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# Hi-hat
## Modern stands {#modern_stands}
The standard hi-hat features two cymbals mounted on a stand consisting of a mating metal tube and rod supported by a tripod and linked to a pedal. The stationary bottom cymbal sits atop the tube, typically parallel to the ground, but is often fitted with an adjustment screw allowing it to be set slightly tilted. The top cymbal is mounted bell up on the rod and closed against the bottom by foot pressure on the pedal.
An integrated clutch assembly includes a spring which may be adjusted to set resistance, which also varies rate and tension of return, as well as an adjustment for the gap between cymbals when open.
Standard terminology has evolved. ***Open*** and ***closed hi-hat**\'\' refer to notes struck while the two cymbals are apart or together (open or closed), while***pedal hi-hat**\'\' refers to parts or notes played solely with the pedal used to strike the two cymbals. Most cymbal patterns consist of both open and closed notes.
Some hi-hats allow the tripod to be tilted or rotated. Another configuration omits the tripod and attaches the stand to the side of the bass drum, particular suitable for kits with very large or double bass drums.
### Clutch
The standard clutch uses a knurled collar partially threaded below the cymbal and a pair of knurled rings above it. The collar is tightened against the end of the thread, while the rings are tightened against each other.
#### Drop clutch {#drop_clutch}
A **drop clutch** allows a pair of hats mounted on a conventional hi-hat stand to be closed without use of the pedal.
The drop clutch is provided with a lever that can be operated by hand or struck with a drumstick. This action releases the upper hi-hat cymbal, which falls onto the bottom cymbal and remains there, with gravity then holding the hats loosely closed, and allowing them to be played by the sticks in this position. Operation of the pedal re-engages the clutch and allows the player to resume normal playing.
Drop clutches were developed to allow players using double bass drum pedals to play closed hi-hats without needing to operate the hi-hat pedal, and this remains their primary application.
As it relies on gravity to close the cymbals, the drop clutch gives the player no control over the tension holding them together, and supplies only minimal tension. On the other hand, if the player manually lowers the top cymbal of a standard hi-hat stand before playing, this allows any desired tension to be set, and the pedal can still be used to increase the tension while playing, but not to open the hats or to reduce the tension. Some drummers prefer this technique and reject the drop clutch as too limiting to the sounds available.
In 2020, Tama introduced the Sizzle Touch Drop Clutch. This clutch, when dropped, allows the distance between the top and bottom cymbals to be adjusted via an adjustment bolt on top of the clutch. To return the clutch to functioning as a standard one, the drummer depresses the hi-hat stand\'s pedal.
A less common alternative is the locking hi-hat pedal, such as the Tama \"Cobra Clutch\". This and similar high-end locking pedals do allow for control over the tension. It is engaged by pressing a lock pedal separate from the main pedal.
### Cable hats {#cable_hats}
A **cable hat** or **remote hat** uses a cable to allow hi-hat cymbals to be positioned independently of the pedal. Operation is otherwise normal.
### X-hats {#x_hats}
An **X-hat** is an adapter to allow a pair of hi-hat cymbals to be mounted in a closed position on a cymbal stand. There is no pedal, the hats are simply kept closed at a constant tension, similar to a cymbal stack. They are associated with heavy metal music, particularly styles that use double bass drumming, a two-foot technique. By using an X-hat, a drummer who is already using both feet on the bass drum pedals can still play hi-hat.
### Different cymbal hi-hats {#different_cymbal_hi_hats}
Besides traditional hi-hat cymbals (normally 14\" but also commonly 13\" or 15\") the enormous variety of cymbals available means many of them are used as hi-hats. Drummer Thomas Lang uses a hi-hat made out of Bell cymbals as his secondary hi-hat. Terry Bozzio uses two China cymbals in the form of a hi-hat as a kind of distortion hi-hat. Following this principle, Sabian alongside drummer Tony Verderosa, has developed the 12\" VFX distortion hi-hats, mixing a Crash cymbal on the bottom with a China on the top.
### Non-cymbal hi-hats {#non_cymbal_hi_hats}
In addition to the many types of hi-hat cymbals on the market, there are also non-cymbal hi-hat pedals like the Latin Percussion Shekere hi-hat, the Remo Spoxe hi-hats created by Terry Bozzio in the late 80s, the Factory Metal Hat Crasherz or the Baldman Percussion Junk Hats. These kinds of percussion offer different textures in addition to the main hi-hat pedal on the drum kit and also options to expand the kit\'s pedal row.
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# Hi-hat
## Use
When struck closed or played with the pedal, the hi-hat gives a short, crisp, muted percussive sound, referred to as a \"chick\". Adjusting the gap between the cymbals can alter the sound of the open hi-hat from a shimmering, sustained tone to something similar to a ride cymbal. When struck with a drumstick, the cymbals make either a short, snappy sound or a longer sustaining sandy sound depending on the position of the pedal.
It can also be played just by lifting and lowering the foot to clash the cymbals together, a style commonly used to accent beats 2 and 4 in jazz music. In rock music, the hi-hats are commonly struck every beat, or on beats 1 and 3, while the cymbals are held together. The drummer can control the sound by foot pressure. Less pressure allows the cymbals to rub together more freely, giving both greater sustain and greater volume for accent or crescendo. In shuffle time, a rhythm known as \"cooking\" is often employed. To produce this the cymbals are struck twice in rapid succession, being held closed on the first stroke and allowed to open just before the second, then allowed to ring before being closed with a chick to complete the pattern (the cymbals may or may not be struck on the chick).
A right-handed drummer will normally play the hi-hat pedal with his left foot, and may use one or both drumsticks. The traditional hi-hat rhythms of rock and jazz were produced by crossing the hands over, so the right stick would play the hi-hat while the left played the snare drum below it, but this is not universal. Some top modern drummers like Billy Cobham, Carter Beauford, Shawn Drover and Simon Phillips, play open handed, striking with their left. Some, such as Kenny Aronoff, and Jason Finn of The Presidents of the United States of America, use both techniques. Some drum kits may also include an extra hi-hat on the right for right-handed players. This is shown`{{clarify|date=June 2016}}`{=mediawiki} when drums or cymbals in the middle of the set are played with the hi-hat rhythm. The technique is common with metal genres, such as Lars Ulrich of Metallica and Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater. In both rock and jazz, the drummer will often move the same stick pattern between the hi-hat cymbal and the ride cymbal, for example using the hi-hat in the verses and the ride in the chorus of a song, or using the ride to accompany a lead break or other instrumental solo.
Roger Taylor, drummer for the band Queen, plays with many unique hi-hat techniques, including opening of the hi-hat on every backbeat for a rhythm emphasis and leaving the hi-hat slightly open when hitting the snare. His trademark hi-hat beat is opening the hi-hat on first and third before hitting the snare.
Phil Rudd of AC/DC also uses distinct hi-hat techniques, which include very heavily accentuating the hi-hat hit on each beat and softer in between.
Charlie Watts of The Rolling Stones used a technique in which he did not play the hi-hat in unison with the snare drum at all. If playing a standard 8th note pattern, he would play the hi-hat on 1 and 3 and not play it on 2 and 4 where the snare drum is played.
In much hip-hop, the hi-hat is hit with drumsticks in a simple eighth-note pattern, although this playing is usually done by a drum machine or from an old recording from which the sound of a hi-hat is recorded and loaded into a sampler or similar recording-enabled equipment from which it is triggered
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# Hydroxy group
In chemistry, a **hydroxy** or **hydroxyl group** is a functional group with the chemical formula `{{chem2|\sOH}}`{=mediawiki} and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom. In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy groups. Both the negatively charged anion `{{chem2|HO-}}`{=mediawiki}, called hydroxide, and the neutral radical `{{chem2|HO*}}`{=mediawiki}, known as the hydroxyl radical, consist of an unbonded hydroxy group.
According to IUPAC definitions, the term *hydroxyl* refers to the hydroxyl radical (`{{chem2|*OH}}`{=mediawiki}) only, while the functional group `{{chem2|\sOH}}`{=mediawiki} is called a *hydroxy group*.
## Properties
Water, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and many other hydroxy-containing compounds can be readily deprotonated due to a large difference between the electronegativity of oxygen (3.5) and that of hydrogen (2.1). Hydroxy-containing compounds engage in intermolecular hydrogen bonding increasing the electrostatic attraction between molecules and thus to higher boiling and melting points than found for compounds that lack this functional group. Organic compounds, which are often poorly soluble in water, become water-soluble when they contain two or more hydroxyl groups, as illustrated by sugars and amino acid.
## Occurrence
The hydroxy group is pervasive in chemistry and biochemistry. Many inorganic compounds contain hydroxyl groups, including sulfuric acid, the chemical compound produced on the largest scale industrially.
Hydroxy groups participate in the dehydration reactions that link simple biological molecules into long chains. The joining of a fatty acid to glycerol to form a triacylglycerol removes the −OH from the carboxy end of the fatty acid. The joining of two aldehyde sugars to form a disaccharide removes the −OH from the carboxy group at the aldehyde end of one sugar. The creation of a peptide bond to link two amino acids to make a protein removes the −OH from the carboxy group of one amino acid.
## Hydroxyl radical {#hydroxyl_radical}
Hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and undergo chemical reactions that make them short-lived. When biological systems are exposed to hydroxyl radicals, they can cause damage to cells, including those in humans, where they can react with DNA, lipids, and proteins.
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# Hydroxy group
## Planetary observations {#planetary_observations}
### Airglow of the Earth {#airglow_of_the_earth}
The Earth\'s night sky is illuminated by diffuse light, called airglow, that is produced by radiative transitions of atoms and molecules. Among the most intense such features observed in the Earth\'s night sky is a group of infrared transitions at wavelengths between 700 nanometers and 900 nanometers. In 1950, Aden Meinel showed that these were transitions of the hydroxyl molecule, OH.
### Surface of the Moon {#surface_of_the_moon}
In 2009, India\'s Chandrayaan-1 satellite and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Cassini spacecraft and Deep Impact probe each detected evidence of water by evidence of hydroxyl fragments on the Moon. As reported by Richard Kerr, \"A spectrometer \[the Moon Mineralogy Mapper, also known as \"M3\"\] detected an infrared absorption at a wavelength of 3.0 micrometers that only water or hydroxyl---a hydrogen and an oxygen bound together---could have created.\" NASA also reported in 2009 that the LCROSS probe revealed an ultraviolet emission spectrum consistent with hydroxyl presence.
On 26 October 2020, NASA reported definitive evidence of water on the sunlit surface of the Moon, in the vicinity of the crater Clavius (crater), obtained by the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). The SOFIA Faint Object infrared Camera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST) detected emission bands at a wavelength of 6.1 micrometers that are present in water but not in hydroxyl. The abundance of water on the Moon\'s surface was inferred to be equivalent to the contents of a 12-ounce bottle of water per cubic meter of lunar soil.
The Chang\'e 5 probe, which landed on the Moon on 1 December 2020, carried a mineralogical spectrometer that could measure infrared reflectance spectra of lunar rock and regolith. The reflectance spectrum of a rock sample at a wavelength of 2.85 micrometers indicated localized water/hydroxyl concentrations as high as 180 parts per million.
### Atmosphere of Venus {#atmosphere_of_venus}
The Venus Express orbiter collected Venus science data from April 2006 until December 2014. In 2008, Piccioni, *et al.* reported measurements of night-side airglow emission in the atmosphere of Venus made with the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) on Venus Express. They attributed emission bands in wavelength ranges of 1.40--1.49 micrometers and 2.6--3.14 micrometers to vibrational transitions of OH. This was the first evidence for OH in the atmosphere of any planet other than Earth.
### Atmosphere of Mars {#atmosphere_of_mars}
In 2013, OH near-infrared spectra were observed in the night glow in the polar winter atmosphere of Mars by use of the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM).
### Exoplanets
In 2021, evidence for OH in the dayside atmosphere of the exoplanet WASP-33b was found in its emission spectrum at wavelengths between 1 and 2 micrometers. Evidence for OH in the atmosphere of exoplanet WASP-76b was subsequently found. Both WASP-33b and WASP-76b are ultra-hot Jupiters and it is likely that any water in their atmospheres is present as dissociated ions
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# Hummer
**Hummer** (stylized in all caps) is an American brand of pickups launched in 1992 when AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee. Although discontinued in 2010, Hummer returned as a model under GMC in 2020. In 1998, General Motors (GM) purchased the brand name from and marketed three vehicles: the original Hummer H1, based on the military Humvee, as well as the new H2 and H3 models, which were based on smaller, civilian-market GM platforms.
By 2008, Hummer\'s viability in the economic downturn was questioned. Rather than being transferred to the Motors Liquidation Company as part of the GM bankruptcy in 2009, the brand was retained by GM, to investigate its sale. No final deal was made, and in 2010, Hummer dealerships began shutting down.
The nameplate returned to the marketplace for the 2022 model year, not as a separate brand but as an electric pickup truck and an SUV, both sold under the GMC brand as the \"GMC Hummer EV\". The pre-production versions of the EV began in November 2021, after a \$2.2 billion investment to build a variety of all-electric vehicles in GM\'s Detroit-Hamtramck assembly plant.
## History
### Origin
AM General had planned to sell a civilian version of its Humvee as far back as the late 1980s. Having the same structure and most mechanical components, the civilian Hummers were finished in automotive gloss paint, adding passenger car enhancements such as air conditioning, sound insulation, upgraded upholstery, stereo systems, wood trim, and convenience packages. The civilian model began in part because of the persistence of Arnold Schwarzenegger, who saw an Army convoy while filming *Kindergarten Cop* in Oregon and began to campaign and lobby for a civilian version to be available on the market.
In 1992, AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee vehicle to the public under the brand name \"Hummer\". The first two Hummer H1s to be sold were purchased by Schwarzenegger.
### GM purchase {#gm_purchase}
In December 1999, AM General sold the brand name to General Motors but continued to manufacture the vehicles. GM was responsible for the marketing and distribution of all civilian Hummers produced by AM General. Shortly thereafter, GM introduced two of its own design models, the H2 and H3, and renamed the original vehicle H1. AM General continued to build the H1 until it was discontinued in 2006 and was contracted by GM to produce the H2. The H3 was built in Shreveport, LA, alongside the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon pickups, with which it shared the GMT-355 platform (modified and designated GMT-345). Hummer dealership buildings featured an oversized half Quonset Hut style roof, themed to the Hummer brand\'s military origins.
, H1, and H2\|From left: Hummer H3, H1, and H2 models\]\] By 2006, the Hummer began to be exported and sold through importers and distributors in 33 countries. On October 10, 2006, GM began producing the Hummer H3 at its Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa for international markets. The Hummers built there at first were only left-hand drive, but right-hand drive versions were added and exported to Australia and other markets.
The H2 was also assembled in Kaliningrad, Russia, by Avtotor, starting in 2006 and ending in 2009. The plant produced a few hundred vehicles annually, and its output was limited to local consumption with five dealers in Russia.
On June 3, 2008, one day prior to GM\'s annual shareholder meeting, Rick Wagoner, GM\'s CEO at that time, said the brand was being reviewed and would possibly be sold, have the production line completely redesigned, or be discontinued. This was due to the decreasing demand for large SUVs as a result of higher oil prices. Almost immediately after the announcement, a pair of Indian automakers, including Mahindra & Mahindra, expressed interest in purchasing all or part of Hummer.
In April 2009, GM President Fritz Henderson stated several interested parties had approached GM regarding the Hummer business.
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# Hummer
## History
### Failed sale and shutdown {#failed_sale_and_shutdown}
On June 1, 2009, as a part of the General Motors bankruptcy announcement, the company revealed that the Hummer brand would be discontinued. However, the following day GM announced that instead it had reached a deal to sell the brand to an undisclosed buyer. After GM announced that same day that the sale was to an undisclosed Chinese company, CNN and the New York Times identified the buyer of the Hummer truck unit as China-based Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Company Ltd. Later that day, Sichuan Tengzhong itself announced the deal on their own website.
On January 6, 2010, GM CEO Ed Whitacre said he hoped to close the deal with Tengzhong by the end of that month. On February 1, 2010, it was announced that Sichuan and General Motors had agreed to extend the deadline until the end of February as Sichuan tried to get approval by the Chinese government. It was also revealed that the price tag of the Hummer brand was \$150 million.
Later, on February 24, 2010, GM announced the Tengzhong deal had collapsed and the Hummer brand would soon shut down. There were reports that Sichuan Tengzhong might pursue the purchase of the Hummer brand from GM by purchasing it privately through the company\'s new J&A Tengzhong Fund SPC, a private equity investment fund owned by an offshore entity that was recruiting private investors to buy into its acquisition plan. The financial markets posed problems for established borrowers and even more for Tengzhong, a little-known company from western China, at the same time as the potential value of the Hummer brand continued to decline, given high fuel prices and weak consumer demand.
The company announced it was willing to consider offers for all or part of the assets. American company Raser Technologies along with several others expressed interest in buying the company. However, on April 7, 2010, this attempt failed as well, and General Motors officially said it was shutting down the Hummer SUV brand and offering rich rebates in a bid to move the remaining 2,200 vehicles.
After filling a rental-car fleet order, the last Hummer H3 rolled off the line at Shreveport on May 24, 2010.
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# Hummer
## History
### Revival
In mid-2019, rumors began to circulate that General Motors was considering reviving the Hummer nameplate in 2021, as the market for off-road vehicles was reaching historic levels of sales. GM President Mark Ruess was asked about the possible return in the summer of 2019 and said, \"I love Hummer. I don\'t know. We\'re looking at everything.\" Credibility to the earlier reporting began to solidify after the conclusion of the 2019 General Motors strike, as contract negotiations led to the commitment by GM of saving its Detroit-Hamtramck facility from closing by investing in and retooling it to build future electric trucks and SUVs; the products were to be built on GM\'s upcoming \"BT1\" electric truck platform. GM\'s own documentation listed three brands as receiving products from the BT1 architecture: Cadillac (Escalade IQ), Chevrolet (Silverado EV), and a third unknown brand referred to as the \"M-Brand.\"
Industry insiders claimed they had sources saying that the \"M-Brand\" was a Hummer, because a revival of the brand with established name recognition would help reduce marketing costs. The Hummer revival on the BT1 platform was known internally as \"Project O,\" potentially named after former Chief Camaro Engineer Al Oppenheiser (the man responsible for the return of the Camaro in 2010), who was moved from Camaro development to overseeing an EV program. Oppenheiser later confirmed this himself. By November 2019, media reports all but confirmed that Hummer would return with two electric models, a truck and an SUV, sometime in 2021. On November 21, 2019, General Motors CEO Mary Barra confirmed that GM would be releasing an electric pickup truck in the fall of 2021, but did not name the brand under which it would be built.
The new Hummer line is not a standalone brand, as it was before General Motors filed for bankruptcy, but a model within GM\'s GMC brand.
On January 30, 2020, GM released a series of short videos revealing the return of Hummers in the form of electric SUV and truck models marketed under the GMC brand. A 30-second Super Bowl ad featured NBA superstar LeBron James. The vehicle was to be revealed on May 20, 2020, but the date was later pushed back to October 20, 2020.
The Hummer EV SUT was officially revealed on October 20, 2020, during the 2020 World Series. The Hummer EV SUV was unveiled during the NCAA Tournament Final Four on April 3, 2021.
There will be several versions and models under GM brand GMC, with initially only the most expensive \"Edition 1\" four-door pickup available, followed by other models and later as an SUV.
## Models
### Hummer H1 {#hummer_h1}
The first vehicle in the Hummer range was the Hummer H1, based on the Humvee. Released for the civilian market in 1992, this vehicle was designed by American Motors\' AM General subsidiary to meet U.S. Military specifications that were issued in 1979. By 1982, Renault (which was partially owned by the French government) took controlling interest in AMC, and the AM General division was sold in 1983 to Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV), because US regulations barred ownership of defense contractors by foreign governments. American Motors itself was acquired by Chrysler in 1987. Production of H1 civilian versions continued throughout 2006.
### Hummer H2 {#hummer_h2}
The Hummer H2 was the second vehicle in the Hummer range built in the AM General facility under contract from General Motors from 2002 to 2009. There were two variations: The H2 SUV and the H2 SUT.
### Hummer H3 {#hummer_h3}
The H3 and H3T pickup truck were the smallest of the Hummer models and were based on the GMT355 platform shared with the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon compact pickup trucks. The H3 line was produced from 2005 to 2010 by General Motors.
<File:2002-09-11-Marbella-22.jpg%7CHummer> H1 <File:Hummer> H2 front 20070928.jpg\|Hummer H2 <File:Hummer-H3.JPG%7CHummer> H3
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# Hummer
## Concept vehicles {#concept_vehicles}
### Hummer HX {#hummer_hx}
The Hummer HX was developed in 2008 as an open-air, two-door off-road concept car, smaller than other Hummer models.
### Plug-in hybrid {#plug_in_hybrid}
Raser Technologies (formerly of Utah) was to use technology similar to that of the Chevrolet Volt. The company unveiled the prototype to the 2009 Society of Automotive Engineers World Congress in Detroit. The E-REV (Extended-Range Electric Vehicle) powertrain technology was claimed to power the vehicle for up to 40 mi on its battery, and then a small 4-cylinder internal combustion engine would start to generate more electricity.
## Racing
Team Hummer Racing was created in 1993. Led by off-road racer Rod Hall, Team Hummer competed in the stock classes of both BitD and SCORE, with specialized racing shock absorbers, tires, and other modifications, along with mandatory safety equipment. Team Hummer stock-class H3 was driven by Hall who finished first in class with the H3 in the 2005 Baja 1000. Team Hummer earned 11 production-class wins at the Baja 1000.
A highly modified, two-wheel drive Hummer was raced by Robby Gordon in 2006 (did not finish), 2007 (8th place), 2009 (3rd place), 2010 (8th place), 2011 (did not finish), 2012 (disqualified), and 2013 (14th place) Dakar Rally.
## Stretch limousines {#stretch_limousines}
The Hummer H2 has been stretched by third-party companies into a variety of limousine versions. The Hummer H2 was cut behind the cab, and the chassis was extended to create a passenger section for 14, 16, or even 22 passengers.
## Production
- AM General Hummer H1 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana -- 500000 sqft opened in 1984 to build HMMWV (HUMVEE) and began production of the H1 in 1992. Production ceased 2006, but HMMWV production continues.
- AM General Hummer H2 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana -- 673000 sqft opened 2002. H2 production ended 2009. Plant sold to SF Motors, maker of electric vehicles, in 2017.
- General Motors South Africa Struandale Assembly Plant, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa -- built in 1996, expanded to 75625 sqm to build H3 models. H3 production ended 2009.
- General Motors Shreveport Operations, Shreveport, Louisiana -- in 2005, to accommodate the production of the H3, an additional 296000 sqft was added to plant built by GM in 1981. In July 2009, GM had shut down Hummer production of the H3, but the automaker had a special fleet order from Avis Rent a Car System.
- Avtotor Kaliningrad, Russia -- licensed version of H2 starting from 2006 and production ended in 2009.
## Criticisms
Criticism of Hummers mirrors the criticism of SUVs in general, but to a higher degree. Specific criticisms of Hummers include:
Size:Hummers (specifically the H1 and H2) are significantly bigger than other SUVs, which can cause problems parking, driving, and fitting in a garage. Their large size may also pose a serious threat to smaller vehicles and pedestrians.
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Poor fuel economy:Even compared to other heavy passenger vehicles, Hummers have very poor fuel economy. Because the H2 is built to the over-8500-lb GVW, its fuel economy is neither published by the U.S. EPA nor counted toward Corporate Average Fuel Economy. For example, H2 in one engine configuration averages an estimated 14 mpgus on the highway and 10 mpgus in the city. It has a curb weight of around 6400 lb.
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Safety:Crash data for Hummers is less complete than for other SUVs. As a Class 3 truck, the Hummer is exempt from many United States Department of Transportation safety regulations. The H1 lacks standard safety features, including child safety locks, child seat tethers, side airbags, and stability control. Large blind spots make parking difficult and possibly dangerous.
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Drivers:A one-year study, conducted by a firm that provides statistical information to insurance companies, found that drivers of Hummer H2 and H3s receive about five times as many traffic tickets as the national average for all vehicles (standardized based on the number of violations per 100,000 miles driven).
## Licensing
GM is active in licensing the Hummer. Various companies have licensed the Hummer trademarks for use on colognes, flashlights, bicycles, shoes, coats, hats, laptops, toys, clothing, CD players, video games and other items. An electric quadricycle badged as a Hummer was produced in the UK
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# Harmony Society
The **Harmony Society** was a Christian theosophy and pietist society founded in Iptingen, Germany, in 1785. Due to religious persecution by the Lutheran Church and the government in Württemberg, the group moved to the United States, where representatives purchased land in Butler County, Pennsylvania. On February 15, 1805, the group of approximately 400 formally organized the Harmony Society at today\'s Harmony, Pennsylvania, settling on the land and placing all their goods in common.
Under its founder and spiritual leader, Johann Georg Rapp (1757--1847); Frederick (Reichert) Rapp (1775--1834), his adopted son who managed its business affairs; and their associates, the Society existed for one hundred years, roughly from 1805 until 1905. Members were known as Harmonists, Harmonites, or Rappites. The Society is best known for its worldly successes, most notably the establishment of three model communities, the first at Harmony, Pennsylvania; the second, also called Harmony, in the Indiana Territory, now New Harmony, Indiana; and the third and final town at Economy, now Ambridge, Pennsylvania.
## Origins in Germany {#origins_in_germany}
Johann Georg Rapp (1757--1847), also known as George Rapp, was the founder of the religious sect called Harmonists, Harmonites, Rappites, or the Harmony Society. Born in Iptingen, Duchy of Württemberg, Germany, Rapp was a \"bright but stubborn boy\" who was also deeply religious. His \"strong personality\" and religious convictions began to concern local church authorities when he refused to attend church services or take communion. Rapp and his group of believers began meeting in Iptengen and eventually emigrated to the United States, where they established three communities: Harmony, Butler County, Pennsylvania; Harmony (later named New Harmony), Posey County, Indiana; and Economy, Beaver County, Pennsylvania.
Rapp became inspired by the philosophies of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, Johann Heinrich Jung, and Emanuel Swedenborg among others, and later wrote *Thoughts on the Destiny of Man*, published in German in 1824 and in English a year later, in which he outlined his ideas and philosophy. Rapp lived out his remaining days in Economy, where he died on August 7, 1847, at the age of 89.
By the mid-1780s, Rapp had begun preaching to the Separatists, his followers in Iptengen, who met privately and refused to attend church services or take communion. As their numbers increased, Rapp\'s group officially split with the Lutheran Church in 1785 and was banned from meeting. Despite warnings from local authorities, the group continued to meet privately and attract even more followers.
By 1798 Rapp and his group of followers had already begun to distance themselves from mainstream society and intended to establish a new religious congregation of fellow believers. In the Lomersheimer declaration, written in 1798, these religious Separatists presented their statement of faith, based on Christian principles, to the Wurttemberg legislature. Rapp\'s followers declared their desire to form a separate congregation who would meet in members\' homes, free from Lutheran Church doctrines. The group supported the belief that baptism was not necessary until children could decide for themselves whether they wanted to become a Christian. They also believed that confirmation for youth was not necessary and communion and confession would only be held a few times a year. Although the Separatists supported civil government, the group refused to make a physical oath in its support, \"for according to the Gospel not oath is allowed him who gives evidence of a righteous life as an upright man.\" They also refused to serve in the military or attend Lutheran schools, choosing instead to teach their children at home. This declaration of faith, along with some later additions, guided the Harmony Society\'s religious beliefs even after they had emigrated from Germany to the United States.
In the 1790s, Rapp\'s followers continued to increase, reaching as many as 10,000 to 12,000 members. The increasing numbers, which included followers outside of Rapp\'s village, continued to concern the government, who feared they might become rebellious and dangerous to the state. Although no severe actions were initially taken to repress the Separatists, the group began to consider emigration to France or the United States. In 1803, when the government began to persecute Rapp\'s followers, he decided to move the entire group to the United States. Rapp and a small group of men left Iptingen in 1803 and traveled to America to find a new home. On May 1, 1804, the first group of emigrants departed for the United States. The initial move scattered the followers and reduced Rapp\'s original group of 12,000 to just a few followers. Johan Frederich Reichert, who later agreed to become Rapp\'s adopted son and took the name of Frederick Reichert Rapp, reported in a letter dated February 25, 1804, that there were \"at least 100 families or 500 persons actually ready to go\" even if they had to sacrifice their property.
### Encounter with the Haugeans {#encounter_with_the_haugeans}
In September 1817 *de Zee Ploeg*, a ship with 500 immigrants from Württemberg, including a number of Rappites, was forced to stop in Norway because of poor weather conditions. Staying in Bergen for about a year and provided with housing by the authorities, they were warmly accepted by the followers of the Pietistic Haugean movement. The two groups found much in common and held devotions together, with some of the Germans learning Norwegian during their stay. Samson Trae, a Haugean leader, noted that \"It gave us extreme joy to realize that the foundation of your faith accords with the true word of God.\" After Rapp\'s followers left to settle in the United States, the two groups remained in contact for at least some time. In one letter, the Rappites stated, \"Our hearts have often longed for your loving and edifying company since we came to America. We have longed more for Bergen than for Germany because of the love with which you received us and re-freshed us in body and spirit.\"
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# Harmony Society
## Settlements in the United States {#settlements_in_the_united_states}
In 1804, while Rapp and his associates remained in the United States looking for a place to settle, his followers sailed to America aboard several vessels and made their way to western Pennsylvania, where they waited until land had been selected for their new settlement. Rapp was able to secure a large tract of land in Pennsylvania and started his first commune, known as Harmonie or Harmony, in Butler County, Pennsylvania, where the Society existed from 1804 to 1815. It soon grew to a population of about 800, and was highly profitable. Ten years later, the town was sold and the Harmonists moved westward to the Indiana Territory, where they established the town of Harmony, now called New Harmony, Indiana, and remained there from 1815 to 1825. The Indiana settlement was sold to Robert Owen and was renamed New Harmony. Ten years after the move to Indiana the commune moved again, this time returning to western Pennsylvania, and named their third and final town Economy (*Ökonomie* in German). The Harmonists lived in Economy until the Society was dissolved in 1905.
### Articles of association {#articles_of_association}
On February 15, 1805, the settlers at Harmony, Pennsylvania, signed articles of association to formally establish the Harmony Society in the United States. In this document, Society members agreed to hold all property in a common fund, including working capital of \$23,000 to purchase land, livestock, tools, and other goods needed to establish their town. The agreement gave the Society legal status in the United States and protected it from dissolution. Members contributed all of their possessions, pledged cooperation in promoting the interests of the group, and agreed to accept no pay for their services. In return, the members would receive care as long as they lived with the group. Under this agreement, if a member left the Society, their funds would be returned without interest or, if they had not contributed to the Society\'s treasury, they would receive a small monetary gift.
The Society was a religious congregation who submitted to spiritual and material leadership under Rapp and his associates and worked together for the common good of all its members. Believing that the Second Coming of Christ would occur during their lifetimes, the Harmonists contented to live simply under a strict religious doctrine, gave up tobacco, and advocated celibacy.
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# Harmony Society
## Settlements in the United States {#settlements_in_the_united_states}
### First settlement: Harmony, Pennsylvania {#first_settlement_harmony_pennsylvania}
*Main article: Harmony, Pennsylvania*
In December 1804 Rapp and a party of two others initially contracted to purchase 4,500 acre of land for \$11,250 in Butler County, Pennsylvania, and later acquired additional land to increase their holdings to approximately 9,000 acre by the time they advertised their property for sale in 1814. Here they built the town of Harmony, a small community that had, in 1805, nearly 50 log houses, a large barn, a gristmill, and more than 150 acres of cleared land to grow crops.
Because the climate was not well suited for growing grapes and nearby property was not available to expand their landholdings, the Harmonists submitted a petition to the U.S. government for assistance in purchasing land elsewhere. In January 1806 Rapp traveled to Washington, D.C. to hear discussions in Congress regarding the Harmonists\' petition for a grant that would allow them to purchase approximately 30,000 acre acre of land in the Indiana Territory. While the Senate passed the petition on January 29, it was defeated in the House of Representatives on February 18. The Harmonists had to find other financial means to support their plans for future expansion. By 1810 the town\'s population reached approximately 700, with about 130 houses. The Society landholdings also increased to 7,000 acre. In the years that followed, the Society survived disagreements among its members, while shortages of cash and lack of credit threatened its finances. Still, the young community had a good reputation for its industry and agricultural production.
At Harmony, George Rapp, also known as Father Rapp, was recognized as the spiritual head of the Society, the one that they went to for discussions, confessions, and other matters. Rapp\'s adopted son, Frederick, managed the Society\'s business and commercial affairs.
Rapp let newcomers into the Society and, after a trial period, usually about a year, they were accepted as permanent members. While new members continued to arrive, including immigrants from Germany, others found the Harmonists\' religious life too difficult and left the group. In addition, during a period of religious zeal in 1807 and 1808, most, but not all, of the Harmonists adopted the practice of celibacy and there were also few marriages among the members. Rapp\'s son, Johannes, was married in 1807; and it was the last marriage on record until 1817. Although Rapp did not entirely bar sex initially, it gradually became a custom and there were few births in later years.
In 1811 Harmony\'s population rose to around 800 persons involved in farming and various trades. Although profit was not a primary goal, their finances improved and the enterprise was profitable, but not sufficient to carry out their planned expansions. Within a few years of their arrival, the Harmonist community included an inn, a tannery, warehouses, a brewery, several mills, stables, and barns, a church/meetinghouse, a school, additional dwellings for members, a labyrinth, and workshops for different trades. In addition, more land was cleared for vineyards and crops. The Harmonists also produced yarn and cloth.
Several factors led to the Harmonists\' decision to leave Butler County. Because the area\'s climate was not suitable, they had difficulties growing grapes for wine. In addition, as westward migration brought new settlers to the county, making it less isolated, the Harmonists began having troubles with neighbors who were not part of the Society. By 1814 Butler County\'s growing population and rising land prices made it difficult for the Society to expand, causing the group\'s leaders to look for more land elsewhere. Once land had been located that offered a better climate and room to expand, the group began plans to move. In 1814 the Harmonites sold their first settlement to Abraham Ziegler, a Mennonite, for \$100,000 (\~\$`{{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=100000|start_year=1814}}}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}`{=mediawiki}) and moved west to make a new life for themselves in the Indiana Territory.
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# Harmony Society
## Settlements in the United States {#settlements_in_the_united_states}
### Second settlement: Harmony, Indiana {#second_settlement_harmony_indiana}
*Main article: New Harmony, Indiana*
In 1814 the Harmony Society moved to the Indiana Territory, where it initially acquired approximately 3,500 acre of land along the Wabash River in Posey County and later acquired more. Over the next ten years the Society built a thriving new community they called Harmonie or Harmony on the Wabash in the Indiana wilderness. (The town\'s name was changed to New Harmony after the Harmonists left in 1824.) The Harmonists entered into agriculture and manufacture on a larger scale than they had done in Pennsylvania. When the Harmonists advertised their Indiana property for sale in 1824, they had acquired 20,000 acre of land, 2,000 acre of which was under cultivation.
During the summer and fall of 1814, many Harmonists fell sick from fever (malaria) and work on the new town nearly ceased. During this time the Society lost about 120 people and others fell ill until conditions were improved and the swamps around the area were drained. Despite these illnesses, construction of the new town continued. By 1819 the Harmonites had built 150 log homes, a church, a community storehouse, barns, stables, and a tavern, along with thriving shops and mills, and cleared land for farming. As the new settlement in Indiana grew, it also began to attract new arrivals, including emigrants from Germany, who expected the Harmonists to pay for their passage to America.
Visitors to the new town commented on its growing commercial and industrial work. In 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery, but not all visitors were impressed with the growing communal town on the frontier. The Society also had visitors from another communal religious society, the Shakers. In 1816 meetings between the Shakers and Harmonists considered a possible union of the two societies, but religious differences between the two groups halted the union. Members of the groups remained, however, in contact over the years. George Rapp\'s daughter and others lived for a time at the Shaker settlement in West Union, Indiana, where the Shakers helped a number of Harmonites learn the English language.
The Harmonist community continued to thrive during the 1820s. The Society shipped its surplus agricultural produce and manufactured goods throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys or sold them through their stores at Harmony and Shawneetown and their agents in Pittsburgh, Saint Louis, Louisville, and elsewhere. Under Frederick Rapp\'s financial management the Society prospered, but he soon wished for a location better suited to manufacturing and commercial purposes. They had initially selected the land near the Wabash River for its isolation and opportunity for expansion, but the Harmonites were now a great distance from the eastern markets and trade in this location was not to their liking. They also had to deal with unfriendly neighbors. As abolitionists, the Harmonites faced disagreeable elements from slavery supporters in Kentucky, only 15 mi away, which caused them much annoyance. By 1824 the decision had been made to sell their property in Indiana and search for land to the east.
On January 3, 1825, the Harmonists and Robert Owen, a Welsh-born industrialist and social reformer, came to a final agreement for the sale of the Society\'s land and buildings in Indiana for \$150,000. Owen named the town New Harmony, and by May, the last of the Harmony Society\'s remaining members returned to Pennsylvania.
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# Harmony Society
## Settlements in the United States {#settlements_in_the_united_states}
### Third settlement: Economy, Pennsylvania {#third_settlement_economy_pennsylvania}
In 1824 Frederick Rapp initially purchased 1,000 acre along the Ohio River, 18 mi northwest of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for \$10,000, and later bought an additional 2,186 acre for \$33,445, giving the Society more than 3,000 acre to develop into a new community. The Harmonites named their third and last town Economy, after the spiritual notion of the Divine Economy, \"a city in which God would dwell among men\" and where perfection would be attained.
At Economy the Harmonists intended to become more involved in manufacturing and their new town on the Ohio River provided better access to eastern markets and water access to the south and west than they had in Indiana. By 1826 the Harmonists had woolen and cotton mills in operation as well as a steam-operated grain mill. The Harmonist society also ran a wine press, a hotel, post office, saw mills, stores, and a variety of farms. Here, under the business acumen and efficient management of Frederick Rapp, they enjoyed such prosperity that by 1829 they dominated trade and the markets of Pittsburgh and down the Ohio River. The Harmonists\' competitors accused them of creating a monopoly and called on state government to dissolve the group. Despite the attacks, the Harmonists developed Economy into a prosperous factory town, engaged in farming on a large scale, and maintained a brewery, distillery, and wine-making operation. They also pioneered the manufacturing of silk in the United States.
The community was not neglectful of matters pertaining to art and culture. Frederick Rapp purchased artifacts and installed a museum containing fine paintings and many curiosities and antiques, but it proved to be unprofitable and was sold at a loss. In addition, the Harmonists maintained a deer park, a floral park, and a maze, or labyrinth. The Harmonists were fond of music and many of the members were accomplished musicians. They sang, had a band/orchestra, composed songs, and gave much attention to its cultivation. By 1830 they had amassed a 360-volume library.
In 1832 the Society suffered a serious division. Of 750 members, 250 became alienated through the influence of Bernhard Müller (self-styled Count de Leon), who, with 40 followers (also at variance with the authorities in the old country), had come to Economy to affiliate with the Society. Rapp and Leon could not agree; a separation and apportionment of the property were therefore agreed upon. This secession of one-third of the Society, which consisted mostly of the flower of young manhood and young womanhood who did not want to maintain the custom of celibacy, broke Frederick\'s heart. He died within two years. It resulted in a considerable fracturing of the community. Nevertheless, the Society remained prosperous in business investments for many more years to come.
After Frederick Rapp\'s death in 1834, George Rapp appointed Romelius Baker and Jacob Henrici as trustees to manage the Society\'s business affairs. After George Rapp\'s death in 1847, the Society reorganized. While a board of elders was elected for the enforcement of the Society\'s rules and regulations, business management passed to its trustees: Baker and Henrici, 1847--68; Henrici and Jonathan Lenz, 1869--90; Henrici and Wolfel, 1890; Henrici and John S. Duss, 1890--1892; Duss and Seiber, 1892--1893; Duss and Reithmuller, 1893--1897;Duss, 1897--1903; and finally to Suzanna (Susie) C. Duss in 1903. By 1905 membership had dwindled to just three members and the Society was dissolved.
The settlements at Economy remained economically successful until the late 19th century, producing many goods in their cotton and woolen factories, sawmill, tannery, and from their vineyards and distillery. They also produced high quality silk for garments. Rapp\'s granddaughter, Gertrude, began the silk production in Economy on a small scale from 1826 to 1828, and later expanded. This was planned in New Harmony, but fulfilled when they arrived at Economy. The Harmonists were industrious and utilized the latest technologies of the day in their factories. Because the group chose to adopt celibacy and their members grew older, more work gradually had to be hired out. As their membership declined, they stopped manufacturing operations, other than what they needed for themselves, and began to invest in other ventures such as the oil business, coal mining, timber, railroads, land development, and banking. The group invested in the construction of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, established the Economy Savings Institution and the Economy Brick Works, and operated the Economy Oil Company, as well as the Economy Planing Mill, Economy Lumber Company, and eventually donated some land in Beaver Falls for the construction of Geneva College. The Society exerted a major influence on the economic development of Western Pennsylvania.
Oil production in the mid-1860s brought the high-water mark of the Society\'s prosperity. By the close of Baker\'s administration in 1868, The Society\'s wealth was probably \$2 million (\~\$`{{Format price|{{Inflation|index=US-GDP|value=2000000|start_year=1868}}}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}`{=mediawiki}). By 1890, however, the Society was in debt and on the verge of bankruptcy with a depleted and aged membership. In addition, the Society faced litigation from previous members and would-be heirs. The Society\'s trustee, John S. Duss, settled the lawsuits, liquidated its business ventures, and paid the Society\'s indebtedness. The great strain which he had undergone at this time undermined his health and he resigned his trusteeship in 1903. With only a few members left, the remaining land and assets were sold under the leadership of Duss\'s wife, Susanna (Susie), and the Society was formally dissolved in 1905. At the time of the Society\'s dissolution, its net worth was \$1.2 million.
In 1916 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania acquired 6 acre and 17 buildings of Economy, which became the Old Economy Village historic site. The American Bridge Company had already acquired other parts of the Society\'s land in 1902 to build the town of Ambridge.
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# Harmony Society
## Characteristics
### Religious views {#religious_views}
In 1791 George Rapp said, \"I am a prophet, and I am called to be one\" in front of the civil affairs official in Maulbronn, Germany, who promptly had him imprisoned for two days and threatened with exile if he did not cease preaching. To the great consternation of church and state authorities, this mere peasant from Iptingen had become the outspoken leader of several thousand Separatists in the southern German duchy of Württemberg. By 1802 the Separatists had grown in number to about 12,000 and the Württemberg government decided that they were a dangerous threat to social order. Rapp was summoned to Maulbronn for an interrogation, and the government confiscated Separatist books. When released in 1803, from a brief time in prison, Rapp told his followers to pool their assets and follow him on a journey for safety to the \"land of Israel\" in the United States, and soon over 800 people were living with him there.
The Harmonites were Christian pietist Separatists who split from the Lutheran Church in the late 18th century. Under the leadership of George Rapp, the group left Württemberg, Germany, and came to the United States in 1803. Due to the troubles they had in Europe, the group sought to establish a more perfect society in the American wilderness. They were nonviolent pacifists who refused to serve in the military and tried to live by George Rapp\'s philosophy and literal interpretations of the New Testament. They first settled and built the town of Harmony, Pennsylvania, in 1804, and established the Harmony Society in 1805 as a religious commune. In 1807, celibacy was advocated as the preferred custom of the community in an attempt to purify themselves for the coming Millennium. Rapp believed that the events and wars going on in the world at the time were a confirmation of his views regarding the imminent Second Coming of Christ, and he also viewed Napoleon as the Antichrist. In 1814, the Society sold their first town in Pennsylvania and moved to the Indiana Territory, where they built their second town. In 1824, they decided it was time to leave Indiana, sold their land and town in Indiana, and moved to their final settlement in Western Pennsylvania.
The Harmonites were Millennialists, in that they believed Jesus Christ was coming to earth in their lifetime to help usher in a thousand-year kingdom of peace on earth. This is perhaps why they believed that people should try to make themselves \"pure\" and \"perfect\", and share things with others while willingly living in communal \"harmony\" (Acts 4:32-35) and practicing celibacy. They believed that the old ways of life on earth were coming to an end, and that a new perfect kingdom on earth was about to be realized.
They also practiced forms of Esoteric Christianity, Mysticism (Christian mysticism), and Rapp often spoke of the virgin spirit or Goddess named Sophia in his writings. Rapp was very influenced by the writings of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, and Emanuel Swedenborg, among others. Also, at Economy, there are glass bottles and literature that seem to indicate that the group was interested in (and practiced) alchemy. Other books found in the Harmony Society\'s library in Economy, include those by the following authors: Christoph Schütz, Gottfried Arnold, Justinus Kerner, Thomas Bromley, Jane Leade, Johann Scheible (*Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses*), Paracelsus, and Georg von Welling, among others.
The Harmonites tended to view unmarried celibate life as morally superior to marriage, based on Rapp\'s belief that God had originally created Adam as a dual being, having male and female sexual organs. According to this view, when the female portion of Adam separated to form Eve, disharmony followed, but one could attempt to regain harmony through celibacy.
George Rapp predicted that on September 15, 1829, the three and one half years of the Sun Woman would end and Christ would begin his reign on earth. Dissension grew when Rapp\'s predictions did not come to pass. In March 1832, one third of the group left the Society and some began following Bernhard Müller, who claimed to be the Lion of Judah. Nevertheless, most of the group stayed and Rapp continued to lead them until he died on August 7, 1847. His last words to his followers were, \"If I did not so fully believe, that the Lord has designated me to place our society before His presence in the land of Canaan, I would consider this my last\".
The Harmonites did not mark their graves with headstones or grave markers, because they thought it was unnecessary to do so; however, one exception is George Rapp\'s son Johannes\' stone marker in Harmony, Pennsylvania, which was installed by non-Harmonites many years after the Harmonites left that town. Today, Harmonist graveyards are fenced in grassy areas with signs posted nearby explaining this practice.
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# Harmony Society
## Characteristics
### Architecture
The Harmony Society\'s architecture reflected their Swabian German traditions, as well as the styles that were being developed in America during the 19th century. In the early days of the Society, many of the homes were initially log cabins and later, Harmonist craftsmen built timber-frame homes. At Economy, their homes were mostly two-story brick houses \"that showed the influence of their American neighbors.\" In general, Harmonist buildings, in addition to being sturdy and functional, were centrally heated, economical to maintain, and resistant to fire, weather, and termites.
Once established at Harmony, Pennsylvania, the Society planned to replace the log dwellings with brick structures, but the group moved to the Indiana Territory before the plan was completed. In Indiana, log homes were soon replaced with one- or two-story houses of timber frame or brick construction in addition to four large rooming houses (dormitories) for its growing membership. The new town also included shops, schools, mills, a granary, a hotel, library, distilleries, breweries, a brick kiln, pottery ovens, barn, stables, storehouses, and two churches, one of which was brick.
In 1822 William Herbert, a visitor to Harmony, Indiana, described the new brick church and the Harmonists\' craftsmanship:
\"These people exhibit considerable taste as well as boldness of design in some of their works. They are erecting a noble church, the roof of which is supported in the interior by a great number of stately columns, which have been turned from trees in their own forests. The kinds of wood made use of for this purpose are, I am informed, black walnut, cherry and sassafras. Nothing I think can exceed the grandeur of the joinery and the masonry and brickwork seem to be of the first order. The form of this church is that of a cross, the limbs being short and equal; and as the doors, which there are four, are placed at the end of the limbs, the interior of the building as seen from the entrance, has a most ample and spacious effect\.... I could scarcely imagine myself to be in the woods of Indiana, on the borders of the Wabash, while pacing the long resounding aisles, and surveying the stately colonnades of this church.\"
Frame structures were built on piers to keep the air circulating across the area\'s damp soil, while brick structures had a root cellar with a drainage tunnel. Inside, Harmonists built fireplaces to the left or right of center to allow for a long center beam, adding strength to support the structure and its heavy, shingled roof. \"Dutch biscuits\" (wood laths wrapped in straw and mud) provided insulation and soundproofing between the ceiling and floors. The exterior was insulated with bricks between the exterior\'s unpainted weatherboards and the interior\'s lath and plaster walls. Structures had standard parts and pre-cut, pre-measured timbers, which were assembled on the ground, adjusted to fit on site, raised in place, and locked into place with pegs and mortise and tenon joints. Two-story floor plans for homes included a large living room, kitchen, and entrance hall, with stairs to the second floor and attic. In Indiana, Harmonists did their baking in communal ovens, so stoves could be substituted for fireplaces.
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# Harmony Society
## Characteristics
### Living styles {#living_styles}
At Harmony, Pennsylvania, four to six members were assigned to a home, where they lived as families, although not all those living in the household were related. Even when the house contained those that were married, they would live together as brother and sister, since there was a suggestion and custom of practicing celibacy. In Indiana, Harmonists continued to live in homes, but they also built dormitories to house single men and women.
Society members woke between 5 a.m. and 6 a.m. They ate breakfast between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m., lunch at 9 a.m., dinner at noon, afternoon lunch at 3 p.m., and supper between 6 p.m. and 7 p.m. They did their chores and work during the day. At the end of the day, members met for meetings and had a curfew of 9 p.m. On Sundays, the members respected the \"Holy day\" and did no unnecessary work, but attended church services, singing groups, and other social activities.
### Clothing
Their style of dress reflected their Swabian German roots and traditions and was adapted to their life in America. Although the Harmonites typically wore plain clothing, made with their own materials by their own tailors, they would wear their fine garments on Sundays and on other special occasions. At Economy, on special occasions and Sundays, women wore silk dresses using fabric of their own manufacture. Clothing varied in color, but often carried the same design. On a typical day, women wore ankle-length dresses, while men wore pants with vests or coats and a hat.
### Technology
The Harmonites were a prosperous agricultural and industrial people. They had many machines that helped them be successful in their trades. They even had steam-powered engines that ran the machines at some of their factories in Economy. They kept their machines up to date, and had many factories and mills, for example Beaver Falls Cutlery Company which they purchased in 1867.
### Work
Each member of the Society had a job in a certain craft or trade. Most of the work done by men consisted of manual labor, while the women dealt more with textiles or agriculture.
As Economy became more technologically developed, Harmonites began to hire others from outside the Society, especially when their numbers decreased because of the custom of celibacy and as they eventually let fewer new members join. Although the Harmonites did seek work-oriented help from the outside, they were known as a community that supported themselves, kept their ways of living in their community, mainly exported goods, and tried to import as little as possible.
## Rise and fall of Harmony Society {#rise_and_fall_of_harmony_society}
George Rapp had an eloquent style, which matched his commanding presence, and he was the personality that led the group through all the different settlements. After Rapp\'s death in 1847, a number of members left the group because of disappointment and disillusionment over the fact that his prophecies regarding the return of Jesus Christ in his lifetime were not fulfilled. However, many stayed in the group, and the Harmony Society went on to become an even more profitable business community that had many worldly financial successes under the leadership of Romelius L. Baker and Jacob Henrici.
Over time the group became more protective of itself, did not allow many new members, moved further from its religious foundation to a more business-oriented and pragmatic approach, and the custom of celibacy eventually drained it of its membership. The land and financial assets of the Harmony Society were sold off by the few remaining members under the leadership of John Duss and his wife, Susanna, by the year 1906.
Today, many of the Society\'s remaining buildings are preserved; all three of their settlements in the United States have been declared National Historic Landmark Districts by the National Park Service
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# Huneric
**Huneric,** **Hunneric** or **Honeric** (died December 23, 484) was King of the (North African) Vandal Kingdom (477--484) and the oldest son of Gaiseric. He abandoned the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs. He was married to Eudocia, daughter of western Roman Emperor Valentinian III (419--455) and Licinia Eudoxia. The couple had one child, a son named Hilderic.
Huneric was the first Vandal king who used the title *King of the Vandals and Alans*. Despite adopting this style, and that of the Vandals of maintaining their sea-power and their hold on the islands of the western Mediterranean, Huneric did not have the prestige that his father Gaiseric had enjoyed with other states.
## Early life {#early_life}
Huneric was a son of King Gaiseric, and was sent to Italy as a hostage in 435, when his father made a treaty with the Western emperor Valentinian III. Huneric became king of the Vandals on his father\'s death on 25 January 477. Like Gaiseric he was an Arian, and his reign is chiefly memorable for his persecution of Nicene Christians in his dominions.
A peace treaty was signed between the Vandals and Romans in 442, in which the Vandals acquired the most fertile regions of Roman Africa. A marriage alliance between Huneric and Eudocia, the four-year old daughter of Emperor Valentinian III, was also made. However, Huneric was already married to the daughter of King Theodoric I. He divorced her under the claim that she attempted to poison somebody. She returned to the Visigothic Kingdom after her nose and ears were cut off. This action soured relations between the Vandals and Visigoths, who are not known to have attempted contact until 467. Huneric married Eudocia in 455 or 456, after she was taken following the Sack of Rome. Huneric renounced his claims to Eudocia\'s inheritance in 478.
Hilderic was born from this marriage between c.456 and c.471. Eudocia died after sixteen years of marriage according to the 9th century chronicler Theophanes the Confessor.
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# Huneric
## Reign
Huneric conducted a purge in 479. He had his older brother Theoderic, along with his daughters and younger son, and the eldest son of his brother Gento, along with his wife, exiled. Theoderic\'s wife and eldest son were executed along with Heldica, one of Gaiseric\'s officials, and his family. Jucundus, the Arian patriarch of Carthage and a supporter of Theoderic, was publicly burned to death.
Huneric was a fervent adherent to Arianism. Yet his reign opened with making a number of positive overtures towards the local Roman population. Following the visit of a diplomatic mission from the Eastern Roman Empire led by Alexander, Huneric restored properties seized by his father from the merchants of Carthage.
Quodvultdeus, the bishop of Carthage, was expelled to Campania by the Vandals in 439. The position remained vacant for fifteen years until Gaiseric allowed Deogratias to be appointed on 24 October 454 at the request of Valentinian III. The position was made vacant again for twenty-four years after the death of Deogratias. Huneric lifted the policy of persecuting the Nicene Christians, allowing them to hold a synod wherein they elected Eugenius of Carthage as the bishop of Carthage. However, not long after the ordination of Eugenius, Huneric reversed himself and began to once again persecute Nicenes. In 484, he ordered that the tongues and right hand of all Nicenes in Tipasa be cut off due to them celebrating the liturgy.
Furthermore, he tried to make Nicene property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the Eastern Roman Emperor, he chose to banish a number of Nicene Christians to a faraway province instead. On February 1, 484 he organized a meeting of Nicene bishops with Arian bishops, but on February 24, 484 he forcibly removed the Nicene bishops from their offices and banished some to Corsica. A few were executed, including the former proconsul Victorian along with Frumentius and other wealthy merchants, who were killed at Hadrumetum after refusing to become Arians. Yves Modéran estimated that around 20% of the bishops in Africa converted to Arianism in response to the persecution. However, Huneric died that year and his successor, Gunthamund, allowed those exiled to return. Among those exiled was Vigilius, bishop of Thapsus, who published a theological treatise against Arianism.
Additionally, Huneric murdered many members of the Hasdingi dynasty and also persecuted Manichaeans. Towards the end of his reign, the Moors in the Aurès Mountains (in modern-day Algeria) successfully rebelled from Vandal rule.
Only three pieces of legislation from the Vandal Kingdom exist today in partial or total form and all three came from the reign of Huneric.
Huneric renamed Hadrumetum to Unuricopolis, in honor of himself.
Upon his death Huneric was succeeded by his nephew Gunthamund, who reigned until 496. A lurid account of Huneric\'s death by putrefaction and \"an abundance of worms\" is included in the *Historia persecutionis Africanae Provinciae, temporibus Genserici et Hunirici regum Wandalorum* (*History of the African Province Persecution, in the Times of Genseric and Huneric, the Kings of the Vandals*), written by his contemporary, Victor of Vita, although it is probable that this particular section was added at a later date
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# Hasdingi
The **Hasdingi** were one of the Vandal peoples of the Roman era. The Vandals were Germanic peoples, who are believed to have spoken an East Germanic language, and were first reported during the first centuries of the Roman empire in the area which is now Poland, eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.
Famously, the Hasdingi led a successful invasion of Roman North Africa, creating a kingdom with its capital at Carthage in what is now Tunisia.
During the Marcomannic wars, the Hasdingi helped the Romans and were able to settle in the Carpathian and Pannonian areas which are now in Hungary and Romania. At the end of 406, they participated together with Silingi Vandals and Sarmatian Alans in the crossing of the Rhine. Their king Godigisel lost his life in battle against the Franks during the crossing.
After some years in Gaul, these peoples moved into the Iberian peninsula.
The Hasdingi settled in Gallaecia (today Galicia, Asturias and the north of Portugal) along with the Suebi in 409 AD and their kingdom was one of the earliest Barbarian territories to be founded before the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Gunderic, Godegisel\'s successor as king of the Hasdingi, lost his kingdom to king Hermeric of the Suebi in 419 after the Battle of the Nervasos Mountains where the Vandals were overwhelmed by an allied force of Suebi and Romans. He fled to Baetica with his army where he became king of the Silingi Vandals and of the Alans.
Gunderic was succeeded by his brother Gaiseric in 428 AD, who subsequently fled from Iberia to North Africa where he established a kingdom at Carthage
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# Hedwig of Silesia
**Hedwig of Silesia** (also **Hedwig of Andechs** (*Heilige Hedwig von Andechs*, *Święta Jadwiga Śląska*, *Hedvigis*; 1174 -- 15 October 1243), a member of the Bavarian comital House of Andechs, was Duchess of Silesia from 1201 and of Greater Poland from 1231 as well as High Duchess consort of Poland from 1232 until 1238. She was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1267 by Pope Clement IV.
## Life
The daughter of Count Berthold IV of Andechs, margrave of Carniola and Istria and his second wife Agnes of Wettin, she was born at Andechs Castle in the Duchy of Bavaria. Her elder sister, Agnes, married King Philip II of France (annulled in 1200) and her sister Gertrude (killed in 1213) married King Andrew II of Hungary, while the youngest Matilda, (Mechtild) became abbess at the Benedictine Abbey of Kitzingen in Franconia, where Hedwig also received her education. Hedwig\'s brother was Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg, Count of Andechs-Meranien. Another brother was Berthold, Archbishop of Kalocsa and Patriarch of Aquileia, while her brother Henry, Margrave of Istria was the first lord of Carniola.
Through her sister Gertrude, she was the aunt of Elizabeth of Hungary.
### Duchess consort {#duchess_consort}
At the age of twelve, Hedwig married Henry I the Bearded, son and heir of the Piast duke Boleslaus the Tall of Silesia. As soon as Henry succeeded his father in 1201, he had to struggle with his Piast relatives, at first with his uncle Duke Mieszko IV Tanglefoot who immediately seized the Upper Silesian Duchy of Opole. In 1206 Henry and his cousin Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks of Greater Poland agreed to swap the Silesian Lubusz Land against the Kalisz region, which met with fierce protest by Władysław\'s III nephew Władysław Odonic. When Henry went to Gąsawa in 1227 to meet his Piast cousins, he narrowly saved his life, while High Duke Leszek I the White was killed by the men of the Pomerelian Duke Swietopelk II, instigated by Władysław Odonic.
The next year Henry\'s ally Władysław III Spindleshanks succeeded Leszek I as High Duke; however as he was still contested by his nephew in Greater Poland, he made Henry his governor at Kraków, whereby the Silesian duke once again became entangled in the dispute over the Seniorate Province. In 1229 he was captured and arrested at Płock Castle by rivaling Duke Konrad I of Masovia. Hedwig proceeded to Płock pleading for Henry and was able to have him released.
Her actions promoted the reign of her husband: upon the death of the Polish High Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks in 1231, Henry also became Duke of Greater Poland and the next year prevailed as High Duke at Kraków. He thereby was the first of the Silesian Piast descendants of Władysław II the Exile to gain the rule over Silesia and the Seniorate Province in accord with the 1138 Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty.
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# Hedwig of Silesia
## Life
### Widow
Upon his death in 1238, Henry was buried at a Cistercian monastery of nuns, Trzebnica Abbey (*Kloster Trebnitz*), which he had established in 1202 at Hedwig\'s request. Hedwig accepted the death of her beloved husband with faith. She said: `{{Blockquote|"Would you oppose the will of God? Our lives are His."}}`{=mediawiki} The widow moved into the monastery, which was led by her daughter Gertrude, assuming the religious habit of a lay sister, but she did not take vows. She invited numerous German religious people from the Holy Roman Empire into the Silesian lands, as well as German settlers who founded numerous cities, towns and villages in the course of the *Ostsiedlung*, while cultivating barren parts of Silesia for agriculture.
Hedwig and Henry had several daughters, though only one surviving son, Henry II the Pious, who succeeded his father as Duke of Silesia and Polish High Duke. The widow, however, had to witness the killing of her son, vainly awaiting the support of Emperor Frederick II, during the Mongol invasion of Poland at the Battle of Legnica (*Wahlstatt*) in 1241. The hopes for a re-united Poland were lost, and even Silesia fragmented into numerous Piast duchies under Henry II\'s sons. Hedwig and her daughter-in-law, Henry II\'s widow Anna of Bohemia, established a Benedictine abbey at the site of the battle in Legnickie Pole, settled with monks coming from Opatovice in Bohemia.
Hedwig and Henry had lived very pious lives, and Hedwig had great zeal for her faith. She had supported her husband in donating the Augustinian provostry at Nowogród Bobrzański (*Naumburg*) and the commandery of the Knights Templar at Oleśnica Mała (*Klein Oels*). Hedwig always helped the poor, the widows and the orphans, founded several hospitals for the sick and the lepers and donated all her fortune to the Church. She allowed no one to leave her uncomforted, and one time she spent ten weeks teaching the Our Father to a poor woman. According to legend, she went barefoot even in winter, and when she was urged by the Bishop of Wrocław to wear shoes, she carried them in her hands. On 15 October 1243, Hedwig died and was buried in Trzebnica Abbey with her husband, while relics of her are preserved at Andechs Abbey and St. Hedwig\'s Cathedral in Berlin.
## Veneration
Hedwig was canonized in 1267 by Pope Clement IV, a supporter of the Cistercian order, at the suggestion of her grandson Prince-Archbishop Władysław of Salzburg. She is the patroness saint of Silesia, of Andechs, and of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Görlitz. Her feast day is celebrated on the General Roman Calendar on 16 October. The Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit, who count her as a great benefactor, celebrate it on 8 June. A 17th-century legend has it that Hedwig, while on a pilgrimage to Rome, stopped at Bad Zell in Austria, where she had healing waters spring up at a source which today still bears her name.
In 1773 the Prussian king Frederick the Great, having conquered and annexed the bulk of Silesia in the First Silesian War, had St. Hedwig in Berlin built for the Catholic Upper Silesian immigrants, since 1930 the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Berlin. After the expulsion of almost all Germans from Silesia, German Silesians carried Hedwig\'s veneration to all over remaining Germany.
In March 2020 the discovery of Hedwig\'s remains, that had been missing for centuries, was reported. The remains were found in her sanctuary in Trzebnica, in a silver casket bearing a lead tablet with an inscription confirming Hedwig\'s identity.
Hedwig glasses are named after Hedwig of Silesia.
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# Hedwig of Silesia
## Children
Hedwig and Henry I had seven children:
1. Agnes (ca. 1190 -- before 11 May 1214).
2. Bolesław (ca. 1191 -- 10 September 1206/08).
3. Henry II the Pious (ca. 1196 -- killed in Battle of Legnica, 9 April 1241).
4. Konrad the Curly (ca. 1198 -- Czerwony Kosciol, 4 September 1213).
5. Sophie (ca. 1200 -- before 22/23 March 1214).
6. Gertrude (ca. 1200 -- Trebnitz, 6/30 December 1268), Abbess of Trebnitz.
7. A son \[Władysław?\] (before 25 December 1208 -- 1214/17).
## Gallery
<File:Szymon> Czechowicz - Święta Jadwiga Śląska pod krzyżem.jpg\|Saint Hedwig of Silesia under the Cross by Szymon Czechowicz <File:Feliks> Sypniewski - Św. Jadwiga godzi Konrada Mazowieckiego z Henrykiem Brodatym Śląskim.jpg\|Saint Hedwig reconciles Konrad of Mazowiecki with Henry the Bearded of Silesia, by Feliks Sypniewski <File:Puchnerova> archa, sv. Hedvika, Národní galerie v Praze.jpg\|Saint Hedwig depicted on Puchner\'s Ark <File:Obilman> Saints.jpg\|Legnica polyptych (reverse), depicting Saint Hedwig, Saint Elizabeth of Hungary and Saint Mary Magdalene <File:Brandenburg> Katharinenkirche - Hedwigsaltar 3d Tod Hedwigs.jpg\|Dying Saint Hedwig looking at a statue of the Virgin Mary, Saint Catherine\'s church, Brandenburg an der Havel <File:Engelszell> Stiftskirche - Schutzengelaltar 2 Hedwig.jpg\|Statue of Saint Hedwig in Engelszell Abbey <File:Trebnitz> - Grabmal d. h. Hedwig. 1918 (71794358).jpg\|Postcard of the Tomb of Saint Hedwig <File:Hedwigsmedaille.silber.1
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# Harmonic series (music)
The **harmonic series** (also **overtone series**) is the sequence of harmonics, musical tones, or pure tones whose frequency is an integer multiple of a *fundamental frequency*.
Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously. As waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, they reinforce and cancel one another to form standing waves. Interaction with the surrounding air produces audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument. These frequencies are generally integer multiples, or harmonics, of the fundamental and such multiples form the harmonic series.
The fundamental, which is usually perceived as the lowest partial present, is generally perceived as the pitch of a musical tone. The musical timbre of a steady tone from such an instrument is strongly affected by the relative strength of each harmonic.
## Terminology `{{anchor|Partial}}`{=mediawiki}
### Partial, harmonic, fundamental, inharmonicity, and overtone {#partial_harmonic_fundamental_inharmonicity_and_overtone}
A \"complex tone\" (the sound of a note with a timbre particular to the instrument playing the note) \"can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves (i.e., sine waves) or *partials,* each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, and phase\". (See also, Fourier analysis.)
A **partial** is any of the sine waves (or \"simple tones\", as Ellis calls them when translating Helmholtz) of which a complex tone is composed, not necessarily with an integer multiple of the lowest harmonic.
A **harmonic** is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The **fundamental** is a harmonic because it is one times itself. A **harmonic partial** is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches (or nearly matches) an ideal harmonic.
An **inharmonic partial** is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic. *Inharmonicity* is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial.
Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments\' sounds as \"harmonics\", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity. The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string. Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics. Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.
An **overtone** is any partial above the lowest partial. The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no other special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental. It is mostly the relative strength of the different overtones that give an instrument its particular timbre, tone color, or character. When writing or speaking of overtones and partials numerically, care must be taken to designate each correctly to avoid any confusion of one for the other, so the second overtone may not be the third partial, because it is the second sound in a series.
Some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones (a sine wave). Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to simulate other instruments. Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones.
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# Harmonic series (music)
## Frequencies, wavelengths, and musical intervals in example systems {#frequencies_wavelengths_and_musical_intervals_in_example_systems}
One of the simplest cases to visualise is a vibrating string, as in the illustration; the string has fixed points at each end, and each harmonic mode divides it into an integer number (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) of equal-sized sections resonating at increasingly higher frequencies.`{{failed verification|date=October 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Similar arguments apply to vibrating air columns in wind instruments (for example, \"the French horn was originally a valveless instrument that could play only the notes of the harmonic series\"), although these are complicated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the air column is closed at one end and open at the other), conical as opposed to cylindrical bores, or end-openings that run the gamut from no flare, cone flare, or exponentially shaped flares (such as in various bells).
In most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental (first harmonic) is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics. Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality. The fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string (which gives the fundamental frequency) is twice the length of the string (one round trip, with a half cycle fitting between the nodes at the two ends). Other allowed wavelengths are reciprocal multiples (e.g. `{{frac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{frac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{frac|1|4}}`{=mediawiki} times) that of the fundamental.
Theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are integer multiples of (e.g. 2, 3, 4 times) the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies. (See inharmonicity and stretched tuning for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The harmonic series is an arithmetic progression (*f*, 2*f*, 3*f*, 4*f*, 5*f*, \...). In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or hertz, where *f* is the fundamental frequency), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental. But because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as \"closer together\" than lower ones. On the other hand, the octave series is a geometric progression (2*f*, 4*f*, 8*f*, 16*f*, \...), and people perceive these distances as \"the same\" in the sense of musical interval. In terms of what one hears, each successively higher octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly \"smaller\" and more numerous intervals.
The second harmonic, whose frequency is twice the fundamental, sounds an octave higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a perfect fifth above the second harmonic. The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a perfect fourth above the third harmonic (two octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher).
Marin Mersenne wrote: \"The order of the Consonances is natural, and \... the way we count them, starting from unity up to the number six and beyond is founded in nature.\" However, to quote Carl Dahlhaus, \"the interval-distance of the natural-tone-row \[overtones\] \[\...\], counting up to 20, includes everything from the octave to the quarter tone, (and) useful and useless musical tones. The natural-tone-row \[harmonic series\] justifies everything, that means, nothing.\"
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# Harmonic series (music)
## Harmonics and tuning {#harmonics_and_tuning}
If the harmonics are octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave, some of them are approximated by the notes of what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone. The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal semitones, which is slightly out of tune with many of the harmonics, especially the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics. In the late 1930s, composer Paul Hindemith ranked musical intervals according to their relative dissonance based on these and similar harmonic relationships.
Below is a comparison between the first 31 harmonics and the intervals of 12-tone equal temperament (12TET), octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave. Tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents (`{{frac|1|20}}`{=mediawiki} of a semitone), which is the human ear\'s \"just noticeable difference\" for notes played one after the other (smaller differences are noticeable with notes played simultaneously).
Harmonic Interval as a ratio
---------- --- --- ---- ---- ---------------------
1 2 4 8 16 1, 2
17 17/16 (1.0625)
9 18 9/8 (1.125)
19 19/16 (1.1875)
5 10 20 5/4 (1.25)
21 21/16 (1.3125)
11 22 11/8 (1.375)
23 23/16 (1.4375)
3 6 12 24 3/2 (1.5)
25 25/16 (1.5625)
13 26 13/8 (1.625)
27 27/16 (1.6875)
7 14 28 7/4 (1.75)
29 29/16 (1.8125)
15 30 15/8 (1.875)
31 31/16 (1.9375)
The frequencies of the harmonic series, being integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, are naturally related to each other by whole-numbered ratios and small whole-numbered ratios are likely the basis of the consonance of musical intervals (see just intonation). This objective structure is augmented by psychoacoustic phenomena. For example, a perfect fifth, say 200 and 300 Hz (cycles per second), causes a listener to perceive a combination tone of 100 Hz (the difference between 300 Hz and 200 Hz); that is, an octave below the lower (actual sounding) note. This 100 Hz first-order combination tone then interacts with both notes of the interval to produce second-order combination tones of 200 (300 − 100) and 100 (200 − 100) Hz and all further nth-order combination tones are all the same, being formed from various subtraction of 100, 200, and 300. When one contrasts this with a dissonant interval such as a tritone (not tempered) with a frequency ratio of 7:5 one gets, for example, 700 − 500 = 200 (1st order combination tone) and 500 − 200 = 300 (2nd order). The rest of the combination tones are octaves of 100 Hz so the 7:5 interval actually contains four notes: 100 Hz (and its octaves), 300 Hz, 500 Hz and 700 Hz. The lowest combination tone (100 Hz) is a seventeenth (two octaves and a major third) below the lower (actual sounding) note of the tritone. All the intervals succumb to similar analysis as has been demonstrated by Paul Hindemith in his book *The Craft of Musical Composition*, although he rejected the use of harmonics from the seventh and beyond.
The Mixolydian mode is consonant with the first 10 harmonics of the harmonic series (the 11th harmonic, a tritone, is not in the Mixolydian mode). The Ionian mode is consonant with only the first 6 harmonics of the series (the seventh harmonic, a minor seventh, is not in the Ionian mode). The Rishabhapriya ragam is consonant with the first 14 harmonics of the series.
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# Harmonic series (music)
## Timbre of musical instruments {#timbre_of_musical_instruments}
The relative amplitudes (strengths) of the various harmonics primarily determine the timbre of different instruments and sounds, though onset transients, formants, noises, and inharmonicities also play a role. For example, the clarinet and saxophone have similar mouthpieces and reeds, and both produce sound through resonance of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed. Because the clarinet\'s resonator is cylindrical, the *even*-numbered harmonics are less present. The saxophone\'s resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone. The inharmonic ringing of the instrument\'s metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments.
Human ears tend to group phase-coherent, harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving the individual partials--harmonic and inharmonic, of a musical tone, humans perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and the overall pitch is heard as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. If a sound is heard that is made up of even just a few simultaneous sine tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, the brain tends to group this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, even if the fundamental is not present.
Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the *perceived* fundamental pitch. These variations, most clearly documented in the piano and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument.
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# Harmonic series (music)
## Interval strength {#interval_strength}
David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval strength, in which an interval\'s strength, consonance, or stability (see consonance and dissonance) is determined by its approximation to a lower and stronger, or higher and weaker, position in the harmonic series. See also: Lipps--Meyer law.
Thus, an equal-tempered perfect fifth (`{{Audio|perfect fifth on C.mid|play}}`{=mediawiki}) is stronger than an equal-tempered minor third (`{{Audio|minor third on C.mid|play|help=no}}`{=mediawiki}), since they approximate a just perfect fifth (`{{Audio|just perfect fifth on C.mid|play|help=no}}`{=mediawiki}) and just minor third (`{{Audio|just minor third on C.mid|play|help=no}}`{=mediawiki}), respectively. The just minor third appears between harmonics 5 and 6 while the just fifth appears lower, between harmonics 2 and 3
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# Hasid
**Ḥasīd** (*חסיד*, \"pious\", \"saintly\", \"godly man\"; plural `{{Script/Hebrew|חסידים}}`{=mediawiki} \"Hasidim\") is a Jewish honorific, frequently used as a term of exceptional respect in the Talmudic and early medieval periods. It denotes a person who is scrupulous in his observance of Jewish law, and often one who goes beyond the legal requirements of ritual and ethical Jewish observance in daily life. In the Mishnah, the term is used thirteen times, the majority of which being in the Tractate *Pirkei Avot*.
## Hebrew etymology {#hebrew_etymology}
The Hebrew word *Ḥasīd* appears for the first time in the Torah (Deuteronomy 33:8) with respect to the tribe of Levi, and all throughout the Hebrew Book of Psalms, with its various declensions. In classic rabbinic literature it differs from \"Tzadik\" (\"righteous\") by instead denoting one who goes beyond his ordinary duty. The literal meaning of *Ḥasīd* derives from Chesed (`{{Script/Hebrew|חסד}}`{=mediawiki}) (= \"kindness\"), the outward expression of love (lovingkindness) for God and other people. This spiritual devotion motivates pious conduct beyond everyday limits. The devotional nature of its description lent itself to a few Jewish movements in history being known as \"Hasidim\". Two of these derived from the Jewish mystical tradition, as it could tend towards piety over legalism.
Rabbi Saadia Gaon, the medieval Hebrew linguist and biblical exegete, translated the Hebrew word *Ḥasīd* in Psalm 18:25 into the Judeo-Arabic word `{{Script/Hebrew|אלמחסן}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning, \"he that does good.\"
## Usage in rabbinic texts {#usage_in_rabbinic_texts}
As a personal honorific, both \"Ḥasīd\" and \"Tzadik\" could be applied independently to the same individual with both different qualities. The 18th-century Vilna Gaon, for instance, at that time the chief opponent of the new Jewish mystical movement that became known as \"Hasidism\", was renowned for his righteous life. In tribute to his scholarship, he became popularly honored with the formal title of \"Genius\", while amongst the Hasidic movement\'s leadership, despite his fierce opposition to their legalistic tendencies, he was respectfully referred to as \"The Gaon, the Ḥasīd from Vilna\".
A general dictum in the Talmud (*Baba Kama* 30^a^) states: \"He that wishes to be pious (Aramaic: *ḥasīda*), let him uphold the things described under the indemnity laws in the Mishnaic Order of *Neziqin*.\" Rava, differing, said: \"Let him observe the things transcribed in *Pirkei Avot*.\" (ibid.)
Of the few known pious men in the early 2nd century, the Talmud acknowledges the following: \"Wherever we read (in Talmudic writings), \'It is reported of a pious man\', either R. Juda b. Baba it meant or R. Judah, the son of R. Ilai.\"
## Other uses {#other_uses}
In the aggregate, \"Ḥasīd\" may also refer to members of any of the following Jewish movements:
- the Hasideans of the Maccabean period, around the 2nd century BCE
- the New Testament twice refers to Jesus of Nazareth as the Davidic ḥasīd foretold in `{{bibleverse|Psalm|16:10|HE}}`{=mediawiki} (Book of Acts 2:27; 13:35 ὅσιος, quoting Ps 15:10 Greek Septuagint translation; \"ḥasīd\" is here used in the Hebrew NT translations of Delitzsch, Salkinson-Ginsburg, "The Way," etc., and is paralleled by the Syriac Peshitta). Followers of this royal ḥasīd were commanded to practice ḥesed among themselves (Gospel of Luke 10:37, using Septuagintal *poiein eleos meta* from Hebrew *asah ḥesed ʿim*)
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# Henry Moseley
**Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|oʊ|z|l|i}}`{=mediawiki}; 23 November 1887 -- 10 August 1915) was an English physicist, whose contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number. This stemmed from his development of Moseley\'s law in X-ray spectra.
Moseley\'s law advanced atomic physics, nuclear physics and quantum physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr\'s theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford\'s and Antonius van den Broek\'s model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table.
When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army. Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications officer. Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August 1915, at the age of 27. Experts have speculated that Moseley could otherwise have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916.
## Education and early life {#education_and_early_life}
Henry G. J. Moseley, known to his friends as Harry, was born in Weymouth in Dorset in 1887. His father Henry Nottidge Moseley (1844--1891), who died when Moseley was quite young, was a biologist and also a professor of anatomy and physiology at the University of Oxford, who had been a member of the *Challenger* Expedition. Moseley\'s mother was Amabel Gwyn Jeffreys, the daughter of the Welsh biologist and conchologist John Gwyn Jeffreys. She was also the British women\'s champion of chess in 1913.
Moseley had been a very promising schoolboy at Summer Fields School (where one of the four \"leagues\" is named after him), and he was awarded a King\'s scholarship to attend Eton College. In 1906 he won the chemistry and physics prizes at Eton. In 1906, Moseley enrolled at the University of Oxford as an undergraduate student of Trinity College, Oxford, where he earned his Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree. While an undergraduate at Oxford, Moseley became a Freemason by joining the Apollo University Lodge. Immediately after graduation from Oxford in 1910, Moseley became a demonstrator in physics at the University of Manchester, was elected to membership of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on 9 May 1911, and was under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford. During Moseley\'s first year at Manchester, he had a teaching load as a graduate teaching assistant (TA), but following that first year, he was reassigned from his teaching duties to work as a graduate research assistant (RA). He declined a fellowship offered by Rutherford, preferring to move back to Oxford, in November 1913, where he was given laboratory facilities but no support.
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# Henry Moseley
## Career and research {#career_and_research}
Experimenting with the energy of beta particles in 1912, Moseley showed that high potentials were attainable from a radioactive source of radium, thereby inventing the first atomic battery, though he was unable to produce the 1MV necessary to stop the particles.
In 1913, Moseley observed and measured the X-ray spectra of various chemical elements (mostly metals) that were found by the method of diffraction through crystals. This was a pioneering use of the method of X-ray spectroscopy in physics, using Bragg\'s diffraction law to determine the X-ray wavelengths. Moseley discovered a systematic mathematical relationship between the wavelengths of the X-rays produced and the atomic numbers of the metals that were used as the targets in X-ray tubes. This has become known as Moseley\'s law.
Before Moseley\'s discovery, the atomic numbers (or elemental number) of an element had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary sequential number, based on the sequence of atomic masses, but modified somewhat where chemists found this modification to be desirable, such as by the Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. In his invention of the Periodic Table of the Elements, Mendeleev had interchanged the orders of a few pairs of elements to put them in more appropriate places in this table of the elements. For example, the metals cobalt and nickel had been assigned the atomic numbers 27 and 28, respectively, based on their known chemical and physical properties, even though they have nearly the same atomic masses. In fact, the atomic mass of cobalt is slightly larger than that of nickel, so nickel would be placed in the Periodic Table before cobalt if they were placed purely according to atomic mass. However Moseley\'s experiments in X-ray spectroscopy showed directly from their physics that cobalt and nickel have the different atomic numbers, 27 and 28, and that they are placed in the Periodic Table correctly by Moseley\'s objective measurements of their atomic numbers. Hence, Moseley\'s discovery demonstrated that the atomic numbers of elements are not just rather arbitrary numbers based on chemistry and the intuition of chemists, but rather, they have a firm experimental basis from the physics of their X-ray spectra.
In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75. These spaces are now known, respectively, to be the places of the radioactive synthetic elements technetium and promethium, and also the last two quite rare naturally occurring stable elements hafnium (discovered 1923) and rhenium (discovered 1925). Nothing was known about these four elements in Moseley\'s lifetime, not even their very existence. Based on the intuition of a very experienced chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev had predicted the existence of a missing element in the Periodic Table, which was later found to be filled by technetium, and Bohuslav Brauner had predicted the existence of another missing element in this Table, which was later found to be filled by promethium. Henry Moseley\'s experiments confirmed these predictions, by showing exactly what the missing atomic numbers were, 43 and 61. In addition, Moseley predicted the existence of two more undiscovered elements, those with the atomic numbers 72 and 75, and gave very strong evidence that there were no other gaps in the Periodic Table between the elements aluminium (atomic number 13) and gold (atomic number 79).
This latter question about the possibility of more undiscovered (\"missing\") elements had been a standing problem among the chemists of the world, particularly given the existence of the large family of the lanthanide series of rare earth elements. Moseley was able to demonstrate that these lanthanide elements, i.e. lanthanum through lutetium, must have exactly 15 members -- no more and no less. The number of elements in the lanthanides had been a question that was very far from being settled by the chemists of the early 20th Century. They could not yet produce pure samples of all the rare-earth elements, even in the form of their salts, and in some cases they were unable to distinguish between mixtures of two very similar (adjacent) rare-earth elements from the nearby pure metals in the Periodic Table. For example, there was a so-called \"element\" that was even given the chemical name of \"didymium\". \"Didymium\" was found some years later to be simply a mixture of two genuine rare-earth elements, and these were given the names neodymium and praseodymium, meaning \"new twin\" and \"green twin\". Also, the method of separating the rare-earth elements by the method of ion exchange had not been invented yet in Moseley\'s time.
Moseley\'s method in early X-ray spectroscopy was able to sort out the above chemical problems promptly, some of which had occupied chemists for a number of years. Moseley also predicted the existence of element 61, a lanthanide whose existence was previously unsuspected. Quite a few years later, this element 61 was created artificially in nuclear reactors and was named promethium.
### Contribution to understanding of the atom {#contribution_to_understanding_of_the_atom}
Before Moseley and his law, atomic numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary ordering number, vaguely increasing with atomic weight but not strictly defined by it. Moseley\'s discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrarily assigned, but rather, they have a definite physical basis. Moseley postulated that each successive element has a nuclear charge exactly one unit greater than its predecessor. Moseley redefined the idea of atomic numbers from its previous status as an *ad hoc* numerical tag to help sorting the elements into an exact sequence of ascending atomic numbers that made the Periodic Table exact. (This was later to be the basis of the Aufbau principle in atomic studies.) As noted by Bohr, Moseley\'s law provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data that supported the (new from 1911) conception by Ernest Rutherford and Antonius van den Broek of the atom, with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons in which the atomic number is understood to be the exact physical number of positive charges (later discovered and called protons) in the central atomic nuclei of the elements. Moseley mentioned the two scientists above in his research paper, but he did not actually mention Bohr, who was rather new on the scene then. Simple modifications of Rydberg\'s and Bohr\'s formulas were found to give a theoretical justification for Moseley\'s empirically derived law for determining atomic numbers.
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# Henry Moseley
## Career and research {#career_and_research}
### Use of X-ray spectrometer {#use_of_x_ray_spectrometer}
X-ray spectrometers are the foundation-stones of X-ray crystallography. The X-ray spectrometers as Moseley knew them worked as follows. A glass-bulb electron tube was used, similar to that held by Moseley in the photo here. Inside the evacuated tube, electrons were fired at a metallic substance (i.e. a sample of pure element in Moseley\'s work), causing the ionization of electrons from the inner electron shells of the element. The rebound of electrons into these holes in the inner shells next causes the emission of X-ray photons that were led out of the tube in a semi-beam, through an opening in the external X-ray shielding. These are next diffracted by a standardized salt crystal, with angular results read out as photographic lines by the exposure of an X-ray film fixed at the outside the vacuum tube at a known distance. Application of Bragg\'s law (after some initial guesswork of the mean distances between atoms in the metallic crystal, based on its density) next allowed the wavelength of the emitted X-rays to be calculated.
Moseley participated in the design and development of early X-ray spectrometry equipment, learning some techniques from William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg at the University of Leeds, and developing others himself. Many of the techniques of X-ray spectroscopy were inspired by the methods that are used with visible light spectroscopes and spectrograms, by substituting crystals, ionization chambers, and photographic plates for their analogs in light spectroscopy. In some cases, Moseley found it necessary to modify his equipment to detect particularly soft (lower frequency) X-rays that could not penetrate either air or paper, by working with his instruments in a vacuum chamber.
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# Henry Moseley
## Death and aftermath {#death_and_aftermath}
Sometime in the first half of 1914, Moseley resigned from his position at Manchester, with plans to return to Oxford and continue his physics research there. However, World War I broke out in August 1914, and Moseley turned down this job offer to instead enlist with the Royal Engineers of the British Army. His family and friends tried to persuade him not to join, but he thought it was his duty. Moseley served as a technical officer in communications during the Battle of Gallipoli, in Turkey, beginning in April 1915, where he was killed by a sniper on 10 August 1915.
Only twenty-seven years old at the time of his death, Moseley could, in the opinion of some scientists, have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he survived. Niels Bohr said in 1962 that Rutherford\'s work \"was not taken seriously at all\" and that the \"great change came from Moseley.\"
Robert Millikan wrote, \"In a research which is destined to rank as one of the dozen most brilliant in conception, skillful in execution, and illuminating in results in the history of science, a young man twenty-six years old threw open the windows through which we can glimpse the sub-atomic world with a definiteness and certainty never dreamed of before. Had the European War had no other result than the snuffing out of this young life, that alone would make it one of the most hideous and most irreparable crimes in history.\"
George Sarton wrote, \"His fame was already established on such a secure foundation that his memory will be green forever. He is one of the immortals of science, and though he would have made many other additions to our knowledge if his life had been spared, the contributions already credited to him were of such fundamental significance, that the probability of his surpassing himself was extremely small. It is very probable that however long his life, he would have been chiefly remembered because of the \'Moseley law\' which he published at the age of twenty-six.\"
Isaac Asimov wrote, \"In view of what he \[Moseley\] might still have accomplished ... his death might well have been the most costly single death of the War to mankind generally.\" Rutherford believed that Moseley\'s work would have earned him the Nobel Prize. Before his death, Moseley was nominated for the 1915 chemistry prize by Svante Arrhenius; the Nobel Foundation statutes at the time allowed the prize to be awarded posthumously to a person who died after nomination, so 1915 would be the only chance to award the prize to Moseley. Despite this, the Nobel committee instead awarded the 1915 chemistry prize to Richard Willstätter. The 1917 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to C.G. Barkla \"for his discovery of the characteristic Rontgen radiation of the elements\", work that built strongly on Moseley\'s.
Memorial plaques to Moseley were installed at Manchester and Eton, and a Royal Society scholarship, established by his will, had as its second recipient the physicist P. M. S. Blackett, who later became president of the Society. The Institute of Physics Henry Moseley Medal and Prize is named in his honour
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# Harmonic mean
In mathematics, the **harmonic mean** is a kind of average, one of the Pythagorean means.
It is the most appropriate average for ratios and rates such as speeds, and is normally only used for positive arguments.
The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the numbers, that is, the generalized f-mean with $f(x) = \frac{1}{x}$. For example, the harmonic mean of 1, 4, and 4 is
$$\left(\frac{1^{-1} + 4^{-1} + 4^{-1}}{3}\right)^{-1} = \frac{3}{\frac{1}{1} + \frac{1}{4} + \frac{1}{4}} = \frac{3}{1.5} = 2\,.$$
## Definition
The harmonic mean *H* of the positive real numbers $x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n$ is
$$H(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = \frac{n}{\displaystyle \frac1{x_1} + \frac1{x_2} + \cdots + \frac1{x_n}} = \frac{n}{\displaystyle \sum_{i=1}^n \frac1{x_i}}.$$
It is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals, and vice versa:
$$\begin{align}
H(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) &= \frac{1}{\displaystyle A\left(\frac1{x_1}, \frac1{x_2}, \ldots \frac1{x_n}\right)}, \\
A(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) &= \frac{1}{\displaystyle H\left(\frac1{x_1}, \frac1{x_2}, \ldots \frac1{x_n}\right)},
\end{align}$$
where the arithmetic mean is $A(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = \tfrac1n \sum_{i=1}^n x_i.$
The harmonic mean is a Schur-concave function, and is greater than or equal to the minimum of its arguments: for positive arguments, $\min(x_1 \ldots x_n) \le H(x_1 \ldots x_n) \le n \min(x_1 \ldots x_n)$. Thus, the harmonic mean cannot be made arbitrarily large by changing some values to bigger ones (while having at least one value unchanged).
The harmonic mean is also concave for positive arguments, an even stronger property than Schur-concavity.
## Relationship with other means {#relationship_with_other_means}
For all *positive* data sets *containing at least one pair of nonequal values*, the harmonic mean is always the least of the three Pythagorean means, while the arithmetic mean is always the greatest of the three and the geometric mean is always in between. (If all values in a nonempty data set are equal, the three means are always equal.)
It is the special case *M*~−1~ of the power mean: $H\left(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n\right) = M_{-1}\left(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n\right) = \frac{n}{x_1^{-1} + x_2^{-1} + \cdots + x_n^{-1}}$
Since the harmonic mean of a list of numbers tends strongly toward the least elements of the list, it tends (compared to the arithmetic mean) to mitigate the impact of large outliers and aggravate the impact of small ones.
The arithmetic mean is often mistakenly used in places calling for the harmonic mean. In the speed example below for instance, the arithmetic mean of 40 is incorrect, and too big.
The harmonic mean is related to the other Pythagorean means, as seen in the equation below. This can be seen by interpreting the denominator to be the arithmetic mean of the product of numbers *n* times but each time omitting the *j*-th term. That is, for the first term, we multiply all *n* numbers except the first; for the second, we multiply all *n* numbers except the second; and so on. The numerator, excluding the *n*, which goes with the arithmetic mean, is the geometric mean to the power *n*. Thus the *n*-th harmonic mean is related to the *n*-th geometric and arithmetic means. The general formula is $H\left(x_1, \ldots, x_n\right) =
\frac{\left(G\left(x_1, \ldots, x_n\right)\right)^n}
{A\left(x_2 x_3 \cdots x_n, x_1 x_3 \cdots x_n, \ldots, x_1 x_2 \cdots x_{n-1}\right)} =
\frac{\left(G\left(x_1, \ldots, x_n\right)\right)^n}
{A\left(
\frac{1}{x_1} {\prod\limits_{i=1}^n x_i},
\frac{1}{x_2} {\prod\limits_{i=1}^n x_i},
\ldots,
\frac{1}{x_n} {\prod\limits_{i=1}^n x_i}
\right)}.$
If a set of non-identical numbers is subjected to a mean-preserving spread --- that is, two or more elements of the set are \"spread apart\" from each other while leaving the arithmetic mean unchanged --- then the harmonic mean always decreases.
## Harmonic mean of two or three numbers {#harmonic_mean_of_two_or_three_numbers}
### `{{anchor|Harmonic mean of two numbers}}`{=mediawiki}Two numbers {#two_numbers}
For the special case of just two numbers, $x_1$ and $x_2$, the harmonic mean can be written as:
$$H = \frac{2x_1 x_2}{x_1 + x_2} \qquad$$ or $\qquad \frac{1}{H} = \frac{(1/x_1) + (1/x_2)}{2}.$ (Note that the harmonic mean is undefined if $x_1 + x_2 = 0$, i.e. $x_1 = -x_2$.)
In this special case, the harmonic mean is related to the arithmetic mean $A = \frac{x_1 + x_2}{2}$ and the geometric mean $G = \sqrt{x_1 x_2},$ by
$$H = \frac{G^2}{A} = G\left(\frac{G}{A}\right).$$
Since $\tfrac{G}{A} \le 1$ by the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means, this shows for the *n* = 2 case that *H* ≤ *G* (a property that in fact holds for all *n*). It also follows that $G = \sqrt{AH}$, meaning the two numbers\' geometric mean equals the geometric mean of their arithmetic and harmonic means.
### Three numbers {#three_numbers}
For the special case of three numbers, $x_1$, $x_2$ and $x_3$, the harmonic mean can be written as:
$$H = \frac{3 x_1 x_2 x_3}{x_1 x_2 + x_1 x_3 + x_2 x_3}.$$
Three positive numbers *H*, *G*, and *A* are respectively the harmonic, geometric, and arithmetic means of three positive numbers if and only if the following inequality holds
$$\frac{A^3}{G^3} + \frac{G^3}{H^3} + 1 \le \frac3{4} \left(1 + \frac{A}{H}\right)^2.$$
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# Harmonic mean
## Weighted harmonic mean {#weighted_harmonic_mean}
If a set of weights $w_1$, \..., $w_n$ is associated to the data set $x_1$, \..., $x_n$, the **weighted harmonic mean** is defined by
$$H = \frac{\sum\limits_{i=1}^n w_i}{\sum\limits_{i=1}^n \frac{w_i}{x_i}}
= \left( \frac{\sum\limits_{i=1}^n w_i x_i^{-1}}{\sum\limits_{i=1}^n w_i} \right)^{-1}.$$
The unweighted harmonic mean can be regarded as the special case where all of the weights are equal.
## Examples
### In analytic number theory {#in_analytic_number_theory}
#### Prime number theory {#prime_number_theory}
The prime number theorem states that the number of primes less than or equal to $n$ is asymptotically equal to the harmonic mean of the first $n$ natural numbers.
### In physics {#in_physics}
#### Average speed {#average_speed}
In many situations involving rates and ratios, the harmonic mean provides the correct average. For instance, if a vehicle travels a certain distance *d* outbound at a speed *x* (e.g. 60 km/h) and returns the same distance at a speed *y* (e.g. 20 km/h), then its average speed is the harmonic mean of *x* and *y* (30 km/h), not the arithmetic mean (40 km/h). The total travel time is the same as if it had traveled the whole distance at that average speed. This can be proven as follows:
Average speed for the entire journey {{=}} `{{sfrac|Total distance traveled|Sum of time for each segment}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} `{{sfrac|2''d''|<big>{{sfrac|''d''|''x''}} + {{sfrac|''d''|''y''}}</big>}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{sfrac|2''xy''|''x'' + ''y''}}`{=mediawiki}
However, if the vehicle travels for a certain amount of *time* at a speed *x* and then the same amount of time at a speed *y*, then its average speed is the arithmetic mean of *x* and *y*, which in the above example is 40 km/h.
Average speed for the entire journey {{=}} `{{sfrac|Total distance traveled|Sum of time for each segment}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} `{{sfrac|''xt'' + ''yt''|''2t''}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} `{{sfrac|''x'' + ''y''|''2''}}`{=mediawiki}
The same principle applies to more than two segments: given a series of sub-trips at different speeds, if each sub-trip covers the same *distance*, then the average speed is the *harmonic* mean of all the sub-trip speeds; and if each sub-trip takes the same amount of *time*, then the average speed is the *arithmetic* mean of all the sub-trip speeds. (If neither is the case, then a weighted harmonic mean or weighted arithmetic mean is needed. For the arithmetic mean, the speed of each portion of the trip is weighted by the duration of that portion, while for the harmonic mean, the corresponding weight is the distance. In both cases, the resulting formula reduces to dividing the total distance by the total time.)
However, one may avoid the use of the harmonic mean for the case of \"weighting by distance\". Pose the problem as finding \"slowness\" of the trip where \"slowness\" (in hours per kilometre) is the inverse of speed. When trip slowness is found, invert it so as to find the \"true\" average trip speed. For each trip segment i, the slowness s~i~ = 1/speed~i~. Then take the weighted arithmetic mean of the s~i~\'s weighted by their respective distances (optionally with the weights normalized so they sum to 1 by dividing them by trip length). This gives the true average slowness (in time per kilometre). It turns out that this procedure, which can be done with no knowledge of the harmonic mean, amounts to the same mathematical operations as one would use in solving this problem by using the harmonic mean. Thus it illustrates why the harmonic mean works in this case.
#### Density
Similarly, if one wishes to estimate the density of an alloy given the densities of its constituent elements and their mass fractions (or, equivalently, percentages by mass), then the predicted density of the alloy (exclusive of typically minor volume changes due to atom packing effects) is the weighted harmonic mean of the individual densities, weighted by mass, rather than the weighted arithmetic mean as one might at first expect. To use the weighted arithmetic mean, the densities would have to be weighted by volume. Applying dimensional analysis to the problem while labeling the mass units by element and making sure that only like element-masses cancel makes this clear.
#### Electricity
If one connects two electrical resistors in parallel, one having resistance *x* (e.g., 60 Ω) and one having resistance *y* (e.g., 40 Ω), then the effect is the same as if one had used two resistors with the same resistance, both equal to the harmonic mean of *x* and *y* (48 Ω): the equivalent resistance, in either case, is 24 Ω (one-half of the harmonic mean). This same principle applies to capacitors in series or to inductors in parallel.
However, if one connects the resistors in series, then the average resistance is the arithmetic mean of *x* and *y* (50 Ω), with total resistance equal to twice this, the sum of *x* and *y* (100 Ω). This principle applies to capacitors in parallel or to inductors in series.
As with the previous example, the same principle applies when more than two resistors, capacitors or inductors are connected, provided that all are in parallel or all are in series.
The \"conductivity effective mass\" of a semiconductor is also defined as the harmonic mean of the effective masses along the three crystallographic directions.
#### Optics
As for other optic equations, the thin lens equation `{{sfrac|''f''}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{sfrac|''u''}}`{=mediawiki} + `{{sfrac|''v''}}`{=mediawiki} can be rewritten such that the focal length *f* is one-half of the harmonic mean of the distances of the subject *u* and object *v* from the lens.
Two thin lenses of focal length *f*~1~ and *f*~2~ in series is equivalent to two thin lenses of focal length *f*~hm~, their harmonic mean, in series. Expressed as optical power, two thin lenses of optical powers *P*~1~ and *P*~2~ in series is equivalent to two thin lenses of optical power *P*~am~, their arithmetic mean, in series.
### In finance {#in_finance}
The weighted harmonic mean is the preferable method for averaging multiples, such as the price--earnings ratio (P/E). If these ratios are averaged using a weighted arithmetic mean, high data points are given greater weights than low data points. The weighted harmonic mean, on the other hand, correctly weights each data point. The simple weighted arithmetic mean when applied to non-price normalized ratios such as the P/E is biased upwards and cannot be numerically justified, since it is based on equalized earnings; just as vehicles speeds cannot be averaged for a roundtrip journey (see above).
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# Harmonic mean
## Examples
### In geometry {#in_geometry}
In any triangle, the radius of the incircle is one-third of the harmonic mean of the altitudes.
For any point P on the minor arc BC of the circumcircle of an equilateral triangle ABC, with distances *q* and *t* from B and C respectively, and with the intersection of PA and BC being at a distance *y* from point P, we have that *y* is half the harmonic mean of *q* and *t*.
In a right triangle with legs *a* and *b* and altitude *h* from the hypotenuse to the right angle, `{{math|''h''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is half the harmonic mean of `{{math|''a''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''b''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}.
Let *t* and *s* (*t* \> *s*) be the sides of the two inscribed squares in a right triangle with hypotenuse *c*. Then `{{math|''s''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} equals half the harmonic mean of `{{math|''c''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''t''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}.
Let a trapezoid have vertices A, B, C, and D in sequence and have parallel sides AB and CD. Let E be the intersection of the diagonals, and let F be on side DA and G be on side BC such that FEG is parallel to AB and CD. Then FG is the harmonic mean of AB and DC. (This is provable using similar triangles.)
One application of this trapezoid result is in the crossed ladders problem, where two ladders lie oppositely across an alley, each with feet at the base of one sidewall, with one leaning against a wall at height *A* and the other leaning against the opposite wall at height *B*, as shown. The ladders cross at a height of *h* above the alley floor. Then *h* is half the harmonic mean of *A* and *B*. This result still holds if the walls are slanted but still parallel and the \"heights\" *A*, *B*, and *h* are measured as distances from the floor along lines parallel to the walls. This can be proved easily using the area formula of a trapezoid and area addition formula.
In an ellipse, the semi-latus rectum (the distance from a focus to the ellipse along a line parallel to the minor axis) is the harmonic mean of the maximum and minimum distances of the ellipse from a focus.
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# Harmonic mean
## Examples
### In other sciences {#in_other_sciences}
In computer science, specifically information retrieval and machine learning, the harmonic mean of the precision (true positives per predicted positive) and the recall (true positives per real positive) is often used as an aggregated performance score for the evaluation of algorithms and systems: the F-score (or F-measure). This is used in information retrieval because only the positive class is of relevance, while number of negatives, in general, is large and unknown. It is thus a trade-off as to whether the correct positive predictions should be measured in relation to the number of predicted positives or the number of real positives, so it is measured versus a putative number of positives that is an arithmetic mean of the two possible denominators.
A consequence arises from basic algebra in problems where people or systems work together. As an example, if a gas-powered pump can drain a pool in 4 hours and a battery-powered pump can drain the same pool in 6 hours, then it will take both pumps `{{math|{{sfrac|6·4|6 + 4}}}}`{=mediawiki}, which is equal to 2.4 hours, to drain the pool together. This is one-half of the harmonic mean of 6 and 4: `{{math|{{sfrac|2·6·4|6 + 4}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 4.8}}. That is, the appropriate average for the two types of pump is the harmonic mean, and with one pair of pumps (two pumps), it takes half this harmonic mean time, while with two pairs of pumps (four pumps) it would take a quarter of this harmonic mean time.
In hydrology, the harmonic mean is similarly used to average hydraulic conductivity values for a flow that is perpendicular to layers (e.g., geologic or soil) - flow parallel to layers uses the arithmetic mean. This apparent difference in averaging is explained by the fact that hydrology uses conductivity, which is the inverse of resistivity.
In sabermetrics, a baseball player\'s Power--speed number is the harmonic mean of their home run and stolen base totals.
In population genetics, the harmonic mean is used when calculating the effects of fluctuations in the census population size on the effective population size. The harmonic mean takes into account the fact that events such as population bottleneck increase the rate genetic drift and reduce the amount of genetic variation in the population. This is a result of the fact that following a bottleneck very few individuals contribute to the gene pool limiting the genetic variation present in the population for many generations to come.
When considering fuel economy in automobiles two measures are commonly used -- miles per gallon (mpg), and litres per 100 km. As the dimensions of these quantities are the inverse of each other (one is distance per volume, the other volume per distance) when taking the mean value of the fuel economy of a range of cars one measure will produce the harmonic mean of the other -- i.e., converting the mean value of fuel economy expressed in litres per 100 km to miles per gallon will produce the harmonic mean of the fuel economy expressed in miles per gallon. For calculating the average fuel consumption of a fleet of vehicles from the individual fuel consumptions, the harmonic mean should be used if the fleet uses miles per gallon, whereas the arithmetic mean should be used if the fleet uses litres per 100 km. In the USA the CAFE standards (the federal automobile fuel consumption standards) make use of the harmonic mean.
In chemistry and nuclear physics the average mass per particle of a mixture consisting of different species (e.g., molecules or isotopes) is given by the harmonic mean of the individual species\' masses weighted by their respective mass fraction.
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# Harmonic mean
## Beta distribution {#beta_distribution}
The harmonic mean of a beta distribution with shape parameters *α* and *β* is:
$$H = \frac{\alpha - 1}{\alpha + \beta - 1} \text{ conditional on } \alpha > 1 \, \, \& \, \, \beta > 0$$
The harmonic mean with *α* \< 1 is undefined because its defining expression is not bounded in \[0, 1\].
Letting *α* = *β*
: $H = \frac{\alpha - 1}{2 \alpha - 1}$
showing that for *α* = *β* the harmonic mean ranges from 0 for *α* = *β* = 1, to 1/2 for *α* = *β* → ∞.
The following are the limits with one parameter finite (non-zero) and the other parameter approaching these limits:
$$\begin{align}
\lim_{\alpha \to 0} H &= \text{ undefined } \\
\lim_{\alpha \to 1} H &= \lim_{\beta \to \infty} H = 0 \\
\lim_{\beta \to 0} H &= \lim_{\alpha \to \infty} H = 1
\end{align}$$
With the geometric mean the harmonic mean may be useful in maximum likelihood estimation in the four parameter case.
A second harmonic mean (*H*~1\ −\ X~) also exists for this distribution
$$H_{1-X} = \frac{\beta - 1}{\alpha + \beta - 1} \text{ conditional on } \beta > 1 \, \, \& \, \, \alpha > 0$$
This harmonic mean with *β* \< 1 is undefined because its defining expression is not bounded in \[ 0, 1 \].
Letting *α* = *β* in the above expression
$$H_{1-X} = \frac{\beta - 1}{2 \beta - 1}$$
showing that for *α* = *β* the harmonic mean ranges from 0, for *α* = *β* = 1, to 1/2, for *α* = *β* → ∞.
The following are the limits with one parameter finite (non zero) and the other approaching these limits:
: \\begin{align}
` \lim_{\beta \to 0} H_{1-X} &= \text{ undefined } \\`\
` \lim_{\beta \to 1} H_{1-X} &= \lim_{\alpha \to \infty} H_{1-X} = 0 \\`\
` \lim_{\alpha \to 0} H_{1-X} &= \lim_{\beta \to \infty} H_{1-X} = 1`
\\end{align}
Although both harmonic means are asymmetric, when *α* = *β* the two means are equal.
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# Harmonic mean
## Lognormal distribution {#lognormal_distribution}
The harmonic mean ( *H* ) of the lognormal distribution of a random variable *X* is
: $H = \exp \left( \mu - \frac{1}{2} \sigma^2 \right),$
where *μ* and *σ*^2^ are the parameters of the distribution, i.e. the mean and variance of the distribution of the natural logarithm of *X*.
The harmonic and arithmetic means of the distribution are related by
: $\frac{\mu^*}{H} = 1 + C_v^2 \, ,$
where *C*~v~ and *μ*^\*^ are the coefficient of variation and the mean of the distribution respectively..
The geometric (*G*), arithmetic and harmonic means of the distribution are related by
: $H \mu^* = G^2.$
## Pareto distribution {#pareto_distribution}
The harmonic mean of type 1 Pareto distribution is
: $H = k \left( 1 + \frac{1}{\alpha} \right)$
where *k* is the scale parameter and *α* is the shape parameter.
## Statistics
For a random sample, the harmonic mean is calculated as above. Both the mean and the variance may be infinite (if it includes at least one term of the form 1/0).
### Sample distributions of mean and variance {#sample_distributions_of_mean_and_variance}
The mean of the sample *m* is asymptotically distributed normally with variance *s*^2^.
$$s^2 = \frac{m \left[\operatorname{E}\left(\frac{1}{x} - 1\right)\right]}{m^2 n}$$
The variance of the mean itself is
: $\operatorname{Var}\left(\frac{1}{x}\right) = \frac{m \left[\operatorname{E}\left(\frac{1}{x} - 1\right)\right]}{n m^2}$
where *m* is the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals, *x* are the variates, *n* is the population size and *E* is the expectation operator.
### Delta method {#delta_method}
Assuming that the variance is not infinite and that the central limit theorem applies to the sample then using the delta method, the variance is
: $\operatorname{Var}(H) = \frac{1}{n}\frac{s^2}{m^4}$
where *H* is the harmonic mean, *m* is the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals
: $m = \frac{1}{n} \sum{ \frac{1}{x} }.$
*s*^2^ is the variance of the reciprocals of the data
: $s^2 = \operatorname{Var}\left( \frac{1}{x} \right)$
and *n* is the number of data points in the sample.
### Jackknife method {#jackknife_method}
A jackknife method of estimating the variance is possible if the mean is known. This method is the usual \'delete 1\' rather than the \'delete m\' version.
This method first requires the computation of the mean of the sample (*m*)
: $m = \frac{n}{ \sum{ \frac{1}{x} } }$
where *x* are the sample values.
A series of value *w~i~* is then computed where
: $w_i = \frac{n - 1}{ \sum_{j \neq i} \frac{1}{x} }.$
The mean (*h*) of the *w*~i~ is then taken:
: $h = \frac{1}{n} \sum{w_i}$
The variance of the mean is
: $\frac{n - 1}{n} \sum{(m - w_i)}^2.$
Significance testing and confidence intervals for the mean can then be estimated with the t test.
### Size biased sampling {#size_biased_sampling}
Assume a random variate has a distribution *f*( *x* ). Assume also that the likelihood of a variate being chosen is proportional to its value. This is known as length based or size biased sampling.
Let *μ* be the mean of the population. Then the probability density function *f*\*( *x* ) of the size biased population is
: $f^*(x) = \frac{x f(x)}{\mu}$
The expectation of this length biased distribution E^\*^( *x* ) is
: $\operatorname{E}^*(x) = \mu \left[ 1 + \frac{\sigma^2}{\mu^2} \right]$
where *σ*^2^ is the variance.
The expectation of the harmonic mean is the same as the non-length biased version E( *x* )
: $E^*( x^{ -1 } ) = E( x )^{ -1 }$
The problem of length biased sampling arises in a number of areas including textile manufacture pedigree analysis and survival analysis
Akman *et al.* have developed a test for the detection of length based bias in samples.
### Shifted variables {#shifted_variables}
If *X* is a positive random variable and *q* \> 0 then for all *ε* \> 0
: $\operatorname{Var} \left[\frac{1}{(X + \epsilon)^q}\right] < \operatorname{Var} \left(\frac{1}{X^q}\right) .$
### Moments
Assuming that *X* and E(*X*) are \> 0 then
: $\operatorname{E}\left[ \frac{1}{X} \right] \ge \frac{1}{ \operatorname{E}(X) }$
This follows from Jensen\'s inequality.
Gurland has shown that for a distribution that takes only positive values, for any *n* \> 0
: $\operatorname{E} \left(X^{-1}\right) \ge \frac{\operatorname{E} \left(X^{n-1}\right)}{\operatorname{E}\left(X^n\right)} .$
Under some conditions
: $\operatorname{E}(a + X)^{-n} \sim \operatorname{E}\left(a + X^{-n}\right)$
where \~ means approximately equal to.
### Sampling properties {#sampling_properties}
Assuming that the variates (*x*) are drawn from a lognormal distribution there are several possible estimators for *H*:
: \\begin{align}
` H_1 &= \frac{n}{ \sum\left(\frac{1}{x}\right) } \\`\
` H_2 &= \frac{\left( \exp\left[ \frac{1}{n} \sum \log_e(x) \right] \right)^2}{ \frac{1}{n} \sum(x) } \\`\
` H_3 &= \exp \left(m - \frac{1}{2} s^2 \right)`
\\end{align}
where
: $m = \frac{1}{n} \sum \log_e (x)$
: $s^2 = \frac{1}{n} \sum \left(\log_e (x) - m\right)^2$
Of these *H*~3~ is probably the best estimator for samples of 25 or more.
### Bias and variance estimators {#bias_and_variance_estimators}
A first order approximation to the bias and variance of *H*~1~ are
: \\begin{align}
` \operatorname{bias}\left[ H_1 \right] &= \frac{H C_v}{n} \\`\
` \operatorname{Var}\left[ H_1 \right] &= \frac{H^2 C_v}{n}`
\\end{align}
where *C*~v~ is the coefficient of variation.
Similarly a first order approximation to the bias and variance of *H*~3~ are
: \\begin{align}
` \frac{H \log_e \left(1 + C_v\right)}{2n} \left[ 1 + \frac{1 + C_v^2}{2} \right] \\`\
` \frac{H \log_e \left(1 + C_v\right)}{n} \left[ 1 + \frac{1 + C_v^2}{4} \right]`
\\end{align}
In numerical experiments *H*~3~ is generally a superior estimator of the harmonic mean than *H*~1~. *H*~2~ produces estimates that are largely similar to *H*~1~
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# Book of Helaman
**The Book of Helaman** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|iː|l|ə|m|ən}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|HEE|lə-mən}}`{=mediawiki}) is one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon, a text held sacred by churches within the Latter Day Saint movement, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The book continues the history of the Nephites and the Lamanites from approximately 50 BC to 1 BC. It discusses political unrest among the Nephites and the formation of a group of secret dissenters called the Gadianton Robbers. Helaman, son of Helaman leads the Nephites for a time, and his sons Nephi and Lehi go on a successful mission to the Lamanites. When Nephi returns home, he correctly identifies the murderer of the chief judge using his prophetic powers, and sends a famine to the Nephite which lasts three years. After a digression from Mormon, the book of Helaman ends with Samuel the Lamanite\'s prophecy of the signs that will precede Christ\'s birth and death. Helaman deals with themes of external and internal conflict, hidden information, Nephite racism, and Mormon\'s views of history as deduced by his redaction of it.
## Summary
According to the narrative in the Book of Mormon, the Book of Helaman is set in 50--1 BC. Helaman is named for Alma\'s grandson, Helaman. The actions of the first three chapters center around him. Helaman\'s son Nephi is central to the rest of the record. The book of Helaman as a whole is edited and compiled by Mormon, who is the author of chapter 12. Events are related episodically. The miraculous incidents in Helaman 5 describe a significant conversion of many Lamanites to Book of Mormon Christianity.
In the first part of Helaman, a secret society, commonly called a secret combination, spurs political unrest among the Nephites. Pahoran\'s son, also named Pahoran, wins the election to be the new chief judge. Paanchi and his followers make an oath of secrecy and murder son Pahoran. A few months later, a Lamanite army captures the Nephite capital until the Nephites reclaim it. Helaman, son of Helaman is elected as the new chief judge. The same group who murdered Pahoran tries to murder Helaman, but a spy kills the assassin before he succeeds. The group retreats to the wilderness and they are referred to as a \"band of robbers\". (Chapters 1--2.)
The second part of Helaman covers a period of Nephite technological growth, war with the Lamanites, and proselyting to the Lamanites. Helaman reigns over the Nephites, who develop shipping, expand northward, and become wealthy and prideful. Helaman dies and his son Nephi becomes chief judge. Disagreements in the land of the Nephites lead to war with the Lamanites, where Moronihah conquers half of their land. After stepping down as chief judge, Nephi goes with his brother Lehi to preach to the Nephites and the Lamanites. Lamanites in Nephites lands imprison them. Angels and a pillar of fire manifest and their presence sparks the conversion of onlookers, who in turn convert the Lamanites, who peaceably leave the Nephite lands they were occupying. The Gadianton robbers return and murder Cezoram, who filled in for Nephi in the judgement seat. Meanwhile, the Lamanites\' righteousness increases. (Chapters 3--6.)
In the third part of Helaman, Nephi prophesies about the Nephites and their future. Nephi comes home after his six-year mission to find that the Nephites have become wicked in his absence. He says that the Nephites\' destruction is nigh. He prophesies that the chief judge has been murdered by his brother, and this prophecy is confirmed. He prophesies that the brother will deny murdering the chief judge, but that the blood on the skirts of his cloak will give him away. The Nephites are divided. God grants Nephi the power to do \"all things\" \"according to \[his\] word\". Nephi sends a famine into the land for three years, when many people return to their faith and Nephi prays the rain back. The Gadianton robbers become more powerful. (Chapters 7--11.)
In the last part of Helaman, Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that the Nephites will be destroyed in 400 years. He promises that their attempts to secure their future using money will fail. He says that unless the Nephites repent, their women and children will suffer and die. He foretells of the signs and wonders of Jesus\' birth and death. The Nephites reject his prophecies. (Chapters 13--16)
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# Book of Helaman
## Themes
### War and contention {#war_and_contention}
The short preface to the Book of Helaman is written by Mormon, the editor of the books following Omni according to the Book of Mormon narrative. Mormon describes the book of Helaman as being about \"wars and contentions\". According to Brant Gardner, author of a six-volume commentary that grew out of his work for the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, the goal of Mormon\'s compilation is theological, not historical. \"Contentions\" refers to internal conflicts, while \"wars\" refers to external ones. Mormon may have chosen to focus on contentions to fulfill Nephi\'s vision when Nephi sees \"wars, and rumors of wars\" as well as \"wars and contentions in the land\". For Gardner, Mormon isn\'t just trying to fulfill Nephi\'s vision, but also to show that Christ\'s coming is a type, and that it was and will be preceded by war and contention.
In Helaman, the Gadianton robbers are mentioned for the first time in the text of the Book of Mormon, a recurring instance of Nephite secret combinations important to the rest of the Book of Mormon narrative. According to Maxwell Institute scholar Kim Matheson, Helaman\'s contrasts show how the Nephites are constantly noticing the wrong things. Instead of noticing their own spiritual decay, they increase their wealth and military power. Important aspects of the plot are covert, like the secret combinations, assassins, and spiritual alignment with God.
Former dean of religious education at Brigham Young University, Robert J. Matthews, noticed that within the Nephite culture, because the majority of the people chose evil, the government became corrupt, even though it was a form of free government. People in government started to ignore the poor and there was a general disdain of the law. In the *Book of Mormon Reference Companion*, published by LDS Church publisher Deseret Book, John Tanner also highlights the passage in Helaman about how \"they who chose evil were more numerous than they who chose good.\"
### Nephite racism {#nephite_racism}
Helaman ends with Samuel prophesying of Christ and the Nephites rejecting Samuel\'s prophecy. Samuel does not mention Christ\'s resurrection, but focuses on the signs of his birth and death. For Grant Hardy, in his *The Annotated Book of Mormon*, since Samuel is a Lamanite, it is possible that Nephite racism contributed to their rejection of him. For Matheson, Nephite racism causes them to reject Samuel, and their interest in comparing themselves to the Lamanites prevents them from honestly repenting of their misdeeds.
### Pride cycle {#pride_cycle}
In Mormon\'s digression in Helaman 12, he describes the cycle of righteousness and unrighteousness. He reveals his assumption that the righteousness of a people is the most important historical question to consider, relegating factors such as economic growth to their influence on the righteousness of the people. For Tanner, Mormon draws attention to his commentary with the phrase \"thus we see,\" and his \"fullest articulation of the cyclical pattern\" is found in Helaman 12. Hardy describes this \"pride cycle\" as one of the main features of Helaman. Prosperous Nephites become prideful and forget God, which leads to their downfall. Humbled, they return to worshipping God and become prosperous again. Hardy draws a parallel to a similar cycle in the Biblical Book of Judges, noting that in Helaman, communal repentance plays a larger role. In the larger narrative of the Book of Mormon, this cycle is broken for 200 years after Jesus visits the land.
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# Book of Helaman
## Textual variants {#textual_variants}
In the 1830 edition of the Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith originally gave his scribes an arrangement of five chapters that were larger than the chapters in modern editions of the Book of Mormon
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# Irina Krush
**Irina Borisivna Krush** (*Ірина Борисівна Круш*; born December 24, 1983) is an American chess Grandmaster. She is the only woman to earn the GM title while playing for the United States. Krush is an eight-time U.S. Women\'s Champion and a two-time Women\'s American Cup Champion.
## Early life {#early_life}
Irina Krush was born into a Jewish family in Odesa, USSR (now Ukraine), and emigrated with her parents to Brooklyn in 1989. Her father, a college chess player, taught Irina the game. When she was 6, she won her first tournament, and at the age of 7 she represented the U.S. at the World Youth Championships for girls under 10 in Poland.
## Chess career {#chess_career}
At age 14, Krush won the 1998 U.S. Women\'s Chess Championship to become the youngest U.S. women\'s champion ever. She has won the championship on seven other occasions, in 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2020.
In 1999, Krush took part in the \"Kasparov versus the World\" chess competition. Garry Kasparov played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a Microsoft host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three of her contemporaries, Étienne Bacrot, Elisabeth Pähtz and Florin Felecan. On the tenth move, Krush suggested a `{{chessgloss|theoretical novelty|novelty}}`{=mediawiki}, for which the World team voted. Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wasn\'t sure whether he was winning or losing.
Krush played in the Group C of the 2008 Corus Chess Tournament, a 14-player round-robin tournament held in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands. She finished in joint fifth place having scored 7/13 points after five wins (including the one against the eventual winner, Fabiano Caruana), four draws and four losses.
In 2013, she was awarded the Grandmaster title due to her results at the NYC Mayor\'s Cup International GM Tournament in 2001, Women\'s World Team Chess Championship 2013 and Baku Open 2013.
In 2022, she won the 2022 American Cup (Women\'s field) in a double-elimination format. She tied with Jennifer Yu in the 2022 U.S. Women\'s Chess Championship but lost the playoff.
### Team competitions {#team_competitions}
Krush has played on the U.S. national team in the Women\'s Chess Olympiad since 1998. The U.S. team won the silver medal in 2004 and bronze in 2008. In 2022, Krush was a member of the U.S. women\'s team at the 44th Chess Olympiad, where the team placed fourth. She also competed as part of the US team in the Women\'s World Team Chess Championship in 2009 and 2013.
She played for the team Manhattan Applesauce in the U.S. Chess League in 2015; she previously played for the New York Knights (2005--2011, 2013). Krush and her ex-husband, Canadian Grandmaster Pascal Charbonneau, have played in the United Kingdom league for Guildford-ADC.
In May 2020, Krush played for the USA team in the FIDE Online Nations Cup.
### Writing
Krush frequently contributes articles to *Chess Life* magazine and *uschess.org.* Her article on earning her grandmaster title in 2013 was honored as the \"Best of US Chess\" that year.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Krush attended Edward R. Murrow High School in Brooklyn. She graduated in International Relations from New York University in 2006.
Krush identifies as a \"Christian Jew\", embracing both her Jewish heritage and Christian faith since her conversion in 2011.
In March 2016, Hillary Clinton was a guest on the *Steve Harvey* television show. On the show, Krush appeared along with two actresses trying to impersonate Krush. The trio answered questions from host Steve Harvey and Clinton regarding her life and chess career. Harvey successfully identified the real Irina Krush.
In March 2020, she was hospitalized and treated for a \"moderate\" COVID-19 infection, then released to recover under quarantine at home. While quarantined, she played in the Isolated Queens Swiss, an online women\'s blitz chess tournament. She scored 7.5/10 in the tournament, putting her in joint second place, a half point behind tournament winner GM Alexandra Kosteniuk.
On January 18, 2023, Krush (and her former chess opponent Carissa Yip) appeared on a primetime special of *The Price Is Right*. Krush won the Clock Game, but she failed to advance to the Showcases
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# List of Indian musical instruments
**Musical instruments of the Indian subcontinent** can be broadly classified according to the Hornbostel--Sachs system into four categories: chordophones (string instruments), aerophones (wind instruments), membranophones (drums) and idiophones (non-drum percussion instruments).
## Chordophones
### Plucked strings {#plucked_strings}
+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
| - Ancient Veena | - Tumbi |
| - Bulbul Tarang | - Tuntuna |
| - Dilruba | - Hansa Veena |
| - Dotar, Dotora, or Dotara | - Mohan Veena |
| - Ektara | - Nakula Veena |
| - Getchu Vadyam or Jhallari | - Nanduni |
| - Gopichand, Gopiyantra or Khamak | - Pamiri rubab |
| - Gottuvadhyam or Chitravina | - Rudra Veena, also called Bīn in North India |
| - Katho | - Sagar Veena |
| - Sarod | - Saraswati Veena |
| - Sitar | - Vichitra Veena |
| - Surbahar | - Yazh |
| - Surshringar | - Ranjan Veena |
| - Swarabat | - Mayuri Veena |
| - Swarmandal | - Rubab (instrument) |
| - Tambura | - Triveni Veena |
| - Tritantri Veena | |
+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+
### Bowed strings {#bowed_strings}
- Chikara
- Dhantara
- Dilruba
- Ektara
- Esraj
-
- Kingri
- Mayuri veena or Taus
- Onavillu
- Behala
- Pena
- Pinaka veena
- Pulluvan veena - one-stringed violin
- Ravanahatha
- Sarangi
- Sarinda
- Tar Shehnai
- Villu - arched musical bow
### Other string instruments {#other_string_instruments}
- Gethu or Jhallari -- struck tanpura
- Gubguba or Jamuku (khamak)
- Pulluvan kutam
- Santoor -- Hammered dulcimer
## Aerophones
### Single reed {#single_reed}
- Pepa
- Pungi or Been
### Double reed {#double_reed}
- Kuzhal
- Mukhavina
- Nadaswaram
- Shehnai
- Sundari
- Tangmuri
### Flute
- Alghoza -- double flute
- Bansuri
- Venu (Carnatic flute) Pullanguzhal
### Bagpipes
- Mashak
- Titti
- Sruti upanga
### Free reed {#free_reed}
- Gogona
- Morsing
### Free reed and bellows {#free_reed_and_bellows}
- Shruti box
- Harmonium (hand-pumped)
### Brass
- Bigul -- see Bugle
- Ekkalam
- Karnal
- Kombu (instrument)
- Ramsinga
- Kahal
- Nagfani
- Turi
- Tutari
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# List of Indian musical instruments
## Membranophones
### Hand drums {#hand_drums}
+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
| - Dhad | - Pakhavaj |
| - Damru | - Pakhavaj Jori -- Sikh instrument similar to Tabla |
| - Dimadi | - Panchamukha vadyam |
| - Dhol | - Pung cholom |
| - Dholak | - Shuddha Madalam or Maddalam |
| - Dholki | - Tabala / Tabl / Chameli -- goblet drum |
| - Duggi | - Tabla |
| - Ghat singhari or Gada Singari | - Tabla Tarang -- set of Tablas |
| - Ghumot | - Tamate |
| - Gummeta | - Thanthi Panai |
| - Kanjira | - Thimila |
| - Khol | - Tumbak, Tumbaknari, Tumbaknaer |
| - Kinpar and Dhopar (Tribal Drums) | - Tumdak\' |
| - Madal | - Udukku |
| - Mardala | |
| - Maddale | |
| - Maram | |
| - Mizhavu | |
| - Mridangam | |
| - Naal | |
+--------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------+
### Hand frame drums {#hand_frame_drums}
- Daf, duf, or dafli -- medium or large frame drum without jingles, of Persian origin
- Dubki, dimdi or dimri -- small frame drum without jingles
- Kanjira -- small frame drum with one jingle
- Kansi -- small drum without jingles
- Patayani thappu -- medium frame drum played with hands
### Stick and hand drums {#stick_and_hand_drums}
- Chenda
- Davul
- Dhak
- Dhimay
- Dhol
- Dholi
- Dollu
- Idakka
- Thavil
- Udukai
- Urumi (drum)
### Stick drums {#stick_drums}
- Chande
- Davul
- Kachhi Dhol
- Nagara -- pair of kettledrums
- Pambai -- unit of two cylindrical drums
- Parai thappu, halgi -- frame drum played with two sticks
- Sambal
- Stick daff or stick duff -- daff in a stand played with sticks
- Tamak\'
- Tasha -- type of kettledrum
- Thavanadai, Davandai
- Timki
- Urumee
## Idiophones
thumb \|A medieval instrument, labeled *nagaveena* (snake veena), is a type of musical scraper.
- Chimta -- fire tong with brass jingles
- Chengila -- metal disc
- Elathalam
- Geger -- brass vessel
- Ghanti -- Northern Indian bell
- Ghatam and Matkam (Earthenware pot drum)
- Ghungroo
- Khartal or Chiplya
- Manjira or jhanj or taal
- Nut -- clay pot
- Sankarjang -- lithophone
- Thali -- metal plate
- Thattukazhi mannai
- Yakshagana bells
### Melodic
- Jal tarang, ceramic bowls with water
- Kanch tarang, a type of glass harp
- Loh tarang (लोह तरंग), a set of tuned gongs
- Kashtha tarang, a type of xylophone
## Hand harmonium {#hand_harmonium}
Dwarkanath Ghose (Dwarkin) modified the French pedal harmonium
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# IRIX
**IRIX** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ai|ɹ|ɪ|k|s}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{respell|EYE|ricks}}`{=mediawiki}) is a discontinued operating system developed by Silicon Graphics (SGI) to run on the company\'s proprietary MIPS workstations and servers. It is based on UNIX System V with BSD extensions. In IRIX, SGI originated the XFS file system and the industry-standard OpenGL graphics API.
## History
SGI originated the IRIX name in the 1988 release 3.0 of the operating system for the SGI IRIS 4D series of workstations and servers. Previous releases are identified only by the release number prefixed by \"4D1-\", such as \"4D1-2.2\". The \"4D1-\" prefix continued to be used in official documentation to prefix IRIX release numbers. Prior to the IRIS 4D, SGI bundled the GL2 operating system, based on UniSoft UniPlus System V Unix, and using the proprietary MEX (Multiple EXposure) windowing system.
IRIX 3.x is based on UNIX System V Release 3 with 4.3BSD enhancements, and incorporates the 4Sight windowing system, based on NeWS and IRIS GL. SGI\'s own Extent File System (EFS) replaces the System V filesystem.
IRIX 4.0, released in 1991, replaces 4Sight with the X Window System (X11R4), the 4Dwm window manager providing a similar look and feel to 4Sight.
IRIX 5.0, released in 1993, incorporates certain features of UNIX System V Release 4, including ELF executables. IRIX 5.3 introduced the XFS journaling file system.
In 1994, IRIX 6.0 added support for the 64-bit MIPS R8000 processor, but is otherwise similar to IRIX 5.2. Later 6.x releases support other members of the MIPS processor family in 64-bit mode. IRIX 6.3 was released for the SGI O2 workstation only. IRIX 6.4 improved multiprocessor scalability for the Octane, Origin 2000, and Onyx2 systems. The Origin 2000 and Onyx2 IRIX 6.4 was marketed as \"Cellular IRIX\", although it only incorporates some features from the original Cellular IRIX distributed operating system project.
The last major version of IRIX is 6.5, released in May 1998. New minor versions of IRIX 6.5 were released every quarter until 2005, and then four minor releases. Through version 6.5.22, there are two branches of each release: a maintenance release (identified by an \"m\" suffix) that includes only fixes to the original IRIX 6.5 code, and a feature release (with an \"f\" suffix) that includes improvements and enhancements. An overlay upgrade from 6.5.x to the 6.5.22 maintenance release was available as a free download, whereas versions 6.5.23 and higher required an active Silicon Graphics support contract.
A 2001 *Computerworld* review found IRIX in a \"critical\" state. SGI had been moving its efforts to Linux and the Windows-based SGI Visual Workstation but MIPS and IRIX customers convinced SGI to continue to support its platform through 2006. On September 6, 2006, an SGI press release announced the end of the MIPS and IRIX product lines. Production ended on December 29, 2006, with final deliveries in March 2007, except by special arrangement. Support for these products ended in December 2013 and they will receive no further updates.
Much of IRIX\'s core technology has been open sourced and ported by SGI to Linux, including XFS.
In 2009, SGI filed for bankruptcy and then was purchased by Rackable Systems, which was later purchased by Hewlett Packard Enterprise in 2016. All SGI hardware produced after 2007 is based on either IA-64 or x86-64 architecture, so it is incapable of running IRIX and is instead intended for Red Hat Enterprise Linux or SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. HPE has not stated any plans for IRIX development or source code release.
## Features
IRIX 6.5 is compliant with UNIX System V Release 4, UNIX 95, and POSIX (including 1e/2c draft 15 ACLs and Capabilities).
In the early 1990s, IRIX was a leader in Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP), scalable from 1 to more than 1,024 processors with a single system image. IRIX has strong support for real-time disk and graphics I/O. IRIX was widely used for the 1990s and 2000s in the computer animation and scientific visualization industries, due to its large application base and high performance. It still is relevant in a few legacy applications.
IRIX is one of the first Unix versions to feature a graphical user interface for the main desktop environment. IRIX Interactive Desktop uses the 4Dwm X window manager with a custom look designed using the Motif widget toolkit. IRIX is the originator of the industry standard OpenGL for graphics chips and image processing libraries.
IRIX uses the MIPSPro compiler for both its front end and back end. The compiler, also known in earlier versions as IDO (IRIS Development Option), was released in many versions, many of which are coupled to the OS version. The last version was 7.4.4m, designed for 6.5.19 or later. The compiler is designed to support parallel POSIX programming in C/C++, Fortran 77/90, and Ada. The Workshop GUI IDE is used for development. Other tools include Speedshop for performance tuning, and Performance Co-Pilot.
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# IRIX
## 4Dwm
**4Dwm** is the window manager component of the IRIX Interactive Desktop normally used on Silicon Graphics workstations running IRIX. 4Dwm is derived from the older Motif Window Manager and uses the Motif widget toolkit on top of the X Window System found on most Unix systems. 4Dwm on IRIX was one of the first default graphical user interface desktops to be standard on a Unix computer system. 4Dwm refers to \"Fourth dimension window manager\" and has no relation to dwm.
Other X window managers that mimic the 4Dwm look and feel exist, such as 4Dwm theme for IceWM and 5Dwm which is a clone/compatible implementation of 4Dwm based on OpenMotif. 5Dwm support both the classic SGI look and a modern/polished look and feel with anti-aliased fonts and UTF-8 support
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# Indo-Iranian languages
The **Indo-Iranian languages** (also known as **Indo-Iranic languages** or collectively the **Aryan languages**) constitute the largest branch of the Indo-European language family. They include over 300 languages, spoken by around 1.7 billion speakers worldwide, predominantly in South Asia, West Asia and parts of Central Asia.
Indo-Iranian languages are divided into three major branches: Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani languages. The Badeshi language remains unclassified within the Indo-Iranian branch. The largest Indo-Iranian language is the Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu).
The areas with Indo-Iranian languages stretch from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian, Tat, Talysh), down to Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia (Kurdish, Zaza), the Levant and North Africa (Domari), and Iran (Persian), eastward to Xinjiang (Sarikoli) and Assam (Assamese), and south to Sri Lanka (Sinhala) and the Maldives (Maldivian), with branches stretching as far out as Oceania and the Caribbean for Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani respectively. Furthermore, there are large diaspora communities of Indo-Iranian speakers in Northwestern Europe, North America, Oceania, East Africa, South Africa, the Caribbean, and the Persian Gulf.
## Etymology
The term *Indo-Iranian languages* refers to the spectrum of Indo-European languages spoken in the Southern Asian region of Eurasia, spanning from the Indian subcontinent (where the Indo-Aryan branch is spoken, also called Indic) up to the Iranian Plateau (where the Iranian branch is spoken, also called Iranic). It was later discovered that the Nuristani languages are also spoken in the isolated region of Nuristan, roughly situated in the intersection of these regions.
This branch is also known as *Aryan languages*, referring to the languages spoken by Aryan peoples, where the term *Aryan* is considered as the ethnocultural self-designation of ancient Indo-Iranians. Today, the term *Aryan* is generally avoided, owing to the perceived negative connotation associated with Aryanism.
## Classification
Below is an abridged classification scheme of the Indo-Iranian languages. The Badeshi language remains unclassified within the Indo-Iranian branch.
- Proto-Indo-European (reconstructed)
- Proto-Indo-Iranian (reconstructed)
- Proto-Iranian (reconstructed)
- **Iranian languages**
- Eastern
- Western
- Proto-Nuristani (reconstructed)
- **Nuristani languages**
- Proto-Indo-Aryan (reconstructed)
- **Indo-Aryan languages**
- Dardic
- Northwestern
- Northern
- Western
- Eastern
- Southern
- Chinali-Lahul (unclassified)
- Badeshi (unclassified)
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# Indo-Iranian languages
## Origin
All Indo-Iranian languages can be traced back to a single hypothetical ancestral language: Proto-Indo-Iranian, which is the reconstructed proto-language to represent the latest point at which all modern-day Indo-Iranian languages were still unified. Proto-Indo-Iranian, in turn, is classified as belonging to the Indo-European language family, ultimately tracing back to the Proto-Indo-European language.
Historically, the Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers are thought to have originally referred to themselves using the reconstructed Proto-Indo-Iranian root *Áryas*, from which it derives terms like *Aryavarta* (*आर्यावर्त*, `{{Literal translation|Land of the Aryans}}`{=mediawiki}), *Airyanem Vaejah* (*𐬀𐬫𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀𐬥𐬆𐬨 𐬬𐬀𐬉𐬘𐬀𐬵*, `{{Literal translation|Expanse of the [[Arya (Iran)|Arya]]}}`{=mediawiki}), *Alania* (*Aryāna*), *Iran* (*Aryānām*), and \"Aryan\".
The Proto-Indo-Iranian-speakers are generally associated with the Sintashta culture, which is thought to represent an eastward migration of peoples from the Corded Ware culture, which, in turn, is believed to represent an earlier westward migration of Yamnaya-related people from the Pontic--Caspian steppe zone into the territory of late Neolithic European cultures, possibly bringing with them the Proto-Indo-European language. However, the exact genetic relationship between the Yamnaya culture, Corded Ware culture and Sinthasta culture remains unclear.
The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. There is almost a general consensus among scholars that the Andronovo culture, the successor of Sintasha culture, was an Indo-Iranian culture. Currently, only two sub-cultures are considered as part of Andronovo culture: Alakul and Fëdorovo cultures. The Andronovo culture is considered as an \"Indo-Iranic dialect continuum\", with a later split between Iranian and Indo-Aryan languages. However, according to Hiebert, an expansion of the Bactria--Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) into Iran and the margin of the Indus Valley is \"the best candidate for an archaeological correlate of the introduction of Indo-Iranian speakers to Iran and South Asia\", despite the absence of the characteristic timber graves of the steppe in the Near East, or south of the region between Kopet Dag and Pamir-Karakorum. J. P. Mallory acknowledges the difficulties of making a case for expansions from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent and Vakhsh cultures \"only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes, Persians or Indo-Aryans\". He has developed the *Kulturkugel* (`{{Literal translation|the culture bullet}}`{=mediawiki}) model that has the Indo-Iranians taking over cultural traits of BMAC, but preserving their language and religion while moving into Iran and India
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# Industry (economics)
In microeconomics, an **industry** is a branch of an economy that produces a closely related set of raw materials, goods, or services. For example, one might refer to the wood industry or to the insurance industry.
When evaluating a single group or company, its dominant source of revenue is typically used by industry classifications to classify it within a specific industry. For example the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) -- used directly or through derived classifications for the official statistics of most countries worldwide -- classifies \"statistical units\" by the \"economic activity in which they mainly engage\". Industry is then defined as \"set of statistical units that are classified into the same ISIC category\". However, a single business need not belong just to one industry, such as when a large business (often referred to as a conglomerate) diversifies across separate industries.
Other industry classification systems include the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), which was developed through partnerships with North American countries such as the United States, Canada, and Mexico, in order to standardize the comparison of business activities in North America. There is also the Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS), which is used to assign companies to specific economic sectors and industry groups.
There are many industry classifications in the modern economy, which can be grouped into larger categories called economic sectors. Sectors are broader than industry classifications. For example, the retail trade sector contains industries such as clothing stores, shoe stores, and health and personal care stores. Companies are not limited to one sector or industry. They can reside in multiple sectors and industries.
Industries, though associated with specific products, processes, and consumer markets, can evolve over time. One distinct industry (for example, barrelmaking) may become limited to a tiny niche market and get mostly re-classified into another industry using new techniques. At the same time, entirely new industries may branch off from older ones once a significant market becomes apparent (as an example, the semiconductor industry has become distinguished from the wider electronics industry).
Industry classification is valuable for economic analysis because it leads to largely distinct categories with simple relationships. Through these classifications, economists are able to compare companies within the same industry to evaluate the attractiveness of that industry. Companies within the same industry can also have similar movements in the unit value of their listed shares due to their similarity and macroeconomic factors that affect all members of an industry. However, more complex cases, such as otherwise different processes yielding similar products, require an element of standardization and prevent any one schema from fitting all possible uses
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# Indriidae
The **Indriidae** (sometimes incorrectly spelled **Indridae**) are a family of strepsirrhine primates. They are medium- to large-sized lemurs, with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six. **Indriids**, like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of Madagascar.
## Classification
The 19 living species in the family are divided into three genera.
**Family Indriidae**
- Genus *Indri*
- Indri, *Indri indri*
- Genus *Avahi*, woolly lemurs
- Bemaraha woolly lemur, *Avahi cleesei*
- Eastern woolly lemur, *Avahi laniger*
- Moore\'s woolly lemur, *Avahi mooreorum*
- Western woolly lemur, *Avahi occidentalis*
- Sambirano woolly lemur, *Avahi unicolor*
- Peyrieras\'s woolly lemur, *Avahi peyrierasi*
- Southern woolly lemur, *Avahi meridionalis*
- Ramanantsoavana\'s woolly lemur, *Avahi ramanantsoavani*
- Betsileo woolly lemur, *Avahi betsileo*
- Genus *Propithecus*, sifakas
- *Propithecus diadema* group
- Diademed sifaka, *Propithecus diadema*
- Silky sifaka, *Propithecus candidus*
- Milne-Edwards\'s sifaka, *Propithecus edwardsi*
- Perrier\'s sifaka, *Propithecus perrieri*
- Golden-crowned sifaka, *Propithecus tattersalli*
- *Propithecus verreauxi* group
- Verreaux\'s sifaka, *Propithecus verreauxi*
- Coquerel\'s sifaka, *Propithecus coquereli*
- Decken\'s sifaka, *Propithecus deckenii*
- Crowned sifaka, *Propithecus coronatus*
## Characteristics
The 19 extant Indriidae species vary considerably in size. Not counting the length of their tails, the avahis are only 30 cm in length, while the indri is the largest extant strepsirrhine. The tail of the indri is only a stub, while avahi and the sifaka tails are as long as their bodies. Their fur is long and mostly from whitish over reddish up to grey. Their black faces, however, are always bald. The hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, their hands are long and thin, and their thumbs cannot be opposed to the other fingers correctly.
All species are arboreal, though they do come to the ground occasionally. When on the ground, they stand upright and move with short hops forward, with their arms held high. In the trees, though, they can make extraordinary leaps and are extremely agile, able to change direction from tree to tree. Like most leaf eaters, they adjust for the low nutrient content of their food by long rests. Often, they can be seen lying stretched on trees sunning themselves. Indriidae live together in family federations up to 15 animals, communicating with roars and facial expressions.
Indriidae are herbivores, eating mostly leaves, fruits, and flowers. Like some other herbivores, they have a large cecum, containing bacteria that ferment cellulose, allowing for more efficient digestion of plant matter. They have fewer premolar teeth than other lemurs, with the dental formula of: `{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.2.3|lower=2.1.2.3}}`{=mediawiki}
Females and males usually mate monogamously for many years. Mostly at the end of the dry season, their four- to five-month gestation ends with the birth of a single offspring, which lives in the family for a while after its weaning (at the age of five to six months)
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# Tertiary sector of the economy
thumb\|upright=1.1\|The product lifecycle
The **tertiary sector of the economy**, generally known as the **service sector**, is the third of the three economic sectors in the three-sector model (also known as the economic cycle). The others are the primary sector (raw materials) and the secondary sector (manufacturing).
The tertiary sector consists of the provision of services instead of end products. Services (also known as \"intangible goods\") include attention, advice, access, experience and affective labour.
The tertiary sector involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as to final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from a producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or financial services. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry. However, the focus is on people by interacting with them and serving the customers rather than transforming the physical goods. The production of information has been long regarded as a service, but some economists now attribute it to a fourth sector, called the quaternary sector.
## Difficulty of definition {#difficulty_of_definition}
It is sometimes hard to determine whether a given company is part of the secondary or the tertiary sector. It is not only companies that have been classified as part of a sector in some schemes, since governments and their services (such as the police or military), as well as nonprofit organizations (such as charities or research associations), can also be seen as part of that sector.
To classify a business as a service, one can use classification systems such as the United Nations\' International Standard Industrial Classification standard, the United States\' Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code system and its new replacement, the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE) in the EU and similar systems elsewhere. These governmental classification systems have a first-level of hierarchy that reflects whether the economic goods are tangible or intangible.
For purposes of finance and market research, market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used to classify businesses that participate in the service sector. Unlike governmental classification systems, the first level of market-based classification systems divides the economy into functionally related markets or industries. The second or third level of these hierarchies then reflects whether goods or services are produced.
## Theory of progression {#theory_of_progression}
For the last 100 years, there has been a substantial shift from the primary and secondary sectors to the tertiary sector in industrialized countries. This shift is called **tertiarisation**. The tertiary sector is now the largest sector of the economy in the Western world, and is also the fastest-growing sector. In examining the growth of the service sector in the early nineties, the globalist Kenichi Ohmae noted that:
Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from heavy reliance on agriculture and mining, toward the development of manufacturing (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel) and finally toward a more service-based structure. The first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the United Kingdom. The speed at which other economies have made the transition to service-based (or \"post-industrial\") economies has increased over time.
Historically, manufacturing tended to be more open to international trade and competition than services. However, with dramatic cost reduction and speed and reliability improvements in the transportation of people and the communication of information, the service sector now includes some of the most intensive international competition, despite residual protectionism.
## Issues for service providers {#issues_for_service_providers}
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are intangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed, some, such as consultants and providers of investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for the price paid.
Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, \"people costs\" are usually a high fraction of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs.
Product differentiation is often difficult. For example, how does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they are often seen to provide identical services. Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition.`{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Tertiary sector of the economy
## List of countries by tertiary output {#list_of_countries_by_tertiary_output}
right\|upright=1
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# Imaginary number
+-----------------------------------------+
| The powers of `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki}\ |
| are cyclic: |
+=========================================+
| $\ \vdots$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ i^{-2} = -1\phantom{i}$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ i^{-1} = -i\phantom1$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{0}\ = \phantom-1\phantom{i}$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{1}\ = \phantom-i\phantom1$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{2}\ = -1\phantom{i}$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{3}\ = -i\phantom1$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{4}\ = \phantom-1\phantom{i}$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \ i^{5}\ = \phantom-i\phantom1$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $\ \vdots$ |
+-----------------------------------------+
| $i$ is a 4th\ |
| root of unity |
+-----------------------------------------+
An **imaginary number** is the product of a real number and the imaginary unit `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki}, which is defined by its property `{{math|1=''i''<sup>2</sup> = −1}}`{=mediawiki}. The square of an imaginary number `{{mvar|bi}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{math|−''b''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}. For example, `{{math|5''i''}}`{=mediawiki} is an imaginary number, and its square is `{{math|−25}}`{=mediawiki}. The number zero is considered to be both real and imaginary.
Originally coined in the 17th century by René Descartes as a derogatory term and regarded as fictitious or useless, the concept gained wide acceptance following the work of Leonhard Euler (in the 18th century) and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Carl Friedrich Gauss (in the early 19th century).
An imaginary number `{{math|''bi''}}`{=mediawiki} can be added to a real number `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} to form a complex number of the form `{{math|''a'' + ''bi''}}`{=mediawiki}, where the real numbers `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} are called, respectively, the *real part* and the *imaginary part* of the complex number.
## History
Although the Greek mathematician and engineer Heron of Alexandria is noted as the first to present a calculation involving the square root of a negative number, it was Rafael Bombelli who first set down the rules for multiplication of complex numbers in 1572. The concept had appeared in print earlier, such as in work by Gerolamo Cardano. At the time, imaginary numbers and negative numbers were poorly understood and were regarded by some as fictitious or useless, much as zero once was. Many other mathematicians were slow to adopt the use of imaginary numbers, including René Descartes, who wrote about them in his *La Géométrie* in which he coined the term *imaginary* and meant it to be derogatory. The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707--1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777--1855). The geometric significance of complex numbers as points in a plane was first described by Caspar Wessel (1745--1818).
In 1843, William Rowan Hamilton extended the idea of an axis of imaginary numbers in the plane to a four-dimensional space of quaternion imaginaries in which three of the dimensions are analogous to the imaginary numbers in the complex field.
## Geometric interpretation {#geometric_interpretation}
Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the complex number plane, which allows them to be presented perpendicular to the real axis. One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard number line positively increasing in magnitude to the right and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left. At 0 on the `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki}-axis, a `{{mvar|y}}`{=mediawiki}-axis can be drawn with \"positive\" direction going up; \"positive\" imaginary numbers then increase in magnitude upwards, and \"negative\" imaginary numbers increase in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the \"imaginary axis\" and is denoted $i \mathbb{R},$ $\mathbb{I},$ or `{{math|ℑ}}`{=mediawiki}.
In this representation, multiplication by `{{mvar|i}}`{=mediawiki} corresponds to a counterclockwise rotation of 90 degrees about the origin, which is a quarter of a circle. Multiplication by `{{math|−''i''}}`{=mediawiki} corresponds to a clockwise rotation of 90 degrees about the origin. Similarly, multiplying by a purely imaginary number `{{mvar|bi}}`{=mediawiki}, with `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} a real number, both causes a counterclockwise rotation about the origin by 90 degrees and scales the answer by a factor of `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}. When `{{math|''b'' < 0}}`{=mediawiki}, this can instead be described as a clockwise rotation by 90 degrees and a scaling by `{{math|{{abs|''b''}}}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Square roots of negative numbers {#square_roots_of_negative_numbers}
Care must be used when working with imaginary numbers that are expressed as the principal values of the square roots of negative numbers. For example, if `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|y}}`{=mediawiki} are both positive real numbers, the following chain of equalities appears reasonable at first glance:
: \\textstyle
\\sqrt{x \\cdot y \\vphantom{t}}
# \\sqrt{(-x) \\cdot (-y)} \\mathrel{\\stackrel{\\text{ (fallacy) }}{ {#sqrt_x_cdot__y_mathrelstackreltext_fallacy}
}} \\sqrt{-x\\vphantom{ty}} \\cdot \\sqrt{-y\\vphantom{ty}}
# i\\sqrt{x\\vphantom{ty}} \\cdot i\\sqrt{y\\vphantom{ty}} {#isqrtxvphantomty_cdot_isqrtyvphantomty}
-\\sqrt{x \\cdot y \\vphantom{ty}}\\,.
But the result is clearly nonsense. The step where the square root was broken apart was illegitimate. (See Mathematical fallacy
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# Impressionism in music
**Impressionism in music** was a movement among various composers in Western classical music (mainly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries) whose music focuses on mood and atmosphere, \"conveying the moods and emotions aroused by the subject rather than a detailed tone‐picture\". \"Impressionism\" is a philosophical and aesthetic term borrowed from late 19th-century French painting after Monet\'s *Impression, Sunrise*. Composers were labeled Impressionists by analogy to the Impressionist painters who use starkly contrasting colors, effect of light on an object, blurry foreground and background, flattening perspective, etc. to make the observer focus their attention on the overall impression.
The most prominent feature in musical Impressionism is the use of \"color\", or in musical terms, timbre, which can be achieved through orchestration, harmonic usage, texture, etc. Other elements of musical Impressionism also involve new chord combinations, ambiguous tonality, extended harmonies, use of modes and exotic scales, parallel motion, extra-musicality, and evocative titles such as "*Reflets dans l\'eau*" ("Reflections on the water"), "*Brouillards*" ("Mists"), etc.
## History
Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are two leading figures in Impressionism, though Debussy rejected this label (in a 1908 letter to Jacques Durand he wrote \"imbeciles call \[what I am trying to write in *Images*\] \'impressionism\', a term employed with the utmost inaccuracy, especially by art critics who use it as a label to stick on Turner, the finest creator of mystery in the whole of art!\") and Ravel displayed discomfort with it, at one point claiming that it could not be adequately applied to music at all. Debussy\'s Impressionist works typically \"evoke a mood, feeling, atmosphere, or scene\" by creating musical images through characteristic motifs, harmony, exotic scales (e.g., whole-tone and pentatonic scales), instrumental timbre, large unresolved chords (e.g., 9ths, 11ths, 13ths), parallel motion, ambiguous tonality, extreme chromaticism, heavy use of the piano pedals, and other elements. "The perception of Debussy's compositional language as decidedly post-romantic/Impressionistic---nuanced, understated, and subtle---is firmly solidified among today's musicians and well-informed audiences.\" Some Impressionist composers, Debussy and Ravel in particular, are also labeled as symbolist composers. One trait shared with both aesthetic trends is \"a sense of detached observation: rather than expressing deeply felt emotion or telling a story\"; as in symbolist poetry, the normal syntax is usually disrupted and individual images that carry the work\'s meaning are evoked.
In 1912, the French composer Ernest Fanelli (1860--1917) received significant attention and coverage in the Parisian press following a performance of a symphonic poem he wrote in 1886, titled *Thèbes*, incorporating elements associated with Impressionism, such as extended chords and whole-tone scales. Ravel was unimpressed by Fanelli\'s novelties, maintaining that these were already utilized by past composers such as Franz Liszt. He also opined that Fanelli\'s Impressionism stemmed from Hector Berlioz rather than Liszt or Russian composers.
Other composers linked to Impressionism include Lili Boulanger, Isaac Albéniz, Frederick Delius, Paul Dukas, Alexander Scriabin, Manuel de Falla, John Alden Carpenter, Ottorino Respighi, Albert Roussel, Karol Szymanowski, Charles Tomlinson Griffes, and Federico Mompou. The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius is also associated with Impressionism, and his tone poem *The Swan of Tuonela* (1893) predates Debussy\'s *Prélude à l\'après-midi d\'un faune* (regarded as a seminal work of musical Impressionism) by a year. The American composer Howard Hanson also borrowed from both Sibelius and Impressionism generally in works such as his Second Symphony.
## Characteristics
One of the most important tools of musical Impressionism was the tensionless harmony. The dissonance of chords was not resolved, but was used as timbre. These chords were often shifted parallel. In the melodic field the whole tone scale, the pentatonic and modal scales were used. The melodics were characterized by their circular melodic movements. The timbre became the stylistic device of Impressionism instead of concise themes or other traditional forms
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# Intension
In any of several fields of study that treat the use of signs---for example, in linguistics, logic, mathematics, semantics, semiotics, and philosophy of language---an **intension** is any property or quality connoted by a word, phrase, or another symbol. In the case of a word, the word\'s definition often implies an intension. For instance, the intensions of the word *plant* include properties such as \"being composed of cellulose (not always true)\", \"alive\", and \"organism\", among others. A *comprehension* is the collection of all such intensions.
## Overview
The meaning of a word can be thought of as the bond between the *idea the word means* and the *physical form of the word*. Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857--1913) contrasts three concepts:
1. the *signifier* -- the \"sound image\" or the string of letters on a page that one recognizes as the form of a sign
2. the *signified* -- the meaning, the concept or idea that a sign expresses or evokes
3. the *referent* -- the actual thing or set of things a sign refers to. See *Dyadic signs* and *Reference (semantics)*.
Without intension of some sort, a word has no meaning. For instance, the terms *rantans* or *brillig* have no intension and hence no meaning. Such terms may be suggestive, but a term can be *suggestive* without being meaningful. For instance, *ran tan* is an archaic onomatopoeia for chaotic noise or din and may suggest to English speakers a din or meaningless noise, and *brillig* though made up by Lewis Carroll may be suggestive of \'brilliant\' or \'frigid\'. Such terms, it may be argued, are always intensional since they connote the property \'meaningless term\', but this is only an apparent paradox and does not constitute a counterexample to the claim that without intension a word has no meaning. Part of its intension is that it has no extension. Intension is analogous to the signified in the Saussurean system, extension to the referent.
In philosophical arguments about dualism versus monism, it is noted that thoughts have intensionality and physical objects do not (S. E. Palmer, 1999), but rather have extension in space and time.
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# Intension
## Statement forms {#statement_forms}
A statement-form is simply a form obtained by putting blanks into a sentence where one or more expressions with extensions occur---for instance, \"The quick brown \_\_\_ jumped over the lazy \_\_\_\'s back.\" An instance of the form is a statement obtained by filling the blanks in.
### Intensional statement form {#intensional_statement_form}
An *intensional statement-form* is a statement-form with at least one instance such that substituting co-extensive expressions into it does not always preserve logical value. An *intensional statement* is a statement that is an instance of an intensional statement-form. Here co-extensive expressions are expressions with the same extension.
That is, a statement-form is intensional if it has, as one of its instances, a statement for which there are two co-extensive expressions (in the relevant language) such that one of them occurs in the statement, and if the other one is put in its place (uniformly, so that it replaces the former expression wherever it occurs in the statement), the result is a (different) statement with a different logical value. An intensional statement, then, is an instance of such a form; it has the same form as a statement in which substitution of co-extensive terms fails to preserve logical value.
#### Examples
1. Everyone who has read *Huckleberry Finn* knows that Mark Twain wrote it.
2. Aristotle often remarked that he enjoyed stargazing.
The first example has a different logical value if the term \"Mark Twain\" is replaced with the co-extensive term \"The author of *Corn-pone Opinions*\", since not everyone who has read *Huckleberry Finn* knows that the same author also wrote *Corn-pone Opinions*.
The second example has a different logical value if the term \"stargazing\" is replaced with the co-extensive term \"looking at luminous spheroids of plasma held together by self-gravity\", since Aristotle would not have been aware of this definition of the term \"star\", and therefore would not have used it in a remark.
The intensional statements above feature expressions like \"knows\", \"possible\", and \"pleased\". Such expressions always, or nearly always, produce intensional statements when added (in some intelligible manner) to an extensional statement, and thus they (or more complex expressions like \"It is possible that\") are sometimes called *intensional operators*. A large class of intensional statements, but by no means all, can be spotted from the fact that they contain intensional operators.
### Extensional statement form {#extensional_statement_form}
An *extensional* statement is a non-intensional statement. Substitution of co-extensive expressions into it always preserves logical value. A language is intensional if it contains intensional statements, and extensional otherwise. All natural languages are intensional. The only extensional languages are artificially constructed languages used in mathematical logic or for other special purposes and small fragments of natural languages.
#### Examples {#examples_1}
1. Mark Twain wrote *Huckleberry Finn*.
2. Aristotle enjoyed stargazing.
Note that if \"Samuel Clemens\" is put into (1) in place of \"Mark Twain\", the result is as true as the original statement. It should be clear that no matter what is put for \"Mark Twain\", so long as it is a singular term picking out the same man, the statement remains true. Likewise, we can put in place of the predicate any other predicate belonging to Mark Twain and only to Mark Twain, without changing the logical value.
For (2), the term \"stargazing\" can now be substituted with \"looking at luminous spheroids of plasma held together by self-gravity\", since Aristotle personally being aware of the two terms being co-extensive is no longer relevant to the logical value of the sentence
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# Geography of India
India is situated north of the equator between 8°4\' north (the mainland) to 37°6\' north latitude and 68°7\' east to 97°25\' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3287263 km2. India measures 3214 km from north to south and 2933 km from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15200 km and a coastline of 7516.6 km.
On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean---in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean proper to the south. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some 125 km to the south of India\'s Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel. India\'s Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some 1200 km southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E) is just south of Kanyakumari, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier. India\'s territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nmi from the coast baseline. India has the 18th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 2305143 km2.
The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram and Western Himalayan ranges, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.`{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=not clear how the "watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain" defines the India-Bangladesh border; most rivers of the region flow right across the border, no?}}`{=mediawiki}
The Ganges is the longest river originating in India. The Ganges--Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. Kangchenjunga, in the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8586 m and the world\'s third highest peak. The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper regions of the Himalayas. Geologically, India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate.
## Geological development {#geological_development}
India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea). The Indo-Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr). About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of 2000 to, having moved faster than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland. The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. `{{As of|2009}}`{=mediawiki}, the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the \"fastest continent\". This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr).
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# Geography of India
## Political geography {#political_geography}
India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into districts) and 8 union territories including the National capital territory (i.e., Delhi). India\'s borders run a total length of 15200 km.
Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3323 km, dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat. Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of the Kashmir region. India claims the whole of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.
India\'s border with Bangladesh runs 4096.70 km. West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the states which share the border with Bangladesh. Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil. These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border. After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km2 to Bangladesh.
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People\'s Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1643 km along the eastern borders of India\'s northeastern states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India\'s border with Bhutan runs 699 km. Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the states which share the border with Bhutan. The border with Nepal runs 1751 km along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the states which share the border with Nepal. The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.
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# Geography of India
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### Regions
India can be divided into six physiographic regions. They are:
- Northern Mountains: Himalayas
- Peninsular Plateau: contains mountain ranges (Aravalli, Vindhayachal and Satpura ranges), ghats (Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats) and plateaus (Malwa Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Southern Garanulite terrain, Deccan Plateau and Kutch Kathiawar plateau).
- Indo-Gangetic Plain or The Northern Plains
- Thar Desert
- Coastal Plains: Eastern Ghat folds and Western Ghats folds
- Islands- The Andaman and Nicobar islands and the Lakshadweep islands.
### The Himalayas {#the_himalayas}
`{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| caption_align = center
| align = right
| title = [[Kangchenjunga]]
| image1 = Kangch-Goechala.jpg
| image2 = Kangchenjunga East Face from Zemu Glacier.jpg
| footer_align = center
| footer = [[Kangchenjunga]], the third [[List of highest mountains|highest mountain in the world]], near the [[Zemu Glacier]] in [[Sikkim, India]].
}}`{=mediawiki} *Main article: Himalayas* An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world\'s tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo--Gangetic plains. These mountains form the boundary between two biogeographic realms: the temperate Palearctic realm that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalayan realm which includes South Asia, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.
The Himalayas in India extend from Ladakh in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. Several Himalayan peaks in India rise above 7000 m, including Kanchenjunga (8598 m) on the Sikkim--Nepal border, and Nanda Devi (7,816 m) in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand. The snow line ranges between 6000 m in Sikkim to around 3000 m in Ladakh. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.
- The Karakoram range runs through Ladakh. The range is about 500 km in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km ranks as the world\'s second longest glacier outside the polar regions. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.
- The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India\'s eastern border with Burma. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai--Bum, the Garo--Khasi--Jaintia and the Lushai hills. The Garo--Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.
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# Geography of India
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### The Peninsular Plateau {#the_peninsular_plateau}
Further information: Peninsular India This is a large region of the Indian subcontinent located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada River.Having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India.
- Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left)
- **Aravali Range** is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km. The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1722 m, lying near the border with Gujarat. The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali--Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.
- **Vindhya range**, lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending 1050 km. The average elevation of these hills is from 300 to and rarely goes above 700 m. They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains. Geographically, it separates Northern India from Southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.
- **Satpura Range**, lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravali range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It extends 900 km with many peaks rising above 1000 m. It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east--west ranges divide the Indo--Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.
- Plateaus (clockwise from top-left)
- **Malwa Plateau** is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Mahi River.
- **Chhota Nagpur Plateau** is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65000 km2 and is made up of three smaller plateaus---the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of 700 m. Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau. **Southern Garanulite terrain**: Covers South India especially Tamil Nadu excluding western and eastern ghats.
- **Deccan Plateau**, also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 e6km2. It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to. The average elevation of the plateau is 2000 ft above sea level. The surface slopes from 3000 ft in the west to 1500 ft in the east. It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.
- **Kutch Kathiawar plateau** is located in Gujarat state. The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion.
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# Geography of India
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### The Peninsular Plateau {#the_peninsular_plateau}
#### Ghats
The word *ghati* (*घाटी*) means valley. In Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati and Kannada, *ghat* is a term used to identify a difficult passage over a mountain. One such passage is the Bhor Ghat that connects the towns Khopoli and Khandala, on NH 4 about 80 km north of Mumbai. Charmadi Ghat of Karnataka is also notable. In many cases, the term is used to refer to a mountain range itself, as in the *Western Ghats* and *Eastern Ghats*. \'Ghattam\' in Malayalam also refers to mountain ranges when used with the name of the ranges being addressed (e.g., paschima ghattam for Western Ghats), while the passage road would be called a \'churam\'. Eastern Ghats on the east coast of India and Western Ghats on the west coast of India are the largest ghats in pensular India.
- Western Ghats also known as *Sahyadri* (Benevolent Mountains) run along the western edge of India\'s Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range covers an area of 140,000 km^2^ in a stretch of 1600 km parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat--Maharashtra border and across Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. The average elevation is around 1000 m. Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills 2695 m in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight \"hottest hot-spots\" of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. It is a biodiversity hotspot that contains a large proportion of the country\'s flora and fauna; many of which are only found here and nowhere else in the world. According to UNESCO, Western Ghats are older than Himalayan mountains. It also influences Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer. A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra. Ghati people, literally means the *people of hills or ghats (valleys)*, is an exonym used for the marathi people specially those from the villages in Western Ghats, often in pejorative terms.
- Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains along India\'s eastern coast, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountains extend from West Bengal to Odisha through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south passing some parts of Karnataka and in the Wayanad region of Kerala. Parts of the coastal plains, including the Coromandel Coast region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1000 m in height. The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats. Arma Konda (1690 m) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats. The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia and the assembly of the Gondwana supercontinent. The Eastern Ghats are made up of charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, metamorphic gneisses and quartzite rock formations. The structure of the Eastern Ghats includes thrusts and strike-slip faults all along its range. Limestone, bauxite and iron ore are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.
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# Geography of India
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### Indo-Gangetic plain {#indo_gangetic_plain}
*Main article: Indo-Gangetic plain*
The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the *Great Plains* are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, drain most of northern and eastern India and extend into Pakistan. The plains encompass an area of 700000 km2. The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries---Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista---as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.
The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:
- The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 6 and.
- The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.
- The **Bangar** belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.
- The **Khadar** belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.
The **Indo-Gangetic belt** is the world\'s most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world\'s most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world\'s most densely populated areas.
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# Geography of India
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
### Thar Desert {#thar_desert}
*Main article: Thar Desert*
The Thar Desert (also known as *the deserts*) is by some calculations the world\'s seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200000 to. The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.
About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 C in the winter to over 50 C during the summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July--September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from 30 to below the ground level. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm in the extreme west to 375 mm eastward. The only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.
In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes. The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000. Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.
### Coastal plains {#coastal_plains}
*Main article: Coastal India* The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 °C, and is coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1000 and. The width of the plains varies between 100 and. The plains are divided into six regions---the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.
### Islands
`{{See also|List of islands of India}}`{=mediawiki} The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India\'s two major island formations and are classified as union territories.
The **Lakshadweep** Islands lie 200 to off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of 32 km2. They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.
The **Andaman and Nicobar** Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude. They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast running in a north--south axis for approximately 910 km. They are located 1255 km from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km from Cape Negrais in Burma. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north--south axis for around 910 km. The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2. India\'s only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India\'s southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45'10″N and 93°49'36″E, and lies just 189 km from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m.
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India\'s most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.
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# Geography of India
## Climate
*Main article: Climate of India, Climatic regions of India*
Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January--February), summer (March--May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June--September) and a post-monsoon period (October--December).
The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot. Although the Tropic of Cancer---the boundary between the tropics and subtropics---passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 °C during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 °C coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45 °C. The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 °C in Phalodi, Rajasthan. And the lowest was -60 °C in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir.
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# Geography of India
## Geology
India\'s geological features are classified based on their era of formation. The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan. Tertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam. The Pleistocene system is found over central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year.
Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils. Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface. It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley. Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric. National Disaster Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to earthquakes and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.
Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive. Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis. These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus.
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# Geography of India
## Geology
### Cratons
`{{anchor | Craton | Cratons of India | Indian Craton | Indian Shield}}`{=mediawiki}
Cratons are a specific kind of continental crust made up of a top layer called platform and an older layer called basement. A shield is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by plate tectonics.
The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such:
- Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton): Covers Rajasthan as well as western and southern Haryana. It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by the *Great Boundary Fault* in the east, sandy Thar Desert in the Thar desert in the west, Indo-ganetic alluvium in the north, Son-Narmada-Tapti in the south. It mainly has quartzite, marble, pelite, greywacke and extinct volcanos exposed in Aravalli-Delhi Orogen. Malani Igneous Suite is the largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world.
- Bundelkand Craton, covers 26,00 km^2^ in the Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau. It is limited by the Aravalli in the west, Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gantetic alluvium in the north. It is similar to the Aravali Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution of Hindoli and Mahakoshal belts at the margins of two cratons.
- Dharwar Craton (Karnataka Craton), 3.4 - 2.6 Ga, granite-greenstone terrain covers the state of Karnataka and parts of eastern and southern Maharashtra state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau. In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).
- Singhbhum Craton, 4,000 km^2^ area which primarily covers Jharkhand as well as parts of Odisha, northern Andhra Pradesh, northern Telangana and eastern Maharashtra. It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the north, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east.
- Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton), primarily covers Chhattisgarh and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau. It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga old TTG gneisses of five types. It is subdivided into Kotri-Dongagarh Orogen and the Rest of Bastar Craton. It is limited by three rifts, Godavari rift in southwest, Narmada rift in northwest and Mahanadi rift in northeast
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# Indian religions
*The Religion of India*\|the religions of indigenous peoples of North America\|Native American religions}} `{{Pp|small=yes}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Pie chart
| caption = Indian religions as a percentage of world population
| label1 = Hinduism
| value1 = 16
| color1 = orange
| label2 = Buddhism
| value2 = 7.1
| color2 = yellow
| label3 = Sikhism
| value3 = 0.35
| color3 = DarkKhaki
| label4 = Jainism
| value4 = 0.06
| color4 = LightCoral
| other = yes
| other-label = Non-Indian religions and irreligion
}}`{=mediawiki}
**Indian religions**, sometimes also termed **Dharmic religions** or **Indic religions**, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism,`{{refn|group=note|Adams: "Indian religions, including early Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism, and sometimes also Theravāda Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia".}}`{=mediawiki} are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.
Religion Population
------------ ------------------
Hindus 1.25 billion
Buddhists 520 million
Sikhs 30 million
Jains 6 million
Others 4 million
Total **1.81 billion**
: Indian religions by number of followers (2020 survey)
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600--1900 BCE), had an early urbanized culture which predates the Vedic religion.`{{Better source needed|reason=Vir Singhvi is a journalist, not a scholar.|date=February 2017}}`{=mediawiki}
The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryan peoples, which were collected and later redacted into the *Vedas*, as well as the Agamas of Dravidian origin. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE. The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarized in Upanishads, which are commonly referred to as *Vedānta*, variously interpreted to mean either the \"last chapters, parts of the Veda\" or \"the object, the highest purpose of the Veda\". The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of the eleven principal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before the 6th century BCE, and contain the earliest mentions of yoga and moksha.
The śramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a \"turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism\". The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). In the 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism and Buddhism and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) and nastika (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.). However, both branches shared the related concepts of yoga, *saṃsāra* (the cycle of birth and death) and *moksha* (liberation from that cycle).`{{refn|group=note|[[Buddhism and Hinduism#Similarities|Buddhism and Hinduism Similarities]]}}`{=mediawiki}
The Puranic Period (200 BCE -- 500 CE) and early medieval period (500--1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta, and smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta.
The early Islamic period (1100--1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India. The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region. During the period of British rule in India, a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided the Indian independence movement.
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# Indian religions
## History
### Periodisation
Scottish historian James Mill, in his seminal work *The History of British India* (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into \"ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods\", although this periodization has also received criticism.
Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to \"ruling dynasties and foreign invasions\", neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth centuries, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on \"significant social and economic changes\", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.`{{refn|group=note|See also Tanvir Anjum, ''[https://www.academia.edu/6647852/Temporal_Divides_A_Critical_Review_of_the_Major_Schemes_of_Periodization_in_Indian_History Temporal Divides: A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History]''.}}`{=mediawiki}
Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill\'s periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the \"ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods\" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:
- Indian pre-history including Indus Valley civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE)
- Iron Age including Vedic period (c. 1750--600 BCE)
- \"Second Urbanisation\" (c. 600--200 BCE)
- Classical period (c. 200 BCE -- 1200 CE)
- Pre-Classical period (c. 200 BCE -- 320 CE)
- \"Golden Age\" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320--650 CE)
- Late-Classical period (c. 650--1200 CE)
- Medieval period (c. 1200--1500 CE)
- Early Modern (c. 1500--1850)
- Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850)
### Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE) {#prevedic_religions_before_c._1750_bce}
#### Prehistory
The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of the Indus Valley and Ganges Valley, was likely local animism that did not have missionaries.
Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.
#### Indus Valley civilisation {#indus_valley_civilisation}
The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective. An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall\'s interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.
One Indus valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after *Pashupati* (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva. While Marshall\'s work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall\'s conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with *Mahisha*, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions. Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far. Despite the criticisms of Marshall\'s association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave or an early Buddha by Buddhists. Historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation.
Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall\'s hypothesis to be \"terribly robust\". Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise *yoni* were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.
Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations. One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh. Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him. Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.
In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge. This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification. The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.
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# Indian religions
## History
### Vedic period (1750--800 BCE) {#vedic_period_1750800_bce}
The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the *Samhitas* (usually known as the Vedas), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central *shruti* (revealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.
The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into its core beliefs.
Some modern Hindu scholars use the \"Vedic religion\" synonymously with \"Hinduism\". According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion. Other authors state that the Vedas contain \"the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma\"`{{refn|group=note|Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya declares that Vedas contain the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma.<ref>{{cite book |page=6 |title=Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures And Theology |author=Ashim Kumar Bhattacharyya}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} which is called \"the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma\" The Arya Samaj recognizes the Vedic religion as true Hinduism. Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel
#### Early Vedic period -- early Vedic compositions (c. 1750--1200 BCE) {#early_vedic_period_early_vedic_compositions_c._17501200_bce}
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers.`{{refn|group=note|In post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, ''[[Śrauta]]'' means "what is heard"}}`{=mediawiki}
The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna, sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire, accompanied by the singing of Samans and \'mumbling\' of Yajus, the sacrificial mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána). An essential element was the sacrificial fire -- the divine Agni -- into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.
Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta. *Satya* is derived from Sat, the present participle of the verbal root *as*, \"to be, to exist, to live\". *Sat* means \"that which really exists \[\...\] the really existent truth; the Good\", and *Sat-ya* means \"is-ness\". *Rta*, \"that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth\", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. \"Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness.\" \"Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe.\" Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:
The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures. \"Asha\" is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. The term \"dharma\" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.
Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.
#### Middle Vedic period (c. 1200--850 BCE) {#middle_vedic_period_c._1200850_bce}
During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed. The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies.
Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.
#### Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE) {#late_vedic_period_from_850_bce}
The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the \'essence\' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with \'God\' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the Upanishads and later texts like the epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), is a major component of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition.
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# Indian religions
## History
### Sanskritization
Since Vedic times, \"people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms\", a process sometimes called Sanskritization. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.
### Shramanic period (c. 800--200 BCE) {#shramanic_period_c._800200_bce}
During the time of the shramanic reform movements \"many elements of the Vedic religion were lost\". According to Michaels, \"it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions\".
#### Late Vedic period -- Brahmanas and Upanishads -- Vedanta (850--500 BCE) {#late_vedic_period_brahmanas_and_upanishads_vedanta_850500_bce}
The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period.`{{refn|group=note|"Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The [[Brahmana]]s and [[Aranyaka]]s are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century BCE."<ref group=web name="Indiana10" />}}`{=mediawiki} This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.
Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.
Scholars believe that Parsva, the 23rd Jain *tirthankara* lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.
#### Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) {#rise_of_shramanic_tradition_7th_to_5th_centuries_bce}
Jainism and Buddhism belong to the śramaṇa traditions. These religions rose into prominence in 700--500 BCE in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting \"the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India\", and were responsible for the related concepts of *saṃsāra* (the cycle of birth and death) and *moksha* (liberation from that cycle).
The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals. The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.`{{refn|group=note|Cromwell Crwaford: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic (self reliant) culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="Cromwell" />}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|group=note|Masih: "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to [sic] the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."<ref name="Masih" />}}`{=mediawiki}`{{refn|group=note |Padmanabh S. Jaini: "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism".<ref name="Jaini" />}}`{=mediawiki} Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.
Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.`{{refn|group=note|Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski: "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."<ref>P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars. While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads. Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies. In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as \"pernicious views\".
##### Jainism
Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parshvanatha (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).`{{refn|group=note|Oldmeadow: "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as [[śramaṇa|Sramana Dharma]]. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins."<ref name="Oldmeadow" /> Page 141}}`{=mediawiki}
The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including *ahimsa* (non-violence), *satya* (truthfulness), *asteya* (non-stealing), and *aparigraha* (non-attachment). As per Jain tradition, the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time. The scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.`{{refn|group=note|Fisher: "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira."<ref name="Fisher" />|p=[https://archive.org/details/livingreligions00fish_0/mode/2up?q=Mahavira p. 115].}}`{=mediawiki}
##### Buddhism
Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.
Gautama Buddha, who was called an \"awakened one\" (Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal. The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka\'s Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546--324 BCE) rose to power. The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage, via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.
Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth. This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.) and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.). There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.
#### Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500--200 BCE) {#spread_of_jainism_and_buddhism_500200_bce}
Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.
Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.
Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE due to his significant patronage of the religion. His reign is considered a period of growth and influence for the religion, although Jainism had flourished for centuries before and continued to develop in prominence after his time.
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## History
### Shramanic period (c. 800--200 BCE) {#shramanic_period_c._800200_bce}
#### Dravidian culture {#dravidian_culture}
The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-vedic texts. or as pre-vedic oral compositions. The *Agamas* are a collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of *murti*, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. The worship of tutelary deity, sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.
Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians. *Seyon* was glorified as *the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,* as *the favored god of the Tamils.* Sivan was also seen as the supreme God. Early iconography of Seyyon and Sivan and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization. The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, *thinais*, based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these *thinai* had an associated deity such Seyyon in *Kurinji*-the hills, Thirumaal in *Mullai*-the forests, and Kotravai in *Marutham*-the plains, and Wanji-ko in the *Neithal*-the coasts and the seas. Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time. Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the *Rigveda* (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.
Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance. The king was \'the representative of God on earth\' and lived in a \"koyil\", which means the \"residence of a god\". The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil. Titual worship was also given to kings. Modern words for god like \"kō\" (\"king\"), \"iṟai\" (\"emperor\"), and \"āṇḍavar\" (\"conqueror\") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who later merged into Indra. Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the \"Three Glorified by Heaven\". In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.
The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated with Shaktism. The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess. In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai. Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones *Natukal* or *Hero Stone* had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.
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## History
### Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE -- 500 CE) {#epic_and_early_puranic_period_200_bce_500_ce}
Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period, in which the epics and the first puranas were being written. Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE, which saw the rise of so-called \"Classical Hinduism\", with its \"golden age\" during the Gupta Empire.
According to Alf Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the Guptas (c. 320--467 CE), which he calls the \"Hindus synthesis\", \"Brahmanic synthesis\", or \"orthodox synthesis\". It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:
The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. Prominent among these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita, and the medieval Bhakti movement.
#### Smriti
The *smriti* texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and \"nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.\" Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta \"are rooted primarily in the Vedic *sruti* tradition and are sometimes called *smarta* schools in the sense that they develop *smarta* orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like *smriti*, directly on *sruti*.\" According to Hiltebeitel, \"the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of *bhakti*.\" It is the *Bhagavadgita* that seals this achievement. The result is a universal achievement that may be called *smarta*. It views Shiva and Vishnu as \"complementary in their functions but ontologically identical\".
#### Vedanta -- Brahma sutras (200 BCE) {#vedanta_brahma_sutras_200_bce}
In earlier writings, Sanskrit \'Vedānta\' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedānta considers shabda pramāṇa (scriptural evidence) as the most authentic means of knowledge, while pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāna (logical inference) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).
The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Brahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE. The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations. This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.
#### Indian philosophy {#indian_philosophy}
After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta. Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a *nāstika* (\"heterodox\") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.
#### Hindu literature {#hindu_literature}
Two of Hinduism\'s most revered *epics*, the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example, the *Ganapati Purana* was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesha). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesha (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).
In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.
#### Jainism and Buddhism {#jainism_and_buddhism}
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.
There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Chalukyas, Somavanshi, and Satavahana. Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.
#### Tantra
Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period. According to Michaels this was the \"Golden Age of Hinduism\" (c. 320--650 CE), which flourished during the Gupta Empire (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha Empire (606 to 647 CE). During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy. Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty. The position of the Brahmans was reinforced, and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.
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## History
### Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500--1500 CE) {#medieval_and_late_puranic_period_5001500_ce}
#### Late-Classical Period (c. 650--1100 CE) {#late_classical_period_c._6501100_ce}
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with \"countless vasal states\". The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. \"The great king was remote, was exalted and deified\", as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry. Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of \"Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism\" was diminished. Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti, and Tantra, though \"sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development\". Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords. Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.
##### Vedanta
In the same period Vedanta changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind. Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside. In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads. This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a \"living substance\" to \"maya-vada\"`{{refn|group=note|The term "maya-vada" is primarily being used by non-Advaitins. See <ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |title=Mayavada Philosophy |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185604/https://harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |title=The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183434/https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |url-status=live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |title=Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same? |access-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706152155/http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same |archive-date=6 July 2017}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}, where Atman and Brahman are seen as \"pure knowledge-consciousness\". According to Scheepers, it is this \"maya-vada\" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.
##### Buddhism {#buddhism_1}
Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.
##### Bhakti
The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one\'s status -- whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga. The best-known proponents of this movement were the Alvars and the Nayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath. Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.
The Alvars (*ஆழ்வார்கள்*, *āḻvārkaḷ* `{{IPA|ta|aːɻʋaːr|}}`{=mediawiki}, those immersed in god) were the Tamil poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused \"emotional devotion\" or bhakti to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service. The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.
Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men, and administration was many times composed mainly of women. Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.
Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479--1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (*Pure Non-dualism*) school of Vedanta thought.
According to *The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training*,
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## History
### Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500--1500 CE) {#medieval_and_late_puranic_period_5001500_ce}
#### Early Islamic rule (c. 1100--1500 CE) {#early_islamic_rule_c._11001500_ce}
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting \"Indo-Muslim\" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.
##### Bhakti movement {#bhakti_movement}
During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great *Bhakti* movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or *Sants*. Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabha Acharya, Sur, Meera, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas, Tyagaraja, and others propagated Bhakti in the South. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.
##### Lingayatism
Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna. The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats. The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning \"one who wears *Ishtalinga* on their body\" (*Ishtalinga* is the representation of the God). In Lingayat theology, *Ishtalinga* is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality. Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform--based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.
##### Unifying Hinduism {#unifying_hinduism}
thumb\|center\|upright=3.7\|An aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple from the top of the southern gopuram, looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.\|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,
The tendency of \"a blurring of philosophical distinctions\" has also been noted by Mikel Burley. Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of \"mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other\", which started well before 1800. Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term \"Hinduism\" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.
##### Sikhism (15th century) {#sikhism_15th_century}
Sikhism originated in 15th-century Punjab, Delhi Sultanate (present-day India and Pakistan) with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in *Vāhigurū*--- represented by the sacred symbol of *ēk ōaṅkār* \[meaning one god\]. Sikhism\'s traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (*students* or *disciples*) and number over 25 million across the world.
### Modern period (1500--present) {#modern_period_1500present}
#### Early modern period {#early_modern_period}
According to Gavin Flood, the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500. The period of Mughal rule in India saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.
#### Modern India (after 1800) {#modern_india_after_1800}
##### Hinduism
In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi. These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India\'s religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.
The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence. For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions. Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, another organisation with a global reach. In late 18th-century India, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide. Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.
##### Jainism {#jainism_1}
Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.
##### Buddhism {#buddhism_2}
The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to as Navayana is a 19th- and 20th-century Buddhist revival movement in India. It received its most substantial impetus from B. R. Ambedkar\'s call for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism in 1956 and the opportunity to escape the caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy.
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# Indian religions
## Similarities and differences {#similarities_and_differences}
According to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted \"differentially\" or \"integrally\", that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities. According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.
### Similarities
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals. Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but \"perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family.\"
#### Dharma
The spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept of Dharma. It has various meanings depending on the context. For example it could mean duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, conduct, etc.
#### Soteriology
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept of moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth. They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.
#### Ritual
Common traits can also be observed in ritual. The head-anointing ritual of *abhiseka* is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana). Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical narratives and purana have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions. All four traditions have notions of *karma*, *dharma*, *samsara*, *moksha* and various *forms of Yoga*.
#### Mythology
Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: *Vessantarajataka*, Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama, etc. There also exists the *Khamti Ramayana* among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The *Tai Ramayana* is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.
### Differences
Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions. All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.
#### Mythology {#mythology_1}
Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions. A popular story tells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being. The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the *Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha* and the *Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra*. According to Kalupahana, the story \"echoes\" the story of the conversion of Ambattha. It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism.
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# Indian religions
## *Āstika* and *nāstika* categorisation {#āstika_and_nāstika_categorisation}
*Āstika* and *nāstika* are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions but we need to keep some caveats in mind.
Satoshi Ogura argues - We have found no Sanskrit doxography completed up to the end of the sixteenth century that distinguishes only Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta as orthodox systems that acknowledge the revelation of the Vedas. To put it mildly, such a categorization was not mainstream in Indian philosophy. E.g. - In her dissertation dealing with the works by the Mughal prince Dārā Shukūh, Supriya Gandhi has, in contrast, asserted that Roy rather inherited religious discourses in early modern Persian literature in writing his treatises on religions, noting the similarity of Roy\'s word-usage to that of Dārā. We can say that the case of ṣaḍdarśana shares a common feature with that of Roy\'s thought, i.e., that a "traditional" Indic concept that has been discussed as a Western or colonial invention had probably sprouted in the late medieval or early modern cosmopolitan culture on the subcontinent before the time of Western impact. We thus should keep in mind the tendency of classification of Indic knowledge in Persianate discourses and its legacies in modern writings in both India and the Western world.
The traditional definition, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as *āstika* and *nāstika* according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as *āstika* schools, while Charvaka is classified as a *nāstika* school. Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as *nāstika* religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.
Another set of definitions---notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy---loosely characterise *āstika* as \"theist\" and *nāstika* as \"atheist\". By these definitions, *Sāṃkhya* can be considered a *nāstika* philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic *āstika* schools. From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remain *nāstika* religions.
Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts, or those who deny the existence of the soul was well known to the Jainas.
## Use of term \"Dharmic religions\" {#use_of_term_dharmic_religions}
Frawley and Malhotra use the term \"Dharmic traditions\" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.`{{refn|group=note|Occasionally the term is also being used by other authors. David Westerlund: "... may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of 'dharmic' religions."<ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} According to Frawley, \"all religions in India have been called the Dharma\", and can be
According to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term \"dharma\"
The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions. According to Richard E. King it is typical of the \"inclusivist appropriation of other traditions\" of Neo-Vedanta:
The \"Council of Dharmic Faiths\" (UK) regards Zoroastrianism, while not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion.
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## Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India {#status_of_non_hindus_in_the_republic_of_india}
The inclusion of Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system. The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act \"\[defines\] as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian, Muslim, Parsee (Zoroastrian) or Jew\". And the Indian Constitution says that \"reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion\".
In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or *special* faiths within the larger Hindu fold,`{{refn|group=note|In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post-Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}}`{=mediawiki} and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.`{{refn|group=note|The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of ''Bal Patil vs. Union of India'': "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}}`{=mediawiki} Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.`{{refn|group=note|The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}}`{=mediawiki} In 2005, the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.`{{refn|group=note|In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."<ref group=web name="Supreme Court" />}}`{=mediawiki}
However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, \"The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate. However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.
Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism. Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains as well as Supreme Court\'s extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a \"special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court\"
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# Interrogatories
In law, **interrogatories** (also known as **requests for further information**) are a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary in order to clarify matters of fact and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case.
## Use
Interrogatories are used to gain information from the other party relevant to the issues in a lawsuit. The law and issues will differ depending upon the facts of a case and the laws of the jurisdiction in which a lawsuit is filed. For some types of cases there are standard sets of interrogatories available that cover the essential facts, and may be modified for the case in which they are used.
When a lawsuit is filed, the pleadings filed by the parties are intended to let the other parties know what each side intends to prove at trial, and what legal case they have to answer. However, in most cases, the parties will require additional information to fully understand each other\'s legal and factual claims. The discovery process, including the use of interrogatories, can help the parties obtain that information from each other.
For an example of how interrogatories may be used, in a motor vehicle accident lawsuit, an injured plaintiff typically asserts that the defendant driver committed the tort of negligence in causing the accident. To prove negligence, the law requires the injured plaintiff to show that the driver owed them a duty of care and breached it, causing the injury. Assuming that the defendant did not dispute driving a vehicle that was involved in the accident that injured the plaintiff, the case would come down to whether the driver drove in accordance with the standard of a reasonable driver, and whether the injured person\'s injuries are a foreseeable consequence of the driving.
The parties may use interrogatories to seek information, including concessions as to how the accident occurred, from each other. The injured plaintiff might serve interrogatories on the defendant driver seeking information that would support the plaintiff\'s theory of the case. If the plaintiff is alleging that the defendant was speeding, the plaintiff might ask the defendant to state the speed of the defendant\'s vehicle at the time of the accident. If the plaintiff alleges that the defendant failed to control the car properly or failed to pay proper attention to the road and other vehicles, the plaintiff could ask interrogatory questions that would help prove those allegations or require disclosure of the basis of any denial of negligence by the defendant. The driver may have a defense to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third party intervention). The injured person may, however, argue that the driver was still responsible (perhaps the driver should have used the horn of the vehicle to alert the third party), or there may be other allegations.
The defense may similarly use interrogatories to help build legal and factual defenses to the plaintiff\'s case. Continuing with the example of a car accident, the defendant may seek information or concessions from the plaintiff that would suggest that a different driver was partially or wholly responsible for the accident, or that under the facts the accident was unavoidable despite the proper exercise of care.
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# Interrogatories
## Specific jurisdictions {#specific_jurisdictions}
### England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In England and Wales, this procedure is governed by Part 18 of the Civil Procedure Rules. It is known as a *Request for Further Information*.
In the *Request for Further Information* procedure, use of standard pre-printed forms is not common, and any such request would almost certainly be looked upon critically by the courts, as use of standard forms rather than requests tailored specifically to the case is likely to offend against the \'Overriding Objective\' in that it is unlikely to be proportionate to the case, and instead result in the parties or their lawyers having to spend time, money and resources in answering the questions. The way the rules work, this could easily result in the party making the request having to pay both their own costs and the costs of the opponent - even if they win the case at the end.
In England and Wales, firstly the person wanting to know the information requests it in writing, either in letter form or, more usually, on a blank document with the questions on one side of the page and space for the answers on the other side. A deadline is set for the opponent to answer the request. If they fail to answer, the person requesting can make an Application on Notice to the court and ask the procedural judge to make an order compelling the opponent to answer the questions. Whether the judge will make an order is discretionary and will be determined in accordance with the overriding objective, and in the context of the questions asked.
In particular, the procedure is not intended to be used to ask questions that would ordinarily be dealt with at trial.
### United States {#united_states}
In the United States, use of interrogatories is governed by the law where the case has been filed. All federal courts operate under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, which places various limitations on the use of this device, permitting individual jurisdictions to limit interrogatories to twenty-five questions per party. Interrogatories are typically \"verified\", meaning that the response will include an affidavit and will therefore be under oath. The affidavit may distinguish interrogatories from requests for admission, which are not normally answered under oath.
California, on the other hand, operates under the Civil Discovery Act of 1986 (a revision of an older 1957 act), which is codified in the California Code of Civil Procedure. The Discovery Act allows up to thirty-five specially prepared interrogatories per party, but this limit may be exceeded simply by executing and serving a declaration of necessity with the interrogatories. However, because the declaration of necessity must be executed under penalty of perjury, it can expose an attorney to *personal* sanctions for propounding an excessive number of harassing and burdensome interrogatories.
In nearly all U.S. jurisdictions, interrogatories are called just that and are supposed to be custom-written, although many questions can be reused from one case to the next. In the U.S. states of California, New Jersey, and Florida, the courts have promulgated standard \"form\" interrogatories. In California these come on an official court form promulgated by the Judicial Council of California and a party may ask another party to answer any of them by checking the appropriate boxes. The advantage of the California form interrogatories is that they do not count against the limit of 35 (except when used in limited civil cases); the disadvantage is that they are written in a very generic fashion, so about half of the questions are useful only in the simplest cases. In turn, California calls custom-written interrogatories \"specially prepared interrogatories.\"
Because interrogatories are so heavily used in American discovery, there are two major compilations of generic interrogatories covering almost every conceivable type of legal case: *Bender\'s Forms of Discovery: Interrogatories* (published by LexisNexis) and *Pattern Discovery* (published by West)
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# Insert (filmmaking)
In film, an **insert** is a shot of part of a scene as filmed from a different angle and/or focal length from the master shot. Inserts cover action already covered in the master shot, but emphasize a different aspect of that action due to the different framing. An insert differs from a cutaway as cutaways cover action *not* covered in the master shot.
There are more exact terms to use when the new, inserted shot is another view of actors: close-up, head shot, knee shot, two shot. So the term \"insert\" is often confined to views of objects---and body parts, other than the head. Often inserts of this sort are done separately from the main action, by a second-unit director using stand-ins.
Inserts and cutaways can both be vexatious for directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same relative position as in the main take, and having the lighting be the same.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The 1975 movie *Inserts* directed by John Byrum about a pornographic film production, which starred Richard Dreyfuss and was originally released with an X rating, took its name from the double meaning that \"insert\" both refers to this film technique (often used in pornographic filmmaking) and to sexual intercourse
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# Geography of Indonesia
Indonesia is an archipelagic country located in Southeast Asia and Oceania, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is located in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes connecting East Asia, South Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world. Indonesia\'s various regional cultures have been shaped---although not specifically determined---by centuries of complex interactions with its physical environment.
## Overview
Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending about 5120 km from east to west and 1760 km from north to south. It is considered to be the largest archipelagic country in the world. According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping (Bakosurtanal), Indonesia has 17,500 islands. While earlier survey conducted in 2002 by National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) stated Indonesia has 18,307 islands. According to the CIA World Factbook, there are 17,508 islands. The discrepancy between the surveys is likely caused by the earlier different survey method including tidal islands, sandy cays and rocky reefs that surface during low tide and submerge during high tide. There are 8,844 named islands according to estimates made by the government of Indonesia, with 922 of those being permanent. It comprises five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as *Kalimantan* in Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major island groups (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands) and sixty smaller island groups. Four of the islands are shared with other countries: Borneo is shared with Malaysia and Brunei; Sebatik, located off the northeastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia; Timor is shared with East Timor; and New Guinea is shared with Papua New Guinea.
Indonesia has total land area of 1904569 km2, including 93000 km2 of inland seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). This makes it the largest island country in the world. The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia\'s generally recognised territory (land and sea) to about 5 million km^2^. The government claims an exclusive economic zone of 6159032 km2. This brings the total area to about 7.9 million km^2^.
Indonesia is a transcontinental country, where its territory consisted of islands geologically considered as part of either Asia or Australia. During the Pleistocene, the Greater Sunda Islands were connected to the Asian mainland while New Guinea was connected to Australia. Karimata Strait, Java Sea and Arafura Sea were formed as the sea level rose at the end of the Pleistocene.
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# Geography of Indonesia
## Geology
The main islands of Sumatra, Java, Madura, and Kalimantan lie on the Sunda plate and geographers have conventionally grouped them, (along with Sulawesi), as the Greater Sunda Islands. At Indonesia\'s eastern extremity is western New Guinea, which lies on the Australian plate. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 300 m or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group with deep, surrounding seas down to 4500 m in depth. The term \"Outer Islands\" is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.
Sulawesi is an island lies on three separate plates, the Banda Sea plate, Molucca Sea plate, and Sunda plate. Seismic and volcanic activities are high on its northeastern part, evidenced by the formation of volcanoes in North Sulawesi and island arcs such as the Sangihe and Talaud Islands, southwest of the Philippine Trench.
Nusa Tenggara or Lesser Sunda Islands consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward southern Maluku. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the Alpide belt chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic Banda Islands, which along with the Kai Islands and the Tanimbar Islands and other small islands in the Banda Sea are typical examples of the Wallacea mixture of Asian and Australasian plant and animal life. The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor. The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands, consisted of four different tectonic plates. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippine Sea to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the southwest. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas and have unique Wallacea vegetation. This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains. To the south lies the Banda Sea. The convergence between the Banda Sea plate and Australian plate created a chain of volcanic islands called the Banda Arc. The sea also contains the Weber Deep, one of the deepest point in Indonesia.
Geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea is part of the Australian continent, both lies on Sahul Shelf and once joined via a land bridge during the Last glacial period. The tectonic movement of the Australian plate created towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining the island\'s central east--west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coasts. The New Guinea Highlands range some 650 km east to west along the island, forming a mountainous spine between the northern and southern portion of the island. Due to its tectonic movement, New Guinea experienced many earthquakes and tsunamis, especially in its northern and western part.
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# Geography of Indonesia
## Geology
### Tectonism and volcanism {#tectonism_and_volcanism}
Most of the larger islands are mountainous, with peaks ranging between 2000 and meters above sea level in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country\'s tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Range in Papua. The highest peak, Puncak Jaya (4884 m), is located in the Sudirman Mountains. A string of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra to Nusa Tenggara, and then loops around through to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, approximately 150 are active. Two of the most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia; in 1815 Mount Tambora in Sumbawa erupted killing 92,000 and in 1883, Krakatau, erupted killing 36,000. While volcanic ashes resulted from eruption has positive effects for the fertility of the surrounding soils, it also makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.
Indonesia has relatively high tectonic and volcanic activities. It lies on the convergence between the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Pacific, and Philippine Sea plate. The Sunda megathrust is a 5,500 km long fault located off southern coasts of Sumatra, Java and Lesser Sunda Islands, where the Indo-Australian Plate is thrusting northeastward towards the subducting Sunda Plate. Tectonic movement in this fault is responsible for the creation of the Sunda Trench, and mountain ranges across Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Many great earthquakes occurred in the vicinity of the fault, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Mount Merapi, located in the Java portion of the megathrust, is the most active volcano in Indonesia and is designated as one of world\'s Decade Volcanoes due to the hazard it poses to the surrounding populated areas. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami devastated the Indonesian provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra, resulting in approximately 225,000 deaths and leaving over 425,000 people homeless. The disaster caused significant damage to infrastructure, homes, and local industries. The Indonesian government, in partnership with international organizations like the IMF, World Bank, and ADB, coordinated relief and reconstruction efforts. Preliminary assessments estimated the reconstruction cost at \$4-5 billion over five years. During a donor meeting in January 2005, nearly \$4 billion in aid was pledged for reconstruction, with a focus on transparency and efficient fund management. Despite the severe local impact, the overall effect on Indonesia's national GDP was limited, as the Aceh region contributed only about 2% of national output. The Paris Club also offered a temporary debt moratorium, which helped fund rebuilding without diverting domestic financial resources.
The northern part of Sulawesi and Maluku Islands lie on the convergence of Sunda Plate and Molucca Sea plate, making it an active tectonic region with volcanic chains such as the Sangihe and Talaud Islands. Northern Maluku and western New Guinea is located on the convergence of Bird\'s Head, Philippine Sea and Caroline plate. It is also a seismically active region, with the 7.6 M~w~ 2009 Papua earthquakes being the most recent great earthquake to date in the region.
## Ecology
Borneo is the third largest island in the world and the native vegetation was mostly Borneo lowland rain forests although much of this has been cleared with wildlife retreating to the Borneo montane rain forests inland. The islands of North Maluku are the original Spice Islands, a distinct rainforest ecoregion. A number of islands off the coast of New Guinea have their own distinctive biogeographic features, including the limestone islands of Biak, in the entrance to the large Cenderawasih Bay at the northwest end of the island.
A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 14,416 km^2^ of tidal flats in Indonesia, ranking it 1st in the world in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there. Another global analysis also estimated that Indonesia experienced the greatest total tidal wetland change (36% of global net change including mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) between 1999 and 2019 with a net loss of 1,426 km2.
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# Geography of Indonesia
## Time zones {#time_zones}
Indonesia is divided into three time zones:
- **Western Indonesian Time/WIT** (Indonesian: *Waktu Indonesia Barat*/**WIB**) (UTC+7)
- WIB is observed in islands of Sumatra, Java, provinces of West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan.
- **Central Indonesian Time/CIT** (*Waktu Indonesia Tengah*/**WITA**) (UTC+8)
- WITA is observed in islands of Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, provinces of East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and North Kalimantan.
- **Eastern Indonesian Time/EIT** (*Waktu Indonesia Timur*/**WIT**) (UTC+9).
- WIT is observed in provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua, West Papua, Southwest Papua, Central Papua, South Papua, and Highland Papua.
## Climate
Lying along the equator, Indonesia\'s climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons---a wet season and a dry season---with no extremes of summer or winter. For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October while the wet season between November and April.
Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet. Rainfall in Indonesia is plentiful, particularly in west Sumatra, northwest Kalimantan, west Java, and western New Guinea.
Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba and Timor, are drier, however, these are exceptions. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia\'s area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. The coastal plains averaging 28 °C, the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C, and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C. The area\'s relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%.
Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.
Indonesia\'s climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found in every major island of Indonesia, followed by the tropical monsoon climate that predominantly lies along Java\'s coastal north, Sulawesi\'s coastal south and east, and Bali, and finally the tropical savanna climate, found in isolated locations of Central Java, lowland East Java, coastal southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok.
However, cooler climate types do exist in mountainous regions of Indonesia 1,300--1,500 metres above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen *Cfb*) prevail in highland areas with fairly uniform precipitation year-round, adjacent to rainforest climates, while the subtropical highland climate (Köppen *Cwb*) exist in highland areas with a more pronounced dry season, adjacent to tropical monsoon and savanna climates.
Above 3000 metres is where cold, subpolar climates dominate and where frost and occasional snow become more commonplace. The subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen *Cfc*), existing between 3,000 and 3,500 metres, can be found on the mountain slopes of Indonesia\'s highest peaks, and serves as a transition between oceanic climates and tundra climates. Tundra climates (Köppen *ET*), are found anywhere above 3500 metres on the highest peaks of Indonesia, including the permanently snow-capped peaks in Papua. In this climate regime, average monthly temperatures are all below 10 °C, and monthly precipitation is uniform.
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# Geography of Indonesia
## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
Indonesia\'s high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.
Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world\'s third largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.
In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over 30% today, and this increases pressure on the urban environment. Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly in Java, and the increasing affluence of the growing middle class drives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles and associated emissions. Garbage and waste water services are being placed under increasing pressure. Reliance on septic systems or effluent disposal in open canals and river systems remains the norm, and is a major polluter of water resources. Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water and must boil water before use.
The geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali, another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector, a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favouring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains---at least in the Greater Sunda Islands---permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.
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# Geography of Indonesia
## Statistics
**Area:**\
*total land area:* 1,904,569 km^2^ (*land:* 1,811,569 km^2\ (699450 mi^2^)^, *inland water:* 93,000 km2
**Area -- comparative:**
- Slightly smaller than Nunavut, Canada
- Slightly larger than combined area of Alaska and New England
- More than 27 times larger than Republic of Ireland
- *Territorial area:* 5,193,250 km^2^
- *Total area (including exclusive economic zone):* 8,063,601 km^2^
**Land boundaries:**
- *Total:* 3096 km
- *Border countries:* Malaysia 2019 km, Papua New Guinea 824 km, East Timor 253 km
- *Other nearby countries:* Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Palau, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
**Coastline:** 54720 km
**Maritime claims:** measured from claimed archipelagic baselines\
*territorial sea:* 12 nmi\
*exclusive economic zone:* 6159032 km2 with 200 nmi
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Sea level at 0 m (sea surface level); southern portion of the Philippine Trench, east of Miangas at -9,125 m\
*highest point:* Puncak Jaya (also known as *Carstensz Pyramid*) 4,884 m **Land use:**\
*arable land:* 12.97%\
*permanent crops:* 12.14%\
*other:* 74.88% (2013)
**Irrigated land:** 67,220 km^2^ (2005) (25,953 mi^2^)
**Total renewable water resources:** 2,019 km^3^ (2011) (484 mi^3^)
**Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):**\
*total:* 113.3 km^3^/yr (11%/19%/71%)\
*per capita:* 517
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# Demographics of Indonesia
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Historical population
Indonesia is a highly diverse country, both ethnically and linguistically. The country\'s population reached 270.20 million according to the 2020 national census, up from 237.64 million in 2010. As of mid-2025, the official estimate stood at 284.44 million, reflecting an annual growth rate of 1.11%. It remains the fourth most populous country in the world. Java, excluding Madura is home to approximately 54.4% of the national population, making it the most densely populated island globally.
Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since 1967, Indonesia\'s average population growth per year was over 1.1% for the decade ending in 2020, nearly having 13% population growth for that decade. At this rate, Indonesia\'s population is no longer projected to surpass the population of the United States (whose population is increasing at a faster rate), and it is itself projected by the United Nations (UN) to be overtaken in population by Nigeria and by Pakistan by 2040. Indonesia has a relatively young population compared to many Western countries, although it is gradually aging due to declining birth rates and rising life expectancy. As of 2017, the median age stood at 30.2 years.
The country is among the most ethnically and linguistically diverse in the world, home to over 600 ethnic groups and more than 700 languages. Since gaining independence, Indonesian has served as the national language and is widely used in education, government, business, and formal communication. However, most Indonesians grow up speaking a regional language as their mother tongue, using Indonesian primarily as a *lingua franca* for interethnic interaction. Major regional languages include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Buginese, Balinese, and Batak, among many others. The Javanese, who make up about 40% of the population, have historically held significant political influence, with every president since independence having at least partial or full Javanese ancestry.
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# Demographics of Indonesia
## Population
<File:Map> of Indonesian provinces by urban population percentage, 2022.svg\|Provinces of Indonesia by urban population percentage <File:Indonesia> provinces population density 2020.svg\|Provinces of Indonesia by population density per square kilometer in 2020 <File:Population> density of Indonesia by village and subdistrict (desa & kelurahan) (2024).png\|Villages of Indonesia by population density per square kilometer in 2024
Year Population ±% p.a.
------ ------------- ---------
1 2,000,000 ---
1000 3,500,000 +0.06%
1500 7,750,000 +0.16%
1700 9,500,000 +0.10%
1930 60,727,233 +0.81%
1955 77,473,268 +0.98%
1961 97,085,348 +3.83%
1971 119,208,229 +2.07%
1976 141,862,419 +3.54%
1980 147,490,298 +0.98%
1990 179,378,946 +1.98%
2000 206,264,595 +1.41%
2010 237,641,326 +1.43%
2020 270,203,917 +1.29%
: Historical Population of Indonesia with Annual Growth Rate
Source: Our World in Data, Statistics Indonesia, Wertheim (1959), Geografi dan Kependudukan (1976), Widjojo Nitisastro (2006)
### Population by province {#population_by_province}
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Province | Population\ | Urban %\ | Total\ | Population\ | Urban %\ | Total Fertility rate (2020 census) |
| | (2010 census) | in 2010 | Fertility\ | (2020 census) | in 2022 | |
| | | | Rate (2010 census) | | | |
+:=======================:+=================+==========+====================+=================+==========+====================================+
| Aceh | 4,494,410 | | 2.79 | 5,274,900 | | |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| North Sumatra | 12,982,204 | | 3.01 | 14,799,400 | | 2.48 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Sumatra | 4,846,909 | | 2.91 | 5,534,500 | | 2.46 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Riau | 5,538,367 | | 2.82 | 6,394,100 | | 2.28 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Jambi | 3,092,265 | | 2.51 | 3,548,200 | | 2.28 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| South Sumatra | 7,450,394 | | 2.56 | 8,467,400 | | 2.23 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Bengkulu | 1,715,518 | | 2.51 | 2,010,700 | | 2.30 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Lampung | 7,608,405 | | 2.45 | 9,007,800 | | 2.28 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Bangka Belitung Islands | 1,223,296 | | 2.54 | 1,455,700 | | 2.24 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Riau Islands | 1,679,163 | | 2.38 | 2,064,600 | | 2.21 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Banten | 10,632,166 | | 2.35 | 11,904,600 | | 2.01 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Jakarta | 9,607,787 | | 1.82 | 10,562,100 | | 1.75 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Java | 43,053,732 | | 2.43 | 48,274,200 | | 2.11 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Central Java | 32,382,657 | | 2.20 | 36,516,000 | | 2.09 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Yogyakarta | 3,457,491 | | 1.94 | 3,668,700 | | 1.89 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| East Java | 37,476,757 | | 2.00 | 40,665,700 | | 1.98 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Bali | 3,890,757 | | 2.13 | 4,317,400 | | 2.04 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Nusa Tenggara | 4,500,212 | | 2.59 | 5,320,100 | | |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| East Nusa Tenggara | 4,683,827 | | 3.82 | 5,325,600 | | 2.79 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Kalimantan | 4,395,983 | | 2.64 | 5,414,400 | | 2.33 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Central Kalimantan | 2,212,089 | | 2.56 | 2,670,000 | | 2.31 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| South Kalimantan | 3,626,616 | | 2.35 | 4,073,600 | | 2.31 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| East Kalimantan | 3,028,487 | | 2.61 | 3,766,000 | | 2.18 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| North Kalimantan | 524,656 | | | 701,800 | | |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| North Sulawesi | 2,270,596 | | 2.43 | 2,621,900 | | 2.10 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Gorontalo | 1,040,164 | | 2.76 | 1,171,700 | | 2.30 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Central Sulawesi | 2,635,009 | | 2.94 | 2,985,700 | | 2.32 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| South Sulawesi | 8,034,776 | | 2.55 | 9,073,500 | | 2.22 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Southeast Sulawesi | 2,232,586 | | 3.20 | 2,624,900 | | 2.57 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Sulawesi | 1,158,651 | \-- | 3.33 | 1,419,200 | | 2.58 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Maluku | 1,533,506 | | 3.56 | 1,848,900 | | 2.52 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| North Maluku | 1,038,087 | | 3.35 | 1,282,900 | | 2.47 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Papua | 2,833,381 | | 2.87 | 4,303,700 | | 2.76 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| West Papua | 760,422 | \-- | 3.18 | 1,134,100 | | 2.66 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| **Indonesia** | **237,641,326** | | **2.41** | **270,203,900** | | 2.18 |
+-------------------------+-----------------+----------+--------------------+-----------------+----------+------------------------------------+
Source: Population Census 2010, except for final column, taken from Population Census 2020.
Note: ^(a)^ North Kalimantan province was created in 2012 (by separation from East Kalimantan province); the 2010 total figures given are those for the provinces as they were following that splitting (Urban % and Total Fertility Rate columns unadjusted).
[1](https://web.archive.org/web/20130814132347/http://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Indonesia-provinces-North-Kalimantan-Map.png)
### Age structure {#age_structure}
: *0-14 years:* 23.33%
: *15-64 years:* 70.72%
: *65 years and over:* 5.95% (2020 census)
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Median age of Indonesia by district (2022) Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Data are based on the publication: \"Indonesia Population Projection 2015-2045\"):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ---------
Total 135 337 011 134 266 419 269 603 430 100
0--4 11 101 528 10 850 465 21 951 993 8.14
5--9 11 205 657 10 739 503 21 945 160 8.14
10--14 11 284 333 10 884 509 22 168 842 8.22
15--19 11 189 861 10 949 531 22 139 392 8.21
20--24 11 070 774 10 887 555 21 958 329 8.14
25--29 10 963 605 10 736 361 21 699 966 8.05
30--34 10 777 337 10 524 673 21 302 010 7.90
35--39 10 477 475 10 305 704 20 783 179 7.71
40--44 9 830 929 9 693 109 19 524 038 7.24
45--49 9 140 315 9 023 924 18 164 239 6.74
50--54 7 975 551 7 947 477 15 923 028 5.91
55--59 6 632 329 6 691 467 13 323 796 4.94
60--64 5 234 762 5 287 052 10 521 814 3.90
65-69 3 758 966 3 921 263 7 680 229 2.85
70-74 2 485 308 2 757 062 5 242 370 1.94
75+ 2 208 281 3 066 764 5 275 045 1.96
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 33 591 518 32 474 477 66 065 995 24.50
15--64 93 292 938 92 046 853 185 339 791 68.75
65+ 8 452 555 9 745 089 18 197 644 6.75
| 1,036 |
Demographics of Indonesia
| 1 |
14,645 |
# Demographics of Indonesia
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Fertility rate of Indonesia by province (2017)
### United Nations estimates {#united_nations_estimates}
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Period</p></th>
<th><p>Population<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Live births<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Deaths<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Natural change<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>CBR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>CDR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>NC</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>TFR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>IMR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Life expectancy<br />
(years)</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1950</p></td>
<td><p>69 568</p></td>
<td><p>2 826</p></td>
<td><p>1 505</p></td>
<td><p>1 321</p></td>
<td><p>40.6</p></td>
<td><p>21.6</p></td>
<td><p>19.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.19</p></td>
<td><p>189.1</p></td>
<td><p>39.40</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1951</p></td>
<td><p>71 019</p></td>
<td><p>2 926</p></td>
<td><p>1 522</p></td>
<td><p>1 404</p></td>
<td><p>41.2</p></td>
<td><p>21.4</p></td>
<td><p>19.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.23</p></td>
<td><p>186.8</p></td>
<td><p>39.79</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1952</p></td>
<td><p>72 571</p></td>
<td><p>3 035</p></td>
<td><p>1 517</p></td>
<td><p>1 518</p></td>
<td><p>41.8</p></td>
<td><p>20.9</p></td>
<td><p>20.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.27</p></td>
<td><p>182.0</p></td>
<td><p>40.69</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1953</p></td>
<td><p>74 208</p></td>
<td><p>3 146</p></td>
<td><p>1 526</p></td>
<td><p>1 620</p></td>
<td><p>42.4</p></td>
<td><p>20.6</p></td>
<td><p>21.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.31</p></td>
<td><p>177.4</p></td>
<td><p>41.42</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1954</p></td>
<td><p>75 925</p></td>
<td><p>3 257</p></td>
<td><p>1 533</p></td>
<td><p>1 723</p></td>
<td><p>42.9</p></td>
<td><p>20.2</p></td>
<td><p>22.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.35</p></td>
<td><p>172.9</p></td>
<td><p>42.19</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1955</p></td>
<td><p>77 742</p></td>
<td><p>3 359</p></td>
<td><p>1 542</p></td>
<td><p>1 817</p></td>
<td><p>43.2</p></td>
<td><p>19.8</p></td>
<td><p>23.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.37</p></td>
<td><p>168.4</p></td>
<td><p>42.92</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1956</p></td>
<td><p>79 662</p></td>
<td><p>3 475</p></td>
<td><p>1 544</p></td>
<td><p>1 931</p></td>
<td><p>43.6</p></td>
<td><p>19.4</p></td>
<td><p>24.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.41</p></td>
<td><p>164.0</p></td>
<td><p>43.80</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1957</p></td>
<td><p>81 691</p></td>
<td><p>3 589</p></td>
<td><p>1 556</p></td>
<td><p>2 033</p></td>
<td><p>43.9</p></td>
<td><p>19.0</p></td>
<td><p>24.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.45</p></td>
<td><p>159.8</p></td>
<td><p>44.50</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1958</p></td>
<td><p>83 819</p></td>
<td><p>3 701</p></td>
<td><p>1 575</p></td>
<td><p>2 126</p></td>
<td><p>44.2</p></td>
<td><p>18.8</p></td>
<td><p>25.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.48</p></td>
<td><p>155.8</p></td>
<td><p>45.05</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1959</p></td>
<td><p>86 048</p></td>
<td><p>3 811</p></td>
<td><p>1 578</p></td>
<td><p>2 233</p></td>
<td><p>44.3</p></td>
<td><p>18.3</p></td>
<td><p>26.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.51</p></td>
<td><p>151.9</p></td>
<td><p>45.86</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1960</p></td>
<td><p>88 383</p></td>
<td><p>3 929</p></td>
<td><p>1 593</p></td>
<td><p>2 337</p></td>
<td style="color:blue;"><p>44.5</p></td>
<td><p>18.0</p></td>
<td><p>26.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.55</p></td>
<td><p>148.3</p></td>
<td><p>46.45</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1961</p></td>
<td><p>90 817</p></td>
<td><p>4 031</p></td>
<td><p>1 602</p></td>
<td><p>2 429</p></td>
<td><p>44.4</p></td>
<td><p>17.6</p></td>
<td><p>26.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.57</p></td>
<td><p>144.8</p></td>
<td><p>47.12</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1962</p></td>
<td><p>93 345</p></td>
<td><p>4 127</p></td>
<td><p>1 603</p></td>
<td><p>2 523</p></td>
<td><p>44.2</p></td>
<td><p>17.2</p></td>
<td><p>27.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.59</p></td>
<td><p>141.4</p></td>
<td><p>47.87</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1963</p></td>
<td><p>95 963</p></td>
<td><p>4 217</p></td>
<td><p>1 614</p></td>
<td><p>2 603</p></td>
<td><p>43.9</p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p></td>
<td><p>27.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.60</p></td>
<td><p>138.1</p></td>
<td><p>48.43</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1964</p></td>
<td><p>98 675</p></td>
<td><p>4 304</p></td>
<td><p>1 609</p></td>
<td><p>2 695</p></td>
<td><p>43.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.3</p></td>
<td style="color:blue;"><p>27.3</p></td>
<td><p>5.61</p></td>
<td><p>134.8</p></td>
<td><p>49.23</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1965</p></td>
<td><p>101 158</p></td>
<td><p>4 380</p></td>
<td><p>2 121</p></td>
<td><p>2 259</p></td>
<td><p>43.3</p></td>
<td><p>21.0</p></td>
<td><p>22.3</p></td>
<td style="color:blue"><p>5.62</p></td>
<td><p>142.7</p></td>
<td><p>42.60</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1966</p></td>
<td><p>103 561</p></td>
<td><p>4 426</p></td>
<td><p>1 740</p></td>
<td><p>2 686</p></td>
<td><p>42.7</p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p></td>
<td><p>25.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.60</p></td>
<td><p>129.5</p></td>
<td><p>48.20</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1967</p></td>
<td><p>106 261</p></td>
<td><p>4 468</p></td>
<td><p>1 596</p></td>
<td><p>2 871</p></td>
<td><p>42.0</p></td>
<td><p>15.0</p></td>
<td><p>27.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.58</p></td>
<td><p>124.8</p></td>
<td><p>51.07</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1968</p></td>
<td><p>109 139</p></td>
<td><p>4 503</p></td>
<td><p>1 594</p></td>
<td><p>2 909</p></td>
<td><p>41.3</p></td>
<td><p>14.6</p></td>
<td><p>26.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.54</p></td>
<td><p>121.4</p></td>
<td><p>51.63</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1969</p></td>
<td><p>112 149</p></td>
<td><p>4 555</p></td>
<td><p>1 582</p></td>
<td><p>2 973</p></td>
<td><p>40.6</p></td>
<td><p>14.1</p></td>
<td><p>26.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.51</p></td>
<td><p>118.0</p></td>
<td><p>52.35</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1970</p></td>
<td><p>115 228</p></td>
<td><p>4 596</p></td>
<td><p>1 576</p></td>
<td><p>3 021</p></td>
<td><p>39.9</p></td>
<td><p>13.7</p></td>
<td><p>26.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.45</p></td>
<td><p>114.6</p></td>
<td><p>52.99</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1971</p></td>
<td><p>118 347</p></td>
<td><p>4 627</p></td>
<td><p>1 570</p></td>
<td><p>3 056</p></td>
<td><p>39.1</p></td>
<td><p>13.3</p></td>
<td><p>25.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.36</p></td>
<td><p>111.5</p></td>
<td><p>53.58</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1972</p></td>
<td><p>121 504</p></td>
<td><p>4 667</p></td>
<td><p>1 560</p></td>
<td><p>3 107</p></td>
<td><p>38.4</p></td>
<td><p>12.8</p></td>
<td><p>25.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.29</p></td>
<td><p>108.4</p></td>
<td><p>54.24</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1973</p></td>
<td><p>124 709</p></td>
<td><p>4 720</p></td>
<td><p>1 554</p></td>
<td><p>3 166</p></td>
<td><p>37.9</p></td>
<td><p>12.5</p></td>
<td><p>25.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.22</p></td>
<td><p>105.3</p></td>
<td><p>54.85</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1974</p></td>
<td><p>127 945</p></td>
<td><p>4 727</p></td>
<td><p>1 547</p></td>
<td><p>3 180</p></td>
<td><p>37.0</p></td>
<td><p>12.1</p></td>
<td><p>24.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.09</p></td>
<td><p>102.3</p></td>
<td><p>55.43</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1975</p></td>
<td><p>131 213</p></td>
<td><p>4 783</p></td>
<td><p>1 544</p></td>
<td><p>3 239</p></td>
<td><p>36.5</p></td>
<td><p>11.8</p></td>
<td><p>24.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.04</p></td>
<td><p>99.4</p></td>
<td><p>55.97</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1976</p></td>
<td><p>134 521</p></td>
<td><p>4 813</p></td>
<td><p>1 540</p></td>
<td><p>3 273</p></td>
<td><p>35.8</p></td>
<td><p>11.5</p></td>
<td><p>24.3</p></td>
<td><p>4.92</p></td>
<td><p>96.8</p></td>
<td><p>56.51</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1977</p></td>
<td><p>137 862</p></td>
<td><p>4 849</p></td>
<td><p>1 534</p></td>
<td><p>3 315</p></td>
<td><p>35.2</p></td>
<td><p>11.1</p></td>
<td><p>24.0</p></td>
<td><p>4.81</p></td>
<td><p>94.1</p></td>
<td><p>57.08</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1978</p></td>
<td><p>141 251</p></td>
<td><p>4 908</p></td>
<td><p>1 535</p></td>
<td><p>3 373</p></td>
<td><p>34.7</p></td>
<td><p>10.9</p></td>
<td><p>23.9</p></td>
<td><p>4.72</p></td>
<td><p>91.6</p></td>
<td><p>57.57</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1979</p></td>
<td><p>144 693</p></td>
<td><p>4 952</p></td>
<td><p>1 530</p></td>
<td><p>3 422</p></td>
<td><p>34.2</p></td>
<td><p>10.6</p></td>
<td><p>23.7</p></td>
<td><p>4.61</p></td>
<td><p>89.3</p></td>
<td><p>58.15</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1980</p></td>
<td><p>148 177</p></td>
<td><p>4 981</p></td>
<td><p>1 521</p></td>
<td><p>3 460</p></td>
<td><p>33.6</p></td>
<td><p>10.3</p></td>
<td><p>23.4</p></td>
<td><p>4.49</p></td>
<td><p>86.9</p></td>
<td><p>58.75</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1981</p></td>
<td><p>151 686</p></td>
<td><p>4 997</p></td>
<td><p>1 526</p></td>
<td><p>3 472</p></td>
<td><p>33.0</p></td>
<td><p>10.1</p></td>
<td><p>22.9</p></td>
<td><p>4.36</p></td>
<td><p>84.6</p></td>
<td><p>59.14</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1982</p></td>
<td><p>155 229</p></td>
<td style="text-align:right; color:blue;"><p>5 036</p></td>
<td><p>1 514</p></td>
<td style="text-align:right; color:blue;"><p>3 522</p></td>
<td><p>32.4</p></td>
<td><p>9.8</p></td>
<td><p>22.7</p></td>
<td><p>4.25</p></td>
<td><p>82.3</p></td>
<td><p>59.76</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1983</p></td>
<td><p>158 791</p></td>
<td><p>5 016</p></td>
<td><p>1 507</p></td>
<td><p>3 508</p></td>
<td><p>31.6</p></td>
<td><p>9.5</p></td>
<td><p>22.1</p></td>
<td><p>4.10</p></td>
<td><p>79.9</p></td>
<td><p>60.27</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1984</p></td>
<td><p>162 332</p></td>
<td><p>4 986</p></td>
<td><p>1 502</p></td>
<td><p>3 484</p></td>
<td><p>30.7</p></td>
<td><p>9.3</p></td>
<td><p>21.5</p></td>
<td><p>3.94</p></td>
<td><p>77.6</p></td>
<td><p>60.73</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1985</p></td>
<td><p>165 792</p></td>
<td><p>4 836</p></td>
<td><p>1 481</p></td>
<td><p>3 355</p></td>
<td><p>29.2</p></td>
<td><p>8.9</p></td>
<td><p>20.2</p></td>
<td><p>3.71</p></td>
<td><p>75.2</p></td>
<td><p>61.31</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1986</p></td>
<td><p>169 135</p></td>
<td><p>4 736</p></td>
<td><p>1 472</p></td>
<td><p>3 264</p></td>
<td><p>28.0</p></td>
<td><p>8.7</p></td>
<td><p>19.3</p></td>
<td><p>3.53</p></td>
<td><p>72.8</p></td>
<td><p>61.72</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1987</p></td>
<td><p>172 421</p></td>
<td><p>4 732</p></td>
<td><p>1 481</p></td>
<td><p>3 251</p></td>
<td><p>27.4</p></td>
<td><p>8.6</p></td>
<td><p>18.9</p></td>
<td><p>3.42</p></td>
<td><p>70.4</p></td>
<td><p>61.97</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1988</p></td>
<td><p>175 695</p></td>
<td><p>4 738</p></td>
<td><p>1 495</p></td>
<td><p>3 244</p></td>
<td><p>27.0</p></td>
<td><p>8.5</p></td>
<td><p>18.5</p></td>
<td><p>3.33</p></td>
<td><p>68.0</p></td>
<td><p>62.21</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1989</p></td>
<td><p>178 949</p></td>
<td><p>4 707</p></td>
<td><p>1 487</p></td>
<td><p>3 220</p></td>
<td><p>26.3</p></td>
<td><p>8.3</p></td>
<td><p>18.0</p></td>
<td><p>3.22</p></td>
<td><p>65.6</p></td>
<td><p>62.70</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1990</p></td>
<td><p>182 160</p></td>
<td><p>4 647</p></td>
<td><p>1 477</p></td>
<td><p>3 170</p></td>
<td><p>25.5</p></td>
<td><p>8.1</p></td>
<td><p>17.4</p></td>
<td><p>3.10</p></td>
<td><p>63.1</p></td>
<td><p>63.18</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1991</p></td>
<td><p>185 361</p></td>
<td><p>4 702</p></td>
<td><p>1 484</p></td>
<td><p>3 218</p></td>
<td><p>25.4</p></td>
<td><p>8.0</p></td>
<td><p>17.4</p></td>
<td><p>3.06</p></td>
<td><p>60.6</p></td>
<td><p>63.54</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1992</p></td>
<td><p>188 558</p></td>
<td><p>4 644</p></td>
<td><p>1 468</p></td>
<td><p>3 176</p></td>
<td><p>24.6</p></td>
<td><p>7.8</p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p></td>
<td><p>2.94</p></td>
<td><p>58.1</p></td>
<td><p>64.13</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1993</p></td>
<td><p>191 737</p></td>
<td><p>4 652</p></td>
<td><p> style="color:blue;" |1 464</p></td>
<td><p>3 188</p></td>
<td><p>24.3</p></td>
<td><p>7.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.6</p></td>
<td><p>2.88</p></td>
<td><p>55.7</p></td>
<td><p>64.60</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1994</p></td>
<td><p>194 929</p></td>
<td><p>4 681</p></td>
<td><p>1 481</p></td>
<td><p>3 201</p></td>
<td><p>24.0</p></td>
<td><p>7.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>2.84</p></td>
<td><p>53.3</p></td>
<td><p>64.86</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1995</p></td>
<td><p>198 140</p></td>
<td><p>4 714</p></td>
<td><p>1 487</p></td>
<td><p>3 227</p></td>
<td><p>23.8</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.3</p></td>
<td><p>2.80</p></td>
<td><p>51.0</p></td>
<td><p>65.24</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1996</p></td>
<td><p>201 374</p></td>
<td><p>4 762</p></td>
<td><p>1 519</p></td>
<td><p>3 244</p></td>
<td><p>23.6</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.77</p></td>
<td><p>48.9</p></td>
<td><p>65.36</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1997</p></td>
<td><p>204 628</p></td>
<td><p>4 797</p></td>
<td><p>1 526</p></td>
<td><p>3 271</p></td>
<td><p>23.4</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.0</p></td>
<td><p>2.74</p></td>
<td><p>46.8</p></td>
<td><p>65.73</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1998</p></td>
<td><p>207 855</p></td>
<td><p>4 744</p></td>
<td><p>1 544</p></td>
<td><p>3 200</p></td>
<td><p>22.8</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>15.4</p></td>
<td><p>2.66</p></td>
<td><p>44.8</p></td>
<td><p>65.96</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1999</p></td>
<td><p>210 997</p></td>
<td><p>4 683</p></td>
<td><p>1 559</p></td>
<td><p>3 123</p></td>
<td><p>22.2</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>14.8</p></td>
<td><p>2.58</p></td>
<td><p>42.9</p></td>
<td><p>66.22</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2000</p></td>
<td><p>214 072</p></td>
<td><p>4 680</p></td>
<td><p>1 581</p></td>
<td><p>3 099</p></td>
<td><p>21.9</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>14.5</p></td>
<td><p>2.54</p></td>
<td><p>41.1</p></td>
<td><p>66.43</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2001</p></td>
<td><p>217 112</p></td>
<td><p>4 679</p></td>
<td><p>1 591</p></td>
<td><p>3 088</p></td>
<td><p>21.5</p></td>
<td><p>7.3</p></td>
<td><p>14.2</p></td>
<td><p>2.50</p></td>
<td><p>39.5</p></td>
<td><p>66.76</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2002</p></td>
<td><p>220 115</p></td>
<td><p>4 662</p></td>
<td><p>1 596</p></td>
<td><p>3 066</p></td>
<td><p>21.2</p></td>
<td style="color:blue;"><p>7.2</p></td>
<td><p>13.9</p></td>
<td><p>2.46</p></td>
<td><p>37.8</p></td>
<td><p>67.13</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2003</p></td>
<td><p>223 080</p></td>
<td><p>4 658</p></td>
<td><p>1 612</p></td>
<td><p>3 046</p></td>
<td><p>20.8</p></td>
<td><p>7.2</p></td>
<td><p>13.7</p></td>
<td><p>2.43</p></td>
<td><p>36.3</p></td>
<td><p>67.41</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2004</p></td>
<td><p>225 939</p></td>
<td><p>4 678</p></td>
<td><p>1 807</p></td>
<td><p>2 871</p></td>
<td><p>20.8</p></td>
<td><p>8.1</p></td>
<td><p>12.7</p></td>
<td><p>2.42</p></td>
<td><p>36.9</p></td>
<td><p>65.75</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2005</p></td>
<td><p>228 805</p></td>
<td><p>4 746</p></td>
<td><p>1 679</p></td>
<td><p>3 067</p></td>
<td><p>21.0</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>13.6</p></td>
<td><p>2.45</p></td>
<td><p>33.5</p></td>
<td><p>67.65</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2006</p></td>
<td><p>231 797</p></td>
<td><p>4 819</p></td>
<td><p>1 698</p></td>
<td><p>3 121</p></td>
<td><p>20.9</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>13.5</p></td>
<td><p>2.46</p></td>
<td><p>32.2</p></td>
<td><p>67.91</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2007</p></td>
<td><p>234 858</p></td>
<td><p>4 923</p></td>
<td><p>1 719</p></td>
<td><p>3 205</p></td>
<td><p>21.0</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>13.5</p></td>
<td><p>2.48</p></td>
<td><p>31.0</p></td>
<td><p>68.19</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2008</p></td>
<td><p>237 937</p></td>
<td><p>4 927</p></td>
<td><p>1 763</p></td>
<td><p>3 164</p></td>
<td><p>20.5</p></td>
<td><p>7.4</p></td>
<td><p>13.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.44</p></td>
<td><p>29.8</p></td>
<td><p>68.23</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2009</p></td>
<td><p>240 981</p></td>
<td><p>4 913</p></td>
<td><p>1 780</p></td>
<td><p>3 133</p></td>
<td><p>20.4</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>12.9</p></td>
<td><p>2.44</p></td>
<td><p>28.7</p></td>
<td><p>68.49</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2010</p></td>
<td><p>244 016</p></td>
<td><p>4 920</p></td>
<td><p>1 807</p></td>
<td><p>3 112</p></td>
<td><p>20.4</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>12.8</p></td>
<td><p>2.46</p></td>
<td><p>27.6</p></td>
<td><p>68.68</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2011</p></td>
<td><p>247 100</p></td>
<td><p>5 029</p></td>
<td><p>1 843</p></td>
<td><p>3 186</p></td>
<td><p>20.6</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>13.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.52</p></td>
<td><p>26.5</p></td>
<td><p>68.82</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2012</p></td>
<td><p>250 223</p></td>
<td><p>5 028</p></td>
<td><p>1 875</p></td>
<td><p>3 153</p></td>
<td><p>20.4</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>12.9</p></td>
<td><p>2.51</p></td>
<td><p>25.6</p></td>
<td><p>68.97</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2013</p></td>
<td><p>253 276</p></td>
<td><p>4 917</p></td>
<td><p>1 889</p></td>
<td><p>3 029</p></td>
<td><p>19.6</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>12.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.44</p></td>
<td><p>24.6</p></td>
<td><p>69.26</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2014</p></td>
<td><p>256 230</p></td>
<td><p>4 857</p></td>
<td><p>1 904</p></td>
<td><p>2 953</p></td>
<td><p>19.1</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>11.6</p></td>
<td><p>2.39</p></td>
<td><p>23.7</p></td>
<td><p>69.53</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2015</p></td>
<td><p>259 092</p></td>
<td><p>4 780</p></td>
<td><p>1 933</p></td>
<td><p>2 847</p></td>
<td><p>18.6</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>11.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.35</p></td>
<td><p>22.8</p></td>
<td><p>69.70</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2016</p></td>
<td><p>261 850</p></td>
<td><p>4 718</p></td>
<td><p>1 972</p></td>
<td><p>2 746</p></td>
<td><p>18.1</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>10.6</p></td>
<td><p>2.31</p></td>
<td><p>22.0</p></td>
<td><p>69.80</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2017</p></td>
<td><p>264 499</p></td>
<td><p>4 634</p></td>
<td><p>2 004</p></td>
<td><p>2 629</p></td>
<td><p>17.5</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>10.0</p></td>
<td><p>2.25</p></td>
<td><p>21.2</p></td>
<td><p>69.94</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2018</p></td>
<td><p>267 067</p></td>
<td><p>4 588</p></td>
<td><p>2 002</p></td>
<td><p>2 586</p></td>
<td><p>17.1</p></td>
<td><p>7.6</p></td>
<td><p>9.6</p></td>
<td><p>2.22</p></td>
<td><p>20.5</p></td>
<td><p>70.34</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2019</p></td>
<td><p>269 583</p></td>
<td><p>4 559</p></td>
<td><p>2 032</p></td>
<td><p>2 526</p></td>
<td><p>16.9</p></td>
<td><p>7.6</p></td>
<td><p>9.4</p></td>
<td><p>2.21</p></td>
<td><p>19.8</p></td>
<td><p>70.52</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2020</p></td>
<td><p>271 858</p></td>
<td><p>4 526</p></td>
<td><p> 2 437</p></td>
<td><p>2 089</p></td>
<td><p>16.7</p></td>
<td><p>8.8</p></td>
<td><p>7.8</p></td>
<td><p>2.19</p></td>
<td><p>19.2</p></td>
<td><p>68.81</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2021</p></td>
<td><p>273 753</p></td>
<td><p>4 496</p></td>
<td><p> style="color:red;" |2 755</p></td>
<td><p> |1 741</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>10.0</p></td>
<td style="color:red;"><p>6.4</p></td>
<td><p>2.17</p></td>
<td><p>18.6</p></td>
<td><p>67.57</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2022</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>16.2</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>8.7</p></td>
<td><p>2.15</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2023</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>15.9</p></td>
<td><p>7.5</p></td>
<td><p>8.4</p></td>
<td><p>2.13</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2024</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>15.8</p></td>
<td><p>7.6</p></td>
<td><p>8.1</p></td>
<td><p>2.11</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2025</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>15.5</p></td>
<td><p>7.7</p></td>
<td><p>7.8</p></td>
<td><p>2.10</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="11" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:left"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022 `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=year
| yAxisTitle= million
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| 1,496 |
Demographics of Indonesia
| 2 |
14,645 |
# Demographics of Indonesia
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### United Nations estimates {#united_nations_estimates}
| y1= 69.6,71,72.6,74.2,75.9,77.7,79.7,81.7,83.8,86,88.4,90.8,93.3,96,98.7,101.2,103.6,106.3,109.1,112.1,115.2,118.3,121.5,124.7,127.9,131.2,134.5,137.9,
141.3,144.7,148.2,151.7,155.2,158.8,162.3,165.8,169.1,172.4,175.7,178.9,182.2,185.4,188.6,191.7,194.9,198.1,201.4,204.6,207.9,211,214.1,217.1,220.1,223.1,225.9,228.8,231.8,234.9,237.9,241,244,247.1,250.2,253.3,256.2,259.1,261.9,264.5,267.1,269.6,271.9,273.8
| y1Title= population (million)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= ‰
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1= 19.0,19.8,20.9,21.8,22.7,23.4,24.2,24.9,25.4,26.0,26.4,26.7,27.0,27.1,27.3,22.3,25.9,27.0,26.7,26.5,26.2,25.8,25.6,25.4,24.9,24.7,24.3,24.0,23.9,
23.7,23.4,22.9,22.7,22.1,21.5,20.2,19.3,18.9,18.5,18.0,17.4,17.4,16.8,16.6,16.4,16.3,16.1,16.0,15.4,14.8,14.5,14.2,13.9,
13.7,12.7,13.4,13.5,13.6,13.3,13.0,12.8,12.9,12.6,12.0,11.5,11.0,10.5,9.9,9.7,9.4,7.7, 6.4
| y1Title=Natural change (per 1000)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= ‰
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1=189.1,186.8,182.0,177.4,172.9,168.4,164.0,159.8,155.8,151.9,148.3,144.8,141.4,138.1,134.8,142.7,129.5,124.8,121.4,118.0,114.6,111.5,108.4,105.3,
102.3,99.4,96.8,94.1,91.6,89.3,86.9,84.6,82.3,79.9,77.6,75.2,72.8,70.4,68.0,65.6,63.1,60.6,58.1,55.7,53.3,51.0,48.9,46.8,44.8,42.9,41.1,39.5,37.8,36.3,36.9,
33.5,32.2,31.0,29.8,28.7,27.6,26.5,25.6,24.6,23.7,22.8,22.0,21.2,20.5,19.8,19.2,18.6
| y1Title=Infant Mortality (per 1000 live births)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= TFR
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=2.1
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1= 5.19,5.23,5.27,5.31,5.35,5.37,5.41,5.45,5.48,5.51,5.55,5.57,5.59,5.60,5.61,5.62,5.60,5.58,5.54,5.51,5.45,5.36,5.29,5.22,5.09,5.04,4.92,4.81,4.72,4.61,
4.49,4.36,4.25,4.10,3.94,3.71,3.53,3.42,3.33,3.22,3.10,3.06,2.94,2.88,2.84,2.80,2.77,2.74,2.66,2.58,2.54,2.50,2.46,2.43,2.42,2.43,2.45,2.49,2.48,2.46,2.45,2.50,2.49,2.43,2.39,2.35,2.31,2.26,2.23,2.22,2.19,2.18
| y1Title=Total Fertility Rate
}}`{=mediawiki}
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year Total Urban
----------- ------- ------------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
1981-1983 4.3
1987 3.4 (3.1)
1991 25.1 3.02 (2.50) 24.0
1994 2.9 (2.4)
1997 2.8 (2.4)
2002-2003 21.9 2.6 (2.2) 22.1
2007 20.9 2.6 (2.2) 20.2
2012 20.4 2.6 (2.0) 20.1
2017 18.1 2.4 (2.1) 17.7
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# Demographics of Indonesia
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Fertility rate and aging population (by province) {#fertility_rate_and_aging_population_by_province}
Total fertility rate (TFR) and population over age 60 by region as of 2010:
Province Total fertility rate
-------------------- ---------------------- ------
2010 2020
North Sumatera 3.01 2.48
West Sumatera 2.91 2.46
Riau 2.82 2.28
Jambi 2.51 2.28
South Sumatera 2.56 2.23
Bengkulu 2.51 2.30
Lampung 2.45 2.28
Bangka Belitung 2.54 2.24
Kepulauan Riau 2.38 2.21
Jakarta 1.82 1.75
West Java 2.43 2.11
Central Java 2.20 2.09
Yogyakarta 1.94 1.89
East Java 2.00 1.98
Banten 2.35 2.01
Bali 2.13 2.04
East Nusa Tenggara 3.82 2.79
West Kalimantan 2.64 2.33
Central Kalimantan 2.56 2.31
South Kalimantan 2.35 2.31
East Kalimantan 2.61 2.18
North Sulawesi 2.43 2.10
Central Sulawesi 2.94 2.32
South Sulawesi 2.55 2.22
Southeast Sulawesi 3.20 2.57
Gorontalo 2.76 2.30
West Sulawesi 3.33 2.58
Maluku 3.56 2.52
North Maluku 3.35 2.47
West Papua 3.18 2.66
Papua 2.87 2.76
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# Demographics of Indonesia
## Marriages and Divorces {#marriages_and_divorces}
Year Mid-year population Marriages Divorces
------ --------------------- ----------- ----------
2007 234,858,000 1,944,569 175,713
2008 237,937,000 2,194,037 193,189
2009 240,981,000 2,162,115 223,371
2010 238,518,800 2,207,224 285,184
2011 247,100,000 2,319,821 276,791
2012 250,223,000 2,289,648 346,480
2013 253,276,000 2,210,046 324,247
2014 256,230,000 2,110,776 344,237
2015 255,587,500 1,958,394 347,256
2016 258,496,500 1,837,185 365,633
2018 264,161,600 2,016,171 408,202
2019 266,911,900 1,968,978 439,002
2020 270,203,900 1,780,346 291,677
2021 272,682,500 1,742,049 447,743
2022 275,773,000 1,705,348 516,344
2023 278,696,200 1,577,255 463,654
2024 281,603,800 1,478,302 394,608
: Marriages and Divorces in Indonesia
Note: No data is available for 2017.
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Indonesia is a country of great ethnic diversity, with approximately 600 distinct indigenous ethnic groups living side by side across more than 17,000 islands. The majority of Indonesia\'s population is descended from Austronesian peoples who are concentrated in western and central Indonesia, which is part of the Asian continent. Another large group is the Melanesian peoples, who inhabit the eastern part of Indonesia (the Maluku Islands, Western New Guinea, and the East Nusa Tenggara) in Oceania.
The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, accounting for 40.2% of the population and are culturally, economically, and politically dominant. The Javanese are concentrated in Java, the most populous island, especially in the central and eastern parts, and also in significant numbers in most provinces due to extensive migration throughout the archipelago. The Sundanese are the next largest group (15.4%), followed by the Malays, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationalism is present along with strong ethnic and regional identities.
## Languages
Indonesian is the official and national language of Indonesia, widely spoken by over 97% of the population. However, Indonesia is a highly multilingual country. According to Ethnologue, there are currently 737 regional languages spoken across the Indonesian archipelago. This extensive linguistic diversity accounts for about 10% of the world's total languages, making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country in the world. The majority of these languages belong to the Austronesian language family, which is prevalent in the western and central regions of Indonesia, including languages such as Acehnese, Batak, Sundanese, Balinese, Banjarese and Buginese. In contrast, the eastern regions, particularly Papua and the Maluku Islands, are home to over 270 Papuan languages, which are distinct from the Austronesian language family and represent a unique linguistic heritage. The most widely spoken language as a mother tongue is Javanese, spoken by over 80 million speakers, mainly in central and east Java, but also on many other islands due to migration.
## Religion
Indonesia is the world\'s most populous Muslim-majority nation; based on civil registration data in 2024 from Ministry of Home Affairs, 87.09% of Indonesians are Muslims, 10.45% Christians (7.38% Protestants, 3.07% Roman Catholic), 1.67% Hindu, 0.71% Buddhists, 0.03% Confucians and 0.04% Folk and other faiths. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are Chinese
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# Communications in Indonesia
**Communications in Indonesia** has a complex history due to the need to reach an extended archipelago of over 17,500 islands. The once important non-electronic communication methods of the past have given way to a considerable telecommunications infrastructure in contemporary Indonesia.
## History
In the sixteenth century the Dutch Empire colonised Indonesia, constructing an elaborate communication system, both within Indonesia and to other countries. The first connection to Australia was an undersea telegraph cable that was completed on 18 November 1871, connecting Java to Darwin, and eventually to the Australian Overland Telegraph Line across Australia.
After independence, Indonesia started to develop its own communication systems, generally following the rest of the world. The construction of communication towers and launch of the Palapa series of communication satellites was done during the New Order period.
## Infrastructure
A number of lines connect Indonesia to international communication routes. For example, the SEA-ME-WE 3 optical submarine telecommunications cable lands at both Medan and Jakarta connecting Europe with South eastern Asia (several countries up to Japan) and Australia (Perth).
## Media
### Print
Indonesia has a long list of print media, in the form of newspapers and magazines. Some, such as Kompas, Media Indonesia, Koran Sindo and Koran Tempo are circulated daily and are relatively simple to obtain. Others are island- or city-specific, and are usually not distributed to other regions.
### Telephone
`{{see also|Telephone numbers in Indonesia}}`{=mediawiki}
- Telephones -- main lines in use: 9.99 million (2004)
- Telephones -- mobile cellular: At the end of 2010, the mobile cellular penetration rate was 67 percent (22 percent at end of 2006). CDMA use is declining in favour of GSM.
- Telephone system: domestic service fair, international service good
- domestic: interisland microwave system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications system
- international: satellite earth stations -- 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
### Radio
`{{see also|List of radio stations in Indonesia}}`{=mediawiki}
- Radio broadcast stations: AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)
- Radios: 31.5 million (1997)
### Television
- Television broadcast stations: 11 national TV, 60 local TV (From AC Nielsen Report -- first Semester 2005):
- Televisions: 13.75 million (1997)
### Internet
- Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 24 (1999)
- Country code (Top-level domain): .id
By June 2011, all sub-districts in Indonesia will be connected to the Internet.
## Regulatory environment in Indonesia {#regulatory_environment_in_indonesia}
The media in Indonesia is regulated by the Ministry of Communications and Informatics.
LIRNEasia\'s Telecommunications Regulatory Environment (TRE) index, which summarises stakeholders\' perception on certain TRE dimensions, provides insight into how conducive the environment is for further development and progress. The most recent survey was conducted in July 2008 in eight Asian countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines. The tool measured seven dimensions: i) market entry; ii) access to scarce resources; iii) interconnection; iv) tariff regulation; v) anti-competitive practices; and vi) universal services; vii) quality of service, for the fixed, mobile and broadband sectors.
Below-average scores received in all sectors and across dimensions reflect general dissatisfaction of the TRE in Indonesia. However, this does not mean that respondents have ignored recent developments. The relatively healthy growth in mobile sector is reflected in the higher TRE scores received by the sector for most dimensions, when compared to the fixed sector. On average, the mobile sector scores best, with fixed and broadband following
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# List of islands of Indonesia
The **islands of Indonesia**, also known as the **Indonesian Archipelago** (*Kepulauan Indonesia*) or **Nusantara**, may refer either to the islands composing the country of Indonesia or to the geographical groups which include its islands. Indonesia is the world\'s largest archipelagic state, stretching from Sumatra in Asia to the western part of New Guinea in Oceania.
## History
The exact number of islands composing Indonesia varies among definitions and sources. According to the Law No 9/1996 on Maritime Territory of Indonesia, of 17,508 officially listed islands within the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by the National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping (Bakorsurtanal), Indonesia has 13,466 islands. However, according to earlier survey in 2002 by National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), the Indonesian archipelago has 18,307 islands, and according to the CIA *World Factbook*, there are 17,508 islands. The discrepancy of the numbers of Indonesian islands is due to the earlier surveys including \"tidal islands\"; sandy cays and rocky reefs that appear during low tide and are submerged during high tide. As of 2023, 17,024 island have been named by Geospatial Information Agency and published in Indonesian Gazetteer.
## Major islands {#major_islands}
- Sunda Islands
- Greater Sunda Islands
- Java, formerly Jawa Dwipa.
- Sumatra, formerly Swarna Dwipa.
- Borneo: divided between the Indonesian region Kalimantan, the country of Brunei and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.
- Sulawesi, formerly Celebes.
- Lesser Sunda Islands
- Bali
- Lombok
- Sumbawa
- Flores
- Sumba
- Timor: divided between Indonesian West Timor and the country of East Timor.
- Maluku Islands (Moluccas)
- New Guinea: divided between the Indonesian provinces of Highland Papua, Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua, Central Papua and West Papua and the country of Papua New Guinea.
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# List of islands of Indonesia
## List of islands {#list_of_islands}
The following islands are listed by province:
### Java
#### Banten
- Panaitan
- Sangiang
- Tinjil
- Umang
#### Central Java {#central_java}
- Karimunjawa
- Nusa Kambangan
#### Special Capital Region of Jakarta {#special_capital_region_of_jakarta}
- Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu)
#### East Java {#east_java}
- Bawean
- Gili Iyang Island
- Kangean Islands
- Madura
- Raas
- Nusa Barong
- Raja Island
- Sempu Island
#### West Java {#west_java}
- Monitor Lizard Island (Pulau Biawak), Indramayu
### Sumatra
#### Aceh
- Banyak Islands
- Tuangku
- Lasia Island
- Simeulue
- Weh
#### North Sumatra {#north_sumatra}
- Batu Islands
- Berhala on the Strait of Malacca
- Hinako Islands
- Makole Island
- Masa Island
- Nias Islands
- Samosir, Lake Toba
#### West Sumatra {#west_sumatra}
- Mentawai Islands
- North Pagai
- Siberut
- Sipura
- South Pagai
- Pasumpahan
- Sikuai
#### Bengkulu
- Enggano Island
#### Lampung
- Child of Krakatoa (Anak Krakatau)
- Legundi
- Sebesi
- Sebuku
#### Riau
- Basu Island
- Bengkalis
- Padang
- Rangsang
- Rupat
- Tebing Tinggi Island
#### Riau Islands {#riau_islands}
- Natuna Islands (Kepulauan Natuna)
- Anambas Islands
- Natuna Besar Islands
- South Natuna Islands
- Tambelan Islands
- Badas Islands
- Riau Archipelago
- Batam
- Bintan
- Bulan
- Galang
- Karimun islands
- Great Natuna
- Penyengat
- Great Karimun
- Little Karimun
- Kundur
- Rempang
- Lingga Islands
- Lingga with nearby islands
- Singkep with nearby islands
#### Bangka-Belitung Islands {#bangka_belitung_islands}
- Bangka
- Belitung
### Kalimantan
#### Central Kalimantan {#central_kalimantan}
- Damar
- Baning Island
- Buaya Island
- Burung Island
#### East Kalimantan {#east_kalimantan}
- Balabalagan Islands
- Derawan Islands
- Kakaban
#### North Kalimantan {#north_kalimantan}
- Bunyu
- Sebatik: divided between Indonesia and Sabah, East Malaysia
- Tarakan
#### South Kalimantan {#south_kalimantan}
- Laut
- Laut Kecil Islands
- Sebuku
#### West Kalimantan {#west_kalimantan}
- Bawal
- Galam
- Karimata Islands
- Karimata
- Maya
### Sulawesi
#### Central Sulawesi {#central_sulawesi}
- Banggai Islands
- Banggai
- Bowokan Islands (Kepulauan Treko)
- Buka Buka
- Peleng
- Masoni Island
- Simatang Island
- Togian Islands
- Togian
- Tolitoli
#### North Sulawesi {#north_sulawesi}
- Bangka
- Bunaken
- Lembeh
- Manado Tua
- Nain
- Sangihe Islands
- Nanipa
- Bukide
- Sangir Besar
- Siau
- Tagulandang
- Talaud Islands
- Kabaruan
- Karakelang
- Salibabu
- Talise
#### South Sulawesi {#south_sulawesi}
- Pabbiring Islands
- Sabalana Islands
- Selayar Islands
- Selayar Island
- Takabonerate Islands
- Tengah Islands
#### Southeast Sulawesi {#southeast_sulawesi}
- Buton
- Kabaena
- Muna
- Tukangbesi Islands
- Wakatobi
- Wangiwangi
- Wowoni
### Lesser Sunda Islands {#lesser_sunda_islands}
#### Bali
- Bali
- Menjangan Island
- Nusa Lembongan
- Nusa Penida
- Serangan Island
- Nusa Ceningan
#### East Nusa Tenggara {#east_nusa_tenggara}
- Alor Islands
- Alor
- Kepa
- Pantar
- Flores
- Babi Island
- Mules Island
- Komodo
- Gili Lawadarat
- Gili Lawalaut
- Mangiatan Island
- Makasar Island
- Taka Makasar
- Mauwang Island
- Pararambah Island
- Siaba Besar Island
- Siaba Kecil Island
- Mangiatan Island
- Tatawa Island
- Tukoh Pemaroh
- Pararambah Island
- Padar Island
- Batubilah Island
- Padar Kecil Island
- Palu Island
- Pemana Islands
- Rinca
- Gili Motang
- Golo Mori
- Muang Island
- Rohbong Island
- Tukoh Gagak
- Tukoh Rohbongkoe
- Papagaran Besar Island
- Papagaran Kecil Island
- Batu Island
- Mole Island
- Pengah Besar Island
- Pengah Kecil Island
- Batupengah Island
- Rote Island
- Savu
- Solor Islands
- Adonara
- Lembata
- Solor
- Sumba
- Halura Island
- Timor, divided between Indonesia (West Timor) and the independent nation of East Timor
- Semau Island
#### West Nusa Tenggara {#west_nusa_tenggara}
- Gili Islands
- Gili Air
- Gili Trawangan
- Gili Meno
- Banta Island
- Gili Biaha
- Gili Mimpang
- Gili Selang
- Gili Tepekong
- Lombok
- Medang Island
- Moyo Island
- Menjangan Island
- Sangeang
- Satonda
- Sumbawa
### Maluku Islands {#maluku_islands}
#### Maluku
- Aru Islands
- Enu
- Kobroor
- Maikoor
- Trangan
- Wokam
- Babar
- Banda
- Barat Daya Islands
- Damer
- Liran
- Romang
- Wetar
- Boano
- Buru
- Gorong archipelago
- Kai Islands
- Kelang
- Leti Islands
- Lakor
- Leti
- Moa
- Manipa
- Nusa Laut
- Seram
- Ambon
- Osi
- Saparua
- Tanimbar Islands
- Selaru
- Yamdena
- Small volcanic islands in Banda Sea
- Tayandu Islands (Kepulauan Tayando)
- Watubela archipelago
#### North Maluku {#north_maluku}
- Bacan, with nearby islands:
- Kasiruta
- Mandioli
- Muari
- Erà Islands
- Halmahera, with nearby islands:
- Makian
- Ternate
- Tidore
- Hiri
- Mare
- Maitara
- Kayoa
- Laluin
- Moti
- Rau
- Kakara
- Meti
- Medi
- Tagalaya
- Cumo
- Widi Islands
- Morotai, with nearby islands:
- Rau
- Obi Islands, which include:
- Bisa
- Gomumu
- Obi
- Obilatu
- Tobalai
- Sula Islands
### Western New Guinea {#western_new_guinea}
*Islands near the Indonesian half of New Guinea island
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# Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
**Telecommunications in Ireland** operate in a regulated competitive market that provides customers with a wide array of advanced digital services. This article explores Ireland\'s telecommunications infrastructure including: fixed and mobile networks, The voice, data and Internet services, cable television, developments in next-generation networks and broadcast networks for radio and television.
## Regulation
Telecommunications, including radio frequency spectrum licensing and the postal sector, are regulated by the Commission for Communications Regulation (ComReg). ComReg was established on 1 December 2002. The Broadcasting Authority of Ireland (BAI) (*Údarás Craolacháin na hÉireann*) is the regulator of both public and commercial broadcasting sector in Ireland. It was established on 1 October 2009, replacing the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland (BCI) (*Coimisiún Craolacháin na hÉireann*).
The Minister for Communications, Climate Action and Environment has overall responsibility for national policy and regulation of both telecommunications and broadcasting.
The telecommunications market in Ireland was opened to competition in 1998.
Eir\'s dominance has reduced and by Q3 2019 operators other than eir accounted for 61% of the Irish fixed voice market retail revenue and 54.7% market share by fixed-line retail and wholesale revenue and 80.9% of the mobile market (excluding mobile broadband and machine-to-machine subscriptions) or 84.4% of total subscriptions. Other operators accounted for 68.6% of retail fixed broadband subscriptions (comprising cable, FTTH, FTTC/VDSL and ADSL) and 57.3% of retail FTTP subscriptions
Eir remains the largest telecommunications company in Ireland, offering fixed, mobile, and broadband services. As Bord Telecom Éireann, the company was state owned until 1999, when it was floated on the Irish and New York Stock Exchanges.
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# Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
## Infrastructure
Ireland\'s telecommunications network is a modern digital system connected by an extensive national fibre optic network with multiple high-capacity fibre optic links to the UK, Continental Europe, North America and with dedicated capacity on routes to Asia and other parts of the globe. There is an open and competitive telecommunications market regulated by ComReg. However, the fixed-line market is still dominated by the incumbent operator Eir.
Several companies operate national fibre optic networks including Eir, BT Ireland, ESB Group and Virgin Media Ireland. Eir\'s fibre network is the most extensive covering most parts of the country with 12,000 km of fibre routes (\>40,000 km of fibres)
Eir\'s Next Generation Network upgrade rolled out dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) which is capable of delivering up to 320 Gbit/s along a single fibre route. This upgrade also sees Eir\'s core infrastructure moving to an all-IP network. It has major aggregation nodes at 140 locations around Ireland and onward fibre connections to another 470 central office sites.
Ireland also has major connections to multiple international fibre optic networks.
94 Irish towns and cities also have access to publicly owned, carrier-neutral metropolitan fibre networks managed by Enet.
These networks can be used by any licensed Irish telecommunications operator to provide commercial or residential end users with products.
For residential and small business providers, most major urban areas have access to Virgin Media Ireland\'s HFC network which provides speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s using EuroDOCSIS 3.1 cable modem technology.
Open Eir is also in the process of rolling out FTTH which provides speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s down and 100 Mbit/s up. They also provide an extensive vectored VDSL2 based FTTC access network, using the legacy copper network. This offers speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s down and 20 Mbit/s up.
Retail services using this next-generation access infrastructure are provided by approximately 15 operators.
SIRO, a joint venture between ESB Group and Vodafone Ireland, provides another open access fibre to home network, used by multiple ISPs to deliver service. Fibre is run alongside ESB Networks 230 V/400 V LV electricity distribution system, sharing underground ducts and poles, with fibre typically entering premises next to the electricity meter. This, similar to Eir\'s FTTH network, delivers speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s and is capable of delivery of 10 Gbit/s in the future.
Ireland has three mobile networks that own and operate their own network infrastructure and a number of MVNO operators that operate mobile phone services using one of these infrastructure providers\' radio networks. The three infrastructure owning networks are Eir Mobile, Three, and Vodafone.
Meteor and Eir Mobile were the first to launch 4G LTE services in Ireland on 26 September 2013, followed by Vodafone on 14 October 2013, and Three on 27 January 2014. O2 was due to launch its 4G services later in 2014, but plans were put on hold when its acquisition by Three was approved in May, and from the time of the merger in 2015, previous O2 customers gained 4G coverage through Three\'s network, albeit with initial service problems.
In 2016, 41.9% of Ireland\'s mobile subscriptions were using 4G technology. 3G remained the dominant technology with 44.6% share, however, it is likely to be overtaken by 4G in 2017.
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Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
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# Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
## Telephone system {#telephone_system}
- Fixed telephone lines in use 1,168,591 (Q3 2020, ComReg)
- Mobile cellular telephones: 5,182,682 (Q3 2020, ComReg)
- Country code: 353
As mobile phone services become more price competitive, more Irish customers are opting to drop landline services. This is reflected by a sharp fall in the number of fixed line channels in use and an equivalent increase in mobile subscriptions. Details are tracked on ComReg\'s ComStat website
There are three mobile telecommunications providers: Three Ireland, Eir Mobile and Vodafone Ireland.
There are also some MNVOs (Mobile Network Virtual Operators), such as: 48, GoMo, Lycamobile, An Post Mobile, Tesco Mobile, Virgin Mobile and Clear Mobile.
### History
The original network was taken over by the Irish Department of Posts and Telegraphs (P&T) from the British General Post Office in 1921 and used a mixture of manual and step-by-step automatic exchanges. Development of the network was relatively stagnant with slow rollout of automatic switching using step-by-step exchanges until after WWII. From 1957 onwards, P&T began to roll out more modern crossbar switches primarily using equipment supplied by Ericsson built at their Athlone facility. ITT Pentaconta crossbar switches, built by CGCT (Compagnie générale de constructions téléphoniques) were also used in some areas. This saw significant improvements to many services, but the network was still quite underdeveloped in rural areas with long waits for new subscribers and the last operator-only exchanges only closing in 1987.
Digital switching was introduced in 1980 using Ericsson AXE and Alcatel E10 switches both of which were manufactured at facilities in Ireland. This saw a total transformation of the telephone network with modern automatic and digital services reaching even the most rural parts of Ireland by the mid-1980s.
The fixed-line network is now made up of multiple operators using a diverse range of digital technologies including VoIP.
Ireland\'s first mobile telephone network, Eircell, went live in 1986 using the analogue TACS system. 2G GSM services from Eircell launched on 1 July 1993. Digifone followed in 1997, then Meteor in 2001 (having been licensed in 1998) and 3 Ireland launched its UMTS 3G-only service in 2005.
3G services launched in 2004 (Vodafone Ireland) and other networks quickly followed suit, and 4G launched in 2013 (Meteor) and is now available on most networks. Meteor was bought out by Eir in 2005 and eventually rebranded as Eir in 2017.
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# Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
## Internet
- Internet users: 3.6 million, 77% of the population, 70th in the world (2011); 3.0 million, 67th in the world (2009)
- Dial-up subscriptions: 11,437 (Q4 2012 ComStat)
- Fixed broadband subscriptions: 1,506,832 (Q3 2020, ComReg)
- Mobile broadband subscriptions: 323,530 (Q3 2020, ComReg)
- Internet hosts: 1.4 million, 40th in the world (2012)
- Internet censorship: None (2011) `{{dubious|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
- Top-level domain name: .ie
Broadband Internet access is available in Ireland via DSL, cable, wireless, and satellite. By the end of 2011 Eircom announced that 75% of its working lines would be connected to Next Generation Broadband (NGB) enabled exchanges.
Currently available services (Q3 2014)
- ADSL - up to 24 Mbit/s - (several providers and unbundled services are available.)
- FTTC - VDSL up to 100 Mbit/s down 20 Mbit/s up (several providers - vectoring technology is used)
- Cable - Speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s - Main provider Virgin Media Ireland
- Fibre - Delivered via multiple commercial providers, including Open Eir, SIRO, Virgin Media and NBI. Residential customers can obtain speeds of up to 2Gbps .
- Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) - various technologies in use - mostly used in rural areas. Not actively used by majority of consumers.
- Mobile broadband - 3G, 4G and 5G services are available from several providers. Minimum 4G coverage available for majority of subscribers.
- Satellite - Low orbit satellite broadband is available.
A typical monthly broadband Internet subscription cost \$26.02 in 2011, 14% less than the average of \$30.16 for the 34 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries surveyed.`{{update after|2014|9|1}}`{=mediawiki}
In August 2012 Pat Rabbitte, the Minister for Communications, Energy and Natural Resources, outlined a national broadband plan with goals of:
- 70 to 100 Mbit/s broadband service available to at least 50 per cent of the population,
- at least 40 Mbit/s available to at least a further 20 per cent, and
- a minimum of 30 Mbit/s available to everyone, no matter how rural or remote.
Founded in 1996, the Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) is an industry-owned association that provides IP peering and traffic exchange for its members in Ireland. The INEX switching centres are located in five secure data centres in Dublin and one in Cork: TeleCity Group in Kilcarbery Park, Dublin 22 & TeleCity Group in Citywest Business Campus, Dublin 24 and Interxion DUB1, and Interxion DUB2 in Park West, and Vodafone Clonshaugh as well as at CIX, Hollyhill, Cork T23 R68N. The switches are connected by dedicated resilient fibre links. In June 2015 it listed 74 full and 21 associate members.
Established in 1998, the Internet Service Providers Association of Ireland (ISPAI) listed 24 Internet access and hosting providers as members in 2012.
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# Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
thumb \|100px \|RTÉ logo *Main article: Radio in Ireland, Television in Ireland, Cable Television in Ireland, Irish pirate radio*
### Infrastructure {#infrastructure_1}
Television in Ireland is broadcast using DVB-T using the common platform specifications defined by NorDig which apply in the Nordic countries and Ireland. Video is encoded using the MPEG4 system. The analogue PAL-I broadcasting system is no longer on air.
Cable systems operate using the DVB-C standard and Satellite is broadcast using DVB-S/S2. Some areas still carry a range of cable channels in analogue PAL-I format. `{{fact|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Although, this is normally just a legacy service provided by default. It is not possible to subscribe to analogue cable as a new customer.
Radio is broadcast primarily using FM 87-108 MHz. Digital DAB Radio from the UK is also available in some areas but domestic services have ceased as have RTÉ Radio 1\'s Longwave and Mediumwave services.
2RN operates a national FM network. However, most independent FM stations own their own broadcasting infrastructure.
Raidió Teilifís Éireann (*Radio \[and\] Television of Ireland*; abbreviated as RTÉ) is a statutory semi-state company and the public service broadcaster that dominates the radio and TV sectors in Ireland. The first commercial radio stations began broadcasting in 1989. Prior to 1989 hundreds of pirate radio stations were a mainstay of radio listener-ship, particularly in Dublin, and a handful of pirate stations continue to operate illegally today. In 1998 TV3 (Now Virgin Media 1-4) became the first privately owned commercial TV station and it remains the main free-to-air service after RTÉ. Competition also comes from British public and private terrestrial TV. Satellite and cable TV are widely available. There are also non-commercial community and special interest radio stations.
RTÉ both produces programmes and broadcasts them on television, radio and the Internet in English and Irish. The radio service began on 1 January 1926, while regular television broadcasts began on 31 December 1961, making RTÉ one of the oldest continuously operating public service broadcasters in the world. Some RTÉ services are only funded by advertising, while other RTÉ services are only funded by the television licence fee.
Saorview (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛər|v|j|uː}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|SAIR|vyoo}}`{=mediawiki}) is Ireland\'s national free-to-air digital terrestrial television (DTT) service operated by 2RN. Trial service began on 29 October 2010 with full service to the public from May 2011. Analogue television transmissions officially ended on 24 October 2012. with some deflectors continuing into 2013.
SAORSAT is Ireland\'s national free-to-air digital satellite television service, also operated by 2RN. SAORSAT delivers Irish television services to the 1% to 2% of homes that are not covered by the SAORVIEW Digital Terrestrial Television service.
A television licence is required for any address at which there is a television set or device that is not exempt. The annual licence fee is €160. The licence is free to senior citizens (to anyone over the age of 70, some over 66), some social welfare recipients, and individuals who are blind
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