamma rays, which can be measured in exahertz (EHz).
For historical reasons, the frequencies of light and higher frequency electromagnetic radiation are more commonly specified in terms of their wavelengths or photon energies: for a more detailed treatment of this and the above frequency ranges, see *Electromagnetic spectrum*.
### Gravitational waves {#gravitational_waves}
Current`{{when |date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} observations of gravitational waves are conducted in the 30--7000 Hz range by laser interferometers like LIGO, and the nanohertz (1--1000 nHz) range by pulsar timing arrays. Future space-based detectors are planned to fill in the gap, with LISA operating from 0.1--10 mHz (with some sensitivity from 10 μHz to 100 mHz), and DECIGO in the 0.1--10 Hz range.
### Computers
In computers, most central processing units (CPU) are labeled in terms of their clock rate expressed in megahertz (`{{val|u=MHz}}`{=mediawiki}) or gigahertz (`{{val|u=GHz}}`{=mediawiki}). This specification refers to the frequency of the CPU\'s master clock signal. This signal is nominally a square wave, which is an electrical voltage that switches between low and high logic levels at regular intervals. As the hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the performance of a CPU, many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark. Some processors use multiple clock cycles to perform a single operation, while others can perform multiple operations in a single cycle. For personal computers, CPU clock speeds have ranged from approximately `{{val|1|u=MHz}}`{=mediawiki} in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to up to `{{val|6|u=GHz}}`{=mediawiki} in IBM Power microprocessors.
Various computer buses, such as the front-side bus connecting the CPU and northbridge, also operate at various frequencies in the megahertz range.
## SI multiples {#si_multiples}
Higher frequencies than the International System of Units provides prefixes for are believed to occur naturally in the frequencies of the quantum-mechanical vibrations of massive particles, although these are not directly observable and must be inferred through other phenomena. By convention, these are typically not expressed in hertz, but in terms of the equivalent energy, which is proportional to the frequency by the factor of the Planck constant.
## Unicode
The CJK Compatibility block in Unicode contains characters for common SI units for frequency. These are intended for compatibility with East Asian character encodings, and not for use in new documents (which would be expected to use Latin letters, e.g. \"MHz\")
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# Heroic couplet
A **heroic couplet** is a traditional form for English poetry, commonly used in epic and narrative poetry, and consisting of a rhyming pair of lines in iambic pentameter. Use of the heroic couplet was pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the *Legend of Good Women* and the *Canterbury Tales*, and generally considered to have been perfected by John Dryden and Alexander Pope in the Restoration Age and early 18th century respectively.
## Example
A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from *Cooper\'s Hill* by John Denham, part of his description of the Thames:
## History
The term \"heroic couplet\" is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely *closed* and self-contained, as opposed to the enjambed couplets of poets like John Donne. The heroic couplet is often identified with the English Baroque works of John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who used the form for their translations of the epics of Virgil and Homer, respectively. Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are Samuel Johnson\'s *The Vanity of Human Wishes*, Oliver Goldsmith\'s *The Deserted Village*, and John Keats\'s *Lamia*. The form was immensely popular in the 18th century. The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the Canterbury Tales.
## Variations
English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers, are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional alexandrine, or hexameter line, and triplet. Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax. The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of poetic closure. Here are two examples from Book IV of Dryden\'s translation of the *Aeneid*.
### *Alexandrine*
### *Alexandrine and Triplet* {#alexandrine_and_triplet}
## Modern use {#modern_use}
Twentieth-century authors have occasionally made use of the heroic couplet, often as an allusion to the works of poets of previous centuries. An example of this is Vladimir Nabokov\'s novel *Pale Fire*, the second section of which is a 999-line, 4-canto poem largely written in loose heroic couplets with frequent enjambment. Here is an example from the first canto:
The use of heroic couplets in translations of Greco-Roman epics has also inspired translations of non-Western works into English. In 2021, Vietnamese translator Nguyen Binh published a translation of the Vietnamese epic poem *Tale of Kiều*, in which the *lục bát* couplets of the original were rendered into heroic couplets. Binh named John Dryden and Alexander Pope as major influences on their work, which also mimicked the spelling of Dryden and Pope\'s translations to evoke the medieval air of the Vietnamese original
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# Höðr
**Höðr** (*Hǫðr* `{{IPA|non|ˈhɔðz̠||Höðr (RP).ogg}}`{=mediawiki}, Latin **Hotherus**; often anglicized as **Hod**, **Hoder**, or **Hodur**) is a god in Norse mythology. The blind son of Odin, he is tricked and guided by Loki into shooting a mistletoe arrow which was to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr.
According to the *Prose Edda* and the *Poetic Edda*, the goddess Frigg, Baldr\'s mother, made everything in existence swear never to harm Baldr, except for the mistletoe, which she found too unimportant to ask (alternatively, which she found too young to demand an oath from). The gods amused themselves by trying weapons on Baldr and seeing them fail to do any harm. Loki, the mischief-maker, upon finding out about Baldr\'s one weakness, made a spear from mistletoe, and helped Höðr shoot it at Baldr. In reaction to this, Odin and Rindr gave birth to Váli, who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr.
The Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus recorded an alternative version of this myth in his *Gesta Danorum*. In this version, the mortal hero **Høtherus** and the demi-god *Balderus* compete for the hand of Nanna. Ultimately, Høtherus slays Balderus.
## Name
According to scholar Andy Orchard, the theonym *Hǫðr* can be translated as \'warrior\'. Jan de Vries and Vladimir Orel write that is comparable with Old Norse *hǫð* (\'war, slaughter\'), and related to Old English *heaðu-deór* (\'brave, stout in war\'), from Proto-Germanic *\*haþuz* (\'battle\'; cf. Old High German *hadu*-, Old Saxon *hathu*-*,* Old Frisian *-had*, Burgundian \**haþus*).
## Attestations
### The *Prose Edda* {#the_prose_edda}
In the *Gylfaginning* part of Snorri Sturluson\'s Prose Edda Höðr is introduced in an ominous way.
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*Höðr heitir einn ássinn, hann er blindr. Œrit er hann styrkr, en vilja mundu goðin at þenna ás þyrfti eigi at nefna, þvíat hans handaverk munu lengi vera höfð at minnum með goðum ok mönnum.* `{{nowrap| — Eysteinn Björnsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} \"One of the Æsir is named Hödr: He is blind. He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki}
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Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr\'s death is described. All things except the mistletoe (believed to be harmless) have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr, so the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport.
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| *En Loki tók mistiltein ok sleit upp ok gekk til þings. En Höðr stóð útarliga í mannhringinum, þvíat hann var blindr. Þá mælti Loki við hann: \"Hví skýtr þú ekki at Baldri?\" Hann svarar: \"Þvíat ek sé eigi hvar Baldr er, ok þat annat at ek em vápnlauss.\" Þá mælti Loki: \"Gerðu þó í líking annarra manna ok veit Baldri sœmð sem aðrir menn. Ek mun vísa þér til hvar hann stendr. Skjót at honum vendi þessum.\"* | \"Loki took Mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing. | |
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| *Höðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvísun Loka. Flaug skotit í gögnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar. Ok hefir þat mest óhapp verit unnit með goðum ok mönnum.* `{{nowrap| — Eysteinn Björnsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} | Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind. Then spake Loki to him: \'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?\' He answered: \'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.\' Then said Loki: \'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do. I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.\' Hödr took Mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: The shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among gods and men.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki} | |
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The *Gylfaginning* does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately.
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*Þá er Baldr var fallinn, þá fellusk öllum ásum orðtök ok svá hendr at taka til hans, ok sá hverr til annars ok váru allir með einum hug til þess er unnit hafði verkit. En engi mátti hefna, þar var svá mikill griðastaðr.* `{{nowrap| — Eysteinn Björnsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} \"Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki}
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It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in Hel one way or another for the last mention of him in *Gylfaginning* is in the description of the post-Ragnarök world.
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*Því næst koma þar Baldr ok Höðr frá Heljar, setjask þá allir samt ok talask við ok minnask á rúnar sínar ok rœða of tíðindi þau er fyrrum höfðu verit, of Miðgarðsorm ok um Fenrisúlf.* `{{nowrap| — Eysteinn Björnsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} \"After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those happenings which have been before: of the Midgard Serpent and of Fenris-Wolf.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki}
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Snorri\'s source of this knowledge is clearly *Völuspá* as quoted below.
In the *Skáldskaparmál* section of the Prose Edda several kennings for Höðr are related.
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*Hvernig skal kenna Höð? Svá, at kalla hann blinda ás, Baldrs bana, skjótanda Mistilteins, son Óðins, Heljar sinna, Vála dólg.* `{{nowrap| — Guðni Jónsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} \"How should one periphrase Hödr? Thus: by calling him the Blind God, Baldr\'s Slayer, Thrower of the Mistletoe, Son of Odin, Companion of Hel, Foe of Váli.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki}
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None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving skaldic poetry. Neither are Snorri\'s kennings for Váli, which are also of interest in this context.
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*Hvernig skal kenna Vála? Svá, at kalla hann son Óðins ok Rindar, stjúpson Friggjar, bróður ásanna, hefniás Baldrs, dólg Haðar ok bana hans, byggvanda föðurtófta.* `{{nowrap| — Guðni Jónsson's edition}}`{=mediawiki} \"How should Váli be periphrased? Thus: by calling him Son of Odin and Rindr, Stepson of Frigg, Brother of the Æsir, Baldr\'s Avenger, Foe and Slayer of Hödr, Dweller in the Homesteads of the Fathers.\" `{{nowrap| — Brodeur's translation}}`{=mediawiki}
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It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr\'s slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the *Gylfaginning* prose. Some scholars have speculated that he found it distasteful, since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story.
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# Höðr
## Attestations
### The *Poetic Edda* {#the_poetic_edda}
Höðr is referred to several times in the Poetic Edda, always in the context of Baldr\'s death. The following strophes are from *Völuspá*.
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| : *Ek sá Baldri,* | : I saw for Baldr, | : I saw for Baldr--- | |
| : *blóðgom tívur,* | : the bleeding god, | : for the bloodstained sacrifice, | |
| : *Óðins barni,* | : The son of Othin, | : Óðinn\'s child--- | |
| : *ørlög fólgin:* | : his destiny set: | : the fates set hidden. | |
| : *stóð um vaxinn* | : Famous and fair | : There stood full-grown, | |
| : *völlum hærri* | : in the lofty fields, | : higher than the plains, | |
| : *mjór ok mjök fagr* | : Full grown in strength | : slender and most fair, | |
| : *mistilteinn.* | : the mistletoe stood. | : the mistletoe. | |
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| : *Varð af þeim meiði,* | : From the branch which seemed | : There formed from that stem | |
| : *er mær sýndisk,* | : so slender and fair | : which was slender-seeming, | |
| : *harmflaug hættlig:* | : Came a harmful shaft | : a shaft of anguish, perilous: | |
| : *Höðr nam skjóta.* | : that Hoth should hurl; | : Hǫðr started shooting. | |
| : *Baldrs bróðir var* | : But the brother of Baldr | : A brother of Baldr | |
| : *of borinn snemma,* | : was born ere long, | : was born quickly: | |
| : *sá nam, Óðins sonr,* | : And one night old | : he started---Óðinn\'s son--- | |
| : *einnættr vega.* | : fought Othin\'s son. | : slaying, at one night old. | |
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| : *Þó hann æva hendr* | : His hands he washed not, | : He never washed hands, | |
| : *né höfuð kembði,* | : his hair he combed not, | : never combed head, | |
| : *áðr á bál um bar* | : Till he bore to the bale-blaze | : till he bore to the pyre | |
| : *Baldrs andskota.* | : Baldr\'s foe. | : Baldr\'s adversary--- | |
| : *En Frigg um grét* | : But in Fensalir | : while Frigg wept | |
| : *í Fensölum* | : did Frigg weep sore | : in Fen Halls | |
| : *vá Valhallar -* | : For Valhall\'s need: | : for Valhǫll\'s woe. | |
| : *vituð ér enn, eða hvat?* | : would you know yet more? | : Do you still seek to know? And what? | |
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| : \- Eysteinn Björnsson\'s edition | : \- Bellows\' translation | : \- Ursula Dronke\'s translation | |
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This account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr\'s avenging brother is emphasized.
Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in *Völuspá*\'s description of the world after Ragnarök.
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| : *Munu ósánir* | : Unsown shall | |
| : *akrar vaxa,* | : the fields bring forth, | |
| : *böls mun alls batna,* | : all evil be amended; | |
| : *Baldr mun koma.* | : Baldr shall come; | |
| : *Búa þeir Höðr ok Baldr* | : Hödr and Baldr, | |
| : *Hropts sigtóptir* | : the heavenly gods, | |
| : *vel, valtívar -* | : Hropt\'s glorious dwellings shall inhabit. | |
| : *vituð ér enn, eða hvat?* -- Eysteinn Björnsson\'s edition | : Understand ye yet, or what? -- Thorpe\'s translation | |
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The poem *Vafþrúðnismál* informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are Viðarr, Váli, Móði and Magni with no mention of Höðr and Baldr.
The myth of Baldr\'s death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, *Baldrs draumar*.
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| : *Óðinn kvað:* | : Vegtam | |
| : *\"Þegj-at-tu, völva,* | : \"Be thou not silent, Vala! | |
| : *þik vil ek fregna,* | : I will question thee, | |
| : *unz alkunna,* | : until I know all. | |
| : *vil ek enn vita:* | : I will yet know | |
| : *Hverr mun Baldri* | : who will Baldr\'s | |
| : *at bana verða* | : slayer be, | |
| : *ok Óðins son* | : and Odin\'s son | |
| : *aldri ræna?\"* | : of life bereave.\" | |
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| : *Völva kvað:* | : Vala | |
| : *\"Höðr berr hávan* | : \"Hödr will hither | |
| : *hróðrbaðm þinig,* | : his glorious brother send, | |
| : *hann mun Baldri* | : he of Baldr will | |
| : *at bana verða* | : the slayer be, | |
| : *ok Óðins son* | : and Odin\'s son | |
| : *aldri ræna;* | : of life bereave. | |
| : *nauðug sagðak,* | : By compulsion I have spoken; | |
| : *nú mun ek þegja.\"* | : I will now be silent.\" | |
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| : *Óðinn kvað:* | : Vegtam | |
| : *\"Þegj-at-tu, völva,* | : \"Be not silent, Vala! | |
| : *þik vil ek fregna,* | : I will question thee, | |
| : *unz alkunna,* | : until I know all. | |
| : *vil ek enn vita:* | : I will yet know | |
| : *Hverr mun heift Heði* | : who on Hödr vengeance | |
| : *hefnt of vinna* | : will inflict | |
| : *eða Baldrs bana* | : or Baldr\'s slayer | |
| : *á bál vega?\"* | : raise on the pile.\" | |
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| : *Völva kvað:* | : Vala | |
| : *Rindr berr Vála* | : \"Rind a son shall bear, | |
| : *í vestrsölum,* | : in the western halls: | |
| : *sá mun Óðins sonr* | : he shall slay Odin\'s son, | |
| : *einnættr vega:* | : when one night old. | |
| : *hönd of þvær* | : He a hand will not wash, | |
| : *né höfuð kembir,* | : nor his head comb, | |
| : *áðr á bál of berr* | : ere he to the pile has borne | |
| : *Baldrs andskota;* | : Baldr\'s adversary. | |
| : *nauðug sagðak,* | : By compulsion I have spoken; | |
| : *nú mun ek þegja.\"* -- Guðni Jónsson\'s edition | : I will now be silent.\" -- Thorpe\'s translation | |
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Höðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas. He is, however, referred to in *Völuspá in skamma*.
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| : *Váru ellifu* | : There were eleven | |
| : *æsir talðir,* | : Æsir reckoned, | |
| : *Baldr er hné,* | : when Baldr on | |
| : *við banaþúfu;* | : the pile was laid; | |
| : *þess lézk Váli* | : him Vali showed himself | |
| : *verðr at hefna,* | : worthy to avenge, | |
| : *síns of bróður* | : his own brother: | |
| : *sló hann handbana.* -- Guðni Jónsson\'s edition | : he the slayer slew. -- Thorpe\'s translation | |
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# Höðr
## Attestations
### Skaldic poetry {#skaldic_poetry}
Höðr appears in both the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda. The name of Höðr occurs several times in skaldic poetry as a part of warrior-kennings. Thus *Höðr brynju*, \"Höðr of byrnie\", is a warrior and so is *Höðr víga*, \"Höðr of battle\". Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri\'s description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance. It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in *Gylfaginning* -- perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role. On the other hand, the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning.
### *Gesta Danorum* {#gesta_danorum}
In *Gesta Danorum* by Saxo Grammaticus, Hotherus is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines. He is the son of Hothbrodd (or Hodbrodd) and brother of Athisl, both Kings of Sweden before him. Hotherus himself became ruler of both Sweden and Denmark after the death of the usurper Hiartuar, but most of the story about him as related in *Gesta Danorum* relates to his early life before becoming king.
Hotherus is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King Gevarus falls in love with him. But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her. He resolves to slay Hotherus, his rival. Out hunting, Hotherus is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war. They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn\'t attack him in battle since he is a demigod. Hotherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter. The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already made a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath. Gevarus tells Hotherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by Mimingus, the satyr of the woods. Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner. Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer, Hotherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts.
Hearing about Hotherus\'s artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him. Gevarus warns Hotherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle. When the battle is joined, Hotherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a testudo formation. With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace. He is treated mercifully by Hotherus and becomes his ally. Hotherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of Hålogaland win a bride. Meanwhile, Balderus enters the country of King Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna. Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna\'s own mind. Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but is refused. Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage.
As news of Balderus\'s efforts reaches Hotherus, he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus. A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus. Thoro in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club. When the battle seems lost, Hotherus manages to hew Thoro\'s club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat. Gelderus perishes in the battle and Hotherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him. After this battle Hotherus finally marries Nanna. Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Hotherus in the field. But Balderus\'s victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna. Lovesick, he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna\'s likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart.
Hotherus learned of the death of King Rolf Kraki, whose father had slain Hotherus\' father Hodbrodd. He took a fleet to Denmark and was appointed king. Shortly afterwards, he also heard of the death of his brother Athisl, and also became king of Sweden.
After a while Hotherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Hotherus is forced to retreat. Weary of life because of his misfortunes, he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness. In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career. Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus. Encouraged by this, Hotherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field. After a day of inconclusive fighting, he goes out during the night to spy on the enemy. He finds where Balderus\'s magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it. While they don\'t want to give him the food, they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory. Heading back to his camp, Hotherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side. Despite realising that it was a mortal wound, Balderus insists on being carried back into battle on a litter. After three days, Balderus dies from his wound.
Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda, returns to avenge his brother by killing Hotherus. Hotherus foresees that he will die in the battle and asks the assembly of elders to pass the kingship to his son Rorik, which they do. Hotherus faces Bous in battle and is killed, but Bous also dies the next day from his wounds.
### *Gesta Danorum på danskæ* {#gesta_danorum_på_danskæ}
*Gesta Danorum på danskæ* is an Old Danish work based, in part on Saxo\'s *Gesta Danorum* and another Latin chronicle called the *Chronicon Lethrense*. It contains a second, briefer euhemerized account of Höðr\'s slaying of Balder, as follows:
*Gesta Danorum på danskæ* (manuscript B 77) *Gesta Danorum på danskæ* (manuscript C 67) *Deeds of the Danes in Danish* (Peter Tunstall\'s translation)
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Sithæn warth Høthær konungh, Hodbrodæ ſøn, Hadding konungs døttær ſøn, for thy at han war næftæ arwæ. Han \[war konung i Saxæland. Han drap i ſtrith Baldær, Othæns ſøn, oc æltæ Othæn oc Thor oc therræ kompanæ; the hafthæs for \[af guthæ, æn tho the thœt æi woræ... Sithaen war han dræpæn af Both, thæns ſøn, i ſtrith. Sithen war Hothar konung, Hotbrodæ ſøn, Hadings konungs dothers ſøn, forthi han war neſt arffuæ. Han wan konung aff Saxaland \[j ſtriidh. Han drap Baldar, Othæns ſøn, j ſtriidh och ælthæ Othen, Thor och therræ companæ, ther haffthes foræ guthæ och tho æy waræ. \[Han fik Swerike effther ſin brothers døth. Sithen war han dræpen aff Both, Othens ſøn, j ſtriidh. Then Hodbrod\'s son Hother was king, the son of Hadding\'s daughter, since he was the nearest heir. He was king of Saxland. He killed Othen\'s son, Balder, in battle, and pursued Othen and Thor and their companions. They were seen as gods, even though they weren\'t. Later he was killed in battle by Othen\'s son Both.
After this, Hother\'s son Rorik Slengeborre, aka Rake, became king.
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# Höðr
## Attestations
### *Hversu Noregr byggðist* {#hversu_noregr_byggðist}
Höðr appears in the genealogies of *Hversu Noregr byggðist* (\"How Norway was inhabited\"). In this, he is the ruler of Haðaland and the father of Höddbroddr (instead of being Höddbroddr\'s son, as in the *Gesta Danorum*). Höddbroddr\'s descendants are described for a further six generations, and include Hromund Gripsson.
Höðr\'s parentage is not explicitly given in this text, but he may be the same as Haukr, the second legitimate son of Raum the Old by his wife Hilda, daughter of Gudrod the Old. This is because Raum the Old had four sons by Hilda and this statement is followed by four lineages springing from four men, who are otherwise the four sons of Raum and Hilda in the same order except that Höðr takes the place of Haukr.
## Rydberg\'s theories {#rydbergs_theories}
According to the Swedish mythologist and romantic poet Viktor Rydberg, the story of Baldr\'s death was taken from *Húsdrápa*, a poem composed by Ulfr Uggason around 990 AD at a feast thrown by the Icelandic Chief Óláfr Höskuldsson to celebrate the finished construction of his new home, Hjarðarholt, the walls of which were filled with symbolic representations of the Baldr myth among others. Rydberg suggested that Höðr was depicted with eyes closed and Loki guiding his aim to indicate that Loki was the true cause of Baldr\'s death and Höðr was only his \"blind tool.\" Rydberg theorized that the author of the *Gylfaginning* then mistook the description of the symbolic artwork in the Húsdrápa as the actual tale of Baldr\'s death
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# Hawala
**Hawala** or **hewala** (*حِوالة* *ḥawāla*, meaning *transfer* or sometimes *trust*), originating in India as **havala** (*हवाला*), also known as ***havaleh*** in Persian, and ***xawala*** or ***xawilaad*** in Somali, is a popular and informal value transfer system based on the performance and honour of a huge network of money brokers (known as *hawaladars*). They operate outside of, or parallel to, traditional banking, financial channels and remittance systems. The system requires a minimum of two hawaladars that take care of the \"transaction\" without the movement of cash or telegraphic transfer. While hawaladars are spread throughout the world, they are primarily located in the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and the Indian subcontinent. Hawala follows Islamic traditions, but its use is not limited to Muslims.
## Origins
The hawala system originated in India. In 2003 Hawala as a legal concept was documented, finding evidence of Hawala reaching back to 1327, in a publication by Matthias Schramm and Markus Taube, with the title \"Evolution and institutional foundation of the hawala financial system\".
It has been speculated that \"Hawala\" itself influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws, such as the *aval* in French law, the aval in Portuguese law, and the *avallo* in Italian law. The words *aval* and *avallo* bear a similarity to *hawala,* and the context of intensive trade between Italian cities and the Muslim world suggests a possible link. The transfer of debt was \"not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions\", potentially borrowing from hawala. Agency was also \"an institution unknown to Roman law\" as no \"individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent\". On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law \"had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general\". The claims about the Islamic origins of hawala have later been challenged by Cinar.
## Regulation
Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, international organizations responsible for counterterrorism and enforcing laws against money laundering have directed their efforts on identifying problems within the hawala, as well as other remittance systems. The First International Conference on Hawala in May 2002 published the *Regulatory Frameworks for Hawala and Other Remittance Systems*. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) contributed a chapter, in which informal value transfer systems were considered. According to the IMF, countries with limited financial services experience macroeconomic consequences because residents rely heavily on informal fund transfer systems. Informal value transfer systems share common characteristics, including anonymity and lack of regulation or official scrutiny. Therefore informal value transfer systems may be susceptible to use by criminal organizations for money laundering and terrorist financing.
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# Hawala
## Procedure
In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or *hawaladars*, without actually moving money. According to the author Sam Vaknin, there are large hawaladar operators with networks of middlemen in cities across many countries, but most hawaladars are small businesses who work at hawala as a sideline or moonlighting operation.
In general, the process of hawala operates as follows:
1. Sending money: The sender provides a sum of money to a hawala agent known as the sending broker. This money is intended for the recipient in another city, often in a foreign country.
2. Providing instructions: Along with the money, the sender provides a code or password (token) to the sending broker. This token serves as a key for the recipient to receive the money.
3. Communicating the token: The sender informs the recipient of the token, either directly or through a different channel like a phone call or more recently, electronic messaging.
4. Initiating transfer: The sending broker contacts another hawala agent, the receiving broker, located in the recipient\'s area. They inform the receiving broker about the money to be transferred and provide the token necessary for the recipient to collect the funds.
5. Receiving money: The recipient approaches the receiving broker, who disburses the transferred sum to them, usually after deducting a small commission.
6. Trust mechanism: Hawala relies on a system of trust between brokers. The sending broker owes the receiving broker the amount disbursed to the recipient. This trust is established over time and through established relationships within the hawala network. Due to the absence of formal documentation, hawala transactions heavily depend on the reputation and reliability of the brokers involved.
7. Maintaining integrity: The hawala network ensures integrity and trust by carefully vetting new brokers and maintaining strict adherence to established protocols and codes of conduct. Reputation within the network is paramount, and any breach of trust can result in severe consequences, including ostracism from the network.
The unique feature of the system is that no promissory instruments are exchanged between the hawala brokers: the transaction takes place entirely on the honour system. As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in the absence of a legal and juridical environment. Trust and extensive use of connections are the components that distinguish it from other remittance systems. Hawaladar networks are often based on membership in the same family, village, clan or ethnic group, and cheating is punished by effective excommunication and the loss of honour, which lead to severe economic hardship.
Informal records are produced of individual transactions, and a running tally of the amount owed by one broker to another is kept. Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms (e.g., goods, services, properties, transfers of employees, etc.), and need not take the form of direct cash transactions.
In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official exchange rates. Generally, the funds enter the system in the source country\'s currency and leave the system in the recipient country\'s currency. As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at other than official exchange rates.
Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast and convenient transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks. Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies unprofitable exchange rate regulations or when the banking system in the receiving country is less complex (e.g., due to differences in the legal environment in places such as Afghanistan, Yemen, and Somalia). Moreover, in some parts of the world, it is the only option for legitimate fund transfers. It has been used even by aid organizations in areas in which it is the best-functioning institution.
## Regional variants {#regional_variants}
Dubai has been prominent for decades as a welcoming hub for hawala transactions worldwide.
### South Asia {#south_asia}
#### Hundis
The *hundi* is a financial instrument that developed on the Indian sub-continent for use in trade and credit transactions. Hundis are used as a form of remittance instrument to transfer money from place to place, as a form of credit instrument or IOU to borrow money and as a bill of exchange in trade transactions. The Reserve Bank of India describes the Hundi as \"an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order\".
### Horn of Africa {#horn_of_africa}
According to the CIA, with the dissolution of Somalia\'s formal banking system, many informal money transfer operators arose to fill the void. It estimates that such *hawaladars*, *xawilaad* or *xawala* brokers are now responsible for the transfer of up to \$1.6 billion per year in remittances to the country, most coming from working Somalis outside Somalia. Such funds have in turn had a stimulating effect on local business activity.
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# Hawala
## Regional variants {#regional_variants}
### West Africa {#west_africa}
The 2012 Tuareg rebellion left Northern Mali without an official money transfer service for months. The coping mechanisms that appeared were patterned on the hawala system
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# Harmonic analysis
**Harmonic analysis** is a branch of mathematics concerned with investigating the connections between a function and its representation in frequency. The frequency representation is found by using the Fourier transform for functions on unbounded domains such as the full real line or by Fourier series for functions on bounded domains, especially periodic functions on finite intervals. Generalizing these transforms to other domains is generally called Fourier analysis, although the term is sometimes used interchangeably with harmonic analysis. Harmonic analysis has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis, spectral analysis, and neuroscience.
The term \"harmonics\" originated from the Ancient Greek word *harmonikos*, meaning \"skilled in music\". In physical eigenvalue problems, it began to mean waves whose frequencies are integer multiples of one another, as are the frequencies of the harmonics of music notes. Still, the term has been generalized beyond its original meaning.
## Development of harmonic analysis {#development_of_harmonic_analysis}
Historically, harmonic functions first referred to the solutions of Laplace\'s equation. This terminology was extended to other special functions that solved related equations, then to eigenfunctions of general elliptic operators, and nowadays harmonic functions are considered as a generalization of periodic functions in function spaces defined on manifolds, for example as solutions of general, not necessarily elliptic, partial differential equations including some boundary conditions that may imply their symmetry or periodicity.
## Fourier analysis {#fourier_analysis}
The classical Fourier transform on **R**^*n*^ is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as tempered distributions. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution *f*, we can attempt to translate these requirements into the Fourier transform of *f*. The Paley--Wiener theorem is an example. The Paley--Wiener theorem immediately implies that if *f* is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported (i.e., if a signal is limited in one domain, it is unlimited in the other). This is an elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic-analysis setting.
Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis. There are four versions of the Fourier transform, dependent on the spaces that are mapped by the transformation:
- Discrete/periodic--discrete/periodic: Discrete Fourier transform
- Continuous/periodic--discrete/aperiodic: Fourier series
- Discrete/aperiodic--continuous/periodic: Discrete-time Fourier transform
- Continuous/aperiodic--continuous/aperiodic: Fourier transform
As the spaces mapped by the Fourier transform are, in particular, subspaces of the space of tempered distributions it can be shown that the four versions of the Fourier transform are particular cases of the Fourier transform on tempered distributions.
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# Harmonic analysis
## Abstract harmonic analysis {#abstract_harmonic_analysis}
Abstract harmonic analysis is primarily concerned with how real or complex-valued functions (often on very general domains) can be studied using symmetries such as translations or rotations (for instance via the Fourier transform and its relatives); this field is of course related to real-variable harmonic analysis, but is perhaps closer in spirit to representation theory and functional analysis.
One of the most modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-20th century, is analysis on topological groups. The core motivating ideas are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups.
One of the major results in the theory of functions on abelian locally compact groups is called Pontryagin duality. Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality. Different generalization of Fourier transforms attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance, first to the case of general abelian topological groups and second to the case of non-abelian Lie groups.
Harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations for general non-abelian locally compact groups. For compact groups, the Peter--Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the valuable properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. See also: Non-commutative harmonic analysis.
If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known (\"satisfactory\" means at least as strong as the Plancherel theorem). However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example, SL~*n*~. In this case, representations in infinite dimensions play a crucial role.
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# Harmonic analysis
## Applied harmonic analysis {#applied_harmonic_analysis}
Many applications of harmonic analysis in science and engineering begin with the idea or hypothesis that a phenomenon or signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory components. Ocean tides and vibrating strings are common and simple examples. The theoretical approach often tries to describe the system by a differential equation or system of equations to predict the essential features, including the amplitude, frequency, and phases of the oscillatory components. The specific equations depend on the field, but theories generally try to select equations that represent significant principles that are applicable.
The experimental approach is usually to acquire data that accurately quantifies the phenomenon. For example, in a study of tides, the experimentalist would acquire samples of water depth as a function of time at closely enough spaced intervals to see each oscillation and over a long enough duration that multiple oscillatory periods are likely included. In a study on vibrating strings, it is common for the experimentalist to acquire a sound waveform sampled at a rate at least twice that of the highest frequency expected and for a duration many times the period of the lowest frequency expected.
For example, the top signal at the right is a sound waveform of a bass guitar playing an open string corresponding to an A note with a fundamental frequency of 55 Hz. The waveform appears oscillatory, but it is more complex than a simple sine wave, indicating the presence of additional waves. The different wave components contributing to the sound can be revealed by applying a mathematical analysis technique known as the Fourier transform, shown in the lower figure. There is a prominent peak at 55 Hz, but other peaks at 110 Hz, 165 Hz, and at other frequencies corresponding to integer multiples of 55 Hz. In this case, 55 Hz is identified as the fundamental frequency of the string vibration, and the integer multiples are known as harmonics.
## Other branches {#other_branches}
- Study of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Laplacian on domains, manifolds, and (to a lesser extent) graphs is also considered a branch of harmonic analysis. See, e.g., hearing the shape of a drum.
- Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces deals with properties of the Fourier transform on **R**^*n*^ that have no analog on general groups. For example, the fact that the Fourier transform is rotation-invariant. Decomposing the Fourier transform into its radial and spherical components leads to topics such as Bessel functions and spherical harmonics.
- Harmonic analysis on tube domains is concerned with generalizing properties of Hardy spaces to higher dimensions.
- Automorphic forms are generalized harmonic functions, with respect to a symmetry group. They are an old and at the same time active area of development in harmonic analysis due to their connections to the Langlands program.
- Non linear harmonic analysis is the use of harmonic and functional analysis tools and techniques to study nonlinear systems. This includes both problems with infinite degrees of freedom and also non linear operators and equations
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# Hebrides
The **Hebrides** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|b|r|ɪ|d|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|HEB|rid|eez}}`{=mediawiki}; *Innse Gall*, `{{IPA|gd|ˈĩːʃə ˈkaul̪ˠ|pron}}`{=mediawiki}; *Southern isles*) are the largest archipelago in the United Kingdom, off the west coast of the Scottish mainland. The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner and Outer Hebrides.
These islands have a long history of occupation (dating back to the Mesolithic period), and the culture of the inhabitants has been successively influenced by the cultures of Celtic-speaking, Norse-speaking, and English-speaking peoples. This diversity is reflected in the various names given to the islands, which are derived from the different languages that have been spoken there at various points in their history.
The Hebrides are where much of Scottish Gaelic literature and Gaelic music has historically originated. Today, the economy of the islands is dependent on crofting, fishing, tourism, the oil industry, and renewable energy. The Hebrides have less biodiversity than mainland Scotland, but a significant number of seals and seabirds.
The islands have a combined area of 7285 km2, and, `{{as of|2011|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}, a combined population of around 45,000.
## Geology, geography and climate {#geology_geography_and_climate}
*Main article: List of Inner Hebrides, List of Outer Hebrides*
The Hebrides have a diverse geology, ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe, to Paleogene igneous intrusions.`{{refn|Rollinson (1997) states that the oldest rocks in Europe have been found "near Gruinard Bay" on the Scottish mainland. Gillen (2003) p. 44 indicates the oldest rocks in Europe are found "in the Northwest Highlands and Outer Hebrides". McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007) ''Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland''. Edinburgh. Birlinn. p. 93 state of the [[Lewisian complex|Lewisian gneiss]] bedrock of much of the Outer Hebrides that "these rocks are amongst the oldest to be found anywhere on the planet". Other (non-geologist) sources sometimes claim that the rocks of Lewis and Harris are "the oldest in Britain", meaning that they are the oldest deposits of large bedrock. As Rollinson makes clear, Lewis and Harris is not the location of the oldest small outcrop.|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki} Raised shore platforms in the Hebrides have been identified as strandflats, possibly formed during the Pliocene period and later modified by the Quaternary glaciations.
The Hebrides can be divided into two main groups, separated from one another by the Minch to the north and the Sea of the Hebrides to the south. The Inner Hebrides lie closer to mainland Scotland and include Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa and the Small Isles. There are 36 inhabited islands in this group. The Outer Hebrides form a chain of more than 100 islands and small skerries located about 70 km west of mainland Scotland. Among them, 15 are inhabited. The main inhabited islands include Lewis and Harris, North Uist, Benbecula, South Uist, and Barra.
A complication is that there are various descriptions of the scope of the Hebrides. The *Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland* describes the Inner Hebrides as lying \"east of the Minch\". This definition would encompass all offshore islands, including those that lie in the sea lochs, such as *Eilean Bàn\]\]* and *\[\[Eilean Donan\]\]*, which might not ordinarily be described as \"Hebridean\". However, no formal definition exists.
In the past, the Outer Hebrides were often referred to as the *Long Isle* (*An t-Eilean Fada*). Today, they are also sometimes known as the *Western Isles*, although this phrase can also be used to refer to the Hebrides in general.`{{refn|Murray (1973) notes that "Western Isles" has tended to mean "Outer Hebrides" since the creation of the {{lang|gd|[[Na h-Eileanan an Iar (UK Parliament constituency)|Na h-Eileanan an Iar]]}} or Western Isles parliamentary constituency in 1918. Murray also notes that "Gneiss Islands" – a reference to the underlying geology – is another name used to refer to the [[Outer Hebrides]], but that its use is "confined to books".<ref>Murray (1973) p. 32.</ref>|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki}
The Hebrides have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. In the Outer Hebrides, the average temperature is 6 °C (44 °F) in January and 14 °C (57 °F) in the summer. The average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1100 mm, and there are between 1,100 and 1,200 hours of sunshine *per annum* (13%). The summer days are relatively long, and May through August is the driest period.
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# Hebrides
## Etymology
The earliest surviving written references to the islands were made circa 77 AD by Pliny the Elder in his *Natural History*: He states that there are 30 **Hebudes**, and makes a separate reference to **Dumna**, which Watson (1926) concluded refers unequivocally to the Outer Hebrides. About 80 years after Pliny the Elder, in 140--150 AD, Ptolemy (drawing on accounts of the naval expeditions of *Agricola\]\]*) writes that there are five **Ebudes** (possibly meaning the Inner Hebrides) and **Dumna**. Later texts in classical Latin, by writers such as *Solinus\]\]*, use the forms **Hebudes** and **Hæbudes**.
The name **Ebudes** (used by Ptolemy) may be pre-Celtic. Ptolemy calls Islay \"*Epidion*\", and the use of the letter \"p\" suggests a Brythonic or Pictish tribal name, *\[\[Epidii\]\]*, because the root is not Gaelic. Woolf (2012) has suggested that **Ebudes** may be \"an Irish attempt to reproduce the word **Epidii** phonetically, rather than by translating it\", and that the tribe\'s name may come from the root **epos**, meaning \"horse\". Watson (1926) also notes a possible relationship between **Ebudes** and the ancient Irish Ulaid tribal name **Ibdaig**, and also the personal name of a king *Iubdán* (recorded in the *Silva Gadelica*).
The names of other individual islands reflect their complex linguistic history. The majority are Norse or Gaelic, but the roots of several other names for Hebrides islands may have a pre-Celtic origin. Adomnán, a 7th-century abbot of Iona, records Colonsay as *Colosus* and Tiree as *Ethica*, and both of these may be pre-Celtic names. The etymology of Skye is complex and may also include a pre-Celtic root. Lewis is **Ljoðhús** in Old Norse. Various suggestions have been made as to possible meanings of the name in Norse (for example, \"song house\"), but the name is not of Gaelic origin, and the Norse provenance is questionable.
The earliest comprehensive written list of Hebridean island names was compiled by Donald Monro in 1549. This list also provides the earliest written reference to the names of some of the islands.
The derivations of all the inhabited islands of the Hebrides and some of the larger uninhabited ones are listed below.
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# Hebrides
## Etymology
### Outer Hebrides {#outer_hebrides}
Lewis and Harris is the largest island in Scotland and the third largest of the British Isles, after Great Britain and Ireland. It incorporates Lewis in the north and Harris in the south, both of which are frequently referred to as individual islands, although they are joined by a land border. The island does not have a single common name in either English or Gaelic and is referred to as \"Lewis and Harris\", \"Lewis with Harris\", \"Harris with Lewis\" etc. For this reason it is treated as two separate islands below. The derivation of Lewis may be pre-Celtic (see above) and the origin of Harris is no less problematic. In the Ravenna Cosmography, *Erimon* may refer to Harris (or possibly the Outer Hebrides as a whole). This word may derive from the *ἐρῆμος* (*erimos* \"desert\". The origin of Uist (*Ívist*) is similarly unclear.
Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Modern Gaelic name Alternative Derivations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------------ ------------------- -------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Baleshare **Am Baile Sear** Gaelic east town **Baile Sear**
Barra **Barrey** Gaelic + Norse Finbar\'s island Barray **Barraigh** Old Gaelic *barr*, a summit.
Benbecula **Peighinn nam Fadhla** Gaelic pennyland of the fords **Beinn nam Fadhla** \"little mountain of the ford\" or \"herdsman\'s mountain\"
Berneray **Bjarnarey** Norse Bjorn\'s island **Beàrnaraigh** bear island
Eriskay **Uruisg** + **ey** Gaelic + Norse goblin or water nymph island Eriskeray **Èirisgeigh** Erik\'s island
Flodaigh Norse float island **Flodaigh**
Fraoch-eilean Gaelic heather island **Fraoch-eilean**
Great Bernera **Bjarnarey** Norse Bjorn\'s island Berneray-Moir **Beàrnaraigh Mòr** bear island
Grimsay`{{refn|There are two inhabited islands called "Grimsay" or ''{{lang|gd|Griomasaigh}}'' that are joined to Benbecula by a road causeway, one to the north at {{gbmapping|NF855572}} and one to the south east at {{gbmapping|NF831473}}.|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki} Norse Grim\'s island **Griomasaigh**
Grimsay`{{refn|See above note.|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki} Norse Grim\'s island **Griomasaigh**
Harris ? Ancient Greek? desert? Harrey **na Hearadh** Ptolemy\'s *Adru*. In Old Norse (and in modern Icelandic), a **Hérað\]\]** is a type of administrative district. Alternatives are the Norse **haerri**, meaning \"hills\" and Gaelic **na h-airdibh** meaning \"the heights\".
Lewis Pre-Celtic? marshy Lewis **Leòdhas** Ptolemy\'s *Limnu* is literally \"marshy\". The Norse **Ljoðhús** may mean \"song house\" -- see above.
North Uist English + Pre-Celtic? Ywst **Uibhist a Tuath** \"Uist\" may possibly be \"corn island\" or \"west\"
Scalpay **Skalprey** Norse scallop island Scalpay of Harray **Sgalpaigh na Hearadh**
South Uist English + Pre-Celtic? **Uibhist a Deas** See North Uist
Vatersay ? Norse water island Wattersay **Bhatarsaigh** fathers\' island, priest island, glove island, wavy island
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# Hebrides
## Etymology
### Inner Hebrides {#inner_hebrides}
There are various examples of earlier names for Inner Hebridean islands that were Gaelic, but these names have since been completely replaced. For example, Adomnán records *Sainea*, *Elena*, *Ommon* and *Oideacha* in the Inner Hebrides. These names presumably passed out of usage in the Norse era, and the locations of the islands they refer to are not clear. As an example of the complexity: Rona may originally have had a Celtic name, then later a similar-sounding Norse name, and then still later a name that was essentially Gaelic again, but with a Norse \"øy\" or \"ey\" ending. (See Rona, below.)
Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Modern Gaelic name Alternative Derivations
--------------- -------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------ ----------------- --------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Canna **Cana** Gaelic porpoise island Kannay **Eilean Chanaigh** possibly Old Gaelic **cana**, \"wolf-whelp\", or Norse **kneøy**, \"knee island\"
Coll *Colosus* Pre-Celtic **Colla** possibly Gaelic **coll** -- a hazel
Colonsay \+ *ey* Norse Kolbein\'s island Colnansay **Colbhasa** possibly Norse for \"Columba\'s island\"
Danna Norse Dane island **Danna** Unknown
Easdale Eisdcalfe **Eilean Èisdeal** **Eas** is \"waterfall\" in Gaelic and **dale** is the Norse for \"valley\". However the combination seems inappropriate for this small island. Also known as **Ellenabeich** -- \"island of the birches\"
Eigg **Eag** Gaelic a notch Egga **Eige** Also called **Eilean Nimban More** -- \"island of the powerful women\" until the 16th century.
Gaelic white isle Naban **Eilean Bàn**
Gaelic
Eilean Donan Gaelic island of *Donnán\]\]* **Eilean Donnain**
Eilean Shona Gaelic + Norse sea island **Eilean Seòna** Adomnán records the pre-Norse Gaelic name of **Airthrago** -- the foreshore isle\".
Eilean Tioram Gaelic dry island
Eriska \+ *ey* Norse Erik\'s island
Erraid **Arthràigh**? Gaelic foreshore island Erray **Eilean Earraid**
Gigha **Guðey** Norse \"good island\" or \"God island\" Gigay **Giogha** Various including the Norse **Gjáey** -- \"island of the geo\" or \"cleft\", or \"Gydha\'s isle\".
Gometra Norse \"The good-man\'s island\", or \"God-man\'s island\" **Gòmastra** \"Godmund\'s island\".
Iona **Hí** Gaelic Possibly \"yew-place\" Colmkill Numerous. Adomnán uses **Ioua insula** which became \"Iona\" through misreading.
Islay Pre-Celtic Ila Various -- see above
Isle of Ewe **Eo** English + Gaelic isle of yew Ellan Ew possibly Gaelic **eubh**, \"echo\"
Jura **Djúrey** Norse deer island Duray **Diùra** Norse: **Jurøy** -- \"udder island\"
Kerrera **Kjarbarey** Norse Kjarbar\'s island **Cearrara** Norse: **ciarrøy** -- \"brushwood island\" or \"copse island\"
Lismore **Lios Mòr** Gaelic big garden/enclosure Lismoir **Lios Mòr**
Luing Gaelic ship island Lunge **An t-Eilean Luinn** Norse: **lyng** -- heather island or pre-Celtic
Lunga **Langrey** Norse longship isle Lungay **Lunga** Gaelic **long** is also \"ship\"
Muck **Eilean nam Muc** Gaelic isle of pigs Swynes Ile **Eilean nam Muc** **Eilean nam Muc-mhara**- \"whale island\". John of Fordun recorded it as *Helantmok* -- \"isle of swine\".
Mull *Malaios* Pre-Celtic Mull **Muile** Recorded by Ptolemy as *Malaios* possibly meaning \"lofty isle\". In Norse times it became **Mýl**.
Oronsay Norse ebb island Ornansay **Orasaigh** Norse: \"Oran\'s island\"
Raasay **Raasey** Norse roe deer island Raarsay **Ratharsair** **Rossøy** -- \"horse island\"
Rona **Hrauney** or **Ròney** Norse or Gaelic/Norse \"rough island\" or \"seal island\" Ronay **Rònaigh**
Rum Pre-Celtic Ronin **Rùm** Various including Norse **rõm-øy** for \"wide island\" or Gaelic **ì-dhruim** -- \"isle of the ridge\"
Sanday **Sandey** Norse sandy island **Sandaigh**
Scalpay **Skalprey** Norse scallop island Scalpay **Sgalpaigh** Norse: \"ship island\"
Seil *Sal*? Probably pre-Celtic \"stream\" Seill **Saoil** Gaelic: **sealg** -- \"hunting island\"
Shuna Unknown Norse Possibly \"sea island\" Seunay **Siuna** Gaelic **sidhean** -- \"fairy hill\"
Skye *Scitis* Pre-Celtic? Possibly \"winged isle\" Skye **An t-Eilean Sgitheanach** Numerous -- see above
Soay **So-ey** Norse sheep island Soa Urettil **Sòdhaigh**
Tanera Mor **Hafrarey** From *hafr*, he-goat Hawrarymoir(?) **Tannara Mòr** Brythonic: **Thanaros**, the thunder god, island of the haven
Tiree *Tìr* + *Eth*, *Ethica* Gaelic + unknown Unknown **Tiriodh** Norse: **Tirvist** of unknown meaning and numerous Gaelic versions, some with a possible meaning of \"land of corn\"
Ulva Norse wolf island **Ulbha** Ulfr\'s island
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# Hebrides
## Etymology
### Uninhabited islands {#uninhabited_islands}
The names of uninhabited islands follow the same general patterns as the inhabited islands. (See the list, below, of the ten largest islands in the Hebrides and their outliers.)
The etymology of the name \"St Kilda\", a small archipelago west of the Outer Hebrides, and the name of its main island, \"Hirta,\" is very complex. No saint is known by the name of Kilda, so various other theories have been proposed for the word\'s origin, which dates from the late 16th century. Haswell-Smith (2004) notes that the full name \"St Kilda\" first appears on a Dutch map dated 1666, and that it may derive from the Norse phrase **sunt kelda** (\"sweet wellwater\") or from a mistaken Dutch assumption that the spring **Tobar Childa** was dedicated to a saint. (**Tobar Childa** is a tautological placename, consisting of the Gaelic and Norse words for *well*, i.e., \"well well\"). Similarly unclear is the origin of the Gaelic for \"Hirta\", **Hiort**, **Hirt**, or **Irt** a name for the island that long pre-dates the name \"St Kilda\". Watson (1926) suggests that it may derive from the Old Irish word **hirt** (\"death\"), possibly a reference to the often lethally dangerous surrounding sea. Maclean (1977) notes that an Icelandic saga about an early 13th-century voyage to Ireland refers to \"the islands of **Hirtir**\", which means \"stags\" in Norse, and suggests that the outline of the island of Hirta resembles the shape of a stag, speculating that therefore the name \"Hirta\" may be a reference to the island\'s shape.
The etymology of the names of small islands may be no less complex and elusive. In relation to *\[\[Dubh Artach\]\]*, Robert Louis Stevenson believed that \"black and dismal\" was one translation of the name, noting that \"as usual, in Gaelic, it is not the only one.\"
Island Derivation Language Meaning Munro (1549) Alternatives
----------- --------------- -------------------- ------------------------- -------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ceann Ear **Ceann Ear** Gaelic east headland
Hirta *Hirt* Possibly Old Irish death Hirta Numerous -- see above
Mingulay **Miklaey** Norse big island Megaly \"Main hill island\". Murray (1973) states that the name \"appropriately means Bird Island\".
Pabbay Norse priest island Pabay
Ronay Norse rough island
Sandray **Sandray** Norse sand island Sanderay beach island
Scarba Norse cormorant island Skarbay , sharp or infertile island
Scarp **Skarpoe** Norse \"barren\" or \"stony\" Scarpe
Taransay Norse Taran\'s island Tarandsay , Harold\'s island
Wiay Norse From *bú*, a settlement Possibly \"house island\"
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# Hebrides
## History
### Prehistory
The Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC or earlier, after the climatic conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement. Occupation at a site on *\[\[Rùm\]\]* is dated to 8590 ±95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP, which is amongst the oldest evidence of occupation in Scotland. There are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period, the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish, dating to the 3rd millennium BC. Cladh Hallan, a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the only site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found.
### Celtic era {#celtic_era}
In 55 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus wrote that there was an island called *Hyperborea* (which means \"beyond the North Wind\"), where a round temple stood from which the moon appeared only a little distance above the earth every 19 years. This may have been a reference to the stone circle at Callanish.
A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast of Scotland in or shortly before 83 AD. He stated it was a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands, but he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men. He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island.
The first written records of native life begin in the 6th century AD, when the founding of the kingdom of Dál Riata took place. This encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and County Antrim in Ireland. The figure of Columba looms large in any history of Dál Riata, and his founding of a monastery on Iona ensured that the kingdom would be of great importance in the spread of Christianity in northern Britain. However, Iona was far from unique. Lismore in the territory of the Cenél Loairn, was sufficiently important for the death of its abbots to be recorded with some frequency and many smaller sites, such as on Eigg, Hinba, and Tiree, are known from the annals.
North of Dál Riata, the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control, although the historical record is sparse. Hunter (2000) states that in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century: \"As for Shetland, Orkney, Skye and the Western Isles, their inhabitants, most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time, are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence.\"
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# Hebrides
## History
### Norwegian control {#norwegian_control}
*Main article: Kingdom of the Isles* Viking raids began on Scottish shores towards the end of the 8th century, and the Hebrides came under Norse control and settlement during the ensuing decades, especially following the success of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of *nocat=y* in 872. In the Western Isles Ketill Flatnose may have been the dominant figure of the mid 9th century, by which time he had amassed a substantial island realm and made a variety of alliances with other Norse leaders. These princelings nominally owed allegiance to the Norwegian crown, although in practice the latter\'s control was fairly limited. Norse control of the Hebrides was formalised in 1098 when Edgar of Scotland formally signed the islands over to Magnus III of Norway. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered Orkney, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various island petty kingdoms. By capturing the islands Magnus imposed a more direct royal control, although at a price. His skald Bjorn Cripplehand recorded that in Lewis \"fire played high in the heaven\" as \"flame spouted from the houses\" and that in the Uists \"the king dyed his sword red in blood\".`{{refn|Thompson (1968) provides a more literal translation: "Fire played in the fig-trees of Liodhus; it mounted up to heaven. Far and wide the people were driven to flight. The fire gushed out of the houses".<ref name="auto">Thompson (1968) p. 39.</ref>|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki}
The Hebrides were now part of the Kingdom of the Isles, whose rulers were themselves vassals of the Kings of Norway. This situation lasted until the partitioning of the Western Isles in 1156, at which time the Outer Hebrides remained under Norwegian control while the Inner Hebrides broke out under Somerled, the Norse-Gael kinsman of the Manx royal house.
Following the ill-fated 1263 expedition of Haakon IV of Norway, the Outer Hebrides and the Isle of Man were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth. Although their contribution to the islands can still be found in personal and place names, the archaeological record of the Norse period is very limited. The best known find is the Lewis chessmen, which date from the mid 12th century.
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# Hebrides
## History
### Scottish control {#scottish_control}
As the Norse era drew to a close, the Norse-speaking princes were gradually replaced by Gaelic-speaking clan chiefs including the MacLeods of Lewis and Harris, Clan Donald and MacNeil of Barra.`{{refn|The transitional relationships between Norse and Gaelic-speaking rulers are complex. The ''{{lang|gd|Gall-Ghàidhels}}'' who dominated much of the Irish Sea region and western Scotland at this time were of joint Gaelic and Scandinavian origin. When Somerled wrested the southern Inner Hebrides from [[Godred II Olafsson|Godred the Black]] in 1156, this was the beginnings of a break with nominal Norse rule in the Hebrides. Godred remained the ruler of Mann and the Outer Hebrides, but two years later Somerled's invasion of the former caused him to flee to Norway. Norse control was further weakened in the ensuring century, but the Hebrides were not formally ceded by Norway until 1266.<ref>Gregory (1881) pp. 13–15, 20–21.</ref><ref>Downham (2007) pp. 174–75.</ref> The transitions from one language to another are also complex. For example, many Scandinavian sources from this period of time typically refer to individuals as having a Scandinavian first name and a Gaelic by-name.<ref>Gammeltoft, Peder "Scandinavian Naming-Systems in the Hebrides: A Way of Understanding how the Scandinavians were in Contact with Gaels and Picts?" in Ballin Smith ''et al'' (2007) p. 480.</ref>|group=Note}}`{=mediawiki} This transition did little to relieve the islands of internecine strife although by the early 14th century the MacDonald Lords of the Isles, based on Islay, were in theory these chiefs\' feudal superiors and managed to exert some control.
The Lords of the Isles ruled the Inner Hebrides as well as part of the Western Highlands as subjects of the King of Scots until John MacDonald, fourth Lord of the Isles, squandered the family\'s powerful position. A rebellion by his nephew, Alexander of Lochalsh provoked an exasperated James IV to forfeit the family\'s lands in 1493.
In 1598, King James VI authorised some \"Gentleman Adventurers\" from Fife to civilise the \"most barbarous Isle of Lewis\". Initially successful, the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod, who based their forces on *\[\[Bearasaigh\]\]* in *\[\[Loch Ròg\]\]*. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, but a third attempt in 1607 was more successful and in due course Stornoway became a Burgh of Barony. By this time, Lewis was held by the Mackenzies of Kintail (later the Earls of Seaforth), who pursued a more enlightened approach, investing in fishing in particular. The Seaforths\' royalist inclinations led to Lewis becoming garrisoned during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms by Cromwell\'s troops, who destroyed the old castle in Stornoway.
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# Hebrides
## History
### Early British era {#early_british_era}
With the implementation of the Treaty of Union in 1707, the Hebrides became part of the new Kingdom of Great Britain, but the clans\' loyalties to a distant monarch were not strong. A considerable number of islesmen \"came out\" in support of the Jacobite Earl of Mar in the 1715 and again in the 1745 rising including Macleod of Dunvegan and MacLea of Lismore. The aftermath of the decisive Battle of Culloden, which effectively ended Jacobite hopes of a Stuart restoration, was widely felt. The British government\'s strategy was to estrange the clan chiefs from their kinsmen and turn their descendants into English-speaking landlords whose main concern was the revenues their estates brought rather than the welfare of those who lived on them. This may have brought peace to the islands, but over the following century the clan system was broken up and islands of the Hebrides became a series of landed estates.
The early 19th century was a time of improvement and population growth. Roads and quays were built; the slate industry became a significant employer on Easdale and surrounding islands; and the construction of the Crinan and Caledonian canals and other engineering works such as Clachan Bridge improved transport and access. However, in the mid-19th century, the inhabitants of many parts of the Hebrides were devastated by the Clearances, which destroyed communities throughout the Highlands and Islands as the human populations were evicted and replaced with sheep farms. The position was exacerbated by the failure of the islands\' kelp industry that thrived from the 18th century until the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and large scale emigration became endemic.
As *\[\[Iain Mac Fhearchair\]\]*, a Gaelic poet from South Uist, wrote for his countrymen who were obliged to leave the Hebrides in the late 18th century, emigration was the only alternative to \"sinking into slavery\" as the Gaels had been unfairly dispossessed by rapacious landlords. In the 1880s, the \"Battle of the Braes\" involved a demonstration against unfair land regulation and eviction, stimulating the calling of the Napier Commission. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters\' Act.
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# Hebrides
## Language
The residents of the Hebrides have spoken a variety of different languages during the long period of human occupation.
It is assumed that Pictish must once have predominated in the northern Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. The Scottish Gaelic language arrived from Ireland due to the growing influence of the kingdom of Dál Riata from the 6th century AD onwards, and became the dominant language of the southern Hebrides at that time. For a few centuries, the military might of the **Gall-Ghàidheil\]\]** meant that Old Norse was prevalent in the Hebrides. North of *\[\[Ardnamurchan\]\]*, the place names that existed prior to the 9th century have been all but obliterated. The Old Norse name for the Hebrides during the Viking occupation was **Suðreyjar**, which means \"Southern Isles\"; in contrast to the **Norðreyjar**, or \"Northern Isles\" of Orkney and Shetland.
South of *Ardnamurchan*, Gaelic place names are more common, and after the 13th century, Gaelic became the main language of the entire Hebridean archipelago. Due to Scots and English being favoured in government and the educational system, the Hebrides have been in a state of diglossia since at least the 17th century. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century accelerated the language shift away from Scottish Gaelic, as did increased migration and the continuing lower status of Gaelic speakers. Nevertheless, as late as the end of the 19th century, there were significant populations of monolingual Gaelic speakers, and the Hebrides still contain the highest percentages of Gaelic speakers in Scotland. This is especially true of the Outer Hebrides, where a slim majority speak the language. The Scottish Gaelic college, *\[\[Sabhal Mòr Ostaig\]\]*, is based on Skye and Islay.
Ironically, given the status of the Western Isles as the last Gaelic-speaking stronghold in Scotland, the Gaelic language name for the islands -- **Innse Gall** -- means \"isles of the foreigners\"; from the time when they were under Norse colonisation.
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# Hebrides
## Modern economy {#modern_economy}
For those who remained, new economic opportunities emerged through the export of cattle, commercial fishing and tourism. Nonetheless, emigration and military service became the choice of many and the archipelago\'s populations continued to dwindle throughout the late 19th century and for much of the 20th century. Lengthy periods of continuous occupation notwithstanding, many of the smaller islands were abandoned.
There were, however, continuing gradual economic improvements, among the most visible of which was the replacement of the traditional thatched blackhouse with accommodation of a more modern design and with the assistance of Highlands and Islands Enterprise many of the islands\' populations have begun to increase after decades of decline. The discovery of substantial deposits of North Sea oil in 1965 and the renewables sector have contributed to a degree of economic stability in recent decades. For example, the Arnish yard has had a chequered history but has been a significant employer in both the oil and renewables industries.
The widespread immigration of mainlanders, particularly non-Gaelic speakers, has been a subject of controversy.
Agriculture practised by crofters remained popular in the 21st century in the Hebrides; crofters own a small property but often share a large common grazing area. Various types of funding are available to crofters to help supplement their incomes, including the \"Basic Payment Scheme, the suckler beef support scheme, the upland sheep support scheme and the Less Favoured Area support scheme\". One reliable source discussed the Crofting Agricultural Grant Scheme (CAGS) in March 2020:
> the scheme \"pays up to £25,000 per claim in any two-year period, covering 80% of investment costs for those who are under 41 and have had their croft less than five years. Older, more established crofters can get 60% grants\".
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# Hebrides
## Media and the arts {#media_and_the_arts}
### Music
Many contemporary Gaelic musicians have roots in the Hebrides, including vocalist and multi-instrumentalist Julie Fowlis (North Uist), Catherine-Ann MacPhee (Barra), Kathleen MacInnes of the band Capercaillie (South Uist), and Ishbel MacAskill (Lewis). All of these singers have composed their own music in Scottish Gaelic, with much of their repertoire stemming from Hebridean vocal traditions, such as **\[\[puirt à beul\]\]** (\"mouth music\", similar to Irish lilting) and **òrain luaidh** (waulking songs). This tradition includes many songs composed by little-known or anonymous poets, well-before the 1800s, such as \"*\[\[Fear a\' bhàta\]\]*\", \"*\[\[Ailein duinn\]\]*\", \"*Hùg air a\' bhonaid mhòir\]\]*\" and \"*Alasdair mhic Cholla Ghasda\]\]*\". Several of Runrig\'s songs are inspired by the archipelago; Calum and *Ruaraidh Dòmhnallach* were raised on North Uist and Donnie Munro on Skye.
### Literature
The Gaelic poet *\[\[Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair\]\]* spent much of his life in the Hebrides and often referred to them in his poetry, including in **\[\[An Airce\]\]** and **\[\[Birlinn Chlann Raghnaill\]\]**. The best known Gaelic poet of her era, *Màiri Mhòr nan Òran* (Mary MacPherson, 1821--98), embodied the spirit of the land agitation of the 1870s and 1880s. This, and her powerful evocation of the Hebrides---she was from Skye---has made her among the most enduring Gaelic poets. Allan MacDonald (1859--1905), who spent his adult life on Eriskay and South Uist, composed hymns and verse in honour of the Blessed Virgin, the Christ Child, and the Eucharist. In his secular poetry, MacDonald praised the beauty of Eriskay and its people. In his verse drama, **Parlamaid nan Cailleach** (*The Old Wives\' Parliament*), he lampooned the gossiping of his female parishioners and local marriage customs.
In the 20th century, Murdo Macfarlane of Lewis wrote **\[\[Cànan nan Gàidheal\]\]**, a well-known poem about the Gaelic revival in the Outer Hebrides. Sorley MacLean, the most respected 20th-century Gaelic writer, was born and raised on Raasay, where he set his best known poem, **\[\[Hallaig\]\]**, about the devastating effect of the Highland Clearances. *Aonghas Phàdraig Caimbeul\]\]*, raised on South Uist and described by MacLean as \"one of the few really significant living poets in Scotland, writing in any language\" (West Highland Free Press, October 1992) wrote the Scottish Gaelic-language novel **\[\[An Oidhche Mus do Sheòl Sinn\]\]** which was voted in the Top Ten of the 100 Best-Ever Books from Scotland.
Virginia Woolf\'s *To The Lighthouse* is set on the Isle of Skye, part of the Inner Hebrides.
### Film
- The area around the Inaccessible Pinnacle of *nocat=y* of Skye provided the setting for the Scottish Gaelic feature film *Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle* (2006). The script was written by the actor, novelist, and poet Aonghas Phàdraig Chaimbeul, who also starred in the movie.
- **An Drochaid**, an hour-long documentary in Scottish Gaelic, was made for BBC Alba documenting the battle to remove tolls from the Skye bridge.
- The 1973 film, *The Wicker Man*, is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle. The filming itself took place in Galloway and Skye
- *I Know Where I\'m Going!* (1945) is set on and was filmed on locations on Mull and the whirlpool in the Gulf of Corryvreckan.
### Video games {#video_games}
- The 2012 exploration adventure game Dear Esther by developer The Chinese Room is set on an unnamed island in the Hebrides.
- The Hebrides are featured in the 2021 video game *Battlefield 2042* as the setting of the multiplayer map Redacted, which was introduced into the game in October 2023.
### Influence on visitors {#influence_on_visitors}
- J.M. Barrie\'s *Marie Rose* contains references to Harris inspired by a holiday visit to *nocat=y* Castle and he wrote a screenplay for the 1924 film adaptation of *Peter Pan* whilst on *\[\[Eilean Shona\]\]*.
- *The Hebrides*, also known as *Fingal\'s Cave*, is a famous overture composed by Felix Mendelssohn while residing on these islands, while Granville Bantock composed the *Hebridean Symphony*.
- Enya\'s song \"Ebudæ\" from *Shepherd Moons* is named after the Hebrides (see below).
- The 1973 British horror film *The Wicker Man* is set on the fictional Hebridean island of Summerisle.
- The 2011 British romantic comedy *The Decoy Bride* is set on the fictional Hebrides island of Hegg.
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# Hebrides
## Natural history {#natural_history}
In some respects the Hebrides lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain; for example, there are only half as many mammalian species. However, these islands provide breeding grounds for many important seabird species including the world\'s largest colony of northern gannets. Avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, rock dove, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye, golden eagle and white-tailed sea eagle. The latter was re-introduced to Rùm in 1975 and has successfully spread to various neighbouring islands, including Mull. There is a small population of red-billed chough concentrated on the islands of Islay and Colonsay.
Red deer are common on the hills and the grey seal and common seal are present around the coasts of Scotland. Colonies of seals are found on Oronsay and the Treshnish Isles. The rich freshwater streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore, minke whales, orcas, basking sharks, porpoises and dolphins are among the sealife that can be seen. Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is abundant and there is a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including Alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal.
Loch Druidibeg on South Uist is a national nature reserve owned and managed by Scottish Natural Heritage. The reserve covers 1,677 hectares across the whole range of local habitats. Over 200 species of flowering plants have been recorded on the reserve, some of which are nationally scarce. South Uist is considered the best place in the UK for the aquatic plant slender naiad, which is a European Protected Species.
Hedgehogs are not native to the Outer Hebrides---they were introduced in the 1970s to reduce garden pests---and their spread poses a threat to the eggs of ground nesting wading birds. In 2003, Scottish Natural Heritage undertook culls of hedgehogs in the area although these were halted in 2007 due to protests. Trapped animals were relocated to the mainland
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# HMS Dreadnought
Several ships and one submarine of the Royal Navy have borne the name **HMS *Dreadnought*** in the expectation that they would \"dread nought\", i.e. \"fear nothing\". The 1906 ship, which revolutionized battleship design, became one of the Royal Navy\'s most famous vessels; battleships built after her were referred to as \"dreadnoughts\", and earlier battleships became known as pre-dreadnoughts.
- English ship *Dreadnought* (1553) was a 40-gun ship built in 1553.
- was a 41-gun ship launched in 1573, rebuilt in 1592 and 1614, then broken up in 1648.
- was a 52-gun third-rate ship of the line launched in 1654 as the *Torrington* for the Commonwealth of England Navy, renamed *Dreadnought* at the Restoration in 1660, and lost in 1690.
- was a 60-gun fourth-rate ship of the line launched in 1691, rebuilt in 1706 and broken up 1748.
- was a 60-gun ship of the line built at Portsmouth
- was a 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1742 and sold 1784.
- was a 98-gun second rate launched in 1801, converted to a hospital ship in 1827, and broken up 1857.
- was a hospital ship, formerly HMS *Caledonia*.
- was a battleship launched in 1875 and hulked in 1903, then sold in 1908.
- was a revolutionary battleship, launched in 1906 and sold for breakup in 1921.
- was the UK\'s first nuclear-powered submarine, launched in 1960 and decommissioned in 1980.
- will be the first of the UK\'s new `{{sclass|Dreadnought|submarine|0}}`{=mediawiki} ballistic missile submarines
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# Hartmann Schedel
**Hartmann Schedel** (13 February 1440 -- 28 November 1514) was a German historian, physician, humanist, and one of the first cartographers to use the printing press. He was born and died in Nuremberg. Matheolus Perusinus served as his tutor.
Schedel is best known for his writing the text for the *Nuremberg Chronicle*, known as *Schedelsche Weltchronik* (English: *Schedel\'s World Chronicle*), published in 1493 in Nuremberg. It was commissioned by Sebald Schreyer (1446--1520) and Sebastian Kammermeister (1446--1503). Maps in the *Chronicle* were the first ever illustrations of many cities and countries.
With the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1447, it became feasible to print books and maps for a larger customer basis. Because they had to be handwritten, books had previously been rare and very expensive.
Schedel was also a notable collector of books, art and old master prints. An album he had bound in 1504, which once contained five engravings by Jacopo de\' Barbari, provides important evidence for dating de\' Barbari\'s work.
## Gallery
<File:Nuernberg> schedel.JPG\|Nuremberg <File:Nuremberg> chronicles - CRACOVIA.png\|Kraków <File:Nuremberg> chronicles - BRESSLA.png\|Breslau (Wrocław) <File:Praha1493.jpg>\|Prague <File:Hans> Boehm Pfeifer von Niklashausen Schedelsche Weltchronik.JPG\|Hans Böhm, the \"Pauker von Niklashausen\" <File:Schedel> judenfeindlichkeit.jpg\|Blood libel: the supposed killing of a Christian boy at the hands of Jews in Trient in 1475. Simon of Trent <File:Schedel> judenfeindlichkeit2.jpg\|Burning of Jews for the supposed desecration of sacramental wafers in Deggendorf, Bavaria in 1492 <File:Schedel> konstantinopel.jpg\|Constantinople in 1493 <File:Hartmann-schedel-hierosolima-1493> 2-BW-1147x965.jpg\|Jerusalem <File:Hartmann-schedel> DESTRVCCIO-IHEROSOLIME 1493 1-1460x750.jpg\|The destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans <File:Nuremberg> chronicles f 105r 1.png\|Death of Seneca <File:Aesopnurembergchronicle.jpg>\| Aesop <File:Nuremberg> Chronicle World Map 1493 Cornell CUL PJM 1002 02.jpg\|Uncolored Nuremberg Chronicle World Map (1493). <File:Colored> woodcut town view of Florence.jpg\|View of Florence by Hartmann Schedel, Printed in Nuremberg by Anton Koberger in 1493.
## Editions
- Hartmann Schedel: *Registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cu \[cum\] figuris et imagibus \[imaginibus\] ab inicio mudi \[mundi\]*. \[Nachdruck der Ausgabe Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493\]. Ostfildern: Quantum Books, \[2002?\]. - CCXCIX, \[51\] S., `{{ISBN|3-935293-04-6}}`{=mediawiki}
- Hartmann Schedel: *Register des Buchs der Croniken und geschichten mit figuren und pildnussen von anbeginn der welt bis auf dise unnsere Zeit*. \[Durch Georgium Alten \... in diss Teutsch gebracht\]. Reprint \[der Ausg.\] Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493, 1. Wiederdruck. München: Reprint-Verlag Kölbl, 1991. - \[9\], CCLXXXVI Bl., IDN: 947020551
- Hartmann Schedel: *Weltchronik. Nachdruck \[der\] kolorierten Gesamtausgabe von 1493*. Einleitung und Kommentar von Stephan Füssel. Augsburg: Weltbild, 2004. - 680 S., `{{ISBN|3-8289-0803-9}}`{=mediawiki}
- Stephan Füssel (Hg.): *Schedel\'sche Weltchronik*. Taschen Verlag, Köln 2001. `{{ISBN|3-8228-5725-4}}`{=mediawiki}
- [Digitalisat der lateinischen Ausgabe](http://www.obrasraras.usp.br/) (mit brasil-portugiesischer Bedien-Oberfläche)
- [Digitalisat der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek](https://web.archive.org/web/20080922034156/http://mdz1.bib-bvb.de/~mdz/kurzauswahl.html?url=http%3A%2F%2Fmdz1.bib-bvb.de%2Fcocoon%2Fbsbink%2FExemplar_S-199%2C1.html)
- [Digitalisat der Beloit copy](https://web.archive.org/web/20130321014036/http://www.beloit.edu/nuremberg/inside/contents/index.htm) (Morse Library, Beloit College, Beloit, WI 53511, United States)
- [Holzschnitte aus einem der Exemplare der Bibliothèque nationale de France](http://gallica.bnf
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# Hexameter
**Hexameter** is a metrical line of verses consisting of six feet (a \"foot\" here is the pulse, or major accent, of words in an English line of poetry; in Greek as well as in Latin a \"foot\" is not an accent, but describes various combinations of syllables). It was the standard epic metre in classical Greek and Latin literature, such as in the *Iliad*, *Odyssey* and *Aeneid*. Its use in other genres of composition include Horace\'s satires, Ovid\'s *Metamorphoses,* and the Hymns of Orpheus. According to Greek mythology, hexameter was invented by Phemonoe, daughter of Apollo and the first Pythia of Delphi.
\_\_TOC\_\_
## Classical hexameter {#classical_hexameter}
In classical hexameter, the six feet follow these rules:
- A foot can be made up of two long syllables `{{nobr|(— —),}}`{=mediawiki} a spondee; or a long and two short syllables, a dactyl `{{nobr|(— ∪∪).}}`{=mediawiki}
- The first four feet can contain either one of them.
- The fifth is almost always a dactyl, and last must be a spondee / trochee (together forming an adonic). Exceptions can occur when a polysyllabic (especially Greek) name ends a verse.
A short syllable (∪) is a syllable with a short vowel and no consonant at the end. A long syllable (---) is a syllable that either has a long vowel, one or more consonants at the end (or a long consonant), or both. Spaces between words are not counted in syllabification, so for instance *\"cat\"* is a long syllable (---) if said in isolation, but *\"cat attack\"* in combination would be syllabified as short-short-long: *\"ca\", \"ta\", \"tack\"* `{{nobr|(∪∪ —).}}`{=mediawiki}
Variations of the sequence from line to line, as well as the use of caesura (logical full stops within the line) are essential in avoiding what may otherwise be a monotonous sing-song effect.
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# Hexameter
## Application
Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English, because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds. Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress-timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian.
While the above classical hexameter has never enjoyed much popularity in English, where the standard metre is iambic pentameter, English poems have frequently been written in iambic hexameter. There are numerous examples from the 16th century and a few from the 17th; the most prominent of these is Michael Drayton\'s *Poly-Olbion* (1612) in couplets of iambic hexameter. An example from Drayton (marking the six feet on each line):
: Nor a/ny o/ther wold / like Cot/swold e/ver sped,
: So rich / and fair / a vale / in for/tuning / to wed.
In the 17th century the iambic hexameter, also called alexandrine, was used as a substitution in the heroic couplet, and as one of the types of permissible lines in lyrical stanzas and the Pindaric odes of Cowley and Dryden.
Several attempts were made in the 19th century to naturalise the dactylic hexameter to English --- by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Arthur Hugh Clough, and others --- none of them particularly successful. Gerard Manley Hopkins wrote many of his poems in six-foot iambic and sprung rhythm lines. In the 20th century a loose ballad-like six-foot line with a strong medial pause was used by William Butler Yeats. The iambic six-foot line has also been used occasionally, and an accentual six-foot line has been used by translators from the Latin and many poets.
In the late 18th century the hexameter was adapted to the Lithuanian language by Kristijonas Donelaitis. His poem *\"Metai\" (The Seasons)* is considered the most successful hexameter text in Lithuanian as yet.
For dactylic hexameter poetry in Hungarian language, see Dactylic hexameter#In Hungarian.
(1893--1962) used a natural form of hexameter in his translation of some verses from Homer\'s *Odyssey* into the Swiss dialect of Bern
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# Timeline of Polish history
This is a **timeline of Polish history**, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Poland and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of Poland. See also the list of Polish monarchs and list of prime ministers of Poland. \_\_NOTOC\_\_
**Centuries**: 5th{{·}}6th{{·}}7th{{·}}8th{{·}}9th{{·}}10th{{·}}11th{{·}}12th{{·}}13th{{·}}14th{{·}}15th{{·}}16th{{·}}17th{{·}}18th{{·}}19th{{·}}20th{{·}}21st{{·}}See also
## Prehistory
Year Date Event
---------------- ------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
800,000 BC First known humans on Polish lands
c\. 500,000 BC Oldest Stone Tools findings in the Tunel Wielki cave suggest the remnants of *Homo heidelbergensis.*
2400--2300 BC Early Bronze Age.
750--700 BC Iron Age
\| La Tene Culture \|\| \|\|
## 5th century {#th_century}
Year Date Event
------ ------ -----------------------------------
450 First Slavic settlements (to 500)
## 10th century {#th_century_1}
Year Date Event
------ ---------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
910 Early stage of the Piast (Giecz-Gniezno area tribe) expansion (to 930)
960 Beginning of Polish State
965 Merchant Ibrahim ibn Yaqub mentions the city \"Karako\" (Currently Kraków)
966 April 14 Baptism of Poland.
967 Battle of Mieszko I with Wichmann and Wolinians
970 Denarius becomes the currency of Poland
972 24 June Mieszko I defeats Odo I at the Battle of Cedynia
989 Lesser Poland is conquered
990 After a victory against Boleslaus II, Silesia is annexed
992 May 25 Death of Mieszko I
997 St. Adalbert baptises the citizens of Gyddannyzc (currently Gdańsk)
1000 March Congress of Gniezno
## 11th century {#th_century_2}
Year Date Event
---------- ------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1003 Bohemia and Moravia are annexed by Poland
1004 First war with Henry II starts
1007 Second war with Henry II starts
1015 Third war with Henry II starts
1018 January 30 Signing of the Peace of Bautzen (Budziszyn) with Henry II
Bolesław I\'s intervention in the Kievan succession crisis
1025 April 18 Coronation of Bolesław I Chrobry
June 17 Death of Bolesław I Chrobry the Brave
December 25 Coronation of Mieszko II Lambert
1031 Bezprym organises a coup
Mieszko II flees
Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise conquers Cherven Cities, while the Holy Roman Empire regains Lusatia
1032 Mieszko II Lambert returns to the country, duke Bezprym dies
1034 May 10 Death of Mieszko II Lambert
1034--39 Pagan uprisings against Christianization
1058 November 28 Death of Casimir I the Restorer
1076 December 26 Coronation of Bolesław II the Bold
## 12th century {#th_century_3}
Year Date Event
------ ------------ --------------------------------------------------------------
1102 June 4 Death of Władysław I Herman
1138 October 28 Death of Bolesław III Wrymouth; birth of Casimir II the Just
1173 January 5 Death of Bolesław IV the Curly
1194 May 5 Death of Casimir II
## 13th century {#th_century_4}
Year Date Event
------ -------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------
1202 March 13 Death of Mieszko III the Old, High Duke of Poland
1211 May 16 Death of Mieszko IV Tanglefoot
1226 March 26 Issuance of Golden Bull of Rimini
1227 November 24 Assassination of Leszek I the White
1231 November 3 Death of Władysław III Spindleshanks
1238 March 19 Death of Henry I the Bearded
1241 First Mongol invasion of Poland
April 9 Death of Henry II the Pious
1247 August 31 Death of Konrad I of Masovia
1264 September 8 Issuance of Statute of Kalisz
1279 December 7 Death of Bolesław V the Chaste
1288 September 30 Death of Leszek II the Black
Władysław I Łokietek (the Elbow-high) inherits the lands of Poland
1290 June 23 Death of Henryk IV Probus
1295 June 26 Coronation of Przemysł II
Coat of arms of Poland adopted by the King
1296 February 8 Assassination of Przemysł II
1300 August Coronation of Wenceslaus II
## 14th century {#th_century_5}
Year Date Event
------------ -------------- --------------------------------------------
1305 June 21 Death of Wenceslaus II
1306 August 4 Assassination of Wenceslaus III
1308 Teutonic takeover of Danzig
1311--1312 Rebellion of wójt Albert.
1320 January 20 Coronation of Władysław I the Elbow-high
1326 Polish--Teutonic War (1326--1332) begins
1332 Polish--Teutonic War concludes
1333 March 2 Death of Władysław I the Elbow-high
April 25 Coronation of Casimir III
1335 The first meeting of Congress of Visegrád
1339 The second meeting of Congress of Visegrád
1343 July 8 Signing of the Treaty of Kalisz
1347--1362 Statutes of Casimir the Great.
1364 Founding of Jagiellonian University
1370 November 5 Death of Kazimierz III the Great
November 17 Coronation of Louis of Hungary
1374 September 17 Privilege of Koszyce
1382 September 10 Death of Louis of Hungary
1382--1386 The first Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland.
1384 October 16 Coronation of Jadwiga
1385 August 14 Signing of the Union of Krewo
1386 March 4 Coronation of Władysław II Jagiełło
1399 July 17 Death of queen Jadwiga
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 15th century {#th_century_6}
Year Date Event
------------ -------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1401 Union of Vilnius and Radom
1409 Polish--Lithuanian--Teutonic War begins
1410 July 15 Battle of Grunwald won by Władysław II Jagiełło
1411 February 1 Signing of the First Peace of Thorn (Toruń) concludes the Polish--Lithuanian--Teutonic War
1412 November 8 Signing of the Treaty of Lubowla
1413 October 2 Signing of the Union of Horodło
1414 Hunger War
1422 17 July Golub War begins
September 27 Signing of the Treaty of Melno concludes the Golub War
1424 Issuance of Edict of Wieluń
1431 Polish--Teutonic War (1431--1435) begins
1432 Signing of the Union of Grodno
1434 June 1 Death of Władysław II Jagiełło
July 25 Coronation of Władysław III of Varna
1435 Polish--Teutonic War concludes
1444 November 10 Death of Władysław III of Varna
1447 June 25 Coronation of Kazimierz IV Jagiellon
1454 Thirteen Years\' War begins
Statutes of Nieszawa
1466 October 19 Signing of the Second Peace of Toruń concludes the Thirteen Years\' War
1473 Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 published
1478--1479 War of the Priests.
1492 June 7 Death of Kazimierz IV Jagiellon
September 23 Coronation of Jan I Olbracht
1496 Statutes of Piotrków
1499 Union of Kraków and Vilnius
## 16th century {#th_century_7}
Year Date Event
------------ ------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1501 June 17 Death of Jan I Olbracht
October 3 Union of Mielnik
December 12 Coronation of Alexander Jagiellon
1505 May 3 Signing of act of Nihil novi
1506 August 19 Death of Alexander Jagiellon
1507 January 24 Coronation of Sigismund I the Old
1513 Hortulus Animae, polonice published.
1515 July First Congress of Vienna.
1519--1521 Polish--Teutonic War.
1525 April 8 Signing of the Treaty of Kraków
April 10 Prussian Homage
1526 Annexation of Duchy of Masovia
1530 February 20 Coronation of Sigismund II Augustus
1537 Chicken War
1543 De revolutionibus orbium coelestium published
1548 April 1 Death of Zygmunt I the Old
1558 Livonian War begins
1561 November 28 Signing of Wilno Pact
1563 Northern Seven Years\' War begins
1569 July 1 Signing of the Union of Lublin
1570 Signing of Sandomierz Agreement
December 13 Signing of the Treaty of Stettin concludes the Northern Seven Years\' War
1572 July 7 Death of Zygmunt II August
1573 January 28 Signing of the Warsaw Confederation
May 11 Election of Henry of Valois
1574 February 21 Coronation of Henry Valois
June 18 Flight of Henry Valois
1575 December 9 Election of Stephen Báthory
1576 1 May Coronation of Stephen Batory and Anna Jagiellon
1579 Founding of Vilnius University
1582 January 15 Signing of the Truce of Jam Zapolski concludes Commonwealth participation in the Livonian War
October 15 Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
1586 December 12 Death of Stefan Batory
1587 August 19 Election of Sigismund III Vasa
December 27 Coronation of Sigismund III Waza
1591 Kosiński Uprising begins.
1593 Kosiński Uprising ends
1594 Nalyvaiko Uprising begins
1596 Nalyvaiko Uprising ends
Transfer of capital from Kraków to Warsaw
Union of Brest concludes
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 17th century {#th_century_8}
Year Date Event
------------ ---------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------
1606 5 August Zebrzydowski rebellion begins
1609 Polish--Russian War (1609--1618) begins
1618 Signing of the Truce of Deulino concludes the Polish--Russian War
1620--1621 Polish--Ottoman War (1620--1621).
1625 Signing of the Treaty of Kurukove
1629 Signing of the Truce of Altmark
1632 September - November 1632 Polish--Lithuanian royal election
Smolensk War begins
April 30 Death of Sigismund III Waza
November 8 Election of Władysław IV Vasa
1633 Polish--Ottoman War (1633--1634) begins
February 6 Coronation of Władysław IV Vasa
1634 14 June Signing of the Treaty of Polyanovka concludes the Smolensk War
Polish--Ottoman War ends
1635 September 12 Signing of the Treaty of Sztumska Wieś
1648 Khmelnytsky Uprising begins
May 20 Death of Władysław IV Waza
November 20 Election of John II Casimir Vasa
1649 January 19 Coronation of John II Casimir Vasa
August 17 Signing of the Treaty of Zboriv
1651 June 14 -- June 24 Kostka-Napierski uprising.
September 28 Signing of the Treaty of Bila Tserkva
1654 Khmelnytskyi Uprising ends
Russo-Polish War begins
1655 Deluge begins
August 18 Signing of the Union of Kėdainiai
December 29 Tyszowce Confederation formed
1657 September 9 Signing of the Treaty of Welawa
November 6 Signing of the Treaty of Bydgoszcz
1658 September 16 Signing of the Treaty of Hadiach
1660 May 3 Signing of the Treaty of Oliva concludes the Deluge
1665--1666 Lubomirski\'s rebellion.
1667 January 30 Signing of the Treaty of Andrusovo concludes the Russo-Polish War.
1668 September 16 Abdication of John II Casimir Vasa
1669 June 16 Election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
September 29 Coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
1672 Polish--Ottoman War (1672--1676) begins
October 18 Signing of the Peace of Buczacz
1673 November 10 Death of Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki
1674 May 19 Election of John III Sobieski
1676 February 2 Coronation of John III Sobieski
October 17 Signing of the Treaty of Żurawno concludes the Polish--Ottoman War
1683 September 12 Battle of Vienna won under command of John III Sobieski
1686 May 6 Signing of the Treaty of Perpetual Peace
1696 June 17 Death of John III Sobieski
1697 June 27 Election of Augustus II the Strong
September 15 Coronation of Augustus II the Strong
1699 Signing of the Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye
January 26 Signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz concludes the Great Turkish War
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 18th century {#th_century_9}
Year Date Event
------ -------------- -------------------------------------------------------------
1704 February 16 Warsaw Confederation formed
May 20 Sandomierz Confederation formed
July 12 Election of Stanisław Leszczyński
1705 October 4 Coronation of Stanisław Leszczyński
1706 September 24 Signing of the Treaty of Altranstädt
1709 July 8 Restoration of August II the Strong
1715 Tarnogród Confederation begins
1716 Tarnogród Confederation ends
1717 February 1 Silent Sejm
1724 December 7 Tumult of Thorn
1733 War of the Polish Succession begins
February 1 Death of August II the Strong
October 5 Election of August III the Saxon
1734 January 17 Coronation of August III the Saxon
November 5 Dzików Confederation formed
1736 Pacification Sejm
1738 November 18 Treaty of Vienna concludes the War of the Polish Succession
1763 October 5 Death of August III
1764 Convocation Sejm
September 7 Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski
November 25 Coronation of Stanisław August Poniatowski
1767 Repnin Sejm begins
March 20 Słuck Confederation formed
June 23 Radom Confederation formed
1768 June Koliivshchyna.
Massacre of Uman
February 29 Signing of the Bar Confederation
1772 First Partition of Poland
1773 October 14 Creation of Commission of National Education
1788 Great Sejm begins
1789 December 2 Black Procession
1790 March 29 Signing of Polish--Prussian alliance
1791 April 18 Free Royal Cities Act
May 3 Adoption of Constitution of 3 May
1792 Polish--Russian War
May 14 Signing of Targowica Confederation
May 29 Great Sejm ends
1793 Second Partition of Poland
Grodno Sejm
1794 March 24 Kościuszko Uprising begins
March 24 Kościuszko\'s proclamation
May 7 Issuance of Proclamation of Połaniec
August 20 Greater Poland Uprising begins
1795 Third Partition of Poland
November 25 Abdication of Stanisław August Poniatowski
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 19th century {#th_century_10}
Year Date Event
------ ------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1806 November 3 Greater Poland Uprising begins.
The Town of Łódź became a part of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw.
1807 March 19 Beginning of the Siege of Danzig.
May 24 End the Siege of Danzig.
July 9 The second Treaty of Tilsit was signed.
Białystok was captured by the Russian Empire.
1809 October 14 Signing of the Treaty of Schönbrunn.
1815 June 9 Congress of Vienna concludes.
October 18 Free City of Kraków proclaimed.
November 27 Adoption of Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland.
1812 July 3 The forces of Napoleon invaded Białystok.
1813 January Siege of Danzig occurred.
1814 Prussia captured Gdańsk.
1815 The Republic of Krakow was established.
1820 January Kraków Town Hall was demolished excluding the tower.
1824 The Lodka settlement was founded.
1825 December 1 Death of Alexander I of Russia.
1829 24 May Coronation of Nicholas I of Russia.
1830 November 29 November Uprising begins.
1831 Russian forces occupied Kraków.
1832 Handelsakademie was founded.
1834 Białystok prevented schools from teaching in the Polish language.
1846 February 19 Kraków Uprising begins.
March 4 Kraków Uprising ended.
November 16 Free City of Kraków incorporated into the Austrian Empire.
1848 Greater Poland Uprising.
1850 July 18 Kraków Fire of 1850 caused the destruction of approximately one tenth of the city.
1863 January 22 January Uprising begins.
1864 March 2 Abolition of serfdom in Congress Poland.
1873 The School of Fine Arts and Academy of Learning became active.
1879 The National Museum in Kraków was founded.
1881 Great Synagogue was constructed in Łódź.
1884 Alexander Nevsky Cathedral was constructed.
1888 Karl Scheibler\'s Chapel was constructed.
1892 Izrael Poznański factory was constructed.
1898 The Volunteer Fire Department was founded.
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 20th century {#th_century_11}
Year Date Event
------ -------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1908 September 26 Bezdany raid near Vilna on a Russian imperial train
1916 November 5 Signing of the Act of 5th November between Germany and Austria
1917 July 9 Oath crisis by the departing Polish Legions led by Józef Piłsudski
1918 March 3 Signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Soviet Russia
November 11 Poland regains independence with the formation of the Second Polish Republic following the Armistice of 11 November 1918
### The Second Polish Republic (1918--1939) {#the_second_polish_republic_19181939}
Year Date Event
------ ---------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1918 November 1 Polish--Ukrainian War begins, ends in 1919
November 11 Polish Independence Day, Warsaw is free from German troops of the Ober Ost
December 27 Greater Poland Uprising begins, ends in 1919
1919 January 23--30 Polish--Czechoslovak War erupts following border disagreements
January 26 Legislative election to the Sejm
February 14 Polish--Soviet War begins
February 16 Greater Poland Uprising ends
February 20 Adoption of Small Constitution
April 22 Proclamation to the inhabitants of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania about Międzymorze
June 28 Treaty of Versailles (Articles 87--93) and Little Treaty ratify Poland as a sovereign state internationally
August 16 First Silesian Uprising begins; Silesian Uprisings continue until 1921
August 22 Sejny Uprising after imperial Germany turned over administration to Lithuanian delegates
1920 February 10 Poland\'s Wedding to the Sea in Puck
April 21 Signing of Treaty of Warsaw
July 5--16 Spa Conference in Belgium
August 12--25 Miracle of the Vistula during the Bolshevik invasion
August 19 Second Silesian Uprising begins
September 1 Polish--Lithuanian War continues over the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions
October 6 Żeligowski\'s Mutiny resulting in the creation of the Republic of Central Lithuania
1921 February 19 Signing of the Franco-Polish alliance
March 3 Polish--Romanian alliance signed in Bucharest
March 17 Adoption of March Constitution
March 18 Signing of the Peace of Riga with Lenin concludes the Polish-Soviet War
March 20 Upper Silesia plebiscite rigged
May 2 Third Silesian Uprising begins
1922 November 5--12 Legislative election
December 9 Gabriel Narutowicz becomes President
December 16 Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz
December 22 Stanisław Wojciechowski becomes President
1923 November 6 1923 Kraków riot
1924 January 11 Władysław Grabski\'s monetary reform with Bank Polski SA acting as an issuing bank
1925 December 1 Signing of the Locarno Treaties
1926 May 12--14 May Coup
June 4 Ignacy Mościcki becomes President
1928 March 4--11 Legislative election
Piłsudski\'s Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government election campaign
1930 November 16 Legislative election
1932 July 25 Signing of the Soviet--Polish Non-Aggression Pact
1934 January 26 Signing of the German--Polish declaration of non-aggression
1935 April 23 Adoption of April Constitution
May 12 Death of Józef Piłsudski
September 15 Legislative election
1938 April 1 Territorial changes of Polish Voivodeships
October Annexation of Trans-Olza
November 6 Legislative election
1939 April 2 Suicide former Prime Minister of Walery Sławek
August 23 Signing of the Molotov--Ribbentrop Pact
August 25 Signing of the Polish--British Common Defence Pact
August 29 Peking Plan begins, Polish destroyers moved to British ports
August 31 Gleiwitz incident, pretext for the invasion
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 20th century {#th_century_11}
### Occupation of Poland (1939--45) {#occupation_of_poland_193945}
Year Date Event
------ -------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1939 September 1 German Invasion of Poland begins; Bombing of Wieluń
September 2 Massacre in Torzeniec village
September 3 Bloody Sunday in Bydgoszcz
September 8 German Massacre in Ciepielów of Polish POW
September 13 Bombing of Frampol, up to 90% of the town destroyed
September 17 Soviet invasion of Poland
September 18 Orzeł incident, ORP submarine escapes to the United Kingdom
September 18 The Fall of Warsaw
October 1 General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski elected President
October 6 Poland completely occupied
November 6 Sonderaktion Krakau operation against university professors
1940 March 5 Authorization of Katyń massacre
May 16 Authorization of German AB-Aktion in Poland
1941 June 30 -- July 29 Lviv pogroms
July 2 Massacre of Lwów professors
July 10 Jedwabne pogrom
August 17 Signing of the Sikorski--Mayski agreement in London
October 12 Stanisławów Ghetto Bloody Sunday massacre
1942 March 17 Bełżec extermination camp begins secretive Operation Reinhard
May 16 Sobibór extermination camp starts mass gassing operations
July 22 Treblinka extermination camp becomes ready for the Grossaktion Warsaw deportations
1943 March 26 Operation Arsenal, first major operation by the Szare Szeregi
April 19 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising begins
May 16 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends
July 4 Death of Polish military leader Władysław Sikorski
July 11 Bloody Sunday, the peak of Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia
July 11--12 Zagaje massacre
December 1 Tehran Conference concludes in the Soviet embassy in Tehran
1944 January 29 Koniuchy massacre by Soviet partisans
February 28 Huta Pieniacka massacre by Ukrainian Grenadier Division of the Waffen-SS
June 20 Glinciszki massacre by Lithuanian Auxiliary Police
June 23 Dubingiai massacre by Home Army
July 22 Proclamation of the PKWN Manifesto by Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation
July 25 Operation Most III begins on the German V-2 rocket
August Wola massacre in the opening phase of the Warsaw Uprising
August 1 Warsaw Uprising begins
October 2 Warsaw Uprising ends
1945 January 26 Przyszowice massacre
February 11 Yalta Conference concludes
March Pawłokoma massacre
March 17 Poland\'s Wedding to the Sea in Mrzeżyno
March 18 Poland\'s Wedding to the Sea in Kołobrzeg
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 20th century {#th_century_11}
### Communist takeover, Polish People\'s Republic {#communist_takeover_polish_peoples_republic}
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Year | Date | Event |
+==================+=================+===================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| 1945 | May 8 | End of World War II in Europe |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 18--21 | Trial of the Sixteen Polish Underground leaders in Moscow |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 10--25 | Augustów roundup of anti-Communist partisans |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 2 | Potsdam Conference concludes between the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 11 | Kraków pogrom with one dead victim |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1946 | January 20 | By order of the Minister of National Defence, military district courts (WSR) were established with seats in voivodeship capitals. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | February 21 | The Voluntary Reserves of the Citizens\' Militia were established |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 28 | The State Security Commission was established, whose purpose was to coordinate activities against the opposition and the independence underground in the period preceding the \"people\'s referendum\" and the elections to the Legislative Sejm |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 30 | A People\'s referendum was held, preceded by a nationwide campaign to combat the political opposition - primarily the PSL and the independence underground. A special Soviet group led by Colonel Aron Palkin participated in the campaign to falsify the referendum results |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 4 | Kielce pogrom |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 5 | The decree of the State National Council came into force, proclaiming the establishment of the Main Office for the Control of the Press, Publications and Entertainment |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | September 20-23 | The last session of the KRN was held. During the session, the date of elections to the Legislative Sejm was set for January 19, 1947 and the main assumptions of the country\'s economic reconstruction plan - the three-year plan - were adopted. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | September 26 | The decision was announced to create an electoral bloc of PPR, PPS, SL, and SD, propaganda called the Bloc of Democratic Parties. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1947 | January 19 | Legislative election rigged, 100,000 ORMO men deployed to intimidate voters |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | February 19 | Adoption of Small Constitution of 1947 |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | April 28 | Operation Vistula begins |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 24 | Auschwitz trial begins in Kraków |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1948 | February 25 | The General Youth Organization \"Service to Poland\" was established. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 10 | During the joint meeting of the Central Committee of the PPR and the Central Electoral Commission of the PPS, the formal decision was made to unite the parties. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | April 25 | The Higher Marxist School was established at the Central Committee of the PZPR. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1949 | January 1 | State Agricultural Farms were established (since 1976 operating under the name of State Agricultural Enterprises). |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 1-5 | The 2nd Trade Union Congress took place |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 25-27 | The Congress of the Unity of the People\'s Movement took place, which resulted in the merger of PSL and SL into the United People\'s Party. The chairman of the Supreme Council was Józef Niećko, and the chairman of the Supreme Executive Committee was Władysław Kowalski. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1950 | January 23 | Communists establish administration over the church charity organization \"Caritas\" |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 21 | The law on the 6-year plan for economic development and building the foundations of socialism for the years 1950-1955 was passed |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 10 | A Special Bureau was established within the MPB, entrusted with the task of combating provocations in the workers\' movement. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 20 | A new administrative organization was established. Thus, the provincial offices, county offices, and the positions of governors, starosts, and city presidents were liquidated and were replaced with voivodeship, powiat and city National Councils. The act transformed them into local state administration bodies, which was another stage in the centralization of power. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | April 19 | The Office for Religious Affairs was established, and soon its local agencies were established at the provincial, city and district national councils. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 28 | A new administrative division of the country was formed, and the number of voivodeships increased to seventeen. This division into voivodeships remained until the administrative reform carried out in 1975 |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 6 | Treaty of Zgorzelec signed in the border with East Germany |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | October 14 | The verdict in the trial of the 4th Main Board of WiN has been announced: Leader Łukasz Cieplinski and his six associates were sentenced to death, three people to long-term imprisonment |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | October 16 | The Institute for Training of Scientific Cadres at the Central Committee of the PZPR began its operations. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1951 | February 15 | The Treaty on the Exchange of Territories was signed in Moscow between the Polish and Soviet governments |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 31 | Trial of the Generals who served in the anti-Nazi resistance during World War II |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 2 | Władysław Gomułka is arrested |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | September 9 | Stefan Matryka, the narrator of the propaganda radio program Fala-49, was shot dead |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 6 | In Żerań, in the northern part of Warsaw\'s Praga district, the Fabryka Samochodów Osobowych, which had been under construction since 1949, was launched |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1952 | Aprill 16 | August Emil Fieldorf is sentenced to death |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 22 | Adoption of Constitution of the People\'s Republic of Poland by the Legislative Sejm |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 30 | The All-Polish Committee National Front was established under the chairmanship of Boleslaw Bierut. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | October 26 | First Legislative election by the one-party rule |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1953 | February 9 | The Council of State issued a decree on the appointment of church clergy, in which the communists gave themselves the right to directly interfere in the personnel policy of the Church |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 14 | Michał Rola-Żymierski is arrested in a political struggle |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 3 | One of the changes in the management of the Soviet sphere of influence was the decision - formally taken by the Commission for National Defense of the Polish People\'s Republic - to send some of the Red Army generals who had been recommended to the Polish People\'s Army in previous years to the USSR. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 5 | A clear signal of the \"thaw\" was the recall of Dymitr Woźnienski and Antoni Skulbaszewski from the Polish People\'s Republic to the USSR. Both were sentenced to 10 years in prison in the USSR for violating the rule of law. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 17 | Józef Światło, deputy director of Department X of the MBP, fled to West Berlin. The fugitive surrendered to American intelligence |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1954 | March 10-17 | During the Second Congress of the Polish United Workers\' Party, where Nikita Khrushchev was a special guest, a decision was made to imitate the changes introduced in the USSR. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 18 | The State Council implemented the decisions of the 2nd Congress of the Polish United Workers\' Party, dismissing Bolesław Bierut from the position of Prime Minister and entrusting this position to Józef Cyrankiewicz. At the same time, Władysław Dworakowski ceased to be Deputy Prime Minister, and Hilary Minc was dismissed from the position of Chairman of the State Economic Planning Commission to be replaced by Eugeniusz Szyr. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 3 | The operation codenamed X-2 began, the aim of which was to displace about 1,400 nuns from Lower and Upper Silesia. They were moved to 8 labour camps located in convent buildings in the Krakow and Poznan regions. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | September 25 | An administrative reform was carried out, in which the four-level structure was replaced by a three-level division. The changes consisted of the liquidation of communes, while the administrative boundaries of the gromadas were simultaneously extended. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 24-25 | A secret meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers\' Party was held. Cliques began to emerge within the Polish United Workers\' Party leadership, representing different possibilities of getting out of the political and economic crisis that was plaguing the Polish People\'s Republic. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 7 | The MBP was dissolved, and in its place the Committee for Public Security and the Ministry of Internal Affairs were established. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1955 | April 30 | The broadcast of TVP\'s regular programme has begun. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | May 14 | Signing of the Warsaw Pact |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1956 | February 19 | The first public criticism of Stalin\'s actions in the Polish People\'s Republic. \"Trybuna Ludu\" published a statement signed by the central committees of the Polish United Workers\' Party, the Communist Party of Poland. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 12 | Death of Bolesław Bierut |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 20 | The 6th Plenum of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers\' Party was held, during which the memory of Bierut was honored |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 28 | Poznań 1956 protests |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | October 21 | Polish October, return of Władysław Gomułka |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1957 | January 20 | Legislative election |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 12-14 | The tram drivers in Łódź went on strike. It was one of 11 strikes in Łódź and one of many taking place in the country at that time. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1959 | October 18 | Price increase of average 25% for meat, animal fats and meat products was introduced |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | October 28 | Jerzy Morawski, a member of the reformist Puławians group in the Polish United Workers\' Party, resigned from his membership in the Political Bureau and the Secretariat of the Central Committee. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 3-5 | The congress of delegates of the Polish Writers\' Union was in session. Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz was elected the new president |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1960 | May 30 | Stormy protests took place in Zielona Góra in response to the authorities\' attempt to close down the Catholic House inhabited by priests. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1961 | April 16 | Legislative election |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1964 | June 15-20 | The 4th Congress of the Polish United Workers\' Party took place, which strengthened the so-called small stabilization. Gomułka outlined economic plans for the coming years, assuming a 50% increase in industrial production. In the five-year period of 1966-1970, 1.5 million new jobs were to be created, and the national income was to increase by 30%. Gomułka, who was formally re-elected to the position of the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers\' Party, sharply criticized the leaders of the Chinese communists for the split. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 13 | Edward Ochoba was appointed Chairman of the State Council after Aleksander Zawadzki\'s death on August 7. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 9 | The Provincial Court for the Capital City of Warsaw sentenced the famous writer Melchior Wankowicz to three years in prison, which was changed to one and a half years under an amnesty. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1965 | February 2 | The court sentenced to death Stanisław Wawrzecki, director of the Municipal Meat Trading Company - the main defendant in the so-called meat affair. The sentence was carried out on April 9, it was the only one carried out after 1956 in the Polish People\'s Republic for a crime of an economic nature. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | May 30 | Legislative election |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 20 | Gen. Tadeusz Pietrzak became the new commander-in-chief of the Citizens\' Militia. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | November 18 | Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 3 | In Zabrze, during the Miner\'s Day celebrations, Gomułka summed up the second five-year plan (1961-1965) |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1968 | March | Political crisis |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 20 | End of Prague Spring with the invasion of Czechoslovakia |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1970 | December 7 | Signing of Treaty of Warsaw; Warschauer Kniefall |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 14 | 1970 protests begin |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1974 | February 4 | The 1st National Conference of the PZPR |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1978 | October 16 | Election of Pope John Paul II |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1980 | | Gdańsk Agreement |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | March 14 | LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 17 | 21 demands of MKS |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1981 | May 28 | Death of Primate Poland Stefan Wyszyński |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1981 | December 13 | Martial law begins |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1983 | | Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa receives the Nobel Peace Prize. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 22 | Martial law ends |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1984 | | Father Jerzy Popiełuszko murdered by Polish secret police. |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1989 | April 4 | Signing of the Round Table Agreement |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | April 7 | April Novelization |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | June 4 | Parliamentary election |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | July 19 | Lech Wałęsa becomes President |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | August 24 | Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes first non-communist prime minister in the Eastern Bloc |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | December 31 | The People\'s Republic of Poland becomes the Republic of Poland |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **References:**\ | | |
+------------------+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
### Democratic Republic of Poland {#democratic_republic_of_poland}
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Timeline of Polish history
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# Timeline of Polish history
## 20th century {#th_century_11}
### Democratic Republic of Poland {#democratic_republic_of_poland}
Year Date Event
------ -------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------
1990 May 27 Local elections
November 14 Signing of German--Polish Border Treaty
November 25 Presidential election
December 22 Lech Wałęsa becomes President
1991 June 27 Mława riot after Romani youth kills pedestrian in a hit-and-run
July 1 Dissolution of Warsaw Pact
October 27 Parliamentary election
1992 October 17 Adoption of Small Constitution
December 21 Signing of Central European Free Trade Agreement
1993 September 14 Lufthansa Flight 2904
September 19 Parliamentary election
1994 May 2 Poland bus disaster of 1994 killed 32 people.
June 19 Local elections
1995 November Presidential election
December 23 Aleksander Kwaśniewski becomes President
1997 April 2 Adoption of Constitution
September 21 Parliamentary election
1998 October 11 Local elections
1999 January 1 16 new voivodeships created in Polish local government reforms
1999 March 12 Poland joins NATO
2000 October 8 Presidential election
## 21st century {#st_century}
Year Date Event
------ -------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------
2001 September 23 Parliamentary election
2002 Census
October 27 Local elections
2003 April 16 Signing of the Treaty of Accession
June European Union membership referendum
2004 1 May Poland joins in the European Union
June 13 European Parliament election
2005 April 2 Death of Pope John Paul II
September 25 Parliamentary election
October Presidential election
December 23 Lech Kaczyński becomes President
2006 January 28 Katowice Trade Hall roof collapse
November Local elections
2007 October 21 Parliamentary election
2010 April 10 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash killing Polish President Lech Kaczyński
2010 July 4 Bronisław Komorowski elected president.
2011 August 5 Suicide of Andrzej Lepper
2011 October 9 Parliamentary election
2012 March 3 A train crash near Szczekociny, Poland, kills 16 people.
2014 April 27 Canonization of Pope John Paul II
2014 May 25 Death of Wojciech Jaruzelski
2015 May Presidential election
2015 August 6 Andrzej Duda becomes President
2020 October 22 Women\'s strike protests. Part of the Polish constitutional crisis
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# Heracleidae
The **Heracleidae** (`{{IPAc-en|h|ɛr|ə|ˈ|k|l|aɪ|d|iː}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἡρακλεῖδαι*) or **Heraclids** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛr|ə|k|l|ɪ|d|z}}`{=mediawiki} were the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira (Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as Heracles\' son by Melite). Other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus. These Heraclids were a group of Dorian kings who conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos; according to the literary tradition in Greek mythology, they claimed a right to rule through their ancestor. Since Karl Otfried Müller\'s *Die Dorier* (1830, English translation 1839), I. ch. 3, their rise to dominance has been associated with a \"Dorian invasion\". Though details of genealogy differ from one ancient author to another, the cultural significance of the mythic theme, that the descendants of Heracles, exiled after his death, returned some generations later to reclaim land that their ancestors had held in Mycenaean Greece, was to assert the primal legitimacy of a traditional ruling clan that traced its origin, thus its legitimacy, to Heracles.
In the historical period, several dynasties claimed descent from Heracles, such as the Agiads and Eurypontids of Sparta, or the Temenids of Macedonia. In modern times, the same lineage has been claimed by the House of Burgundy and the kings of Castile.
## Origin
Heracles, whom Zeus had originally intended to be ruler of Argos, Lacedaemon and Messenian Pylos, had been supplanted by the cunning of Hera, and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. After the death of Heracles, his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from Eurystheus at Athens. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year\'s stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew to Thessaly, where Aegimius, the mythical ancestor of the Dorians, whom Heracles had assisted in war against the Lapithae, adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory.
After the death of Aegimius, his two sons, Pamphylus and Dymas, voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Dorian tradition in Herodotus V. 72, really an Achaean), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes. Desiring to reconquer his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him to wait for \"the third fruit\", (or \"the third crop\") and then enter Peloponnesus by \"a narrow passage by sea\". Accordingly, after three years, Hyllus marched across the isthmus of Corinth to attack Atreus, the successor of Eurystheus, but was slain in single combat by Echemus, king of Tegea. This second attempt was followed by a third under Cleodaeus and a fourth under Aristomachus, both unsuccessful.
| 470 |
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| 0 |
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# Heracleidae
## Dorian invasion {#dorian_invasion}
At last, Temenus, Cresphontes and Aristodemus, the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They received the answer that by the \"third fruit\" the \"third generation\" was meant, and that the \"narrow passage\" was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of Rhium. They accordingly built a fleet at Naupactus, but before they set sail, Aristodemus was struck by lightning (or shot by Apollo) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracleidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer.
The oracle, being again consulted by Temenus, bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his way back to Naupactus, Temenus fell in with Oxylus, an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heracleidae repaired their ships, sailed from Naupactus to Antirrhium, and thence to Rhium in Peloponnesus. A decisive battle was fought with Tisamenus, son of Orestes, the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. This conquest was traditionally dated eighty years after the Trojan War.
The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. Argos fell to Temenus, Lacedaemon to Procles and Eurysthenes, the twin sons of Aristodemus; and Messenia to Cresphontes (tradition maintains that Cresphontes cheated in order to obtain Messenia, which had the best land of all.) The fertile district of Elis had been reserved by agreement for Oxylus. The Heracleidae ruled in Lacedaemon until 221 BCE, but disappeared much earlier in the other countries.
This conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, commonly called the \"Dorian invasion\" or the \"Return of the Heraclidae\", is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in Homer or Hesiod. Herodotus (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of Heracles.
| 450 |
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| 1 |
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# Heracleidae
## List of Heracleidae {#list_of_heracleidae}
### At Lydia {#at_lydia}
Herodotus says the Heraclids ruled Lydia for 505 years through 22 generations with son succeeding father all down the line from Agron to Candaules. While Candaules was the last of the Heraclids to reign at Sardis, Herodotus says Agron was the first and thereby implies that Sardis was already the capital of Lydia in Maeonian times. Candaules died c.687 BC and so the 505-year span stated by Herodotus suggests c.1192 BC for Agron\'s accession. That is about the time the Hurri-Hittite empire collapsed and thus the land of seha river could become independent from its Hittite overlords and gives more credibility to the tradition heard by Herodotus.
The known Heraclid kings are:
- Agron (fl. c.1192 BC; legendary great-great-grandson of Heracles and a Lydian slave-girl via Alcaeus, Belus and Ninus)
- 19 legendary kings, names unknown, all succeeding father to son
- Meles, *aka* Myrsus (8th century BC; semi-legendary father of Candaules)
- Candaules, *aka* Myrsilus (died c.687 BC; probably historical; son of Meles; murdered by Gyges)
### At Sparta {#at_sparta}
At Sparta, the Heraclids formed two dynasties ruling jointly: the Agiads and the Eurypontids. Other Spartiates also claimed Heraclid descent, such as Lysander.
### At Corinth {#at_corinth}
At Corinth the Heraclids ruled as the Bacchiadae dynasty before the aristocratic revolution, which brought a Bacchiad aristocracy into power.
### At Argos {#at_argos}
A descendant of Heracles, Temenus, was the first king of Argos, who later counted the famous tyrant Pheidon.
### At Macedonia {#at_macedonia}
At Macedonia, the Heraclids formed the Argead Dynasty, whose name comes from Argos, as one of the Heraclids from this city, Perdiccas I, settled in Macedonia, where he founded his kingdom. By the time of Philip II the family had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of Macedonia all Upper Macedonian states. Their most celebrated members were Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, under whose leadership the kingdom of Macedonia gradually gained predominance throughout Greece, defeated the Achaemenid Empire and expanded as far as Egypt and India. The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King Caranus.
### In modern times {#in_modern_times}
In modern times, Heraclid lineage has been claimed by the House of Burgundy and the kings of Castile. The seventeenth-century Spanish king Philip IV, a descendant of both houses, commissioned the artist Francisco de Zurbarán to paint a series of ten works depicting Hercules, as part of the decoration of his Buen Retiro Palace; these artworks were considered an allegory for the legitimacy of his rule.`{{Refn|{{cite book| last1=Brown| first1=Jonathan| last2=Elliott| first2=John Huxtable| date=2003| orig-date=1980| title=A Palace for a King: The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV| publisher=Yale University Press| place=New Haven| isbn=0-300-10185-6| p=161}}}}`{=mediawiki}
## In Euripides\' tragedy {#in_euripides_tragedy}
The Greek tragedians amplified the story, probably drawing inspiration from local legends which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.
The Heracleidae feature as the main subjects of Euripides\' play, *Heracleidae*. J. A. Spranger found the political subtext of *Heracleidae*, never far to seek, so particularly apt in Athens towards the end of the peace of Nicias, in 419 BCE, that he suggested the date as that of the play\'s first performance.
In the tragedy, Iolaus, Heracles\' old comrade and nephew, and Heracles\' children, Macaria and her brothers and sisters have hidden from Eurystheus in Athens, ruled by King Demophon; as the first scene makes clear, they expect that the blood relationship of the kings with Heracles and their father\'s past indebtedness to Theseus will finally provide them sanctuary. As Eurystheus prepares to attack, an oracle tells Demophon that only the sacrifice of a noble woman to Persephone can guarantee an Athenian victory. Macaria volunteers for the sacrifice and a spring is named the Macarian spring in her honor
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# Hostile witness
A **hostile witness**, also known as an **adverse witness** or an **unfavorable witness**, is a witness at trial whose testimony on direct examination is either openly antagonistic or appears to be contrary to the legal position of the party who called the witness. This concept is used in the legal proceedings in the United States, and analogues of it exist in other legal systems in Western countries.
## Process
During direct examination, if the examining attorney who called the witness finds that their testimony is antagonistic or contrary to the legal position of their client, the attorney may request that the judge declare the witness \"hostile\". If the request is granted, the attorney may proceed to ask the witness leading questions. Leading questions either suggest the answer (\"You saw my client sign the contract, correct?\") or challenge (impeach) the witness\'s testimony. As a rule, leading questions are generally allowed only during cross-examination, but a hostile witness is an exception to this rule.
In cross-examination conducted by the opposing party\'s attorney, a witness is presumed to be hostile and the examining attorney is not required to seek the judge\'s permission before asking leading questions. Attorneys can influence a hostile witness\'s responses by using Gestalt psychology to influence the way the witness perceives the situation, and utility theory to understand their likely responses. The attorney will integrate a hostile witness\'s expected responses into the larger case strategy through pretrial planning and through adapting as necessary during the course of the trial.
## Jurisdiction
### Australia
In the state of New South Wales, the term \'unfavourable witness\' is defined by section 38 of the Evidence Act which permits the prosecution to cross-examine their own witness. For example, if the prosecution calls all material witnesses relevant to a case before the court, and any evidence given is not favourable to, or supports the prosecution case, or a witness has given a prior inconsistent statement, then the prosecution may seek leave of the court, via section 192, to test the witness in relation to their evidence.
### New Zealand {#new_zealand}
In New Zealand, section 94 of the Evidence Act 2006 permits a party to cross-examine their own witness if the presiding judge determines the witness to be hostile and gives permission
| 379 |
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| 0 |
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# Hentai
**Hentai** (*ヘンタイ*) is a style of Japanese pornographic anime and manga. In addition to anime and manga, hentai works exist in a variety of media, including artwork and video games (commonly known as *eroge*).
The development of hentai has been influenced by Japanese cultural and historical attitudes toward sexuality. Hentai works, which are often self-published, form a significant portion of the market for *doujin* works, including *doujinshi*. Numerous subgenres exist depicting a variety of sexual acts and relationships, as well as novel fetishes.
## Terminology
In sexual contexts, *hentai* carries additional meanings of \"perversion\" or \"abnormality\", especially when used as an adjective; in these uses, it is the shortened form of the phrase `{{Nihongo3||変態性欲|hentai seiyoku}}`{=mediawiki} which means \"sexual perversion\". The character *hen* is a catch-all for queerness as a peculiarity---it does not carry an explicit sexual reference. While the term has expanded in use to cover a range of publications including homosexual publications, it remains primarily a heterosexual term, as terms indicating homosexuality entered Japan as foreign words. Japanese pornographic works are often simply tagged as `{{Nihongo3||18禁|18-kin|extra='18-prohibited'}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"prohibited to those not yet 18 years old\", and `{{Nihongo3||成人漫画|seijin manga|extra="adult manga"}}`{=mediawiki}. Less official terms also in use include `{{nihongo|[[erotic|ero]] anime|エロアニメ}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nihongo|ero manga|エロ漫画}}`{=mediawiki}, and the English initialism AV (for \"adult video\"). Usage of the term *hentai* does not define a genre in Japan. *Hentai* is defined differently in English. The *Oxford Dictionary Online* defines it as \"a subgenre of the Japanese genres of manga and anime, characterized by overtly sexualized characters and sexually explicit images and plots.\" The origin of the word in English is unknown, but AnimeNation\'s John Oppliger points to the early 1990s, when a *Dirty Pair* erotic *doujinshi* (self-published work) titled *H-Bomb* was released, and when many websites sold access to images culled from Japanese erotic visual novels and games. The earliest English use of the term traces back to the rec.arts.anime boards; with a 1990 post concerning Happosai of *Ranma ½* and the first discussion of the meaning in 1991. A 1995 glossary on the rec.arts.anime boards contained reference to the Japanese usage and the evolving definition of hentai as \"pervert\" or \"perverted sex\". *The Anime Movie Guide*, published in 1997, defines `{{Nihongo|"[[ecchi]]"|エッチ|etchi}}`{=mediawiki} as the initial sound of hentai (i.e., the name of the letter *H*, as pronounced in Japanese); it included that ecchi was \"milder than hentai\". A year later it was defined as a genre in *Good Vibrations Guide to Sex*. At the beginning of 2000, \"hentai\" was listed as the 41st most-popular search term of the internet, while \"anime\" ranked 99th. The attribution has been applied retroactively to works such as *Urotsukidōji*, *La Blue Girl*, and *Cool Devices*. *Urotsukidōji* had previously been described with terms such as \"Japornimation\", and \"erotic grotesque\", prior to being identified as hentai.
Development of the term \"Hentai\"
--------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Meiji period (1868--1912) Hysteria
1917s Abnormal sexual desire.
1920s--1930s Perverted sexuality. Topics related to homosexual relationships.
1940s--1950s Hentai seiyoku or \"perverted desires\". Homosexual relationships are still a major theme.
1960s The term becomes increasingly heterosexualised. The word \"ecchi/etchi\" appears for the first time.
1970s and afterwards Development into a loanword in English with its own meaning, referring to a specific pornographic genre.
2000s In Japan, refers to male heterosexual perversion rather than a wide range of sexual practices and identities. Also refers to the cartoon genre.
| 557 |
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| 0 |
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# Hentai
## Etymology
(*hentai*; shinjitai; `{{pronunciation|Ja-Hentai.oga|listen|(|help=no}}`{=mediawiki}) derives from *變態* (classical Chinese, also kyūjitai), which is attested in classical Chinese texts. It functioned as a verbal phrase, from its two component morphemes, *變* meaning \"to change\" and *態* meaning \"state\" or \"condition,\" hence \"to change from a state to another.\" Literal one-to-one English translations for this would be *transform* and *metamorph*, wherein *trans-* and *meta-* correspond to 變, while *form* and *morph* to 態. This meaning is attested in early Middle Japanese and later texts.
In Chinese, *變* is primarily a verb meaning to \"change,\" and secondarily a noun meaning \"troublesome event,\" but in Japanese, it was extended to an adjectival noun meaning \"different,\" \"unusual\" or \"strange\" (compare other compounds such as `{{nihongo||變體|hentai|{{lit|unusual form}}}}`{=mediawiki} as in `{{nihongo||變體假名|[[hentaigana]]}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{nihongo||變格|henkaku|{{lit|unusual style}}}}`{=mediawiki} as in `{{nihongo||變格活用|[[Japanese irregular verbs|henkaku katsuyō]]}}`{=mediawiki}). This led *變態* to become a noun phrase meaning \"strange state,\" thus \"abnormality,\" instead of the original \"to change to another state,\" in modern Japanese and Chinese publications, particularly in psychology and physiology. A psychological application of this meaning is found in the phrase *変態性欲* (*hentai seiyoku* `{{lit|abnormal sexual desire}}`{=mediawiki}), which has been cited as being shortened (by ellipsis) back to just *変態*.
Yet another meaning, \"metamorphosis,\" which resemebles the original one, was first adopted by the Entomological Society of Japan and reintroduced into Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese. This meaning is used in the English translation of the light novel *Perfect Blue: Complete Metamorphosis*, although it is not directly entomological, and it may also reference the semi-sexual portions of the work.
It is worth noting that *変態* is further shortened to *H* (*etchi*), the first letter of its romanization. Both *hentai* and *etchi* (or *ecchi* in English parlance) are used to refer to sexual perversion/deviance, or people therewith, as well as smut. A person accused of sexual perversion may be derogatorily called *hentai*, while a sex scene in a film, TV show or erotic game is called *Hシーン* (*etchi shīn* `{{lit|H-scene}}`{=mediawiki}). The distinction outside of Japanese contexts between \"hardcore\" *hentai* and \"softcore\" *etchi* is entirely artificial.
The history of the word *hentai* has its origins in science and psychology. By the middle of the Meiji era, the term appeared in publications to describe unusual or abnormal traits, including paranormal abilities and psychological disorders. A translation of German sexologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing\'s text *\[\[Psychopathia Sexualis\]\]* originated the concept of *hentai seiyoku*, as a \"perverse or abnormal sexual desire\", though it was popularized outside psychology, as in the case of Mori Ōgai\'s 1909 novel *Vita Sexualis*. Continued interest in *hentai seiyoku* resulted in numerous journals and publications on sexual advice which circulated in the public, served to establish the sexual connotation of *hentai* as perverse. Any perverse or abnormal act could be hentai, such as committing *\[\[shinjū\]\]* (love suicide). It was Nakamura Kokyo\'s journal *Abnormal Psychology* which started the popular sexology boom in Japan which would see the rise of other popular journals like *Sexuality and Human Nature*, *Sex Research* and *Sex*. Originally, Tanaka Kogai wrote articles for *Abnormal Psychology*, but it would be Tanaka\'s own journal *Modern Sexuality* which would become one of the most popular sources of information about erotic and neurotic expression. *Modern Sexuality* was created to promote fetishism, S&M, and necrophilia as a facet of modern life. The ero guro movement and depiction of perverse, abnormal and often erotic undertones were a response to interest in *hentai seiyoku*.
Following World War II, Japan took a new interest in sexualization and public sexuality. Mark McLelland puts forth the observation that the term *hentai* found itself shortened to \"H\" and that the English pronunciation was \"etchi\", referring to lewdness and which did not carry the stronger connotation of abnormality or perversion. By the 1950s, the \"hentai seiyoku\" publications became their own genre and included fetish and homosexual topics. By the 1960s, the homosexual content was dropped in favor of subjects like sadomasochism and stories of lesbianism targeted to male readers. The late 1960s brought a sexual revolution which expanded and solidified the normalizing of the term\'s identity in Japan that continues to exist today through publications such as *Bessatsu Takarajima*{{\'}}s *Hentai-san ga iku* series.
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# Hentai
## History
With the usage of *hentai* as any erotic depiction, the history of these depictions is split into their media. Japanese artwork and comics serve as the first example of hentai material, coming to represent the iconic style after the publication of Azuma Hideo\'s *Cybele (doujinshi)* in 1979. Hentai first appeared in animation in the 1932 film Suzumi-bune by Hakusan Kimura, which was seized by police when it was half complete. The remnants of the film were donated to the National Film Center in the early 21st century. The film has never been viewed by the public. However, the 1984 release of Wonderkid\'s *Lolita Anime* was the first hentai to get a general release, overlooking the erotic and sexual depictions in 1969\'s *One Thousand and One Arabian Nights* and the bare-breasted Cleopatra in 1970\'s *Cleopatra* film. Erotic games, another area of contention, has its first case of the art style depicting sexual acts in 1985\'s *Tenshitachi no Gogo*. In each of these mediums, the broad definition and usage of the term complicates its historic examination.
### Origin of erotic manga {#origin_of_erotic_manga}
Depictions of sex and abnormal sex can be traced back through the ages, predating the term \"hentai\". *Shunga*, a Japanese term for erotic art, is thought to have existed in some form since the Heian period. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, *shunga* works were suppressed by the shogunate. A well-known example is *The Dream of the Fisherman\'s Wife* by Hokusai, which depicts a woman being stimulated by two octopuses. *Shunga* production fell with the introduction of pornographic photographs in the late 19th century.
To define erotic manga, a definition for manga is needed. While the *Hokusai Manga* uses the term \"manga\" in its title, it does not depict the story-telling aspect common to modern manga, as the images are unrelated. Due to the influence of pornographic photographs in the 19th and 20th centuries, the manga artwork was depicted by realistic characters. Osamu Tezuka helped define the modern look and form of manga, and was later proclaimed as the \"God of Manga\". His debut work *New Treasure Island* was released in 1947 as a comic book through Ikuei Publishing and sold over 400,000 copies, though it was the popularity of Tezuka\'s *Astro Boy*, *Metropolis*, and *Jungle Emperor* manga that came to define the media. This story-driven manga style is distinctly unique from comic strips like *Sazae-san*, and story-driven works came to dominate *\[\[shōjo\]\]* and *shōnen* magazines.
Adult themes in manga have existed since the 1940s, but some of these depictions were more realistic than the cartoon-cute characters popularized by Tezuka. In 1973, *Manga Bestseller* (later known as *Manga Erotopia*), which is considered to be the first hentai manga magazine published in Japan, was responsible for creating a new genre known as *ero-gekiga*, where *\[\[gekiga\]\]* was taken, and the sexual and violent content was intensified. Other well-known \"*ero-gekiga*\" magazines were *Erogenica* (1975), and *Alice* (1977). The circulation of *ero-gekiga* magazines peaked in 1978, and it is believed that somewhere between eighty and one hundred different *ero-gekiga* magazines were being published annually.
The 1980s saw the decline of *ero-gekiga* in favor of the rising popularity of *lolicon* and *\[\[bishōjo\]\]* magazines, which grew from *otaku* fan culture. It has been theorized that the decline of *ero-gekiga* was due to the baby boomer readership beginning to start their own families, as well as migrating to *seinen* magazines such as *Weekly Young Magazine*, and when it came to sexual material, the readership was stolen by gravure and pornographic magazines. The distinct shift in the style of Japanese pornographic comics from realistic to cartoon-cute characters is accredited to Hideo Azuma, \"The Father of *Lolicon*\". In 1979, he penned *`{{interlanguage link|Cybele (doujinshi)|lt=Cybele|ja|シベール (同人誌)}}`{=mediawiki}*, which offered the first depictions of sexual acts between cute, unrealistic Tezuka-style characters. This started a pornographic manga movement. The *lolicon* boom of the 1980s saw the rise of magazines such as the anthologies *Lemon People* and *Petit Apple Pie*. As the *lolicon* boom waned in the mid-1980s, the dominant form of representation for female characters became \"baby faced and big chested\" women. The shift in popularity from *lolicon* to *bishōjo* has been credited to Naoki Yamamoto (who wrote under the pen name of Tō Moriyama). Moriyama\'s manga had a style that had not been seen before at the time, and was different from the *ero-gekiga* and *lolicon* styles, and used *bishōjo* designs as a base to build upon. Moriyama\'s books sold well upon publication, creating even more fans for the genre. These new artists then wrote for magazines such as *Monthly Penguin Club Magazine* (1986) and *Manga Hot Milk* (1986) which became popular with their readership, drawing in new fans.
The publication of erotic materials in the United States can be traced back to at least 1990, when IANVS Publications printed its first *Anime Shower Special*. In March 1994, Antarctic Press released *Bondage Fairies*, an English translation of *Insect Hunter*, an \"insect rape\" manga which became popular in the American market, while it apparently had a poor showing in Japan. During this time, the one American publisher translating and publishing hentai was Fantagraphics on their adult comic imprint, Eros Comix, which was established around 1990.
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## History
### Origin of erotic anime {#origin_of_erotic_anime}
*Hentai* is typically defined as consisting of excessive nudity, and graphic sexual intercourse whether or not it is perverse. The term \"ecchi\" is typically related to fanservice, with no sexual intercourse being depicted.
The earliest pornographic anime was *Suzumi-bune*, created in 1932 by Hakusan Kimura. It was the first part of a two-reeler film, which was half complete before it was seized by the police. The remnants of the film were donated to the National Film Center in the early 21st century by the Tokyo police, who were removing all silver nitrate film in their possession, as it is extremely flammable. The film has never been viewed by the public.
Two early works escape being defined as hentai, but contain erotic themes. This is likely due to the obscurity and unfamiliarity of the works, arriving in the United States and fading from public focus a full 20 years before importation and surging interests coined the Americanized term *hentai*. The first is the 1969 film *One Thousand and One Arabian Nights*, which faithfully includes erotic elements of the original story. In 1970, *Cleopatra: Queen of Sex*, was the first animated film to carry an X rating, but it was mislabeled as erotica in the United States.
The *Lolita Anime* series is typically identified as the first erotic anime and original video animation (OVA); it was released in 1984 by Wonder Kids. Containing six episodes, the series focused on underage sex and rape, and included one episode containing BDSM bondage. Several sub-series were released in response, including a second *Lolita Anime* series released by Nikkatsu. It has not been officially licensed or distributed outside of its original release.
The *Cream Lemon* franchise of works ran from 1984 to 2005, with a number of them entering the American market in various forms. *The Brothers Grime* series released by Excalibur Films contained *Cream Lemon* works as early as 1986. However, they were not billed as anime and were introduced during the same time that the first underground distribution of erotic works began.
The American release of licensed erotic anime was first attempted in 1991 by Central Park Media, with *I Give My All*, but it never occurred. In December 1992, *Devil Hunter Yohko* was the first risque (*ecchi*) title that was released by A.D. Vision. While it contains no sexual intercourse, it pushes the limits of the *ecchi* category with sexual dialogue, nudity and one scene in which the heroine is about to be raped.
It was Central Park Media\'s 1993 release of *Urotsukidōji* which brought the first hentai film to American viewers. Often cited for inventing the tentacle rape subgenre, it contains extreme depictions of violence and monster sex. As such, it is acknowledged for being the first to depict tentacle sex on screen. When the film premiered in the United States, it was described as being \"drenched in graphic scenes of perverse sex and ultra-violence\".
Following this release, a wealth of pornographic content began to arrive in the United States, with companies such as A.D. Vision, Central Park Media and Media Blasters releasing licensed titles under various labels. A.D. Vision\'s label SoftCel Pictures released 19 titles in 1995 alone. Another label, Critical Mass, was created in 1996 to release an unedited edition of *Violence Jack*. When A.D. Vision\'s hentai label SoftCel Pictures shut down in 2005, most of its titles were acquired by Critical Mass. Following the bankruptcy of Central Park Media in 2009, the licenses for all Anime 18-related products and movies were transferred to Critical Mass.
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# Hentai
## History
### Origin of erotic games {#origin_of_erotic_games}
The term *eroge* (erotic game) literally defines any erotic game, but has become synonymous with video games depicting the artistic styles of anime and manga. The origins of *eroge* began in the early 1980s, while the computer industry in Japan was struggling to define a computer standard with makers like NEC, Sharp, and Fujitsu competing against one another. The PC98 series, despite lacking in processing power, CD drives and limited graphics, came to dominate the market, with the popularity of *eroge* games contributing to its success.
Because of vague definitions of what constitutes an \"erotic game\", there are several possible candidates for the first *eroge*. If the definition applies to adult themes, the first game was *Softporn Adventure*. Released in America in 1981 for the Apple II, this was a text-based comedic game from On-Line Systems. If *eroge* is defined as the first graphical depictions of Japanese adult themes, it would be Koei\'s 1982 release of *Night Life*. Sexual intercourse is depicted through simple graphic outlines. Notably, *Night Life* was not intended to be erotic so much as an instructional guide \"to support married life\". A series of \"undressing\" games appeared as early as 1983, such as \"Strip Mahjong\". The first anime-styled erotic game was *\[\[Tenshitachi no Gogo\]\]*, released in 1985 by JAST. In 1988, ASCII released the first erotic role-playing game, *Chaos Angel*. In 1989, AliceSoft released the turn-based role-playing game *Rance* and ELF released *Dragon Knight*.
In the late 1980s, *eroge* began to stagnate under high prices and the majority of games containing uninteresting plots and mindless sex. ELF\'s 1992 release of *Dōkyūsei\]\]* came as customer frustration with *eroge* was mounting and spawned a new genre of games called dating sims. *Dōkyūsei* was unique because it had no defined plot and required the player to build a relationship with different girls in order to advance the story. Each girl had her own story, but the prospect of consummating a relationship required the girl growing to love the player; there was no easy sex.
The term \"visual novel\" is vague, with Japanese and English definitions classifying the genre as a type of interactive fiction game driven by narration and limited player interaction. While the term is often retroactively applied to many games, it was Leaf that coined the term with their \"Leaf Visual Novel Series\" (LVNS) and the 1996 release of *Shizuku\]\]* and *\[\[Kizuato\]\]*. The success of these two dark *eroge* games would be followed by the third and final installment of the LVNS, the 1997 romantic *eroge* *To Heart*. *Eroge* visual novels took a new emotional turn with Tactics\' 1998 release *\[\[One: Kagayaku Kisetsu e\]\]*. Key\'s 1999 release of *Kanon* proved to be a major success and would go on to have numerous console ports, two manga series and two anime series.
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# Hentai
## Censorship
Japanese laws have impacted depictions of works since the Meiji Restoration, but these predate the common definition of hentai material. Since becoming law in 1907, Article 175 of the Criminal Code of Japan forbids the publication of obscene materials. Specifically, depictions of male--female sexual intercourse and pubic hair are considered obscene, but bare genitalia is not. As censorship is required for published works, the most common representations are the blurring dots on pornographic videos and \"bars\" or \"lights\" on still images. In 1986, Toshio Maeda sought to get past censorship on depictions of sexual intercourse, by creating tentacle sex. This led to the large number of works containing sexual intercourse with monsters, demons, robots, and aliens, whose genitals look different from men\'s. While Western views attribute hentai to any explicit work, it was the products of this censorship which became not only the first titles legally imported to America and Europe, but the first successful ones. While uncut for American release, the United Kingdom\'s release of *Urotsukidōji* removed many scenes of the violence and tentacle rape scenes. Another technique used to evade regulation was the \"sexual intercourse cross-section view\", an imaginary view of intercourse resembling an anatomic drawing or an MRI, which would eventually evolve as a prevalent expression in hentai for its erotic appeal. This expression is known in the Western world as the \"x-ray view\".
It was also because of this law that the artists began to depict the characters with a minimum of anatomical details and without pubic hair, by law, prior to 1991. Part of the ban was lifted when Nagisa Oshima prevailed over the obscenity charges at his trial for his film *In the Realm of the Senses*. Though not enforced, the lifting of this ban did not apply to anime and manga as they were not deemed artistic exceptions.
Alterations of material or censorship and banning of works are common. The US release of *La Blue Girl* altered the age of the heroine from 16 to 18, removed sex scenes with a dwarf ninja named Nin-nin, and removed the Japanese blurring dots. *La Blue Girl* was outright rejected by UK censors who refused to classify it and prohibited its distribution. In 2011, members of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan sought a ban on the subgenre *lolicon* but were unsuccessful. The last law proposed against it was introduced on 27 May 2013 by the Liberal Democratic Party, the New Komei Party and the Japan Restoration Party that would have made possession of sexual images of individuals under 18 illegal with a fine of 1 million yen (about US\$10,437) and less than a year in jail. The Japanese Democratic Party, along with several industry associations involved in anime and manga protested against the bill saying \"while they appreciate that the bill protects children, it will also restrict freedom of expression\". The law was ultimately passed in June 2014 after the regulation of *lolicon* anime and manga was removed from the bill. This new law went into full effect in 2015 banning real life child pornography.
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# Hentai
## Societal effects of hentai {#societal_effects_of_hentai}
There is existing research on the social implications of pornography, in general, as it pertains to the sexualized and objectified image of women. In regards to how hentai particularly contributes to the conversation of the image of women, recent research identifies evidence in which hentai promotes rape myth acceptance, sexual violence, and racialization of women.
### Rape myths {#rape_myths}
Recent studies have illustrated a correlation between the consumption of hentai and the promotion of rape myths. In particular, studies have shown how viewing hentai can lead to an increase in prejudiced and stereotypical perspectives on rape and sexual assault. Increased consumption can also lead to an increase in the normalization of sexual violence, rape, victim blaming, and further stereotypes associated with sexual violence and sexually aggressive behaviors. The origin and culture of hentai as \"abnormal\" pornography, as highlighted through research studies, is also described to perpetuate a desensitized view of sexual violence and rape play. The distinction between rape myth acceptance and sexually violent or aggressive behaviors has also been outlined in various research studies. Recent studies highlight how a rise in the acceptance of rape myths is causally linked to rape proclivity and sexually violent behaviors.
### Racial fetishization of Asian women in hentai {#racial_fetishization_of_asian_women_in_hentai}
#### History {#history_1}
The racial fetishization of Asian women can be traced back to Western colonialism and imperialism where Asian women were portrayed as \"exotic\" or submissive and such traits were in turn romanticized.
Classic media such as *Madame Butterfly* and *Miss Saigon* also portray Asian women having intimate relations with white men, ultimately to their demise. Critics say this perpetuates the notion that value of Asian women is tied to their white lovers.
A popular trope in hentai places the woman in a more submissive role, playing into the \"lotus blossom\" stereotype where Asian women are thought to be more docile. The increasing Western audience of hentai exacerbates this portrayal of Asian women.
#### Portrayals of Japanese women {#portrayals_of_japanese_women}
Since hentai is a broad genre of erotic media the portrayal of women varies greatly, however, almost always is the girl slim and with large breasts. A paper by Hinako Ishikawa on the racialization of Japanese women in hentai concluded that this portrayal directly plays into the sexual objectification and stereotyping of Japanese women.
#### Racial fetishization of Japanese women {#racial_fetishization_of_japanese_women}
Although the race of the female protagonists in hentai is not always clear, the film will often highlight the character\'s \"Japanese-ness\". This is done either through her clothes (wearing traditional dress like kimonos), the setting of the film, or her mannerisms (eating with chopsticks) that imply the character\'s race.
According to Ishikawa, this portrayal of Japanese women plays into the increasingly popularized Asian fetish in the Western world, specifically citing 2022\'s Pornhub statistics world wide trendy terms put \"hentai\" and \"Japanese\" as top two most searched words.
## Demographics
According to data from Pornhub in 2017, the most prolific consumers of hentai are men. However, Patrick W. Galbraith and Jessica Bauwens-Sugimoto note that hentai manga attracts \"a diverse readership, which of course includes women.\" Kathryn Hemmann also writes that \"self-identified female otaku \[\...\] readily admit to enjoying \[hentai\] *dōjinshi* catering to a male erotic gaze\". When it comes to mediums of hentai, *eroge* games in particular combine three favored media---cartoons, pornography and gaming---into an experience. The hentai genre engages a wide audience that expands yearly, and desires better quality and storylines, or works which push the creative envelope. Nobuhiro Komiya, a manga censor, states that the unusual and extreme depictions in hentai are not about perversion so much as they are an example of the profit-oriented industry. Anime depicting normal sexual situations enjoy less market success than those that break social norms, such as sex at schools or bondage.
According to clinical psychologist Megha Hazuria Gorem, \"Because toons are a kind of final fantasy, you can make the person look the way you want him or her to look. Every fetish can be fulfilled.\" Sexologist Narayan Reddy noted of *eroge*, \"Animators make new games because there is a demand for them, and because they depict things that the gamers do not have the courage to do in real life, or that might just be illegal, these games are an outlet for suppressed desire.\"
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# Hentai
## Classification
The hentai genre can be divided into numerous subgenres, the broadest of which encompasses heterosexual and homosexual acts. Hentai that features mainly heterosexual interactions occur in both male-targeted (*ero* or *dansei-muke*) and female-targeted (\"ladies\' comics\") form. Those that feature mainly homosexual interactions are known as *yaoi* or *Boys\' Love* (male--male) and *yuri* or *Girls\' Love* (female--female). Both *yaoi* and, to a lesser extent, *yuri*, are generally aimed at members of the opposite sex from the persons depicted. While *yaoi* and *yuri* are not always explicit, their pornographic history and association remain. *Yaoi*{{\'s}} pornographic usage has remained strong in textual form through fanfiction. The definition of *yuri* has begun to be replaced by the broader definitions of \"lesbian-themed animation or comics\".
Hentai is perceived as \"dwelling\" on sexual fetishes. These include dozens of fetish and paraphilia related subgenres, which can be further classified with additional terms, such as heterosexual or homosexual types.
Many works are focused on depicting the mundane and the impossible across every conceivable act and situation, no matter how fantastical. One subgenre of hentai is *futanari* (hermaphroditism), which features a woman with a penis or penis-like appendage in addition to a vulva. Futanari characters are often depicted as having sex with other women, but many other works feature sex with men or, as in *Anal Justice*, with both genders. Futanari can be dominant, submissive, or switch between the two roles in a single work.
### Genres
Common English terms Common Japanese terms Type Description
--------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ---------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*Yaoi* / *shōnen-ai* / Boys\' Love / *ボーイズ ラブ* / *ビーエル* Gender Male homosexuality
*Yuri* / *shōjo-ai* / Girls\' Love Gender Female homosexuality
*Lolicon* Gender and age Centered on prepubescent, pubescent, or post-pubescent underage girls, whether heterosexual (man-girl or boy-girl) or homosexual (woman-girl or two girls)
*Shotacon* Gender and age Centered on prepubescent, pubescent, or post-pubescent underage boys, whether heterosexual (woman-boy or girl-boy) or homosexual (man-boy or two boys)
*Bakunyū* / *Hinnyuū* A genre of pornographic media focusing on the depiction of women\'s contrasting breast sizes, with emphasis on large breasts and flat-chested breasts, respectively. The word can be literally translated to \"exploding breasts\". *Bakunyū* is a subgenre within the genre of hentai anime.
Catgirl / *nekomimi* Human females with cat characteristics, such as cat ears, cat tails and whiskers
*Futanari* Depictions of women that have both phallic genitalia (penis either with or without scrotum) and a vulva
Incest Sexual activity with family members
*Netorare* / *Netorase* / *Netori* / *ネトラセーゼ* / *寝取り* Related to swinging, infidelity and/or cuckolding, abbreviated **NTR**; variations of being masochistically aroused by seeing or knowing that one\'s spouse or lover is having sexual intercourse with another person, whether they do so voluntarily or not, `{{abbr|lit.|literally}}`{=mediawiki} \"being snatched away\". In *netorare*, the protagonist\'s adulterous partner wants to deceive and/or break up with the protagonist to be with the cheater. In *netorase*, the protagonist enjoys, actively encourages or even causes the partner to have sex with others, often with their informed knowledge and consent. In *netori*, the protagonist finds a cheater in a marriage or relationship and manipulates/blackmails them away from their cucked partner.
*Hiyake Ato* / After sunburn Depictions of fetish revolves around tan lines, *Gyaru* and bimbofication
*Futomomo* / Mae Kara Mieru Oshiri Depictions of fetish revolves around thick thighs and large buttocks, respectively, that protrude to the front, making them visible from any angle; especially between the thighs when viewed from the front. Common in hentai and anime.
*Mekosuji* / Camel toe Depictions of fetish revolves around silhouette of women\'s vagina and men\'s penis and testicles, from tight or see-through underwear
*Omorashi* / *お漏らし* A form of urolagnia
*Ryona* / *Gyaku-ryona* / *Onna Zako* / *逆リョナ* / *女ザコ* Depictions of fetish revolves around a victim being physically assaulted or psychologically abused by an offender;
Tentacle erotica Depictions of tentacled creatures and sometimes monsters (fictional or otherwise) engaging in sex or rape with women and, less often, men
*Josō-seme* / cross-dressing attack Depictions of a *kathoey*, male-crossdresser or tomgirl taking the lead (i.e
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# Hamoaze
The **Hamoaze** (`{{IPAc-en|h|æ|m|ˈ|oʊ|z}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|kw|ˈhɒmøz|[[Cornish language|Cornish]] pronunciation:}}`{=mediawiki}) is an estuarine stretch of the English tidal River Tamar, between its confluence with the River Lynher and Plymouth Sound.
## Etymology
The name first appears as *ryver of Hamose* in 1588. The first element is thought to refer to specifically to Ham in the parish of Weston Peverel, now a suburb of Plymouth (whose name in turn came from the Old English word *hamm*, meaning \"water-meadow, land in the bend of a river\"). The second element is thought to derive from Old English *wāse* meaning \"mud\" (as in \"ooze\"). Thus the name once meant \"mud-banks at Ham\". The name originally probably applied only to a creek running past Ham, which perhaps consisted of mud-banks at low tide, north of the present-day Devonport Dockyard. The name later came to be used for the main channel of the estuary into which the creek drained.
## Geography
The Hamoaze flows past Devonport Dockyard, which is one of three major bases of the Royal Navy today. The presence of large numbers of small watercraft is a challenge and hazard to the warships using the naval base and dockyard. Navigation on the waterway is controlled by the King\'s Harbour Master for Plymouth.
Settlements on the banks of the Hamoaze are Saltash, Wilcove, Torpoint and Cremyll in Cornwall, as well as Devonport and Plymouth in Devon.
Two regular ferry services crossing the Hamoaze exist: the Torpoint Ferry (a chain ferry that takes vehicles) and the Cremyll Ferry (passengers and cyclists only).
A street in Torpoint bears the name Hamoaze Road, named after the stretch of river.
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# Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
The **Harrison Narcotics Tax Act** (Ch. 1, `{{USStat|38|785}}`{=mediawiki}) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production, importation, and distribution of opiates and coca products. The act was proposed by Representative Francis Burton Harrison of New York and was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on December 17, 1914.
\"An Act To provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax on all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium or coca leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes.\" In *Webb v. United States*, the act was interpreted to prohibit prescribing maintenance doses for narcotics unless it was intended to cure the patient\'s addiction.
The Harrison anti-narcotic legislation consisted of three U.S. House bills imposing restrictions on the availability and consumption of the psychoactive drug opium. House Resolution (H.R.) 1966 and `{{USBill|63|H.R.|1967}}`{=mediawiki} passed conjointly with `{{USBill|63|H.R.|6282}}`{=mediawiki} (the Opium and Coca Leaves Trade Restrictions Act).
Although technically illegal for purposes of distribution and use, the distribution, sale and use of cocaine was still legal for registered companies and individuals.
## Background
### International
Following the Spanish--American War and the Philippine--American War, the Philippines saw a proliferation of opium use. A cholera outbreak in 1902 further strengthened this tendency due to the astringent properties of opium.
Charles Henry Brent was an American Episcopal bishop who served as Missionary Bishop of the Philippines beginning in 1901. He convened a Commission of Inquiry, known as the Brent Commission, for the purpose of examining alternatives to a licensing system for opium addicts. Although Governor William Taft supported this policy, Brent opposed it \"on moral grounds\". The Commission recommended that narcotics should be subject to international control. The recommendations of the Brent Commission were endorsed by the United States Department of State and in 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt called for an international conference, the International Opium Commission, which was held in Shanghai in February 1909. A second conference was held at The Hague in May 1911, and out of it came the first international drug control treaty, the International Opium Convention of 1912.
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# Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
## Background
### Domestic
Between 1895 and 1900 there were probably more morphine addicts in the United States than today on a per capita basis. Opium usage peaked in 1896 and then began to decline gradually. Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., then dean Harvard Medical school, blamed the prevalence of opiate addiction on ignorance. As awareness of the addictiveness of morphine and patent medicines grew public opinion in the 1890s was in favor of state laws restricting morphine. Demand gradually declined thereafter in response to mounting public concern, local and state regulations, and the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, which required labeling of patent medicines that contained opiates, cocaine, alcohol, cannabis and other intoxicants. By 1914, forty-six states had regulations on cocaine and twenty-nine states had laws against opium, morphine, and heroin.
#### Opium
In the 1800s opiates were mostly unregulated drugs. Morphine addiction had spread rapidly during and after the Civil war. The consumption of household remedies and marketed syrups containing morphine was commonplace and mostly associated with the upper and middle class of society. Many women who were prescribed and dispensed legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist for \"female problems\" (probably pain at menstruation) became addicted. It\'s likely many who became addicted initially did not know what the syrups and concoctions contained.
Although morphine syrups were easily available, opium smoking was already banned by many municipalities. There was more hostility to opium smoking than laudanum and other widely available tonics because of anti-Chinese sentiments and accusations that proprietors lured young white girls to opium dens. Chinese immigrants were blamed for importing the opium-smoking habit to the U.S. The 1903 blue-ribbon citizens\' panel, the Committee on the Acquirement of the Drug Habit, concluded: \"If the Chinaman cannot get along without his dope we can get along without him.\"
Heroin use became widespread among low-income immigrants in the early 20th century. In the 1890s, the Sears & Roebuck catalogue started offering a syringe and a small amount of cocaine or heroin for \$1.50.
#### Cocaine
Cocaine was first isolated in 1855. Within a few decades public opinion had associated cocaine use with crime sprees committed by black men. There were many hysterical news reports in the early 20th-century about cocaine-fueled rampages using hyperbole like \"cocaine-crazed negro\" and others exaggerating the addictiveness of cocaine saying it quickly reduced users to \"another entry in Satan\'s ledger\". In 1900, the *Journal of the American Medical Association* published an editorial stating, \"Negroes in the South are reported as being addicted to a new form of vice -- that of \'cocaine sniffing\' or the \'coke habit.{{\'\"}} A well-known article published in *The New York Times* on February 8, 1914 claimed cocaine use caused blacks to rape white women. This article and similar articles of the era, however, do not provide examples of such crimes. The people who made such allegations used racism to manipulate public opinion, but their allegations were unfounded. The article titled *Negro Cocaine \'Fiends\' Are a New Southern Menace* is remembered for its portrayal of \"the cocaine-crazed negro\" who was invulnerable to bullets. The use of the term \"fiends\" by Dr. Edward Huntington Williams, the author of the article, is understood to connote the demonization of the non-white drug user.
According to historian David F. Musto public opinion about cocaine turned negative as newspapers and even *Good Housekeeping* scapegoated the drug to explain rising crime in the South:
> Thus the problem of cocaine proceeded from an association with Negroes in about 1900, when a massive repression and disenfranchisement were under way in the South, to a convenient explanation for crime waves, and eventually Northerners used it as an argument against Southern fear of infringement of states\'s rights.
Despite the extreme racialization of the issue that took place in the buildup to the act\'s passage, contemporary research in Northern cities found relatively few cocaine users compared with alcoholics and opium addicts overall and no significant concentration among blacks. Blacks did use \"patent medicines\" containing opiates and cocaine for pulmonary conditions. It\'s possible that higher rates of disease among blacks in the early 20th century may explain why blacks consumed patent medicines more than whites.
## Hearings
Theodore Roosevelt appointed Dr. Hamilton Wright as the first opium commissioner of the United States in 1908. Wright testified at the hearing about the dangers alleging that drugs made blacks uncontrollable, gave them superhuman powers and caused them to rebel against white authority. He said cocaine was often \"the direct incentive to the crime of rape of white women by Negroes\". He also stated that \"one of the most unfortunate phases of smoking opium in this country is the large number of women who have become involved and were living as common-law wives or cohabitating with Chinese in the Chinatowns of our various cities\".
Dr. Christopher Koch of the State Pharmacy Board of Pennsylvania testified of the dangerous \"cocaine-crazed\" blacks in the South: \"Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain\".
Writing in 1953 Rufus G. King explained that the Harrison Act was \"intended partly to carry out a treaty obligation, but mainly to aid the states in combating a local police problem which had gotten somewhat out of hand.\"
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# Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
## Congressional passage {#congressional_passage}
When Representative Francis Burton Harrison of New York placed HR 1966 for debate before the full House of Representatives on June 26, 1913, he began by noting that the Smoking Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 failed to limit importation of opium because it regulated the maritime shipping industry, rather than the individual drug users. In Harrison\'s view, shipping companies could evade regulation by forging documents and smuggling opium across the Mexico--United States border, whereas individual drug users would struggle to dispute their role in smuggling networks.
The Congressional Record showcases that the House was unsure whether the Commerce Clause actually permitted the federal government to restrict what types of goods could be exported, but the chamber adopted an expansive view based on dicta from the 1904 antitrust case *Northern Securities Co. v. United States*. While the House agreed that the Export Clause clearly prohibits taxing exported opium, they were divided as to whether they could outright prohibit such exports. Though the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act prohibited the importation of adulterated or misbranded food and drugs, that law was considered a product standard, whereas the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act would not allow any form of opium as imports or exports. Congress would not attempt another restriction on the types of goods that can be exported until the 1940 Export Control Act.
Representative Thomas U. Sisson of Mississippi objected to restricting the market for narcotics as encroaching on state police power in violation of the Tenth Amendment. Harrison admitted that the federal authority to tax those involved in the market for narcotics under the Taxing and Spending Clause was weak because the federal government stood to earn more in import taxes without this act. Surprisingly, Sisson and Harrison were in agreement that the bill would allow physicians to continue prescribing narcotics as part of medical treatment for those with substance use disorder, yet the act\'s enforcement by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue frequently prosecuted such patients.
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# Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
## Enforcement
Enforcement began in 1915. The act appears to be mainly concerned about the marketing of opiates. However, a clause applying to doctors allowed distribution \"in the course of his professional practice only.\" Physicians believed relieving the suffering of physical dependance was within the \"professional practice\" exception. King says \"there is not the slightest suggestion that Congress intended to change this\". He says the public hysteria surrounding contemporaneous press reports about violent \"dope fiends\" probably distorted the Congressional intent and turned addicts into criminals.
The \"professional practice\" clause was interpreted after 1917 to mean that a doctor could not prescribe opiates to an addict. Addicts and doctors were jailed for decades under theories adopted by the Narcotics Division that addiction could not be successfully treated in a clinical setting. A number of doctors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The medical profession quickly learned not to supply opiates to addicts. In *United States v. Doremus*, 249 U.S. 86 (1919), the Supreme Court ruled that the Harrison Act was constitutional, and in *Webb v. United States*, 249 U.S. 96, 99 (1919) that physicians could not prescribe narcotics solely for maintenance.
The impact of diminished supply was obvious by mid-1915. A 1918 commission called for sterner law enforcement, while newspapers published sensational articles about addiction-related crime waves. Congress responded by tightening up the Harrison Act---the importation of heroin for any purpose was banned in 1924.
Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo appointed Representative Henry T. Rainey to lead a special committee to investigate the law\'s effects. In June 1919, this Rainey Committee found that criminal organizations were smuggling drugs into the country across all four of the United States\' coastal and land borders. Annually, the United States consumed 470,000 pounds of opium, whereas France and Germany each purchased around 17,000 pounds of opium. While the United States\' 1920 population of 106 million was far larger than France\'s 1921 population of 39 million and Germany\'s 1920 population of 62 million, per capita opium consumption was still much higher in America. Based on the US Department of Commerce\'s monthly summaries of foreign commerce, between July 1919 and January 1920, imports of opium increased to 528,635 pounds from only 74,650 pounds during the same period a year prior.
## Challenges
In the 1919 cases *United States v. Doremus* and *Webb v. United States*, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act was upheld by the Supreme Court under an expansive reading of the Taxing and Spending Clause based on the earlier *License Tax Cases* (1866).
The act\'s applicability in prosecuting doctors who prescribe narcotics to addicts was successfully challenged in *Linder v. United States* in 1925, as Associate Justice James Clark McReynolds ruled that the federal government has no power to regulate medical practice
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# Homeopathy
*Homeopathy* (journal)}} `{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{good article}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use Oxford spelling|date=September 2016}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2017}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox alternative medicine
| name = Homeopathy
| synonyms = Homoeopathy
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|audio=En-uk-homeopathy.ogg|ˌ|h|oʊ|m|i|ˈ|ɒ|p|ə|θ|i}}
| image = Saxonia Museum fuer saechsische Vaterlandskunde III 19.jpg
| image_size = 250
| alt = Samuel Hahnemann
| caption = [[Samuel Hahnemann]], originator of homeopathy
| claims = "Like cures like", dilution increases potency, disease caused by [[#Miasms and disease|miasm]]s
| topics = [[Alternative medicine]]
| orig-date = 1796
| origprop = [[Samuel Hahnemann]]
| laterprop = {{Plain list|
* [[James Tyler Kent]]
* [[Royal S. Copeland]]
* [[George Vithoulkas]]
}}
| seealso = [[Humorism]], [[heroic medicine]]
| MeshID = D006705
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Alternative medical systems|fringe}}`{=mediawiki}
**Homeopathy** or **homoeopathy** is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine. It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann. Its practitioners, called **homeopaths** or homeopathic physicians, believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people can cure similar symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is called *similia similibus curentur*, or \"like cures like\". Homeopathic preparations are termed *remedies* and are made using homeopathic dilution. In this process, the selected substance is repeatedly diluted until the final product is chemically indistinguishable from the diluent. Often not even a single molecule of the original substance can be expected to remain in the product. Between each dilution homeopaths may hit and/or shake the product, claiming this makes the diluent \"remember\" the original substance after its removal. Practitioners claim that such preparations, upon oral intake, can treat or cure disease.
All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology contradicts homeopathy. Homeopathic remedies are typically biochemically inert, and have no effect on any known disease. Its theory of disease, centered around principles Hahnemann termed miasms, is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as causes of disease. Clinical trials have been conducted and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations. The fundamental implausibility of homeopathy as well as a lack of demonstrable effectiveness has led to it being characterized within the scientific and medical communities as quackery and fraud.
Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825, and the first American homeopathic school opened in 1835. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. During this period, homeopathy was able to appear relatively successful, as other forms of treatment could be harmful and ineffective. By the end of the century the practice began to wane, with the last exclusively homeopathic medical school in the United States closing in 1920. During the 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback, with sales of some homeopathic products increasing tenfold. The trend corresponded with the rise of the New Age movement, and may be in part due to chemophobia, an irrational aversion to synthetic chemicals, and the longer consultation times homeopathic practitioners provided.
In the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. As a result, national and international bodies have recommended the withdrawal of government funding for homeopathy in healthcare. National bodies from Australia, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France, as well as the European Academies\' Science Advisory Council and the Russian Academy of Sciences have all concluded that homeopathy is ineffective, and recommended against the practice receiving any further funding. The National Health Service in England no longer provides funding for homeopathic remedies and asked the Department of Health to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items. France removed funding in 2021, while Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies from health centers.
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# Homeopathy
## History
Homeopathy was created in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann. Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine of the late 18th century as irrational and inadvisable, because it was largely ineffective and often harmful. He advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function. The term *homeopathy* was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807. He also coined the expression \"allopathic medicine\", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional Western medicine.
### Concept
Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen into German. Being sceptical of Cullen\'s theory that cinchona cured malaria because it was bitter, Hahnemann ingested some bark specifically to investigate what would happen. He experienced fever, shivering and joint pain: symptoms similar to those of malaria itself. From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat. This led to the name *\"homeopathy\"*, which comes from the *ὅμοιος* *hómoios*, \"-like\" and *πάθος* *páthos*, \"suffering\".
The doctrine that those drugs are effective which produce symptoms similar to the symptoms caused by the diseases they treat, called \"the law of similars\", was expressed by Hahnemann with the Latin phrase *similia similibus curentur*, or \"like cures like\". Hahnemann\'s law of similars is unproven and does not derive from the scientific method. An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported. Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the *Plasmodium falciparum* parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann\'s ideas.
#### Provings
Hahnemann began to test what effects various substances may produce in humans, a procedure later called \"homeopathic proving\". These tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by recording all their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared. He published a collection of provings in 1805, and a second collection of 65 preparations appeared in his book, *Materia Medica Pura* (1810).
As Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated for extreme dilutions. A technique was devised for making dilutions that Hahnemann claimed would preserve the substance\'s therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects. Hahnemann believed that this process enhanced \"the spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances\". He gathered and published an overview of his new medical system in his book, *The Organon of the Healing Art* (1810), with a sixth edition published in 1921 that homeopaths still use today.
#### Miasms and disease {#miasms_and_disease}
In the *Organon*, Hahnemann introduced the concept of \"miasms\" as the \"infectious principles\" underlying chronic disease and as \"peculiar morbid derangement\[s\] of vital force\". Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases. His assertion was that if these symptoms were suppressed by medication, the cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs. Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly alleviating their symptoms, as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all \"disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency\". The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can be corrected only by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force.
Hahnemann\'s hypotheses for miasms originally presented only three local symptoms: psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease). Of these the most important was *psora*, described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin and was claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed it to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts. Since Hahnemann\'s time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing illnesses previously attributed to the psora, including tuberculosis and cancer miasms.
Hahnemann\'s miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times. The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed to preserve the system of homeopathy in the face of treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease predispositions, as well as genetics, environmental factors, and the unique disease history of each patient.
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# Homeopathy
## History
### 19th century: rise to popularity and early criticism {#th_century_rise_to_popularity_and_early_criticism}
Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram, a student of Hahnemann. The first homeopathic school in the United States opened in 1835 and the American Institute of Homeopathy was established in 1844. Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States, and by 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States.
Because medical practice of the time relied on treatments which were often ineffective and harmful, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those being treated by medical practitioners. Though ineffective, homeopathic preparations are rarely detrimental, thus users are less likely to be harmed by the treatment that is supposed to be helping them. The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and begun the move towards more effective, science-based medicine. One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics. During 19th-century epidemics of diseases such as cholera, death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases.
Even during its rise in popularity, homeopathy was criticized by scientists and physicians. Sir John Forbes, physician to Queen Victoria, said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless and considered it \"an outrage to human reason\". James Young Simpson said in 1853 of the highly diluted drugs: \"No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly.\" Nineteenth-century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay entitled *Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions* (1842). The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some leading homeopaths of Europe not only were abandoning the practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer defending it. The last school in the United States exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920.
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# Homeopathy
## History
### Revival in the 20th century {#revival_in_the_20th_century}
According to academics `{{Interlanguage link|Paul U. Unschuld|lt=|de||WD=}}`{=mediawiki} and Edzard Ernst, the Nazi regime in Germany was fond of homeopathy, and spent large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but without gaining a positive result. Unschuld also states that homeopathy never subsequently took root in the United States, but remained more deeply established in European thinking. In the United States, the *Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act* of 1938 (sponsored by Royal Copeland, a Senator from New York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs. In the 1950s, there were only 75 solely homeopathic practitioners in the U.S. By the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and the sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold.
Some homeopaths credit the revival to Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas, who conducted a \"great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy\" in the 1970s, but Ernst and Simon Singh consider it to be linked to the rise of the New Age movement. Bruce Hood has argued that the increased popularity of homeopathy in recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to a preference for \"natural\" products, which people think are the basis of homeopathic preparations.
Towards the end of the century opposition to homeopathy began to increase again; with William T. Jarvis, the President of the National Council Against Health Fraud, saying that \"Homeopathy is a fraud perpetrated on the public with the government\'s blessing, thanks to the abuse of political power of Sen. Royal S. Copeland.\"
### 21st century: renewed criticism {#st_century_renewed_criticism}
Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have further shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification. This had led to a decrease or suspension of funding by many governments. In a 2010 report, the Science and Technology Committee of the United Kingdom House of Commons recommended that homeopathy should no longer receive National Health Service (NHS) funding due its lack of scientific credibility; NHS funding for homeopathy ceased in 2017. They also asked the Department of Health in the UK to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items.
In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia found that \"there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective\". The federal government only ended up accepting three of the 45 recommendations made by the 2018 review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation. The same year the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held a hearing requesting public comment on the regulation of homeopathic drugs. In 2017 the FDA announced it would strengthen regulation of homeopathic products.
The American non-profit Center for Inquiry (CFI) filed a lawsuit in 2018 against the CVS pharmacy for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines. It claimed that CVS was selling homeopathic products on an easier-to-obtain basis than standard medication. In 2019, CFI brought a similar lawsuit against Walmart for \"committing wide-scale consumer fraud and endangering the health of its customers through its sale and marketing of homeopathic medicines\". They also conducted a survey in which they found consumers felt ripped off when informed of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, such as those sold by Walmart and CVS.
In 2021, the French healthcare minister phased out social security reimbursements for homeopathic drugs. France has long had a stronger belief in the virtues of homeopathic drugs than many other countries and the world\'s biggest manufacturer of alternative medicine drugs, Boiron, is located in that country. Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies. In 2016, the University of Barcelona cancelled its master\'s degree in Homeopathy citing \"lack of scientific basis\", after advice from the Spanish Ministry of Health. Shortly afterwards the University of Valencia announced the elimination of its Masters in Homeopathy.
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# Homeopathy
## Preparations and treatment {#preparations_and_treatment}
Homeopathic preparations are referred to as \"homeopathic remedies\". Practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing: *Materia medica* and repertories. A homeopathic *materia medica* is a collection of \"drug pictures\", organized alphabetically. A homeopathic repertory is a quick reference version of the *materia medica* that indexes the symptoms and then the associated remedies for each. In both cases different compilers may dispute particular inclusions in the references. The first symptomatic homeopathic *materia medica* was arranged by Hahnemann. The first homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr\'s *Symptomenkodex*, published in German in 1835, and translated into English as the *Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica* in 1838. This version was less focused on disease categories and was the forerunner to later works by James Tyler Kent. There are over 118 repertories published in English, with Kent\'s being one of the most used.
### Consultation
Homeopaths generally begin with a consultation, which can be a 10--15 minute appointment or last for over an hour, where the patient describes their medical history. The patient describes the \"modalities\", or if their symptoms change depending on the weather and other external factors. The practitioner also solicits information on mood, likes and dislikes, physical, mental and emotional states, life circumstances, and any physical or emotional illnesses. This information (also called the \"symptom picture\") is matched to the \"drug picture\" in the *materia medica* or repertory and used to determine the appropriate homeopathic remedies. In classical homeopathy, the practitioner attempts to match a single preparation to the totality of symptoms (the *simlilum*), while \"clinical homeopathy\" involves combinations of preparations based on the illness\'s symptoms.
### Preparation
Homeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its preparations, generally referring to them using Latin names. Examples include *arsenicum album* (arsenic oxide), *natrum muriaticum* (sodium chloride or table salt), *Lachesis muta* (the venom of the bushmaster snake), *opium*, and *thyroidinum* (thyroid hormone). Homeopaths say this is to ensure accuracy. In the USA the common name must be displayed, although the Latin one can also be present. Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars, typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation is placed and allowed to evaporate.
Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy in which the preparations come from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue. They are called nosodes (from the Greek *nosos*, disease) with preparations made from \"healthy\" specimens being termed \"sarcodes\". Many so-called \"homeopathic vaccines\" are a form of isopathy. Tautopathy is a form of isopathy where the preparations are composed of drugs or vaccines that a person has consumed in the past, in the belief that this can reverse the supposed lingering damage caused by the initial use. There is no convincing scientific evidence for isopathy as an effective method of treatment.
Some modern homeopaths use preparations they call \"imponderables\" because they do not originate from a substance but some other phenomenon presumed to have been \"captured\" by alcohol or lactose. Examples include X-rays and sunlight. Another derivative is electrohomeopathy, where an electric bio-energy of therapeutic value is supposedly extracted from plants. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy is extremely pseudo-scientific. In 2012, the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh, India, handed down a decree stating that electrohomeopathy was quackery and no longer recognized it as a system of medicine.
Other minority practices include paper preparations, in which the terms for substances and dilutions are written on pieces of paper and either pinned to the patients\' clothing, put in their pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the patients. Radionics, the use of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, can also be used to manufacture preparations. Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and verging upon magic and superstition. Flower preparations are produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the Bach flower remedies, which were developed by Edward Bach.
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# Homeopathy
## Preparations and treatment {#preparations_and_treatment}
### Dilutions
Hahnemann claimed that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, and thus that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose. A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher \"potency\", and thus are claimed to be stronger and deeper-acting. The general method of dilution is serial dilution, where solvent is added to part of the previous mixture, but the \"Korsakovian\" method may also be used. In the Korsakovian method, the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied, refilled with solvent, with the volume of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch. The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation. Another method is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial. Insoluble solids, such as granite, diamond, and platinum, are diluted by grinding them with lactose (\"trituration\").
Three main logarithmic dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the \"centesimal\" or \"C scale\", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. There is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as \"X\" or \"D\") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug 1 part in 50,000. A 2C dilution works out to one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution. In standard chemistry, this produces a substance with a concentration of 0.01% (volume-volume percentage). A 6C dilution ends up with the original substance diluted by a factor of 100^−6^ (one part in one trillion). The end product is usually so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the diluent (pure water, sugar or alcohol). The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is approximately 12C.
Hahnemann advocated dilutions of 1 part to 10^60^ or 30C. Hahnemann regularly used dilutions of up to 30C but opined that \"there must be a limit to the matter\". To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface -- a process termed *succussion* -- was necessary. Homeopaths are unable to agree on the number and force of strikes needed, and there is no way that the claimed results of succussion can be tested.
Critics of homeopathy commonly emphasize the dilutions involved in homeopathy, using analogies. One mathematically correct example is that a 12C solution is equivalent to \"a pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans\". One-third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on Earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C. Robert L. Park points out that a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name Oscillococcinum, would require 10^320^ universes worth of molecules to contain just one original molecule in the final substance. The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy.
### Provings {#provings_1}
Homeopaths claim that they can determine the properties of their preparations by following a method which they call \"proving\". As performed by Hahnemann, provings involved administering various preparations to healthy volunteers. The volunteers were then observed, often for months at a time. They were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be \"too exciting\", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation. At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later advocated provings with preparations at a 30C dilution, and most modern provings are carried out using ultra-dilute preparations.
Provings are claimed to have been important in the development of the clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine. The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time. The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 *Essay on a New Principle*. His *Fragmenta de Viribus* (1805) contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 *Materia Medica Pura* contained 65. For James Tyler Kent\'s 1905 *Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica*, 217 preparations underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions.
Though the proving process has superficial similarities with clinical trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective, not blinded, and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically active levels of the substance under proving. As early as 1842, Oliver Holmes had noted that provings were impossibly vague, and the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects.
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# Homeopathy
## Evidence and efficacy {#evidence_and_efficacy}
Outside of the alternative medicine community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham or a pseudoscience, and the medical community regards it as quackery. There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any biologically plausible pharmacological agent or mechanism. Proponents argue that homeopathic medicines must work by some, as yet undefined, biophysical mechanism. No homeopathic preparation has been shown to be different from placebo.
### Lack of scientific evidence {#lack_of_scientific_evidence}
The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and its use of preparations without active ingredients have led to characterizations of homeopathy as pseudoscience and quackery, or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, \"placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst\". The Russian Academy of Sciences considers homeopathy a \"dangerous \'pseudoscience\' that does not work\", and \"urges people to treat homeopathy \'on a par with magic{{\'\"}}. The Chief Medical Officer for England, Dame Sally Davies, has stated that homeopathic preparations are \"rubbish\" and do not serve as anything more than placebos. In 2013, Mark Walport, the UK Government Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the Government Office for Science said \"homeopathy is nonsense, it is non-science.\" His predecessor, John Beddington, also said that homeopathy \"has no underpinning of scientific basis\" and is being \"fundamentally ignored\" by the Government.
Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, says homeopathy \"goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics\". He adds: \"There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment.\" Ben Goldacre says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to a scientifically illiterate public, have \"\... walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument\". Homeopaths often prefer to ignore meta-analyses in favour of cherry picked positive results, such as by promoting a particular observational study (one which Goldacre describes as \"little more than a customer-satisfaction survey\") as if it were more informative than a series of randomized controlled trials.
In an article entitled \"Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?\" published in the *American Journal of Medicine*, Michael Baum and Edzard Ernst`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}writing to other physicians`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}wrote that \"Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine\... These axioms \[of homeopathy\] are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them. If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect\...\".
### Plausibility of dilutions {#plausibility_of_dilutions}
The exceedingly low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single molecule of the diluted substance, has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century. The laws of chemistry give this dilution limit, which is related to the Avogadro number, as being roughly equal to 12C homeopathic dilutions (1 part in 10^24^). James Randi and the 10:23 campaign groups have highlighted the lack of active ingredients by taking large \'overdoses\'. None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and \"no one was cured of anything, either\".
Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of \"water memory\", according to which water \"remembers\" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed. This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise. Existence of a pharmacological effect in the absence of any true active ingredient is inconsistent with the law of mass action and the observed dose-response relationships characteristic of therapeutic drugs. Homeopaths contend that their methods produce a therapeutically active preparation, selectively including only the intended substance, though in reality any water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, and homeopaths cannot account for the selected homeopathic substance being isolated as a special case in their process.
Practitioners also hold that higher dilutions produce stronger medicinal effects. This idea is also inconsistent with observed dose-response relationships, where effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body. Some contend that the phenomenon of hormesis may support the idea of dilution increasing potency, but the dose-response relationship outside the zone of hormesis declines with dilution as normal, and nonlinear pharmacological effects do not provide any credible support for homeopathy.
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# Homeopathy
## Evidence and efficacy {#evidence_and_efficacy}
### Efficacy
---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The placebo effect The intensive consultation process and expectations for the homeopathic preparations may cause the effect
Therapeutic effect of the consultation The care, concern, and reassurance a patient experiences when opening up to a compassionate caregiver can have a positive effect on the patient\'s well-being.
Unassisted natural healing Time and the body\'s ability to heal without assistance can eliminate many diseases of their own accord.
Unrecognized treatments An unrelated food, exercise, environmental agent, or treatment for a different ailment, may have occurred.
Regression towards the mean Since many diseases or conditions are cyclical, symptoms vary over time and patients tend to seek care when discomfort is greatest; they may feel better anyway but because of the timing of the visit to the homeopath they attribute improvement to the preparation taken.
Non-homeopathic treatment Patients may also receive standard medical care at the same time as homeopathic treatment, and the former is responsible for improvement.
Cessation of unpleasant treatment Often homeopaths recommend patients stop getting medical treatment such as surgery or drugs, which can cause unpleasant side-effects; improvements are attributed to homeopathy when the actual cause is the cessation of the treatment causing side-effects in the first place, but the underlying disease remains untreated and still dangerous to the patient.
---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
: Explanations for efficacy of homeopathic preparations:
No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo. The methodological quality of the early primary research was low, with problems such as weaknesses in study design and reporting, small sample size, and selection bias. Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect. A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of \"best evidence\" produced by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that this evidence \"fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo.\"
In 2009, the United Kingdom\'s House of Commons Science and Technology Committee concluded that there was no compelling evidence of effect other than placebo. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council completed a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of homeopathic preparations in 2015, in which it concluded that \"there were no health conditions for which there was reliable evidence that homeopathy was effective.\" The European Academies\' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published its official analysis in 2017 finding a lack of evidence that homeopathic products are effective, and raising concerns about quality control. In contrast a 2011 book was published, purportedly financed by the Swiss government, that concluded that homeopathy was effective and cost efficient. Although hailed by proponents as proof that homeopathy works, it was found to be scientifically, logically and ethically flawed, with most authors having a conflict of interest. The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health later released a statement saying the book was published without the consent of the Swiss government.
Meta-analyses, essential tools to summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy, and systematic reviews have found that the methodological quality in the majority of randomized trials in homeopathy have shortcomings and that such trials were generally of lower quality than trials of conventional medicine. A major issue has been publication bias, where positive results are more likely to be published in journals.`{{unreliable source?|date=February 2020}}`{=mediawiki} This has been particularly marked in alternative medicine journals, where few of the published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report null results. A systematic review of the available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo. The same conclusion was also reached in 2005 in a meta-analysis published in *The Lancet*. A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most reliable evidence did not support the effectiveness of non-individualized homeopathy.
Health organizations, including the UK\'s National Health Service, the American Medical Association, the FASEB, and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, have issued statements saying that there is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for any health condition. In 2009, World Health Organization official Mario Raviglione criticized the use of homeopathy to treat tuberculosis; similarly, another WHO spokesperson argued there was no evidence homeopathy would be an effective treatment for diarrhoea. They warned against the use of homeopathy for serious conditions such as depression, HIV and malaria. The American College of Medical Toxicology and the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology recommend that no one use homeopathic treatment for disease or as a preventive health measure. These organizations report that no evidence exists that homeopathic treatment is effective, but that there is evidence that using these treatments produces harm and can bring indirect health risks by delaying conventional treatment.
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# Homeopathy
## Evidence and efficacy {#evidence_and_efficacy}
### Purported effects in other biological systems {#purported_effects_in_other_biological_systems}
While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain and enzyme reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed. In 2001 and 2004, Madeleine Ennis published a number of studies that reported that homeopathic dilutions of histamine exerted an effect on the activity of basophils. In response to the first of these studies, *Horizon* aired a programme in which British scientists attempted to replicate Ennis\' results; they were unable to do so. A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of the experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators.
In 1988, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste published a paper in the journal *Nature* while working at INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. Skeptical of the findings, *Nature* assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research. After investigation the team found that the experiments were \"statistically ill-controlled\", \"interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim\", and concluded, \"We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported.\"
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