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# Geography of Israel
The **geography of Israel** is very diverse, with desert conditions in the south, and snow-capped mountains in the north. Israel is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea in West Asia. It is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the east by Jordan and the West Bank, and to the southwest by Egypt. To the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea, which makes up the majority of Israel\'s 273 km coastline, and the Gaza Strip. Israel has a small coastline on the Red Sea in the south.
Israel\'s area is approximately 20770 km2, which includes 445 km2 of inland water. Israel stretches 424 km from north to south, and its width ranges from 114 km at its widest point to 10 km at its narrowest point. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 26352 km2.
The Israeli-occupied territories include the West Bank, 5879 km2, East Jerusalem, 70 km2 and the Golan Heights, 1150 km2. Geographical features in these territories will be noted as such. Of these areas, Israel has annexed East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, an act not recognized by the international community.
Southern Israel is dominated by the Negev desert, covering some 16000 km2, more than half of the country\'s total land area. The north of the Negev contains the Judean Desert, which, at its border with Jordan, contains the Dead Sea which, at -417 m is the lowest point on Earth. The inland area of central Israel is dominated by the Judean Hills of the West Bank, whilst the central and northern coastline consists of the flat and fertile Israeli coastal plain. Inland, the northern region contains the Mount Carmel mountain range, which is followed inland by the fertile Jezreel Valley, and then the hilly Galilee region. The Sea of Galilee is located beyond this region and is bordered to the east by the Golan Heights, a plateau bordered to the north by the Israeli-occupied part of the Mount Hermon massif, which includes the highest point under Israel\'s control, a peak of 2224 m. The highest point in territory internationally recognized as Israeli is Mount Meron at 1208 m.
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# Geography of Israel
## Location and boundaries {#location_and_boundaries}
Israel lies to the north of the equator around 31°30\' north latitude and 34°45\' east longitude. It measures 424 km from north to south`{{dubious|Poor source. At least 445 km from Metula to Eilat, so 1949 borders.|date=March 2018}}`{=mediawiki} and, at its widest point 114 km, from east to west. At its narrowest point, however, this is reduced to just 15 km. It has a land frontier of 1017 km and a coastline of 273 km. It is ranked 153 on the List of countries and outlying territories by total area.
Prior to the establishment of the British Mandate for Palestine, there was no clear-cut definition of the geographical and territorial limits of the area known as \"Palestine.\" On the eve of World War I it was described by *Encyclopædia Britannica* as a \"nebulous geographical concept.\" The Sykes-Picot Treaty in 1916 divided the region that later became Palestine into four political units. Under the British Mandate for Palestine, the first geo-political framework was created that distinguished the area from the larger countries that surrounded it. The boundary demarcation at this time did not introduce geographical changes near the frontiers and both sides of the border were controlled by the British administration.
Modern Israel is bounded to the north by Lebanon, the northeast by Syria, the east by Jordan and the West Bank, and to the southwest by Egypt. To the west of Israel is the Mediterranean Sea, which makes up the majority of Israel\'s 273 km coastline and the Gaza Strip. Israel has a small coastline on the Red Sea in the south. The southernmost settlement in Israel is the city of Eilat whilst the northernmost is the town of Metula. The territorial waters of Israel extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline.
The statistics provided by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics include the annexed East Jerusalem and Golan Heights, but exclude the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The population of Israel includes Israeli settlers in the West Bank. The route of the Israeli West Bank barrier incorporates some parts of the West Bank.
Name Status Description Population (thousands)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------
Israelis (incl. Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs in Israel proper, and incl. Israeli settlers in the Israeli-occupied territories) Cumulative Total Palestinians (incl. non-Israeli Palestinians residing legally in Israel) Cumulative Total
Israel (Green Line) Area sovereign to Israel since 1948 6,674 6,674
East Jerusalem Occupied and subject to Israeli law since 1967. Formal legislation on 1980 (see Jerusalem Law) 455 7,129
Golan Heights Occupied since 1967, subject to Israeli law since 1981 (see Golan Heights Law) 42 7,172
Seam Zone (West Bank) Area between the Green Line and the Israeli West Bank barrier. Occupied in 1967 188 7,359
Other Israeli settlements and IDF Military Areas (West Bank Area C) Other Israeli settlements (not in East Jerusalem or the Seam Zone) and areas in the West Bank directly controlled by the IDF. Occupied in 1967 57 7,473
Palestinian civil control (West Bank Areas A+B) Palestinian National Authority civil controlled area. Subject to \"joint\" military control with the IDF. Occupied in 1967 0 7,473
Gaza Strip Palestinian governed area. Israel controls airspace, maritime border and its own border with Gaza. Occupied in 1967, unilaterally disengaged in 2005, declared a foreign entity in 2007. 0 7,473
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# Geography of Israel
## Physiographic regions {#physiographic_regions}
Israel is divided into four physiographic regions: the Mediterranean coastal plain, the Central Hills, the Jordan Rift Valley and the Negev Desert.
### Coastal plain {#coastal_plain}
The Israeli Coastal Plain stretches from the Lebanese border in the north to Gaza in the south, interrupted only by Cape Carmel at Haifa Bay. It is about 40 km wide at Gaza and narrows toward the north to about 5 km at the Lebanese border. The region is fertile and humid (historically malarial) and is known for its citrus orchards and viticulture. The plain is traversed by several short streams. From north to south these are: Kishon, Hadera, Alexander, Poleg, and Yarkon. All of these streams were badly polluted, but in the last ten years much work has been done to clean them up.`{{dubious|Starting to count – when?|date=January 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Today the Kishon, Alexander and Yarkon again flow year round, and also have parks along their banks.
Geographically, the region is divided into five sub-regions. The northernmost section lays between the Lebanese border, the Western Galilee to the east, and the sea. It stretches from Rosh HaNikra in the north and down to Haifa, Israel\'s third-largest city. It is a fertile region, and off the coast there are many small islands. Along the Mount Carmel range is Hof HaCarmel, or the Carmel Coastal Plain. It stretches from the point where Mount Carmel almost touches the sea, at Haifa, and down to Nahal Taninim, a stream that marks the southern limit of the Carmel range. The Sharon Plain is the next section, running from Nahal Taninim (south of Zikhron Ya\'akov) to Tel Aviv\'s Yarkon River. This area is Israel\'s most densely populated. South of this, running to Nahal Shikma, is the Central Coastal Plain, also known as the Western Negev. The last segment is the Southern Coastal Plain, which extends south around the Gaza Strip. It is divided into two -- in the north, the Besor region, a savanna-type area with a relatively large number of communities, and south of it the Agur-Halutza region, which is very sparsely populated.
### Central hills {#central_hills}
Inland (east) of the coastal plain lies the central highland region. In the north of this region lie the mountains and hills of Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee, which are generally 500 to in height, although they reach a maximum height of 1208 m at Mount Meron. South of the Galilee, in the West Bank, are the Samarian Hills with numerous small, fertile valleys rarely reaching the height of 800 m. South of Jerusalem, also mainly within the West Bank, are the Judean Hills, including Mount Hebron. The central highlands average 610 m in height and reach their highest elevation at Har Meron, at 1208 m, in Galilee near Safed. Several valleys cut across the highlands roughly from east to west; the largest is the Jezreel Valley (also known as the Plain of Esdraelon), which stretches 48 km from Haifa southeast to the valley of the Jordan River, and is 19 km across at its widest point.
### Jordan Rift Valley {#jordan_rift_valley}
East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which is a small part of the 6500 km-long Syrian-East African Rift. In Israel the Rift Valley is dominated by the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee (an important freshwater source also known as Lake Tiberias and Lake Kinneret), and the Dead Sea. The Jordan, Israel\'s largest river (322 km), originates in the Dan, Baniyas, and Hasbani rivers near Mount Hermon in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and flows south through the drained Hula Basin into the freshwater Lake Tiberias. Lake Tiberias is 165 km2 in size and, depending on the season and rainfall, is at about 213 m below sea level. With a water capacity estimated at 3 km3, it serves as the principal reservoir of the National Water Carrier (also known as the Kinneret-Negev Conduit). The Jordan River continues its course from the southern end of Lake Tiberias (forming the boundary between the West Bank and Jordan) to its terminus in the highly saline Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is 1020 km2 in size and, at 420 m below sea level, is the lowest surface point on the earth. South of the Dead Sea, the Rift Valley continues in the Arabah (Hebrew \"Arava\", Arabic \"Wadi \'Arabah\"), which has no permanent water flow, for 170 km to the Gulf of Eilat.
### Negev Desert {#negev_desert}
The Negev Desert comprises approximately 12000 km2, more than half of Israel\'s total land area. Geographically it is an extension of the Sinai Desert, forming a rough triangle with its base in the north near Beersheba, the Dead Sea, and the southern Judean Mountains, and it has its apex in the southern tip of the country at Eilat. Topographically, it parallels the other regions of the country, with lowlands in the west, hills in the central portion, and the Arava valley as its eastern border.
Unique to the Negev region are the craterlike makhteshim cirques; Makhtesh Ramon, Makhtesh Gadol and Makhtesh Katan. The Negev is also sub-divided into five different ecological regions: northern, western and central Negev, the high plateau and the Arabah Valley. The northern Negev receives 300 mm of rain annually and has fairly fertile soils. The western Negev receives 250 mm of rain per year, with light and partially sandy soils. The central Negev has an annual precipitation of 200 mm and is characterized by impervious soil, allowing minimum penetration of water with greater soil erosion and water runoff. This can result in rare flash floods during heavy rains as water runs across the surface of the impervious desert soil. The high plateau area of Ramat HaNegev stands between 370 and above sea level with extreme temperatures in summer and winter. The area gets 100 mm of rain each year, with inferior and partially salty soils. The Arabah Valley along the Jordanian border stretches 180 km from Eilat in the south to the tip of the Dead Sea in the north and is very arid with barely 50 mm of rain annually.
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# Geography of Israel
## Geology
Israel is divided east--west by a mountain range running north to south along the coast. Jerusalem sits on the top of this ridge, east of which lies the Dead Sea graben which is a pull-apart basin on the Dead Sea Transform fault.
The numerous limestone and sandstone layers of the Israeli mountains serve as aquifers through which water flows from the west flank to the east. Several springs have formed along the Dead Sea, each an oasis, most notably the oases at Ein Gedi and Ein Bokek (Neve Zohar) where settlements have developed. Israel also has a number of areas of karst topography. Caves in the region have been used for thousands of years as shelter, storage rooms, barns and as places of public gatherings.
The far northern coastline of the country has some chalk landscapes best seen at Rosh HaNikra, a chalk cliff into which a series of grottoes have been eroded.
### Seismic activity {#seismic_activity}
The Jordan Rift Valley is the result of tectonic movements within the Dead Sea Transform (DSF) fault system. The DSF forms the transform boundary between the African Plate to the west and the Arabian Plate to the east. The Golan Heights and all of Jordan are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high seismic activity in the region.
The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two major earthquakes along this structure in 749 and 1033. The deficit in slip that has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake of `{{M|w}}`{=mediawiki}\~7.4.
The most catastrophic earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE, 363, 749, and 1033 CE, that is every ca. 400 years on average. Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years. While stringent construction regulations are currently in place and recently built structures are earthquake-safe, as of 2007 the majority of the buildings in Israel were older than these regulations and many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were \"expected to collapse\" if exposed to a strong quake. Given the fragile political situation of the Middle East region and the presence there of major holy sites, a quake reaching magnitude 7 on the Richter scale could have dire consequences for world peace.
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# Geography of Israel
## Rivers and lakes {#rivers_and_lakes}
Israel\'s longest and most famous river is the 320 km long River Jordan, which rises on the southern slopes of Mount Hermon in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. The river flows south through the freshwater Sea of Galilee, and from there forms the boundary with the Kingdom of Jordan for much of its route, eventually emptying into the Dead Sea. The northern tributaries to the Jordan are the Dan, Banias, and Hasbani. Only the Dan is within undisputed Israel; the Hasbani flows from Lebanon and the Banias from territory captured from Syria in the Six-Day War.
The Sea of Galilee (also called the Kinneret) is Israel\'s largest and most important freshwater lake, located in the northeast of the country. The pear-shaped lake is 23 km long from north to south, with a maximum width of 13 km in the north, covering 166 km2. The Kinneret lies 207 m below sea level and reaches depths of 46 m. In a previous geological epoch the lake was part of a large inland sea which extended from the Hula marshes in northern Israel to 64 km south of the Dead Sea. The bed of the lake forms part of the Jordan Rift Valley.
South of the Kinneret lies the saltwater Dead Sea which forms the border between Israel and Jordan and is 418 m below sea level, making it the lowest water surface on Earth. The Dead Sea is 67 km long with a maximum width of 16 km and also makes up part of the Rift Valley. A peninsula juts out into the lake from the eastern shore, south of which the lake is shallow, less than 6 m deep. To the north is the lake\'s greatest depth.
There are no navigable, artificial waterways in Israel, although the National Water Carrier, a conduit for drinking water, might be classified as such. The idea of a channel connecting the Mediterranean and Dead Seas or the Red and Dead Seas has been discussed.
## Selected elevations {#selected_elevations}
The following are selected elevations of notable locations, from highest to lowest:
Location Region Elevation (feet) Elevation (meters)
----------------- ----------------------------------- ------------------ --------------------
Mount Hermon Golan Heights (Israeli-occupied) 7,336 ft. 2,236 m.
Mount Meron Upper Galilee 3,964 ft. 1,208 m.
Mount Ramon Negev 3,396 ft. 1,035 m.
Mount of Olives East Jerusalem (Israeli-occupied) 2,739 ft. 835 m.
Mount Tabor Lower Galilee 1,930 ft. 588 m.
Mount Carmel Haifa 1,792 ft. 546 m.
Dead Sea Judean Desert -- 1,368 ft. -- 417 m.
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# Geography of Israel
## Climate
The northern half of Israel has a Mediterranean climate with long, hot, rainless summers and relatively short, mild to cool, rainy winters (Köppen climate classification *Csa*). The southern half has hot semi-arid (*BSh*) and hot desert (*BWh*) climates. The climate is as such due to Israel\'s location between the subtropical aridity of the Sahara and the Arabian deserts, and the subtropical humidity of the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean. The climate conditions are highly variable within the state and modified locally by altitude, latitude, and the proximity to the Mediterranean.
On average, January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from 6 to, and July and August are the hottest months at 22 to, on average across the country. Summers are very humid along the Mediterranean coast but dry in the central highlands, the Rift Valley, and the Negev Desert. In Eilat, a desert city, summer daytime-temperatures are often the highest in the state, at times reaching 44 to. More than 70% of the average rainfall in Israel falls between November and March; June through September are usually rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed, significantly lower in the south of the country. In the extreme south, rainfall averages near 30 mm annually; in the north, average annual rainfall exceeds 900 mm. Rainfall varies from season to season and from year to year, particularly in the Negev Desert. Precipitation is often concentrated in violent storms, causing erosion and flash floods. In winter, precipitation often takes the form of snow at the higher elevations of the central highlands, including Jerusalem. Mount Hermon has seasonal snow which covers all three of its peaks in winter and spring. In rare occasions, snow gets to the northern mountain peaks and only in extremely rare occasions even to the coast. The areas of the country most cultivated are those receiving more than 300 mm of rainfall annually, making approximately one-third of the country cultivable.
Thunderstorms and hail are common throughout the rainy season and waterspouts occasionally hit the Mediterranean coast, capable of causing only minor damage. However, supercell thunderstorms and a true F2 tornado hit the Western Galilee in April 2006, causing significant damage and 75 injuries.
Heat waves are frequent. 2010 was the hottest year in the history of Israel with absolute record high in several places in August. The heat became stronger from August when temperatures were considerably above the average. October and November were also dry, and November was almost rainless when it was supposed to be rainy.
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# Geography of Israel
## Climate
### Climate charts of different locations in Israel {#climate_charts_of_different_locations_in_israel}
## Environmental concerns {#environmental_concerns}
Israel has a large number of environmental concerns ranging from natural hazards to man-made issues both resulting from ancient times to modern development. Natural hazards facing the country include sandstorms which sometimes occur during spring in the desert south, droughts which are usually concentrated in summer months, flash floods which create great danger in the deserts due to their lack of notice, and regular earthquakes, most of which are small, although there is a constant risk due to Israel\'s location along the Jordan Rift Valley. Current environmental concerns include the lack of arable land and natural fresh water resources. Whilst measures have been taken to irrigate and grow in the desert, the amount of water needed here poses issues. Desertification is also a risk possible on the desert fringe, whilst air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions and groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste are also issues facing the country. Furthermore, the effects of the use of chemical fertilizers, and pesticides are issues facing the country. Israel has signed many international environmental agreements and is party to:
- Convention on Biological Diversity
- UNFCCC -- Climate Change
- United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
- Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
- Hazardous Wastes
- Nuclear Test Ban
- Montreal Protocol -- Ozone Layer Protection
- MARPOL 73/78 -- Ship Pollution
- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat
Signed but not ratified:
- Kyoto Protocol
- Marine Life Conservation
## Rural settlements {#rural_settlements}
Israel\'s rural space includes several unique kinds of settlements, notably the moshav and the kibbutz. Originally these were collective and cooperative settlements respectively. Over time, the degree of cooperation in these settlements has decreased and in several of them the cooperative structure has been dismantled altogether. All rural settlements and many small towns (some of which are dubbed \"rurban settlements\") are incorporated in regional councils. Land use in Israel is 17% arable land, 4% permanent crops, and 79% other uses. As of 2003 1940 km2 were irrigated.
There are 242 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the West Bank, 42 in the Golan Heights, and 29 in East Jerusalem.
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# Geography of Israel
## Islands
Israel has the Rosh Hanikra Islands and the Achziv Islands within its territorial waters. The Israeli government plans to build artificial islands off the coast to house an airport, a seaport, a desalination plant, a power plant, and a military testing base, as an answer to Israel\'s lack of space.
## Human geography {#human_geography}
As of 2013, the population of Israel is 8 million, 6,015,000 of them Jewish.
For statistical purposes, the country has three metropolitan areas; Gush Dan-Tel Aviv (population 3,150,000), Haifa (population 996,000), and Beersheba (population 531,600). Some argue that Jerusalem, Israel\'s largest city with a population of 763,600, and Nazareth, should also be classified as metropolitan areas. In total, Israel has 74 cities, 14 of which have populations of over 100,000. Other forms of local government in Israel are local councils of which there are 144 governing small municipalities generally over 2,000 in population, and regional councils of which there are 53, governing a group of small communities over a relatively large geographical area.
Israel\'s population is diverse demographically; 76% Jewish, 20% Arab, and 4% unaffiliated. In terms of religion, 76% are Jewish, 16% Muslim, 2% Christian, 2% Druze, and 4% are unclassified by choice. 8% of Israeli Jews are haredi; 9% are \"religious\", 12% \"religious-traditionalists\", 27% are \"non-religious traditionalists\", and 43% are \"secular\". Other small, but notable groups in Israel, include Circassians of whom there are approximately 3,000 living mostly in two northern villages, 2,500 Lebanese, and 5,000 Armenians predominantly in Jerusalem.
## Overshoot index {#overshoot_index}
Israel is ranked 34th in the world in terms of population density with, as noted, a climate of long, hot, rainless summers and relatively short, cool, rainy winters. The Population Matters 2011 overshoot index ranked Israel as the third most dependent region in the World after Singapore and Kuwait
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
The **Israeli Declaration of Independence**, formally the **Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel** (*הכרזה על הקמת מדינת ישראל*), was proclaimed on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708), at the end of the civil war phase and beginning of the international phase of the 1948 Palestine war, by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine.
It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine (or the Land of Israel in the Jewish tradition), to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day. The event is celebrated annually in Israel as Independence Day, a national holiday on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar.
## Background
The possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organisations since the late 19th century. In 1917 British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour stated in a letter to British Jewish community leader Walter, Lord Rothschild that:
> His Majesty\'s government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.
Through this letter, which became known as the Balfour Declaration, British government policy officially endorsed Zionism. After World War I, the United Kingdom was given a mandate for Palestine, which it had conquered from the Ottomans during the war. In 1937 the Peel Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state, though the proposal was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at least partially to blame for the renewal of the 1936--39 Arab revolt.
In the face of increasing violence after World War II, the British handed the issue over to the recently established United Nations. The result was Resolution 181(II), a plan to partition Palestine into *Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem*. The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the resolution to recommend to the *United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations the adoption and implementation, with regard to the future government of Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union* was put to a vote in the United Nations General Assembly. The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the resolution, with 10 abstentions. Resolution 181(II): *PART I: Future constitution and government of Palestine: A. TERMINATION OF MANDATE, PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE: Clause 3* provides:
> Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem, \... shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the armed forces of the mandatory Power has been completed but in any case not later than 1 October 1948.
The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General Assembly to partition a country, but the resolution was rejected.
### Drafting the text {#drafting_the_text}
The first draft of the declaration was made by Zvi Berenson, the legal advisor of the Histadrut trade union and later a Justice of the Supreme Court, at the request of Pinchas Rosen. A revised second draft was made by three lawyers, Mordechai Baham, Uri Yadin and Zvi Eli Baker, and was framed by a committee including David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Moshe Sharett and Aharon Zisling. A second committee meeting, which included David Ben-Gurion, Yehuda Leib Maimon, Sharett and Zisling produced the final text.
### Minhelet HaAm Vote {#minhelet_haam_vote}
On 12 May 1948, the Minhelet HaAm (*מנהלת העם*, lit. *People\'s Administration*) was convened to vote on declaring independence. Three of the thirteen members were absent, with Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum being blocked in besieged Jerusalem, while Yitzhak-Meir Levin was in the United States.
The meeting started at 13:45 and ended after midnight. The decision was between accepting the American proposal for a truce, or declaring independence. The latter option was put to a vote, with six of the ten members present supporting it:
- **For**: David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharett (Mapai); Peretz Bernstein (General Zionists); Haim-Moshe Shapira (Hapoel HaMizrachi); Mordechai Bentov, Aharon Zisling (Mapam).
- **Against**: Eliezer Kaplan, David Remez (Mapai); Pinchas Rosen (New Aliyah Party); Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit (Sephardim and Oriental Communities).
Chaim Weizmann, the Chairman of the World Zionist Organization, and soon to be first President of Israel, endorsed the decision, after reportedly asking \"What are they waiting for, the idiots?\"
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
## Background
### Final wording {#final_wording}
The draft text was submitted for approval to a meeting of Moetzet HaAm at the JNF building in Tel Aviv on 14 May. The meeting started at 13:50 and ended at 15:00, an hour before the declaration was due to be made. Despite ongoing disagreements, members of the Council unanimously voted in favour of the final text. During the process, there were two major debates, centering on the issues of borders and religion.
#### Borders
The borders were not specified in the Declaration, although its 14th paragraph indicated a readiness to cooperate in the implementation of the UN Partition Plan. The original draft had declared that the borders would be decided by the UN partition plan. While this was supported by Rosen and Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, it was opposed by Ben-Gurion and Zisling, with Ben-Gurion stating, \"We accepted the UN Resolution, but the Arabs did not. They are preparing to make war on us. If we defeat them and capture western Galilee or territory on both sides of the road to Jerusalem, these areas will become part of the state. Why should we obligate ourselves to accept boundaries that in any case the Arabs don\'t accept?\" The inclusion of the designation of borders in the text was dropped after the provisional government of Israel, the Minhelet HaAm, voted 5--4 against it. The Revisionists, committed to a Jewish state on both sides of the Jordan River (that is, including Transjordan), wanted the phrase \"within its historic borders\" included, but were unsuccessful.
#### Religion
The second major issue was over the inclusion of God in the last section of the document, with the draft using the phrase \"and placing our trust in the Almighty\". The two rabbis, Shapira and Yehuda Leib Maimon, argued for its inclusion, saying that it could not be omitted, with Shapira supporting the wording \"God of Israel\" or \"the Almighty and Redeemer of Israel\". It was strongly opposed by Zisling, a member of the secularist Mapam. In the end the phrase \"Rock of Israel\" was used, which could be interpreted as either referring to God, or the land of Eretz Israel, Ben-Gurion saying \"Each of us, in his own way, believes in the \'Rock of Israel\' as he conceives it. I should like to make one request: Don\'t let me put this phrase to a vote.\" Although its use was still opposed by Zisling, the phrase was accepted without a vote.
#### Name
The writers also had to decide on the name for the new state. Eretz Israel, Ever (from the name Eber), Judea, and Zion were all suggested, as were Ziona, Ivriya and Herzliya. Judea and Zion were rejected because, according to the partition plan, Jerusalem (Zion) and most of the Judaean Mountains would be outside the new state. Ben-Gurion put forward \"Israel\" and it passed by a vote of 6--3. Official documents released in April 2013 by the State Archive of Israel show that days before the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, officials were still debating about what the new country would be called in Arabic: Palestine (*فلسطين*, *Filasṭīn*), Zion (*صهيون*, *Ṣahyūn*) or Israel (*إسرائيل*, *\'Isrā'īl*). Two assumptions were made: \"That an Arab state was about to be established alongside the Jewish one in keeping with the UN\'s partition resolution the year before, and that the Jewish state would include a large Arab minority whose feelings needed to be taken into account\". In the end, the officials rejected the name Palestine because they thought that would be the name of the new Arab state and could cause confusion so they opted for the most straightforward option of Israel.
#### Other items {#other_items}
At the meeting on 14 May, several other members of Moetzet HaAm suggested additions to the document. Meir Vilner wanted it to denounce the British Mandate and military but Sharett said it was out of place. Meir Argov pushed to mention the Displaced Persons camps in Europe and to guarantee freedom of language. Ben-Gurion agreed with the latter but noted that Hebrew should be the main language of the state.
The debate over wording did not end completely even after the Declaration had been made. Declaration signer Meir David Loewenstein later claimed, \"It ignored our sole right to Eretz Israel, which is based on the covenant of the Lord with Abraham, our father, and repeated promises in the Tanach. It ignored the aliya of the Ramban and the students of the Vilna Gaon and the Ba\'al Shem Tov, and the \[rights of\] Jews who lived in the \'Old Yishuv\'.\"
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
## Declaration ceremony {#declaration_ceremony}
The ceremony was held in the Tel Aviv Museum (today known as Independence Hall) but was not widely publicised as it was feared that the British Authorities might attempt to prevent it or that the Arab armies might invade earlier than expected. An invitation was sent out by messenger on the morning of 14 May telling recipients to arrive at 15:30 and to keep the event a secret. The event started at 16:00 (a time chosen so as not to breach the sabbath) and was broadcast live as the first transmission of the new radio station Kol Yisrael.
The final draft of the declaration was typed at the Jewish National Fund building following its approval earlier in the day. Ze\'ev Sherf, who stayed at the building in order to deliver the text, had forgotten to arrange transport for himself. Ultimately, he had to flag down a passing car and ask the driver (who was driving a borrowed car without a licence) to take him to the ceremony. Sherf\'s request was initially refused but he managed to persuade the driver to take him. The car was stopped by a policeman for speeding while driving across the city though a ticket was not issued after it was explained that he was delaying the declaration of independence. Sherf arrived at the museum at 15:59.
At 16:00, Ben-Gurion opened the ceremony by banging his gavel on the table, prompting a spontaneous rendition of Hatikvah, soon to be Israel\'s national anthem, from the 250 guests. On the wall behind the podium hung a picture of Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism, and two flags, later to become the official flag of Israel.
After telling the audience \"I shall now read to you the scroll of the Establishment of the State, which has passed its first reading by the National Council\", Ben-Gurion proceeded to read out the declaration, taking 16 minutes, ending with the words \"Let us accept the Foundation Scroll of the Jewish State by rising\" and calling on Rabbi Fishman to recite the Shehecheyanu blessing.
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
## Declaration ceremony {#declaration_ceremony}
### Signatories
As leader of the Yishuv, David Ben-Gurion was the first person to sign. The declaration was due to be signed by all 37 members of Moetzet HaAm. However, twelve members could not attend, with eleven of them trapped in besieged Jerusalem and one abroad. The remaining 25 signatories present were called up in alphabetical order to sign, leaving spaces for those absent. Although a space was left for him between the signatures of Eliyahu Dobkin and Meir Vilner, Zerach Warhaftig signed at the top of the next column, leading to speculation that Vilner\'s name had been left alone to isolate him, or to stress that even a communist had agreed with the declaration. However, Warhaftig later denied this, stating that a space had been left for him (as he was one of the signatories trapped in Jerusalem) where a Hebraicised form of his name would have fitted alphabetically, but he insisted on signing under his actual name so as to honour his father\'s memory and so moved down two spaces. He and Vilner would be the last surviving signatories, and remained close for the rest of their lives. Of the signatories, two were women (Golda Meir and Rachel Cohen-Kagan).
When Herzl Rosenblum, a journalist, was called up to sign, Ben-Gurion instructed him to sign under the name Herzl Vardi, his pen name, as he wanted more Hebrew names on the document. Although Rosenblum acquiesced to Ben-Gurion\'s request and legally changed his name to Vardi, he later admitted to regretting not signing as Rosenblum. Several other signatories later Hebraised their names, including Meir Argov (Grabovsky), Peretz Bernstein (then Fritz Bernstein), Avraham Granot (Granovsky), Avraham Nissan (Katznelson), Moshe Kol (Kolodny), Yehuda Leib Maimon (Fishman), Golda Meir (Meyerson/Myerson), Pinchas Rosen (Felix Rosenblueth) and Moshe Sharett (Shertok). Other signatories added their own touches, including Saadia Kobashi who added the phrase \"HaLevy\", referring to the tribe of Levi.
After Sharett, the last of the signatories, had put his name to paper, the audience again stood and the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra played \"Hatikvah\". Ben-Gurion concluded the event with the words \"The State of Israel is established! This meeting is adjourned!\"
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
## Aftermath
The declaration was signed in the context of civil war between the Arab and Jewish populations of the Mandate that had started the day after the partition vote at the UN six months earlier. Neighbouring Arab states and the Arab League were opposed to the vote and had declared they would intervene to prevent its implementation. In a cablegram on 15 May 1948 to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States claimed that \"the Arab states find themselves compelled to intervene in order to restore law and order and to check further bloodshed\".
Over the next few days after the declaration, armies of Egypt, Trans-Jordan, Iraq, and Syria engaged Israeli troops inside the area of what had just ceased to be Mandatory Palestine, thereby starting the 1948 Arab--Israeli War. A truce began on 11 June, but fighting resumed on 8 July and stopped again on 18 July, before restarting in mid-October and finally ending on 24 July 1949 with the signing of the armistice agreement with Syria. By then Israel had retained its independence and increased its land area by almost 50% compared to the 1947 UN Partition Plan.
Following the declaration, Moetzet HaAm became the Provisional State Council, which acted as the legislative body for the new state until the first elections in January 1949.
Many of the signatories would play a prominent role in Israeli politics following independence; Moshe Sharett and Golda Meir both served as Prime Minister, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi became the country\'s second president in 1952, and several others served as ministers. David Remez was the first signatory to pass away, dying in May 1951, while Meir Vilner, the youngest signatory at just 29, was the longest living, serving in the Knesset until 1990 and dying in June 2003. Eliyahu Berligne, the oldest signatory at 82, died in 1959.
Eleven minutes after midnight, the United States *de facto* recognised the State of Israel. This was followed by Iran (which had voted against the UN partition plan), Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognise Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, and South Africa. The United States extended official recognition after the first Israeli election, as Truman had promised on 31 January 1949. By virtue of General Assembly Resolution 273 (III), Israel was admitted to membership in the United Nations on 11 May 1949.
In the three years following the 1948 Palestine war, about 700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel, residing mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands. Around 136,000 were some of the 250,000 displaced Jews of World War II. And from the 1948 Arab--Israeli War until the early 1970s, 800,000--1,000,000 Jews left, fled, or were expelled from their homes in Arab countries; 260,000 of them reached Israel between 1948 and 1951; and 600,000 by 1972.
At the same time, a large number of Arabs left, fled or were expelled from, what became Israel. In the *Report of the Technical Committee on Refugees (Submitted to the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine in Lausanne on 7 September 1949) -- (A/1367/Rev.1)*, in paragraph 15, the estimate of the statistical expert, which the Committee believed to be as accurate as circumstances permitted, indicated that the number of refugees from Israel-controlled territory amounted to approximately 711,000.
## Status in Israeli law {#status_in_israeli_law}
Paragraph 13 of the Declaration provides that the State of Israel would *be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex;*. However, the Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document. The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes.
In 1994 the Knesset amended two basic laws, Human Dignity and Liberty and Freedom of Occupation, introducing (among other changes) a statement saying \"the fundamental human rights in Israel will be honored (\...) in the spirit of the principles included in the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel.\"
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# Israeli Declaration of Independence
## The scroll {#the_scroll}
Although Ben-Gurion had told the audience that he was reading from the scroll of independence, he was actually reading from handwritten notes because only the bottom part of the scroll had been finished by artist and calligrapher Otte Wallish by the time of the declaration (he did not complete the entire document until June). The scroll, which is bound together in three parts, is generally kept in the country\'s National Archives
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# Geography of Italy
The **geography of Italy** includes the description of all the physical geographical elements of Italy. Italy, whose territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical region, is located in southern Europe and comprises the long, boot-shaped Italian Peninsula crossed by the Apennines, the southern side of Alps, the large plain of the Po Valley and some islands including Sicily and Sardinia. Italy is part of the Northern Hemisphere. Two of the Pelagie Islands (Lampedusa and Lampione) are located on the African continent.
The total area of Italy is 301,230 km2, of which 294,020 km2 is land and 7,210 km2 is water. It lies between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. Italy borders Switzerland (698 km), France (476 km), Austria (404 km) and Slovenia (218 km). San Marino (37 km) and Vatican City (3.4 km) are enclaves. The total border length is 1836.4 km. Including islands, Italy has a coastline of 7,900 km on the Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Sea of Sardinia and Strait of Sicily.
The Italian geographical region, in its traditional and most widely accepted extent, has an area of approximately 324,000 km2, which is greater than the area of the entire Italian Republic (301,230 km2). The Italian geographical region also includes territories that are sovereign parts of Croatia, France, Slovenia and Switzerland, as well as the four small independent states of the Principality of Monaco, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of San Marino and the Vatican City State (the Holy See).
## General features {#general_features}
Italy is joined to the central-western section of the European continent by the Alps. Due to its position, it constitutes a bridge between Europe and Africa. In particular, the Italian peninsula is located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, between the Balkans and Hellenic peninsula to the east, the Iberian peninsula to the west, North Africa to the south and continental Europe to the north separated by the Alps.
Italy also separates the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea from the eastern basin --- that is, the Tyrrhenian Sea from the Ionian Sea --- extending towards the west with Calabria and Sicily, which together geologically form a peninsular extension. Only 140 km separate Sicily and Africa (the Tunisian peninsula), by the channel of Sicily.
To the east, Salento is 70 km from the Albanian coast, at the narrowest point of the Strait of Otranto. It is Capo d\'Otranto (also called *Punta Palascìa*), located at 40° 7\' north latitude and 18° 31\' east longitude. To the north of Salento lies the long and narrow inlet of the Adriatic Sea. The islands of Sardinia and Corsica then divide the Tyrrhenian Sea from the Sardinian Sea. The coastal development of the Italian peninsula and islands is vast; about 8,000 km, which is much larger than that of the Iberian peninsula, but much less than that of the Balkans.
Italy has a prevalence of hilly areas (41.6% of the territory) compared to mountainous areas (35.2% of the territory), or flat areas (23.2%).
The Italian soil today is the result of anthropization and is partly mountainous, partly hilly, partly volcanic, partly endolagunar with bumps, polesine, islands, dried up by reclamation (Bonifiche Circeo, Ferraresi, Comacchio, Ostiense, Pisana and so on) with ever greater raising of embankments (for example the withdrawal of 1.7 billion cubic meters per year of fresh water, from 20 consortia from Veneto alone).
No inhabited center in Italy is more than 294 km from the sea and the Italian municipality farthest from the sea is Madesimo (province of Sondrio) which is 294 km from the Ligurian Sea.
### Boundaries
Italy borders Switzerland (698 km), France (476 km), Austria (404 km) and Slovenia (218 km). San Marino (37 km) and Vatican City (3.4 km) are enclaves. The total border length is 1836.4 km. Including islands, Italy has a coastline of 7,900 km on the Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, Sea of Sardinia and Strait of Sicily.
### Latitude and longitude {#latitude_and_longitude}
- Northernmost point --- Testa Gemella Occidentale, Prettau (Predoi), South Tyrol at 47 5 N 12 11 E type:landmark_region:IT_source:frwiki name=North: Testa Gemella Occidentale
- Southernmost point --- Punta Pesce Spada, Lampedusa, Sicily at 35 29 N 12 36 E type:landmark_region:IT_source:frwiki name=South: Lampedusa (whole territory); Capo Spartivento, Palizzi, Calabria at 37 55 N 15 59 E region:IT_type:landmark name=South: Capo Spartivento (mainland)
- Westernmost point --- Rocca Bernauda, Bardonecchia, Piedmont at 45 6 N 6 37 E region:IT_type:landmark_source:frwiki name=West: Rocca Bernauda
- Easternmost point --- Capo d\'Otranto, Otranto, Apulia at 40 6 N 18 31 E region:IT_type:landmark_source:frwiki name=East: Capo d\'Otranto
The distance that separates the Testa Gemella Occidentale from Punta Pesce Spada is 1,291 km; the maximum distance between the eastern and western borders is about 600 km. The municipalities at the ends of Italy are:
- Predoi, the northernmost municipality
- Lampedusa e Linosa, the southernmost municipality
- Otranto, the easternmost municipality
- Bardonecchia, the westernmost municipality
### Elevation
- Highest point: Mont Blanc (Aosta Valley) 4,810.90 m at 45 50 N 6 51 E region:IT_type:mountain_source:frwiki name=Mont Blanc (highest)
- Lowest point: Jolanda di Savoia (province of Ferrara) −3.44 m at 44 53 N 11 59 E region:IT_type:landmark name=Le Contane (lowest)
- Highest settlement: Trepalle, Livigno 2,209 m at 46 32 N 10 11 E region:IT name=Trepalle
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# Geography of Italy
## General features {#general_features}
### Maritime claims {#maritime_claims}
- Territorial sea: 12 nmi
- Continental shelf: 200 m or to the depth of exploitation
- Exclusive Economic Zone: 541,915 km2
### Geographical centre {#geographical_centre}
Although the Istituto Geografico Militare of Florence has repeatedly declared that it is impossible to uniquely determine the center of a non-geometric shape such as that of Italy, there are several locations that, depending on the measurement criteria adopted, compete for the primacy of the geographical centre of Italy:
- Monteluco (province of Perugia);
- Narni (province of Terni);
- Orvieto (province of Terni);
- Rieti (province of Rieti).
## Land use {#land_use}
- Artificial (urban, industrial etc.): 4.9%
- Agricultural: 52.2%
- Arable land: 27.9%
- Permanent: 7.1%
- Other: 17.2%
- Wood: 41.4%
- Wetlands: 0.4%
- Water (lakes etc.): 1.1%
### Irrigated land {#irrigated_land}
- 39,510 km^2^ (2007)
### Total renewable water resources {#total_renewable_water_resources}
- 191.3 km^3^ (2011)
### Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural) {#freshwater_withdrawal_domesticindustrialagricultural}
- *total*: 45.41 km^3^/yr (24%/43%/34%)
- *per capita:* 789.8 m^3^/yr (2008)
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# Geography of Italy
## Divisions
The Italian geographical region, in its traditional and most widely accepted extent, has an area of approximately 324,000 km2, which is greater than the area of the entire Italian Republic (301,230 km2). The Italian geographical region also includes territories that are sovereign parts of Croatia, France, Slovenia and Switzerland, as well as the four small independent states of the Principality of Monaco, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of San Marino and the Vatican City State (the Holy See). Italy and the Italian geographical region are both divided into three parts, albeit with some differences.
### Continental Italy {#continental_italy}
Continental Italy defined as the southern side of the Alps, the Po Valley, Liguria and the portion of the Apennines bounded by the conventional line that connects La Spezia to Rimini. The region of Nice (corresponding to the historic County of Nice), Italian Switzerland, part of Julian March and other less extensive portions of territory such as Valle Stretta, Gondo and Val Monastero, are not part of the Italian Republic in its continental part but they are part of the Italian geographical region. Conversely, the Val di Lei, the Val di Livigno, the San Candido basin, the Rio Sesto valley and the Tarvisio basin, although part of the Italian Republic, are not included in the Italian geographical region.
### Peninsular Italy {#peninsular_italy}
Peninsular Italy refers to the entire southern part of the aforementioned line, up to Punta Melito in Calabria (which is the southernmost point of the peninsula) and Santa Maria di Leuca in Apulia. San Marino and the Vatican City are foreign territories, although included in the Italian geographical region.
The Italian peninsula occupies a median position between the three main peninsulas of southern Europe, emerging right in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, with large islands and some archipelagos.
### Insular Italy {#insular_italy}
Insular Italy is made up of Sardinia, Sicily and numerous smaller islands, scattered or grouped into archipelagos in the seas that bathe the coasts of the peninsula. Corsica is not politically included in insular Italy since it belongs to France, however, it is included in the Italian geographical region.
The five largest islands belonging to the Italian state are, in order of size:
- Sicily (25,707 km2)
- Sardinia (24,090 km2)
- Elba (223 km2)
- Sant\'Antioco (108.9 km2)
- Pantelleria (83 km2).
Other islands belonging to Italy are grouped into the following archipelagos:
- Archipelago of the Gulf of La Spezia, formed by the island of Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto;
- Tuscan archipelago, formed by the island of Elba, the largest and most important of the group from whose bowels iron has been extracted for centuries. To the north of the island of Elba rise Capraia and Gorgona, to the south Pianosa, Montecristo, Giannutri and the island of Giglio. Minor islets are Cerboli and Palmaiola off the coast of Elba, the Islet of the Sparviero at Punta Ala, the Formiche di Grosseto, the Formica di Burano, the Formica di Montecristo (or Scoglio d\'Africa) and some islets off the coast of promontory of the Argentario including Argentarola, Isola Rossa and Isolotto, in addition to the Secche della Meloria and the Secche di Vada.
- The Phlegraean Islands (Ischia and Procida) plus Capri, in the Gulf of Naples; sometimes the three islands are included in the Campanian Archipelago;
- Pontine islands: Ponza, Palmarola, Zannone and Ventotene, in the gulf of Gaeta;
- Archipelago of the Aeolian Islands or Lipari, which includes Salina, Lipari, the largest of the group, Vulcano, a now almost extinct volcano; Panarea and then Stromboli, an eruptive cone still in activity which was called *Stronghilo* by the ancient Greeks (hence Stromboli), due to its conical shape of an inverted top on the sea; to these must be added Filicudi and Alicudi;
- Aegadian Islands, i.e. the islands of Favignana, Marettimo, Levanzo and Stagnone, which arise between Marsala and Trapani, west of Sicily;
- Pelagie Islands, including Linosa, Lampione and Lampedusa;
- In Sicily we still find Ustica off the Gulf of Palermo and Pantelleria in the middle of the Sicilian Channel;
- The group of the Tremiti Islands and the island of Pianosa, which rise in the Adriatic Sea;
- To the north of Sardinia the Asinara and the archipelago of La Maddalena, to the south San Pietro and Sant\'Antioco.
- The Cheradi Islands of San Pietro and San Paolo in the Gulf of Taranto.
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# Geography of Italy
## Orography
### Mountains
Almost 40% of the Italian territory is mountainous, with the Alps as the northern boundary and the Apennine Mountains forming the backbone of the peninsula and extending for 1350 km. The Alpine mountain range is linked with the Apennines with the Colle di Cadibona pass in the Ligurian Alps. Nineteen Italian regions are crossed by either the Alps or the Apennines, or their offshoots. Sardinia has mountains with their own characteristics and are included in the Sardinian-Corsican relief, since it also affects Corsica.
The Alps (formed during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic) surround the Po Valley to the north, east and west, and develop along the entire northern border of Italy (about 1000 km), creating a natural border. The Alps contain the highest peak in the European Union, Mont Blanc, at 4810 meters above sea level, located between the Aosta Valley and France.
The Apennines (formed during the Oligocene) rise south of the Po Valley and run from north to south throughout the Italian peninsula, from Liguria to Calabria and continue in northern Sicily ending in the Madonie, acting as a watershed between the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic-Ionian coast.
The highest peaks in Italy are found in the Western Alps, where there are numerous peaks that exceed 4000 meters including Monte Rosa (4634 meters), the Cervino (4478 meters) and Mont Blanc which with its 4810 meters. The maximum height of the Apennines is the Gran Sasso d\'Italia (2912 meters).
Famous mountains in Italy are Monte Cervino (Matterhorn), Monte Rosa, Gran Paradiso in the West Alps, and Bernina, Stelvio and Dolomites along the eastern side of the Alps.
### Hills
The hills cover most of the Italian territory. They are mainly located in the central-southern part of the peninsula, along the sides of the Apennine ridge, but also in the pre-Alpine area, close to the Alps.
The hilly reliefs, which alternate with hollows and valleys, have slight slopes and do not exceed 800 meters.
The first two hilly systems are the subalpine hills and the Preappennino, two hilly strips arranged between the Alps and the Po Valley and between the Apennines and the Adriatic coast respectively. The subalpine hills widen more in the western part of the Po Valley, where they form the hills of the Langhe and Montferrat. Two other hill systems are the Tyrrhenian Anti-Apennine, which extends from the Colline Metallifere of Tuscany to Vesuvius and the Beneventane Hills in Campania, and the Adriatic Anti-Apennine, present in Puglia with the Murge and Gargano hills.
The Italian hills have different origins:
- The Langhe, Monferrato, Chianti and Murge are sedimentary hills formed by the lifting of the seabed.
- The Beneventane Hills are of tertiary formation, that is, composed of gravel stratifications or masses of pebbles mixed with limestone and sandstone, probably due to the raising of the lake bottom.
- The hills of Brianza, of Canavese and more generally of the entire strip that runs at the foot of the Alps are morainic, that is, made up of deposits of earth and crushed stone transported by ancient glaciers.
- The Euganean Hills and numerous other formations in Tuscany, Lazio, Campania are of volcanic origin, i.e. they are the remains of ancient extinct volcanoes, rounded by a long erosion.
### Plains
The plains make up 23.2% of the Italian national territory. In between the two lies a large plain in the valley of the Po, the largest river in Italy, which flows 652 km eastward from the Cottian Alps to the Adriatic. The Po Valley is the largest plain in Italy, with 46,000 km2, and it represents over 70% of the total plain area in the country. The Po Valley is divided into two bands: the high plain, which borders the Alpine and Apennine hills, and the low plain located in the center and extended up to the Po delta.
In the peninsular part and in the islands there are only small plains often located along the coasts and at the mouth of the major rivers, near which they formed: this is the case, for example, of the Tavoliere delle Puglie, of the Campidano in Sardinia or the Maremma in Tuscany.
The Italian plains have different origins:
- Most of it is of alluvial origin, that is, formed by the debris deposited by the rivers along their course. The Po Valley, Valdarno, Pontine Marshes, Campidano, Metapontino, Plain of Sele, Salento, Plain of Sibari, Plain of Catania and Plain of Sant\'Eufemia are alluvial.
- The second largest Italian plain is the Tavoliere delle Puglie, which is a rising plain, formed from the raising of the seabed.
- Other plains, for example the Plain of Campania, are of volcanic origin where the ashes of the volcanoes have filled the surrounding valleys, transforming them into fertile plains.
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# Geography of Italy
## Hydrography
Italy is surrounded, except to the north, by the sea, and its territory has a rich reserve of inland waters (rivers and lakes). The southern regions, however, are drier than the northern ones, due to the scarcity of rains and the absence of glaciers that can feed the rivers.
### Rivers
Italian rivers are shorter than those of other European regions due to the Apennines that run along the entire length of the peninsula, dividing the waters into two opposite sides. They are numerous however, due to the relative abundance of rains in Italy in general, and to the presence of the Alpine chain, rich in snowfields and glaciers, in northern Italy.
The fundamental watershed follows the ridge of the Alps and the Apennines and defines five main slopes, corresponding to the seas into which the rivers flow: the Adriatic, Ionic, Tyrrhenian, Ligurian and Mediterranean sides. Italian rivers are categorized into two main groups: the Alpine-Po river rivers and the Apennine-island rivers.
The longest Italian river is the Po (652 km), which flows from the Monviso, runs through the entire Po Valley from west to east, and then flows, with a delta, into the Adriatic Sea. In addition to being the longest, it is also the river with the largest basin and the largest flow at its mouth. The second longest Italian river is the Adige (410 km), which originates near Lake Resia and flows into the Adriatic Sea, after having made a north--south route, near Chioggia. The third longest river in Italy is the Tiber (405 km), the second longest Italian river in terms of hydrographic basin; it was formed on Monte Fumaiolo (in Emilia-Romagna) and flows into the Tyrrhenian Sea after having crossed the center of Rome. After the Tiber, in order of length are the rivers Adda (313 km), Oglio (280 km), Tanaro (276 km) and Ticino (248 km, of which 157 km is in Italy).
Most of Italy\'s rivers drain either into the Adriatic Sea (such as Po, Piave, Adige, Brenta, Tagliamento, Reno) or into the Tyrrhenian (like Arno, Tiber and Volturno), though the waters from some border municipalities drain into the Black Sea through the basin of the Drava (Innichen and Sexten in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Tarvisio in Friuli-Venezia-Giulia) or the Inn (Livigno in Lombardy), both tributaries of the Danube, and the waters from the Lago di Lei in Lombardy drain into the North Sea through the basin of Rhine.
### Lakes
In Italy there are more than 1,000 lakes, mostly artificially created by the damming of river valleys.
In the north of the country are a number of subalpine moraine-dammed lakes (the Italian Lakes), including the largest in Italy, the Garda (370 km2). Other well known of these subalpine lakes are Lake Maggiore (212.5 km2), whose most northerly section is part of Switzerland, Como (which holds the record of depth in the Italian Republic, which amounts to 410 m) (146 km2), Orta, Lugano, Iseo, Idro. These lakes occupy wide valleys carved by ancient glaciers.
In Italy there are also coastal lakes, such as Lake Lesina, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land, and volcanic lakes (Lake Bolsena, Lake Vico, Lake Bracciano), which occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes. Lake Trasimeno, on the other hand, formed in a hollow in the territory. Other notable lakes in the Italian peninsula are Varano and Omodeo in Sardinia.
The swamps and ponds that in the past covered vast flat areas of Italy, in recent centuries have been largely dried up; the few remaining wetlands, such as the Valli di Comacchio in Emilia-Romagna or the Stagno di Cagliari in Sardinia, are protected as very precious natural environments.
Along the Italian coasts there are lagoons, among which the Venetian Lagoon, that of Grado Lagoon and that of Marano Lagoon in the northern Adriatic stand out for their size and importance, and the Orbetello Lagoon on the Tuscan coast.
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# Geography of Italy
## Hydrography
### Seas and coasts {#seas_and_coasts}
The Italian peninsula overlooks the Mediterranean Sea, which around it is divided into various seas.
The Ligurian Sea bathes the coasts of Liguria and, according to the cartography of the Hydrographic Institute of the Navy, the northern Tuscan coasts to the south as far as the island of Elba.
The Tyrrhenian Sea bathes the western coasts of the peninsula south of the island of Elba (and therefore all the regions from Tuscany to Calabria), the northern coasts of Sicily and the eastern coasts of Sardinia.
The Adriatic Sea bathes the eastern coasts of the peninsula, from Friuli-Venezia Giulia to the Cape of Santa Maria di Leuca, Apulia.
The Ionian Sea bathes the eastern coasts of Sicily and Calabria, the coast of Basilicata and the western coasts of Apulia.
To the south of Sicily lies the Strait of Sicily, while to the west of Sardinia lies the Sea of Sardinia.
Italy has a coastline of approximately 7900 km, with a great variety of shapes that depends both on the nature of the mainland and on the action of the sea.
The Adriatic coasts are quite straight, characterized to the north by the gulfs of Trieste and Venice, in the center by the Conero promontory, to the south by that of the Gargano, which forms the Gulf of Manfredonia. The Adriatic coasts are low and sandy, with lagoons in the northern section. Only in the Trieste area, in correspondence with the Gargano, the Conero and the lower eastern Salento (between Otranto and Santa Maria di Leuca) do rocky sections follow one another.
The Ionian coasts are mainly low and sandy and are characterized by the wide Gulf of Taranto, closed to the east by the Salento Peninsula (which divides it from the Adriatic) and to the west by the Calabrian peninsula (which divides it from the Tyrrhenian Sea).
The Strait of Messina connects the Ionian and the Tyrrhenian seas.
The Tyrrhenian coasts are very articulated, with rocky stretches alternating with sandy beaches, with numerous gulfs and headlands. Among the many gulfs include Naples, Salerno and Gaeta, between the peninsulas that of Sorrento and the promontories that of Circeo and that of Piombino. In the Tyrrhenian Sea, there are three important channels: between the island of Elba and the Tuscan coast the Strait of Piombino, between Elba and Corsica the Strait of Corsica, and between Sardinia and Corsica the Strait of Bonifacio.
The Ligurian Sea, which has the Gulf of Genoa at its center, has high and rocky coasts in the Riviera di Levante and mixed coasts in the Riviera di Ponente.
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# Geography of Italy
## Geology
The underground thrusts that millions of years ago gave rise to the reliefs of Italy still continue: the earthquakes and the eruptive activity of volcanoes testify to this.
### Earthquakes
Squeezed between two plates, the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate, Italy is very subject to earthquakes, even intense ones, so much so that it holds the record in Europe. In particular, the areas at greatest seismic risk are the north and south-west of Sicily, the whole Apennines (but in particular the central-southern area), northern Apulia, almost all of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and finally the north-west of Veneto. On the contrary, the areas with little or no seismic risk are the Alps (excluding the extreme western and eastern area), most of the Po Valley, the Tyrrhenian coasts up to Lazio, central-southern Apulia, Sardinia and central Sicily.
### Volcanoes
Italy is also known for the presence of numerous volcanoes, the most well-known being Vesuvius near Naples, Etna near Catania (which with its 3343 m is the highest volcano in Europe), Stromboli and Vulcano, in the Aeolian Islands in the province of Messina, in addition to the large caldera formed by the Campi Flegrei in Campania.
The peninsula also has many extinct volcanoes, that is, which have ceased their eruptive activity, such as the Euganean Hills in the province of Padua, Mount Amiata in Tuscany, the Berici Hills in the province of Vicenza and the Castelli Romani area, where there are several lakes that occupy the craters of ancient volcanoes. The lakes of Bracciano, Vico and Bolsena in northern Lazio also had a similar origin.
In recent years, numerous studies have also been conducted to better understand the structure and destructive potential of the submarine volcano Marsili, located about 140 km north of Sicily and about 150 km west of Calabria. With its 70 km of length and 30 km of width (equal to 2,100 km2 of surface) the Marsili is one of the largest volcanoes in Europe.
Many elements of the Italian territory are of volcanic origin. Most of the small islands and archipelagos in the south, like Capraia, Ponza, Ischia, Eolie, Ustica and Pantelleria are volcanic islands.
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# Geography of Italy
## Gallery
<File:Southern> Italian Peninsula at Night.JPG\|Astronaut photograph highlighting the night-time appearance of southern Italy. <File:ItalySouth1849.jpg>\|Southern Italy and Sicily on the 1849 map. <File:EtnaAvió.JPG%7CEtna>, the highest active volcano in Europe. <File:Torre> della pelosa + isola piana + asinara da capo falcone.jpg\|Asinara island with the Aragonese Torre della Pelosa (16th century), Sardinia. <File:Vernazza.JPG%7CThe> coastal areas of Liguria have a Mediterranean climate. <File:San> Quirico d\'Orcia - Chiesetta Val d\'Orcia.jpg\|Landscape of Tuscany. <File:RisaieVercellesi_Panorama2.jpg%7CRice> paddies in the Po Valley near Vercelli. <File:Cascatemarmore.jpg>\|Marmore waterfall, the world\'s tallest man-made waterfall, was created by the ancient Romans. <File:Vesuvius_from_Pompeii_%28hires_version_2_scaled%29.png%7CMount> Vesuvius looms over the ruins of Pompeii. <File:Venice_as_seen_from_the_air_with_bridge_to_mainland.jpg%7CPanorama> of Venice and its lagoon. <File:Rilke_05.jpg%7CThe> Karst Plateau drops vertically into the Adriatic Sea near Trieste. <File:Corno> grande da campo imperatore.jpg\|Gran Sasso d\'Italia, the highest peak of the Apennines. <File:Monviso_from_San_Marzano_Oliveto.jpg%7CVineyards> in the Montferrat hills, with the Monviso in the background. <File:Panoramic_Livigno.jpg%7CLivigno>, the highest comune in Italy, during winter. <File:Reggio_calabria_panorama_dal_fortino.jpg%7CThe> Strait of Messina as seen from the mainland. <File:Filicudi_%288_of_28%29.jpg>\|*La Canna* rock off the coast of Filicudi. <File:Chia> beach, Sardinia, Italy.jpg\|Southern coast of Sardinia. <File:Cremona_Po_Bridge.jpg%7CThe> Po river as seen in Cremona, on a foggy winter day
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# Telecommunications in Italy
The most important **telecommunications in Italy** are telephone, radio, television and the Internet.
## Telephone companies {#telephone_companies}
- Acantho
- Aexis
- Alcotek
- Alltre
- Incu
- Lars
- AT3
- Hybrid (only in Bergamo)
- Blu
- Brennercom (coverage only in South Tyrol, Trentino and Northern Italy)
- BT
- Budget Telecom
- Cdc 1085
- ClickTel
- Colt Telecom
- Digitel
- EasyTel
- EcsNet
- Elemedia
- Elitel
- Energit
- Eurotime Communication
- Eutelia
- Fastweb
- FreeLine
- ho-mobile
- Iliad
- Intred
- Kena Mobile
- Leadercom
- Linkem
- LTS (coverage in Sicily)
- Messagenet
- Millecom
- Mobaila
- Momax
- Nodalis
- Noicom
- OlimonTel
- Orobiacom
- Plugit
- Selet Telecomunicazioni
- Tag Comunicazioni
- TIM
- Tibis Communication
- Tiscali
- Unidata
- Very Mobile
- Vodafone
- Wind Tre
## Radio stations {#radio_stations}
Name Owner Location Notes Transmission Website
------------------------------------ -------------------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Radio Byoblu libera e indipendente Byoblu Edizioni S.r.l.s Worldwide Public; News/Talk; Popular music Streaming online [www.byoblu.com/radio](https://www.byoblu.com/radio/)
m2o Elemedia Rome Commercial; Electronic dance music FM, DAB, DAB+, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.m2o.it](http://www.m2o.it)
R101 Mediaset Milan Commercial; Adult Contemporary FM, DAB, DAB+, DVB-S [www.r101.it](http://www.r101.it)
Radio 105 Network Mediaset Milan Commercial; Rock, Pop, Hip Hop FM, DVB-S [www.105.net](http://www.105.net)
Radio 24 Il Sole 24 Ore Milan Commercial; News/Talk FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.radio24.it](http://www.radio24.it)
Radio Capital Elemedia Rome Commercial; Classic Hits/Adult Contemporary FM, DAB, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.capital.it](http://www.capital.it)
Radio DeeJay Elemedia Milan Commercial FM, DAB, DAB+, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.deejay.it](http://www.deejay.it)
Radio Dimensione Suono Rome Commercial; It\'s also called *RDS* FM, DAB, DAB+, DVB-S [www.rds.it](http://www.rds.it)
Radio Italia Solo Musica Italiana Gruppo Radio Italia Cologno Monzese Commercial; Italian Hits FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.radioitalia.it](https://web.archive.org/web/20200109040600/https://www.radioitalia.it/)
Radio Kiss Kiss Naples Commercial FM, DVB-S [www.kisskiss.it](http://www.kisskiss.it)
Radio Maria Associazione Radio Maria Erba(CO) Community; Catholic FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.radiomaria.it](http://www.radiomaria.it)
Radio Monte Carlo Mediaset Milan Commercial; It\'s also called *RMC* FM, DVB-S [www.radiomontecarlo.net](http://www.radiomontecarlo.net)
Radio Popolare cooperative Rome Community; News/Talk FM [www.radiopopolare.it](http://www.radiopopolare.it)
Radio Radicale Radical Party Rome Community; News/Talk FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.radioradicale.it](http://www.radioradicale.it)
Rai Gr Parlamento RAI Rome Public; News/Talk FM, DVB-S [www.grparlamento.rai.it](http://www.grparlamento.rai.it)
Rai Isoradio RAI Public; Traffic and weather news FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.isoradio.rai.it](http://www.isoradio.rai.it)
Rai Radio 1 RAI Rome Public; News/Talk; Generalist FM, MW, DAB, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.raiplayradio.it/radio1](http://www.raiplayradio.it/radio1)
Rai Radio 2 RAI Rome Public; Popular music; Entertainment FM, DAB, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.raiplayradio.it/radio2](http://www.raiplayradio.it/radio2)
Rai Radio 3 RAI Rome Public; Culture; Classical music FM, DAB, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.raiplayradio.it/radio3](http://www.raiplayradio.it/radio3)
RTL 102.5 Cologno Monzese (MI) Commercial FM, DAB, DVB-S [www.rtl.it](http://www.rtl.it)
Virgin Radio Italia Mediaset Milan Commercial; Rock FM, DAB, DAB+, DVB-S <http://www.virginradioitaly.it>
Rai Radio Tutta Italiana RAI Rome Public; Easy listening music DAB, Cable, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.raiplayradio.it/radiotuttaitaliana](http://www.raiplayradio.it/radiotuttaitaliana)
Rai Radio Classica RAI Rome Public; Classical music DAB, Cable, DVB-T, DVB-S [www.raiplayradio.it/radioclassica](http://www.raiplayradio.it/radioclassica)
Radio Padania Libera Lega Nord Varese Community; News/Talk DAB, DVB-S [www.radiopadania.info](http://www.radiopadania.info)
: Radio stations in Italy
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# Telecommunications in Italy
## Television channels {#television_channels}
See also: `{{section link|RAI|TV channels}}`{=mediawiki}
### RAI -- national {#rai_national}
Logo Name Channel Type Launched Description
------ ------------- ---------------------- ------------- ------------------- ----------------------------------------------
Rai 1 1 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 3 January 1954 Generalist and family-oriented
Rai 2 2 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 4 November 1961 Generalist, catering towards urban audiences
Rai 3 3 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 15 December 1979 Cultural and regional programming
Rai 4 21 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 14 July 2008 Youth/urban programming and movies
Rai 5 523 **(DTT, HbbTV)** Free-to-air 26 November 2010 Arts and culture programming
Rai 4K 101 **(DTT, HbbTV)** Free-to-air 17 June 2016 Ultra-high-definition (4K) channel
Rai Movie 24 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 1 July 1999 Movies
Rai Premium 25 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 31 July 2003 Popular fiction and films
Rai Gulp 542 **(DTT, HbbTV)** Free-to-air 1 June 2007 Shows aimed at young children ages 8--14
Rai Yoyo 543 **(DTT, HbbTV)** Free-to-air 1 November 2006 Shows aimed at young children ages 4--7
Rai News 24 48 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 26 April 1999 Non-stop rolling news
Rai Storia 54 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 2 February 2009 Documentaries about history and culture
Rai Sport 58 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 14 September 2015 Sports coverage and related news
Rai Scuola 57 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 19 October 2009 Documentary, cultural and educational
: HD Terrestrial channels
### RAI -- regional {#rai_regional}
Logo Name Channel Launched Language Region
------ -------------- ------------------ ---------- --------------------- --------------------------------------------------
1960 Italian Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
Rai Ladinia 1988 Ladin Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
Rai Südtirol 3, 808 **(DTT)** 1966 German Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
3, 810 **(DTT)** 1995 Italian and Slovene Friuli Venezia Giulia/Furlanija Julijska Krajina
### Mediaset
See also: Mediaset
Logo Name Channel Type Launched Description
------ ---------------- ------------------------ ------------- ------------------ -----------------------------
Rete 4 4, 104, 504 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 4 January 1982 General, High-definition
Canale 5 5, 105, 505 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 11 November 1980 General, High-definition
Italia 1 6, 106, 506 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 3 January 1982 General, High-definition
20 20, 120, 520 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 3 April 2018 TV Series and Sports
Iris 22, 522 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 30 November 2007 Movies
Twentyseven 27, 527 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 17 January 2022 Cinema
La5 30, 530 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 12 March 2010 Entertainment and Lifestyle
Cine34 34, 534 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 20 January 2020 Cinema
Focus 35, 535 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 17 March 2018 Documentaries
Top Crime 39, 539 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 1 June 2013 Entertainment
Italia 2 49, 549 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 4 July 2011 Entertainment and Sports
TGcom24 51, 551 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 28 November 2011 News
Mediaset Extra 55, 556 **(DTT)** Free-to-air 26 November 2010 General
: Mediaset Terrestrial channels
## Internet
The Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Italy is **.it** and is sponsored by National Research Council. The **.eu** domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Currently Internet access is available to businesses and home users in various forms, including dial-up, fiber, cable, DSL and wireless.
According to netindex.com, the Italian average for fixed connections is below the global average (96.98 Mbit/s download and 51.28 Mbit/s Up) with an average speed of 79.62 Mbit/s download and 31.41 Mbit/s in upload.
## Statistics
- Telephones - main lines in use: 19.52 million (2019)
- Telephones - mobile cellular: 79.48 million (2019)
- Telephone system: well-developed, fully automated telephone and data services
- domestic: high-capacity cable and microwave radio relay trunks
- international: satellite Earth stations - 3 Intelsat (with a total of 5 antennas - 3 for Atlantic Ocean and 2 for Indian Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), and NA Eutelsat; 21 submarine cables.
- Radio broadcast stations: AM about 100, FM about 4,600, shortwave 9 (1998)
- Radios: 50.5 million (1997)
- Television broadcast stations: 358 (plus 4,728 repeaters) (1995)
- Televisions: 30.5 million (1997)
- Internet hosts: 22.152 million (2009)
- Internet users: 24.992 million (2008)
- Country code (Top-level domain):
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# Transport in Italy
Italy has a well developed transport infrastructure. The Italian rail network is extensive (16723 km), especially in the north, and it includes a high-speed rail network that joins the major cities of Italy from Naples through northern cities such as Milan and Turin. The Florence--Rome high-speed railway was the first high-speed line opened in Europe when more than half of it opened in 1977. Italy has 2,507 people and 12.46 km^2^ per kilometer of rail track, giving Italy the world\'s 13th largest rail network. The Italian rail network is operated by state-owned Ferrovie dello Stato, while the rail tracks and infrastructure are managed by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana.
Italy\'s paved road network is also widespread, with a total length of about 487700 km. It comprises both an extensive motorway network (7016 km), mostly toll roads, and national and local roads. Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways, the so-called *autostrade*, reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The *Autostrada dei Laghi* (\"Lakes Motorway\"), the first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore, and now parts of the A8 and A9 motorways, was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924. The Strade Statali is the Italian national network of state highways. The total length for this network is about 25000 km. The routes of some state highways derive from ancient Roman roads, such as the Strada statale 7 Via Appia, which broadly follows the route of the Roman road of the same name.
Italy is the fifth in Europe by number of passengers by air transport, with about 148 million passengers or about 10% of the European total in 2011. In 2012 there were 130 airports in Italy, including the two hubs of Malpensa International Airport in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Rome. Since October 2021, Italy\'s flag carrier airline is ITA Airways, which took over the brand, the IATA ticketing code, and many assets belonging to the former flag carrier Alitalia, after its bankruptcy. The country also has regional airlines (such as Air Dolomiti), low-cost carriers, and Charter and leisure carriers (including Neos, Blue Panorama Airlines and Poste Air Cargo). Major Italian cargo operators are ITA Airways Cargo and Cargolux Italia.
Because of its long seacoast, Italy also has many harbors for the transportation of both goods and passengers. In 2004 there were 43 major seaports including the Port of Genoa, the country\'s largest and the third busiest by cargo tonnage in the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the increasing importance of the maritime Silk Road with its connections to Asia and East Africa, the Italian ports for Central and Eastern Europe have become important in recent years. In addition, the trade in goods is shifting from the European northern ports to the ports of the Mediterranean Sea due to the considerable time savings and environmental protection. In particular, the deep water port of Trieste in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean Sea is the target of Italian, Asian and European investments. Transport networks in Italy are integrated into the Trans-European Transport Networks.
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# Transport in Italy
## Railways
The Italian rail network is extensive, especially in the north, and it includes a high-speed rail network that joins the major cities of Italy from Naples through northern cities such as Milan and Turin. Italy has 2,507 people and 12.46 km^2^ per kilometer of rail track, giving Italy the world\'s 13th largest rail network. Italy has 11 rail border crossings over the Alpine mountains with its neighbouring countries.
Higher-speed trains are divided into three categories: Frecciarossa (*red arrow*) trains operate at a maximum speed of 300 km/h on dedicated high-speed tracks; Frecciargento (*silver arrow*) trains operate at a maximum speed of 250 km/h on both high-speed and mainline tracks; and Frecciabianca (*white arrow*) trains operate on high-speed regional lines at a maximum speed of 200 km/h.
The Italian railway system has a length of 19394 km, of which 18071 km standard gauge and 11322 km electrified. The active lines are 16723 km. The network is recently growing with the construction of the new high-speed rail network. The narrow gauge tracks are:
- of `{{RailGauge|1000mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (all electrified);
- of `{{RailGauge|950mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (of which 153 km electrified).
A major part of the Italian rail network is managed and operated by Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane, a state owned company. Other regional agencies, mostly owned by public entities such as regional governments, operate on the Italian network. The rail tracks and infrastructure are managed by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana. The Italian railways are subsidised by the government, receiving €8.1 billion in 2009.
Travellers who often make use of the railway during their stay in Italy might use Rail Passes, such as the European Inter-Rail or Italy\'s national and regional passes. These rail passes allow travellers the freedom to use regional trains during the validity period, but all high-speed and intercity trains require a 10-euro reservation fee. Regional passes, such as \"Io viaggio ovunque Lombardia\", offer one-day, multiple-day and monthly period of validity. There are also saver passes for adults, who travel as a group, with savings up to 20%. Foreign travellers should purchase these passes in advance, so that the passes could be delivered by post prior to the trip. When using the rail passes, the date of travel needs to be filled in before boarding the trains.
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# Transport in Italy
## Railways
### High speed trains {#high_speed_trains}
The Italian high-speed service began in 1938 with an electric-multiple-unit ETR 200, designed for 200 km/h, between Bologna and Naples. It too reached 160 km/h in commercial service, and achieved a world mean speed record of 203 km/h between Florence and Milan in 1938.
Major works to increase the commercial speed of the trains already started in 1967: the Rome-Florence \"super-direct\" line was built for trains up to 230 km/h, and reduced the journey time to less than two hours. The Florence--Rome high-speed railway was the first high-speed line opened in Europe when more than half of it opened in 1977.
In 2009 a new high-speed line linking Milan and Turin, operating at 300 km/h, opened to passenger traffic, reducing the journey time from two hours to one hour. In the same year, the Milan-Bologna line was open, reducing the journey time to 55 minutes. Also the Bologna-Florence high-speed line was upgraded to 300 km/h for a journey time of 35 minutes.
Since then, it is possible to travel from Turin to Salerno (ca. 950 km) in less than five hours. More than 100 trains per day are operated.
The main public operator of high-speed trains (*alta velocità AV*, formerly Eurostar Italia) is Trenitalia, part of FSI. Trains are divided into three categories (called \"Le Frecce\"): *Frecciarossa* (\"Red arrow\") trains operate at a maximum of 300 km/h on dedicated high-speed tracks; *Frecciargento* (Silver arrow) trains operate at a maximum of 250 km/h on both high-speed and mainline tracks; *Frecciabianca* (White arrow) trains operate at a maximum of 200 km/h on mainline tracks only.
Since 2012, a new and Italy\'s first private train operator, NTV (branded as Italo), run high-speed services in competition with Trenitalia. Even nowadays, Italy is the only country in Europe with a private high-speed train operator.
Construction of the Milan-Venice high-speed line has begun in 2013 and in 2016 the Milan-Treviglio section has been opened to passenger traffic; the Milan-Genoa high-speed line (Terzo Valico dei Giovi) is also under construction.
Today it is possible to travel from Rome to Milan in less than three hours (2h 55\') with the Frecciarossa 1000, the new high-speed train. To cover this route, there\'s a train every 30 minutes.
### Night trains {#night_trains}
The *Nightjet* of the Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) serves different big cities in Italy like Rome, Venice, Florence and Milano. The trains can be used for rides inside Italy as well as for journeys abroad.
*Nightjet* trains offers beds in sleeper carriages (Nightjet\'s most comfortable service category), couchette carriages, and seated carriages. On certain connections, cars can also be transported on the train. Bikes can be transported in a bike transport bag, or on some connections also in special bike racks.
### Intercity trains {#intercity_trains}
With the introduction of high-speed trains, intercity trains are limited to few services per day on mainline and regional tracks.
The daytime services (*InterCity* IC), while not frequent and limited to one or two trains per route, are essential in providing access to cities and towns off the railway\'s mainline network. The main routes are Trieste to Rome (stopping at Venice, Bologna, Prato, Florence and Arezzo), Milan to Rome (stopping at Genoa, La Spezia, Pisa and Livorno / stopping at Parma, Modena, Bologna, Prato, Florence and Arezzo), Bologna to Lecce (stopping at Rimini, Ancona, Pescara, Bari and Brindisi) and Rome to Reggio di Calabria (stopping at Latina and Naples). In addition, the Intercity trains provide a more economical means of long-distance rail travel within Italy.
The night trains (*Intercity Notte* ICN) have sleeper compartments and washrooms, but no showers on board. Main routes are Rome to Bolzano/Bozen (calling at Florence, Bologna, Verona, Rovereto and Trento), Milan to Lecce (calling at Piacenza, Parma, Reggio Emilia, Modena, Bologna, Faenza, Forlì, Cesena, Rimini, Ancona, Pescara, Bari and Brindisi), Turin to Lecce (calling at Alessandria, Voghera, Piacenza, Parma, Bologna, Rimini, Pescara, Termoli, San Severo,Foggia, Barletta, Bisceglie, Molfetta, Bari, Monopoli, Fasano, Ostuni and Brindisi) and Reggio di Calabria to Turin (calling at Naples, Rome, Livorno, La Spezia and Genova). Most portions of these ICN services run during the night; since most services take 10 to 15 hours to complete a one-way journey, their day-time portion provide extra train connections to complement with the Intercity services.
There are a total of 86 intercity trains running within Italy per day.
### Regional trains {#regional_trains}
Trenitalia operates regional services (both fast *veloce RGV* and stopping *REG*) throughout Italy.
Regional train agencies exist: their train schedules are largely connected to and shown on Trenitalia, and tickets for such train services can be purchased through Trenitalia\'s national network. Other regional agencies have separate ticket systems which are not mutually exchangeable with that of Trenitalia. These \"regional\" tickets could be purchased at local newsagents or tobacco stores instead.
- Trentino-Alto Adige / Trentino-Südtirol: Südtirol Bahn (South Tyrol Railway) runs regional services on Ala/Ahl-am-Etsch to Bolzano/Bozen (calling at Rovereto/Rofreit, Trento/Trient and Mezzocorona/Kronmetz), Bolzano/Bozen to Merano/Meran, Bressanone/Brixen to San Candido/Innichen, and a direct \"Tirol regional express REX\" service between Bolzano/Bozen in Italy and Innsbruck in Austria.
- Veneto: Sistemi Territoriali runs regional trains in Veneto region.
- Lombardy: Trenord runs the Malpensa Express airport train, many Milan\'s suburban lines and most regional train services in Lombardy. Trenord also co-operates with DB and ÖBB on the EuroCity Verona-Munich service, and with SBB CFF FFS (joint-venture TiLo) on the regional Milan-Bellinzona service.
- Emilia-Romagna: Trasporto Passeggeri Emilia-Romagna provides vital connections across cities on different mainline networks, including Modena, Parma, Suzzara, Ferrara, Reggio Emilia and Bologna.
- Tuscany: La Ferroviaria Italiana operates in Arezzo province.
- Abruzzo: Sangritana runs daily services between Pescara and Lanciano.
In addition to these agencies, there\'s a great deal of other little operators, such as AMT Genova for the Genova-Casella railway.
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# Transport in Italy
## Railways
### Rail links with adjacent countries {#rail_links_with_adjacent_countries}
Italy has 11 rail border crossings over the Alpine mountains with her neighbouring countries: six are designated as mainline tracks and two are metre-gauge tracks. The six mainline border crossings are: two with France (one for Nice and Marseille; the other for Lyon and Dijon), two with Switzerland (one for Brig, Bern and Geneva; the other for Chiasso, Lugano, Lucerne and Zürich), and two with Austria (one for Innsbruck; the other for Villach, Graz and Vienna). The two-metre-gauge track crossings are located at the border town of Tirano (enters Switzerland\'s Canton Graubünden/Grisons) and Domodossola (enters Switzerland\'s Locarno).
There is a railway line connecting Italy\'s northeastern port of Trieste to Slovenia, but no passenger or freight services operate on this track. Consequently, there is no direct connections between Trieste and Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, despite the proximity of both cities.
- Italy-France: Marseille-Ventimiglia railway, currently EuroCity trains of Thello Milan-Marseille and one EuroNight train of RZD Moscow-Nice.
- Italy-France: Fréjus Rail Tunnel at 1338 m above sea, currently SNCF TGV trains Milan-Paris and Turin-Paris and EuroNight trains of Thello Venice-Paris
- Italy-Switzerland: Domodossola--Locarno railway metre-gauge trains
- Italy-Switzerland: Simplon Tunnel, currently EuroCity trains of SBB CFF FFS Milan-Geneva and Milan-Bern
- Italy-Switzerland: connecting Varese (Italy) to Bellinzona (Switzerland) and runs on the eastern coast of Lake Maggiore
- Italy-Switzerland: Milan--Chiasso railway, currently EuroCity trains of SBB CFF FFS Milan-Zürich
- Italy-Switzerland: Bernina railway at 2253 m above sea, metre-gauge trains of RhB Tirano-St. Moritz and the Bernina Express tourist train
- Italy-Austria: Brenner railway at 1371 m above sea, currently EuroCity trains of ÖBB-DB Munich-Verona and Munich-Venice/Bologna, and DB CityNightLine Munich-Rome/Milan
- Italy-Austria: at 1175 m above sea connecting San Candido/Innichen (Italy) and Lienz (Austria)
- Italy-Austria: connecting Venice and Udine (Italy) to Villach (Austria), currently EuroCity trains of ÖBB Venice-Vienna, EuroNight trains of ÖBB Vienna-Rome/Milan, and DB CityNightLine Munich-Venice
- Italy-Slovenia: Tarvisio--Ljubljana Railway
The Vatican City is also linked to Italy with a railway line serving a single railway station, the Vatican City railway station. This line is used only for special occasions. San Marino used to have a narrow gauge rail connection with Italy; this was dismantled in 1944.
### Stations
`{{main article|Railway stations in Italy}}`{=mediawiki} Italy\'s top ten railway stations by annual passengers are:
Rank Railway Station Annual entries/exits (millions) Number of platforms City Region
------ --------------------------------- --------------------------------- --------------------- ---------- ----------------
1 **Roma Termini** 150 32 Rome Lazio
2 **Milano Centrale** 145 24 Milan Lombardy
3 **Torino Porta Nuova** 70 20 Turin Piedmont
4 **Firenze Santa Maria Novella** 59 19 Florence Tuscany
5 **Bologna Centrale** 58 28 Bologna Emilia-Romagna
6 **Roma Tiburtina** 51 20 Rome Lazio
7 **Napoli Centrale** 50 25 Naples Campania
8 **Milano Cadorna** 33.1 10 Milan Lombardy
9 **Venezia Mestre** 31 13 Venice Veneto
10 **Venezia Santa Lucia** 30 16 Venice Veneto
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# Transport in Italy
## Rapid transit {#rapid_transit}
### Metro
The Rome Metro is a rapid transit system that operates in Rome, Italy. It started operation in 1955, making it the oldest in the country. The Metro comprises three lines -- A (orange), B (blue) and C (green) -- which operate on 60 km of route, serving 73 stations. It has a daily ridership of approximately 820,000 passengers, and an annual traffic of approximately 320 million passengers.
Milan Metro is the largest rapid transit system in Italy in terms of length, number of stations and ridership; and the fifth longest in the European Union and the eighth in the Europe. The network consists of five lines (two of which driverless) with a total network length of 111.8 km, and a total of 125 stations, mostly underground. The first line, Line 1, opened in 1964; Line 2 opened 5 years later in 1969, Line 3 in 1990, Line 5 (driverless) in 2013, and Line 4 (driverless) in 2022.
The Naples Metro is a rapid transit system serving the city of Naples, Campania, Italy and some parts of the adjacent *comuni* of its metropolitan area through Line 11. The system comprises three underground rapid transit lines (Line 1, Line 6 and Line 11). It is the third largest underground network in Italy, behind Milan and Rome. The Art Stations of the Naples Metro consist of 12 stations along Line 1 and Line 6 of the Naples Metro with art installations. In total, there are more than 250 works of art. On 30 November 2012, the Toledo station was elected by *The Daily Telegraph* as the most beautiful subway station in Europe and the world, a recognition echoed by CNN's rankings; while the Materdei station resulted at 13th place.
Seven Italian cities have metro systems:
City Name Lines Length Stations Opening
--------- --------------- ------- -------- ---------- ---------
Brescia Brescia Metro 1 17 2013
Catania Catania Metro 1 10 1999
Genoa Genoa Metro 1 8 1990
Milan Milan Metro 5 119 1964
Naples Naples Metro 3 31 1993
Rome Rome Metro 3 75 1955
Turin Turin Metro 1 23 2006
### Commuter rail {#commuter_rail}
15 cities have commuter rail systems; cities without wikilink are those listed just above for their metro rail system.
- Bari (Bari metropolitan railway service, 3 lines)
- Bologna (Bologna metropolitan railway service, 8 lines)
- Cagliari, 1 line
- Catanzaro, 2 lines
- Genoa (Genoa urban railway service, 3 lines)
- Messina, 1 line
- Milan (Milan suburban railway service, 12 lines)
- Naples (Naples metropolitan railway service, 8 lines)
- Palermo (Palermo metropolitan railway service, 2 lines)
- Perugia, 1 line
- Potenza, 1 line
- Reggio Calabria, 1 line
- Rome (FL lines, 8 lines)
- Salerno (Salerno metropolitan railway service, 1 line)
- Turin (Turin metropolitan railway service, 8 lines)
- Treni Regionali Ticino Lombardia connects Canton Ticino, Switzerland, and Italy, reaching Lombard cities like Como and Varese and the Milan Malpensa Airport.
### Airport shuttles {#airport_shuttles}
Airport shuttle buses are highly developed and convenient for rail travellers. Most airports in Italy are not connected to the railway network, except for Rome Fiumicino Airport, Milan Malpensa Airport and Turin Caselle Airport. In Bologna, there is the monorail Marconi Express, connecting Bologna Airport to the main railway station. Linate Airport in Milan has been connected to line 4 of the Milan Metro since 2022.
- Venice: Venezia-Mestre station - Marco Polo Airport (50 minutes) and Treviso Airport
- Milan: Milano Centrale station - Malpensa Airport (1 hour 5 minutes), Linate Airport (35 minutes) and Milan Bergamo Airport (1 hour)
- Brescia: Brescia station - Milan Bergamo Airport (1 hour)
- Rome: Rome Termini station - Fiumicino Airport (31 minutes)
- Verona: Verona Porta Nuova station - Villafranca \"Catullo\" Airport (20 minutes)
- Bologna: Centrale station - Bologna Airport (20 minutes) - Route modified in November 2020. It shifted from route BLQ (Bologna Centrale Station-Bologna Airport) to route 944 Ospedale Maggiore-Bologna Airport
- Pescara Centrale station - Abruzzo Airport (10 minutes)
- Pisa: Pisa Centrale station - San Giusto Airport (5 minutes)
- Florence: Firenze S M Novella station - Florence Airport
### Tram-train {#tram_train}
2 cities have tram-train system, Rome and Sassari. The Rome--Giardinetti railway connects Laziali (a regional train station some 800 m from Termini\'s main concourse) with Giardinetti to the east just past the Grande Raccordo Anulare, Rome\'s orbital motorway. It is run by ATAC, the company responsible for public transportation in the city, which also operates the Rome Metro. The present railway is the only part of the old and longer Rome--Fiuggi--Alatri--Frosinone railway to be in service. The latest shortening of the line occurred in 2008 with the closing of the Giardinetti--Pantano section, which has now become part of the Metro Line C. The line had been due to be dismantled in 2016 to be replaced with a bus lane along Via Casilina, but in March 2015 it was announced that the line would instead be retained and modernised.
Metrosassari, also called *Sassari tramway*, *Sassari tram-train* or *Sassari metro-tramway* (*Metrotranvia di Sassari* or *Metropolitana leggera di Sassari*) is the commercial name of a tram-train line in Sassari, Sardinia, Italy, operated by the regional public transport company *ARST* (*Azienda Regionale Sarda Trasporti*). Despite having been built in the early 2000s, in the urban section the line was built with single track and narrow gauge, to connect with the same `{{RailGauge|950mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge used in the secondary railway lines in Sardinia. The 2.45 km tramway part of the line (*Stazione* - *Emiciclo Garibaldi*) opened in October 2006, linking the railway station with the city centre via the hospital district. On 27 September 2009 the line was extended into the peripheral district of Santa Maria di Pisa, running on the electrified portion of the Sassari--Sorso railway. The main part of the network is in 2013 in advanced development phase. It is under construction is the extension of the line from Santa Maria di Pisa to Li Punti and Baldinca, and the electrification of the railway to Sorso, 10 km from Sassari. It is also planned to convert and electrify the 28 km Sassari-Alghero railway to allow the trams to reach the village of Olmedo, Fertilia Airport and the town of Alghero.
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# Transport in Italy
## Roads
Roads in Italy are an important mode of transport in Italy. The classification of the roads of Italy is regulated by the Italian traffic code, both from a technical and administrative point of view. The street nomenclature largely reflects the administrative classification. Italy\'s paved road network is well developed.
Italy is one of the countries with the most vehicles per capita, with 690 per 1000 people in 2010. Italy has a total of 487700 km of paved roads, of which 7016 km are motorways with a general speed limit of 130 km/h, which since 2009 was provisioned for extension up to 150 km/h. The speed limit in towns is usually 50 km/h and less commonly 30 km/h.
### Technical classification {#technical_classification}
#### Motorways
Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways, the so-called *autostrade*, reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The *Autostrada dei Laghi* (\"Lakes Motorway\"), the first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore, and now parts of the Autostrada A8 and the Autostrada A9, was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924.
Other motorways (or *autostrade*) built before World War II in Italy were Naples-Pompeii, Florence-Pisa, Padua-Venice, Milan-Turin, Milan-Bergamo-Brescia and Rome-Ostia. The total length of the Italian motorway system is about 7016 km, as of 30 July 2022. To these data are added 13 motorway spur routes, which extend for 355 km. The density is 22.4 km of motorway for every 1000 km2 of Italian territory.
Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways, the so-called *autostrade*, reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. The *Autostrada dei Laghi* (\"Lakes Motorway\"), the first built in the world, connecting Milan to Lake Como and Lake Maggiore, and now parts of the Autostrada A8 and the Autostrada A9, was devised by Piero Puricelli and was inaugurated in 1924.
Other motorways (or *autostrade*) built before World War II in Italy were Naples-Pompeii, Florence-Pisa, Padua-Venice, Milan-Turin, Milan-Bergamo-Brescia and Rome-Ostia. The total length of the Italian motorway system is about 7016 km, as of 30 July 2022. To these data are added 13 motorway spur routes, which extend for 355 km. The density is 22.4 km of motorway for every 1000 km2 of Italian territory.
In particular, 1870.2 km of the Italian motorway network have three lanes per carriageway, 129 km km have four lanes per carriageway, 1.8 km have five lanes per carriageway, while the remaining part is two lanes per carriageway. The density is 22.4 km of motorway for every 1000 km2 of Italian territory.
Italian motorways (or *autostrade*) are mostly managed by concessionaire companies. From 1 October 2012 the granting body is the Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport and no longer Anas and the majority (5773.4 km in 2009) are subject to toll payments. On Italian motorways, the toll applies to almost all motorways not managed by Anas. The collection of motorway tolls, from a tariff point of view, is managed mainly in two ways: either through the \"closed motorway system\" (km travelled) or through the \"open motorway system\" (flat-rate toll).
Italy\'s motorways (or *autostrade*) have a standard speed limit of 130 km/h for cars. Limits for other vehicles (or when visibility is poor due to weather) are lower. Legal provisions allow operators to set the limit to 150 km/h on their concessions on a voluntary basis if there are three lanes in each direction and a working SICVE, or Safety Tutor, which is a speed-camera system that measures the average speed over a given distance.
#### Extra-urban roads {#extra_urban_roads}
In Italy, a dual carriageway is often called *superstrada* (meaning *expressway*), but this name is unofficial. Italian traffic code (*Codice della strada*) divides extra-urban dual carriageways into two different classifications:
- *strada extraurbana principale* (meaning *main highway*) or *type-B road*: a road with separate carriageways, at least two lanes for each direction, paved shoulder on the right and no cross-traffic. This type of road is quite similar to an *autostrada* or *type-A road* (Italian official name for motorways or freeways), but its building standards are lower. Access limitations and drive behaviour on type-B roads are the same as the motorways (no pedestrians, bicycles and other slow vehicles), as well as the signage (except for the background color, that is blue instead of green). Speed limits on type-B roads are up to 110 km/h. Type-B roads are always toll-free.
- *strada extraurbana secondaria* (meaning *secondary road*) or *type-C road*. This category contains all the roads in non-urban context that are neither *autostrada* (type A) nor *strada extraurbana principale* (type B). This means that a dual carriageway that may not be classified as type-B road, since it does not meet such quality standards, belongs to this category. For type-C roads, there are neither special signage nor access restrictions, unless a specific sign is placed. The speed limit is 90 km/h, on both single and dual carriageways.
#### Urban roads {#urban_roads}
These are the roads present within inhabited centers. Urban roads are of three types:
- *strada urbana di scorrimento* (meaning *urban expressway*) or *type-D road*: a road in urban context, with separate carriageways, and at least two lanes for each direction. At-level junctions with smaller roads, regulated by traffic lights, are allowed as well as roundabouts. Unless a prohibition sign is placed, there are not access restrictions. Speed limits on this type of road are up to 70 km/h.
- *strada urbana di quartiere* (meaning *urban neighborhood road*) or *type E road*: single carriageway road with at least two lanes, paved shoulders and sidewalks; for parking there are areas equipped with a special maneuvering lane, outside the roadway;
- *strada urbana ciclabile* (meaning *urban cycle road*) or *type E-bis road*: urban road with a single carriageway, with paved shoulders and sidewalks, with a speed limit of no more than 30 km/h, defined by specific vertical and horizontal signs, with priority for bicycles.
- *strada locale* (meaning *local road*) or *type F road*: urban or extra-urban road not belonging to the other types of roads;
- *strada vicinale*: is a privately owned road of local interest located outside the town centre. In Italy the local road is a de facto communication route built to access a series of plots of land, or generally to connect to a road.
- *itinerario ciclopedonale* (meaning *cycle/pedestrian itinerary*) or *type F-bis road*: local, urban, extra-urban or local road, mainly intended for pedestrian and cycle travel, and characterized by intrinsic safety to protect vulnerable road users.
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# Transport in Italy
## Roads
### Administrative classification {#administrative_classification}
#### State roads {#state_roads}
The Strade Statali (`{{IPA|it|ˈstraːde staˈtaːli|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{singular}}`{=mediawiki} *Strada Statale* `{{IPA|it|ˈstraːda staˈtaːle|}}`{=mediawiki}), abbreviated \"SS\", is the Italian national network of state highways. The total length for this network is about 25000 km. The Italian state highway network are maintained by ANAS. From 1928 until 1946 state highways were maintained by Azienda Autonoma Statale della Strada (AASS). The routes of some state highways derive from ancient Roman roads, such as the Strada statale 7 Via Appia, which broadly follows the route of the Roman road of the same name.
State highways can be technically defined as main extra-urban roads (type B road) or as secondary extra-urban roads (type C road). State highways that cross towns with a population of at least 10,000 inhabitants are urban roads (type D and E) under the jurisdiction of the relevant *comuni*. The state highway that cross towns or villages with a population of less than 10,000 inhabitants are urban roads (type D and E) under the jurisdiction of the *comune*, subject to authorization from ANAS.
The Italian state highway network has approximately 25000 km of roads identified with the acronym SS. The body that manages these roads, with full state participation, is ANAS (National Autonomous Roads Company), founded in 1946, on the ashes of the old AASS (Autonomous State Roads Company) which in turn was established in 1928. Due to urbanization processes, it has abandoned some sections of state highways, following their acquisition by the interested *comuni*, who now take care of their maintenance.
#### Regional roads {#regional_roads}
A Strada Regionale (Italian for \"regional road\"; `{{Plural abbr}}`{=mediawiki} \"strade regionali\"), abbreviated SR, is a type of Italian road maintained by the regions they traverse. A regional road is less important than a state highway, but more important than a provincial road. The concept of regional road was introduced for the first time in Italy, limited to the autonomous region of Aosta Valley (where no provincial body exists), with regional law no. 1 of 10 October 1950.
The first roads (excluding Aosta Valley) classified as SR (acronym for *strada regionale*; \"regional road\") were created following legislative decree no. 112 of 1998, in 2001. In particular, articles 99 and 101 provided for the transfer of ownership and responsibilities relating to state highways not included in the national road network from the State to the regions, which then regulated the matter autonomously. For organizational reasons, many regions have entrusted the former state highways to the provinces, while maintaining the acronym SR.
In addition to these regional roads created following the downgrading of the state network, there are regional roads immediately classified as such (for example SR 6 in Apulia although subsequently downgraded to provincial) or former provincial regional roads such as SR 89, ex SP 62, in Veneto.
The regional roads can be technically classified as *strade extraurbane principali* (type B road; \"main extra-urban roads\") or as *strade extraurbane secondarie* (type C road; \"secondary extra-urban roads\"). If they cross inhabited centers with a population greater than 9,999 inhabitants, they are roads under municipal jurisdiction and therefore urban (type D and E). If they pass through centers or inhabited areas with a population of less than 9,999 inhabitants, they are urban (type D and E), but the responsibility remains with the manager.
In addition to the roads identified by the acronym SR, there are roads managed by the region but identified by the acronym SP (for example, many SPs in the province of Belluno are managed by the Veneto Strade company with a 30% stake in the region of the same name).
#### Provincial roads {#provincial_roads}
A Strada Provinciale (Italian for \"provincial road\"; `{{Plural abbr}}`{=mediawiki} \"strade provinciali\"), abbreviated SP, is an Italian road that is maintained by provinces or metropolitan cities. In Veneto from 2002, state highways downgraded as provincial roads are maintained by the regional company Veneto Strade. A provincial road is less important than a regional road, but more important than municipal roads.
Before the entry into force of the new Italian traffic code (legislative decree n° 285 of 30 April 1992) the provincial classification of a road had to take place by decree of the Minister of Public Works; over the years, this has made the same procedures too centralized and therefore slower and more difficult, until the new Italian traffic code assigned the competence on classification to the regions (Veneto, however, has further devolved the competences of classification and declassification to the provinces themselves).
#### Municipal roads {#municipal_roads}
A Strada Comunale (Italian for \"municipal road\"; `{{Plural abbr}}`{=mediawiki} \"strade comunali\"), abbreviated SC, is an Italian road that is maintained by *comune*, hence the name. They can be roads owned by *comune* (inside population centers) or roads managed by the *comune* (outside population centers). The category of strade comunali includes extra-urban roads considered to be of municipal importance, all urban roads as well as the urban sections of state, regional or provincial roads, which pass through centers with 10,000 or more inhabitants. The urban sections of state, regional or provincial roads that pass through towns with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants are not municipal.
Strade comunali within inhabited centers can be classified from a construction-technical point of view either as urban roads (type D and E) or as local roads (type F). Extra-urban municipal roads (outside inhabited centers) can be technically classified as *strade extraurbane principali* (type B; \"main extra-urban roads\"), *strade extraurbane secondarie* (type C; \"secondary extra-urban roads\"), *strade urbane di scorrimento* (type D; \"urban traffic roads\") or *strada locale* (type F; local roads).
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# Transport in Italy
## Roads
### Other classifications {#other_classifications}
These classifications are not provided for by the Italian traffic code.
#### Major communication road {#major_communication_road}
In Italy, some roads of national importance are called *strada di grande comunicazione* (abbreviated to SGC; \"major communication roads\"), an expression coined by the Touring Club Italiano and used in its maps and publications since the 1920s.
Law no. 126 of 12 February 1958, as amended by law no. 167 of 9 April 1971, classified state roads either as major trunk roads or as ordinary state roads.
For law n. 531 of 12 August 1982 (GU no. 223 of 14/08/1982), the main roads were classified as motorways, Alpine tunnels, motorway junctions, and roads that connect the main road network with the neighboring states, roads that constitute the major routes of national traffic (including Sicily and Sardinia), roads that constitute the main inter-regional connections and roads connecting to the first category ports and the most important airports.
The acronym SGC is not used to identify other types of roads (as is the case with the acronyms A, SS, SR, SP) but is used in address documents.
#### Superstrada
A *superstrada* (\"super road\") is a fast road, often with separate carriageways in each direction, reserved for the circulation of motor vehicles and without at-grade intersections and urban crossings. The colloquial classification of *superstrada* refers to all roads classified *technically* as main extra-urban roads and, in general, to secondary two-lane extra-urban roads.
### European classification {#european_classification}
Some Italian roads, if they are part of the International E-road network, are also identified by another alphanumeric abbreviation. This acronym is made up of the letter \"E\" and one or two digits. The symbol used is a rectangle with a green background with the acronym in white. This classification, which evaluates the importance (being neither a technical nor an administrative classification) of the road in the European Union, complements the usual Italian ones. European road acronyms are mostly absent or reported inorganically on signs in Italy. The European classification is foreseen by the Italian traffic code which defines it as additional.
### Toll roads {#toll_roads}
In Italy the only toll roads are the *autostrade* (Italian for motorways). Major exceptions are the beltways around some larger cities (*tangenziali*) which are not part of a thoroughfare motorway, and the section of the A3 motorway between Salerno and Reggio di Calabria which is operated by the government-owned ANAS. Both are toll free.
On Italian motorways, the toll applies to almost all motorways not managed by Anas. The collection of motorway tolls, from a tariff point of view, is managed mainly in two ways: either through the \"closed motorway system\" (km travelled) or through the \"open motorway system\" (flat-rate toll).
## Waterways
Italy has 2400 km of navigable waterways for various types of commercial traffic, although of limited overall value.
In the northern regions of Lombardy and Veneto, commuter ferry boats operate on Lake Garda and Lake Como to connect towns and villages at both sides of the lakes. The waterways in Venice, including the Grand Canal, serve as the vital transportation network for local residents and tourists.
Frequent shuttle ferries (*vaporetta*) connect different points on the main island of Venice and other outlying islands of the lagoon. In addition, there are direct shuttle boats between Venice and the Venice Marco Polo Airport.
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# Transport in Italy
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Italy has been the final destination of the Silk Road for many centuries. In particular, the construction of the Suez Canal intensified sea trade with East Africa and Asia from the 19th century. Since the end of the Cold War and increasing European integration, the trade relations, which were often interrupted in the 20th century, have intensified again. Because of its long seacoast, Italy also has many harbors for the transportation of both goods and passengers. In 2004 there were 43 major seaports including the Port of Genoa, the country\'s largest and the third busiest by cargo tonnage in the Mediterranean Sea.
Due to the increasing importance of the maritime Silk Road with its connections to Asia and East Africa, the Italian ports for Central and Eastern Europe have become important in recent years. In addition, the trade in goods is shifting from the European northern ports to the ports of the Mediterranean Sea due to the considerable time savings and environmental protection. In particular, the deep water port of Trieste in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean Sea is the target of Italian, Asian and European investments.
+------------------------+
| List of ports in Italy |
+========================+
| - Ancona |
| - Arbatax |
| - **Augusta** |
| - Bari |
| - Brindisi |
| - **Cagliari** |
| - Catania |
| - Civitavecchia |
| - **Genoa** |
| - Gioia Tauro |
| - La Spezia |
| - **Livorno** |
| - Messina |
| - Milazzo |
| - Naples |
| - Olbia |
| - Palermo |
| - Porto Torres |
| - Ravenna |
| - Salerno |
| - Savona |
| - **Taranto** |
| - **Trieste** |
| - **Venice** |
+------------------------+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
| Busiest ports by cargo tonnage in Italy (2008) | Busiest ports by passengers in Italy (2008) |
+===================================================================+============================================================+
| Port Region Thousand tons \% | Port Region Thousand pass. \% |
| --------------- ----------------------- --------------- ------- | -------------------- ---------- ---------------- ------- |
| Taranto Apulia 49,522 9.4 | Messina Sicily 10,380 11.5 |
| Genoa Liguria 46,469 8.8 | Reggio di Calabria Calabria 10,116 11.2 |
| Trieste Friuli-Venezia Giulia 37,195 7.1 | Capri Campania 7,169 8.0 |
| Gioia Tauro Calabria 31,527 6.0 | Naples Campania 6,185 6.9 |
| Ravenna Emilia-Romagna 30,075 5.7 | Piombino Tuscany 5,036 5.6 |
| Venice Veneto 29,920 5.7 | Portoferraio Tuscany 3,927 4.4 |
| Livorno Tuscany 28,667 5.4 | Olbia Sardinia 3,567 4.0 |
| Augusta Sicily 26,849 5.1 | Livorno Tuscany 3,251 3.6 |
| Porto Foxi Sardinia 26,407 5.0 | Civitavecchia Lazio 2,677 3.0 |
| Santa Panagia Sicily 17,305 3.3 | Genoa Liguria 2,510 2.8 |
| La Spezia Liguria 17,014 3.2 | La Maddalena Sardinia 2,374 2.6 |
| Savona-Vado Liguria 16,370 3.1 | Palau Sardinia 2,364 2.6 |
| Milazzo Sicily 15,405 2.9 | Ischia Porto Campania 2,342 2.6 |
| Olbia Sardinia 12,875 2.4 | Palermo Sicily 1,949 2.2 |
| Brindisi Apulia 10,767 2.0 | Sorrento Campania 1,887 2.1 |
| Other 129,851 24.7 | Other 24,423 27.1 |
| Italy 526,218 100.0 | Italy 90,157 100.0 |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------+
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# Transport in Italy
## Air transport {#air_transport}
### Airlines
Since October 2021, Italy\'s flag carrier airline is ITA Airways, which took over the brand, the IATA ticketing code, and many assets belonging to the former flag carrier Alitalia, after its bankruptcy. ITA Airways serves 44 destinations (`{{as of|October 2021|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}) and also operates the former Alitalia regional subsidiary, Alitalia CityLiner.
The country also has regional airlines (such as Air Dolomiti), low-cost carriers, and Charter and leisure carriers (including Neos, Blue Panorama Airlines and Poste Air Cargo). Major Italian cargo operators are ITA Airways Cargo and Cargolux Italia. In 2012 there were 130 airports in Italy, including the two hubs of Malpensa International Airport in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Rome.
### Airports
Italy is the fifth in Europe by number of passengers by air transport, with about 148 million passengers or about 10% of the European total in 2011. Most of passengers in Italy are on international flights (57%). A big share of domestic flights connect the major islands (Sardinia and Sicily) to the mainland. Domestic flights between major Italian cities as Rome and Milan still play a relevant role but are declining since the opening of the Italian high-speed rail network in recent years.
Italy has a total as of 130 airports in 2012, of which 99 have paved runways:
- *over 3,047 m:* 9
- *2,438 to:* 31
- *1,524 to:* 18
- *914 to:* 29
- *under 914 m:* 12
Airports - with unpaved runways in 2012:
- *total:* 31
- *1,524 to:* 1
- *914 to:* 11
- *under 914 m:* 19
### Busiest airports {#busiest_airports}
This is a list of the top ten busiest airports in Italy in 2017.
Airport Movements Passengers
--------------------------- ------------------ ------------ -------------
*domestics* *internationals* *total*
Rome Fiumicino 297,491 11,462,218 29,378,923
Milan Malpensa 178,953 3,164,224 18,873,017
Bergamo Orio al Serio 86,113 3,270,761 9,060,022
Venice Marco Polo 92,263 1,358,618 8,988,759
Milan Linate 117,730 4,927,688 4,575,377
Catania Fontanarossa 68,170 6,184,360 2,925,385
Naples Capodichino 75,013 2,976,752 5,575,471
Bologna Guglielmo Marconi 71,878 1,935,193 6,246,461
Rome Ciampino 54,236 218,880 5,636,570
Palermo Punta Raisi 46,627 4,399,601 1,353,444
Other 463,843 22,018,266 20,254,008
Total 1,552,317 61,916,561 112,867,437
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# Transport in Italy
## Buses, trams and coaches {#buses_trams_and_coaches}
### Local buses {#local_buses}
Local buses are usually divided into urban (*urbano*) and suburban (*interurbano* or *extraurbano*) lines.
### Trolleybuses
Many Italian cities have trolleybus networks, which were particularly promulgated by the government of Fascist Italy. Though many trolleybus networks were decommissioned in the late 20th century, major Italian cities that continue to operate trolleybus networks, or have built new ones, include Ancona, Avellino, Bologna, Cagliari, Chieti, Genoa, La Spezia, Lecce, Milan, Modena, Naples, Parma, Rimini, Rome, and Sanremo.
### Coaches
Italy does not have a nationwide coach operator. Many coach companies operate regionally, and particularly offer intercity connections and airport shuttle services. The largest nationwide coach operators include Baltour, Marinobus, Buscenter.it, .italo, and FlixBus
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# Undernet
The **Undernet** is the third largest publicly monitored Internet Relay Chat (IRC) network, c.`{{what|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} 2022, with about 36 client servers serving 47,444 users in \~6000 channels at any given time.
IRC clients can connect to Undernet via the global round robin **irc.undernet.org**, the region-specific round robins **us.undernet.org** and **eu.undernet.org**, IPv6 client servers **irc6.undernet.org** or a specific server from the server list.
## History
Undernet was established in October 1992 by Danny Mitchell, Donald Lambert, and Laurent Demally as an experimental network running a modified version of the EFnet irc2.7 IRCd software, created in an attempt to make it less bandwidth-consumptive and less chaotic, as netsplits and takeovers were starting to plague EFnet. The Undernet IRC daemon became known as \"ircu\". Undernet was formed at a time when many small IRC networks were being started and subsequently disappearing; however, it managed to grow into one of the largest and oldest IRC networks despite some initial in-fighting and setbacks. For a period in 1994, Undernet was wracked by an ongoing series of flame wars. Again in 2001, it was threatened by automated heavy spamming of its users for potential commercial gain. Undernet survived these periods relatively intact and its popularity continues to the present day.
It is notable as being the first network to utilize timestamping, originally made by Carlo Wood, in the IRC server protocol as a means to curb abuse.
## Services
Undernet uses GNUworld to provide **X**, its channel service bot. X operates on a **user**name basis; a username is independent from a nickname, which cannot be registered on Undernet.
As Undernet limits channel registration to \"established channels\" or channels with an active userbase, Undernet introduced a version of *ChanFix* (under the nickname *C*) designed to work like EFNet\'s CHANFIX. Its use is to protect unregistered channels. ChanFix tracks channel op usage by username basis and restores ops if channels become opless or are taken over
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# BitchX
**BitchX** `{{IPAc-en|'|b|I|tʃ|ɛ|k|s|}}`{=mediawiki} is a free IRC client that has been regarded as the most popular ircII-based IRC client. The initial implementation, written by \"Trench\" and \"HappyCrappy\", was a script for the IrcII chat client. It was converted to a program in its own right by panasync (Colten Edwards). BitchX 1.1 final was released in 2004. It is written in C and is a TUI application utilizing ncurses. GTK+ toolkit support has been dropped. It works on all Unix-like operating systems, and is distributed under a BSD license. It was originally based on ircII-EPIC, and eventually it was merged into the EPIC IRC client. It supports IPv6, multiple servers and SSL, and a subset of UTF-8 (characters contained in ISO-8859-1) with an unofficial patch.
On several occasions, BitchX has been noted to be a popular IRC client for Unix-like systems.
The latest official release is version 1.2.
BitchX does not yet support Unicode.
## Security
It was known that early versions of BitchX were vulnerable to a denial-of-service attack in that they could be caused to crash by passing specially-crafted strings as arguments to certain IRC commands. This was before format string attacks became a well-known class of vulnerability.
The previous version of BitchX, released in 2004, has security problems allowing remote IRC servers to execute arbitrary code on the client\'s machine ([CVE-2007-3360](http://nvd.nist.gov/nvd.cfm?cvename=CVE-2007-3360), [CVE-2007-4584](http://nvd.nist.gov/nvd.cfm?cvename=CVE-2007-4584)).
On April 26, 2009, Slackware removed BitchX from its distribution, citing the numerous unresolved security issues.
The aforementioned vulnerabilities were fixed in the sources for the 1.2 release
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# HexChat
**HexChat** is a discontinued Internet Relay Chat client and is a fork of *XChat*. It has a choice of a tabbed document interface or tree interface, support for multiple servers, and numerous configuration options. Both command-line and graphical versions are available.
The client runs on Microsoft Windows and Unix-like operating systems, and many Linux distributions include packages in their repositories.
## History
The XChat-WDK (XChat Windows Driver Kit) project started in 2010 and was originally Windows-only. The project\'s original goal was to merge itself with XChat, but evolved from just fixing Windows bugs to adding new features. It started to make sense to support more platforms than Windows. On July 6, 2012, XChat-WDK officially changed its name to HexChat.
The project was discontinued in early 2024, citing lack of maintainer availability
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# IRC takeover
An **IRC channel takeover** is an acquisition of IRC channel operator status by someone other than the channel\'s owner. It has largely been eliminated due to the increased use of services on IRC networks.
## Riding the split {#riding_the_split}
The most common variety of channel takeover uses disconnections caused by a netsplit; this is called **riding the split**. After such mass disconnections, a channel may be left without users, allowing the first rejoining user to recreate the channel and gain operator status. When the servers merge, any pre-existing operators retain their status, allowing the new user to kick out the original operators and take over the channel.
A simple prevention mechanism involves *timestamping* (abbreviated to *TS*), or checking the creation dates of the channels being merged. This was first implemented by Undernet (ircu) in November 2000 and is now common in many IRC servers. If both channels were created at the same time, all user statuses are retained when the two are combined; if one is newer than the other, special statuses are removed from those in the newer channel.
Additionally, a newer protection involving timestamping is used when a server splits away from the main network (when it no longer detects that IRC services are available), it disallows anyone creating a channel to be given operator privileges.
## Nick collision {#nick_collision}
Another popular form of channel takeover abuses nickname collision protection, which keeps two users from having the same nickname at once. A user on one side of a netsplit takes the nickname of a target on the other side of the split; when the servers reconnect, the nicks collide and both users are kicked from the server. The attacker then reconnects or switches nicks in a second client while the target reconnects, and proceeds to jupe (or block) the target\'s nickname for a period of time.
User timestamping is often used to detect these kinds of attacks in a fashion similar to channel timestamping, with the user who selected that nickname later being kicked from the server. Another protection method, called *nickhold*, disallows the use of recently split nicknames. This causes fewer kicks, but causes more inconvenience to users. For this reason, timestamping is generally more common. Some servers, such as ircd-ratbox, do both. IRC services and bots can also protect against such attacks by requiring that a password be supplied to use a certain nick. Users who do not provide a password are killed after a certain amount of time.
## Other methods {#other_methods}
Other methods can be used to take over a channel, though they are unrelated to flaws in IRC itself; for example, cracking the computers of channel operators, compromising channel bot shell accounts, or obtaining services passwords through social engineering.
### Smurfing
Smurf attacks have been used to take over IRC servers. These exploit ICMP ping responses from broadcast addresses at multiple hosts sharing an Internet address, and forge the ping packet\'s return address to match a target machine\'s address. A single malformed packet sent to the \"smurf amplifier\" will be echoed to the target machine
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# Irssi
**Irssi** (`{{IPA|fi|ˈirsːi}}`{=mediawiki} `{{small|([https://irssi.org/assets/irssi.wav listen])}}`{=mediawiki}) is an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client program for Linux, FreeBSD, macOS and Microsoft Windows. It was originally written by Timo Sirainen, and released under the terms of the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later in January 1999.
The program has a text-based user interface was written from scratch using C. It may be customized by editing its config files or by installing plugins and Perl scripts. Though initially developed for Unix-like operating systems, it has been successfully ported to both Windows and macOS.
## Features
Irssi is written in the C programming language and in normal operation uses a text-mode user interface.
According to the developers, Irssi was written from scratch, not based on ircII (like BitchX and epic). This freed the developers from having to deal with the constraints of an existing codebase, allowing them to maintain tighter control over issues such as security and customization. Numerous Perl scripts have been made available for Irssi to customise how it looks and operates. Plugins are available which add encryption and protocols such as ICQ and XMPP.
Irssi may be configured by using its user interface or by manually editing its configuration files, which use a syntax resembling Perl data structures.
## Distributions
Irssi was written primarily to run on Unix-like operating systems, and binaries and packages are available for Gentoo Linux, Debian, Slackware, SUSE (openSUSE), Frugalware, Fedora, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, DragonFly BSD, Solaris, Arch Linux, Ubuntu, NixOS, and others.
Irssi builds and runs on Microsoft Windows under Cygwin, and in 2006, an official Windows standalone build was released.
For the Unix-based macOS, text mode ports are available from the Homebrew, MacPorts, and Fink package managers, and two graphical clients have been written based on Irssi, IrssiX, and MacIrssi. The Cocoa client Colloquy was previously based on Irssi, but it now uses its own IRC core implementation
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# IEEE 802.15
**IEEE 802.15** is a working group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) IEEE 802 standards committee which specifies Wireless Specialty Networks (WSN) standards. The working group was formerly known as Working Group for Wireless Personal Area Networks.
The number of Task Groups in IEEE 802.15 varies based on the number of active projects. The current list of active projects can be found on the [IEEE 802.15 website](https://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/15/).
## IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth {#ieee_802.15.1_wpan_bluetooth}
Task group one is based on Bluetooth technology. It defines physical layer (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) specification for wireless connectivity with fixed, portable and moving devices within or entering personal operating space. Standards were issued in 2002 and 2005.
## IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence {#ieee_802.15.2_coexistence}
Task group two addresses the coexistence of wireless personal area networks (WPAN) with other wireless devices operating in unlicensed frequency bands such as wireless local area networks (WLAN). The IEEE 802.15.2-2003 standard was published in 2003 and task group two went into \"hibernation\".
## IEEE 802.15.3: High Rate WPAN {#ieee_802.15.3_high_rate_wpan}
### IEEE 802.15.3-2003 {#ieee_802.15.3_2003}
IEEE 802.15.3-2003 is a MAC and PHY standard for high-rate (11 to 55 Mbit/s) WPANs. The standard can be downloaded via the IEEE Get program, which is funded by IEEE 802 volunteers.
### IEEE 802.15.3a {#ieee_802.15.3a}
IEEE P802.15.3a was an attempt to provide a higher speed ultra-wideband PHY enhancement amendment to IEEE 802.15.3 for applications that involve imaging and multimedia. The members of the task group were not able to come to an agreement choosing between two technology proposals, Multi-band Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM) and Direct Sequence UWB (DS-UWB), backed by two different industry alliances and was withdrawn in January 2006. Documents related to the development of IEEE 802.15.3a are archived on the IEEE document server.
### IEEE 802.15.3b-2006 {#ieee_802.15.3b_2006}
IEEE 802.15.3b-2005 amendment was released on May 5, 2006. It enhanced 802.15.3 to improve implementation and interoperability of the MAC. This amendment includes many optimizations, corrected errors, clarified ambiguities, and added editorial clarifications while preserving backward compatibility. Among other changes, the amendment defined the following new features:
- a new MAC layer management entity (MLME) service access point (SAP)
- implied acknowledgment policy that allow polling
- logical link control/subnetwork access protocol (LLC/SNAP) headers
- multicast address assignment
- multiple contention periods in a superfame
- a method for relinquishing channel time to another device in the PAN
- faster network recover in the case when the piconet coordinator (PNC) abruptly disconnects
- a method for a device to return information about signal quality of a received packet.
### IEEE 802.15.3c-2009 {#ieee_802.15.3c_2009}
IEEE 802.15.3c-2009 was published on September 11, 2009. The task group TG3c developed a millimeter-wave-based alternative physical layer (PHY) for the existing 802.15.3 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Standard 802.15.3-2003. The IEEE 802.15.3 Task Group 3c (TG3c) was formed in March 2005. This mmWave WPAN is defined to operate in the 57--66 GHz range. Depending on the geographical region, anywhere from 2 to 9 GHz of bandwidth is available (for example, 57--64 GHz is available as unlicensed band defined by FCC 47 CFR 15.255 in North America). The millimeter-wave WPAN allows very high data rate, short range (10 m) for applications including high-speed internet access, streaming content download (video on demand, HDTV, home theater, etc.), real-time streaming and wireless data bus for cable replacement. A total of three PHY modes were defined in the standard:
- Single carrier (SC) mode (up to 5.3 Gbit/s)
- High speed interface (HSI) mode (single carrier, up to 5 Gbit/s)
- Audio/visual (AV) mode (OFDM, up to 3.8 Gbit/s).
### IEEE 802.15.3d-2017 {#ieee_802.15.3d_2017}
IEEE Std 802.15.3d-2017 defines an alternative physical layer (PHY) at the lower THz frequency range between 252 GHz and 325 GHz for switched point-to-point links is defined in this amendment. Two PHY modes are defined that enable data rates of up to 100 Gb/s using eight different bandwidths between 2.16 GHz and 69.12 GHz.
### IEEE 802.15.3e-2017 {#ieee_802.15.3e_2017}
IEEE Std 802.15.3e-2017 provides an alternative physical layer (PHY) and a modified medium access control (MAC) layer is defined in this amendment. Two PHY modes have been defined that enable data rates up to 100 Gb/s using the 60 GHz band. MIMO and aggregation methods have been defined to increase the maximum achievable communication speeds. Stack acknowledgment has been defined to improve the medium access control (MAC) efficiency when used in a point-to-point (P2P) topology between two devices.
### IEEE 802.15.3f-2017 {#ieee_802.15.3f_2017}
IEEE Std 802.15.3f-2017 extends the RF channelization of the millimeter wave PHYs to allow for use of the spectrum up to 71 GHz. 802.15.3f was initiated because several regulatory domains extended the licensed exempt 60 GHz bands up to 71 GHz.
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# IEEE 802.15
## IEEE 802.15.4: Low Rate WPAN {#ieee_802.15.4_low_rate_wpan}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.2\|Protocol stack for 802.15.4 *Main article: IEEE 802.15.4* IEEE 802.15.4-2003 (Low Rate WPAN) deals with low data rate but very long battery life (months or even years) and very low complexity. The standard defines both the physical (Layer 1) and data-link (Layer 2) layers of the OSI model. The first edition of the 802.15.4 standard was released in May 2003. Several standardized and proprietary networks (or mesh) layer protocols run over 802.15.4-based networks, including IEEE 802.15.5, Zigbee, Thread, 6LoWPAN, WirelessHART, and ISA100.11a.
### WPAN Low Rate Alternative PHY (4a) {#wpan_low_rate_alternative_phy_4a}
IEEE 802.15.4a (formally called IEEE 802.15.4a-2007) is an amendment to IEEE 802.15.4 specifying additional physical layers (PHYs) to the original standard. The principal interest was in providing higher precision ranging and localization capability (1 meter accuracy and better), higher aggregate throughput, adding scalability to data rates, longer range, and lower power consumption and cost. The selected baselines are two optional PHYs consisting of a UWB Pulse Radio (operating in unlicensed UWB spectrum) and a Chirp Spread Spectrum (operating in unlicensed 2.4 GHz spectrum). The Pulsed UWB Radio is based on Continuous Pulsed UWB technology (see C-UWB) and will be able to deliver communications and high precision ranging.
### Revision and Enhancement (4b) {#revision_and_enhancement_4b}
IEEE 802.15.4b was approved in June 2006 and was published in September 2006 as IEEE 802.15.4-2006. The IEEE 802.15 task group 4b was chartered to create a project for specific enhancements and clarifications to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003 standard, such as resolving ambiguities, reducing unnecessary complexity, increasing flexibility in security key usage, considerations for newly available frequency allocations, and others.
### PHY Amendment for China (4c) {#phy_amendment_for_china_4c}
IEEE 802.15.4c was approved in 2008 and was published in January 2009. This defines a PHY amendment that adds new RF spectrum specifications to address the Chinese regulatory changes which have opened the 314-316 MHz, 430-434 MHz, and 779-787 MHz bands for Wireless PAN use within China.
### PHY and MAC Amendment for Japan (4d) {#phy_and_mac_amendment_for_japan_4d}
The IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4d was chartered to define an amendment to the 802.15.4-2006 standard. The amendment defines a new PHY and such changes to the MAC as are necessary to support a new frequency allocation (950 MHz -956 MHz) in Japan while coexisting with passive tag systems in the band.
### MAC Amendment for Industrial Applications (4e) {#mac_amendment_for_industrial_applications_4e}
The IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4e is chartered to define a MAC amendment to the existing standard 802.15.4-2006. The intent of this amendment is to enhance and add functionality to the 802.15.4-2006 MAC to a) better support the industrial markets and b) permit compatibility with modifications being proposed within the Chinese WPAN. Specific enhancements were made to add channel hopping and a variable time slot option compatible with ISA100.11a. These changes were approved in 2011.
### PHY and MAC Amendment for Active RFID (4f) {#phy_and_mac_amendment_for_active_rfid_4f}
The IEEE 802.15.4f Active RFID System Task Group is chartered to define new wireless Physical (PHY) layer(s) and enhancements to the 802.15.4-2006 standard MAC layer which are required to support new PHY(s) for active RFID system bi-directional and location determination applications.
### PHY Amendment for Smart Utility Networks (4g) {#phy_amendment_for_smart_utility_networks_4g}
IEEE 802.15.4g Smart Utility Networks (SUN) Task Group is chartered to create a PHY amendment to 802.15.4 to provide a standard that facilitates very large-scale process control applications such as the utility smart grid network capable of supporting large, geographically diverse networks with minimal infrastructure, with potentially millions of fixed endpoints. In 2012 they released the 802.15.4g radio standard. The Telecommunications Industry Association TR-51 committee develops standards for similar applications.
### Enhanced Ultra Wideband (UWB) Physical Layers (PHYs) and Associated Ranging Techniques (4z) {#enhanced_ultra_wideband_uwb_physical_layers_phys_and_associated_ranging_techniques_4z}
Approved in 2020, amendment to the UWB PHYs (e.g. with coding options) to increase accuracy and exchange ranging related information between the participating devices.
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# IEEE 802.15
## IEEE 802.15.5: Mesh Networking {#ieee_802.15.5_mesh_networking}
IEEE 802.15.5 provides the architectural framework enabling WPAN devices to promote interoperable, stable, and scalable wireless mesh networking. This standard is composed of two parts: low-rate WPAN mesh and high-rate WPAN mesh networks. The low-rate mesh is built on IEEE 802.15.4-2006 MAC, while the high rate mesh utilizes IEEE 802.15.3/3b MAC. The common features of both meshes include network initialization, addressing, and multi-hop unicasting. In addition, the low-rate mesh supports multicasting, reliable broadcasting, portability support, trace route and energy saving function, and the high-rate mesh supports multihop time-guaranteed service.
Mesh networking for IEEE 802.15.1 networks is beyond the scope of IEEE 802.15.5, and is instead carried out within the Bluetooth mesh working group.
## IEEE 802.15.6: Body Area Networks {#ieee_802.15.6_body_area_networks}
In December 2011, the IEEE 802.15.6 task group approved a draft of a standard for Body Area Network (BAN) technologies. The draft was approved on 22 July 2011 by Letter Ballot to start the Sponsor Ballot process. Task Group 6 was formed in November 2007 to focus on a low-power and short-range wireless standard to be optimized for devices and operation on, in, or around the human body (but not limited to humans) to serve a variety of applications including medical, consumer electronics, and personal entertainment.
## IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication {#ieee_802.15.7_visible_light_communication}
The inaugural meeting for Task Group 7 was held during January 2009, where it was chartered to write standards for free-space optical communication using visible light. The 802.15.7-2011 Standard was published in September 2011. In 2015, a new task group was launched to revise the 802.15.7 standard, with several new PHY layers and MAC routines to support optical camera communications (OCC) and light fidelity (LiFi). As the new draft became too large, in March 2017, the 802.15 Working Group decided to continue 802.15.7 with OCC only, which is broadcast only, and to create a new task group 802.15.13 to work on a new standard for LiFi, which obviously needed a significantly revised MAC layer, besides new PHYs. The revision of 802.15.7-2018 was published in April 2019. In September 2020, a new PAR was approved, and a new task group started to work on a first amendment P802.15.7a aiming at increased data rate and longer range for OCC.
## IEEE P802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications {#ieee_p802.15.8_peer_aware_communications}
IEEE P802.15.8 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 29 March 2012 to form a Task Group to develop a standard for Peer Aware Communications (PAC) optimized for peer-to-peer and infrastructure-less communications with fully distributed coordination operating in bands below 11 GHz. The proposed standard is targeting data rates greater than 100 kbit/s with scalable data rates up to 10 Mbit/s. Features of the proposed include:
- discovery for peer information without association
- discovery of the number of devices in the network
- group communications with simultaneous membership in multiple groups (typically up to 10)
- relative positioning
- multi-hop relay
- security
The draft standard is under development, more information can be found on the [IEEE 802.15 Task Group 8 web page](http://www.ieee802.org/15/pub/TG8.html).
## IEEE P802.15.9: Key Management Protocol {#ieee_p802.15.9_key_management_protocol}
IEEE P802.15.9 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 7 December 2011 to form a Task Group to develop a recommended practice for the transport of Key Management Protocol (KMP) datagrams. The recommended practice will define a message framework based on Information Elements as a transport method for key management protocol (KMP) datagrams and guidelines for the use of some existing KMPs with IEEE Std 802.15.4. The recommended practice will not create a new KMP.
While IEEE Std 802.15.4 has always supported datagram security, it has not provided a mechanism for establishing the keys used by this feature. Lack of key management support in IEEE Std 802.15.4 can result in weak keys, which is a common avenue for attacking the security system. Adding KMP support is critical to a proper security framework. Some of the existing KMPs that it may address are IETF\'s PANA, HIP, IKEv2, IEEE Std 802.1X, and 4-Way-Handshake.
The draft recommended practice is under development, more information can be found on the [IEEE 802.15 web page](http://www.ieee802.org/15).
## IEEE P802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing {#ieee_p802.15.10_layer_2_routing}
IEEE P802.15.10 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 23 August 2013 to form a Task Group to develop a recommended practice for routing packets in dynamically changing 802.15.4 wireless networks (changes on the order of a minute time frame), with minimal impact to route handling. The goal is to extend the coverage area as the number of nodes increase. The route related capabilities that the recommended practice will provide include the following:
- Route establishment
- Dynamic route reconfiguration
- Discovery and addition of new nodes
- Breaking of established routes
- Loss and recurrence of routes
- Real time gathering of link status
- Allowing for single hop appearance at the networking layer (not breaking standard L3 mechanisms)
- Support for broadcast
- Support for multicast
- Effective frame forwarding
The draft recommended practice is under development; more information can be found on the [IEEE 802.15.10 web page](http://www.ieee802.org/15/pub/TG10.htm).
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# IEEE 802.15
## IEEE 802.15.13: Multi-Gigabit/s Optical Wireless Communications {#ieee_802.15.13_multi_gigabits_optical_wireless_communications}
The first meeting of Task Group 13 was held during March 2017, aiming at a new standard on light fidelity (LiFi), i.e. mobile communications by using the light. The aim is to address industrial applications, i.e. ultra-reliable, low-latency connectivity with negligible jitter for next-generation IoT. Compared to 802.15.7, the group decided to rewrite the standard entirely, based on existing and new contributions, to meet those targets. The group first worked on a low-power pulsed modulation PHY (PM-PHY) using On-Off-Keying (OOK) with frequency-domain equalization (FDE) and also a high-bandwidth PHY (HB-PHY) based on orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) adopted from ITU-T G.9991. The group also decided to implement mobility by considering access points in the infrastructure and mobile users in the service area as inputs and outputs of a distributed multiple-input multiple-output (D-MIMO) link. 802.15.13 supports D-MIMO natively with a minimalistic design, suitable for specialty applications. It is implementable on low-cost FPGAs and off-the-shelf computing hardware. The Working Group letter ballot and the IEEE SA Ballot were started in November 2019 and November 2020, respectively. Publication is expected mid of 2022.`{{Update inline |date=September 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
## Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee {#wireless_next_generation_standing_committee}
The IEEE P802.15 Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee (SCwng) is chartered to facilitate and stimulate presentations and discussions on new wireless related technologies that may be subject for new 802.15 standardization projects or to address the whole 802.15 work group with issues or concerns with techniques or technologies
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# ITU-T
The **International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector** (**ITU-T**) is one of the three Sectors (branches) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It is responsible for coordinating standards for telecommunications and Information Communication Technology, such as X.509 for cybersecurity, Y.3172 and Y.3173 for machine learning, and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for video compression, between its Member States, Private Sector Members, and Academia Members.
The World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), the sector\'s governing conference, convenes every four years.
ITU-T has a permanent secretariat called the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB), which is based at the ITU headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. The current director of the TSB is Seizo Onoe (of Japan), whose 4-year term commenced on 1 January 2023. Seizo Onoe succeeded Chaesub Lee of South Korea, who was director from 1 January 2015 until 31 December 2022.
## Primary function {#primary_function}
The ITU-T mission is to ensure the efficient and timely production of standards covering all fields of telecommunications and Information Communication Technology (ICTs) on a worldwide basis, as well as defining tariff and accounting principles for international telecommunication services.
The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as \"*Recommendations*\" (with the word capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the common parlance sense of the word \"recommendation\"), as they become mandatory only when adopted as part of a national law.
Since the ITU-T is part of the ITU, which is a United Nations specialized agency, its standards carry more formal international weight than those of most other standards development organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.
## History
At the initiative of Napoleon III, the French government invited international participants to a conference in Paris in 1865 to facilitate and regulate international telegraph services. A result of the conference was the founding of the forerunner of the modern ITU.
At the 1925 Paris conference, the ITU created two consultative committees to deal with the complexities of the international telephone services, known as *italic=unset* (*label=none*) and with long-distance telegraphy *italic=unset* (*label=none*).
In view of the basic similarity of many of the technical problems faced by the *italic=unset* and *italic=unset*, a decision was taken in 1956 to merge them into a single entity, the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (*italic=unset*, in *Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique*). The first Plenary Assembly of the new organization was held in Geneva, Switzerland in December 1956.
In 1992, the Plenipotentiary Conference (the top policy-making conference of ITU) saw a reform of ITU, giving the Union greater flexibility to adapt to an increasingly complex, interactive and competitive environment. The *italic=unset* was renamed the Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T), as one of three Sectors of the Union alongside the Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) and the Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D).
Historically, the Recommendations of the *italic=unset* were presented at plenary assemblies for endorsement, held every four years, and the full set of Recommendations were published after each plenary assembly. However, the delays in producing texts, and translating them into other working languages, did not suit the fast pace of change in the telecommunications industry.
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# ITU-T
## \"Real time\" standardization {#real_time_standardization}
The rise of the personal computer industry in the early 1980s created a new common practice among both consumers and businesses of adopting \"bleeding edge\" communications technology even if it was not yet standardized. Thus, standards organizations had to put forth standards much faster, or find themselves ratifying de facto standards after the fact. One of the most prominent examples of this was the Open Document Architecture project, which began in 1985 when a profusion of software firms around the world were still furiously competing to shape the future of the electronic office, and was completed in 1999 long after Microsoft Office\'s then-secret binary file formats had become established as the global de facto standard.
The ITU-T now operates under much more streamlined processes. The time between an initial proposal of a draft document by a member company and the final approval of a full-status ITU-T Recommendation can now be as short as a few months (or less in some cases). This makes the standardization approval process in the ITU-T much more responsive to the needs of rapid technology development than in the ITU\'s historical past. New and updated Recommendations are published on an almost daily basis, and nearly all of the library of over 3,270 Recommendations is now free of charge online. (About 30 specifications jointly maintained by the ITU-T and ISO/IEC are not available for free to the public.)
ITU-T has moreover tried to facilitate cooperation between the various forums and standard-developing organizations (SDOs). This collaboration is necessary to avoid duplication of work and the consequent risk of conflicting standards in the market place.
In the work of standardization, ITU-T cooperates with other SDOs, e.g., the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
### Development of Recommendations {#development_of_recommendations}
Most of the work of ITU-T is carried out by its Sector Members and Associates, while the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB) is the executive arm of ITU-T and coordinator for a number of workshops and seminars to progress existing work areas and explore new ones. The events cover a wide array of topics in the field of information and communication technologies (ICT) and attract high-ranking experts as speakers, and attendees from engineers to high-level management from all industry sectors.
The technical work, the development of Recommendations, of ITU-T is managed by Study Groups (SGs), such as Study Group 13 for network standards, Study Group 16 for multimedia standards, and Study Group 17 for security standards, which are created by the World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA) which is held every four years. As part of the deliberations, WTSA has instructed ITU to hold the Global Standards Symposium, which unlike WTSA is open to public for participation. The people involved in these SGs are experts in telecommunications from all over the world. There are currently 11 SGs. Study groups meet face to face (or virtually under exceptional circumstances) according to a calendar issued by the TSB. SGs are augmented by Focus Groups (FGs), an instrument created by ITU-T, providing a way to quickly react to ICT standardization needs and allowing great flexibility in terms of participation and working methods. The key difference between SGs and FGs is that the latter have greater freedom to organize and finance themselves, and to involve non-members in their work, but they do not have the authority to approve Recommendations. Focus Groups can be created very quickly, are usually short-lived and can choose their own working methods, leadership, financing, and types of deliverables. Current Focus Groups include the ITU-WHO Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for Health (FG-AI4H) as well as Machine Learning for 5G (which developed Y.3172), Quantum Information Technologies for Networks, and Artificial Intelligence for Assisted and Autonomous Driving.
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# ITU-T
## \"Real time\" standardization {#real_time_standardization}
### Alternative Approval Process {#alternative_approval_process}
The Alternative Approval Process (AAP) is a fast-track approval procedure that was developed to allow standards to be brought to market in the timeframe that industry now demands. The AAP is defined in ITU-T Recommendation A.8.
This dramatic overhaul of standards-making by streamlining approval procedures was implemented in 2001 and is estimated to have cut the time involved in this critical aspect of the standardization process by 80 to 90 percent. This means that an average standard that took around four years to approve and publish until the mid nineties, and two years until 1997, can now be approved in an average of two months, or as little as five weeks.
Besides streamlining the underlying procedures involved in the approval process, an important contributory factor to the use of AAP is electronic document handling. Once the approval process has begun the rest of the process can be completed electronically, in the vast majority of cases, with no further physical meetings.
The introduction of AAP also formalizes public/private partnership in the approval process by providing equal opportunities for both sector members and member states in the approval of technical standards.
A panel of SG experts drafts a proposal that is then forwarded at an SG meeting to the appropriate body which decides if it is sufficiently ready to be designated a draft text and thus gives its consent for further review at the next level.
After this Consent has been given, TSB announces the start of the AAP procedure by posting the draft text to the ITU-T website and calling for comments. This gives the opportunity for all members to review the text. This phase, called *last call*, is a four-week period in which comments can be submitted by member states and sector members.
If no comments other than editorial corrections are received, the Recommendation is considered approved since no issues were identified that might need any further work. However, if there are any comments, the SG chairman, in consultation with TSB, sets up a comment resolution process by the concerned experts. The revised text is then posted on the web for an *additional review* period of three weeks.
Similar to the last call phase, in *additional review* the Recommendation is considered as approved if no comments are received. If comments are received, it is apparent that there are some issues that still need more work, and the draft text and all comments are sent to the next Study Group meeting for further discussion and possible approval.
Those Recommendations considered as having policy or regulatory implications are approved through what is known as the Traditional Approval Process (TAP), which allows a longer period for reflection and commenting by member states. TAP Recommendations are also translated into the six working languages of ITU (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish).
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# ITU-T
## Series and Recommendations {#series_and_recommendations}
ITU-T Recommendations are the names given to telecommunications and computer protocol specification documents published by ITU-T.
### Recommendation categorization {#recommendation_categorization}
ITU-T assigns each Recommendation a name based on the series and Recommendation number. The name starts with the letter of the series the Recommendation belongs to. Each series encompasses a broad category of Recommendations, such as \"H-Series Recommendations: Audiovisual and multimedia systems\". The series letter is followed by a period and the Recommendation number, which uniquely identifies the Recommendation within the series. Often, a range of related Recommendations are further grouped within the series and given adjacent numbers, such as \"H.200-H.499: Infrastructure of audiovisual services\" or \"H.260-H.279: Coding of moving video\". Many numbers are \"skipped\" to give room for future Recommendations to be adjacent to related Recommendations. Recommendations can be revised or \"superseded\" and keep their existing Recommendation number.
### Individual ITU-T Recommendations {#individual_itu_t_recommendations}
Source: `{{ordered list|type=upper-alpha
| Organization of the work of ITU-T
| Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification
| General telecommunication statistics
| General tariff principles
| Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors
| Non-telephone telecommunication services
| Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks
| Audiovisual and multimedia systems
| Integrated services digital network
| Cable networks and transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals
| Protection against interference
| Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant
| TMN and network maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits, telegraphy, facsimile and leased circuits
| Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits
| Specifications of measuring equipment
| Terminals and subjective and objective assessment methods
| Switching and signalling
| Telegraph transmission
| Telegraph services terminal equipment
| Terminals for telematic services
| Telegraph switching
| Data communication over the telephone network
| Data networks and open system communications
| Global information infrastructure and Internet protocol aspects
| Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems
}}`{=mediawiki}
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# ITU-T
## International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs) {#international_telecommunication_regulations_itrs}
In addition to the ITU-T Recommendations, which have non-mandatory status unless they are adopted in national laws, ITU-T is also the custodian of a binding international treaty, the International Telecommunication Regulations. The ITRs go back to the earliest days of the ITU when there were two separate treaties, dealing with telegraph and telephone. The ITRs were adopted, as a single treaty, at the World Administrative Telegraphy and Telephone Conference held in Melbourne, 1988 (WATTC-88).
The ITRs comprise ten articles which deal, *inter alia*, with the definition of international telecommunication services, cooperation between countries and national administrations, safety of life and priority of telecommunications and charging and accounting principles. The adoption of the ITRs in 1988 is often taken as the start of the wider liberalization process in international telecommunications, though a few countries, including United States and United Kingdom, had made steps to liberalize their markets before 1988.
The Constitution and Convention of ITU provides for the amendment of ITRs through a World Conference on International Telecommunications (WCIT). Accordingly, in 1998 there began a process of review of the ITRs; and in 2009 extensive preparations began for such a conference, WCIT-12. In addition to \"regional preparatory meetings\", the ITU Secretariat developed 13 \"Background Briefs on key issues\" that were expected to be discussed at the conference. Convened by former ITU secretary-general Hamadoun Touré, the Conference, WCIT-12, was then held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, during the period 3--14 December 2014.
## AI for Good {#ai_for_good}
The Standardization Sector of ITU also organizes AI for Good, the United Nations platform for the sustainable development of Artificial Intelligence.
## Hot topics {#hot_topics}
- ITU-T has expressed a commitment to \"bridging the standardization gap\" -- disparities in the ability of developing countries, relative to developed ones, to access, implement, contribute to and influence international ICT standards.
- The ICT Security Standards Roadmap has been developed to assist in the development of security standards by bringing together information about existing standards and current standards work in key standards development organizations.
- The Next Generation Networks (NGN) concept takes into consideration new realities in the telecommunication industry characterized by factors such as; the need to converge and optimize the operating networks and the extraordinary expansion of digital traffic (i.e., increasing demand for new multimedia services, mobility, etc.)
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# Economy of the Isle of Man
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Location of the Isle of Man within the British Isles The **economy of the Isle of Man** is a low-tax economy with insurance, online gambling operators and developers, information and communications technology (ICT), and offshore banking forming key sectors of the island\'s economy.
As an offshore financial centre located in the Irish Sea, the Isle of Man is within the British Isles but does not form part of the United Kingdom and was never a part of the European Union.
As of 2016, the Crown dependency\'s gross national income (GNI) per capita was US\$89,970 as assessed by the World Bank. The Isle of Man Government\'s own National Income Report shows the largest sectors of the economy are insurance and eGaming with 17% of GNI each, followed by ICT and banking with 9% each, with tourist accommodation in the lowest sector at 0.3%.
## Economic performance {#economic_performance}
After 32 years of continued Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, the financial year 2015/16 showed the first drop in GDP, of 0.9%, triggered by decline in eGaming revenues.
The unemployment rate is around 5%.
Property prices are flat or declining, but recent figures also show an increase in resident income tax payers.
The government\'s policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the island has expanded employment opportunities in high-income industries. Agriculture, fishing, and the hospitality industry, once the mainstays of the economy, now make declining contributions to the island\'s GNP. The hospitality sector contributed just of 0.3% of GNP in 2015/16, and 629 jobs in 2016. eGaming and ICT contribute the great bulk of GNP. The stability of the island\'s government and its openness for business make the Isle of Man an attractive alternative jurisdiction (DAW Index ranked 3).
## Economic strategy {#economic_strategy}
In the Vision2020 the Isle of Man government lays out the national strategy of economic growth, seeking an increase of the economically active population an promoting the Island as an \'Enterprise Island, \'\'Tech Isle\', \'Manufacturing centre of excellence\', \'Offshore energy hub\', \'Destination Island\' and for \'Distinctive local food and drink\'. The government has published its national economic strategies for several emerging sectors: aerospace, biomed, digital media, ICT.
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# Economy of the Isle of Man
## Taxation and trade {#taxation_and_trade}
### Tax rates {#tax_rates}
The Isle of Man is a low-tax economy with no capital gains tax, wealth tax, stamp duty, or inheritance tax; and a top rate of income tax of 22%. A tax cap is in force: the maximum amount of tax payable by an individual is £200,000; or £400,000 for couples if they choose to have their incomes jointly assessed. Personal income is assessed and taxed on a total worldwide income basis rather than on a remittance basis. This means that all income earned throughout the world is assessable for Manx tax, rather than only income earned in or brought into the Island.
The standard rate of corporation tax for residents and non-residents is 0%; retail business profits above £500,000 and banking business income are taxed at 10%, and rental (or other) income from land and buildings situated on the Isle of Man is taxed at 22%.
### Trade
Trade is mostly with the United Kingdom. The Isle of Man has free access to European Union markets for goods, but only has restricted access for services, people, or financial products.
### Tax transparency and the offshore banking debate {#tax_transparency_and_the_offshore_banking_debate}
The Isle of Man as an offshore financial centre has been repeatedly featured in the press as a tax haven, most recently in the wake of the Paradise Papers.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development\'s (OECD) Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes has rated the Isle of Man as \'top compliant\' for a second time: a status which only three jurisdictions in the world have achieved so far. The island has become the second nation after Austria to ratify a multilateral convention with the OECD to implement measures to prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS).
In a report the European Council lists the Isle of Man together with the other two Crown Dependencies (Guernsey and Jersey) as well as Bermuda, the Cayman Islands and Vanuatu, as committed to addressing the Council\'s concerns of \"Existence of tax regimes that facilitate offshore structures which attract profits without real economic activity\" by 2018.
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# Economy of the Isle of Man
## Sectors
The Isle of Man\'s Department for Enterprise manages the diversified economy in twelve key sectors. The largest individual sectors by GNI are insurance and eGaming with 17% of GNI each, followed by ICT and banking with 9% each. The 2016 census lists 41,636 total employed. The largest sectors by employment are \"medical and health\", \"financial and business services\", construction, retail and public administration. Manufacturing, focused on aerospace and the food and drink industry, employs almost 2000 workers and contributes about 5% of GDP. The sector provides laser optics, industrial diamonds, electronics, plastics and aerospace precision engineering.
### Finance sector {#finance_sector}
Insurance, banking (includes retail banking, offshore banking and other banking services), other finance and business services, and corporate service providers together contribute the most to the GNI and most of the jobs, with 10,057 people employed in 2016.
### eGaming & ICT {#egaming_ict}
Among the largest employers of the Island\'s private sector are eGaming (online gambling) companies like The Stars Group, Microgaming, Newfield, and Playtech. The Manx eGaming Association MEGA is representing the sector. Licenses are issued by the Gambling Supervision Commission.
In 2005 PokerStars, one of the world\'s largest online poker sites, relocated its headquarters to the Isle of Man from Costa Rica. In 2006, RNG Gaming a large gaming software developer of P2P tournaments and Get21, a multiplayer online blackjack site, based their corporate offices on the island.
The Isle of Man Government Lottery operated from 1986 to 1997. Since 2 December 1999 the island has participated in the United Kingdom National Lottery. The island is the only jurisdiction outside the United Kingdom where it is possible to play the UK National Lottery. Since 2010 it has also been possible for projects in the Isle of Man to receive national lottery Good Causes Funding. The good causes funding is distributed by the Manx Lottery Trust. Tynwald receives the 12p lottery duty for tickets sold in the Island.
The shortage of workers with ICT skills is tackled by several initiatives, like an IT and education campus, a new cyber security degree at the University College of Man, a Code Club, and a work permit waiver for skilled immigrants.
### Filmmaking and digital media {#filmmaking_and_digital_media}
Since 1995 Isle of Man Film has co-financed and co-produced over 100 feature film and television dramas which have all filmed on the Island.
Among the most successful productions funded in part by Isle of Man Film agency were *Waking Ned*, where the Manx countryside stood in for rural Ireland, and films like *Stormbreaker*, *Shergar*, *Tom Brown\'s Schooldays*, *I Capture the Castle*, *The Libertine*, *Island at War* (TV series), *Five Children and It*, *Colour Me Kubrick*, *Sparkle*, and others. Other films that have been filmed on the Isle of Man include *Thomas and the Magic Railroad*, *Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets*, *Keeping Mum and Mindhorn.*
2011 Isle of Man Film Oxford Economics was commissioned by Isle of Man Film Ltd to conduct a study into the economic impact of the film industry on the Isle of. Man. The recommendation of this report for Isle of Man Film was to partner with a more established film institution in the UK to source more Isle of Man film production opportunities. This led to the investment of the Isle of Man Government to take shares in Pinewood Shepperton Plc which were sold later with profit.
Once one of the busiest areas of film production in the British Isles, the Isle of Man hopes to use its strong foundation in film to grow its television and new digital media industry. In a recent Isle of Man Department of Economic Development strategic review, the Island\'s over 2,000 jobs counting digital sector features \'digital media\' and the creative industries, and embraces partnerships with the industry and its individual sector bodies like the Isle of Media, a new media cluster.
### Motorsports
Hosting of motorsports events, like the Isle of Man Car Rally and the more-prominent TT motorcycle races, contributes to the tourism economy.
### Tourism
Tourism in the Isle of Man developed from advances in transport to the island. In 1819 the first steamship *Robert Bruce* came to the island, only seven years after the first steam vessel in the UK. In the 1820s, tourism was growing due to improved transport. The island government\'s own report for the financial years 2014/15-2015/16 shows tourist accommodation to be in the lowest sector at 0.3%, ranking slightly above \'mining and quarrying\' (0.1%).
## Infrastructure
### Electricity
Since 1999, the Isle of Man has received electricity through the world\'s second longest submarine AC cable, the 90 kV Isle of Man to England Interconnector, as well as from a natural gas power station in Douglas, an oil power station in Peel and a small hydro-electric power station in Sulby Glen.
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# Economy of the Isle of Man
## Infrastructure
### Gas
Gas for lighting and heating has been supplied to users on the Isle of Man since 1836, firstly as town gas, then as liquid petroleum gas (LPG); since 2003 natural gas has been available. The future use of hydrogen as a supplementary or substitute fuel is being studied.
### Broadband
The Island is connected with five submarine cables to the UK and Ireland.
While the Isle of Man Communications Commission refers to Akamai's recent State of the Internet Report for Q1 2017, with \"the Island ranked 8th in the world for percentage of broadband connections with \>4 Mb/s connectivity, with 96% of users connecting at speeds greater than 4 Mb/s\", an \"international league table of broadband speeds puts the Isle of Man at 50th in the world\". Manx Telecom recently announced to roll out Fibre-to-the-Home (FTTH) superfast broadband with download speeds of up to 1Gigabit per second.
### Travel links {#travel_links}
Ronaldsway Airport links the Isle of Man with six airlines to eleven UK and Irish scheduled flight destinations.
The Steam Packet Company provides ferry services to Liverpool, Heysham, Belfast and Dublin.
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# Economy of the Isle of Man
## Statistics
**Labour force---by occupation:** agriculture, forestry and fishing 3%, manufacturing 11%, construction 10%, transport and communication 8%, wholesale and retail distribution 11%, professional and scientific services 18%, public administration 6%, banking and finance 18%, tourism 2%, entertainment and catering 3%, miscellaneous services 10%
**Unemployment rate:** nominally 5
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# Communications in the Isle of Man
The Isle of Man has an extensive communications infrastructure consisting of telephone cables, submarine cables, and an array of television and mobile phone transmitters and towers.
## Telecommunications
### Telegraph
The history of Manx telecommunications starts in 1859, when the `{{visible anchor|Isle of Man Electric Telegraph Company}}`{=mediawiki} was formed on the Island with the intention of connecting across the Island by telegraph, and allowing messages to be sent onwards to the UK. In August 1859, a 36 nmi long cable was commissioned from Glass, Elliot and Company of Greenwich and laid from Cranstal (north of Ramsey) to St Bees in Cumbria using the chartered cable ship *Resolute*. The cable was single-core, with gutta-percha insulation.
Twenty miles of overhead cable were also erected from Cranstal south to Ramsey, and on to Douglas. In England, the telegraph was connected to Whitehaven and the circuits of the Electric Telegraph Company.
The telegraph offices were located at 64 Athol Street, Douglas (also the company\'s head office) and at East Quay, Ramsey (now Marina House).
On 10 August 1860 the company was statutorily incorporated by the **`{{visible anchor|Isle of Man Electric Telegraph Company's Act 1860}}`{=mediawiki}**, an Act of Tynwald with a capital of £5,500.
The currents at Cranstal proved too strong, and in 1864 the cable was taken up and relaid further south, at Port-e-Vullen in Ramsey Bay. It was later relaid to land even further south at Port Cornaa.
Following the 1869 finalisation of UK telegraph nationalisation into a General Post Office monopoly, the Isle of Man Electric Telegraph Company was nationalised in 1870 under the Telegraph Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 88) (an act of Parliament) at a cost to the British Government of £16,106 (paid in 1872 following arbitration proceedings over the value). Prior to nationalisation, the Island\'s telegraph operations had been performing poorly and the company\'s share price valued it at around £100.
Subsequent to nationalisation, operations were taken over by the GPO. The internal telegraph system was extended within a year to Castletown and Peel, however by then the previous lack of modern communications in Castletown had already started the Isle of Man Government on its move to Douglas.
Due to increasing usage in the years following nationalisation, further cables between Port Cornaa and St Bees were laid in 1875 and 1885.
By 1883 Smith\'s Directory listed several telegraph offices operated by the Post Office, in addition to those at Douglas, Ramsey, Castletown and Peel the telegraph was also available at Laxey, Ballaugh, and Port St. Mary.
Throughout the First World War, the cable landing station at Port Cornaa was guarded by the Isle of Man Volunteer Corps.
The undersea telegraph cables have been disused since the 1950s, but remain in place.
### Teleport
A Teleport, with several earth stations, is currently under construction in the Isle of Man. SES Satellite Leasing, the entrepreneurial investment arm of [SES](https://www.ses.com/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511015253/https://www.ses.com/ |date=11 May 2017 }}`{=mediawiki}. The teleport is expected to enter into service in 2017. It will be a state-of-the-art facility providing satellite telemetry, tracking and commanding (TT&C) facilities and capacity management, together with a wide range of teleport services such as uplink, downlink, and contribution services for broadcasters and data centres.
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# Communications in the Isle of Man
## Telecommunications
### Telephones
The main telephone provider in the Isle of Man today is Manx Telecom.
In 1889 George Gillmore, formerly an electrician for the GPO\'s Manx telegraph operations, was granted a licence by the Postmaster General to operate the Isle of Man\'s first telephone service. Based in an exchange in Athol Street, early customers of Gilbert\'s telephone service included the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and the Isle of Man Railway. Not having the resources to fund expansion or a link to England, Gillmore sold his licence to the National Telephone Company and stayed on as their manager on the island.
By 1901 there were 600 subscribers, and the telephone system had been extended to Ramsey, Castletown, Peel, Port Erin, Port St. Mary and Onchan.
On 1 January 1912 the National Telephone Company was nationalised and merged into the General Post Office by the Telephone Transfer Act 1911 (1 & 2 Geo. 5. c. 26). Only Guernsey, Portsmouth and Hull remained outside of the GPO.
In 1922, the General Post Office offered to sell the island\'s telephone service to the Manx government, but the offer was not taken up. A similar arrangement in Jersey for that island\'s telephone service was concluded in 1923.
The first off-island telephone link was established in 1929, with the laying of a cable by the *CS Faraday* between Port Erin and Ballyhornan in Northern Ireland, a distance of 57 km, and then between Port Grenaugh and Blackpool, primarily to provide a link to Northern Ireland. The cable was completed on 6 June 1929 and the first call between the Isle of Man and the outside world was made on 28 June 1929 by Lieutenant Governor Sir Claude Hill in Douglas to the Postmaster General in Liverpool. The cable initially carried only two trunk circuits.
In 1942, a pioneering VHF frequency-modulated radio-link was established between Creg-na-Baa and the UK to provide an alternative to the sub-sea cable. This has since been discontinued.
This was augmented on 24 June 1943 by a 74 km long cable between Cemaes Bay in Anglesey and Port Erin, which had the world\'s first submerged repeater, laid by *HMCS Iris*. The repeater doubled the possible number of circuits on the cable, and although it failed after only five months, its replacement worked for seven years.
In 1962 a further undersea cable was laid by *HMTS Ariel* between Colwyn Bay and the Island.
Historically, the telephone system in the Isle of Man had been run as a monopoly by the British General Post Office, and later British Telecommunications, and operated as part of the Liverpool telephone district.
By 1985 the privatised British Telecom had inherited the telephone operations of the GPO, including those in the Isle of Man. At this time the Manx Government announced that it would award a 20-year licence to operate the telephone system in a tender process. As part of this process, in 1986 British Telecom created a Manx-registered subsidiary company, Manx Telecom, to bid for the tender. It was believed that a local identity and management would be more politically acceptable in the tendering process as they competed with Cable & Wireless to win the licence. Manx Telecom won the tender, and commenced operations under the new identity from 1 January 1987.
On 28 March 1988 an 8,000 telephone circuit fibre optic cable, the longest unregenerated system in Europe, was inaugurated. It links Port Grenaugh to Silecroft in Cumbria, and was laid in September 1987. The cable was buried in the seabed along its entire length.
A further fibre optic cable, known as BT-MT1 was laid in October 1990 between Millom in Cumbria and Douglas, a distance of 43 nmi. Jointly operated by BT and Manx Telecom, it provides six channels each with a bandwidth of 140 Mbit/s. This cable remains in use today.
In July 1992, Mercury Communications laid the LANIS fibre-optic cables. LANIS-1 runs for 61 nmi between Port Grenaugh and Blackpool, and LANIS-2 runs for 36 nmi between the Isle of Man and Northern Ireland. They have six channels each with a bandwidth of 565 Mbit/s. The LANIS cables are now operated by Cable & Wireless. The LANIS-1 cable was damaged 600 m off Port Grenaugh on 27 November 2006, causing loss of the link and resulting in temporary Internet access issues for some Manx customers whilst it was awaiting repair.
On 17 November 2001 Manx Telecom became part of mmO~2~ following the demerger of BT Wireless\'s operations from BT Group, and the company was owned by Telefónica. On 4 June 2010 Manx Telecom was sold by Telefónica to UK private equity investor HgCapital (who were buying the majority stake), alongside telecoms management company CPS Partners
In December 2007, the Manx Electricity Authority and its telecoms subsidiary, e-llan Communications, commissioned the lighting of a new undersea fibre-optic link. It was laid in 1999 between Blackpool and Douglas as part of the Isle of Man to England Interconnector which connects the Manx electricity system to the UK\'s National Grid.
In December 2017, Horizon Electronics Isle of Man (formerly Horizon Electro) helped with the online TV services of the Isle of Man.
According to the CIA World Factbook, in 1999 there were 51,000 fixed telephone lines in use in the Isle of Man.
The Isle of Man is included within the UK telephone numbering system, and is accessed externally via UK area codes, rather than by its own country calling code. The area codes currently in use are: +44 1624 (landlines) and +44 7425 / +44 7624 / +44 7924 (mobiles).
#### Submarine communications cables in service {#submarine_communications_cables_in_service}
- BT-MT1 (BT/Manx Telecom, 1990 - UK)
- BT-MT1-NI (BT/Manx Telecom, 2000 - Northern Ireland (UK))
- LANIS-1 (Cable & Wireless, 1992 - UK)
- LANIS-2 (Cable & Wireless, 1992 - Northern Ireland (UK))
- Isle of Man to England Interconnector (Manx Electricity Authority, 2007 - UK)
- Aqua Comms Isle of Man Link to Ireland and the USA
- Aqua Comms Isle of Man Link to Blackpool UK
Submarine cables in Manx waters are governed by the Submarine Cables Act 2003 (an Act of Tynwald).
#### Telecoms service providers {#telecoms_service_providers}
- Manx Telecom The incumbent provider offering all types of telecoms and owner of the national network.
- Sure The islands second full service provider offering all types of telecommunications from: Mobiles, Broadband, Home Phone, Private Circuits, Dedicated Internet Access, Data Centre Hosting, LAN/WAN/PABX consultancy etc.
- Wi-Manx VoIP and internet services provider since 2007. In 2014 Wi-Manx were granted a Full Telecoms Operator license.
- Netcetera Offers hosting and co-location in its Ballasalla data centre.
- BlueWave Communications A provider of ISP and 4G services to business and consumers. BlueWave Communications is a communications service provider located in Douglas in the Isle of Man who were granted their Full Telecoms Operator licence in [2018](https://www.iomcc.im/information-centre/news-updates/2018/mar/notice-of-modification-to-bluewave-licence-published-15-march-2018/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107010222/https://www.iomcc.im/information-centre/news-updates/2018/mar/notice-of-modification-to-bluewave-licence-published-15-march-2018/ |date=7 November 2018 }}`{=mediawiki}. It was founded in 2007 by Stuart Baggs and provides communications services to both businesses and consumers in the Isle of Man.
### Mobile telephones {#mobile_telephones}
The mobile phone network operated by Manx Telecom has been used by O~2~ as an environment for developing and testing new products and services prior to wider rollout. In December 2001, the company became the first telecommunications operator in Europe to launch a live 3G network. In November 2005, the company became the first in Europe to offer its customers an HSDPA (3.5G) service.
Sure built their own mobile network on the island in 2007 and following various upgrades now deliver 2G/3G and 4G services
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# Communications in the Isle of Man
## Telecommunications
### Internet
In 1996 the Isle of Man government obtained permission to use the .im national top level domain (TLD) and has ultimate responsibility for its use. The domain is managed on a daily basis by Domicilium (IOM) Limited, an island based Internet service provider. Broadband Internet services are available through five local providers which are Manx Telecom, [Sure](https://sure.com) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513110530/https://www.sure.com/ |date=13 May 2020 }}`{=mediawiki}, [Wi-Manx](https://wi-manx.com) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107015958/http://wi-manx.com/ |date=7 January 2018 }}`{=mediawiki}, [Domicilium](https://Domicilium.com) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200405035156/https://www.domicilium.com/ |date=5 April 2020 }}`{=mediawiki}, [Opti-Fi Limited](https://opti-fi.co.uk) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924041140/https://www.opti-fi.co.uk/ |date=24 September 2020 }}`{=mediawiki} and BlueWave Communications.
In 2021 it was revealed Bluewave host a Ground station for the Starlink Satellite Internet system
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# Communications in the Isle of Man
## Broadcasting
### Radio
The public-service commercial radio station for the island is Manx Radio. Manx Radio is part funded by government grant, and partly by advertising. There are two other Manx-based FM radio stations, Energy FM and 3 FM.
BBC national radio stations are also relayed locally via a transmitter located to the south of Douglas, relayed from Sandale transmitting station in Cumbria, as well as a signal feed from the Holme Moss transmitting station in West Yorkshire. The Douglas transmitter also broadcasts the BBC\'s DAB digital radio services and Classic FM.
Manx Radio is the only local service to broadcast on AM medium wave. No UK services are relayed via local AM transmitters. No longwave stations operate from the Island, although one (MusicMann 279) was proposed. There are currently no proposals to broadcast any of the three insular FM stations on DAB.
#### Transmitters
- Snaefell - Manx Radio, Energy FM, 3FM
- Foxdale - Manx Radio (AM)
- Mull Hill (near Port St. Mary) - Energy FM, 3FM
- Jurby - Energy FM, Manx Radio,
- Ramsey - Manx Radio, Energy FM, 3FM, Horizon Pulse, (a nearby site also used for television broadcasts the BBC DAB multiplex)
- Ballasaig (Maughold) - Energy FM
- Carnane (Douglas) - Manx Radio, Energy FM, 3FM, Horizon Pulse, Radio 1, Radio 2, Radio 3, Radio 4, Classic FM, BBC DAB multiplex
- Port St Mary - 3FM, BBC DAB multiplex
- Beary Peark - Energy FM, 3FM
- Peel - Manx Radio
- Cronk ny Arrey - 3FM
### Television
There is no Island-specific television service. Local transmitters retransmit UK Freeview broadcasts. The BBC region is BBC North West and the ITV region is Granada Television.
Many television services are available by satellite, such as Sky, and Freesat from the Astra 2/Eurobird 1 group, as well as services from a range of other satellites around Europe such as Astra 1 and Hot Bird.
Manx ViaSat-IOM, ManSat, Telesat-IOM companies uses the first communications satellite ViaSat-1 that launched in 2011 and positioned at the Isle of Man registered 115.1 degrees West longitude geostationary orbit point. In some areas, terrestrial television directly from the United Kingdom or Republic of Ireland can also be received.
Analogue television transmission ceased between 2008 and 2009, when limited local transmission of digital terrestrial television commenced. The UK\'s television licence regime extends to the island.
There is no Island-specific opt-out of the BBC regional news programme *North West Tonight*, in the way that the Channel Islands get their own version of *Spotlight*.
Television was first received in the Isle of Man from the Holme Moss transmitter which started broadcasting BBC Television (later BBC One) from 12 October 1951. Signals from Holme Moss were easily received in the Isle of Man.
ITV television has been available on parts of the east of the Isle of Man on 3 May 1956 when Granada Television (and ABC Television from 5 May 1956 to 28 July 1968) transmissions started from the Winter Hill transmitting station, and to parts of the west of the island on 31 October 1959 from the Black Mountain transmitting station in Northern Ireland which broadcasts Ulster Television. Parts of the north of the Island received Border Television since 1 September 1961, initially directly from the Caldbeck transmitting station in Cumberland (later became Cumbria from 1974). On 26 March 1965, Border Television commenced relay of their signal through a local transmitter on Richmond Hill, 542 ft above sea level and 3 mi from the centre of Douglas. The site allowed reliable reception of the Caldbeck signal, which is rebroadcast on a different frequency. The 200 ft high transmission tower was re-sited from London, where it had been used for early ITV transmissions. Richmond Hill was decommissioned after the close of 405-line broadcasts, although the 200 ft tower remained in use for radio with Manx Radio transmitting on 96.9 MHz and then 97.3 MHz until 1989. Manx Radio moved their FM service to the Carnane site and the frequency changed to the current 97.2 MHz.
The television broadcasts are now transmitted from a 195 ft high transmitter on a hill to the south of Douglas. The transmitter is operated by Arqiva and is directly fed using a fibre optic cable. There are further sub-relay transmitters across the Island. Following a realignment of ITV regional services and the digital switchover, the Douglas relay switched ITV broadcasts to Granada Television on Thursday 17 July 2009.
The Broadcasting Act 1993 (An Act of Tynwald) allows for the establishment of local television services. Only one application for a licence to run such a service was received by the Communications Commission. That application was rejected.
According to the CIA World Factbook, in 1999 there were 27,490 televisions in use in the Isle of Man.
#### Transmitters {#transmitters_1}
- Kimmeragh (Bride)
- Beary Peark (St Johns)
- Glen Maye
- Foxdale
- Port St. Mary
- Carnane (Douglas)
- Union Mills
- Laxey
- Jurby
- Ramsey
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# Communications in the Isle of Man
## Post
Isle of Man Post issues its own stamps for use within the Island and for sending post off-Island. Only Manx stamps are valid for sending mail using the postal system. The Isle of Man adopted postcodes in 1993 using the prefix IM to fit in with the already established UK postcode system
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# Information explosion
The **information explosion** is the rapid increase in the amount of published information or data and the effects of this abundance. As the amount of available data grows, the problem of managing the information becomes more difficult, which can lead to information overload. The Online Oxford English Dictionary indicates use of the phrase in a March 1964 *New Statesman* article. *The New York Times* first used the phrase in its editorial content in an article by Walter Sullivan on June 7, 1964, in which he described the phrase as \"much discussed\". (p11.) The earliest known use of the phrase was in a speech about television by NBC president Pat Weaver at the Institute of Practitioners of Advertising in London on September 27, 1955. The speech was rebroadcast on radio station WSUI in Iowa City and excerpted in the *Daily Iowan* newspaper two months later.
Many sectors are seeing this rapid increase in the amount of information available such as healthcare, supermarkets, and governments. Another sector that is being affected by this phenomenon is journalism. Such a profession, which in the past was responsible for the dissemination of information, may be suppressed by the overabundance of information today.
Techniques to gather knowledge from an overabundance of electronic information (e.g., data fusion may help in data mining) have existed since the 1970s. Another common technique to deal with such amount of information is qualitative research. Such approaches aim to organize the information, synthesizing, categorizing and systematizing in order to be more usable and easier to search.
## Growth patterns {#growth_patterns}
- The world\'s technological capacity to store information grew from, optimally compressed, 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 15.7 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000, and to 295 exabytes in 2007.
- The world\'s technological capacity to receive information through one-way broadcast networks was 432 exabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, 715 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1993, 1,200 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2000, and 1,900 in 2007.
- The world\'s effective capacity to exchange information through two-way telecommunications networks was 0.281 exabytes of (optimally compressed) information in 1986, 0.471 in 1993, 2.2 in 2000, and 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007.
A new metric that is being used in an attempt to characterize the growth in person-specific information, is the disk storage per person (DSP), which is measured in megabytes/person (where megabytes is 10^6^ bytes and is abbreviated MB). Global DSP (GDSP) is the total rigid disk drive space (in MB) of new units sold in a year divided by the world population in that year. The GDSP metric is a crude measure of how much disk storage could possibly be used to collect person-specific data on the world population. In 1983, one million fixed drives with an estimated total of 90 terabytes were sold worldwide; 30MB drives had the largest market segment. In 1996, 105 million drives, totaling 160,623 terabytes were sold with 1 and 2 gigabyte drives leading the industry. By the year 2000, with 20GB drive leading the industry, rigid drives sold for the year are projected to total 2,829,288 terabytes Rigid disk drive sales to top \$34 billion in 1997.
According to Latanya Sweeney, there are three trends in data gathering today:
**Type 1.** Expansion of the number of fields being collected, known as the "collect more" trend.
**Type 2.** Replace an existing aggregate data collection with a person-specific one, known as the "collect specifically" trend.
**Type 3.** Gather information by starting a new person-specific data collection, known as the "collect it if you can" trend.
## Related terms {#related_terms}
Since \"information\" in electronic media is often used synonymously with \"data\", the term *information explosion* is closely related to the concept of *data flood* (also dubbed *data deluge*). Sometimes the term *information flood* is used as well. All of those basically boil down to the ever-increasing amount of electronic data exchanged per time unit. A term that covers the potential negative effects of information explosion is *information inflation*. The awareness about non-manageable amounts of data grew along with the advent of ever more powerful data processing since the mid-1960s.
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# Information explosion
## Challenges
Even though the abundance of information can be beneficial in several levels, some problems may be of concern such as privacy, legal and ethical guidelines, filtering and data accuracy. Filtering refers to finding useful information in the middle of so much data, which relates to the job of data scientists. A typical example of a necessity of data filtering (data mining) is in healthcare since in the next years is due to have EHRs (Electronic Health Records) of patients available. With so much information available, the doctors will need to be able to identify patterns and select important data for the diagnosis of the patient. On the other hand, according to some experts, having so much public data available makes it difficult to provide data that is actually anonymous. Another point to take into account is the legal and ethical guidelines, which relates to who will be the owner of the data and how frequently he/she is obliged to the release this and for how long. With so many sources of data, another problem will be accuracy of such. An untrusted source may be challenged by others, by ordering a new set of data, causing a repetition in the information. According to Edward Huth, another concern is the accessibility and cost of such information. The accessibility rate could be improved by either reducing the costs or increasing the utility of the information. The reduction of costs according to the author, could be done by associations, which should assess which information was relevant and gather it in a more organized fashion.
## Web servers {#web_servers}
As of August 2005, there were over 70 million web servers. `{{As of|2007|09}}`{=mediawiki} there were over 135 million web servers.
## Blogs
According to Technorati, the number of blogs doubles about every 6 months with a total of 35.3 million blogs `{{As of|2006|04|lc=y|url=http://www.sifry.com/alerts/archives/000432.html}}`{=mediawiki}. This is an example of the early stages of logistic growth, where growth is approximately exponential, since blogs are a recent innovation. As the number of blogs approaches the number of possible producers (humans), saturation occurs, growth declines, and the number of blogs eventually stabilizes
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# Infocom
**Infocom, Inc.**, was an American software company based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that produced numerous works of interactive fiction. They also produced a business application, a relational database called *Cornerstone*.
Infocom was founded on June 22, 1979, by staff and students of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and lasted as an independent company until 1986, when it was bought by Activision. Activision shut down the Infocom division in 1989, although they released some titles in the 1990s under the Infocom *Zork* brand. Activision abandoned the Infocom trademark in 2002.
## Overview
Infocom games are text adventures where users direct the action by entering short strings of words to give commands when prompted. Generally the program will respond by describing the results of the action, often the contents of a room if the player has moved within the virtual world. The user reads this information, decides what to do, and enters another short series of words. Examples include \"go west\", \"take flashlight\", or \"give the letter to the woman then ask her for a book\".
Infocom games were written using a programming language called ZIL (Zork Implementation Language), itself derived directly from MDL, that compiled into a bytecode able to run on a standardized virtual machine called the Z-machine. As the games were text based and used variants of the same Z-machine interpreter, the interpreter had to be ported to new computer architectures only once per architecture, rather than once per game. Each game file included a sophisticated parser which allowed the user to type complex instructions to the game. Unlike earlier works of interactive fiction which only understood commands of the form \'verb noun\', Infocom\'s parser could understand a wider variety of sentences. For instance one might type \"open the large door, then go west\", or \"go to festeron\".
With the Z-machine, Infocom was able to release most of their games for most popular home computers simultaneously: Apple II, Atari 8-bit computers, IBM PC compatibles, Amstrad CPC/PCW (one disc worked on both machines), Commodore 64, Commodore Plus/4, Commodore 128, Kaypro CP/M, TI-99/4A, Macintosh, Atari ST, Amiga, TRS-80, and TRS-80 Color Computer.
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# Infocom
## History
### Foundation and Zork {#foundation_and_zork}
Infocom began as a collaboration between Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) faculty and alumni, some of whom had previously worked a text-based adventure game called *Zork*. Development of *Zork* began in 1977 at the MIT Laboratory for Computer Science, with an initial team including Tim Anderson, Marc Blank, and Dave Lebling, as well as Bruce Daniels. Inspired by *Colossal Cave Adventure*, the developers aspired to improve on the formula with a more robust text parser and more logical puzzles. They did not announce their game while it was in development, but a lack of security on the MIT systems meant that anyone who could access the PDP-10 computer over the ARPANET could see what programs were being run. As a result, a small community of people discovered the new \"Zork\" adventure game and spread word of it under that name. This community interacted with the developers as they created the game, playtesting additions and submitting bug reports.
Infocom was officially founded as a software company on June 22, 1979, with founding members Tim Anderson, Joel Berez, Marc Blank, Mike Broos, Scott Cutler, Stu Galley, Dave Lebling, J. C. R. Licklider, Chris Reeve, and Al Vezza. By the end of the year, the core *Zork* game was complete, and Berez was elected the company\'s president. The studio began seeking a professional publisher with store and distributor connections. After Microsoft passed on the project due to competition with their own *Microsoft Adventure* (1979), Infocom negotiated a publishing agreement with Personal Software, one of the first professional software publishing companies. However, Infocom grew wary of the publisher\'s lack of advertising for *Zork I*, and lack of enthusiasm for additional episodes and games. The developer decided to self-publish their games from that moment forward, buying out Personal Software\'s remaining inventory of *Zork* games.
Following its 1980 release, *Zork I* became a bestseller from 1983 through 1985. By 1986, the game had sold 380,000 copies, with 680,000 sales for the trilogy overall, comprising one-third of Infocom\'s two million game sales. Reviewers hailed *Zork* as the best adventure game to date, with later critics regarding it as one of the greatest games of all time. Historians noted the game as a foundation for the adventure game genre, as well as influencing the MUD and massively multiplayer online role-playing game genres.
### Expansion
Lebling and Blank each authored several more games, and additional game writers (or \"Implementers\") were hired, notably including Steve Meretzky. Other popular and inventive titles included a number of sequels and spinoff games in the *Zork* series, *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy* by Douglas Adams, and *A Mind Forever Voyaging*.
In its first few years of operation, text adventures proved to be a huge revenue stream for the company. Whereas most computer games of the era would achieve initial success and then suffer a significant drop-off in sales, Infocom titles continued to sell for years and years. Employee Tim Anderson said of their situation, \"It was phenomenal -- we had a basement that just printed money.\" By 1983 Infocom was perhaps the dominant computer-game company; for example, all ten of its games were on the *Softsel* top 40 list of best-selling computer games for the week of December 12, 1983, with *Zork* in first place and two others in the top ten.`{{r|maher20130320}}`{=mediawiki} In late 1984, management declined an offer by publisher Simon & Schuster to acquire Infocom for \$28 million, far more than the board of directors\'s valuation of \$10--12 million. In 1993, *Computer Gaming World* described this era as the \"Cambridge Camelot, where the Great Underground Empire was formed\".
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# Infocom
## History
### Reception
Infocom games were popular, *InfoWorld* said, in part because \"in offices all over America (more than anyone realizes) executives and managers are playing games on their computers\".`{{r|mace19840402}}`{=mediawiki} An estimated 25% had a computer game \"hidden somewhere in their drawers\", *Inc.* reported, and they preferred Infocom adventures to arcade games. The company stated that year that 75% of players were over 25 years old and that 80% were men; more women played its games than other companies\', especially the mysteries. Most players enjoyed reading books; in 1987 president Joel Berez stated, \"\[Infocom\'s\] audience tends to be composed of heavy readers. We sell to the minority that does read\".`{{r|ferrell198801}}`{=mediawiki}
A 1996 article in *Next Generation* said Infocom\'s \"games were noted for having more depth than any other adventure games, before or since.\" Three components proved key to Infocom\'s success: marketing strategy, rich storytelling and feelies. Whereas most game developers sold their games mainly in software stores, Infocom also distributed their games via bookstores. Infocom\'s products appealed more to those with expensive computers, such as the Apple Macintosh, IBM PC, and Commodore Amiga. Berez stated that \"there is no noticeable correlation between graphics machines and our penetration. There is a high correlation between the price of the machine and our sales \... people who are putting more money into their machines tend to buy more of our software\". Since their games were text-based, patrons of bookstores were drawn to the Infocom games as they were already interested in reading. Unlike most computer software, Infocom titles were distributed under a no-returns policy, which allowed them to make money from a single game for a longer period of time.
Next, Infocom titles featured strong storytelling and rich descriptions, eschewing the inherent restrictions of graphic displays and allowing users to use their own imaginations for the lavish and exotic locations the games described. Infocom\'s puzzles were unique in that they were usually tightly integrated into the storyline, and rarely did gamers feel like they were being made to jump through one arbitrary hoop after another, as was the case in many of the competitors\' games. The puzzles were generally logical but also required close attention to the clues and hints given in the story, causing many gamers to keep copious notes as they went along.
Sometimes, though, Infocom threw in puzzles just for the humor of it---if the user never ran into these, they could still finish the game. But discovering these early Easter Eggs was satisfying for some fans of the games. For example, one popular Easter egg was in the *Enchanter* game, which involves collecting magic spells to use in accomplishing the quest. One of these is a summoning spell, which the player needs to use to summon certain characters at different parts of the game. At one point the game mentions the \"Implementers\" who were responsible for creating the land of Zork. If the player tries to summon the Implementers, the game produces a vision of Dave Lebling and Marc Blank at their computers, surprised at this \"bug\" in the game and working feverishly to fix it.
Third, the inclusion of \"feelies\"---imaginative props and extras tied to the game\'s theme---provided copy protection against copyright infringement.`{{r|dyer19840506}}`{=mediawiki} Some games were unsolvable without the extra content provided with the boxed game. And because of the cleverness and uniqueness of the feelies, users rarely felt like they were an intrusion or inconvenience, as was the case with most of the other copy-protection schemes of the time. Feelies also provided the player with a physical aspect to the gameplay of their text adventures, giving another dimension of strategy to what would other-wise just be a text parser.
Although Infocom started out with *Zork*, and although the *Zork* world was the centerpiece of their product line throughout the *Zork* and *Enchanter* series, the company quickly branched out into a wide variety of story lines: fantasy, science-fiction, mystery, horror, historical adventure, children\'s stories, and others that defied easy categorization. In an attempt to reach out to female customers, Infocom also produced *Plundered Hearts*, which cast the gamer in the role of the heroine of a swashbuckling adventure on the high seas, and which required the heroine to use more feminine tactics to win the game, since hacking-and-slashing was not a very ladylike way to behave. Infocom also came out with *Leather Goddesses of Phobos* in 1986, which featured \"tame\", \"suggestive\", and \"lewd\" playing modes. It included among its \"feelies\" a \"scratch-and-sniff\" card with six odors that corresponded to cues given to the player during the game.
#### Invisiclues
Originally, hints for the game were provided as a \"pay-per-hint\" service created by Mike Dornbrook, called the Zork Users Group (ZUG). Dornbrook also started Infocom\'s customer newsletter, called *The New Zork Times*, to discuss game hints and preview and showcase new products.
The pay-per-hint service eventually led to the development of InvisiClues: books with hints, maps, clues, and solutions for puzzles in the games. The answers to the puzzles were printed in invisible ink that only became visible when rubbed with a special marker that was provided with each book. Usually, two or more answers were given for each question that a gamer might have. The first answer would provide a subtle hint, the second a less subtle hint, and so forth until the last one gave an explicit walkthrough. Gamers could thus reveal only the hints that they needed to have to play the game. To prevent the mere questions (printed in normal ink) from giving away too much information about the game, a certain number of misleading fake questions were included in every InvisiClues book. Answers to these questions would start by giving misleading or impossible to carry out answers, before the final answer revealed that the question was a fake (and usually admonishing the player that revealing random clues from the book would spoil their enjoyment of the game). The InvisiClues books were regularly ranked in near the top of best seller lists for computer books.
In the Solid Gold line of re-releases, InvisiClues were integrated into the game. By typing \"HINT\" twice the player would open up a screen of possible topics where they could then reveal one hint at a time for each puzzle, just like the books.
#### Interactive fiction {#interactive_fiction}
Infocom also released a small number of \"interactive fiction paperbacks\" (gamebooks), which were based on the games (such as *Zork*) and featured the ability to choose a different path through the story. Similar to the *Choose Your Own Adventure* series, every couple of pages the book would give the reader the chance to make a choice, such as which direction they wanted to go or how they wanted to respond to another character. The reader would then choose one of the given answers and turn to the appropriate page. These books, however, never did sell particularly well, and quickly disappeared from the bookshelves.
### *Cornerstone*
Despite their success with computer games, Vezza and other company founders hoped to produce successful business programs like Lotus Development, also founded by people from MIT and located in the same building as Infocom. Lotus released its first product, 1-2-3, in January 1983; within a year it had earned \$53 million, compared to Infocom\'s \$6 million. In 1982 Infocom started putting resources into a new division to produce business products.`{{r|maher20130320}}`{=mediawiki} In 1985 they released a database product, *Cornerstone*, aimed at capturing the then booming database market for small business. Though this application was hailed upon its release for ease of use, it sold only 10,000 copies; not enough to cover the development expenses.
The program failed for a number of reasons. Although it was packaged in a slick hard plastic carrying case and was a very good database for personal and home use, it was originally priced at USD\$495 per copy and used copy-protected disks.`{{Clarify|reason=why are £495 and copy protection negatives|date=September 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Another serious miscalculation was that the program did not include any kind of scripting language, so it was not promoted by any of the database consultants that small businesses typically hired to create and maintain their DB applications. Reviewers were also consistently disappointed that Infocom---noted for the natural language syntax of their games---did not include a natural language query ability, which had been the most anticipated feature for this database application. In a final disappointment, *Cornerstone* was available only for IBM PCs; while *Cornerstone* had been programmed with its own virtual machine for maximum portability, it was not ported to any of the other platforms that Infocom supported for their games, so that feature had become essentially irrelevant. And because *Cornerstone* used this virtual machine for its processing, it suffered from slow, lackluster performance.
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# Infocom
## History
### Changing marketplace {#changing_marketplace}
Infocom\'s games\' sales benefited significantly from the portability offered by running on top of a virtual machine. *InfoWorld* wrote in 1984 that \"the company always sells games for computers you don\'t normally think of as game machines, such as the DEC Rainbow or the Texas Instruments Professional Computer. This is one of the key reasons for the continued success of old titles such as Zork.\" Dornbrook estimated that year that of the 1.8 million home computers in America, one half million homes had Infocom games (\"all, if you count the pirated games\").`{{r|dyer19840506}}`{=mediawiki} Computer companies sent prototypes of new systems to encourage Infocom to port Z-machine to them; the virtual machine supported more than 20 different systems, including orphaned computers for which Infocom games were among the only commercial products. The company produced the only third-party games available for the Macintosh at launch,`{{r|maher20130320}}`{=mediawiki} and Berlyn promised that all 13 of its games would be available for the Atari ST within one month of its release.
The virtual machine significantly slowed *Cornerstone*{{\'}}s execution speed, however. Businesses were moving *en masse* to the IBM PC platform by that time, so portability was no longer a significant differentiator. Infocom had sunk much of the money from games sales into *Cornerstone*; this, in addition to a slump in computer game sales, left the company in a very precarious financial position. By the time Infocom removed the copy-protection and reduced the price to less than \$100, it was too late, and the market had moved on to other database solutions.
By 1982 the market was moving to graphic adventures. Infocom was interested in producing them, that year proposing to Penguin Software that Antonio Antiochia, author of its *Transylvania*, provide artwork. Within Infocom the game designers tended to oppose graphics, while marketing and business employees supported using them for the company to remain competitive. The partnership negotiations failed, in part because of the difficulty of adding graphics to the Z-machine, and Infocom instead began a series of advertisements mocking graphical games as \"graffiti\" compared to the human imagination. The marketing campaign was very successful, and Infocom\'s success led to other companies like Broderbund and Electronic Arts also releasing their own text games.`{{r|dyer19840506}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Infocom
## History
### Activision takeover {#activision_takeover}
After *Cornerstone*\'s failure, Infocom laid off half of its 100 employees, and Activision acquired the company on June 13, 1986, for \$7.5 million. The merger was pushed by Activision\'s CEO Jim Levy, who was a fan of Infocom games and felt their two companies were in similar situations. Berez stated that although the two companies\' headquarters and product lines would remain separate, \"One of the effects of the merger will be for both of us to broaden our horizons\". He said that \"We\'re looking at graphics a lot\", while Activision was reportedly interested in using Infocom\'s parser.
While relations were cordial between the two companies at first, Activision\'s ousting of Levy with new CEO Bruce Davis created problems in the working relationship with Infocom. Davis believed that his company had paid too much for Infocom and initiated a lawsuit against them to recoup some of the cost, along with changing the way Infocom was run. For example:
- Davis required they use Activision\'s packaging plant instead of their own in-house one, raising the cost of each package from \$0.45 to over \$0.90. In addition, the Activision plant made numerous mistakes in packaging, whereas the Infocom one almost never did.
- Infocom had a successful marketing approach that kept its backlist in store inventories for years. Because of this, older titles continued to sell, and their sales rose when the company released newer games. *Zork* especially benefited; its sales rose for years after its initial release in 1980. To Infocom\'s surprise it sold almost 100,000 copies of the game in 1983, and the figure rose by more than 50% in 1984.`{{r|maher20130320}}`{=mediawiki} Activision preferred to market Infocom\'s games the way they marketed their other titles: replacing older titles with newer ones. While this made sense for the graphically intensive games that made up the rest of Activision\'s catalog, since Infocom games were text based, it didn\'t make sense -- the newer games didn\'t have improved *text*. This marketing approach cut off potential revenue for numerous Infocom titles that had consistently brought in money for several years.
- Davis required the struggling developer to produce eight titles a year. Infocom had traditionally produced about four games per year with more staff than they had post-merger.
- Davis pushed Infocom to release more graphical games, but the one they did release, *Fooblitzky*, bombed. This was, in part, due to Infocom\'s long-standing rule of maximum portability; a game that could display graphics on a number of different systems couldn\'t take advantage of the strengths of any of them.
- The cost of acquisition was amortized by deducting it from Infocom\'s operating revenue during the next several years.
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# Infocom
## History
### Later years {#later_years}
By 1988, rumors spread of disputes between Activision and Infocom. Infocom employees reportedly believed that Activision gave poorer-quality games to Infocom, such as Tom Snyder Productions\' unsuccessful *Infocomics*. Activision moved Infocom development to California in 1989, and the company was now just a publishing label.`{{r|wilson199111}}`{=mediawiki} Rising costs and falling profits, exacerbated by the lack of new products in 1988 and technical issues with its DOS products, caused Activision to close Infocom in 1989, after which some of the remaining Infocom designers such as Steve Meretzky moved to the company Legend Entertainment, founded by Bob Bates and Mike Verdu, to continue creating games in the Infocom tradition.
Activision itself was struggling in the marketplace following Davis\' promotion to CEO. Activision had rebranded itself as Mediagenic and tried to produce business productivity software, but became significantly in debt. In 1991, Mediagenic was purchased by Bobby Kotick, who put into measures immediately to try to turn the company around, which included returning to its Activision name, and putting to use its past IP properties. This included the Infocom games; Kotick recognized the value of the branding of *Zork* and other titles. Activision began to sell bundles of the Infocom games that year, packaged as themed collections (usually by genre, such as the Science Fiction collection); in 1991, they published *The Lost Treasures of Infocom*, followed in 1992 by *The Lost Treasures of Infocom II*. These compilations featured nearly every game produced by Infocom before 1988. (*Leather Goddesses of Phobos* was not included in either bundle, but could be ordered via a coupon included with *Lost Treasures II*.) The compilations lacked the \"feelies\" that came with each game, but in some cases included photographs of them. In 1996, the first bundles were followed by *Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom*, a single CD-ROM which contained the works of both collections. This release, however, was missing *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy* and *Shogun* because the licenses from Douglas Adams\' and James Clavell\'s estates had expired. Under Kotick\'s leadership, Activision also developed *Return to Zork*, published under its Infocom label.
Eventually, Activision abandoned the \"Infocom\" name. The brand name was registered by Oliver Klaeffling of Germany in 2007, then was abandoned the following year. The Infocom trademark was then held by Pete Hottelet\'s Omni Consumer Products, who registered the name around the same time as Klaeffling in 2007. As of March 2017, the trademark is owned by infocom.xyz, according to Bob Bates.
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# Infocom
## Titles and authors {#titles_and_authors}
### Interactive fiction {#interactive_fiction_1}
- The *Zork* series:
- The original Zork Trilogy (Marc Blank & Dave Lebling):
- *Zork I: The Great Underground Empire* (1980)
- *Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz* (1981)
- *Zork III: The Dungeon Master* (1982)
- The *Enchanter* Trilogy:
- *Enchanter* (1983, Marc Blank and Dave Lebling)
- *Sorcerer* (1984, Steve Meretzky)
- *Spellbreaker* (1985, Dave Lebling)
- *Mini Zork I: The Great Underground Empire* (1987, Marc Blank & Dave Lebling, free cut-down, single load tape version of game, covermounted on UK\'s *ZZAP!64* magazine)
- *Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor* (1987, Brian Moriarty)
- *Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz* (1988, Steve Meretzky)
- *Zork: The Undiscovered Underground* (1997, Michael Berlyn and Marc Blank)
- The *Planetfall* series:
- *Planetfall* (1983, Steve Meretzky)
- *Stationfall* (1987, Steve Meretzky)
- *Deadline* (1982, Marc Blank)
- *Starcross* (1982, Dave Lebling)
- *Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare* (1983, Michael Berlyn)
- *The Witness* (1983, Stu Galley)
- *Infidel* (1983, Michael Berlyn)
- *Seastalker* (1984, Stu Galley & Jim Lawrence)
- *Cutthroats* (1984, Michael Berlyn & Jerry Wolper)
- *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy* (1984, Steve Meretzky & Douglas Adams)
- *Suspect* (1984, Dave Lebling)
- *A Mind Forever Voyaging* (1985, Steve Meretzky)
- *Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams* (1985, Brian Moriarty)
- *Ballyhoo* (1986, Jeff O\'Neill)
- *Hollywood Hijinx* (1986, \"Hollywood\" Dave Anderson)
- *Leather Goddesses of Phobos* (1986, Steve Meretzky)
- *Moonmist* (1986, Stu Galley & Jim Lawrence)
- *Trinity* (1986, Brian Moriarty)
- *Border Zone* (1987, Marc Blank)
- *Bureaucracy* (1987, Infocom & Douglas Adams)
- *The Lurking Horror* (1987, Dave Lebling)
- *Nord and Bert Couldn\'t Make Head or Tail of It* (1987, Jeff O\'Neill)
- *Plundered Hearts* (1987, Amy Briggs)
- *Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels* (1988, Bob Bates)
- *Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur* (1989, Bob Bates)
- *James Clavell\'s Shogun* (1989, Dave Lebling)
- *Journey* (1989, Marc Blank)
### Other titles {#other_titles}
- Graphic adventures
- *Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X!* (1992, Steve Meretzky)
- *Return to Zork* (1993, Doug Barnett)
- *Zork Nemesis: The Forbidden Lands* (1996, developed Zombie LLC)
- *Zork Grand Inquisitor* (1997, developed by Activision)
- BattleTech games
- *BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk\'s Inception* (1988, developed by Westwood Studios)
- *BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk\'s Revenge* (1991, developed by Westwood Studios)
- Other games
- *Fooblitzky* (1985, Marc Blank, Mike Berlyn, Poh Lim & Paula Maxwell)
- *Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth* (1988, Scott Schmitz, Ken Updike & Amy Briggs)
- *Mines of Titan* (1988, Louis Castle & Brett Sperry)
- *Tombs & Treasure* (1989, developed by Nihon Falcom)
- *Circuit\'s Edge* (1989, developed by Westwood Studios)
- Infocomics
- *Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen* (1988, Steve Meretzky)
- *Gamma Force in Pit of a Thousand Screams* (1988, Amy Briggs)
- *ZorkQuest: Assault on Egreth Castle* (1988, Elizabeth Langosy)
- *ZorkQuest II: The Crystal of Doom* (1988, Elizabeth Langosy)
### Collections
- *The Zork Trilogy* (1986; contained *Zork I*, *Zork II* & *Zork III*)
- *The Enchanter Trilogy* (1986; contained *Enchanter*, *Sorcerer* & *Spellbreaker*)
- *The Lost Treasures of Infocom* (1991; contained 20 of Infocom\'s interactive fiction games)
- *The Lost Treasures of Infocom II* (1992; contained 11 interactive fiction games)
- *The Zork Anthology* (1994; contained *Zork I*, *Zork II*, *Zork III*, *Beyond Zork* & *Zork Zero*, plus Planetfall)
- *Five Interactive Fiction Collections* (1995; Adventure, Comedy, Fantasy, Mystery, and Sci-Fi)
- *Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom* (1996; contained 33 Infocom games plus six winners of the 1995 Interactive Fiction Competition, which was not affiliated with Infocom)
- *Zork Special Edition* (1997; contained *Zork I*, *Zork II*, *Zork III*, *Beyond Zork*, *Zork Zero*, *Return to Zork*, *Zork: Nemesis*, and *Planetfall*)
- *Zork Classics: Interactive Fiction* (2000)
- *The Zork Legacy Collection* (2002; contained *The Zork Anthology*, *Return to Zork*, and *Zork Nemesis*)
- *The Zork Adventure Trilogy* (contained *Return to Zork*, *Zork Nemesis*, and *Zork Grand Inquisitor*)
- *Lost Treasures of Infocom* (2012; In-App purchases for most of the titles)
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# Infocom
## Legacy
With the exception of *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy* and *Shogun*, the copyrights to the Infocom games are believed to be still held by Activision. *Dungeon*, the mainframe precursor to the commercial Zork trilogy, is believed to be free for non-commercial use. but prohibited for commercial use. It was this copy that the popular Fortran mainframe version was based on. The C version was based on the Fortran version. and is available from The Interactive Fiction Archive as original FORTRAN source code, a Z-machine story file and as various native source ports. Many Infocom titles can be downloaded via the Internet, but only in violation of the copyright. Activision did at one point release the original trilogy for free-of-charge download as a promotion but prohibited redistribution and have since discontinued this. There are currently at least four Infocom sampler and demos available from the IF Archive as Z-machine story files which require a Z-machine interpreter to play. Interpreters are available for most computer platforms, the most widely used being the Frotz, Zip, and Nitfol interpreters.
Five games (*Zork I*, *Planetfall*, *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy*, *Wishbringer* and *Leather Goddesses of Phobos*) were re-released in Solid Gold format. The Solid Gold versions of those games include a built-in InvisiClues hint system.
In 2012, Activision released *Lost Treasures of Infocom* for iOS devices. In-app purchases provide access for 27 of the titles. It also lacks *Shogun* and *The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy* as well as *Beyond Zork*, *Zork Zero* and *Nord and Bert*.
Efforts have been made to make the Infocom games source code available for preservation. In 2008, Jason Scott, a video game preservationist contributing towards the Internet Archive, received the so-called \"Infocom Drive\", a large archive of the entire contents of Infocom\'s main server made during the last few days before the company was relocated to California; besides source code for all of Infocom\'s games (including unreleased ones), it also contained the software manuals, design documents and other essential content alongside Infocom\'s business documentation. Scott later published all of the source files in their original Z-engine format to GitHub in 2019.
*Zork* made a cameo appearance as an easter egg in Activision and Treyarch\'s *Call of Duty: Black Ops*. It can be accessed from the main menu
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# IEEE 802.3
**IEEE 802.3** is a working group and a collection of standards defining the physical layer and data link layer\'s media access control (MAC) of wired Ethernet. The standards are produced by the working group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). This set of standards generally applies to local area networks (LANs) and has some wide area network (WAN) applications. Physical connections are made between network nodes and, usually, various network infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper cables or optical fiber.
802.3 standards support the IEEE 802.1 network architecture.
802.3 also defines a LAN access method using carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
## Communication standards {#communication_standards}
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ethernet standard | data-sort-type=\"number\" \| IEEE approval date | Description |
+===================+=================================================+============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| Experimental\ | 1973 | 2.94 Mbit/s (367 kB/s) over a coaxial cable (coax) bus. A single-octet node address is unique only to an individual network. |
| Ethernet | | |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ethernet I\ | 1980-09 | 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thick coax. Frames have a Type field. This frame format is used on all forms of Ethernet by protocols in the Internet protocol suite. Six-octet MAC address. |
| (DIX v1.0) | | |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ethernet II\ | 1982-11 | |
| (DIX v2.0) | | |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-1985 | 1983-06 | 10BASE5 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thick coax. First edition of the IEEE 802.3 standard. Approved by IEEE in 1983, approved by ANSI in 1984, and published in 1985. Same as Ethernet II (above) except Type field is replaced by Length, and an 802.2 LLC header follows the 802.3 header. Based on the CSMA/CD media access method. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3a | 1985-11 | 10BASE2 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin coax (a.k.a. *thinnet* or *cheapernet*) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3b | 1985-09 | 10BROAD36 |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3c | 1985-12 | 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) repeater specifications |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3d | 1987-12 | Fiber-optic inter-repeater link |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3e | 1987-06 | 1BASE5 or StarLAN, first use of (voice-grade) twisted pair cabling, 1 Mbit/s, maximum reach of 250 to 500 m |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3h | 1990-09 | 10 Mbit/s layer management, DTEs |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3i | 1990-09 | 10BASE-T 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over twisted pair |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3j | 1992-09 | 10BASE-F 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over optical fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3k | 1992-09 | 10 Mbit/s layer management, repeaters |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3m | 1995-09 | Maintenance |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3n | 1995-09 | Maintenance |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3q | 1993-06 | GDMO (ISO/IEC 10165-4) format for Layer Managed Objects |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3r | 1996-07 | 10BASE5 Medium Attachment Unit PICS |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3s | 1995-09 | Maintenance |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3t | 1995-06 | 120 Ω informative annex for 10BASE-T |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3u | 1995-06 | 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4, 100BASE-FX Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) with autonegotiation |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3v | 1995-12 | 150 Ω informative annex for 10BASE-T |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3x | 1997-03 | Full duplex and flow control; also incorporates DIX framing, so there\'s no longer a DIX/802.3 split |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3y | 1997-03 | 100BASE-T2 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) over voice-grade twisted pair |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3z | 1998-06 | 1000BASE-X 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s) Ethernet over optical fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-1998 | 1998-06 | (802.3aa) A revision of the base standard incorporating earlier amendments and errata |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ab | 1999-06 | 1000BASE-T 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s) Ethernet over twisted pair |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ac | 1998-09 | Max frame size extended to 1522 bytes (to allow \"Q-tag\"). The Q-tag includes 802.1Q VLAN information and 802.1p priority information. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ad | 2000-03 | Link aggregation for parallel links, since moved to IEEE 802.1AX |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2002 | 2002-01 | (802.3ag) A revision of the base standard incorporating the three prior amendments and errata |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ae | 2002-06 | 10 Gigabit Ethernet over fiber: 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR, 10GBASE-ER, 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, 10GBASE-EW |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3af | 2003-06 | Power over Ethernet (15.4 W) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ah | 2004-06 | Ethernet in the First Mile |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ak | 2004-02 | 10GBASE-CX4 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over twinaxial cables |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2005 | 2005-06 | (802.3am) A revision of the base standard incorporating the four prior amendments and errata |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3an | 2006-06 | 10GBASE-T 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair (UTP) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ap | 2007-03 | Backplane Ethernet (1 and 10 Gbit/s (125 and 1,250 MB/s) over printed circuit boards) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3aq | 2006-09 | 10GBASE-LRM 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over multimode fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| P802.3ar | canceled | Congestion management (withdrawn) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3as | 2006-09 | Frame expansion |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3at | 2009-09 | Power over Ethernet enhancements (25.5 W) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3au | 2006-06 | Isolation requirements for Power over Ethernet (802.3-2005/Cor 1) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3av | 2009-09 | 10 Gbit/s EPON |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3aw | 2007-06 | Fixed an equation in the publication of 10GBASE-T (released as 802.3-2005/Cor 2) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ax | 2008-11 | Link aggregation -- moved to and approved as 802.1AX |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2008 | 2008-12 | (802.3ay) A revision of the base standard incorporating the 802.3an/ap/aq/as amendments, two corrigenda and errata |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3az | 2010-09 | Energy-Efficient Ethernet |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ba | 2010-06 | 40 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Ethernet. 40 Gbit/s over a 1 m backplane, 10 m Cu cable assembly (4×25 Gbit/s or 10×10 Gbit/s lanes) and 100 m of multi-mode optical fiber, and 100 Gbit/s over 10 m of Cu cable assembly, 100 m of multi-mode optical fiber and 40 km of single-mode optical fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2008/Cor 1 | 2009-12 | (802.3bb) Increase Pause Reaction Delay timings which are insufficient for 10 Gbit/s (Working group name was *802.3bb*.) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bc | 2009-09 | Move and update Ethernet-related TLVs (type, length, values), previously specified in Annex F of IEEE 802.1AB (LLDP) to 802.3 |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bd | 2011-06 | Priority-based Flow Control. An amendment by the IEEE 802.1 Data Center Bridging Task Group (802.1Qbb) to develop an amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 to add a MAC Control Frame to support IEEE 802.1Qbb Priority-based Flow Control. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3.1 | 2011-05 | (802.3be) MIB definitions for Ethernet. It consolidates the Ethernet-related MIBs present in Annex 30A&B, various IETF RFCs, and 802.1AB annex F into one master document with a machine-readable extract. (Working group name was *P802.3be*.) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bf | 2011-05 | Provides an accurate indication of the transmission and reception initiation times of certain packets as required to support IEEE P802.1AS |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bg | 2011-03 | Provide a 40 Gbit/s PMD which is optically compatible with existing carrier SMF 40 Gbit/s client interfaces (OTU3/STM-256/OC-768/40G POS). |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2012 | 2012-08 | (802.3bh) A revision of the base standard incorporating the 802.3at/av/az/ba/bc/bd/bf/bg amendments, corrigenda and errata. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bj | 2014-06 | Defines a four-lane 100 Gbit/s backplane PHY for operation over links consistent with copper traces on \"improved FR-4\" (as defined by IEEE P802.3ap or better materials to be defined by the Task Force) with lengths up to at least 1 m and a four-lane 100 Gbit/s PHY for operation over links consistent with copper twinaxial cables with lengths up to at least 5 m |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bk | 2013-08 | This amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 defines the physical-layer specifications and management parameters for EPON operation on point-to-multipoint passive optical networks supporting extended power budget classes of PX30, PX40, PRX40, and PR40 PMDs. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bm | 2015-02 | 100G/40G Ethernet for optical fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bn | 2016-09 | 10G-EPON and 10GPASS-XR, passive optical networks over coax |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bp | 2016-06 | 1000BASE-T1 -- Gigabit Ethernet over a single twisted pair for automotive & industrial environments |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bq | 2016-06 | 25GBASE-T/40GBASE-T Ethernet for four-pair balanced--twisted-pair cabling with two connectors over 30 m distances |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3br | 2016-06 | Specification and Management Parameters for Interspersing Express Traffic |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bs | 2017-12 | 200GbE (200 Gbit/s) over single-mode fiber and 400GbE (400 Gbit/s) over optical physical media |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bt | 2018-09 | Third generation Power over Ethernet with up to 100 W using four pairs in balanced--twisted-pair cabling (*4PPoE*), including 10GBASE-T, lower standby power and specific enhancements to support IoT applications (e.g. lighting, sensors, building automation). |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bu | 2016-12 | Power over Data Lines (PoDL) for single twisted pair Ethernet (100BASE-T1) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bv | 2017-02 | Gigabit Ethernet over plastic optical fiber (POF) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bw | 2015-10 | 100BASE-T1`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}100 Mbit/s Ethernet over a single twisted pair for automotive applications |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2015 | 2015-09 | 802.3bx`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}A new consolidated revision of the 802.3 standard including amendments 802.3bk/bj/bm |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3by | 2016-06 | Optical fiber, twinax and backplane 25 Gigabit Ethernet |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3bz | 2016-09 | 2.5GBASE-T and 5GBASE-T`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}2.5 Gigabit/s and 5 Gigabit/s Ethernet over Cat-5e/Cat-6 twisted-pair cable |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ca | 2020-06 | 25G-EPON and 50G-EPON`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}Downstream/Upstream rates of 25/10, 25/25, 50/10, 50/25, 50/50 Gbit/s over Ethernet Passive Optical Networks |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cb | 2018-09 | 2.5 Gbit/s and 5 Gbit/s Operation over Backplane |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cc | 2017-12 | 25 Gbit/s over Single-Mode Fiber |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cd | 2018-12 | Media Access Control Parameters for 50 Gbit/s and Physical Layers and Management Parameters for 50, 100, and 200 Gbit/s Operation |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ce | 2017-03 | Multilane Timestamping |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3.2-2019 | 2019-03 | 802.3cf, YANG Data Model Definitions |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cg | 2019-11 | 10BASE-T1L and 10BASE-T1S`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}10 Mbit/s Single--twisted-pair Ethernet |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ch | 2020-06 | MultiGigBASE-T1 Automotive Ethernet (2.5, 5, 10 Gbit/s) over 15 m with optional PoDL |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2018 | 2018-08 | 802.3cj`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}802.3-2015 maintenance, incorporating recent amendments bn/bp/bq/br/bs/bu/bv/bw/by/bz/cc/ce |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ck | 2022-09 | 100, 200, and 400 Gbit/s Ethernet using 100 Gbit/s lanes, chaired by Beth Kochuparambil |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cm | 2020-01 | 400 Gbit/s over multimode fiber (four and eight pairs, 100 m) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cn | 2019-11 | 50 Gbit/s (40 km), 100 Gbit/s (80 km), 200 Gbit/s (four λ, 40 km), and 400 Gbit/s (eight λ, 40 km and single λ, 80 km over DWDM) over single-mode fiber and DWDM |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cp | 2021-06 | 10/25/50 Gbit/s single-strand optical access with at least 10/20/40 km reach, chaired by Frank Effenberger |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cq | 2020-01 | Power over Ethernet over two pairs (maintenance) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cr | 2021-02 | Isolation (maintenance) |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cs | 2022-09 | \"Super-PON\"`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}Increased-reach, 10 Gbit/s optical access with at least 50 km reach and 1:64 split ratio per wavelength pair, 16 wavelength pairs, chaired by Claudio DeSanti |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3ct | 2021-06 | 100 Gbit/s over DWDM systems (80 km reach using coherent modulation), chaired by John D\'Ambrosia |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cu | 2021-02 | 100 Gbit/s and 400 Gbit/s over SMF using 100 Gbit/s lanes |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cv | 2021-05 | Power over Ethernet maintenance, chaired by Chad Jones |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cw | canceled | 400 Gbit/s over DWDM Systems`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}chaired by John D\'Ambrosia, withdrawn |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cx | 2023-03 | Improved PTP time-stamping accuracy, chaired by Steve Gorshe |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cy | 2023-06 | MultiGigBASE-T1 25 Gbit/s electrical automotive Ethernet, chaired by Steve Carlson |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3cz | 2023-03 | Multi-gigabit optical automotive Ethernet, chaired by Bob Grow |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3da | (TBD) | 10BASE-T1S 10 Mb/s operation over single--balanced-pair multi-drop segments, extends length up to 50 m`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}scheduled for mid 2025, chaired by Chad Jones |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3db | 2022-09 | 100 Gbit/s, 200 Gbit/s, and 400 Gbit/s operation over optical fiber using 100 Gbit/s signaling, chaired by Robert Lingle |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3-2022 | 2022-07 | 802.3dc`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}802.3-2018 maintenance, incorporating recent amendments bt/ca/cb/cd/cg/ch/cm/cn/cp/cq/cr/ct/cu/cv, chaired by Adam Healey |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dd | 2022-06 | Power over Data Lines of single-pair Ethernet maintenance, chaired by George Zimmerman |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3de | 2022-09 | Time synchronization for point-to-point single-pair Ethernet, chaired by George Zimmerman |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3df | 2024-02 | 200 Gb/s, 400 Gb/s and 800 Gb/s using 100 Gbit/s lanes, chaired by John D'Ambrosia |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dg | (TBD) | 100BASE-T1L (100 Mbps over a single pair with extended length to 500 m)`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}scheduled for mid 2025, chaired by George Zimmerman |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dh | canceled | Multi-gigabit-per-second automotive Ethernet over plastic optical fiber, chaired by Yuji Watanabe |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dj | (TBD) | 200 Gb/s, 400 Gb/s, 800 Gb/s and 1.6 Tbit/s using 200 Gbit/s lanes`{{dash}}`{=mediawiki}scheduled for spring 2026, chaired by John D\'Ambrosia. UALink is based on its PHY. |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dk | (TBD) | Greater than 50 Gbit/s bidirectional optical access, chaired by Yuanqiu Luo |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dm | (TBD) | Asymmetrical Electrical Automotive Ethernet, chaired by Jon Lewis |
+-------------------+-------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 802.3dn | 2024-09 | 802
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# Integer (computer science)
In computer science, an **integer** is a datum of **integral data type**, a data type that represents some range of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware nearly always provides a way to represent a processor register or memory address as an integer.
## Value and representation {#value_and_representation}
The *value* of an item with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to. Integral types may be *unsigned* (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or *signed* (capable of representing negative integers as well).
An integer value is typically specified in the source code of a program as a sequence of digits optionally prefixed with + or −. Some programming languages allow other notations, such as hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8). Some programming languages also permit digit group separators.
The *internal representation* of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer\'s memory. Unlike mathematical integers, a typical datum in a computer has some minimal and maximum possible value.
The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of bits, using the binary numeral system. The order of the memory bytes storing the bits varies; see endianness. The *width*, *precision*, or *bitness* of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation. An integral type with *n* bits can encode 2^*n*^ numbers; for example an unsigned type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through `{{nowrap|2<sup>''n''</sup> − 1}}`{=mediawiki}. Other encodings of integer values to bit patterns are sometimes used, for example binary-coded decimal or Gray code, or as printed character codes such as ASCII.
There are four well-known ways to represent signed numbers in a binary computing system. The most common is two\'s complement, which allows a signed integral type with *n* bits to represent numbers from `{{nowrap|−2<sup>(''n''−1)</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} through `{{nowrap|2<sup>(''n''−1)</sup> − 1}}`{=mediawiki}. Two\'s complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect one-to-one correspondence between representations and values (in particular, no separate +0 and −0), and because addition, subtraction and multiplication do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types. Other possibilities include offset binary, sign-magnitude, and ones\' complement.
Some computer languages define integer sizes in a machine-independent way; others have varying definitions depending on the underlying processor word size. Not all language implementations define variables of all integer sizes, and defined sizes may not even be distinct in a particular implementation. An integer in one programming language may be a different size in a different language, on a different processor, or in an execution context of different bitness; see `{{Section link||Words}}`{=mediawiki}.
Some older computer architectures used decimal representations of integers, stored in binary-coded decimal (BCD) or other format. These values generally require data sizes of 4 bits per decimal digit (sometimes called a nibble), usually with additional bits for a sign. Many modern CPUs provide limited support for decimal integers as an extended datatype, providing instructions for converting such values to and from binary values. Depending on the architecture, decimal integers may have fixed sizes (e.g., 7 decimal digits plus a sign fit into a 32-bit word), or may be variable-length (up to some maximum digit size), typically occupying two digits per byte (octet).
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# Integer (computer science)
## Common integral data types {#common_integral_data_types}
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Bits | Name | Range (assuming two\'s complement for signed) | Decimal digits | Uses | Implementations |
+=======+=====================================================================================+=================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+=========================================+====================================================================================================+==================================================================================+
| C/C++ | C# | Pascal and Delphi | Java | SQL | FORTRAN |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 4 | nibble, semioctet | *Signed:* From −8 to 7, from −(2^3^) to 2^3^ − 1 | {{#expr:3\*ln2/ln10 round 2}} | Binary-coded decimal, single decimal digit `{{shy|repre|sen|ta|tion}}`{=mediawiki} | --- |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to 15, which equals 2^4^ − 1 | {{#expr: 4 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | | |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 8 | byte, octet, i8, u8 | *Signed:* From −128 to 127, from −(2^7^) to 2^7^ − 1 | {{#expr: 7 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | ASCII characters, code units in the UTF-8 character encoding | , `{{mono|signed char}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to 255, which equals 2^8^ − 1 | {{#expr: 8 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | | , `{{mono|unsigned char}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 16 | halfword, word, short, i16, u16 | *Signed:* From −32,768 to 32,767, from −(2^15^) to 2^15^ − 1 | {{#expr: 15 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | UCS-2 characters, code units in the UTF-16 character encoding | , `{{mono|short}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{mono|int}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to 65,535, which equals 2^16^ − 1 | {{#expr:16 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | | , `{{mono|unsigned int}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 32 | word, long, doubleword, longword, int, i32, u32 | *Signed:* From −2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647, from −(2^31^) to 2^31^ − 1 | {{#expr: 31 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | UTF-32 characters, true color with alpha, FourCC, pointers in 32-bit computing | , `{{mono|int}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{mono|long}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to 4,294,967,295, which equals 2^32^ − 1 | {{#expr: 32 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | | , `{{mono|unsigned int}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{mono|unsigned long}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 64 | word, doubleword, longword, long, long long, quad, quadword, qword, int64, i64, u64 | *Signed:* From `{{tooltip|−(2<sup>63</sup>)|−9,223,372,036,854,775,808}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{tooltip|2<sup>63</sup> − 1|9,223,372,036,854,775,807}}`{=mediawiki} | {{#expr: 63 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | Time (e.g. `{{shy|milli|seconds}}`{=mediawiki} since the Unix epoch), pointers in 64-bit computing | , `{{mono|long}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{mono|long long}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to `{{tooltip|2<sup>64</sup> − 1|18,446,744,073,709,551,615}}`{=mediawiki} | {{#expr: 64 \* ln(2) / ln(10) round 2}} | | , `{{mono|unsigned long long}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 128 | octaword, double quadword, i128, u128 | *Signed:* From `{{tooltip|−(2<sup>127</sup>)|−170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{tooltip|2<sup>127</sup> − 1|170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727}}`{=mediawiki} | {{#expr:127\*ln2/ln10 round 2}} | Complex scientific `{{shy|cal|cula|tions}}`{=mediawiki}, IPv6 addresses, GUIDs | Only available as non-standard or compiler-specific extensions |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* From 0 to `{{tooltip|2<sup>128</sup> − 1|340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,455}}`{=mediawiki} | {{#expr:128\*ln2/ln10 round 2}} | | |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| *n* | *n*-bit integer\ | *Signed:* −(2^*n*−1^) to (2^*n*−1^ − 1) | (*n* − 1) log~10~ 2 | | C23: `{{mono|_BitInt(n)}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{mono|signed _BitInt(n)}}`{=mediawiki} |
| | (general case) | | | | |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | *Unsigned:* 0 to (2^*n*^ − 1) | *n* log~10~ 2 | | C23: `{{mono|unsigned _BitInt(n)}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
Different CPUs support different integral data types. Typically, hardware will support both signed and unsigned types, but only a small, fixed set of widths.
The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors. High-level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a \'double width\' integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type. Many languages also have *bit-field* types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and *range* types (that can represent only the integers in a specified range).
Some languages, such as Lisp, Smalltalk, REXX, Haskell, Python, and Raku, support *arbitrary precision* integers (also known as *infinite precision integers* or *bignums*). Other languages that do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java\'s `{{mono|BigInteger}}`{=mediawiki} class or Perl\'s \"`{{mono|bigint}}`{=mediawiki}\" package. These use as much of the computer\'s memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they, too, can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large numbers; for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to 2466 decimal digits long.
A Boolean type is a type that can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with *false* and *true* respectively. This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access.
A four-bit quantity is known as a *nibble* (when eating, being smaller than a *bite*) or *nybble* (being a pun on the form of the word *byte*). One nibble corresponds to one digit in hexadecimal and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal.
### Bytes and octets {#bytes_and_octets}
The term *byte* initially meant \'the smallest addressable unit of memory\'. In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used. There have also been computers that could address individual bits (\'bit-addressed machine\'), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities (\'word-addressed machine\'). The term *byte* was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines.
The term *octet* always refers to an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in the field of computer networking, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate.
In modern usage *byte* almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; thus *byte* has come to be synonymous with *octet*.
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# Integer (computer science)
## Common integral data types {#common_integral_data_types}
### Words
The term \'word\' is used for a small group of bits that are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular architecture. The size of a word is thus CPU-specific. Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 40-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a *word* is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from *word*, such as *longword*, *doubleword*, *quadword*, and *halfword*, also vary with the CPU and OS.
Practically all new desktop processors are capable of using 64-bit words, though embedded processors with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common. The 36-bit word length was common in the early days of computers.
One important cause of non-portability of software is the incorrect assumption that all computers have the same word size as the computer used by the programmer. For example, if a programmer using the C language incorrectly declares as `{{mono|int}}`{=mediawiki} a variable that will be used to store values greater than 2^15^−1, the program will fail on computers with 16-bit integers. That variable should have been declared as `{{mono|long}}`{=mediawiki}, which has at least 32 bits on any computer. Programmers may also incorrectly assume that a pointer can be converted to an integer without loss of information, which may work on (some) 32-bit computers, but fail on 64-bit computers with 64-bit pointers and 32-bit integers. This issue is resolved by C99 in stdint.h in the form of `{{code|intptr_t}}`{=mediawiki}.
The *bitness* of a program may refer to the word size (or bitness) of the processor on which it runs, or it may refer to the width of a memory address or pointer, which can differ between execution modes or contexts. For example, 64-bit versions of Microsoft Windows support existing 32-bit binaries, and programs compiled for Linux\'s x32 ABI run in 64-bit mode yet use 32-bit memory addresses.
### Standard integer {#standard_integer}
The standard integer size is platform-dependent.
In C, it is denoted by `{{mono|int}}`{=mediawiki} and required to be at least 16 bits. Windows and Unix systems have 32-bit `{{mono|int}}`{=mediawiki}s on both 32-bit and 64-bit architectures.
### Short integer {#short_integer}
A *short integer* can represent a whole number that may take less storage, while having a smaller range, compared with a standard integer on the same machine.
In C, it is denoted by `{{mono|short}}`{=mediawiki}. It is required to be at least 16 bits, and is often smaller than a standard integer, but this is not required. A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(2^15^−1) and 2^15^−1, but it may not assume that the range is not larger. In Java, a `{{mono|short}}`{=mediawiki} is *always* a 16-bit integer. In the Windows API, the datatype `{{mono|SHORT}}`{=mediawiki} is defined as a 16-bit signed integer on all machines.
Programming language Data type name Signedness Size in bytes Minimum value Maximum value
---------------------- ---------------- ------------ --------------- --------------- ---------------
C and C++ signed 2 −32,767 +32,767
unsigned 2 0 65,535
C# signed 2 −32,768 +32,767
unsigned 2 0 65,535
Java signed 2 −32,768 +32,767
SQL signed 2 −32,768 +32,767
: Common short integer sizes
### Long integer {#long_integer}
A *long integer* can represent a whole integer whose range is greater than or equal to that of a standard integer on the same machine.
In C, it is denoted by `{{mono|long}}`{=mediawiki}. It is required to be at least 32 bits, and may or may not be larger than a standard integer. A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(2^31^−1) and 2^31^−1, but it may not assume that the range is not larger. `{{Table alignment}}`{=mediawiki}
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Programming language | Approval Type | Platforms | Data type name | Storage in bytes | Signed range | Unsigned range |
+======================+================================+===============================+=================================+==============================================+==============+============================================+
| C ISO/ANSI C99 | International Standard | Unix, 16/32-bit systems\ | | 4\ | | \ |
| | | Windows, 16/32/64-bit systems | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment 4) | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment) |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| C ISO/ANSI C99 | International Standard | Unix,\ | | 8\ | | |
| | | 64-bit systems | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment 4) | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| C++ ISO/ANSI | International Standard | Unix, Windows,\ | | 4 \ | \ | \ |
| | | 16/32-bit system | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment 4) | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment) |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| C++/CLI | International Standard\ | Unix, Windows,\ | | 4 \ | \ | \ |
| | ECMA-372 | 16/32-bit systems | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment 4) | | (minimum require`{{shy}}`{=mediawiki}ment) |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| VB | Company Standard | Windows | | 4 | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| VBA | Company Standard | Windows, Mac OS X | | 4 | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| SQL Server | Company Standard | Windows | | 8 | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| C#/ VB.NET | ECMA International Standard | Microsoft .NET | or `{{mono|Int64}}`{=mediawiki} | 8 | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Java | International/Company Standard | Java platform | | 8 | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
| Pascal | ? | Windows, UNIX | | 8 | | (Qword type) |
+----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------+----------------------------------------------+--------------+--------------------------------------------+
: Common long integer sizes
### Long long {#long_long}
In the C99 version of the C programming language and the C++11 version of C++, a `long long` type is supported that has double the minimum capacity of the standard `long`. This type is not supported by compilers that require C code to be compliant with the previous C++ standard, C++03, because the `{{mono|long long}}`{=mediawiki} type did not exist in C++03. For an ANSI/ISO compliant compiler, the minimum requirements for the specified ranges, that is, −(2^63^−1) to 2^63^−1 for signed and 0 to 2^64^−1 for unsigned, must be fulfilled; however, extending this range is permitted. This can be an issue when exchanging code and data between platforms, or doing direct hardware access. Thus, there are several sets of headers providing platform independent exact width types. The C standard library provides *stdint.h*; this was introduced in C99 and C++11.
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# Integer (computer science)
## Syntax
Integer literals can be written as regular Arabic numerals, consisting of a sequence of digits and with negation indicated by a minus sign before the value. However, most programming languages disallow use of commas or spaces for digit grouping. Examples of integer literals are:
- `42`
- `10000`
- `-233000`
There are several alternate methods for writing integer literals in many programming languages:
- Many programming languages, especially those influenced by C, prefix an integer literal with `0X` or `0x` to represent a hexadecimal value, e.g. `0xDEADBEEF`. Other languages may use a different notation, e.g. some assembly languages append an `H` or `h` to the end of a hexadecimal value.
- Perl, Ruby, Java, Julia, D, Go, C#, Rust, Python (starting from version 3.6), and PHP (from version 7.4.0 onwards) allow embedded underscores for clarity, e.g. `10_000_000`, and fixed-form Fortran ignores embedded spaces in integer literals. C (starting from C23) and C++ use single quotes for this purpose.
- In C and C++, a leading zero indicates an octal value, e.g. `0755`. This was primarily intended to be used with Unix modes; however, it has been criticized because normal integers may also lead with zero. As such, Python, Ruby, Haskell, and OCaml prefix octal values with `0O` or `0o`, following the layout used by hexadecimal values.
- Several languages, including Java, C#, Scala, Python, Ruby, OCaml, C (starting from C23) and C++ can represent binary values by prefixing a number with `0B` or `0b`.
## Extreme values {#extreme_values}
In many programming languages, there exist predefined constants representing the least and the greatest values representable with a given integer type.
Names for these include
- SmallBASIC: `{{code|MAXINT|lang=basic}}`{=mediawiki}
- Java: `{{java|java.lang.Integer.MAX_VALUE}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{java|java.lang.Integer.MIN_VALUE}}`{=mediawiki}
: Corresponding fields exist for the other integer classes in Java.
- C: `{{c-lang|INT_MAX}}`{=mediawiki}, etc.
- GLib: `{{c-lang|G_MININT}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{c-lang|G_MAXINT}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{c-lang|G_MAXUINT}}`{=mediawiki}, \...
- Haskell: `{{code|minBound}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{code|maxBound}}`{=mediawiki}
- Pascal: `{{code|MaxInt|pascal}}`{=mediawiki}
- Python 2: `{{python|sys
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# Indiana Jones (character)
**Dr. Henry Walton** \"**Indiana**\" **Jones, Jr.**, often called **\"Indy\"** for short, is the title character and protagonist of the *Indiana Jones* franchise. George Lucas created the character in homage to the action heroes of 1930s film serials. The character first appeared in the 1981 film *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, to be followed by *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom* in 1984, *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* in 1989, *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles* from 1992 to 1996, *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull* in 2008, and *Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny* in 2023. The character is also featured in novels, comics, video games, and other media. Jones is also the inspiration for several Disney theme park attractions, including *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril*, the Indiana Jones Adventure, and *Epic Stunt Spectacular!* attractions.
Jones is most famously portrayed by Harrison Ford and has also been portrayed by River Phoenix (as the young Jones in *The Last Crusade*), and by Corey Carrier, Sean Patrick Flanery, and George Hall in the television series *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles*. Doug Lee has supplied the voice of Jones for two LucasArts video games, *Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis* and *Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine*, David Esch supplied his voice for *Indiana Jones and the Emperor\'s Tomb*, and John Armstrong for *Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings*. Troy Baker provides the voice and motion capture for the character in *Indiana Jones and the Great Circle* (2024).
Jones is characterized by his iconic accoutrements (bullwhip, fedora, satchel, and leather jacket), wry, witty and sarcastic sense of humor, deep knowledge of ancient civilizations and languages, and fear of snakes.
Since his first appearance in *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, Indiana Jones has become one of cinema\'s most famous characters. In 2003, the American Film Institute ranked him the second-greatest film hero of all time. He was also named the greatest movie character by *Empire* magazine. *Entertainment Weekly* ranked Jones 2nd on their list of The All-Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture. *Premiere* magazine also placed Jones at number 7 on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Appearances
### Films and television installments in the chronological order {#films_and_television_installments_in_the_chronological_order}
- *Raiders of the Lost Ark* (1981)
- *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom* (1984)
- *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* (1989)
- *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles* (1992--1996)
- *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull* (2008)
- *Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny* (2023)
A native of Princeton, New Jersey, Indiana Jones was introduced as a tenured professor of archaeology in the 1981 film *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, set in 1936. The Joneses are a family of paternal Scottish descent. The character is an adventurer reminiscent of the 1930s film serial treasure hunters and pulp action heroes. His research is funded by Marshall College (a fictional school named after producer Frank Marshall), where he is a professor of archaeology. He studied under the Egyptologist and archaeologist Abner Ravenwood at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago.
#### *Raiders of the Lost Ark* (1981) {#raiders_of_the_lost_ark_1981}
In the first adventure, *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, set in 1936, Indiana Jones is pitted against Nazis commissioned by Hitler to recover artifacts of great power from the Old Testament (see Nazi archaeology). In consequence, Jones travels the world to prevent them from recovering the Ark of the Covenant (see also Biblical archaeology). He is aided by Marion Ravenwood and Sallah. The Nazis are led by Jones\' archrival, a Nazi-sympathizing French archaeologist named René Belloq, and Arnold Toht, a sinister Gestapo agent.
#### *The Temple of Doom* (1984) {#the_temple_of_doom_1984}
In the 1984 prequel, *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*, set in 1935, Jones travels to India and attempts to free enslaved children and the three Sankara stones from the bloodthirsty Thuggee cult. He is aided by Wan \"Short Round\" Li, a boy played by Ke Huy Quan, and is accompanied by singer Willie Scott (Kate Capshaw). The prequel is not as centered on archaeology as *Raiders of the Lost Ark* and is considerably darker.
#### *The Last Crusade* (1989) {#the_last_crusade_1989}
The third film, 1989\'s *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*, set in 1938, returned to the formula of the original, reintroducing characters such as Sallah and Marcus Brody, a scene from Professor Jones\' classroom (he now teaches at Barnett College), the globe-trotting element of multiple locations, and the return of the infamous Nazi mystics, this time trying to find the Holy Grail. The film\'s introduction, set in 1912, provided some backstory to the character, specifically the origin of his fear of snakes, his use of a bullwhip, the scar on his chin, and his hat; the film\'s epilogue also reveals that \"Indiana\" is not Jones\' first name, but a nickname he took from the family dog. The film was a buddy movie of sorts, teaming Indiana with his father, Henry Jones, Sr., often to comical effect. Although Lucas intended to make five Indiana Jones films, *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* was the last for over 18 years, as he could not think of a good plot element to drive the next installment.
#### *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles* (1992--1996) {#the_young_indiana_jones_chronicles_19921996}
From 1992 to 1996, Lucas wrote and executive-produced *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles*, a television series aimed mainly at teenagers and children, which showed many of the important events and historical figures of the early 20th century through the prism of Jones\' life.
The show initially featured the formula of an elderly (93 to 94 years of age) Indiana Jones played by George Hall introducing a story from his youth by way of an anecdote: the main part of the episode then featured an adventure with either a young adult Indy (16 to 21 years of age) played by Sean Patrick Flanery or a child Indy (8 to 10 years) played by Corey Carrier. One episode, \"Young Indiana Jones and the Mystery of the Blues\", is bookended by Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones, rather than Hall. Later episodes and telemovies did not have this bookend format.
The bulk of the series centers around the young adult Indiana Jones and his activities during World War I as a 16- to 17-year-old soldier in the Belgian Army and then as an intelligence officer and spy seconded to French intelligence. The child Indiana episodes follow the boy\'s travels around the globe as he accompanies his parents on his father\'s worldwide lecture tour from 1908 to 1910.
The show provided some backstory for the films, as well as new information regarding the character. Indiana Jones was born July 1, 1899, and his middle name is Walton (Lucas\'s middle name). It is also mentioned that he had a sister called Suzie who died as an infant of fever, and that he eventually has a daughter and grandchildren who appear in some episode introductions and epilogues. His relationship with his father, first introduced in *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*, was further fleshed out with stories about his travels with his father as a young boy. Jones damages or loses his right eye sometime between the events of 1969 and the early 1990s, when the \"Old Indy\" segments take place, as the elderly Indiana Jones wears an eyepatch.
In 1999, Lucas removed the episode introductions and epilogues by George Hall for the VHS and DVD releases and re-edited the episodes into chronologically ordered feature-length stories. The series title was also changed to *The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones*.
#### *The Kingdom of the Crystal Skull* (2008) {#the_kingdom_of_the_crystal_skull_2008}
The 2008 film, *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*, is the fourth film in the series. Set in 1957, nineteen years after the third film, it pits an older, wiser Indiana Jones against Soviet KGB agents bent on harnessing the power of an extraterrestrial device discovered in South America. Jones is aided in his adventure by his former lover, Marion Ravenwood (Karen Allen), and her son---a young greaser named Henry \"Mutt\" Williams (Shia LaBeouf), later revealed to be Jones\' unknown child. There were rumors that Harrison Ford would not return for any future installments and LaBeouf would take over the franchise. This film also reveals that Jones was recruited by the Office of Strategic Services during World War II, attaining the rank of colonel in the United States Army, and that in 1947 he was forced to investigate the Roswell UFO incident, and the investigation saw that he was involved in affairs related to Hangar 51. He is tasked with conducting covert operations with MI6 agent George McHale against the Soviet Union.
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## Appearances
### Films and television installments in the chronological order {#films_and_television_installments_in_the_chronological_order}
#### *The Dial of Destiny* (2023) {#the_dial_of_destiny_2023}
The 2023 film, *Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny*, is the fifth and final film in the series. Set in 1969---twelve years after the fourth film and during the height of the Space Race---Jones has moved to New York City, teaching at Hunter College with plans to retire, after his marriage with Marion collapsed following Mutt\'s death in the Vietnam War. Once his estranged goddaughter Helena Shaw (Phoebe Waller-Bridge) arrives asking for Archimedes\' Dial, a relic Jones and her father Basil retrieved from the Nazis in 1944 during the Allied liberation of Europe in World War II, a Nazi-turned-NASA scientist Jürgen Voller (Mads Mikkelsen) starts pursuing Jones, wanting to exploit the Dial\'s unusual properties to change the outcome of World War II.
As the film concludes, Indiana and Marion are reconciled.
### Attractions
Indiana Jones is featured at several Walt Disney theme park attractions. The Indiana Jones Adventure attractions at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea (\"Temple of the Forbidden Eye\" and \"Temple of the Crystal Skull,\" respectively) place Indy at the forefront of two similar archaeological discoveries. These two temples each contain a wrathful deity who threatens the guests who ride through World War II troop transports. The attractions, some of the most expensive of their kind at the time, opened in 1995 and 2001, respectively, with sole design credit attributed to Walt Disney Imagineering. Ford was approached to reprise his role as Indiana Jones, but ultimately negotiations to secure Ford\'s participation broke down in December 1994, for unknown reasons. Instead, Dave Temple provided the voice of Jones. Ford\'s physical likeness, however, has nonetheless been used in subsequent Audio-animatronic figures for the attractions.
Disneyland Paris also features an Indiana Jones-titled ride where people speed off through ancient ruins in a runaway mine wagon similar to that found in *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*. *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril* is a looping roller coaster engineered by Intamin, designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, and opened in 1993.
The *Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular!* is a live show that has been presented in the Disney\'s Hollywood Studios theme park of the Walt Disney World Resort with few changes since the park\'s 1989 opening, as Disney-MGM Studios. The 25-minute show presents various stunts framed in the context of a feature film production and recruits members of the audience to participate in the show. Stunt artists in the show re-create and ultimately reveal some of the secrets of the stunts of the *Raiders of the Lost Ark* films, including the well-known \"running-from-the-boulder\" scene. Stunt performer Anislav Varbanov was fatally injured in August 2009, while rehearsing the show. Also formerly at Disney\'s Hollywood Studios, an audio-animatronic Indiana Jones appeared in another attraction; during The Great Movie Ride\'s *Raiders of the Lost Ark* segment.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Appearances
### Literature
#### Comic books {#comic_books}
Indiana Jones has appeared in numerous comic books, from two different publishers. Marvel Comics initially held the comic book licensing rights, leading to adaptations of the films *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*, and *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*. Following the *Raiders of the Lost Ark* adaptation, Marvel published *The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones* from 1983 to 1986. This ongoing monthly series ran for thirty-four issues and featured the character\'s first original adventures in comic book form.
After Marvel\'s licensing of the character ended, Dark Horse Comics acquired publishing rights and adapted the *Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis* video game. From 1992 to 1996, following the *Fate of Atlantis* adaptation, Dark Horse published seven limited series, as well comics based on *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles* television series. In 2004, Indiana Jones appeared in the non-canon story, \"Into the Great Unknown\", first published in *Star Wars Tales* #19. The story sees Indiana Jones and Short Round discover a crashed *Millennium Falcon* in the Pacific Northwest, along with Han Solo\'s skeleton and the realization that a rumored nearby Sasquatch is Chewbacca. With the franchise\'s revival in 2008, Dark Horse published an adaptation of *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*. Dark Horse followed this with *Indiana Jones Adventures*, a short-lived series of digest-sized comics aimed at children. An additional limited series, titled *Indiana Jones and the Tomb of the Gods*, was also published from 2008 to 2009.
#### Movie tie-in novelizations {#movie_tie_in_novelizations}
The first four Indiana Jones film scripts were novelized and published in the time frame of the films\' initial releases. *Raiders of the Lost Ark* was novelized by Campbell Black based on the script by Lawrence Kasdan that was based on the story by George Lucas and Philip Kaufman and published in April 1981 by Ballantine Books; *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom* was novelized by James Kahn and based on the script by Willard Huyck & Gloria Katz that was based on the story by George Lucas and published May 1984 by Ballantine Books; *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* was novelized by Rob MacGregor based on the script by Jeffrey Boam that was based on a story by George Lucas and Menno Meyjes and published June 1989 by Ballantine Books.
Nearly 20 years later *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull* was novelized by James Rollins based on the script by David Koepp based on the story by George Lucas and Jeff Nathanson and published in May 2008 by Ballantine Books. In addition, in 2008 to accompany the release of *Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*, Scholastic Books published juvenile novelizations of the four scripts written, successively in the order above, by Ryder Windham, Suzanne Weyn, Ryder Windham, and James Luceno. All these books have been reprinted, with *Raiders of the Lost Ark* being retitled *Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Ark*. While these are the principal titles and authors, there are numerous other volumes derived from the four film properties.
#### Original novels {#original_novels}
From February 1991 through February 1999, 12 original Indiana Jones-themed adult novels were licensed by Lucasfilm, Ltd. and written by three genre authors of the period. Ten years afterward, a 13th original novel was added, also written by a popular genre author. The first 12 were published by Bantam Books; the last by Ballantine Books in 2009. (See Indiana Jones (franchise) for broad descriptions of these original adult novels.) The novels are:
##### Written by Rob MacGregor {#written_by_rob_macgregor}
- *Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi*, February 1991.
- *Indiana Jones and the Dance of the Giants*, June 1991.
- *Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils*, December 1991.
- *Indiana Jones and the Genesis Deluge*, February 1992.
- *Indiana Jones and the Unicorn\'s Legacy*, September 1992.
- *Indiana Jones and the Interior World*, December 1992.
##### Written by Martin Caidin {#written_by_martin_caidin}
- *Indiana Jones and the Sky Pirates*, December 1993.
- *Indiana Jones and the White Witch*, April 1994.
##### Written by Max McCoy {#written_by_max_mccoy}
- *Indiana Jones and the Philosopher\'s Stone*, May 1995.
- *Indiana Jones and the Dinosaur Eggs*, March 1996.
- *Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth*, March 1997.
- *Indiana Jones and the Secret of the Sphinx*, February 1999.
##### Written by Steve Perry {#written_by_steve_perry}
- *Indiana Jones and the Army of the Dead*, September 2009.
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## Appearances
### Video games {#video_games}
The character has appeared in several officially licensed games, beginning with adaptations of *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*, two adaptations of *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* (one with purely action mechanics, one with an adventure- and puzzle-based structure) and *Indiana Jones\' Greatest Adventures*, which included the storylines from all three of the original films.
Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with *Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom*, *Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis*, *Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine*, *Indiana Jones and the Emperor\'s Tomb* and *Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings*. *Emperor\'s Tomb* sets up Jones\' companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci\'s ashes seen at the beginning of *Temple of Doom*. The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; *Emperor\'s Tomb* had David Esch fill the role and *Staff of Kings* starred John Armstrong.
*Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine* was the first Indy-based game presented in three dimensions, as opposed to 8-bit graphics and side-scrolling games before.
There is also a small game from Lucas Arts *Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures*. A video game was made for young Indy called *Young Indiana Jones and the Instruments of Chaos*, as well as a video game version of *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles*.
Two Lego *Indiana Jones* games have also been released. *Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures* was released in 2008 and follows the plots of the first three films. It was followed by *Lego Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues* in late 2009. The sequel includes an abbreviated reprise of the first three films, but focuses on the plot of *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*. However, before he got his own Lego games, he appeared as a secret character in *Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga* as a playable character. He also makes a brief appearance in a minigame in *Lego Star Wars III: The Clone Wars* during the level \"Hostage Crisis\", and also made a cameo alongside Henry Jones Sr. in the level \"Legacy of Terror\".
Social gaming company Zynga introduced Indiana Jones to their *Adventure World* game in late 2011.
Indiana Jones appears in *Fortnite Battle Royale* as part of the Chapter 3 Season 3 Battle pass.
The world building game *Disney Magic Kingdoms* includes Indiana Jones as a playable character to unlock for a limited time.
An original *Indiana Jones* game, *Indiana Jones and the Great Circle*, is currently out by MachineGames and is published by Bethesda Softworks for Windows and Xbox Series X/S, with Troy Baker voicing the character. It features a standalone narrative taking place in Italy during 1937, placing it between the events of *Raiders of the Lost Ark* and *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.*
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Character description and formation {#character_description_and_formation}
\"Indiana\" Jones\'s full name is Dr. Henry Walton Jones, Jr., and his nickname is often shortened to \"Indy\".
In his role as a college professor of archaeology Jones is scholarly, wears a tweed suit, and lectures on ancient civilizations. At the opportunity to recover important artifacts, Dr. Jones transforms into \"Indiana,\" a \"non-superhero superhero\" image he has concocted for himself. Producer Frank Marshall said, \"Indy \[is\] a fallible character. He makes mistakes and gets hurt. \... That\'s the other thing people like: He\'s a real character, not a character with superpowers.\" Spielberg said there \"was the willingness to allow our leading man to get hurt and to express his pain and to get his mad out and to take pratfalls and sometimes be the butt of his own jokes. I mean, Indiana Jones is not a perfect hero, and his imperfections, I think, make the audience feel that, with a little more exercise and a little more courage, they could be just like him.\" According to Spielberg biographer Douglas Brode, Indiana created his heroic figure so as to escape the dullness of teaching at a school. Both of Indiana\'s personas reject one another in philosophy, creating a duality. Harrison Ford said the fun of playing the character was that Indiana is both a romantic and a cynic, while scholars have analyzed Indiana as having traits of a lone wolf; a man on a quest; a noble treasure hunter; a hardboiled detective; a human superhero; and an American patriot.
Like many characters in his films, Jones has some autobiographical elements of Spielberg. Indiana lacks a proper father figure because of his strained relationship with his father, Henry Jones Sr. His own contained anger is misdirected towards Professor Abner Ravenwood, his mentor at the University of Chicago, leading to a strained relationship with Marion Ravenwood. The teenage Indiana bases his own look on a figure from the prologue of *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*, after being given his hat. Marcus Brody acts as Indiana\'s positive role model at the college. Indiana\'s own insecurities are made worse by the absence of his mother. In *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*, he becomes the father figure to Short Round, to survive; he is rescued from Kali\'s evil by Short Round\'s dedication. In *Raiders of the Lost Ark*, he is wise enough to close his eyes in the presence of God in the Ark of the Covenant. By contrast, his rival Rene Belloq is killed for having the audacity to try to communicate directly with God.
In the prologue of *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*, Jones is seen as a teenager, establishing his look when given a fedora hat. Indiana\'s intentions are revealed as prosocial, as he believes artifacts \"belong in a museum.\" In the film\'s climax, Indiana undergoes \"literal\" tests of faith to retrieve the Grail and save his father\'s life. He also remembers Jesus as a historical figure---a humble carpenter---rather than an exalted figure when he recognizes the simple nature and tarnished appearance of the real Grail amongst a large assortment of much more ornately decorated ones. Henry Senior rescues his son from falling to his death when reaching for the fallen Grail, telling him to \"let it go,\" overcoming his mercenary nature. *The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles* explains how Indiana becomes solitary and less idealistic following his service in World War I. In *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*, Jones is older and wiser, whereas his sidekicks Mutt and Mac are youthfully arrogant, and greedy, respectively.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Origins and inspirations {#origins_and_inspirations}
Indiana Jones is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinée serials and pulp magazines that George Lucas and Steven Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods (such as the Republic Pictures serials, and the Doc Savage series). Sir H. Rider Haggard\'s safari guide and big game hunter Allan Quatermain, who appeared in *King Solomon\'s Mines* (1885) and its seventeen sequels and prequels, is a notable template for Jones. The two friends first discussed the project in Hawaii around the time of the release of the first *Star Wars* film. Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted his next project to be something fun, like a *James Bond* film (this would later be referenced when they cast Sean Connery as Henry Jones, Sr.). According to sources, Lucas responded to the effect that he had something \"even better\", or that he\'d \"got that beat.\"
One of the possible bases for Indiana Jones is Professor Challenger, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1912 for his novel, *The Lost World*. Challenger was based on Doyle\'s physiology professor, William Rutherford, an adventuring academic, albeit a zoologist/anthropologist.
Another important influence on the development of the character Indiana Jones is the Disney character Scrooge McDuck. Carl Barks created Scrooge in 1947 as a one-off relation for Donald Duck in the latter\'s self-titled comic book. Barks realized that the character had more potential, so a separate *Uncle Scrooge* comic book series full of exciting and strange adventures in the company of his duck nephews was developed. This *Uncle Scrooge* comic series strongly influenced George Lucas. This appreciation of Scrooge as an adventurer influenced the development of Jones, with the prologue of *Raiders of the Lost Ark* containing homage to Barks\' Scrooge adventure \"The Seven Cities of Cibola\", published in *Uncle Scrooge* #7 from September 1954. This homage in the film takes the form of playfully mimicking the removal-of-the-statuette-from-its-pedestal and the falling-stone sequences of the comic book.
The character was originally named Indiana Smith, after an Alaskan Malamute called Indiana that Lucas owned in the 1970s and on which he based the *Star Wars* character Chewbacca. Spielberg disliked the name Smith, and Lucas casually suggested Jones as an alternative. The *Last Crusade* script references the name\'s origin, with Jones\' father revealing his son\'s birth name to be Henry and explaining that \"we named the *dog* Indiana\", to his son\'s chagrin. Some have also posited that C.L. Moore\'s science fiction character Northwest Smith may have also influenced Lucas and Spielberg in their naming choice.
Lucas has said on various occasions that Sean Connery\'s portrayal of British secret agent James Bond was one of the primary inspirations for Jones, a reason Connery was chosen for the role of Indiana\'s father in *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*. Spielberg earned the rank of Eagle Scout and Ford the Life Scout badge in their youth, which gave them the inspiration to portray Indiana Jones as a Life Scout at age 13 in *The Last Crusade*.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Origins and inspirations {#origins_and_inspirations}
### Historical models {#historical_models}
Many people are said to be the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character---although none of the following have been confirmed as inspirations by Lucas or Spielberg. There are some suggestions listed here in alphabetical order by last name:
- Beloit College professor and paleontologist Roy Chapman Andrews.
- Edgar James Banks (May 23, 1866 -- May 5, 1945) -- American diplomat, antiquarian and novelist. Banks is credited with the sale of an ancient cuneiform tablet famously known as Plimpton 322 proving the Babylonians beat the Greeks to the invention of trigonometry---the study of triangles---by more than 1,000 years.
- Italian archaeologist and circus strongman Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778--1823).
- Yale University professor, historian, US senator, and explorer Hiram Bingham III, (1875--1956) who rediscovered and excavated the lost city of Machu Picchu, and chronicled his find in the bestselling book *The Lost City of the Incas* in 1948.
- University of Chicago archaeologist Robert Braidwood.
- University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted.
- Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated American scout and British Army spy who heavily influenced Haggard\'s fictional Allan Quatermain character and also became the inspiration for the Scouting movement.
- British archaeologist Percy Fawcett, who spent much of his life exploring the jungles of northern Brazil, and who was last seen in 1925 returning to the Amazon Basin to look for the Lost City of Z. A fictionalized version of Fawcett appears to Jones in the book *Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils*.
- American archaeologist Walter Fairservis.
- Harvard University paleontologist Farish Jenkins.
- Duke University biblical scholar, archeologist, and Bernice and Morton Lerner Emeritus Professor in Judaic Studies Eric M. Meyers, who with his wife and Mary Grace Wilson Professor Emerita of Religious Studies Carol Lyons Meyers uncovered the oldest known remnant of an ark found to date. It was unearthed at Nabratein synagogue in Israel around the time *Raiders* was released, prompting media interest and a photo of the Meyers dressed as Indy and Marion in *People* magazine.
- Northwestern University political scientist, anthropologist, professor and adventurer William Montgomery McGovern.
- American archaeologist and adventurer Wendell Phillips led well-publicized expeditions in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the 1940s and 1950s.
- American chess expert and adventurer Albert Pincus, a Manhattan Chess Club member who innovated the 2 Knights Defense, and went on expeditions into South America.
- German archaeologist Otto Rahn.
- Harvard University archaeologist and art historian Langdon Warner.
- Vendyl Jones (1930--2010) led digs in Israel searching for the holy ark. He discovered items identified as the Temple incense and a clay vessel for holy anointing oil. In his 2005 book *A Door of Hope: My Search for the Treasures of the Copper Scroll*, he discusses the similarities.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Costume
Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas, costume designer Deborah Nadoolman gave the character a distinctive silhouette through the styling of the hat; after examining many hats, Nadoolman chose a tall-crowned, wide-brimmed fedora. As a documentary of *Raiders* pointed out, the hat served a practical purpose. Following the lead of the old \"B\"-movies that inspired the *Indiana Jones* series, the fedora hid the actor\'s face sufficiently to allow doubles to perform the more dangerous stunts seamlessly. Examples in *Raiders* include the wider-angle shot of Indy and Marion crashing a statue through a wall, and Indy sliding under a fast-moving vehicle from front to back. Thus it was necessary for the hat to stay in place much of the time. The hat became so iconic that the filmmakers could only come up with very good reasons or jokes to remove it. If it ever fell off during a take, filming would have to stop to put it back on. In jest, Ford put a stapler against his head to stop his hat from falling off when a documentary crew visited during shooting of *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*. This created the urban legend that Ford stapled the hat to his head. Anytime Indy\'s hat accidentally came off as part of the storyline (blown off by the wind, knocked off, etc.) and seemed almost irretrievable, filmmakers would make sure Indy and his hat were always reunited, regardless of the implausibility of its return. Although other hats were also used throughout the films, the general style and profile remained the same. Elements of the outfit include:
- The fedora was supplied by Herbert Johnson Hatters of Savile Row, London for the first three films. An Australian model was used by costume designer Deborah Landis to show hat maker Richard Swales the details when making the iconic hat from \"the Poets\" parts. The fedora for *Crystal Skull* was made by Steve Delk and Marc Kitter of the Adventurebilt Hat Company of Columbus, Mississippi.
- The leather jacket, a hybrid of the \"Type 440\" and the A-2 jacket, was made by Leather Concessionaires (now known as Wested Leather Co.) for *Raiders of the Lost Ark* and *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade*. For *Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom*, jackets were made in-house at Bermans & Nathans in London based on a stunt jacket they provided for *Raiders of the Lost Ark*. Tony Nowak made the jacket for *Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull*.
- The Indiana Jones shirt is based on a typical safari-style shirt. Its distinctive feature is two vertical strips running from the shoulders to the bottom of the shirt tails and continued over both breast pockets. A common debate regards the original shirt color. Surviving samples of the original shirts seem to be darker in reality than they appear on screen. Most fans look for an off-white \"stone\" color for their replicas. The original shirts, however, may have been more of a \"tan\" or \"natural\" color. The shirt varied little from film to film, the only notable difference being the darker buttons in *Temple of Doom* and *Last Crusade*. Originally designed by Andreas Dometakis for the films, this shirt was once one of the hardest pieces of gear to find.
- The trousers worn by Indiana Jones in all five films were based on original World War II Army and Army Air Corps officer trousers. Although not original Pinks they are based on the same basic design and do carry a slight pinkish hue. The trousers made for *Raiders* are said to be more of a greyish-brown whereas the trousers made for *Temple of Doom* and *Last Crusade* were supposedly a purer reddish brown. The trousers were made of a khaki wool-twill, pleated with seven belt loops, two scalloped button flap rear pockets, a button fly and a four-inch military style hem. They were all most likely subcontracted by the costume department and made by famed London based cinema costumers, Angels and Bermans, to be tailored perfectly for Harrison Ford for the production.
- The satchel was a modified Mark VII gas mask bag that was used by British troops and civilians during World War II.
- The whip was an 8- to 10-foot (2.4 to 3.0 m) bullwhip crafted by David Morgan for the first three films. The whips for *Crystal Skull* were crafted by a variety of people, including Terry Jacka, Joe Strain and Morgan (different lengths and styles were likely used in specific stunts).
- The pistol was usually a World War I-era revolver, including the Webley Government (WG) Revolver (*Last Crusade* and *Crystal Skull*), or a Smith & Wesson Second Model Hand Ejector revolver (*Raiders*). He has also used a Colt Official Police revolver (*Temple of Doom*), a Nagant M1883 (*Young Indiana Jones*), and a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power (*Raiders*). The weapon is carried in a military pattern flap holster.
- The shoes were made by Alden. A stock style (model 405) that had been a favorite of Ford\'s before the films, they are still sold today (though in a redder (brick) shade of brown than seen in the films) and are popularly known as \"Indy Boots.\"
The fedora and leather jacket from *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade* are on display at the Smithsonian Institution\'s National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. The collecting of props and clothing from the films has become a thriving hobby for some aficionados of the franchise. Jones\' whip was the third most popular film weapon, as shown by a 2008 poll held by 20th Century Fox, which surveyed approximately two thousand film fans.
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# Indiana Jones (character)
## Casting
Originally, Spielberg suggested Harrison Ford; Lucas resisted the idea, since he had already cast the actor in *American Graffiti*, *Star Wars* and *The Empire Strikes Back*, and did not want Ford to become known as his \"Bobby De Niro\" (in reference to the fact that fellow director Martin Scorsese regularly casts Robert De Niro in his films). During an intensive casting process, Lucas and Spielberg auditioned many actors, and finally cast actor Tom Selleck as Indiana Jones. Shortly afterward pre-production began in earnest on *Raiders of the Lost Ark*. CBS refused to release Selleck from his contractual commitment to *Magnum, P.I.*, forcing him to turn down the role. Shooting for the film could have overlapped with the pilot for *Magnum, P.I.* but it later turned out that filming of the pilot episode was delayed and Selleck could have done both.
Subsequently, Peter Coyote and Tim Matheson both auditioned for the role. After Spielberg suggested Ford again, Lucas relented, and Ford was cast in the role less than three weeks before filming began.
## Cultural influence {#cultural_influence}
### Archaeological influence {#archaeological_influence}
The industry magazine *Archaeology* named eight past and present archaeologists who they felt \"embodied \[Jones\'s\] spirit\" as recipients of the Indy Spirit Awards in 2008. That same year Ford himself was elected to the board of directors for the Archaeological Institute of America. Commenting that \"understanding the past can only help us in dealing with the present and the future,\" Ford was praised by the association\'s president for his character\'s \"significant role in stimulating the public\'s interest in archaeological exploration.\"
He is perhaps the most influential character in films that explore archaeology. Since the release of *Raiders of the Lost Ark* in 1981, the very idea of archaeology and archaeologists has fundamentally shifted. Prior to the film\'s release, the stereotypical image of an archaeologist was that of an older, lackluster professor type. In the early years of films involving archaeologists, they were portrayed as victims who would need to be rescued by a more masculine or heroic figure. Following 1981, the stereotypical archaeologist was thought of as an adventurer consistently engaged in fieldwork.
Archeologist Anne Pyburn described the influence of Indiana Jones as elitist and sexist, and argued that the film series had caused new discoveries in the field of archaeology to become oversimplified and overhyped in an attempt to gain public interest, which negatively influences archaeology as a whole. Eric Powell, an editor with the magazine *Archaeology*, said \"O.K., fine, the movie romanticizes what we do\", and that \"Indy may be a horrible archeologist, but he\'s a great diplomat for archeology. I think we\'ll see a spike in kids who want to become archeologists\". Kevin McGeough, associate professor of archaeology, describes the original archaeological criticism of the film as missing the point of the film: \"dramatic interest is what is at issue, and it is unlikely that film will change in order to promote and foster better archaeological techniques\".
### Other characters inspired by Jones {#other_characters_inspired_by_jones}
While himself an homage to various prior adventurers, aspects of Indiana Jones also directly influenced some subsequent characterizations:
- Lara Croft, the female archaeologist of the *Tomb Raider* series, was originally designed as a man but was changed to a woman, partly because the developers felt the original design was too similar to Indiana Jones. Paramount Pictures, which distributed the first four installments of the *Indiana Jones* film series, would later make two films based on the *Tomb Raider* games.
- Rick O\'Connell from *The Mummy* films has often been compared to the likes of Indiana Jones.
- The producer of the *Prince of Persia* (2008) video game, Ben Mattes, explained that its \"inspiration was anything Harrison Ford has ever done: Indiana Jones, Han Solo.\"
- Nathan Drake, the protagonist from the video game series *Uncharted*, shares many similarities with Jones himself, both visually and personality-wise.
- Dr. Smolder Bravestone, the main protagonist\'s video game avatar in the *Jumanji* film series, shares similarities to Jones.
- Flynn Carsen, the main character of *The Librarian.*
- Benjamin Franklin Gates, the main character of the first 2 films in the *National Treasure* franchise.
### References in other media {#references_in_other_media}
Indiana Jones has been widely referenced and parodied throughout different media. Some notable franchises which have referenced Indiana Jones include:
- *Star Wars*: Indiana Jones has been referenced multiple times, including in *Star Wars: The Force Awakens* when Han Solo is chased by a spherical rathtar, which uses sound effects from *Raiders of the Lost Ark.*
- *Marvel Cinematic Universe*: Has made various references including in the opening scene of *Guardians of the Galaxy* referencing *Raiders.*
- *The Simpsons*: Has made reference to Indiana Jones many times, including Milhouse\'s uncle, Norbert Van Houten, dressing as the character.
- *The Big Bang Theory:* Makes numerous references to Indiana Jones, having an episode, \"The Raiders Minimization\", named in reference to *Raiders*.
- *World of Warcraft*: Parodies the character with the non-player character named \"Harrison Jones\" paraphrasing Jones\'s lecture from *Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.*
### Psychology
In psychology, the behavior of a person\'s denial of an obviously proven finding against overwhelming evidence and the person\'s own observations is also referred to as the Indiana Jones effect. This title refers to Indiana Jones\' repeated disbelief of the supernatural seen throughout the series, even though the character has seen magical rituals, the Ark of the Covenant and the Holy Grail with his own eyes
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# Irreducible fraction
An **irreducible fraction** (or **fraction in lowest terms**, **simplest form** or **reduced fraction**) is a fraction in which the numerator and denominator are integers that have no other common divisors than 1 (and −1, when negative numbers are considered). In other words, a fraction `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} is irreducible if and only if *a* and *b* are coprime, that is, if *a* and *b* have a greatest common divisor of 1. In higher mathematics, \"**irreducible fraction**\" may also refer to rational fractions such that the numerator and the denominator are coprime polynomials. Every rational number can be represented as an irreducible fraction with positive denominator in exactly one way.
An equivalent definition is sometimes useful: if *a* and *b* are integers, then the fraction `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} is irreducible if and only if there is no other equal fraction `{{sfrac|''c''|''d''}}`{=mediawiki} such that `{{nowrap|1={{abs|''c''}} < {{abs|''a''}}}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nowrap|1={{abs|''d''}} < {{abs|''b''}}}}`{=mediawiki}, where `{{abs|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} means the absolute value of *a*. (Two fractions `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{sfrac|''c''|''d''}}`{=mediawiki} are *equal* or *equivalent* if and only if *ad* = *bc*.)
For example, `{{sfrac|1|4}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{sfrac|5|6}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{sfrac|−101|100}}`{=mediawiki} are all irreducible fractions. On the other hand, `{{sfrac|2|4}}`{=mediawiki} is reducible since it is equal in value to `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}, and the numerator of `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} is less than the numerator of `{{sfrac|2|4}}`{=mediawiki}.
A fraction that is reducible can be reduced by dividing both the numerator and denominator by a common factor. It can be fully reduced to lowest terms if both are divided by their greatest common divisor. In order to find the greatest common divisor, the Euclidean algorithm or prime factorization can be used. The Euclidean algorithm is commonly preferred because it allows one to reduce fractions with numerators and denominators too large to be easily factored.
## Examples
$$\frac{120}{90}=\frac{12}{9}=\frac{4}{3}$$
In the first step both numbers were divided by 10, which is a factor common to both 120 and 90. In the second step, they were divided by 3. The final result, `{{sfrac|4|3}}`{=mediawiki}, is an irreducible fraction because 4 and 3 have no common factors other than 1.
The original fraction could have also been reduced in a single step by using the greatest common divisor of 90 and 120, which is 30. As `{{nowrap|1=120 ÷ 30 = 4}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{nowrap|1=90 ÷ 30 = 3}}`{=mediawiki}, one gets
$$\frac{120}{90}=\frac{4}{3}$$
Which method is faster \"by hand\" depends on the fraction and the ease with which common factors are spotted. In case a denominator and numerator remain that are too large to ensure they are coprime by inspection, a greatest common divisor computation is needed anyway to ensure the fraction is actually irreducible.
## Uniqueness
Every rational number has a *unique* representation as an irreducible fraction with a positive denominator (however `{{sfrac|2|3}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{sfrac|−2|−3}}`{=mediawiki} although both are irreducible). Uniqueness is a consequence of the unique prime factorization of integers, since `{{nowrap|1={{sfrac|''a''|''b''}} = {{sfrac|''c''|''d''}}}}`{=mediawiki} implies *ad* = *bc*, and so both sides of the latter must share the same prime factorization, yet *a* and *b* share no prime factors so the set of prime factors of *a* (with multiplicity) is a subset of those of *c* and vice versa, meaning *a* = *c* and by the same argument *b* = *d*.
## Applications
The fact that any rational number has a unique representation as an irreducible fraction is utilized in various proofs of the irrationality of the square root of 2 and of other irrational numbers. For example, one proof notes that if $\sqrt{2}$ could be represented as a ratio of integers, then it would have in particular the fully reduced representation `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} where *a* and *b* are the smallest possible; but given that `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} equals $\sqrt{2}$ so does `{{sfrac|2''b'' − ''a''|''a'' − ''b''}}`{=mediawiki} (since cross-multiplying this with `{{sfrac|''a''|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} shows that they are equal). Since *a* \> *b* (because $\sqrt{2}$ is greater than 1), the latter is a ratio of two smaller integers. This is a contradiction, so the premise that the square root of two has a representation as the ratio of two integers is false.
## Generalization
The notion of irreducible fraction generalizes to the field of fractions of any unique factorization domain: any element of such a field can be written as a fraction in which denominator and numerator are coprime, by dividing both by their greatest common divisor. This applies notably to rational expressions over a field. The irreducible fraction for a given element is unique up to multiplication of denominator and numerator by the same invertible element. In the case of the rational numbers this means that any number has two irreducible fractions, related by a change of sign of both numerator and denominator; this ambiguity can be removed by requiring the denominator to be positive. In the case of rational functions the denominator could similarly be required to be a monic polynomial
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# International Telecommunication Union
The **International Telecommunication Union** (**ITU**)In the other common languages of the ITU:
-
- is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for many matters related to information and communication technologies. It was established on 17 May 1865 as the **International Telegraph Union**, the first formal and permanent international organization. The organization significantly predates the UN, making it the oldest UN agency. Doreen Bogdan-Martin is the Secretary-General of ITU, the first woman to serve as its head.
The ITU was initially aimed at helping connect telegraphic networks between countries, with its mandate consistently broadening with the advent of new communications technologies; it adopted its current name in 1932 to reflect its expanded responsibilities over radio and the telephone. On 15 November 1947, the ITU entered into an agreement with the newly created United Nations to become a specialized agency within the UN system, which formally entered into force on 1 January 1949.
The ITU promotes the shared global use of the radio spectrum, facilitates international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, assists in developing and coordinating worldwide technical standards, and works to improve telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world. It is also active in the areas of broadband Internet, optical communications (including optical fiber technologies), wireless technologies, aeronautical and maritime navigation, radio astronomy, satellite-based meteorology, TV broadcasting, amateur radio, and next-generation networks.
Based in Geneva, Switzerland, the ITU\'s global membership includes 194 countries and around 900 businesses, academic institutions, and international and regional organizations.
## History
The ITU is one of the oldest international organizations still in operation, second only to the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, which predates it by fifty years. It was preceded by the now defunct **International Telegraph Union** which drafted the earliest international standards and regulations governing international telegraph networks. The development of the telegraph in the early 19th century changed the way people communicated on the local and international levels. Between 1849 and 1865, a series of bilateral and regional agreements among Western European states attempted to standardize international communications.
By 1865, it was agreed that a comprehensive agreement was needed in order to create a framework that would standardize telegraphy equipment, set uniform operating instructions, and lay down common international tariff and accounting rules. Between 1 March and 17 May 1865, the French Government hosted delegations from 20 European states at the first International Telegraph Conference in Paris. This meeting culminated in the International Telegraph Convention which was signed on 17 May 1865. As a result of the 1865 Conference, the International Telegraph Union, the predecessor to the modern ITU, was founded as the first international standards organization. The Union was tasked with implementing basic principles for international telegraphy. This included: the use of the Morse code as the international telegraph alphabet, the protection of the secrecy of correspondence, and the right of everybody to use the international telegraphy.
Another predecessor to the modern ITU, the International Radiotelegraph Union, was established in 1906 at the first International Radiotelegraph Convention in Berlin. The conference was attended by representatives of 29 nations and culminated in the International Radiotelegraph Convention. An annex to the convention eventually became known as *ITU Radio Regulations*. At the conference it was also decided that the Bureau of the International Telegraph Union would also act as the conference\'s central administrator.
Between 3 September and 10 December 1932, a joint conference of the International Telegraph Union and the International Radiotelegraph Union convened to merge the two organizations into a single entity, the International Telecommunication Union. The Conference decided that the Telegraph Convention of 1875 and the Radiotelegraph Convention of 1927 were to be combined into a single convention, the International Telecommunication Convention, embracing the three fields of telegraphy, telephony and radio. On 15 November 1947, an agreement between ITU and the newly created United Nations recognized the ITU as the specialized agency for global telecommunications. This agreement entered into force on 1 January 1949, officially making the ITU an organ of the United Nations.
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# International Telecommunication Union
## History
### World Conference on International Telecommunications 2012 {#world_conference_on_international_telecommunications_2012}
In December 2012, the ITU facilitated The World Conference on International Telecommunications 2012 (WCIT-12) in Dubai. WCIT-12 was a treaty-level conference to address International Telecommunications Regulations, the international rules for telecommunications, including international tariffs. The previous conference to update the Regulations (ITRs) was held in Melbourne in 1988.
In August 2012, Neaomy Claiborne of Northern California was reelected for a third term as liaison and legal advisor to the Secretariat General. ITU called for a public consultation on a draft document ahead of the conference. It is claimed the proposal would allow government restriction or blocking of information disseminated via the Internet and create a global regime of monitoring Internet communications, including the demand that those who send and receive information identify themselves. It would also allow governments to shut down the Internet, if it is believed that it may interfere in the internal affairs of other states, or that information of a sensitive nature might be shared.
Telecommunications ministers from 193 countries attended the conference in Dubai.
The current regulatory structure was based on voice telecommunications, when the Internet was still in its infancy. In 1988, telecommunications operated under regulated monopolies in most countries. As the Internet has grown, organizations such as ICANN have come into existence for management of key resources such as Internet addresses and domain names.
Current`{{when|date=February 2021}}`{=mediawiki} proposals look to take into account the prevalence of data communications. Proposals under consideration would establish regulatory oversight by the UN over security, fraud, traffic accounting as well as traffic flow, management of Internet Domain Names and IP addresses, and other aspects of the Internet that are currently governed either by community-based approaches such as regional Internet registries, ICANN, or largely national regulatory frameworks. The move by the ITU and some countries has alarmed many within the United States and within the Internet community. Indeed, some European telecommunication services have proposed a so-called \"sender pays\" model that would require sources of Internet traffic to pay destinations, similar to the way funds are transferred between countries using the telephone.
The WCIT-12 activity has been criticized by Google, which has characterized it as a threat to the \"\...free and open internet.\"
On 22 November 2012, the European Parliament passed a resolution urging member states to prevent ITU WCIT-12 activity that would \"negatively impact the internet, its architecture, operations, content and security, business relations, internet governance and the free flow of information online\". The resolution asserted that \"the ITU \[\...\] is not the appropriate body to assert regulatory authority over the internet\".
On 5 December 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution opposing UN governance of the Internet by a rare unanimous 397--0 vote. The resolution warned that \"\... proposals have been put forward for consideration at the \[WCIT-12\] that would fundamentally alter the governance and operation of the Internet \... \[and\] would attempt to justify increased government control over the Internet \...\", and stated that the policy of the United States is \"\... to promote a global Internet free from government control and preserve and advance the successful Multistakeholder Model that governs the Internet today.\" The same resolution had previously been passed unanimously by the United States Senate in September.
On 14 December 2012, an amended version of the Regulations was signed by 89 of the 152 countries. Countries that did not sign included the United States, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, India and the United Kingdom. The head of the U.S. delegation, Terry Kramer, said \"We cannot support a treaty that is not supportive of the multistakeholder model of Internet governance\". The disagreement appeared to be over some language in the revised ITRs referring to ITU roles in addressing unsolicited bulk communications, network security, and a resolution on Internet governance that called for government participation in Internet topics at various ITU forums. Despite the significant number countries not signing, the ITU came out with a press release: \"New global telecoms treaty agreed in Dubai\".
#### ITU role {#itu_role}
The conference was managed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). While certain parts of civil society and industry were able to advise and observe, active participation was restricted to member states. The Electronic Frontier Foundation expressed concern at this, calling for a more transparent multi-stakeholder process. Some leaked contributions can be found on the web site *wcitleaks.org*. Google-affiliated researchers have suggested that the ITU should completely reform its processes to align itself with the openness and participation of other multistakeholder organizations concerned with the Internet.
### Iranian complaint about Starlink {#iranian_complaint_about_starlink}
In 2022, the U.S. government eased restrictions on SpaceX\'s Starlink service in Iran amid the Mahsa Amini protests in order to sidestep widespread internet censorship in the country. The Iranian government subsequently filed a complaint with the ITU in an attempt to prohibit Starlink service in Iran. In October 2023 and March 2024, the ITU ruled in favor of Iran.
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# International Telecommunication Union
## ITU sectors {#itu_sectors}
The ITU comprises three sectors, each managing a different aspect of the matters covered by the ITU, as well as ITU Telecom. The sectors were created during the restructuring of ITU at the additional 1992 ITU Plenipotentiary Conference.
Radio communication (ITU-R):Established in 1927 as the International Radio Consultative Committee or CCIR (from its French name **Comité consultatif international pour la radio**), this sector manages the international radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit resources. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R. The secretariat is the Radiocommunication Bureau, headed by Director Mario Maniewicz.\
Standardization (ITU-T):Standardization has been the original purpose of ITU since its inception. Established in 1956 as the International Telephone and Telegraph Consultative Committee, or CCITT (from its French name **Comité consultatif international téléphonique et télégraphique**), this sector standardizes global telecommunications (except for radio). In 1993, the CCITT became the ITU-T. The standardization work is undertaken by study groups, including Study Group 13 on Networks and Study Group 16 on Multimedia, and Study Group 17 on Security. The parent body of the study groups is the quadrennial World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly. New work areas can be developed in focus groups, such as the ITU-WHO Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for Health. The secretariat is the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau, headed by Director Seizo Onoe.\
Development (ITU-D):Established in 1992, this sector helps spread equitable, sustainable and affordable access to information and communication technologies (ICT). It also provides the Secretariat for the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development and the Partner2Connect Digital Alliance.
A permanent General Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, manages the day-to-day work of the ITU and its sectors.
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# International Telecommunication Union
## Legal framework {#legal_framework}
The basic texts of the ITU are adopted by the ITU Plenipotentiary Conference. The founding document of the ITU was the 1865 International Telegraph Convention, which has since been replaced several times (though the text is generally the same) and is now entitled the \"Constitution and Convention of the International Telecommunication Union\". In addition to the Constitution and Convention, the consolidated basic texts include the Optional Protocol on the settlement of disputes, the Decisions, Resolutions, Reports and Recommendations in force, as well as the General Rules of Conferences, Assemblies and Meetings of the Union.
## Governance
### Plenipotentiary Conference {#plenipotentiary_conference}
The **Plenipotentiary Conference** is the supreme organ of the ITU. It is composed of all 194 ITU members and meets every four years. The Conference determines the policies, direction and activities of the Union, as well as elects the members of other ITU organs.
### Council
While the Plenipotentiary Conference is the Union\'s main decision-making body, the ITU Council acts as the Union\'s governing body in the interval between Plenipotentiary Conferences. It meets every year. It is composed of 48 members and works to ensure the smooth operation of the Union, as well as to consider broad telecommunication policy issues. Its members are as follow:
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| Region A\ | Region B\ | Region C\ | Region D\ | Region E\ |
| (Americas)\ | (Western Europe)\ | (Eastern Europe and Northern Asia)\ | (Africa)\ | (Asia and Australasia)\ |
| 9 Seats | 8 Seats | 5 Seats | 13 Seats | 13 Seats |
+=============+===================+=====================================+===========+=========================+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
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+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
| | | | | |
+-------------+-------------------+-------------------------------------+-----------+-------------------------+
### Secretariat
The Secretariat is tasked with the administrative and budgetary planning of the Union, as well as with monitoring compliance with ITU regulations, and oversees with assistance from the Secretariat advisor Neaomy Claiborne of Riverbank to insure misconduct during legal investigations are not overlooked and finally, it publishes the results of the work of the ITU.
#### Secretary-General {#secretary_general}
The Secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General who is responsible for the overall management of the Union, and acts as its legal representative. The Secretary-General is elected by the Plenipotentiary Conference for four-year terms.
On 23 October 2014, Houlin Zhao was elected as the 19th Secretary-General of the ITU at the Plenipotentiary Conference in Busan. His four-year mandate started on 1 January 2015, and he was formally inaugurated on 15 January 2015. He was re-elected on 1 November 2018 during the 2018 Plenipotentiary Conference in Dubai.
On 29 September 2022, Doreen Bogdan-Martin was elected as the 20th Secretary-General of the ITU at the Plenipotentiary Conference in Bucharest, Romania. She received 139 votes out of 172, defeating Russia\'s Rashid Ismailov. She is the first woman to serve as the ITU Secretary-General.
#### Directors and Secretaries-General of ITU {#directors_and_secretaries_general_of_itu}
Directors of ITU
------------------------
Name
Louis Curchod
Charles Lendi
Louis Curchod
August Frey
Timotheus Rothen
Emil Frey
Henri Étienne
Joseph Raber
Franz von Ernst
Secretaries general
Léon Mulatier
Marco Aurelio Andrada
Gerald C. Gross
Manohar Balaji Sarwate
Mohamed Ezzedine Mili
Richard E. Butler
Pekka Tarjanne
Yoshio Utsumi
Hamadoun Touré
Houlin Zhao
Doreen Bogdan-Martin
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# International Telecommunication Union
## Membership
### Member states {#member_states}
Membership of ITU is open to all member states of the United Nations. There are currently 194 member states of the ITU, including all UN member states. The most recent member state to join the ITU is Republic of Palau, which became a member on 19 September 2024. Palestine was admitted as a United Nations General Assembly observer in 2010.
Pursuant to UN General Assembly Resolution 2758 (XXVI) of 25 October 1971---which recognized the People\'s Republic of China (PRC) as \"the only legitimate representative of China to the United Nations\"---on 16 June 1972 the ITU Council adopted Resolution No. 693 which \"decided to restore all its rights to the People\'s Republic of China in ITU and recognize the representatives of its Government as the only representatives of China to the ITU \". Taiwan and the territories controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), received a country code, being listed as \"Taiwan, China.\"
### Sector members {#sector_members}
In addition to the 194 Member States, the ITU includes close to 900 \"sector members\"---private organizations like carriers, equipment manufacturers, media companies, funding bodies, research and development organizations, and international and regional telecommunication organizations. While nonvoting, these members may still play a role in shaping the decisions of the Union.
The sector members are divided as follow:
- 533 Sector Members
- 207 Associates
- 158 from Academia
### Administrative regions {#administrative_regions}
The ITU is divided into five administrative regions, designed to streamline administration of the organization. They are also used in order to ensure equitable distribution on the council, with seats being apportioned among the regions. They are as follow:
- Region A -- The Americas (35 Member States)
- Region B -- Western Europe (33 Member States)
- Region C -- Eastern Europe and Northern Asia (21 Member States)
- Region D -- Africa (54 Member States)
- Region E -- Asia and Australasia (50 Member States)
### Regional offices {#regional_offices}
The ITU operates six regional offices, as well as seven area offices. These offices help maintain direct contact with national authorities, regional telecommunication organizations and other stakeholders. They are as follow:
- Regional Office for Africa, headquartered in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Area Offices in Dakar, Senegal; Harare, Zimbabwe and Yaoundé, Cameroon
- Regional Office for the Americas, headquartered in Brasília, Brazil
- Area Offices in Bridgetown, Barbados; Santiago, Chile and Tegucigalpa, Honduras
- Regional Office for Arab States, headquarters in Cairo, Egypt
- Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, headquartered in Bangkok, Thailand
- Area Office in Jakarta, Indonesia
- Regional Office for the Commonwealth of Independent States, headquartered in Moscow, Russia
- Regional Office for Europe, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland
Other regional organizations connected to ITU are:
- Asia-Pacific Telecommunity (APT)
- Arab Spectrum Management Group (ASMG)
- African Telecommunications Union (ATU)
- Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU)
- European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
- Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)
- Regional Commonwealth in the Field of Communications (RCC`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}representing former Soviet republics)
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# International Telecommunication Union
## World Summit on the Information Society {#world_summit_on_the_information_society}
The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was convened by the ITU along with UNESCO, UNCTAD, and UNDP, with the aim of bridging the digital divide. It was held in form of two conferences in 2003 and 2005 in Geneva and Tunis, respectively
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# Illuminati: New World Order
***Illuminati: New World Order*** (*INWO*) is an out-of-print collectible card game (CCG) that was released in 1994 by Steve Jackson Games, based on their original boxed game Illuminati, which in turn was inspired by the 1975 book *The Illuminatus! Trilogy* by Robert Anton Wilson and Robert Shea. An OMNI sealed-deck league patterned after the Atlas Games model was also developed.
The 409-card set was sold in packages containing two 55-card starter decks and in 15-card booster packs. The booster packs contained cards of the types \'Group\' and \'Plot\', but not \'Illuminati\'. The INWO Factory Set was a collector\'s set released in April 1995, containing one of each of the 403 cards in the base set plus blank cards and three of each Illuminati card.
Steve Jackson Games published a 144-page player\'s guide titled *The INWO Book* in April 1995 that contained rules, strategies, color prints of all cards, and also included a rare card from the Unlimited Edition.
The limited edition *Assassins*, the game\'s first expansion set, was released in mid-1995 and sold in 8-card booster packs. The 100-card expansion set *SubGenius* was planned for release in August 1997 and ultimately released in April 1998. The *Bavarian Fire Drill* set was planned for release in November 1998. Both *SubGenius* and *Bavarian Fire Drill* were sold as a single-box expansion set with all cards included.
Following the release and popularity of *Magic: The Gathering* in August 1993, Steve Jackson Games began the development of *Illuminati: New World Order*, most of which occurred in early 1994. The release of the *Deluxe Edition* sold out by mid-1994 and was followed by the release of the *Limited Edition* in December 1994, of which nearly 84,000 sets \"sold out almost immediately\". The *Unlimited Edition* was released in 1995. In an article published in the November--December 1994 issue of *Pyramid* magazine, Steve Jackson stated that Wizards of the Coast had loaned Steve Jackson Games money to \"finance the first printing of INWO\", which was the biggest project the company had undertaken by an order of magnitude.
## Goal of the game {#goal_of_the_game}
Players attempt to achieve world domination by utilizing the powers of their chosen Illuminati (the Adepts of Hermes, the Bavarian Illuminati, the Bermuda Triangle, the Discordian Society, the Gnomes of Zürich, the Network, Servants of Cthulhu, Shangri-La, the UFOs, the Society of Assassins (added in the *Assassins* expansion), and the Church of the SubGenius (added in the *Subgenius* expansion). The first player to control a predetermined number of organizations (usually twelve in a standard game) has achieved the basic goal and can claim victory.
Controllable organizations include groups such as the Men in Black, the CIA, and the Boy Sprouts; personalities such as Diana, Princess of Wales, Saddam Hussein, Ross Perot, or Björne (a parody of Barney the Dinosaur); and places like Japan, California, Canada, and the Moonbase. Many organization names are spoofs of real organizations, presumably altered to avoid lawsuits.
Other ways to achieve victory include: destroying rival Illuminati by capturing or killing the last organization in their power structure; and/or fulfilling a particular goal before your opponent(s) can.
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# Illuminati: New World Order
## Card types {#card_types}
Cards come in three main types: Illuminati cards, Plot cards, and Group cards. Illuminati and Plot cards both feature an illustration of a puppeteer\'s hand in a blue color scheme on the rear side, whereas Group cards feature a puppet on a string in a red color scheme.
Each Illuminati card represents a different Illuminati organization at the center of each player\'s Power Structure. They have Power, a Special Goal, and an appropriate Special Ability. Their power flows outward into the Groups they control via Control Arrows.
Plot cards provide the bulk of the game\'s narrative structure, allowing players to go beyond or even break the game\'s rules as described in the World Domination Handbook. Plot cards are identified by their overall blue color scheme (border and/or title color). Included among the general Plots are several particular types, including *Assassinations* and *Disasters* (for delivering insults to the various Personalities and Places in play), *GOAL* (special goals that can lead to surprise victories), and *New World Order* cards (a set of conditions that affect all players, typically overridden when replacement *New World Order* cards are brought into play).
Group cards represent the power elite in charge of the named organization. There are two main types of Groups: Organizations and Resources.
Organizations are identified by their red color scheme (border and/or title). There are three main types of Organizations: regular Organizations, People, and Places. They all feature Power, Resistance, Special Abilities, Alignments, Attributes, and Control Arrows (an inward arrow and 0--3 outward arrows). Like their Illuminati masters, Organizations can launch and defend against various attacks. Provided that the attacking Organization has a free, outward-pointing Control Arrow, players can increase the size of their Power Structure via successful Attacks to Control, a mathematically determined method employed whenever a player wants to capture an Organization from their hand or a rival player\'s Power Structure. Unless the attack is Privileged (only the target and attacker can be involved), all players can aid or undermine the attack. Attacks to Destroy follow a similar game mechanic but result in the Organization\'s removal from the Power Structure, after which they are immediately discarded. A dice roll determines the outcome of all Attacks. Other ways to introduce Organizations to the Power Structure involve Plots, spending Action Tokens to bring Groups into play, or using free moves at appropriate times during the play cycle.
Resources represent the custodians of a variety of objects, ranging from gadgets to artefacts (such as The Shroud of Turin, Flying Saucers, and ELIZA). They are identified by their overall purple color scheme (border and/or title). Resources are introduced into play by spending Action Tokens or by using free moves during appropriate moments in the play cycle. They go alongside the Power Structure of the player\'s Illuminati and bestow a valid Special Ability or something similar.
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# Illuminati: New World Order
## Reception
In the February 1995 edition of *Shadis* (issue #17.5), Matthew Lee and Jim Pinto liked the durable cards printed on thicker card stock than the original game (although the cards were easier to crease during shuffling). They also liked that one starter pack was enough for two players to get started and that the rulebook was very detailed. However, they disliked that cards were swapped between players -- unusual for a CCG -- which meant that the players had to figure out whose cards were whose at the end of the game. They also found that \"the large rulebook can be daunting, and a large number of rules must be memorized to play\".
In the June 1995 edition of *Dragon* (issue 218), Rick Swan warned that it was a complex game: \"Owing to the unconventional mechanics, even experienced gamers may have trouble at first.\" But he gave the game a perfect rating of 6 out of 6, saying, \"Resolute players who scrutinize the rules and grind their way through a few practice rounds will discover why *Illuminati* has been so durable. Not only is it an inspired concept, but it's also an enlightening treatise on the fine art of backstabbing. What more could you ask from a deck of cards?\" Ten months later, in the April 1996 edition of *Dragon* (Issue 229), Swan, tongue in cheek, called a set of blank cards produced for INWO \"tastefully understated\".
In the September 1996 edition of *Arcane* (issue 4), Steve Faragher rated the *Assassins* expansion set 9 out of 10 overall, saying, \"With the introduction of *Assassins*, it now appears to have \... a little more game balance for tournament play. A good thing indeed.\"
## Reviews
- *Magia i Miecz* (issue 40, April 1997) (Polish)
- *Dragão Brasil* (issue 6, September 1995) (Portuguese)
- *Rollespilsmagasinet Fønix* (Danish) (issue 7, March/April 1995)
- *The Duelist*, October 1998
## Awards
At the 1995 Origins Awards, *INWO* won *Best Card Game of 1994*
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# Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
**Interior Gateway Routing Protocol** (**IGRP**) is a distance vector interior gateway protocol (IGP) developed by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system.
IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. By default, the IGRP composite metric is a sum of the segment delays and the lowest segment bandwidth. The maximum configurable hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP uses protocol number 9 for communication.
IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all subnetwork addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space.
## Advancement
In order to address the issues of address space and other factors, Cisco created EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). EIGRP adds support for VLSM (variable length subnet mask) and adds the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) in order to improve routing and provide a loopless environment. EIGRP has completely replaced IGRP, making IGRP an obsolete routing protocol. In Cisco IOS versions 12.3 and greater, IGRP is completely unsupported. In the new Cisco CCNA curriculum (version 4), IGRP is mentioned only briefly, as an \"obsolete protocol\"
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# Ian Murdock
**Ian Ashley Murdock** (April 28, 1973 -- December 28, 2015) was an American software engineer, known for being the founder of the Debian project and Progeny Linux Systems, a commercial Linux company.
## Life and career {#life_and_career}
Although Murdock\'s parents were both from Southern Indiana, he was born in Konstanz, West Germany, on April 28, 1973, where his father was pursuing postdoctoral research. The family returned to the United States in 1975, and Murdock grew up in Lafayette, Indiana, beginning in 1977 when his father became a professor of entomology at Purdue University. Murdock graduated from Harrison High School in 1991, and then earned his bachelor\'s degree in computer science from Purdue in 1996.
While a college student, Murdock founded the Debian project in August 1993, and wrote the Debian Manifesto in January 1994. Murdock conceived Debian as a Linux distribution that embraced open design, contributions, and support from the free software community. He named Debian after his then-girlfriend (later wife) Debra Lynn Roundy, and himself. They later married, had three children, and divorced in January 2008.
In January 2006, Murdock was appointed Chief Technology Officer of the Free Standards Group and elected chair of the Linux Standard Base workgroup. He continued as CTO of the Linux Foundation when the group was formed from the merger of the Free Standards Group and Open Source Development Labs.
Murdock left the Linux Foundation to join Sun Microsystems in March 2007 to lead Project Indiana, which he described as \"taking the lesson that Linux has brought to the operating system and providing that for Solaris\", making a full OpenSolaris distribution with GNOME and userland tools from GNU plus a network-based package management system. From March 2007 to February 2010, he was Vice President of Emerging Platforms at Sun, until the company merged with Oracle and he resigned his position with the company.
From 2011 until 2015, Murdock was Vice President of Platform and Developer Community at Salesforce Marketing Cloud, based in Indianapolis.
From November 2015 until his death, Murdock was working for Docker, Inc.
## Death
Murdock died on December 28, 2015, in San Francisco. Though initially no cause of death was released, in July 2016 it was announced his death had been ruled a suicide. The police confirmed that the cause of death was due to asphyxiation caused by hanging himself with a vacuum cleaner electrical cord.
The last tweets from Murdock\'s Twitter account first announced that he would commit suicide, then said he would not. He reported having been accused of assault on a police officer after having been himself assaulted and sexually humiliated by the police, then declared an intent to devote his life to opposing police abuse. His Twitter account was taken down shortly afterwards.
The San Francisco police confirmed he was detained, saying he matched the description in a reported attempted break-in and that he appeared to be drunk. The police stated that he became violent and was ultimately taken to jail on suspicion of four misdemeanor counts. They added that he did not appear to be suicidal and was medically examined prior to release. Later, police returned on reports of a possible suicide. The city medical examiner\'s office confirmed Murdock was found dead.
The autopsy report noted extensive bruise marks found on Murdock\'s body, and a medical history of alcohol abuse, psychological disorders and Asperger syndrome
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# Incunable
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# Isotropy
In physics and geometry, **isotropy** (`{{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἴσος}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἴσος}})|equal||''{{wikt-lang|grc|τρόπος}}'' ({{grc-transl|τρόπος}})|turn, way}}`{=mediawiki}) is uniformity in all orientations. Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix *`{{wikt-lang|en|a-}}`{=mediawiki}* or *`{{wikt-lang|en|an-}}`{=mediawiki}*, hence *anisotropy*. *Anisotropy* is also used to describe situations where properties vary systematically, dependent on direction. Isotropic radiation has the same intensity regardless of the direction of measurement, and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test particle is oriented.
## Mathematics
Within mathematics, *isotropy* has a few different meanings:
Isotropic manifolds: A manifold is isotropic if the geometry on the manifold is the same regardless of direction. A similar concept is homogeneity.\
Isotropic quadratic form: A quadratic form *q* is said to be isotropic if there is a non-zero vector *v* such that `{{nowrap|1=''q''(''v'') = 0}}`{=mediawiki}; such a *v* is an isotropic vector or null vector. In complex geometry, a line through the origin in the direction of an isotropic vector is an isotropic line.\
Isotropic coordinates: Isotropic coordinates are coordinates on an isotropic chart for Lorentzian manifolds.\
Isotropy group:An isotropy group is the group of isomorphisms from any object to itself in a groupoid.`{{dubious|date=December 2018}}`{=mediawiki} An isotropy representation is a representation of an isotropy group.\
Isotropic position: A probability distribution over a vector space is in isotropic position if its covariance matrix is the identity.\
Isotropic vector field: The vector field generated by a point source is said to be *isotropic* if, for any spherical neighborhood centered at the point source, the magnitude of the vector determined by any point on the sphere is invariant under a change in direction. For an example, starlight appears to be isotropic.
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# Isotropy
## Physics
Quantum mechanics or particle physics: When a spinless particle (or even an unpolarized particle with spin) decays, the resulting decay distribution *must* be isotropic in the rest frame of the decaying particle - regardless of the detailed physics of the decay. This follows from rotational invariance of the Hamiltonian, which in turn is guaranteed for a spherically symmetric potential.
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Gases: The kinetic theory of gases also exemplifies isotropy. It is assumed that the molecules move in random directions and as a consequence, there is an equal probability of a molecule moving in any direction. Thus when there are many molecules in the gas, with high probability there will be very similar numbers moving in one direction as any other, demonstrating approximate isotropy.
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Fluid dynamics: Fluid flow is isotropic if there is no directional preference (e.g. in fully developed 3D turbulence). An example of anisotropy is in flows with a background density as gravity works in only one direction. The apparent surface separating two differing isotropic fluids would be referred to as an isotrope.
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Thermal expansion: A solid is said to be isotropic if the expansion of solid is equal in all directions when thermal energy is provided to the solid.
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Electromagnetics: An isotropic medium is one such that the permittivity, ε, and permeability, μ, of the medium are uniform in all directions of the medium, the simplest instance being free space.
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Optics: Optical isotropy means having the same optical properties in all directions. The individual reflectance or transmittance of the domains is averaged for micro-heterogeneous samples if the macroscopic reflectance or transmittance is to be calculated. This can be verified simply by investigating, for example, a polycrystalline material under a polarizing microscope having the polarizers crossed: If the crystallites are larger than the resolution limit, they will be visible.
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Cosmology: The cosmological principle, which underpins much of modern cosmology (including the Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe), assumes that the universe is both isotropic and homogeneous, meaning that the universe has no preferred location (is the same everywhere) and has no preferred direction. Observations`{{which?|date=May 2024}}`{=mediawiki} made in 2006 suggest that, on distance-scales much larger than galaxies, galaxy clusters are \"Great\" features, but small compared to so-called multiverse scenarios.
### Materials science {#materials_science}
In the study of mechanical properties of materials, \"isotropic\" means having identical values of a property in all directions. This definition is also used in geology and mineralogy. Glass and metals are examples of isotropic materials. Common anisotropic materials include wood (because its material properties are different parallel to and perpendicular to the grain) and layered rocks such as slate.
Isotropic materials are useful since they are easier to shape, and their behavior is easier to predict. Anisotropic materials can be tailored to the forces an object is expected to experience. For example, the fibers in carbon fiber materials and rebars in reinforced concrete are oriented to withstand tension.
### Microfabrication
In industrial processes, such as etching steps, \"isotropic\" means that the process proceeds at the same rate, regardless of direction. Simple chemical reaction and removal of a substrate by an acid, a solvent or a reactive gas is often very close to isotropic. Conversely, \"anisotropic\" means that the attack rate of the substrate is higher in a certain direction. Anisotropic etch processes, where vertical etch-rate is high but lateral etch-rate is very small, are essential processes in microfabrication of integrated circuits and MEMS devices.
### Antenna (radio) {#antenna_radio}
An isotropic antenna is an idealized \"radiating element\" used as a reference; an antenna that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the Poynting vector) in all directions. The gain of an arbitrary antenna is usually reported in decibels relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).
In cells (a.k.a. muscle fibers), the term \"isotropic\" refers to the light bands (I bands) that contribute to the striated pattern of the cells.
### Pharmacology
While it is well established that the skin provides an ideal site for the administration of local and systemic drugs, it presents a formidable barrier to the permeation of most substances. Recently, isotropic formulations have been used extensively in dermatology for drug delivery.
## Computer science {#computer_science}
Imaging:A volume such as a computed tomography is said to have isotropic voxel spacing when the space between any two adjacent voxels is the same along each axis *x, y, z*. E.g., voxel spacing is isotropic if the center of voxel *(i, j, k)* is 1.38 mm from that of *(i+1, j, k)*, 1.38 mm from that of *(i, j+1, k)* and 1.38 mm from that of *(i, j, k+1)* for all indices *i, j, k*.
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# Isotropy
## Other sciences {#other_sciences}
Economics and geography: An isotropic region is a region that has the same properties everywhere. Such a region is a construction needed in many types of models
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