id
int64 39
11.1M
| section
stringlengths 3
4.51M
| length
int64 2
49.9k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
15,076 |
# International Data Encryption Algorithm
## Security
The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful linear or algebraic weaknesses have been reported. `{{As of|2007}}`{=mediawiki}, the best attack applied to all keys could break IDEA reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds). Note that a \"break\" is any attack that requires less than 2^128^ operations; the 6-round attack requires 2^64^ known plaintexts and 2^126.8^ operations.
Bruce Schneier thought highly of IDEA in 1996, writing: \"In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time.\" (*Applied Cryptography*, 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents.
In 2011 full 8.5-round IDEA was broken using a meet-in-the-middle attack. Independently in 2012, full 8.5-round IDEA was broken using a narrow-bicliques attack, with a reduction of cryptographic strength of about 2 bits, similar to the effect of the previous bicliques attack on AES; however, this attack does not threaten the security of IDEA in practice.
### Weak keys {#weak_keys}
The very simple key schedule makes IDEA subject to a class of weak keys; some keys containing a large number of 0 bits produce weak encryption. These are of little concern in practice, being sufficiently rare that they are unnecessary to avoid explicitly when generating keys randomly. A simple fix was proposed: XORing each subkey with a 16-bit constant, such as 0x0DAE.
Larger classes of weak keys were found in 2002.
This is still of negligible probability to be a concern to a randomly chosen key, and some of the problems are fixed by the constant XOR proposed earlier, but the paper is not certain if all of them are. A more comprehensive redesign of the IDEA key schedule may be desirable.
| 322 |
International Data Encryption Algorithm
| 1 |
15,076 |
# International Data Encryption Algorithm
## Availability
A patent application for IDEA was first filed in Switzerland (CH A 1690/90) on May 18, 1990, then an international patent application was filed under the Patent Cooperation Treaty on May 16, 1991. Patents were eventually granted in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, (`{{EPO Register|appno=91908542|patno=0482154|patent=yes}}`{=mediawiki}, filed May 16, 1991, issued June 22, 1994 and expired May 16, 2011), the United States (`{{US patent|5214703}}`{=mediawiki}, issued May 25, 1993 and expired January 7, 2012) and Japan (JP 3225440, expired May 16, 2011).
MediaCrypt AG is now offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release in May 2005) IDEA NXT, which was previously called FOX
| 121 |
International Data Encryption Algorithm
| 2 |
15,077 |
# Indoor rower
An **indoor rower**, or **rowing machine**, is a machine used to simulate the action of watercraft rowing for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. Modern indoor rowers are known as **ergometers** (colloquially **erg** or **ergo**) because they measure work performed by the rower (that can be measured in ergs). Indoor rowing has become established as a sport, drawing a competitive environment from around the world. The term \"indoor rower\" also refers to a participant in this sport.
## History
Chabrias, an Athenian admiral of the 4th century BC, introduced the first rowing machines as supplemental military training devices. \"To train inexperienced oarsmen, Chabrias built wooden rowing frames onshore where beginners could learn technique and timing before they went onboard ship.\"
Early rowing machines are known to have existed from the mid-1800s, a US patent being issued to W.B. Curtis in 1872 for a particular hydraulic-based damper design. Machines using linear pneumatic resistance were common around 1900. One of the most popular was the Narragansett hydraulic rower, manufactured in Rhode Island from around 1900--1960.
In the 1970s, the Gjessing-Nilson ergometer from Norway used a friction brake mechanism with industrial strapping applied over the broad rim of the flywheel. Weights hanging from the strap ensured that an adjustable and predictable friction could be calculated.
The first air resistance ergometers were introduced around 1980 by Repco. In 1981, Peter and Richard Dreissigacker, and Jonathan Williams, filed for U.S. patent protection, as joint inventors of a \"Stationary Rowing Unit\". The first commercial embodiment of the Concept2 \"rowing ergometer\" was the Model A, a fixed-frame sliding-seat design using a bicycle wheel with fins attached for air resistance. In 1986, The Model B introduced a solid cast flywheel and the first digital performance monitor, which proved revolutionary. This machine\'s capability of accurate calibration combined with easy transportability spawned the sport of competitive indoor rowing, and revolutionised training and selection procedures for watercraft rowing. Later models were the C (1993) and D (2003).
In 1995, Casper Rekers, a Dutch engineer, was granted a U.S. patent for a (US 5382210A) \"Dynamically Balanced Rowing Simulator\". This device differed from the prior art in that the flywheel and footrests are fixed to a carriage, the carriage being free to slide fore and aft on a rail or rails integral to the frame. The seat is also free to slide fore and aft on a rail or rails integral to the frame.
| 406 |
Indoor rower
| 0 |
15,077 |
# Indoor rower
## Equipment
### Motion type {#motion_type}
Modern indoor rowers have their resistance provided by a flywheel. Indoor rowers that use flywheel resistance are classified into two motion types. In both models, the user\'s rowing movement causes the footrests and seat to move further and closer apart in accordance with the user\'s stroke. The difference between the two types is that the footrests move or do not move relative to the ground.
The first type is distinguished by the Dreissigacker/Williams mechanism. This design has the flywheel and footrests fastened to a stationary frame, and the seat can slide fore and aft on a rail or rails built into the stationary frame. Therefore, during use, the seat moves relative to the footrests and also relative to ground, while the flywheel and footrests remain stationary relative to ground.
The second type is characterised by the Rekers device. With this type, both the seat and the footrests are free to slide fore and aft on a rail or rails integral to a stationary frame. Therefore, during use, the seat and the footrests move relative to each other, and both also move relative to ground.
### Damper type {#damper_type}
**Piston resistance** comes from hydraulic cylinders that are attached to the handles of the rowing machine.
**Braked flywheel resistance** models comprise magnetic, air, and water resistance rowers.
**Magnetic resistance** models control resistance by means of permanent magnets or electromagnets.
**Air resistance** models use vanes on the flywheel to provide the flywheel braking needed to generate resistance.
**Water resistance** models consist of a paddle revolving in an enclosed tank of water.
**Dual Resistance** Rower is a professional fitness equipment with fan and magnetic brake resistance for a variety of intensity levels from warm-ups to HIIT intervals.
### Slides
Sometimes, slides are placed underneath the machine, which allows it to move back and forth smoothly as if there were water beneath the rower. The slides can be connected in rows or columns so that rowers are forced to move together on the ergometer, similarly to the way they would match up their rhythm in a boat.
Indoor rowers usually also display estimates of rowing boat speed and energy used by the athlete.
## Use
### Exercise
Rowing is an example of a method of aerobic exercise, which has been observed to improve athletes\' VO~2~ peak. Indoor rowing primarily works the cardiovascular systems with typical workouts consisting of steady pieces of 20--40 minutes.
The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the \"split\", or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 m at the current pace. Other standard measurement units on the indoor rowing machine include calories and watts.
### Testing
Although ergometer tests are used by rowing coaches to evaluate rowers and are part of athlete selection for many senior and junior national rowing teams, data suggests \"physiological and performance tests performed on a rowing ergometer are not good indicators of on-water performance\".
Some standard indoor rower ergometer tests include: 250 m ergometer test, 2000 m ergometer test, 5 km ergometer test, 16 km ergometer test and the 30-minute ergometer test.
| 525 |
Indoor rower
| 1 |
15,077 |
# Indoor rower
## Technique
Rowing on an ergometer requires four basic phases to complete one stroke; the catch, the drive, the finish and the recovery. The catch is the initial part of the stroke. The drive is where the power from the rower is generated while the finish is the final part of the stroke. Then, the recovery is the initial phase to begin taking a new stroke. The phases repeat until a time duration or a distance is completed. At each stage of the stroke, the back should remain in a neutral, flat position, pivoting at the hips to avoid injury.
### Catch
Knees are bent with the shins in a vertical position. The back should be roughly parallel to the thigh without hyperflexion (leaning forward too far). The arms and shoulders should be extended forward and relaxed. The arms should also be level.
### Drive
The drive is initiated by a push and extension of the legs; the body remains in the catch posture at this point of the drive. As the legs continue to full extension, the hip angle opens and the rower engages the core to begin the motion of the body levering backward, adding to the work of the legs. When the legs are fully extended, the rower begins to pull the handle toward the chest with their arms, completing the stroke with the handle halfway up the body and the forearms parallel to the ground.
### Finish (or release) {#finish_or_release}
The legs are at full extension and flat. The shoulders are slightly behind the pelvis, and the arms are in full contraction with the elbows bent and hands against the chest below the nipples. The back of the rower is still maintained in an upright posture and wrists should be flat.
### Recovery
The recovery is a slow slide back to the initial part of the stroke, it gives the rower time to recover from the previous stroke. During the recovery, the actions are in reverse order of the drive. The recovery is initiated by the extensions of the arms until fully extended in front of the body. The torso is then engaged by pivoting at the hips to move the torso in front of the hips. Weight transfers from the back of the seat to the front of the seat at this time. When the hands come over the knees, the legs are bent at the knees, moving the slide towards the front of the machine. As the back becomes more parallel to the thighs, the recovery is completed when the shins are perpendicular to the ground. At this point the recovery transitions to the catch for the next stroke.
## Sport
The first indoor rowing competition was held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in February 1982 with participation of 96 on-water rowers who called themselves the \"Charles River Association of Sculling Has-Beens\", hence the acronym, \"CRASH-B\". The core events for indoor rowing competitions that are currently competed in at the World Rowing Indoor Championships are the individual 500m, individual 2000m, individual 1 hour, and 3-minute teams event. Events at other indoor rowing competitions include the mile and the 2500-meter.
Most competitions are organised into categories based on sex, age, and weight class
| 539 |
Indoor rower
| 2 |
15,078 |
# Internetwork Packet Exchange
**Internetwork Packet Exchange** (**IPX**) is the network-layer protocol in the IPX/SPX protocol suite. IPX is derived from Xerox Network Systems\' IDP. It also has the ability to act as a transport layer protocol.
The IPX/SPX protocol suite was very popular through the late 1980s and mid-1990s because it was used by Novell NetWare, a network operating system. Due to Novell NetWare\'s popularity, IPX became a prominent protocol for internetworking.
A big advantage of IPX was a small memory footprint of the IPX driver, which was vital for DOS and Windows up to Windows 95 due to the limited size at that time of conventional memory. Another IPX advantage was easy configuration of its client computers. However, IPX does not scale well for large networks such as the Internet. As such, IPX usage decreased as the boom of the Internet made TCP/IP nearly universal.
Computers and networks can run multiple network protocols, so almost all IPX sites also ran TCP/IP, to allow Internet connectivity. It was also possible to run later Novell products without IPX, with the beginning of full support for both IPX and TCP/IP by NetWare version 5 in late 1998.
## Description
A big advantage of IPX protocol is its little or no need for configuration. In the time when protocols for dynamic host configuration did not exist and the BOOTP protocol for centralized assigning of addresses was not common, the IPX network could be configured almost automatically. A client computer uses the MAC address of its network card as the node address and learns what it needs to know about the network topology from the servers or routers -- routes are propagated by Routing Information Protocol, services by Service Advertising Protocol.
A small IPX network administrator had to care only
- to assign all servers in the same network the same network number,
- to assign different network numbers to different frame formats in the same network,
- to assign different network numbers to different interfaces of servers with multiple network cards (Novell NetWare server with multiple network cards worked automatically as a router),
- to assign different network numbers to servers in different interconnected networks,
- to start router process on nodes with multiple network cards in more complex networks.
## IPX packet structure {#ipx_packet_structure}
Each IPX packet begins with a header with the following structure:
Octets Field
-------- ------------------------------------------
2 Checksum (always 0xFFFF -- no checksum)
2 Packet Length (including the IPX header)
1 Transport Control (hop count)
1 Packet Type
12 Destination address
12 Source address
The Packet Type values are:
Value Meaning/Protocol
------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
0 Unknown
1 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) (RFC 1582, RFC 2091)
2 Echo Packet
3 Error Packet
4 PEP (Packet Exchange Protocol), used for SAP (Service Advertising Protocol)
5 SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange)
17 NCP (NetWare Core Protocol)
20 Broadcast
| 475 |
Internetwork Packet Exchange
| 0 |
15,078 |
# Internetwork Packet Exchange
## IPX addressing {#ipx_addressing}
An IPX address has the following structure:
Octets Field
-------- ----------------
4 Network number
6 Node number
2 Socket number
### Network number {#network_number}
The network number allows to address (and communicate with) the IPX nodes which do not belong to the same network or *cabling system*. The **cabling system** is a network in which a data link layer protocol can be used for communication. To allow communication between different networks, they must be connected with IPX routers. A set of interconnected networks is called an **internetwork**. Any Novell NetWare server may serve as an IPX router. Novell also supplied stand-alone routers. Other vendors \' multiprotocol routers often support IPX routing. Using different frame formats in one cabling system is possible, but it works similarly as if separate cabling systems were used (i.e. different network numbers must be used for different frame formats even in the same cabling system and a router must be used to allow communication between nodes using different frame formats in the same cabling system).
- Logical networks are assigned a unique 32-bit address in the range 0x1 to 0xFFFFFFFE (hexadecimal).
- Hosts have a 48-bit node address, which is by default set to the 6 bytes of the network interface card MAC address. Network addresses, which exist in addition to the node address but are not part of the MAC layer, are assigned only if an IPX router is present or by manual configuration in the network. The network address covers every network participant that can talk to another participant without the aid of an IPX router. In combination, both network and node address form an 80-bit unique identifier for each IPX node across connected logical networks. The node number itself is unique to the logical network only.
- Network number 00:00:00:00 refers to the current network, and is also used during router discovery. It\'s also the default in case no router is present, but can be changed by manual configuration, depending on the IPX implementation.
- Broadcast network number is FF:FF:FF:FF.
### Node number {#node_number}
The node number is used to address an individual computer (or more exactly, a network interface) in the network. Client stations use its network interface card MAC address as the node number.
The value FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF may be used as a node number in a destination address to broadcast a packet to \"all nodes in the current network\".
### Socket number {#socket_number}
The socket number serves to select a process or application in the destination node. The presence of a socket number in the IPX address allows the IPX to act as a transport layer protocol, comparable with the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) in the Internet protocol suite.
Socket number Protocol
---------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------
0x0001--0x0BB8 Registered by Xerox
0x0001 Routing Information Packet
0x0002 Echo Protocol Packet
0x0003 Error Handling Packet
0x0020--0x003F Experimental
0x0BB9--0xFFFF Dynamically Assigned
0x0451 NetWare Core Protocol (NCP -- used by Novell NetWare servers)
0x0452 Service Advertising Protocol (SAP)
0x0453 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
0x0455 NetBIOS
0x0456 Diagnostic Packet
0x0457 Serialization Packet (used for NCP as well)
0x4000--0x4FFF Dynamically Assigned Socket Numbers
0x4003 Used by Novell NetWare Client
0x8000--0xFFFF Statically Assigned Socket Numbers
0x8060 LLC
0x9091 TCP over IPXF
0x9092 UDP over IPXF
0x9093 IPXF, IPX Fragmentation Protocol
| 547 |
Internetwork Packet Exchange
| 1 |
15,078 |
# Internetwork Packet Exchange
## IPX addressing {#ipx_addressing}
### Comparison with IP {#comparison_with_ip}
The IPX network number is conceptually identical to the network part of the IP address (the parts with netmask bits set to 1); the node number has the same meaning as the bits of IP address with netmask bits set to 0. The difference is that the boundary between network and node part of address in IP is variable, while in IPX it is fixed. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of the network adapter, the Address Resolution Protocol is not needed in IPX.
For routing, the entries in the IPX routing table are similar to IP routing tables; routing is done by network address, and for each network address a network:node of the next router is specified in a similar fashion an IP address/netmask is specified in IP routing tables.
There are three routing protocols available for IPX networks. In early IPX networks, a version of Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was the only available protocol to exchange routing information. Unlike RIP for IP, it uses delay time as the main metric, retaining the hop count as a secondary metric. Since NetWare 3, the NetWare Link Services Protocol (NLSP) based on IS-IS is available, which is more suitable for larger networks. Cisco routers implement an IPX version of EIGRP protocol as well.
## Frame formats {#frame_formats}
IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 frame formats or encapsulation types:
- 802.3 (raw) encapsulation comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header (destination MAC, source MAC, length) immediately followed by IPX data. It is used in legacy systems, and can be distinguished by the first two bytes of the IPX header always containing a value of 0xFFFF, which cannot be interpreted as valid LLC Destination and Source Service Access Points in this location of the frame.
- 802.2 (LLC or Novell) comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header (destination MAC, source MAC, length) followed by an LLC header (DSAP 0xE0, SSAP 0xE0, control 0x03) followed by IPX data. The 0xE0 fields of the LLC header indicate \"NetWare\".
- 802.2 (SNAP) comprises an IEEE 802.3 frame header, an LLC header (DSAP 0xAA, SSAP 0xAA, control 0x03), a SNAP header (OUI 0x000000, type 0x8137), and IPX data. The 0xAA fields of the LLC header indicate \"SNAP\", and the OUI 0x000000 in the SNAP header indicates an encapsulated EtherType.
- Ethernet II encapsulation comprises an Ethernet II frame header (destination MAC, source MAC, EtherType 0x8137) followed by IPX data.
In non-Ethernet networks, only 802.2 and SNAP frame types are available
| 435 |
Internetwork Packet Exchange
| 2 |
15,114 |
# Indictable offence
In many common law jurisdictions (e.g. England and Wales, Ireland, Canada, Hong Kong, India, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Singapore), an **indictable offence** is an offence which can only be tried on an indictment after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a *prima facie* case to answer or by a grand jury (in contrast to a summary offence). A similar concept in the United States is known as a felony, which for federal crimes, also requires an indictment. In Scotland, which is a hybrid common law jurisdiction, the procurator fiscal will commence solemn proceedings for serious crimes to be prosecuted on indictment before a jury.
## Australia
In Australia, an indictable offence is more serious than a summary offence, and one where the defendant has the right to trial by jury. They include crimes such as murder, rape, and threatening or endangering life. The system is underpinned by various state and territory acts and the *Commonwealth Crimes Act 1914*.
In South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland, indictable offences are further split into two categories: major indictable offences (including murder, rape, and threatening or endangering life) are heard in the state\'s Supreme Court, while minor indictable offences are heard in the District Court. In South Australia, minor indictable offences are generally heard in magistrates courts, although the defendant may elect to be heard in the District Court.
## Canada
In Canada, an indictable offence is a crime that is more serious than a summary offence. Examples of indictable offences include theft over \$5,000, breaking and entering, aggravated sexual assault, and murder. Maximum penalties for indictable offences are different depending on the crime and can include life in prison. There are minimum penalties for some indictable offences.
| 290 |
Indictable offence
| 0 |
15,114 |
# Indictable offence
## England and Wales {#england_and_wales}
In relation to England and Wales, the expression *indictable offence* means an offence which, if committed by an adult, is triable on indictment, whether it is exclusively so triable or triable either way; and the term *indictable*, in its application to offences, is to be construed accordingly. In this definition, references to the way or ways in which an offence is triable are to be construed without regard to the effect, if any, of section 22 of the Magistrates\' Courts Act 1980 on the mode of trial in a particular case.
An either-way offence allows the defendant to elect between trial by jury on indictment in the Crown Court and summary trial in a magistrates\' court. However, the election may be overruled by the magistrates\' court if the facts suggest that the sentencing powers of a magistrates\' court would be inadequate to reflect the seriousness of the offence.
In relation to some indictable offences, for example criminal damage, only summary trial is available unless the damage caused exceeds £5,000.
A youth court has jurisdiction to try all indictable offences with the exception of homicide and certain firearms offences, and will normally do so provided that the available sentencing power of two years\' detention is adequate to punish the offender if found guilty.
### History
See section 64 of the Criminal Law Act 1977.
Grand juries were abolished in 1933.
### Offences triable only on indictment {#offences_triable_only_on_indictment}
Some offences such as murder and rape are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the judge.
The expression *indictable-only offence* was defined by section 51 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, as originally enacted, as an offence triable only on indictment. Sections 51 and 52 of, and Schedule 3 to, that Act abolished committal proceedings for such offences and made other provisions in relation to them.
When the accused is charged with an indictable-only offence, he or she will be tried in the Crown Court. The rules are different in England and Wales in respect of those under 18 years of age.
See also section 14(a) of the Criminal Law Act 1977.
## New Zealand {#new_zealand}
Similarly in New Zealand, a rape or murder charge will be tried at the High Court, while less serious offences such as theft will be tried at the District Court. However, the District Court can hold both jury and summary trials.
## United States {#united_states}
In the United States, federal felonies always require an indictment from a grand jury before proceeding to trial. In contrast, while misdemeanors may proceed to trial on indictment, this is not required, as they may also proceed on information or complaint. Different states have different policies; since the requirement of an indictment by grand jury is not incorporated against the states, in many states, an indictment is not required for a felony case to proceed. However, some states do still use grand jury indictments for felony-level offenses and may use other terminology. For instance, in New Jersey, whose constitution requires all \"crimes\" to be charged by indictment but allows lesser \"offenses\" not to be, felony-level offenses are commonly called \"indictable offenses\", including in the New Jersey Penal Code, to avoid confusion between the narrow technical definition of the word \"crime\" from the state\'s constitutional jurisprudence and the broader sense
| 574 |
Indictable offence
| 1 |
15,134 |
# Lightbulb joke
A **lightbulb joke** is a joke cycle that asks how many people of a certain group are needed to change, replace, or screw in a light bulb. Generally, the punch line answer highlights a stereotype of the target group. There are numerous versions of the lightbulb joke satirizing a wide range of cultures, beliefs, and occupations.
Early versions of the joke, popular in the late 1960s and the 1970s, were used to insult the intelligence of people, especially Poles (\"Polish jokes\"). Such jokes generally take the form of: `{{block indent|<poem>'''Q.''' How many [members of the target group] does it take to change a lightbulb?
'''A.''' Three — one to hold the light bulb and two to turn the ladder around.</poem>}}`{=mediawiki}
Although lightbulb jokes tend to be derogatory in tone (*e.g.*, \"How many drunkards\...\" / \"Four: one to hold the light bulb and three to drink until the room spins\"), the people targeted by them may take pride in the stereotypes expressed and are often themselves the jokes\' originators. An example where the joke itself becomes a statement of ethnic pride is: `{{block indent|<poem>'''Q.''' How many Germans does it take to change a lightbulb?
'''A.''' One, we're very efficient but not funny.</poem>}}`{=mediawiki}
Lightbulb jokes applied to subgroups can be used to ease tensions between them.
## Variations
Some versions of the joke are puns on the words \"change\" or \"screw\", or \"light\":
Lightbulb jokes are often responses to contemporary events. For example, the lightbulb may not need to be changed at all due to ongoing power outages.
*The Village Voice* held a \$200 lightbulb joke contest around the time of the Iran hostage crisis, with the winning joke being:`{{block indent|<poem>'''Q.''' How many Iranians does it take to change a light bulb?
'''A.''' You send us the prize money and we'll tell you the answer.</poem>}}`{=mediawiki}
Lightbulb jokes can also be about sports, teasing about their team\'s past, future, etc.
` ``{{block indent|<poem>'''Q.''' How many [[Manchester United]] fans does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
''' A.''' They don't, they just talk about how good the old one was.</poem>}}`{=mediawiki}
Lightbulb jokes can also be related to religious groups and denominations
| 361 |
Lightbulb joke
| 0 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
The **IBM 3270** is a family of block oriented display and printer computer terminals introduced by IBM in 1971 and normally used to communicate with IBM mainframes. The 3270 was the successor to the IBM 2260 display terminal. Due to the text color on the original models, these terminals are informally known as *green screen* terminals. Unlike a character-oriented terminal, the 3270 minimizes the number of I/O interrupts required by transferring large blocks of data known as data streams, and uses a high speed proprietary communications interface, using coaxial cable.
IBM no longer manufactures 3270 terminals, but the IBM 3270 protocol is still commonly used via TN3270 clients, 3270 terminal emulation or web interfaces to access mainframe-based applications, which are sometimes referred to as *green screen applications*.
## Principles
The 3270 series was designed to connect with mainframe computers, often at a remote location, using the technology then available in the early 1970s. The main goal of the system was to maximize the number of terminals that could be used on a single mainframe. To do this, the 3270 was designed to minimize the amount of data transmitted, and minimize the frequency of interrupts to the mainframe. By ensuring the CPU is not interrupted at every keystroke, a 1970s-era IBM 3033 mainframe fitted with only 16 MB of main memory was able to support up to 17,500 3270 terminals under CICS.
Most 3270 devices are *clustered*, with one or more displays or printers connected to a *control unit* (the 3275 and 3276 included an integrated control unit). Originally devices were connected to the control unit over coaxial cable; later Token Ring, twisted pair, or Ethernet connections were available. A *local* control unit attaches directly to the channel of a nearby mainframe. A *remote* control unit is connected to a communications line by a modem. Remote 3270 controllers are frequently *multi-dropped*, with multiple control units on a line.
IBM 3270 devices are connected to a 3299 multiplexer or to the cluster controller, e.g., 3271, 3272, 3274, 3174, using 93 ohm RG-62 coaxial cables in a point-to-point configuration with one dedicated cable per terminal. Data is sent with a bit rate of 2.3587 Mbit/s using a slightly modified differential Manchester encoding. Cable runs of up to 1500 m are supported, although IBM documents routinely stated the maximum supported coax cable length was 2000 ft. Originally devices were equipped with BNC connectors, which were later replaced with special *dual-purpose connectors* (*DPCs*) supporting the IBM shielded twisted-pair cabling system without the need for red baluns.
In a data stream, both text and control (or formatting functions) are interspersed allowing an entire screen to be painted as a single output operation. The concept of formatting in these devices allows the screen to be divided into fields (clusters of contiguous character cells) for which numerous field attributes, e.g., color, highlighting, character set, and protection from modification, can be set. A field attribute occupies a physical location on the screen that also determines the beginning and end of a field. There are also character attributes associated with individual screen locations.
Using a technique known as \"read modified\", a single transmission back to the mainframe can contain the changes from any number of formatted fields that have been modified, but without sending any unmodified fields or static data. This technique enhances the terminal throughput of the CPU, and minimizes the data transmitted. Some users familiar with character interrupt-driven terminal interfaces find this technique unusual. There is also a read buffer capability that transfers the entire content of the 3270-screen buffer including field attributes. This is mainly used for debugging purposes to preserve the application program screen contents while replacing it, temporarily, with debugging information.
Early 3270s offered three types of keyboards. The *typewriter keyboard* came in both a 66 key version, with no programmed function (PF) keys, and a 78 key version with twelve. Both versions had two *Program Attention* (PA) keys. The *data entry keyboard* had five PF keys and two PA keys. The *operator console keyboard* had twelve PF keys and two PA keys. Later 3270s had an Attention key, a Cursor Select key, a System Request key, twenty-four PF keys and three PA keys. There was also a TEST REQ key. When one of these keys is pressed, it will cause its control unit to generate an I/O interrupt to the host computer and present an *Attention ID* (AID) identifying which key was pressed. Application program functions such as termination, page-up, page-down, or help can be invoked by a single key press, thereby reducing the load on very busy processors.
A downside to this approach was that vi-like behavior, responding to individual keystrokes, was not possible. For the same reason, a port of Lotus 1-2-3 to mainframes with 3279 screens did not meet with success because its programmers were not able to properly adapt the spreadsheet\'s user interface to a screen at a time rather than character at a time device. But end-user responsiveness was arguably more predictable with 3270, something users appreciated.
| 841 |
IBM 3270
| 0 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Applications
Following its introduction the 3270 and compatibles were by far the most commonly used terminals on IBM System/370 and successor systems. IBM and third-party software that included an interactive component took for granted the presence of 3270 terminals and provided a set of ISPF panels and supporting programs.
Conversational Monitor System (CMS) in VM has support for the 3270 continuing to z/VM.
Time Sharing Option (TSO) in OS/360 and successors has line mode command line support and also has facilities for full screen applications, e.g., ISPF.
Device Independent Display Operator Console Support (DIDOCS) in Multiple Console Support (MCS) for OS/360 and successors supports 3270 devices and, in fact, MCS in current versions of MVS no longer supports line mode, 2250 or 2260 devices.
The SPF and *Program Development Facility* (ISPF/PDF) editors for MVS and VM/SP (ISPF/PDF was available for VM, but little used) and the XEDIT editors for VM/SP through z/VM make extensive use of 3270 features.
Customer Information Control System (CICS) has support for 3270 panels. Indeed, from the early 1970s on, CICS applications were often written for the 3270.
The online editing and job submission environment Source Program Maintenance Online II (SPM) was oriented around the 3270.
Various versions of Wylbur have support for 3270, including support for full-screen applications.
McGill University\'s MUSIC/SP operating system provided support for 3270 terminals and applications, including a full-screen text editor, a menu system, and a PANEL facility to create 3270 full-screen applications.
The modified data tag is well suited to converting formatted, structured punched card input onto the 3270 display device. With the appropriate programming, any batch program that uses formatted, structured card input can be layered onto a 3270 terminal.
IBM\'s OfficeVision office productivity software enjoyed great success with 3270 interaction because of its design understanding. And for many years the PROFS calendar was the most commonly displayed screen on office terminals around the world.
A version of the WordPerfect word processor ported to System/370 was designed for the 3270 architecture.
| 336 |
IBM 3270
| 1 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## SNA
3270 devices can be a part of an SNA -- System Network Architecture network or non-SNA network. If the controllers are SNA connected, they appear to SNA as PU -- Physical Unit type 2.0 (PU2.1 for APPN) nodes typically with LU -- Logical Unit type 1, 2, and 3 devices connected. Local, channel attached, controllers are controlled by VTAM -- Virtual Telecommunications Access Method. Remote controllers are controlled by the NCP -- Network Control Program in the Front End Processor i.e. 3705, 3720, 3725, 3745, and VTAM.
## Third parties {#third_parties}
One of the first groups to write and provide operating system support for the 3270 and its early predecessors was the University of Michigan, who created the Michigan Terminal System in order for the hardware to be useful outside of the manufacturer.`{{clarify|date=August 2017}}`{=mediawiki} MTS was the default OS at Michigan for many years, and was still used at Michigan well into the 1990s. Many manufacturers, such as GTE, Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell/Incoterm Div, Memorex, ITT Courier, McData, Harris, Alfaskop and Teletype/AT&T created 3270 compatible terminals, or adapted ASCII terminals such as the HP 2640 series to have a similar block-mode capability that would transmit a screen at a time, with some form validation capability. The industry distinguished between \'system compatible\' and \'plug compatible\' controllers, where \'system compatibility\' meant that the third-party system was compatible with the 3270 data stream terminated in the unit, but \'plug compatible\' equipment was also compatible at the coax level, thereby allowing IBM terminals to be connected to a third-party controller or vice versa. Modern applications are sometimes built upon legacy 3270 applications, using software utilities to capture (screen scrape) screens and transfer the data to web pages or GUI interfaces.
In the early 1990s a popular solution to link PCs with the mainframes was the Irma board, an expansion card that plugged into a PC and connected to the controller through a coaxial cable. 3270 simulators for IRMA and similar adapters typically provide file transfers between the PC and the mainframe using the same protocol as the IBM 3270 PC.
| 349 |
IBM 3270
| 2 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
The IBM 3270 display terminal subsystem consists of displays, printers and controllers. Optional features for the 3275 and 3277 are the *selector-pen*, ASCII rather than EBCDIC character set, an audible alarm, and a keylock for the keyboard. A *keyboard numeric lock* was available and will lock the keyboard if the operator attempts to enter non-numeric data into a field defined as numeric. Later an *Operator Identification Card Reader* was added which could read information encoded on a magnetic stripe card.
### Displays
Generally, 3277 models allow only upper-case input, except for the mixed EBCDIC/APL or *text* keyboards, which have lower case. Lower-case capability and dead keys were available as an RPQ (*Request Price Quotation*); these were added to the later 3278 & 3279 models.
A version of the IBM PC called the 3270 PC, released in October 1983, includes 3270 terminal emulation. Later, the 3270 PC/G (graphics), 3270 PC/GX (extended graphics), 3270 Personal Computer AT, 3270 PC AT/G (graphics) and 3270 PC AT/GX (extended graphics) followed.
#### CUT vs. DFT {#cut_vs._dft}
There are two types of 3270 displays in respect to where the 3270 data stream terminates. For CUT (Control Unit Terminal) displays, the stream terminates in the display controller, the controller instructs the display to move the cursor, position a character, etc. EBCDIC is translated by the controller into \'3270 Character Set\', and keyboard scan-codes from the terminal, read by the controller through a poll, is translated by the controller into EBCDIC. For DFT (Distributed Function Terminal) type displays, most of the 3270 data stream is forwarded to the display by the controller. The display interprets the 3270 protocol itself.
In addition to passing the 3270 data stream directly to the terminal, allowing for features like EAB --- Extended Attributes, Graphics, etc., DFT also enabled multi sessions (up to 5 simultaneous), featured in the 3290 and 3194 multisession displays. This feature was also widely used in 2nd generation 3270 terminal emulation software.
The MLT --- Multiple Logical Terminals feature of the 3174 controller also enabled multiple sessions from a CUT type terminal.
Display Station Name CUT vs. DFT
------------------------------- -------------
3178 --- all models CUT
3179 --- Model 1 CUT
3179 --- Models G1, G2 DFT
3180 --- Model 1 CUT
3191 --- all models CUT
3192 --- Models C, D, F, L, W CUT
3192 --- Model G DFT
3193 --- all models DFT
3194 --- all models DFT
3277 --- all models CUT
3278 --- all models CUT
3279 --- all models CUT
3290 --- all models DFT
3472 --- except model G CUT
3472 --- model G DFT
3482 --- all models DFT
: CUT vs. DFT
#### 3277
- 3277 model 1: 40×12 terminal
- 3277 model 2: 80×24 terminal, the biggest success of all
- 3277 GA: a 3277 with an RS232C I/O, often used to drive a Tektronix 4013 or 4015 graphic screen (monochrome)
#### 3278 {#section_1}
- 3278 models 1--5: next-generation, with accented characters and dead keys in countries that needed them
- model 1: 80x12
- model 2: 80×24
- model 2A: 80x24 (console) with 4 lines reserved
- model 3: 80×32 or 80x24 (switchable)
- model 4: 80×43 or 80x24 (switchable)
- model 5: 132×27 or 80×24 (switchable)
- Extended Highlighting: ability to set highlighting attributes on individual characters as well as on fields. For the 3278 that includes:
- blinking
- character set
- reverse video
- underscored
- Programmed Symbols {PS): programmable characters; able to display monochrome graphics
The 3278, along with the 3279 color display and the 3287 printer, introduced the *Extended Display Stream* (EDS) as the framework for new features.
#### 3279 {#section_2}
The **IBM 3279** was IBM\'s first color terminal. IBM initially announced four models, and later added a fifth model for use as a processor console.
- Models
- model 2A: 80-24 base color
- model 2B: 80-24 extended color
- model 2C: 80-24 base color (console) with 4 lines reserved
- model 3A: 80-32 base color
- model 3B: 80-32 extended color
- model S3G: 80-32 extended color with programmed symbol set graphics
Base color: In base color mode the protection and intensity field attributes determine the color:
: {\| class=\"wikitable\"
\|+ Base color mode \|- ! Protection ! Intensity ! Color \|- \| Unprotected \| Normal \| style=\"color: Green;background-color:DarkGray; font-weight: bold;\" \| Green \|- \| Unprotected \| Intensified \| style=\"color: Red; background-color:DarkGray; font-weight: bold;\" \| Red \|- \| Protected \| Normal \| style=\"color: Blue; background-color:DarkGray; font-weight: bold;\" \| Blue \|- \| Protected \| Intensified \| style=\"color: White; background-color:DarkGray; font-weight: bold;\" \| White \|}
Extended color: In extended color mode the color field and character attributes determine the color as one of
- Neutral (White)
- Red
- Blue
- Green
- Pink
- Yellow
- Turquoise
The 3279 was introduced in 1979. The 3279 was widely used as an IBM mainframe terminal before PCs became commonly used for the purpose. It was part of the 3270 series, using the 3270 data stream. Terminals could be connected to a 3274 controller, either channel connected to an IBM mainframe or linked via an SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control) link. In the Systems Network Architecture (SNA) protocol these terminals were logical unit type 2 (LU2). The basic models 2A and 3A used red, green for input fields, and blue and white for output fields. However, the models 2B and 3B supported seven colors, and when equipped with the optional Programmed Symbol Set feature had a loadable character set that could be used to show graphics. The Programmed Symbol Set feature could be added in the field, and was standard in the model S3G.
The IBM 3279 with its graphics software support, Graphical Data Display Manager (GDDM), was designed at IBM\'s Hursley Development Laboratory, near Winchester, England.
#### 3290 {#section_3}
The 3290 Information Panel a 17\", amber monochrome plasma display unit announced March 8, 1983, capable of displaying in various modes, including four independent 3278 model 2 terminals, or a single 160×62 terminal; it also supports partitioning. The 3290 supports graphics through the use of *programmed symbols*. A 3290 application can divide its screen area up into as many as 16 separate *explicit partitions* (logical screens).
The 3290 is a Distributed Function Terminal (DFT) and requires that the controller do a downstream load (DSL) of microcode from floppy or hard disk.
| 1,060 |
IBM 3270
| 3 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
### Displays
#### 317x
- 3178: lower cost terminal (1983)
- 3179: low cost color terminal
announced March 20, 1984.
#### 3180 {#section_4}
The 3180 was a monochrome display, introduced on March 20, 1984, that the user could configure for several different basic and extended display modes; all of the basic modes have a primary screen size of 24x80. Modes 2 and 2+ have a secondary size of 24x80, 3 and 3+ have a secondary size of 32x80, 4 and 4+ have a secondary size of 43x80 and 5 and 5+ have a secondary size of 27x132. An application can override the primary and alternate screen sizes for the extended mode. The 3180 also supported a single explicit partition that could be reconfigured under application control.
#### 3191 {#section_5}
The IBM 3191 Display Station is an economical monochrome CRT. Models A and B are 1920 characters 12-inch CRTs. Models D, E and L are 1920 or 2560 character 14-inch CRTs.
#### 3192 {#section_6}
- Model C provides a 7-color 14 inch CRT with 80x24 or 80x32 characters
- Model D provides a green monochrome 15 inch CRT with 80x24, 80x32, 80x44 or 132x27 characters
- Model F provides a 7-color high-resolution 14 inch CRT with 80x24, 80x32, 80x44 or 132x27 characters
- Model G provides a 7-color 14 inch CRT with 80x24 or 80x32 characters
- Model L provides a green monochrome 15 inch CRT with 80x24, 80x32, 80x44 or 132x27 characters with a selector pen capability
- Model W provides a black and while 15 inch CRT with 80x24, 80x32, 80x44 or 132x27 characters
#### 3193 {#section_7}
The IBM 3193 Display Station is a high-resolution, portrait-type, monochrome, 380mm (15 inch) CRT image display providing up to letter or A4 size document display capabilities in addition to alphanumeric data. Compressed images can be sent to the 3193 from a scanner and decompression is performed in the 3193. Image data compression is a technique to save transmission time and reduce storage requirements.
#### 3194 {#section_8}
The IBM 3194 is a Display Station that features a 1.44 MB 3.5\" floppy drive and IND\$FILE transfer.
- Model C provides a 12-inch color CRT with 80x24 or 80x32 characters
- Model D provides a 15-inch monochrome CRT with 80x24, 80x31, 80x44 or 132x27 characters
- Model H provides a 14-inch color CRT with 80x24, 80x31, 80x44 or 132x27 characters
#### Subsequent
- 3104: low-cost R-loop connected terminal for the IBM 8100 system
- 3472 Infowindow
#### Non-IBM Displays {#non_ibm_displays}
Several third-party manufacturers produced 3270 displays besides IBM.
##### GTE
GTE manufactured the IS/7800 Video Display System, nominally compatible with IBM 3277 displays attached to a 3271 or 3272. An incompatibility with the RA buffer order broke the logon screen in VM/SE (SEPP).
##### Harris
Harris manufactured the 8000 Series Terminal Systems, compatible with IBM 3277 displays attached to a 3271 or 3272.
Harris later manufactured the 9100--9200 Information Processing Systems, which included
- 9178
- 9278
- 9279-2A
- 9279-3G
- 9280
##### Informer 270 376/SNA {#informer_270_376sna}
Informer Computer Terminals manufactured a special version of their model 270 terminal that was compatible with IBM 3270 and its associated coax port to connect to a 3x74.
##### Memorex Telex {#memorex_telex}
- Memorex 1377, compatible with IBM 3277\
Attaches to 1371 or 1372
Documentation for the following is available at
- Memorex/Telex 2078
- Memorex/Telex 2079
- Memorex/Telex 2080
- Memorex/Telex 2178
- Memorex/Telex 2179
##### Nokia/Alfaskop
- Alfaskop Display Unit 4110
- Alfaskop Display Unit 4112
##### AT&T
AT&T introduced the Dataspeed 40 terminal/controller, compatible with the IBM 3275, in 1980.
| 601 |
IBM 3270
| 4 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
### Displays
#### Graphics models {#graphics_models}
IBM had two different implementations for supporting graphics. The first was implemented in the optional Programmed Symbol Sets (PSS) of the 3278, 3279 and 3287, which became a standard feature on the later 3279-S3G, a.k.a. 3279G, and was based on piecing together graphics with on-the-fly custom-defined symbols downloaded to the terminal.
The second later implementation provided All Points Addressable (APA) graphics, a.k.a. Vector Graphics, allowing more efficient graphics than the older technique. The first terminal to support APA / Vector graphics was the 3179G terminal, which was later replaced by first the 3192G, then the 3472G.
Both implementations are supported by IBM GDDM --- Graphical Data Display Manager first released in 1979, and by SAS with their SAS/GRAPH software.
##### IBM 3279G {#ibm_3279g}
IBM 3279-S3G, a.k.a. 3279G, terminal, announced in 1979, was IBM\'s graphics replacement for the 3279-3B with PSS. The terminal supported 7 colors and the graphics were made up of Programmable Symbol sets loaded to the terminal by the graphical application GDDM --- Graphical Data Display Manager using Write Structured Field command.
Programmable Symbols is an addition to the normal base character set consisting of Latin characters, numbers, etc. hardwired into the terminal. The 3279G supports six additional sets of symbols each supporting 190 symbols, resulting in a total of 1.140 programmable symbols. Three of the Programmable Symbols sets have three planes each enabling coloring (red, blue, green) the Programmable Symbols downloaded to those sets, thereby supporting a total of seven colors.
Each \'character\' cell consists of a 9x12 or a 9x16 dot matrix depending on the screen model. In order to program a cell with a symbol 18 bytes of data is needed making the data load quite heavy in some instances when compared to classic text screens.
If one for example wishes to draw a hyperbola on the screen, the application must first compute the required Programmable Symbols to make up hyperbola and load them to the terminal. The next step is then for the application to paint the screen by addressing the screen cell position and select the appropriate symbol in one of the Programmable Symbols sets.
The 3279G could be ordered with Attribute Select Keyboard enabling the operator to select attributes, colors and Programmable Symbols sets, making that version of the terminal quite distinctive.
##### IBM 3179G {#ibm_3179g}
The **IBM 3179G** announced June 18, 1985, is an IBM mainframe computer terminal providing 80×24 or 80×32 characters, 16 colors, plus graphics and is the first terminal to support the APA graphics apart from the 3270 PC/G, 3270 PC/GX, PC AT/G and PC AT/GX.
3179-G terminals combine text and graphics as separate layers on the screen. Although the text and graphics appear combined on the screen, the text layer actually sits over the graphics layer. The text layer contains the usual 3270-style cells which display characters (letters, numbers, symbols, or invisible control characters). The graphics layer is an area of 720×384 pixels. *All Points Addressable* or *vector graphics* is used to paint each pixel in one of sixteen colors. As well as being separate layers on the screen, the text and graphics layers are sent to the display in separate data streams, making them completely independent.
The application i.e. GDDM sends the vector definitions to the 3179-G, and the work of activating the pixels that represent the picture (the vector-to-raster conversion) is done in the terminal itself. The datastream is related to the number of graphics primitives (lines, arcs, and so on) in the picture. Arcs are split into short vectors, that are sent to the 3179-G to be drawn. The 3179-G does not store graphic data, and so cannot offload any manipulation function from GDDM. In particular, with user control, each new viewing operation means that the data has to be regenerated and retransmitted.
The 3179G is a distributed function terminal (DFT) and requires a downstream load (DSL) to load its microcode from the cluster controller\'s floppy disk or hard drive.
The G10 model is a standard 122-key typewriter keyboard, while the G20 model offers APL on the same layout. Compatible with IBM System/370, IBM 4300 series, 303x, 308x, IBM 3090, and IBM 9370.
##### IBM 3192G {#ibm_3192g}
The IBM 3192G, announced in 1987 was the successor to 3179G. It featured 16 colors, and support for printers (i.e., IBM Proprinter) for local hardcopy with graphical support, or system printer, text only, implemented as an additional LU.
##### IBM 3472G {#ibm_3472g}
The IBM 3472G announced in 1989 was the successor to 3192G and featured five concurrent sessions, one of which could be graphics. Unlike the 3192-G, it needed no expansion unit to attach a mouse or color plotter, and it could also attach a tablet device for digitised input and a bar code reader.
### APL / APL2 {#apl_apl2}
Most IBM terminals, starting with the 3277, could be delivered with an APL keyboard, allowing the operator/programmer to enter APL symbolic instructions directly into the editor. In order to display APL symbols on the terminal, it had to be equipped with an APL character set in addition to the normal 3270-character set. The APL character set is addressed with a preceding Graphic Escape X\'08\' instruction.
With the advent of the graphic terminal 3179G, the APL character set was expandable to 138 characters, called APL2. The added characters were: Diamond, Quad Null, Iota Underbar, Epsilon Underbar, Left Tack, Right Tack, Equal Underbar, Squished Quad, Quad Slope, and Dieresis Dot. Later APL2 symbols were supported by 3191 Models D, E, L, the CUT version of 3192, and 3472.
Please note that IBM\'s version\'s of APL also is called APL2.
| 941 |
IBM 3270
| 5 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
### Display-Controller {#display_controller}
- 3275 remote display with controller function (no additional displays up to one printer)
- 3276 remote display with controller function. IBM 3276, announced in 1981, was a combined remote controller and display terminal, offering support for up to 8 displays, the 3276 itself included. By default, the 3276 had two type A coax ports, one for its own display, and one free for an additional terminal or printer. Up to three additional adapters, each supporting two coax devices, could be installed. The 3276 could connect to a non-SNA or SNA host using BSC or SDLC with line speed of up to 9,600 bit/s. The 3276 looked very much like the 3278 terminal, and the terminal feature of the 3276 itself, was more or less identical to those of the 3278.
### Printers
- 3284 matrix printer
- 3286 matrix printer
- 3287 printer, including a color model
- 3288 line printer
- 3268-1 R-loop connected stand-alone printer for the IBM 8100 system
- 4224 matrix printer
In 1984 announced IPDS -- Intelligent Printer Data Stream for online printing of AFP --- Advanced Function Presentation documents, using bidirectional communications between the application and the printer. IPDS support among others printing of text, fonts, images, graphics, and barcodes. The IBM 4224 is one of the IPDS capable dot matrix printers.
With the emergence of printers, including laser printers, from HP, Canon, and others, targeted the PC market, 3270 customers got an alternative to IBM 3270 printers by connecting this type of printers through printer protocol converters from manufactures like I-data, MPI Tech, Adacom, and others. The printer protocol converters basically emulate a 3287 type printer, and later extended to support IPDS.
The IBM 3482 terminal, announced in 1992, offered a printer port, which could be used for host addressable printing as well as local screen copy.
In the later versions of 3174 the Asynchronous Emulation Adapter (AEA), supporting async RS-232 character-based type terminals, was enhanced to support printers equipped with a serial interface.
### Controllers
- 3271 remote controller
- 3272 local controller
- 3274 cluster controller (different models could be channel-attached or remote via BSC or SDLC communication lines, and had between eight and 32 coaxial ports)
- 3174 cluster controller
On the 3274 and 3174, IBM used the term **configuration support** *letter*, sometimes followed by a release number, to designate a list of features together with the hardware and microcode needed to support them.
By 1994 the 3174 Establishment Controller supported features such as attachment to multiple hosts via Token Ring, Ethernet, or X.25 in addition to the standard channel attach or SDLC; terminal attachment via twisted pair, Token Ring or Ethernet in addition to 3270 coaxial; and TN3270. They also support attachment of asynchronous ASCII terminals, printers, and plotters alongside 3270 devices.
#### 3274 controller
IBM introduced the 3274 controller family in 1977, replacing the 3271--2 product line.
Where the features of the 3271--2 was hardcoded, the 3274 was controlled by its microcode that was read from the 3274\'s built-in 8\" floppy drive.
3274 models included 8, 12, 16, and 32 port remote controllers and 32-port local channel attached units. In total 16 different models were over time released to the market. The 3274-1A was an SNA physical Unit type 2.0 (PU2.0), required only a single address on the channel for all 32 devices and was not compatible with the 3272. The 3274-1B and 3274-1D were compatible with the 3272 and were referred to as local non-SNA models.
The 3274 controllers introduced a new generation of the coax protocol, named Category A, to differentiate them from the Category B coax devices, such as the 3277 terminal and the 3284 printer. The first Category A coax devices were the 3278 and the first color terminal, the IBM 3279 Color Display Station.
Enabling backward compatibility, it was possible to install coax boards, so-called \'panels\', in groups of 4 or 8 supporting the now older Category B coax devices. A maximum of 16 Category B terminals could be supported, and only 8 if the controller were fully loaded with a maximum of 4 panels each supporting 8 Category A devices.
During its life span, the 3274 supported several features including:
- Extended Data Stream
- Extended Highlighting
- Programmed Symbol Set (PSS)
- V.24 interfaces with speed up to 14.4 kbit/s
- V.35 interfaces with speed up to 56 kbit/s
- X.25 network attachment
- DFT -- Distributed Function Terminal
- DSL -- Downstream load for 3290 and 3179G
- 9901 and 3299 multiplexer
- Entry Assist
- Dual Logic (the feature of having two sessions from a CUT mode display).
| 778 |
IBM 3270
| 6 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
### Controllers
#### 3174 controller {#controller_1}
IBM introduced the 3174 Subsystem Control Unit in 1986, replacing the 3274 product line.
The 3174 was designed to enhance the 3270 product line with many new connectivity options and features. Like the 3274, it was customizable, the main difference was that it used smaller (5.25-inch) diskettes than the 3274 (8-inch diskettes), and that the larger floor models had 10 slots for adapters, some of them were per default occupied by channel adapter/serial interface, coax adapter, etc. Unlike the 3274, any local models could be configured as either local SNA or local non-SNA, including PU2.1 (APPN).
The models included: 01L, 01R, 02R, 03R, 51R, 52R, 53R, 81R and 82R.
The 01L were local channel attached, the R models remotely connected, and the x3R Token Ring (upstream) connected. The 0xL/R models were floor units supporting up to 32 coax devices through the use of internal or external multiplexers (TMA/3299). The 5xR, models were shelf units with 9 coax ports, expandable to 16, by the connection of a 3299 multiplexer. The smallest desktop units, 8xR, had 4 coax ports expandable to 8, by the connection of a 3299 multiplexer.
In the 3174 controller line IBM also slightly altered the classical BNC coax connector by changing the BNC connector to DPC -- Dual Purpose Connector. The DPC female connector was a few millimeters longer and with a built-in switch that detected if a normal BNC connector were connected or a newer DPC connector was connected, thereby changing the physical layer from 93 ohm unbalanced coax, to 150 ohm balanced twisted-pair, thereby directly supporting the IBM Cabling system without the need for a so-called red balun.
Configuration Support A was the first microcode offered with the 3174. It supported all the hardware modules present at the time, almost all the microcode features found in 3274 and introduced a number of new features including: Intelligent Printer Data Stream (IPDS), Multiple Logical Terminals, Country Extended Code Page (CECP), Response Time Monitor, and Token Ring configured as host interface.
Configuration Support S, strangely following release A, introduced that a local or remote controller could act as 3270 Token-Ring DSPU Gateway, supporting up to 80 Downstream PU\'s.
In 1989, IBM introduced a new range of 3174 models and changed the name from 3174 Subsystem Control Unit to 3174 Establishment Controller. The main new feature was support for an additional 32 coax port in floor models.
The models included: 11L, 11R, 12R, 13R, 61R, 62R, 63R, 91R, and 92R.
The new line of controllers came with Configuration Support B release 1, increased the number of supported DSPU on the Token-Ring gateway to 250 units, and introduced at the same time \'Group Polling\' that offloaded the mainframe/VTAM polling requirement on the channel.
Configuration Support B release 2 to 5, enabled features like: Local Format Storage (CICS Screen Buffer), Type Ahead, Null/Space Processing, ESCON channel support.
In 1990--1991, a total of 7 more models were added: 21R, 21L, 12L, 22L, 22R, 23R, and 90R. The 12L offered ESCON fibreoptic channel attachment. The models with 2xx designation were equal to the 1xx models but repacked for rackmount and offered only 4 adapter slots. The 90R was not intended as a coax controller, it was positioned as a Token Ring 3270 DSPU gateway. However, it did have one coax port for configuring the unit, which with a 3299 multiplexer could be expanded to 8.
The line of controllers came with Configuration Support C to support ISDN, APPN and Peer Communication. The ISDN feature allowed downstream devices, typically PC\'s, to connect to the 3174 via the ISDN network. The APPN support enabled the 3174 to be a part of an APPN network, and the Peer Communication allowed coax attached PC\'s with \'Peer Communication Support\' to access resources on the Token-Ring network attached to the 3174.
The subsequent releases 2 to 6 of Configuration Support C enables support for: Split screen, Copy from session to session, Calculator function, Access to AS/400 host and 5250 keyboard emulation, Numerous APPN enhancements, TCP/IP Telnet support that allowed 3270 CUT terminals to communicate with TCP/IP servers using Telnet, and at the same time in another screen to communicate with the mainframe using native 3270. TN3270 support where the 3174 could connect to a TN3270 host/gateway, eliminating SNA, but preserving the 3270 data stream. IP forwarding allowing bridging of LAN (Token-Ring or Ethernet) connected devices downstream to the 3174 to route IP traffic onto the Frame Relay WAN interface.
In 1993, three new models were added with the announcement of Ethernet Adapter (FC 3045). The models were: 14R, 24R, and 64R.
This was also IBM\'s final hardware announcement of 3174.
The floor models, and the rack-mountable units, could be expanded with a range of special 3174 adapters, that by 1993 included: Channel adapter, ESCON adapter, Serial (V.24/V.35) adapter, Concurrent Communication Adapter, Coax adapter, Fiber optic \"coax\" adapter, Async adapter, ISDN adapter, Token-Ring adapter, Ethernet adapter, and line encryption adapter.
In 1994, IBM incorporated the functions of RPQ 8Q0935 into Configuration Support-C release 3, including the TN3270 client.
| 848 |
IBM 3270
| 7 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Models
### Controllers
#### Non-IBM Controllers {#non_ibm_controllers}
##### GTE {#gte_1}
The GTE IS/7800 Video Display Systems used one of two nominally IBM compatible controllers:
- 7801 (remote, 3271 equivalent)
- 7802 (local, 3277 equivalent)
##### Harris {#harris_1}
The Harris 8000 Series Terminal Systems used one of four controllers:
- 8171 (remote, 3271 equivalent)
- 8172 (local, 3277 equivalent)
- 8181 (remote, 3271 equivalent)
- 8182 (local, 3277 equivalent)
- 9116
- 9210
- 9220
##### Home grown {#home_grown}
An alternative implementation of an establishment controller exists in form of OEC (Open Establishment Controller). It\'s a combination of an Arduino shield with a BNC connector and a Python program that runs on a POSIX system. OEC allows to connect a 3270 display to IBM mainframes via TN3270 or to other systems via VT100. Currently only CUT but not DFT displays are supported.
##### Memorex
Memorex had two controllers for its 3277-compatible 1377; the 1371 for remote connection and the 1372 for local connection.
Later Memorex offered a series of controllers compatible with the IBM 3274 and 3174
- 2074
- 2076
- 2174
- 2274
### Multiplexers
IBM offered a device called 3299 that acted as a multiplexer between an accordingly configured 3274 controller, with the 9901 multiplexer feature, and up to eight displays/printers, thereby reducing the number of coax cables between the 3x74 controller and the displays/printers.
With the introduction of the 3174 controller internal or external multiplexers (3299) became mainstream as the 3174-1L controller was equipped with four multiplexed ports each supporting eight devices. The internal 3174 multiplexer card was named TMA -- Terminal Multiplexer adapter 9176.
A number of vendors manufactured 3270 multiplexers before and alongside IBM including Fibronics and Adacom offering multiplexers that supported TTP -- Telephone Twisted Pair as an alternative to coax, and fiber-optic links between the multiplexers.
In some instances, the multiplexer worked as an \"expansion\" unit on smaller remote controllers including the 3174-81R / 91R, where the 3299 expanded the number of coax ports from four to eight, or the 3174-51R / 61R, where the 3299 expanded the number of coax ports from eight to 16.
## Manufacture
The IBM 3270 display terminal subsystem was designed and developed by IBM\'s Kingston, New York, laboratory (which later closed during IBM\'s difficult time in the mid-1990s). The printers were developed by the Endicott, New York, laboratory. As the subsystem expanded, the 3276 display-controller was developed by the Fujisawa laboratory, Japan, and later the Yamato laboratory; and the 3279 color display and 3287 color printer by the Hursley, UK, laboratory. The subsystem products were manufactured in Kingston (displays and controllers), Endicott (printers), and Greenock, Scotland, UK, (most products) and shipped to users in U.S. and worldwide. 3278 terminals continued to be manufactured in Hortolândia, near Campinas, Brazil as far as late 1980s, having its internals redesigned by a local engineering team using modern CMOS technology, while retaining its external look and feel.
| 490 |
IBM 3270
| 8 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Telnet 3270 {#telnet_3270}
Telnet 3270, or **tn3270** describes both the process of sending and receiving 3270 data streams using the telnet protocol and the software that emulates a 3270 class terminal that communicates using that process. tn3270 allows a 3270 terminal emulator to communicate over a TCP/IP network instead of an SNA network. Telnet 3270 can be used for either terminal or print connections. Standard telnet clients cannot be used as a substitute for tn3270 clients, as they use fundamentally different techniques for exchanging data.
TN3270 is typically deployed for online IBM mainframe application access via VTAM.
## Technical Information {#technical_information}
### 3270 character set {#character_set}
The 3270 displays are available with a variety of keyboards and character sets. The following table shows the 3275/3277/3284--3286 character set for US English EBCDIC (optional characters were available for US ASCII, and UK, French, German, and Italian EBCDIC).
On the 3275 and 3277 terminals without the a text feature, lower case characters display as uppercase. NL, EM, DUP, and FM control characters display and print as 5, 9, \*, and ; characters, respectively, except by the printer when WCC or CCC bits 2 and 3 = \'00\'b, in which case NL and EM serve their control function and do not print.
-- --------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} \]\]}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
{{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}} {{chset-cell1 \|style=background:#DDD}}
-- --------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------
| 548 |
IBM 3270
| 9 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Technical Information {#technical_information}
### Data stream {#data_stream}
Data sent to the 3270 consist of commands, a Copy Control Character (CCC) or Write Control Character (WCC) if appropriate, a device address for copy, orders, character data and structured fields. Commands instruct the 3270 control unit to perform some action on a specified device, such as a read or write. Orders are sent as part of the data stream to control the format of the device buffer. Structured fields are to convey additional control functions and data to or from the terminal.
On a local non-SNA controller, the command is a CCW opcode rather than the first byte of the outbound display stream; on all other controllers, the command is the first byte of the display stream, exclusive of protocol headers.
#### Commands
The following table includes datastream commands and CCW opcodes for local non-SNA controllers; it does not include CCW opcodes for local SNA controllers.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Command | Hexadecimal | | |
+==============================================================================================================+=============+========+=======+
| | local\ | EBCDIC | ASCII |
| | non-SNA | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Copy | | F7 | 37 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Erase All Unprotected | 0F | 6F | 3F |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Erase/Write | 05 | F5 | 35 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Erase/Write Alternate | 0D | 7E | 3D |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| No Operation | 03 | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Read Buffer | 02 | F2 | 22 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Read Modified | 06 | F6 | 36 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Read Modified All | | 6E | 3E |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select | 0B | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select RB | 1B | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select RBP | 3B | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select RM | DB | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select RMP | 2B | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Select WRT | 4B | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Sense | 04 | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Sense ID | E4 | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Write | 01 | F1 | 31 |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| Write Structured Field | 11 | F3 | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
| For remote 3270s non-significant bits are set so that the command forms a valid EBCDIC (or ASCII) character. | | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+--------+-------+
: 3270 commands
#### Write control character {#write_control_character}
The data sent by Write or Erase/Write consists of the command code itself followed by a *Write Control Character* (WCC) optionally followed by a buffer containing orders or data (or both). The WCC controls the operation of the device. Bits may start printer operation and specify a print format. Other bit settings will sound the audible alarm if installed, unlock the keyboard to allow operator entry, or reset all the Modified Data Tags in the device buffer.
#### Orders
Orders consist of the order code byte followed by zero to three bytes of variable information.
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Order | Hexadecimal code (EBCDIC) | |
+====================================+===========================+======================+
| Byte 1 | Byte 2 | Byte 3 |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Start Field (SF) | 1D | Attribute character\ |
| | | (see Attributes) |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Set Buffer Address (SBA) | 11 | Address byte 1 |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Insert Cursor (IC) | 13 | |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Program Tab (PT) | 05 | |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Repeat to Address (RA) | 3C | Address byte 1 |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
| Erase Unprotected to Address (EUA) | 12 | Address byte 1 |
+------------------------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+
: Orders for 3277
#### Attributes
The 3270 has three kinds of attributes:
- Field attributes
- Extended attributes
- Character attributes
##### Field attributes {#field_attributes}
The original 3277 and 3275 displays used an 8-bit field attribute byte of which five bits were used.
- Bits 0 and 1 are set so that the attribute will always be a valid EBCDIC (or ASCII) character.
- Bit 2 is zero to indicate that the associated field is *unprotected* (operator could enter data) or one for *protected*.
- Bit 3 is zero to indicate that this field, if unprotected, could accept alphanumeric input. One indicates that only numeric input is accepted, and automatically shifts to numeric for some keyboards.
- Bit 4 and 5 operate in tandem:
- \'00\'B indicate that the field is displayed on the screen and is not *selector-pen detectable*.
- \'01\'B indicates that the field is displayable and selector-pen detectable.
- \'10\'B indicates that the field is *intensified* (bright), displayable, and selector-pen detectable.
- \'11\'B indicates that the field is non-display, non-printable, and not pen detectable. This last can be used in conjunction with the modified data tag to imbed static data on the screen that will be read each time data was read from the device.
- Bit 7 is the \"Modified Data Tag\", where \'0\' indicates that the associated field has not been modified by the operator and \'1\' indicates that it has been modified. As noted above, this bit can be set programmatically to cause the field to be treated as modified.
Later models include *base color*: \"Base color (four colors) can be produced on color displays and color printers from current 3270 application programs by use of combinations of the field intensify and field protection attribute bits. For more information on color, refer to IBM 3270 Information System: Color and Programmed Symbols, GA33-3056.\"
##### Extended attributes {#extended_attributes}
The 3278 and 3279 and later models used *extended attributes* to add support for seven colors, blinking, reverse video, underscoring, field outlining, field validation, and programmed symbols.
##### Character attributes {#character_attributes}
The 3278 and 3279 and later models allowed attributes on individual characters in a field to override the corresponding field attributes.
This allowed programs (such as the LEXX text editor) to assign any font (including the programmable fonts), colour, etc. to any character on the screen.
#### Buffer addressing {#buffer_addressing}
3270 displays and printers have a buffer containing one byte for every screen position. For example, a 3277 model 2 featured a screen size of 24 rows of 80 columns for a buffer size of 1920 bytes. Bytes are addressed from zero to the screen size minus one, in this example 1919. \"There is a fixed relationship between each \... buffer storage location and its position on the display screen.\" Most orders start operation at the \"current\" buffer address, and executing an order or writing data will update this address. The buffer address can be set directly using the *Set Buffer Address (SBA)* order, often followed by *Start Field* or *Start Field Extended*. For a device with a 1920 character display a twelve bit address is sufficient. Later 3270s with larger screen sizes use fourteen or sixteen bits.
Addresses are encoded within orders in two bytes. For twelve bit addresses the high order two bits of each byte are set to form valid EBCDIC (or ASCII) characters. For example, address 0 is coded as X\'4040\', or space-space, address 1919 is coded as X\'5D7F\', or \'`{{not a typo|"}}`{=mediawiki}\'. Programmers hand-coding panels usually keep the table of addresses from the 3270 Component Description or the 3270 Reference Card handy. For fourteen and sixteen-bit address, the address uses contiguous bits in two bytes.
| 1,194 |
IBM 3270
| 10 |
15,154 |
# IBM 3270
## Technical Information {#technical_information}
### Data stream {#data_stream}
#### Example
The following data stream writes an attribute in row 24, column 1, writes the (protected) characters \'\> \' in row 24, columns 2 and 3, and creates an unprotected field on row 24 from columns 5-79. Because the buffer wraps around an attribute is placed on row 24, column 80 to terminate the input field. This data stream would normally be written using an Erase/Write command which would set undefined positions on the screen to \'00\'x. Values are given in hexadecimal.
Data Description
D3 WCC [reset device + restore (unlock) keyboard + reset MDT]
11 5C F0 SBA Row 24 Column 1
1D F0 SF/Attribute
[protected, alphanumeric, display normal intensity, not pen-detectable, MDT off]
6E 40 '> '
1D 40 SF/Attribute
[unprotected, alphanumeric, display normal intensity, not pen-detectable, MDT off]
SBA is not required here since this is being written at the current buffer position
13 IC — cursor displays at current position: Row 24, column 5
11 5D 7F SBA Row 24 Column 80
1D F0 SF/Attribute
[protected, alphanumeric, display normal intensity, not pen-detectable, MDT off]
### Extended Data Stream {#extended_data_stream}
Most 3270 terminals newer than the 3275, 3277, 3284 and 3286 support an extended data stream (EDS) that allows many new capabilities, including:
- Display buffers larger than 4096 characters
- Additional field attributes, e.g
| 230 |
IBM 3270
| 11 |
15,164 |
# I486SX
The **i486SX** was a microprocessor originally released by Intel in 1991. It was a modified Intel i486DX microprocessor with its floating-point unit (FPU) disabled. It was intended as a lower-cost CPU for use in low-end systems---selling for US\$258---adapting the *SX* suffix of the earlier i386SX in order to connote a lower-cost option. However, unlike the i386SX, which had a 16-bit external data bus and a 24-bit external address bus (compared to the fully 32-bit i386DX, its higher-cost counterpoint), the i486SX was entirely 32-bit. The Intel486 SX-20 CPU can perform up 20 MIPS at 25 MHz while this can also perform 70% faster than the 33 MHz Intel386 DX with external cache.
## Overview
In the early 1990s, common applications, such as word processors and database applications, did not need or benefit from a floating-point unit, such as that included in the i486, introduced in 1989. Among the rare exceptions were CAD applications, which could often simulate floating point operations in software, but benefited from a hardware floating point unit immensely. AMD had begun manufacturing its i386DX clone, the Am386, which was faster than Intel\'s. To respond to this new situation, Intel wanted to provide a lower cost i486 CPU for system integrators, but without sacrificing the better profit margins of a full i486. Intel were able to accomplish this with the i486SX, the first revisions of which were practically identical to the i486 but with its floating-point unit internally wired to be disabled. The i486SX was introduced in mid-1991 at 20 MHz, one core with 8kb of cache in a pin grid array (PGA) package. There were low-power version of 16, 20, and 25 MHz Intel486 SX microprocessors. They were available USD \$235, USD \$266, and USD \$366 for these frequency range respectfully. All pricing were in quantities of 1,000 pieces. Later versions of the i486SX, from 1992 onward, had the FPU entirely removed for cost-cutting reasons and comes in surface-mount packages as well.
The first computer system to ship with an i486SX on its motherboard from the factory was Advanced Logic Research\'s Business VEISA 486/20SX in April 1991. Initial reviews of the i486SX chip were generally poor among technology publications and the buying public, who deemed it an example of crippleware. `{{multiple image|direction=horizontal|total_width=330px|image1=KL_Intel_i486SX_PQFP.jpg|caption1=Embedded [[Quad Flat Package|SQFP]] version of the i486SX|image2=Intel i486SX-25.jpg|caption2=[[Quad Flat Package|BQFP]] version of the i486sx}}`{=mediawiki} Many systems allowed the user to upgrade the i486SX to a CPU with the FPU enabled. The upgrade was shipped as the i487, which was a full-blown i486DX chip with an extra pin. The extra pin has no electrical connection; its purpose is to physically prevent the chip from being installed incorrectly (\"keying\"). The choice of keeping an inactive i486SX is because i486SX was physically hard to remove, being typically installed in non-ZIF sockets or in a plastic package that was surface mounted on the motherboard. Later i486 OverDrive processors also plugged into the 169-pin socket (since named Socket 1) and offered performance enhancements as well
| 496 |
I486SX
| 0 |
15,180 |
# Intergovernmentalism
In international relations, **intergovernmentalism** treats states (and national governments in particular) as the primary actors in the integration process. Intergovernmentalist approaches claim to be able to explain both periods of radical change in the European Union because of converging governmental preferences and periods of inertia because of diverging national interests.
Intergovernmentalism is distinguishable from realism and neorealism because it recognized the significance of institutionalisation in international politics and the impact of domestic politics upon governmental preferences.
## Regional integration {#regional_integration}
### European integration {#european_integration}
The best-known example of regional integration is the European Union (EU), an economic and political intergovernmental organisation of 27 member states, all in Europe. The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states. Institutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, the Court of Auditors, and the European Parliament. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens.
The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area (which includes 22 EU and 4 non-EU European states) passport controls have been abolished. EU policies favour the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within its boundaries, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development.
A monetary union, the eurozone, was established in 1999 and is composed of 17 member states. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. Permanent diplomatic missions have been established around the world. The EU is represented at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8 and the G-20.
Intergovernmentalism represents a way for limiting the conferral of powers upon supranational institutions, halting the emergence of common policies. In the current institutional system of the EU, the European Council and the Council play the role of the institutions which have the last word about decisions and policies of the EU, institutionalizing a de facto intergovernmental control over the EU as a whole, with the possibility to give more power to a small group of states. This extreme consequence can create the condition of supremacy of someone over someone else violating the principle of a \"Union of Equals\". However, from a neo-functionalist viewpoint, some scholars argue that despite the appearance of intergovernmental dominance, the EU\'s supranational institutions have progressively expanded their influence through spillover effects, which gradually limit member states\' control and enhance deeper integration.
### African integration {#african_integration}
The African Union (AU, or, in its other official languages, UA) is a continental intergovernmental union, similar but less integrated to the EU, consisting of 54 African states. The AU was presented on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and officially founded on 9 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa to replace the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union, a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AU\'s secretariat, the African Union Commission, is based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| 547 |
Intergovernmentalism
| 0 |
15,188 |
# In vitro
***In vitro*** (meaning *in glass*, or *in the glass*) studies are performed with cells or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called \"test-tube experiments\", these studies in biology and its subdisciplines are traditionally done in labware such as test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, and microtiter plates. Studies conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms; however, results obtained from *in vitro* experiments may not fully or accurately predict the effects on a whole organism. In contrast to *in vitro* experiments, *in vivo* studies are those conducted in living organisms, including humans, known as clinical trials, and whole plants.
## Definition
*In vitro* (Latin for \"in glass\"; often not italicized in English usage) studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings. As the name suggests, *in vitro* experiments, colloquially \"test-tube experiments\", are traditionally done in glass labware, using test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc.
The exact scope of *in vitro* depends on what is considered to be *in vitro* (experiments done on whole living beings), and in turn what is considered to be a \"whole\" living being:
- Toxicology and pharmacology mainly concern the effects of a substance on a multi-cellular lifeform, usually an animal. As a result, anything that is not *in vivo* is *in vitro*. This includes animal organ cultures, animal tissue cultures (*ex vivo*), animal cell cultures, prokaryotic cell cultures, and isolated biomolecules.
- The study of pathogens treat the pathogen-in-host state as *in vivo*. (For example, the *in vivo* transcriptomics of *E. coli* during a urinary tract infection.) Accordingly, *in vitro* includes models that do not involve the entire host.
- Viruses, which only replicate in living cells, are studied in the laboratory in cell or tissue culture, and many animal virologists refer to such work as being *in vitro* to distinguish it from *in vivo* work in whole animals.
- The study of the molecular machineries tend to see the whole cell as the biggest unit. As a result, cell cultures (even mammalian ones) can be considered *in vivo* instead of the usual assignment as *in vitro*. In this context, *in vitro* exclusively refers to cell-free systems.
| 387 |
In vitro
| 0 |
15,188 |
# In vitro
## Examples
As described before, *in vitro* can encompass work on living and non-living systems of a wide range of complexities.
- Using any part of a living organism
- Protein purification involves the isolation of a specific protein of interest from a complex mixture of proteins, often obtained from homogenized cells or tissues.
- Using parts derived from multicellular organisms (cell culture, tissue culture, and more)
- *In vitro* fertilization is used to allow spermatozoa to fertilize eggs in a culture dish before implanting the resulting embryo or embryos into the uterus of the prospective mother.
- *In vitro* diagnostics refers to a wide range of medical and veterinary laboratory tests that are used to diagnose diseases and monitor the clinical status of patients using samples of blood, cells, or other tissues obtained from a patient.
- *In vitro* phamacological testing has been used to characterize specific adsorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion processes of drugs or general chemicals inside a living organism; for example, Caco-2 cell experiments can be performed to estimate the absorption of compounds through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract;
The partitioning of the compounds between organs can be determined to study distribution mechanisms; Suspension or plated cultures of primary hepatocytes or hepatocyte-like cell lines (Hep G2, HepaRG) can be used to study and quantify metabolism of chemicals. These ADME process parameters can then be integrated into so called \"physiologically based pharmacokinetic models\" or PBPK.
- - Cellular models of neurodegenerative diseases allow different ways to probe the health of the mitochondria in the cell.
- Using cellular or subcellular extracts (e.g. wheat germ or reticulocyte extracts)
- Wheat germ extract contains functional ribosomes. It can be used to translate mRNA outside of a cell.
- Using purified membrane-bounded organelles
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts can be isolated from cells while preserving their function.
- Using purified macromolecular complexes (such as ribosomes)
- Functional ribosomes have been assembled *in vitro*.
- Using purified molecules (such as proteins, DNA, or RNA)
- Polymerase chain reaction is a method for selective replication of specific DNA and RNA sequences in the test tube. It uses pure isolated enzymes.
- The action of DNA replication has been analyzed *in vitro* on a single-molecule basis.
| 376 |
In vitro
| 1 |
15,188 |
# In vitro
## Advantages
*In vitro* studies permit a species-specific, simpler, more convenient, and more detailed analysis than can be done with the whole organism. Just as studies in whole animals more and more replace human trials, so are *in vitro* studies replacing studies in whole animals.
### Simplicity
Living organisms are extremely complex functional systems that are made up of, at a minimum, many tens of thousands of genes, protein molecules, RNA molecules, small organic compounds, inorganic ions, and complexes in an environment that is spatially organized by membranes, and in the case of multicellular organisms, organ systems. These myriad components interact with each other and with their environment in a way that processes food, removes waste, moves components to the correct location, and is responsive to signalling molecules, other organisms, light, sound, heat, taste, touch, and balance. This complexity makes it difficult to identify the interactions between individual components and to explore their basic biological functions. *In vitro* work simplifies the system under study, so the investigator can focus on a small number of components.
For example, the identity of proteins of the immune system (e.g. antibodies), and the mechanism by which they recognize and bind to foreign antigens would remain very obscure if not for the extensive use of *in vitro* work to isolate the proteins, identify the cells and genes that produce them, study the physical properties of their interaction with antigens, and identify how those interactions lead to cellular signals that activate other components of the immune system.
### Species specificity {#species_specificity}
Another advantage of *in vitro* methods is that human cells can be studied without \"extrapolation\" from an experimental animal\'s cellular response.
### Convenience, automation {#convenience_automation}
*In vitro* methods can be miniaturized and automated, yielding high-throughput screening methods for testing molecules in pharmacology or toxicology.
## Disadvantages
The primary disadvantage of *in vitro* experimental studies is that it may be challenging to extrapolate from the results of *in vitro* work back to the biology of the intact organism. Investigators doing *in vitro* work must be careful to avoid over-interpretation of their results, which can lead to erroneous conclusions about organismal and systems biology.
For example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus (e.g., HIV-1) may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an *in vitro* setting (typically cell culture). However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of *in vivo* trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms (typically small animals, primates, and humans in succession). Typically, most candidate drugs that are effective *in vitro* prove to be ineffective *in vivo* because of issues associated with delivery of the drug to the affected tissues, toxicity towards essential parts of the organism that were not represented in the initial *in vitro* studies, or other issues.
## *In vitro* test batteries {#in_vitro_test_batteries}
A method which could help decrease animal testing is the use of *in vitro* batteries, where several *in vitro* assays are compiled to cover multiple endpoints. Within developmental neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity there are hopes for test batteries to become easy screening methods for prioritization for which chemicals to be risk assessed and in which order. Within ecotoxicology *in vitro* test batteries are already in use for regulatory purpose and for toxicological evaluation of chemicals. *In vitro* tests can also be combined with *in vivo* testing to make a *in vitro in vivo* test battery, for example for pharmaceutical testing.
| 589 |
In vitro
| 2 |
15,188 |
# In vitro
## *In vitro* to *in vivo* extrapolation {#in_vitro_to_in_vivo_extrapolation}
Results obtained from *in vitro* experiments cannot usually be transposed, as is, to predict the reaction of an entire organism *in vivo*. Building a consistent and reliable extrapolation procedure from *in vitro* results to *in vivo* is therefore extremely important. Solutions include:
- Increasing the complexity of *in vitro* systems to reproduce tissues and interactions between them (as in \"human on chip\" systems)
- Using mathematical modeling to numerically simulate the behavior of the complex system, where the *in vitro* data provide model parameter values
These two approaches are not incompatible; better *in vitro* systems provide better data to mathematical models. However, increasingly sophisticated *in vitro* experiments collect increasingly numerous, complex, and challenging data to integrate. Mathematical models, such as systems biology models, are much needed here.
### Extrapolating in pharmacology {#extrapolating_in_pharmacology}
In pharmacology, IVIVE can be used to approximate pharmacokinetics (PK) or pharmacodynamics (PD). Since the timing and intensity of effects on a given target depend on the concentration time course of candidate drug (parent molecule or metabolites) at that target site, *in vivo* tissue and organ sensitivities can be completely different or even inverse of those observed on cells cultured and exposed *in vitro*. That indicates that extrapolating effects observed *in vitro* needs a quantitative model of *in vivo* PK. Physiologically based PK (PBPK) models are generally accepted to be central to the extrapolations.
In the case of early effects or those without intercellular communications, the same cellular exposure concentration is assumed to cause the same effects, both qualitatively and quantitatively, *in vitro* and *in vivo*. In these conditions, developing a simple PD model of the dose--response relationship observed *in vitro*, and transposing it without changes to predict *in vivo* effects is not enough
| 297 |
In vitro
| 3 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
thumb\|upright=1.7\|A 19th-century depiction of Galileo Galilei before the Holy Office, by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury
The **Inquisition** was a Catholic judicial procedure where the ecclesiastical judges could initiate, investigate and try cases in their jurisdiction. Popularly it became the name for various medieval and reformation-era state-organized tribunals whose aim was to combat heresy, apostasy, blasphemy, witchcraft, and customs considered to be deviant, using this procedure. Violence, isolation, torture or the threat of its application, have been used by the Inquisition to extract confessions and denunciations. Studies of the records have found that the overwhelming majority of sentences consisted of penances, but convictions of unrepentant heresy were handed over to the secular courts for the application of local law, which generally resulted in execution or life imprisonment.
Inquisitions with the aim of combatting religious sedition (e.g. apostasy or heresy) had their start in the 12th-century Kingdom of France, particularly among the Cathars and the Waldensians. The inquisitorial courts from this time until the mid-15th century are together known as the Medieval Inquisition. Other banned groups investigated by medieval inquisitions, which primarily took place in France and Italy, include the Spiritual Franciscans, the Hussites, and the Beguines. Beginning in the 1250s, inquisitors were generally chosen from members of the Dominican Order, replacing the earlier practice of using local clergy as judges.
Inquisitions also expanded to other European countries, resulting in the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition. The Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions often focused on the New Christians or *Conversos* (the former Jews who converted to Christianity to avoid antisemitic regulations and persecution), the *Marranos* (people who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will by violence and threats of expulsion), and on the *Moriscos* (Muslims who had been forced to convert to Catholicism), as a result of suspicions that they had secretly maintained or reverted to their previous religions, as well as the fear of possible rebellions, as had occurred in previous times (such as the First and Second Morisco Rebellions). Spain and Portugal also operated inquisitorial courts not only in Europe, but also throughout their empires: the Goa Inquisition, the Peruvian Inquisition, and the Mexican Inquisition, among others. Inquisitions conducted in the Papal States were known as the Roman Inquisition.
The scope of the inquisitions grew significantly in response to the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation. In 1542, a putative governing institution, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition was created. With the exception of the Papal States, ecclessiastical inquisition courts were abolished in the early 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the Spanish American wars of independence in the Americas. The papal institution survived as part of the Roman Curia, although it underwent a series of name and focus changes, now part of the *Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith*. The opening of Spanish and Roman archives has caused some historians to substantially revise their understanding of the Inquisition, some to the extent of characterizing previous views as \"a body of legends and myths\". `{{Anchor|Historic Inquisition movements}}`{=mediawiki} Many famous instruments of torture are now considered fakes and propaganda.
| 517 |
Inquisition
| 0 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Definition and goals {#definition_and_goals}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Tribunal at the Inquisitor\'s Palace in Birgu, Malta. Eymeric\'s manual recommends that the accused be seated on a backless low bench.
Today, the English term \"Inquisition\" is popularly applied to any one of the regional tribunals or later national institutions that worked against heretics or other offenders against the canon law of the Catholic Church. Although the term \"Inquisition\" is usually applied to ecclesiastical courts of the Catholic Church, in the Middle Ages it properly referred to a judicial process, not any organization.
The term \"Inquisition\" comes from the Medieval Latin word *inquisitio*, which described a court process based on Roman law, which came back into use during the Late Middle Ages. It was a new, less arbitrary form of trial that replaced the *denunciatio* and *accussatio* process which required a denouncer or used an adversarial process, the most unjust being trial by ordeal and the secular Germanic trial by combat. Henry A. Kelly concludes that inquisition was \"a brilliant and much-needed innovation in trial procedure, instituted by the greatest lawyer-pope of the Middle Ages\" and that later \"abusive practices\" should be identified as a perversion of the original inquisitorial process.
Theoretically, the Inquisition, as a church court, had no jurisdiction over Muslims and Jews as such. Despite several exceptions, like the infamous example of the Holy Child of La Guardiathe Inquisition was concerned mainly with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts (including forced converts).
Inquisitors \'were called such because they applied a judicial technique known as *inquisitio*, which could be translated as \"inquiry\" or \"inquest\". \"In this process, which was already widely used by secular rulers (Henry II used it extensively in England in the 12th century), an official inquirer called for information on a specific subject from anyone who felt he or she had something to offer.\" \"The Inquisition\" usually refers to specific regional tribunals authorized to concern themselves with the heretical behaviour of Catholic adherents or converts (including forced converts). As with sedition inquisitions, heresy inquisitions were supposed to use the standard inquisition procedures: these included that the defendant must be informed of the charges, has a right to a lawyer, and a right of appeal (to the Pope.) The inquisitor could only start a heresy proceeding if there was some broad public opinion of the \"infamy\" of the defendant (rather than a formal denunciation or accusation) to prevent fishing, or charging for private opinions. However, such inquisitions could proceed with minimal distraction by lawyers, the identity of witnesses was protected, tainted witness were allowed, and once found guilty of heresy there was no right to a lawyer. However, many inquisitors did not follow these rules scrupulously, notably from the late 1300s: many inquisitors had theological not legal training.
### Controversy and revisionism {#controversy_and_revisionism}
The opening of Spanish and Roman archives over the last 50 years has caused some historians to revise their understanding of the Inquisition, some to the extent of viewing previous views as \"a body of legends and myths\". This may mean that some older historical commentary, and sources relying on them, are not reliable sources to that extent.
| 524 |
Inquisition
| 1 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Sentences
The overwhelming majority of guilty sentences with repentance seem to have consisted of penances like wearing a cross sewn on one\'s clothes or going on pilgrimage. When a suspect was convicted of major, wilful, unrepentant heresy, canon law required the inquisitorial tribunal to hand the person over to secular authorities for final sentencing. A secular magistrate, the \"secular arm\", would then determine the penalty based on local law. Those local laws included proscriptions against certain religious crimes, and the punishments included death by burning in regions where the secular law equated persistent heresy with sedition, although the penalty was more usually banishment or imprisonment for life, which was generally commuted after a few years. Thus the inquisitors generally knew the expected fate of anyone so remanded. The \"secular arm\" didn\'t have access to the trial record of the defendants, only declared and executed the sentences and was obliged to do so on pain of heresy and excommunication.
While the notational purpose of the trial itself was for the salvation of the individual soul, allegedly by persuasion, according to the 1578 edition of the Directorium Inquisitorum (a standard manual for inquisitions) the penalties themselves were preventative not retributive, thought to spread an example by terror: \" *\... quoniam punitio non refertur primo & per se in correctionem & bonum eius qui punitur, sed in bonum publicum ut alij terreantur, & a malis committendis avocentur* (translation: \"\... for punishment does not take place primarily and *per se* for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit\").
### Statistics
Beginning in the 19th century, historians have gradually compiled statistics drawn from the surviving court records, from which estimates have been calculated by adjusting the recorded number of convictions by the average rate of document loss for each time period. Gustav Henningsen and Jaime Contreras studied the records of the Spanish Inquisition, which list 44,674 cases of which 826 resulted in executions in person and 778 in effigy (i.e. a straw dummy was burned in place of the person). William Monter estimated there were 1000 executions in Spain between 1530--1630 and 250 between 1630 and 1730. Jean-Pierre Dedieu studied the records of Toledo\'s tribunal, which put 12,000 people on trial. For the period prior to 1530, Henry Kamen estimated there were about 2,000 executions in all of Spain\'s tribunals.
Italian Renaissance history professor and Inquisition expert Carlo Ginzburg had his doubts about using statistics to reach a judgment about the period. \"In many cases, we don\'t have the evidence, the evidence has been lost,\" said Ginzburg.
| 447 |
Inquisition
| 2 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Origin
Before the 12th century, the Catholic Church suppressed what they believed to be heresy, usually through a system of ecclesiastical proscription or imprisonment, but without using torture, and seldom resorting to executions. Such punishments were opposed by a number of clergymen and theologians, although some countries punished heresy with the death penalty. Pope Siricius, Ambrose of Milan, and Martin of Tours protested against the execution of Priscillian, largely as an undue interference in ecclesiastical discipline by a civil tribunal. Though widely viewed as a heretic, Priscillian was executed as a sorcerer. Ambrose refused to give any recognition to Ithacius of Ossonuba, \"not wishing to have anything to do with bishops who had sent heretics to their death\".
In the 12th century, to counter the spread of Catharism, and other heresies, prosecution of heretics became more frequent. The Church charged councils composed of bishops and archbishops with establishing inquisitions (the Episcopal Inquisition). Pope Lucius III issued the bull *Ad Abolendam* (1184), which condemned heresy as contumacy toward ecclesiastical authority. The bull *Vergentis in Senium* in 1199 stipulated that heresy would be considered, in terms of punishment, equal to treason (*Lèse-majesté)*, and the punishment would be imposed also on the descendants of the condemned.
The first Inquisition was temporarily established in Languedoc (south of France) in 1184. The murder of Pope Innocent III\'s papal legate Pierre de Castelnau by Cathars in 1208 sparked the Albigensian Crusade (1209--1229). The Inquisition was permanently established in 1229 (Council of Toulouse), run largely by the Dominicans in Rome and later at Carcassonne in Languedoc.
In 1252, the Papal Bull *Ad extirpanda*, following another assassination by Cathars, charged the head of state with funding and selecting inquisitors from monastic orders; this caused friction by establishing a competitive court to the Bishop\'s courts.
| 299 |
Inquisition
| 3 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Medieval Inquisitions {#medieval_inquisitions}
Historians use the term \"Medieval Inquisition\" to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisitions (1184--1230s) and later the Papal Inquisitions (1230s). These inquisitions responded to large popular movements throughout Europe considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular the Cathars in southern France and the Waldensians in both southern France and northern Italy. Other inquisitions followed after these first inquisition movements. The legal basis for some inquisitorial activity came from Pope Innocent IV\'s papal bull *Ad extirpanda* of 1252, which authorized the use of tortures in certain circumstances by inquisitors for eliciting confessions and denunciations from heretics. By 1256 Alexander IV\'s *Ut negotium* allowed the inquisitors to absolve each other if they used instruments of torture.
In the 13th century, Pope Gregory IX (reigned 1227--1241) assigned the duty of carrying out inquisitions to the Dominican Order and Franciscan Order. By the end of the Middle Ages, England and Castile were the only large western nations without a papal inquisition. Most inquisitors were friars who taught theology and/or law in the universities. They used inquisitorial procedures, a common legal practice adapted from the earlier Ancient Roman court procedures. They judged heresy along with bishops and groups of \"assessors\" (clergy serving in a role that was roughly analogous to a jury or legal advisers), using the local authorities to establish a tribunal and to prosecute heretics. After 1200, a Grand Inquisitor headed but did not control each regional Inquisition. Grand Inquisitions persisted until the mid 19th century.
### Inquisitions in Medieval Italy {#inquisitions_in_medieval_italy}
Only fragmentary data is available for the period before the Roman Inquisition of 1542. In 1276, some 170 Cathars were captured in Sirmione, who were then imprisoned in Verona, and there, after a two-year trial, on 13 February from 1278, more than a hundred of them were burned. In Orvieto, at the end of 1268/1269, 85 heretics were sentenced, none of whom were executed, but in 18 cases the sentence concerned people who had already died. In Tuscany, the inquisitor Ruggiero burned at least 11 people in about a year (1244/1245). Excluding the executions of the heretics at Sirmione in 1278, 36 Inquisition executions are documented in the March of Treviso between 1260 and 1308. Ten people were executed in Bologna between 1291 and 1310. In Piedmont, 22 heretics (mainly Waldensians) were burned in the years 1312--1395 out of 213 convicted. 22 Waldensians were burned in Cuneo around 1440 and another five in the Marquisate of Saluzzo in 1510.
There are also fragmentary records of a good number of executions of people suspected of witchcraft in northern Italy in the 15th and early 16th centuries. Wolfgang Behringer estimates that there could have been as many as two thousand executions. This large number of witches executed was probably because some inquisitors took the view that the crime of witchcraft was exceptional, which meant that the usual rules for heresy trials did not apply to its perpetrators. Many alleged witches were executed even though they were first tried and pleaded guilty, which under normal rules would have meant only canonical sanctions, not death sentences. The episcopal inquisition was also active in suppressing alleged witches: in 1518, judges delegated by the Bishop of Brescia, Paolo Zane, sent some 70 witches from Val Camonica to the stake.
| 555 |
Inquisition
| 4 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Medieval Inquisitions {#medieval_inquisitions}
### Inquisitions in Medieval France {#inquisitions_in_medieval_france}
The Albigensian Crusade (1209--1229) a crusade proclaimed by the Catholic Church against heresy, mainly Catharism, with many thousands of victims (men, women and children, some of them Catholics), had already paved the way for the later Inquisition.
France has the best preserved archives of medieval inquisitions (13th--14th centuries), although they are still very incomplete. The activity of the inquisition in this country was very diverse, both in terms of time and territory. In the first period (1233 to c. 1330), the courts of Languedoc (Toulouse, Carcassonne) are the most active. After 1330 the center of the persecution of heretics shifted to the Alpine regions, while in Languedoc they ceased almost entirely. In northern France, the activity of the inquisitors was irregular throughout this period and, except for the first few years, it was not very intense.
France\'s first Dominican inquisitor, Robert le Bougre, working in the years 1233--1244, earned a particularly grim reputation. In 1236, Robert burned about 50 people in the area of Champagne and Flanders, and on 13 May 1239, in Montwimer, he burned 183 Cathars. Following Robert\'s removal from office, Inquisition activity in northern France remained very low. One of the largest trials in the area took place in 1459--1460 at Arras; 34 people were then accused of witchcraft and Satanism, 12 of them were burned at the stake.
The main center of the medieval inquisition was undoubtedly the Languedoc. The first inquisitors were appointed there in 1233, but due to strong resistance from local communities in the early years, most sentences concerned dead heretics, whose bodies were exhumed and burned. Actual executions occurred sporadically and, until the fall of the fortress of Montsegur (1244), probably accounted for no more than 1% of all sentences. In addition to the cremation of the remains of the dead, a large percentage were also sentences in absentia and penances imposed on heretics who voluntarily confessed their faults (for example, in the years 1241--1242 the inquisitor Pierre Ceila reconciled 724 heretics with the Church). Inquisitor Ferrier of Catalonia, investigating Montauban between 1242 and 1244, questioned about 800 people, of whom he sentenced 6 to death and 20 to prison. Between 1243 and 1245, Bernard de Caux handed down 25 sentences of imprisonment and confiscation of property in Agen and Cahors. After the fall of Montsegur and the seizure of power in Toulouse by Count Alfonso de Poitiers, the percentage of death sentences increased to around 7% and remained at this level until the end of the Languedoc Inquisition around from 1330.
Between 1245 and 1246, the inquisitor Bernard de Caux carried out a large-scale investigation in the area of Lauragais and Lavaur. He covered 39 villages, and probably all the adult inhabitants (5,471 people) were questioned, of whom 207 were found guilty of heresy. Of these 207, no one was sentenced to death, 23 were sentenced to prison and 184 to penance. Between 1246 and 1248, the inquisitors Bernard de Caux and Jean de Saint-Pierre handed down 192 sentences in Toulouse, of which 43 were sentences in absentia and 149 were prison sentences.
In Pamiers in 1246/1247 there were 7 prison sentences \[201\] and in Limoux in the county of Foix 156 people were sentenced to carry crosses. Between 1249 and 1257, in Toulouse, the inquisitors handed down 306 sentences, without counting the penitential sentences imposed during \"times of grace\". 21 people were sentenced to death, 239 to prison, in addition, 30 people were sentenced in absentia and 11 posthumously; In another five cases the type of sanction is unknown, but since they all involve repeat offenders, only prison or burning at stake. Between 1237 and 1279, at least 507 convictions were passed in Toulouse (most in absentia or posthumously) resulting in the confiscation of property; in Albi between 1240 and 1252 there were 60 sentences of this type.
The activities of Bernard Gui, inquisitor of Toulouse from 1307 to 1323, are better documented, as a complete record of his trials has been preserved. During the entire period of his inquisitorial activity, he handed down 633 sentences against 602 people (31 repeat offenders), including:
- 41 death sentences,
- 40 convictions of fugitive heretics (in absentia),
- 20 sentences against people who died before the end of the trial (3 of them Bernardo considered unrepentant, and his remains were burned at the stake),
- 69 exhumation orders for the remains of dead heretics (66 of whom were subsequently burned),
- 308 prison sentences, with confiscation of property,
- 136 orders to carry crosses,
- 18 mandates to make a pilgrimage (17) or participate in a crusade (1),
- in one case, sentencing was postponed.
In addition, Bernard Gui issued 274 more sentences involving the mitigation of sentences already served to convicted heretics; in 139 cases he exchanged prison for carrying crosses, and in 135 cases, carrying crosses for pilgrimage. To the full statistics, there are 22 orders to demolish houses used by heretics as meeting places and one condemnation and burning of Jewish writings (including commentaries on the Torah).
The episcopal inquisition was also active in Languedoc. In the years 1232--1234, the Bishop of Toulouse, Raymond, sentenced several dozen Cathars to death. In turn, Bishop Jacques Fournier of Pamiers (he was later Pope Benedict XII) in the years 1318--1325 conducted an investigation against 89 people, of whom 64 were found guilty and 5 were sentenced to death.
After 1330, the center of activity of the French inquisitions moved east, to the Alpine regions, where there were numerous Waldensian communities. The repression against them was not continuous and was very ineffective. Data on sentences issued by inquisitors are fragmentary. In 1348, 12 Waldensians were burned in Embrun, and in 1353/1354 as many as 168 received penances. In general, however, few Waldensians fell into the hands of the inquisitors, for they took refuge in hard-to-reach mountainous regions, where they formed close-knit communities. Inquisitors operating in this region, in order to be able to conduct trials, often had to resort to the armed assistance of local secular authorities (e.g. military expeditions in 1338--1339 and 1366). In the years 1375--1393 (with some breaks), the Dauphiné was the scene of the activities of the inquisitor Francois Borel, who gained an extremely gloomy reputation among the locals. It is known that on 1 July 1380, he pronounced death sentences in absentia against 169 people, including 108 from the Valpute valley, 32 from Argentiere and 29 from Freyssiniere. It is not known how many of them were actually carried out, only six people captured in 1382 are confirmed to be executed.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, major trials took place only sporadically, e.g. against the Waldensians in Delphinate in 1430--1432 (no numerical data) and 1532--1533 (7 executed out of about 150 tried) or the aforementioned trial in Arras 1459--1460 . In the 16th century, the jurisdiction of the inquisitors in the kingdom of France was effectively limited to clergymen, while local parliaments took over the jurisdiction of the laity. Between 1500 and 1560, 62 people were burned for heresy in the Languedoc, all of whom were convicted by the Parliament of Toulouse.
| 1,197 |
Inquisition
| 5 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Medieval Inquisitions {#medieval_inquisitions}
### Inquisitions in Medieval Germany {#inquisitions_in_medieval_germany}
The Rhineland and Thuringia in the years 1231--1233 were the field of activity of the notorious inquisitor Konrad of Marburg. Unfortunately, the documentation of his trials has not been preserved, making it impossible to determine the number of his victims. The chronicles only mention \"many\" heretics that he burned. The only concrete information is about the burning of four people in Erfurt in May 1232.
After the murder of Konrad of Marburg, burning at the stake in Germany was virtually unknown for the next 80 years. It was not until the early fourteenth century that stronger measures were taken against heretics, largely at the initiative of bishops. In the years 1311--1315, numerous trials were held against the Waldensians in Austria, resulting in the burning of at least 39 people, according to incomplete records. In 1336, in Angermünde, in the diocese of Brandenburg, another 14 heretics were burned.
The number of those convicted by the papal inquisitors was smaller. Walter Kerlinger burned 10 begards in Erfurt and Nordhausen in 1368--1369. In turn, Eylard Schöneveld burned a total of four people in various Baltic cities in 1402--1403.
In the last decade of the 14th century, episcopal inquisitors carried out large-scale operations against heretics in eastern Germany, Pomerania, Austria, and Hungary. In Pomerania, of 443 sentenced in the years 1392--1394 by the inquisitor Peter Zwicker, the provincial of the Celestinians, none went to the stake, because they all submitted to the Church. Bloodier were the trials of the Waldensians in Austria in 1397, where more than a hundred Waldensians were burned at the stake. However, it seems that in these trials the death sentences represented only a small percentage of all the sentences, because according to the account of one of the inquisitors involved in these repressions, the number of heretics reconciled with the Church from Thuringia to Hungary amounted to about 2,000.
In 1414, the inquisitor Heinrich von Schöneveld arrested 84 flagellants in Sangerhausen, of whom he burned 3 leaders, and imposed penitential sentences on the rest. However, since this sect was associated with the peasant revolts in Thuringia from 1412, after the departure of the inquisitor, the local authorities organized a mass hunt for flagellants and, regardless of their previous verdicts, sent at least 168 to the stake (possibly up to 300) people. Inquisitor Friedrich Müller (d. 1460) sentenced to death 12 of the 13 heretics he had tried in 1446 at Nordhausen. In 1453 the same inquisitor burned 2 heretics in Göttingen.
Inquisitor Heinrich Kramer, author of the Malleus Maleficarum, in his own words, sentenced 48 people to the stake in five years (1481--1486). Jacob Hoogstraten, inquisitor of Cologne from 1508 to 1527, sentenced four people to be burned at the stake.
A notable former inquisitor, Jesuit Friedrich Spee, published a book *Cautio Criminalis* (1631) which helped end witch-hunting and the reliance on torture, highly regarded in Catholic and Protestant circles.
| 493 |
Inquisition
| 6 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Medieval Inquisitions {#medieval_inquisitions}
### Inquisition in Hungary and the Balkans {#inquisition_in_hungary_and_the_balkans}
Very little is known about the activities of inquisitors in Hungary and the countries under its influence (Bosnia, Croatia), as there are few sources about this activity. Numerous conversions and executions of Bosnian Cathars are known to have taken place around 1239/40, and in 1268 the Dominican inquisitor Andrew reconciled many heretics with the Church in the town of Skradin, but precise figures are unknown. The border areas with Bohemia and Austria were under major inquisitorial action against the Waldensians in the early 15th century. In addition, in the years 1436--1440 in the Kingdom of Hungary, the Franciscan Jacobo de la Marcha acted as an inquisitor\... his mission was mixed, preaching and inquisitorial. The correspondence preserved between James, his collaborators, the Hungarian bishops and Pope Eugene IV shows that he reconciled up to 25,000 people with the Church. This correspondence also shows that he punished recalcitrant heretics with death, and in 1437 numerous executions were carried out in the diocese of Sirmium, although the number of those executed is also unknown.
### Inquisitions in the Czech lands and Poland {#inquisitions_in_the_czech_lands_and_poland}
In Bohemia and Poland, the inquisition was established permanently in 1318, although anti-heretical repressions were carried out as early as 1315 in the episcopal inquisition, when more than 50 Waldensians were burned in various Silesian cities. The fragmentary surviving protocols of the investigations carried out by the Prague inquisitor Gallus de Neuhaus in the years 1335 to around 1353 mention 14 heretics burned out of almost 300 interrogated, but it is estimated that the actual number executed could have been even more than 200, and the entire process was covered to varying degrees by some 4,400 people.
In the lands belonging to the Kingdom of Poland little is known of the activities of the Inquisition until the appearance of the Hussite heresy in the 15th century. Polish courts of the inquisition in the fight against this heresy issued at least 8 death sentences for some 200 trials carried out.
There are 558 court cases finished with conviction researched in Poland from the 15th to 18th centuries.
### Inquisition in Medieval Spain {#inquisition_in_medieval_spain}
Portugal and Spain in the late Middle Ages consisted largely of multicultural territories of Muslim and Jewish influence, reconquered from Islamic control, and the new Christian authorities could not assume that all their subjects would suddenly become and remain orthodox Catholics. So the Inquisition in Iberia, in the lands of the Reconquista counties and kingdoms like León, Castile, and Aragon, had a special socio-political basis as well as more fundamental religious motives.
In some parts of Spain towards the end of the 14th century, there was a wave of violent anti-Judaism, encouraged by the preaching of Ferrand Martínez, Archdeacon of Écija. In the pogroms of June 1391 in Seville, hundreds of Jews were killed, and the synagogue was completely destroyed. The number of people killed was also high in other cities, such as Córdoba, Valencia, and Barcelona.
One of the consequences of these pogroms was the mass conversion of thousands of surviving Jews. Forced baptism was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church, and theoretically anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism. However, this was very narrowly interpreted. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament, but confined this to cases where it was literally administered by physical force. A person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as a voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism. After the public violence, many of the converted \"felt it safer to remain in their new religion\". Thus, after 1391, a new social group appeared and were referred to as *conversos* or *New Christians*.
| 640 |
Inquisition
| 7 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Early modern European history {#early_modern_european_history}
With the sharpening of debate and of conflict between the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Protestant societies came to see/use the Inquisition as a terrifying \"other\", while staunch Catholics regarded the Holy Office as a necessary bulwark against the spread of reprehensible heresies. Since the beginning of the most serious heretic groups, like the Cathars or the Waldensians, they were soon accused of the most fantastic behavior, like having wild sexual orgies, eating babies, copulating with demons, worshipping the Devil.
### Spanish Inquisition {#spanish_inquisition}
King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile established the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to be overseen by 14 local Tribunals. In contrast to the previous inquisitions, it operated completely under royal Christian authority, though staffed by clergy and orders, and independently of the Holy See. It operated first in Spain, then in Portugal, and eventually in most Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Kingdom of Sicily, and all Spanish possessions in North, Central, and South America. It primarily focused upon forced converts from Islam (Moriscos, *conversos*, and \"secret Moors\") and from Judaism (*conversos*, Crypto-Jews, and Marranos)---both groups which continued to reside in Spain and who came under suspicion of either continuing to adhere to their old religion or of having fallen back into it.
Under the Alhambra Decree of 1492, all Jews who had not converted were expelled from Spain in 1492. Tomás de Torquemada was chosen to be the first Grand Inquisitor, to oversee the Inquisition; and it is estimated that up to 2,000 Jews were burned at the stake during the reign of Queen Isabella.(See [Jewish Encyclopedia](https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2155-auto-da-fe)).
All Muslims were ordered to convert in different stages starting in 1507 and culminating in 1614, when Muslims who had previously converted were now expelled . Those who converted or simply remained after the relevant edict became nominally and legally Catholics, and thus subject to the Inquisition.
#### Inquisition in the Spanish overseas empire {#inquisition_in_the_spanish_overseas_empire}
In 1569, King Philip II of Spain set up three tribunals in the Americas (each formally titled *Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición*): one in Mexico, one in Cartagena de Indias (in modern-day Colombia), and one in Peru. The Mexican office administered Mexico (central and southeastern Mexico), Nueva Galicia (northern and western Mexico), the Audiencias of Guatemala (Guatemala, Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica), and the Spanish East Indies. The Peruvian Inquisition, based in Lima, administered all the Spanish territories in South America and Panama.
The Spanish Inquisition was formerly ended by proclamation on [July 15, 1834](https://www.britannica.com/question/When-did-the-Spanish-Inquisition-end), by Maria Cristina de Bourbon, then queen regent of Spain, also known as Maria Cristina of Naples and Sicily.
| 453 |
Inquisition
| 8 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Early modern European history {#early_modern_european_history}
### Portuguese Inquisition {#portuguese_inquisition}
The Portuguese Inquisition formally started in Portugal in 1536 at the request of King João III. Manuel I had asked Pope Leo X for the installation of the Inquisition in 1515, but only after his death in 1521 did Pope Paul III acquiesce. At its head stood a *Grande Inquisidor*, or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the Crown, and always from within the royal family. Jews who fled Spain and the Spanish Inquisition now found themselves subject to the Inquisition in Portugal. The Portuguese Inquisition principally focused upon the Jews from Spain, the Sephardi Jews, who had fled or whom the state had forced to convert to Christianity.
The Portuguese Inquisition held its first *auto-da-fé* in 1540. The Portuguese inquisitors mostly focused upon the Jewish New Christians (i.e. *conversos* or *marranos*). The Portuguese Inquisition expanded its scope of operations from Portugal to its colonial possessions, including Brazil, Cape Verde, and Goa. In the colonies, it continued as a religious court, investigating and trying cases of breaches of the tenets of orthodox Catholicism until 1821. King João III (reigned 1521--57) extended the activity of the courts to cover censorship, divination, witchcraft, and bigamy. Originally oriented for a religious action, the Inquisition exerted an influence over almost every aspect of Portuguese society: political, cultural, and social.
According to Henry Charles Lea, between 1540 and 1794, tribunals in Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra, and Évora resulted in the burning of 1,175 persons, the burning of another 633 in effigy, and the penancing of 29,590. But documentation of 15 out of 689 autos-da-fé has disappeared, so these numbers may slightly understate the activity.
#### Inquisition in the Portuguese overseas empire {#inquisition_in_the_portuguese_overseas_empire}
##### Goa Inquisition {#goa_inquisition}
The Goa Inquisition began in 1560 at the order of John III of Portugal. It had originally been requested in a letter in the 1540s by Jesuit priest Francis Xavier, because of the New Christians who had arrived in Goa and then reverted to Judaism. The Goa Inquisition also focused upon Catholic converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, this inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the public observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. Aleixo Dias Falcão and Francisco Marques set it up in the palace of the Sabaio Adil Khan.
##### Brazilian Inquisition {#brazilian_inquisition}
The inquisition was active in colonial Brazil. The religious mystic and formerly enslaved prostitute, Rosa Egipcíaca was arrested, interrogated and imprisoned, both in the colony and in Lisbon. Egipcíaca was the first black woman in Brazil to write a book -- this work detailed her visions and was entitled *Sagrada Teologia do Amor Divino das Almas Peregrinas.*
| 468 |
Inquisition
| 9 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Early modern European history {#early_modern_european_history}
### Roman Inquisition {#roman_inquisition}
With the Protestant Reformation, Catholic authorities became much more ready to suspect heresy in any new ideas, including those of Renaissance humanism, previously strongly supported by many at the top of the Church hierarchy. The extirpation of heretics became a much broader and more complex enterprise, complicated by the politics of territorial Protestant powers, especially in northern Europe. The Catholic Church could no longer exercise direct influence in the politics and justice-systems of lands that officially adopted Protestantism. Thus war (the French Wars of Religion, the Thirty Years\' War), massacre (the St. Bartholomew\'s Day massacre) and the missional and propaganda work (by the *Sacra congregatio de propaganda fide*) of the catholic Counter-Reformation came to play larger roles in these circumstances, and the Roman law type of a \"judicial\" approach to heresy represented by the Inquisition became less important overall. In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition as a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials. It had the tasks of maintaining and defending the integrity of the faith and of examining and proscribing errors and false doctrines; it thus became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. A famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition was that of Galileo Galilei in 1633.
The penances and sentences for those who confessed or were found guilty were pronounced together in a public ceremony at the end of all the processes. This was the *sermo generalis* or *auto-da-fé*. Penances (not matters for the civil authorities) might consist of pilgrimages, a public scourging, a fine, or the wearing of a cross. The wearing of two tongues of red or other brightly colored cloth, sewn onto an outer garment in an \"X\" pattern, marked those who were under investigation. The penalties in serious cases were confiscation of property by the Inquisition or imprisonment. This led to the possibility of false charges to enable confiscation being made against those over a certain income, particularly rich *marranos*. Following the French invasion of 1798, the new authorities sent 3,000 chests containing over 100,000 Inquisition documents to France from Rome.
### In France {#in_france}
Between 1657 and 1659, twenty-two alleged witches were burned on the orders of the inquisitor Pierre Symard in the province of Franche-Comté, then part of the Empire.
The inquisitorial tribunal in papally-ruled Avignon, established in 1541, passed 855 death sentences, almost all of them (818) in the years 1566--1574, but the vast majority of them were pronounced in absentia.
### Witch-hunts {#witch_hunts}
The fierce denunciation and persecution of supposed sorceresses that characterized the cruel witchhunts of a later age were not generally found in the first thirteen hundred years of the Christian era. While belief in witchcraft, and persecutions directed at or excused by it, were widespread in pre-Christian Europe, and reflected in old Germanic law, the growing influence of the Church in the early medieval era in pagan areas resulted in the revocation of these laws in many places, bringing an end to the traditional witch hunts. Throughout the medieval era, mainstream Christian teaching had disputed the existence of witches and denied any power to witchcraft, condemning it as pagan superstition.
Black magic practitioners were generally dealt with through confession, repentance, and charitable work assigned as penance. In 1258, Pope Alexander IV ruled that inquisitors should limit their involvement to those cases in which there was some clear presumption of heretical belief but slowly this vision changed.
The prosecution of witchcraft generally became more prominent in the late medieval and Renaissance era, perhaps driven partly by the upheavals of the era -- the Black Death, the Hundred Years War, and a gradual cooling of the climate that modern scientists call the Little Ice Age (between about the 15th and 19th centuries). Witches were sometimes blamed. Since the years of most intense witch-hunting largely coincide with the age of the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation, some historians point to the influence of the Reformation on the European witch-hunt. However, witch-hunting began almost one hundred years before Luther\'s ninety-five theses.
| 683 |
Inquisition
| 10 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Manuals for Inquisitors {#manuals_for_inquisitors}
Over the centuries that it lasted, several procedure manuals for inquisitors were produced for dealing with different types of heresy. The primordial text was Pope Innocent IV\'s bull, *Ad Extirpanda*, from 1252, which in its thirty-eight laws details in detail what must be done and authorizes the use of torture. Of the various manuals produced later, some stand out: by Nicholas Eymerich, *Directorium Inquisitorum,* written in 1376; by Bernardo Gui, *Practica inquisitionis heretice pravitatis,* written between 1319 and 1323. Witches were not forgotten: the book *Malleus Maleficarum (\"the witches\' hammer\"),* written in 1486, by Heinrich Kramer, deals with the subject.
In Portugal, several *\"Regimentos\"* (four) were written for the use of the inquisitors, the first in 1552 at the behest of the inquisitor Cardinal D. Henrique and the last in 1774, this sponsored by the Marquis of Pombal, himself a *familiar* of the inquisition. The Portuguese 1640 Regiment determined that each court of the Holy Office should have a Bible, a compendium of canon and civil law, Eymerich\'s *Directorium Inquisitorum,* and Diego de Simancas\' *Catholicis institutionibus*.
In 1484, Spanish inquisitor Torquemada, based in Nicholas Eymerich\'s *Directorium Inquisitorum*, wrote his twenty eight articles code, *Compilación de las instrucciones del oficio de la Santa Inquisición* (i.e. Compilation of the instructions of the office of the Holy Inquisitio*n).* Later additions would be made, based on experience, many by the canonist Francisco Peña.
### Malleus Maleficarum {#malleus_maleficarum}
Dominican priest Heinrich Kramer was assistant to the Archbishop of Salzburg, a sensational preacher, and an appointed local inquisitor. Historian Malcolm Gaskill calls Kramer a \"superstitious psychopath\".
In 1484 Kramer requested that Pope Innocent VIII clarify his authority to conduct inquisitions into witchcraft throughout Germany, where he had been refused assistance by the local ecclesiastical authorities. They maintained that Kramer could not legally function in their areas. Despite some support from Pope Innocent VIII, he was expelled from the city of Innsbruck by the local bishop, George Golzer, who ordered Kramer to stop making false accusations.
Golzer described Kramer as senile in letters written shortly after the incident. This rebuke led Kramer to write a justification of his views on witchcraft in his 1486 book *Malleus Maleficarum* (\"Hammer against witches\"). The book distinguishes itself from other demonologies by its obsessive hate of women and sex, seemingly reflecting the twisted psyche of the author. Historian Brian Levack calls it \"scholastic pornography\".
Despite Kramer\'s claim that the book gained acceptance from the clergy at the University of Cologne, it was in fact condemned by the clergy at Cologne for advocating views that violated Catholic doctrine and standard inquisitorial procedure. In 1538 the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the *Malleus* said. Despite this, Heinrich Kramer was never excommunicated and even enjoyed considerable prestige till his death.
| 467 |
Inquisition
| 11 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Inquisition Proceedings {#inquisition_proceedings}
### Denunciations
The usual procedure began with the visitation by the inquisitors in a chosen location. The so-called heretics were then asked to be present and denounce themselves and others; it was not enough to denounce himself as a heretic.
Many confessed alleged heresies for fear that a friend or neighbor might do so later. The terror of the Inquisition provoked chain reactions and denunciations even of spouses, children and friends.
If they confessed within a \"grace period\" --- usually 30 days --- they could be accepted back into the church without punishment. In general, the benefits proposed by the \"edicts of grace\" to those who presented themselves spontaneously were the forgiveness of the death penalty or life imprisonment and the forgiveness of the penalty of confiscation of property.
Anyone suspected of knowing about another\'s heresy and who did not make the obligatory denunciation would be excommunicated and then subject to prosecution as a \"promoter of heresy.\" If the denouncer named other potential heretics, they would also be summoned. All types of complaints were accepted by the Inquisition, regardless of the reputation or position of the complainant. Rumors, mere suppositions, and even anonymous letters were accepted, \"if the case were of such a nature that such action seemed appropriate to the service of God and the good of the Faith\". It was foreseen that prison guards themselves could report and be witnesses against the accused.
This strategy transformed everyone into an Inquisition agent, reminding them that a simple word or deed could bring them before the tribunal. Denunciation was elevated to the status of a superior religious duty, filling the nation with spies and making every individual suspicious of his neighbor, family members, and any strangers he might met.
### Methods of torture used {#methods_of_torture_used}
The primary method of torture was psychological: solitary confinement and indefinite incarceration.
The real prevalence of torture is ignored. Some defend that victims were interrogated under physical torture only in extreme cases. The view of historian Ron E. Hassner is that \'inquisitors knew that information obtained through torture often was not reliable. \[So\] They built their cases patiently, gathering information from a variety of sources, using a variety of methods. With any given subject, they used torture only intermittently, in sessions sometimes months apart. Their main goal was not to compel a confession or a profession of faith, but to extract factual information that would confirm or corroborate information already in hand.\'
The summary of the *Directorium Inquisitorum*, by Nicolás Aymerich, made by Marchena, notes a comment by the Aragonese inquisitor: *Quaestiones sunt fallaces et inefficaces* (\"The interrogations are misleading and useless\"). In spite of this, Eymerich strongly recommends the use of torture and describes in detail the rules to be followed in order to recommend its use, which he considers very praiseworthy.
Defendants were punished if found guilty, with their property being confiscated to cover legal and prison costs and to maintain the heavy machinery of persecution. The victims could also repent of their accusation and receive reconciliation with the Church. The execution of the tortures was attended by the inquisitor, the doctor, the secretary and the torturer, applying them on the nearly naked prisoner. In the year 1252, the bull *Ad extirpanda* allowed torture, but always with a doctor involved to avoid endangering life, and limited its use to non-bloody methods that did not break bones:`{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 220
| image_gap = 4
| background color = azure
| image1 = Theresiana-Hochziehen.jpg
| caption1 = Strappado
| image2 = Museo de la Tortura Toledo 18.jpg
| caption2 = Rack, or potro
| image3 = Water cure.jpg
| caption3 = Water cure
}}`{=mediawiki}
- Strappado: the victim was lifted to the ceiling with his arms tied behind his back, and then dropped violently, but without touching the ground. This usually meant the dislocation of the victim\'s arms.
- Rack or *potro*: the prisoner was tied to a frame and the executioner pressed, but stopping before or if the meat was pierced or blood flowed. In another version, the victim was stretched on a sort of table, usually with serious impact in later life. Many inquisitors believed the rack was not allowed.
- Water cure, now known as water boarding: the prisoner was tied, a cloth was inserted through his mouth down to his throat, and one liter jugs of water were poured in to his mouth. The victim had the sensation of drowning, and the stomach swelled until near bursting.
According to Catholic apologists, the method of torture (which was socially accepted in the context of the time) was adopted only in exceptional cases, and the inquisitorial procedure was meticulously regulated in interrogation practices.
- Torture could not endanger the subject\'s life.
- However, at times torture was allowed when guilt was \"half proven\" or even not proven, or there existed a \"presumption of guilt\", or confession was considered incomplete, as stated in Article XV of Torquemada\'s *instruciones* and in Eymerich\'s directions or Portuguese *Regimentos.*
- Torture could not cause the subject to lose a limb.
- However, at time the defendant was informed that if he died, broke any limbs or lose consciousness during torment, it would be his fault, and not theirs, the inquisitors, because with \"such impudence\" he put himself in danger of life and health.
- Torture could only be applied once, and only if the subject appeared to be lying.
- However, in practice torture was repeated or \"continued\". The Portuguese instructions (*Regimentos*) stipulate that defendants may not appear at *autos de fé* showing marks of torture, so did not recommend using torture other than *potro* in the previous fortnight.
It is clear that after the proceedings the tortured were left in a sorry state. Some perished as a result.Despite the loss of thousands of documents over the years, many of the meticulous records of torture sessions have survived.
| 1,000 |
Inquisition
| 12 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Inquisition Proceedings {#inquisition_proceedings}
### Methods of torture used {#methods_of_torture_used}
#### Fake instruments of torture {#fake_instruments_of_torture}
Despite what is popularly believed, the cases in which torture was used during the inquisitorial processes were rare, since it was considered (according to some authors) to be ineffective in obtaining evidence. Before torture, some inquisitors may have displayed the instruments mainly on the purpose of intimidation of the accused, so he could understand what to expect. If he wished to avoid punishment, he should only confess his faults.
In the words of historian Helen Mary Carrel: \"the common view of the medieval justice system as cruel and based on torture and execution is often unfair and inaccurate.\" As the historian Nigel Townson wrote: \"The sinister torture chambers equipped with cogwheels, bone crushing contraptions, shackles, and other terrifying mechanisms only existed in the imagination of their detractors.\"
In fact, it seems likely that the inquisitors favoured simpler and \"cleaner\" methods, which left few apparent marks. Aymerich points out that canon law does not prescribe either this or that particular torture, so judges can use whatever they see fit, as long as it\'s not an unusual torture. Many types of torments have been chosen, but Eymerich think they seem more like the inventions of executioners than the works of theologians. \"It is true that it is a very praiseworthy practice to subject the accused to torture, but no less reprehensible are those bloodthirsty judges who base their vain glory on the invention of crude and exquisite torments\" -- he adds. Also, Rafael Sabatini notes that the available records do not show these uncommon inventions. It seems that the inquisitors must have been satisfied with the devices already in use, or a limited number of the most efficient.
Many torture instruments were designed by late 18th and early 19th century pranksters, entertainers, and con artists who wanted to profit from people\'s morbid interest in the Dark Age myth by charging them to witness such instruments in Victorian-era circuses.
However, several torture instruments are accurately described in *Foxe\'s Book of Martyrs*, including but not limited to the dry pan.
Some of the instruments that \"the Inquisition\" never used, but that are erroneously registered in various inquisition museums:
- The troublemaker\'s flute: Created in the 17th century. Its first mention comes from the years 1680--90 of the Republic of Venice used against deserters from the war between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice.
- Head crusher: Created in the 14th century. Its first mention comes from 1340 in Germany. It was not used by the Inquisition but by the German courts against the enemies of some prince-electors.
- Judas\'s cradle: Created in the fifteenth century. Its first mention comes from 1450 to 1480 in France. Used by the *parlement* and not by the Inquisition, it was abolished in 1430.
- The Spanish donkey: Created in the 16th century. The name connects the instrument to the Spanish Inquisition, although it was only used in certain regions, which were not primarily Spain nor as part of the Inquisition, but by Central European civil authorities (most notably Reformed Germany and the Bohemian Crown), New France, the Netherlands Antilles, the British Empire, and the United States. It is unclear exactly who invented this device, and it is likely that it was ascribed to Spain as \"Black Legend\" propaganda.
- The Spanish tickle: Created in 2005 as a false rumor on Wikipedia.
- The Thumbscrew: Created in the 16th century. It was used for the persecution of Catholics by William Cecil in England during the reign of Elizabeth I. It was not used by the Inquisition, but by the English courts against dissidents to the Protestant Reformation, later also for the torture of slaves.
- The saw: Created in the fifteenth century. Its first mention comes from 1450 to 1470. Used by the Hungarian court against Muslims in the context of the war between the Ottoman Empire, the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary.
- Pear of anguish: Created in the fifteenth century. Its first mention comes from 1450. Used by the French *parlement* and not by the Inquisition, it was abolished in 1430. The historian Chris Bishop came to postulate that it could have actually been a sock stretcher, since it has been proven that it was too weak to open into a body orifice.
- The Spanish Boot: Created in the 14th century. Its first mentions come from Scotland with the buskin. Used by the authorities in England to persecute Catholics in Ireland. Later the civil authorities of France and Venice would use it, but not by the Spanish Inquisition.
- The \"Cloak of Infamy\". Created in the 17th century. It was first mentioned by Johann Philipp Siebenkees in 1790, and was used by the Nuremberg parliament (Protestant) against thieves and prostitutes.
- The Iron Maiden. The use of iron maidens in judicial proceedings or executions is doubted. Several replicas of the Iron Maiden existed, and the one of Nuremberg Castle was destroyed in 1944 as a result of bombing during World War II. It was probably based on the 17th century Cloak of Infamy.
- The Breast ripper. Created at the end of the 16th century. The first reference dates back to Bavaria (Germany) in 1599 and presumably it would have been used in France and Holy Roman Empire by civil authorities and not by the Inquisition. However, there are no reliable first-hand historical sources on the use of the devices, so, like the Iron Maiden, there is a possibility that the devices shown in the images are fakes of a later manufacture (such as from the 17th century) or assembled from small fragments that may have been parts of another device. Most likely, it was often mentioned to frighten and force the accused to confess, rather than such dubiously existent torture being inflicted on them.
- The Stocks. Created in the Middle Ages and used by the civil authorities of London, not the Inquisition, in order to publicly shame criminals, but not physically harm them or take life.
- The bronze bull. Created in the Ancient Age and never used in medieval Europe, much less in the Inquisition. In fact, there is a chance that it never existed at all and was just a popular legend of Greco-Latin culture.
- The Scold\'s bridle. Created in the 16th century. It was never legalized and was only used unofficially by some civilians in Scotland and England, not by the Inquisition.
- The dungeon of rats. Created in the 16th century, its main reference is from John Lothrop Motley about some anecdotes of torture against the \"papists\" during the Dutch war of independence. It is also said that Catholics who resisted the Church of England under Elizabeth I were tortured in the Tower of London. Used by some Protestant governments and not by the Inquisition.
- Heretic\'s Fork, Boots, Cat\'s Paw, and Iron Cage. Created in the 15th--16th century. Used by the French *parlement* and not by the Inquisition.
| 1,172 |
Inquisition
| 13 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Inquisition Proceedings {#inquisition_proceedings}
### Trials
The Inquisition\'s trials were secret and there was no possibility of appealing the decisions. The defendant was pressured to confess to the \"crimes\" assigned to him. The Inquisitors kept the accusations made and evidence they possessed hidden, to achieve a confession without announcing the accusation. The main goal was to make the defendant confess. When a lawyer was assigned to him, he was an employee of the Inquisition and worked for it, not in the defense of the accused. Each court had its own staff (lawyers, prosecutors, notaries, etc.) and prison. The guards who served the inquisition spied the accused in their cells; if they refused to eat for example, this could be considered a fast, a Jewish custom.
In many cases, it was common for false accusations to be made against New Christians and it was difficult to prove their innocence. It was therefore more convenient for many to make a false confession to the inquisitors, including a list of imaginary accomplices, in the hope that they would not receive extreme penalties, such as the death penalty, but only the confiscation of property or lesser penalties.
There was no trial in the modern sense of the term, but an interrogation; the prisoner was usually not told about the reasons for his arrest --- often for months or years. There was no precise accusation and therefore little chance of a plausible defence. The prisoner was advised \"to search his conscience, confess the truth, and trust to the mercy of the tribunal\'\". Eventually, the prisoner was informed of the charges against him --- but omitting the names of the witnesses. After the interrogations, hearings and waiting periods came to an end, the sentence could be pronounced.
Walter Ullmann, a historian, summarises his evaluation of the trials: \"There is hardly one item in the whole Inquisitorial procedure that could be squared with the demands of justice; on the contrary, every one of its items is the denial of justice or a hideous caricature of it \[\...\] its principles are the very denial of the demands made by the most primitive concepts of natural justice \[\...\] This kind of proceeding has no longer any semblance to a judicial trial but is rather its systematic and methodical perversion.\" Portuguese author A. José Saraiva points out the analogy of the trials with the absurdity of the Kafka\'s novel The Trial or the show trials of Stalin\'s era.
| 410 |
Inquisition
| 14 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Inquisition Proceedings {#inquisition_proceedings}
### Punishments
The Inquisition\'s sentences could be simple penances, for example private devotions, or heavy punishments. One of the Inquisition\'s punishments was the forced wearing of distinctive clothing or signs such as the sambenito, sometimes for an entire life.
Other punishments were exile, compulsory pilgrimages, fines, the galleys, life imprisonment (in fact prison for some years) and in addition the confiscation of goods and property. The bull Ad Extirpanda determined that the houses of heretics should be completely razed to the ground. Furthermore, the impact of the Inquisition\'s activity on the fabric of society was not limited to these penances or punishments. As under the terror of the Inquisition entire families denounced each other, they were soon reduced to misery, completed by the confiscation of property, public humiliation and ostracism.
Even dead people could be accused, and sentenced up to forty years after the death. When inquisitors considered proven that the deceased were heretics in their lifetime, their corpses were exhumed and burned, their property confiscated and the heirs disinherited.
| 176 |
Inquisition
| 15 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Legitimation by the texts {#legitimation_by_the_texts}
The Inquisition always referred to biblical passages, as well as to church fathers, like Augustine of Hippo, to legitimise his actuation.
The New Testament contains some sentences that the church could interpret for dealing with heretics. The excommunication of a deviant from the faith was equivalent to handing him over to the Devil: \"When you have gathered together, and my spirit with you, in the power of our Lord Jesus, hand this man over to Satan for destruction of the flesh, so that his spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord.\" (The Pauline letters: 1 Corinthians, B. Incest in Corinth, 5:4 and 5:5)
The sentence of Paul could also be understood in this way: he handed over to the Devil those \"who have suffered shipwreck in the faith \[\...\] so that they may be taught not to be blasphemous.\" (The Pastoral epistles: 1 Timothy -- The first letter from Paul to Timothy---Timothy\'s responsibility: 1:19 and 1:20)
Paul\'s view reflects less the idea of punishment than the idea of isolation when he says: \" After a first and second warning have nothing to do with a disputatious person, since you may be sure that such a person is warped and is self-condemned as a sinner.\" (The Pastoral epistles : Titus -- The letter from Paul to Titus---3:10 and 3:11)
In the Gospel of John, Jesus tells the apostates in a parable: \"I am the vine, you are the branches. Whoever remains in me, and I in that person, bears fruit in plenty; for apart from me you can do nothing. Anyone who does not remain in me is thrown away like a branch and withers. These branches are collected, thrown on the fire and burnt.\" This parable can be interpreted as the burning of stubborn heretics at the stake. (The Gospel according to John: The true vine---15:5 and 15:6)
The celebrated theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225--1274) supplied the theoretical foundation for the medieval Inquisition in his *Summa theologica* II 2. 11. A heretic who repents, the first time, should be allowed penance and their life safeguarded by the church from the punishment of the secular authorities (who treated pernicious and public heresy as a kind of sedition.) A subsequent lapse into heresy would show insincerity that called for excommunication, leaving them to the secular authorities who could impose the death penalty on unprotected heretics: \"*Accipere fidem est voluntatis, sed tenere fidem iam acceptam est necessitatis\"* (i.e. \"The acceptance of faith is voluntary, maintaining the accepted faith is necessary. So heretics should be compelled to keep the faith.\")
Luis de Páramo, theologian and Inquisitor of then Spanish-ruled Sicily from 1584 to 1605, asserted that Jesus Christ was \"the first Inquisitor under the Evangelical law\" and that John the Baptist and the apostles were also inquisitors.
However, another traditional stream of Catholic thought, for example championed by Erasmus, was that the Parable of the wheat and tares forbade any premature culling of heretics.
Saint Augustine (354--430) led a debate in Africa with the Donatist community, which had split from the Roman Church. In his works, he called for moderate severity or measures by secular power, including the death penalty, against heretics, however he did not consider it desirable: *\"Corrigi eos volumus, non necari, nec disciplinam circa eos negligi volumus, nec suppliciis quibus digni sunt exerci\"*, meaning \"We would like them to be improved, not killed; we desire the triumph of church discipline, not the death they deserve.\"
| 584 |
Inquisition
| 16 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Opposition and resistance {#opposition_and_resistance}
In many regions and times, there was opposition to the Inquisition.
### Assassinations
In some cases, heretics and other targets did not hesitate to attempt to murder the inquisitors, or destroy its voluminous archives, because they had much to lose in the face of an inquisitorial investigation: their freedom, their property, their lives. The much hated Inquisitor Konrad von Marburg, who also initiated inquisition trials against nobles, was murdered in 1233 by six mounted men on an open country road on the way to Marburg.
In 1242, a Cathar group armed with axes entered the castle of the town of Avignonet (southern France) and murdered the inquisitors Guillaume Arnaud and Étienne de Saint-Thibéry.
In 1252, the inquisitor Peter of Verona was killed by Cathars. Eleven months after his assassination, he was made a Catholic saint, the quickest canonization in history. As Christine Caldwell Ames writes, \"Inquisition changed what it meant to be a martyr, to be holy, and to be an imitator of Christ.\"
In 1395 near Steyr, where the inquisitor Petrus Zwicker was quartered with associates, an assassination attempt on him failed: someone had tried to set fire to the place and burn him alive.
### Clergy opposition {#clergy_opposition}
Opposition to Inquisition power and abuses sometimes came from within the clergy: including friars, priests and bishops.
During French Inquisition, a Franciscan friar, Bernard Délicieux, opposed the actions of the Inquisition in Languedoc. The infamous Bernard Gui presented him as the commander-in-chief of the \"iniquitous army\" against the Dominicans and the Inquisition. Délicieux alleged the Inquisitiors were pursuing innocent Catholics for heresy, trying to destroy their towns. He stated that the methods of the inquisition would have condemned even Peter and Paul as heretics if they appeared before the inquisitors. Délicieux later became one more victim of the Inquisition for his criticism. In 1317, Pope John XXII called him and other Franciscan Spirituals to Avignon, and he was arrested, questioned, and tortured by the Inquisition. In 1319, he was found guilty and sentenced to life in prison. Fragile and old, he died shortly thereafter.
In Spain, several bishops contended with inquisitorial tribunals. In 1532, the Archbishop of Toledo Alonso III Fonseca had to ransom *converso* Juan de Vergara (Cisneros\' Latin secretary) from Spanish inquisitors. Fonseca had previously rescued Ignatius of Loyola from them. Far from being a monolithic institution, sometimes the tribunals threatened individuals protected by the Inquisitor-General, such as with the Inquisitor General Alonso Manrique de Lara and Erasmus.
In Portugal, Father António Vieira (1608--1697), himself a Jesuit, philosopher, writer and orator, was one of the most important opponents of the Inquisition. Arrested by the Inquisition for \"heretical, reckless, ill-sounding and scandalous propositions\" in October 1665, was imprisoned until December 1667. Under the Inquisitorial sentence, he was forbidden to teach, write or preach. Only perhaps Vieira\'s prestige, his intelligence and his support among members of the royal family saved him from greater consequences. Father Vieira led an anti-inquisition movement in Rome, where he spent six years. In addition to his humanitarian objections, he also had others: he realised that a mercantile middle class was being attacked that would be sorely missed in the country\'s economic development. He is believed to have been the author of the anonymous writing *Notícias Recônditas do Modo de Proceder a Inquisição de Portugal com os seus Presos*, which reveals a great deal about the inner workings of the Inquisitorial mechanism and which he delivered to Pope Clement X in favour of the cause of the persecuted of the Inquisition. The Inquisition was suspended by Clement X between 1674 and 1681.
## Ending of the Inquisition in the 19th and 20th centuries {#ending_of_the_inquisition_in_the_19th_and_20th_centuries}
By decree of Napoleon\'s government in 1797, the Inquisition in Venice was abolished in 1806.
In Portugal, in the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820, the \"General Extraordinary and Constituent Courts of the Portuguese Nation\" abolished the Portuguese Inquisition in 1821.
The wars of independence of the former Spanish colonies in the Americas concluded with the abolition of the Inquisition in every quarter of Hispanic America between 1813 and 1825.
The last execution of the Inquisition was in Spain in 1826. This was the execution by garroting of the Catalan school teacher Gaietà Ripoll for purportedly teaching Deism in his school. In Spain the practices of the Inquisition were finally outlawed in 1834.
In Italy, the restoration of the Pope as the ruler of the Papal States in 1814 brought the Inquisition back to the Papal States. It remained active there until the late-19th century, notably in the well-publicised Mortara affair (1858--1870).
A putative governing institution, the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition was created in 1542 in the Vatican. This office survives to this day as part of the Roman Curia, although it underwent a series of name changes. In 1908, it was renamed the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office. In 1965, it became the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In 2022, this office was renamed the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, as retained to the present day.
| 854 |
Inquisition
| 17 |
15,191 |
# Inquisition
## Current position of the Catholic Church {#current_position_of_the_catholic_church}
Reflection on the inquisitorial activity of the Catholic Church began to be seriously undertaken in the period of preparation for the Great Jubilee of 2000, on the initiative of John Paul II, who called for repentance for \"examples of thought and action that are in fact a source of anti-witness and scandal\". On 12 March 2000, during the celebration of the Jubilee, the Pope, on behalf of the entire Catholic Church and all Christians, apologized for these acts and in general for many others. The Pope asked for forgiveness for seven categories of sins: general sins; sins \"in the service of truth\"; sins against Christian unity; sins against the Jews; against respect for love, peace and cultures; sins against the dignity of women and minorities; and against human rights. Some theologians were of the opinion that this unprecedented apology would undermine the authority of the Church. Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger gave an apology on behalf of his office, the successor to the Roman Inquisition: \"Even men of the church, in the name of faith and morals, have sometimes used methods not in keeping with the Gospel.\"
John Paul II\'s apology was considered imperfect by several critics, including Jewish figures, who among other points raised the issue of the beatification, at the same time, of Pope Pius IX, known for his anti-Judaism and his approval of the abduction of Edgardo Mortara as the then six-year-old child had been forcibly taken from his Jewish family by Papal States police, under orders of the Inquisitor of Bologna, and was eventually raised in the papal household.
Several inquisitors are considered saints by the Catholic Church, such as Peter of Verona, Pedro de Arbués, or John of Capistrano; some were even Popes, such as Michele Ghislieri, who would later become Pope Pius V, and Jacques Fournier---later Pope Benedict XII. Raymond of Penyafort, author of one of the first manuals for use by inquisitors---the *Directorium inquisitoriale* (1242) \-- is also a Catholic saint
| 336 |
Inquisition
| 18 |
15,207 |
# Ig Nobel Prize
The **Ig Nobel Prize** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɪ|ɡ|_|n|oʊ|ˈ|b|ɛ|l}}`{=mediawiki}) is a satirical prize awarded annually since 1991 to promote public engagement with scientific research. Its aim is to \"honor achievements that first make people laugh, and then make them think.\" The name of the award is a pun on the Nobel Prize, which it parodies, and on the word \"ignoble\".
Organized by the scientific humor magazine *Annals of Improbable Research* (AIR), the Ig Nobel Prizes are presented by Nobel laureates in a ceremony at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The winners also deliver public lectures. The Ig Nobel Prize monetary award is given in a solitary banknote for the amount of 10 trillion Zimbabwean dollars (\$0.40 USD, but the banknote is worth more as a collector\'s item).
## History
The Ig Nobels were created in 1991 by Marc Abrahams, then editor-in-chief of the *Journal of Irreproducible Results* and later co-founder of the *Annals of Improbable Research*, who has been the master of ceremonies at all awards ceremonies. Awards were presented at that time for discoveries \"that cannot, or should not, be reproduced\". Ten prizes are awarded each year in many categories, including the Nobel Prize categories of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, economics, and peace, but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research. The Ig Nobel Prizes recognize genuine achievements, with the exception of three prizes awarded in the first year to fictitious scientists Josiah S. Carberry, Paul DeFanti, and Thomas Kyle.
The awards are sometimes criticism via satire, as in the two awards given for homeopathy research, prizes in \"science education\" to the Kansas State Department of Education and Colorado State Board of Education for their stance regarding the teaching of evolution, and the prize awarded to *Social Text* after the Sokal affair. Most often, however, they draw attention to scientific articles that have some humorous or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of humans tends to sexually arouse ostriches, to the statement that black holes fulfill all the technical requirements for being the location of Hell, to research on the \"five-second rule\", a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor will not become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds.
Sir Andre Geim, who had been awarded an Ig Nobel Prize in 2000 for levitating a frog by magnetism, was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics in 2010 for his work with the electromagnetic properties of graphene. He is the only individual, as of 2025, to have received both a Nobel and an Ig Nobel.
## Ceremony
The prizes are mostly presented by Nobel laureates, originally at a ceremony in a lecture hall at MIT but moved in 1994 to the Sanders Theater at Harvard University for many years. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event was held fully online in the years of 2020 through 2023. The ceremony returned to MIT in September 2024.
The event contains a number of running jokes, including Miss Sweetie Poo, a little girl who repeatedly cries out, \"Please stop: I\'m bored\", in a high-pitched voice if speakers go on too long. The awards ceremony is traditionally closed with the words: \"If you didn\'t win a prize---and especially if you did---better luck next year!\"
The ceremony is co-sponsored by the Harvard Computer Society, the Harvard--Radcliffe Science Fiction Association and the Harvard--Radcliffe Society of Physics Students.
Throwing paper planes onto the stage is a long-standing tradition. For many years Professor Roy J. Glauber swept the stage clean of the airplanes as the official \"Keeper of the Broom\". Glauber could not attend the 2005 awards because he was traveling to Stockholm to claim a genuine Nobel Prize in Physics.
The \"Parade of Ignitaries\" into the hall includes supporting groups. At the 1997 ceremonies, a team of \"cryogenic sex researchers\" distributed a pamphlet titled \"Safe Sex at Four Kelvin.\" Delegates from the Museum of Bad Art are often on hand to display some pieces from their collection.
## Outreach
The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on National Public Radio in the US and is shown live over the Internet. The recording is broadcast each year, on the Friday after US Thanksgiving, on the public radio program *Science Friday*. In recognition of this, the audience chants the name of the radio show\'s host, Ira Flatow.
Two books have been published with write-ups on some winners: *The Ig Nobel Prize* and *The Ig Nobel Prize 2*, the latter of which was later retitled *The Man Who Tried to Clone Himself*.
An Ig Nobel Tour has been an annual part of National Science week in the United Kingdom since 2003. The tour has also traveled to Australia several times, Aarhus University in Denmark in April 2009, Italy, and the Netherlands.
| 793 |
Ig Nobel Prize
| 0 |
15,207 |
# Ig Nobel Prize
## Legacy
A September 2009 article in *The National* titled \"A noble side to Ig Nobels\" says that, although the Ig Nobel Awards are veiled criticism of trivial research, history shows that trivial research sometimes leads to important breakthroughs. For instance, in 2006, a study showing that one of the mosquitoes that can carry malaria (*Anopheles gambiae*) is attracted equally to the smell of Limburger cheese and the smell of human feet earned the Ig Nobel Prize in the area of biology. As a direct result of these findings, traps baited with this cheese have been placed in strategic locations to combat the epidemic of malaria in Africa. Andre Geim, before sharing the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on graphene, shared the Physics Ig Nobel in 2000 with Michael Berry for the magnetic levitation of a frog, which by 2022 was reportedly part of the inspiration for China\'s lunar gravity research facility
| 159 |
Ig Nobel Prize
| 1 |
15,210 |
# ITU-R
The **ITU Radiocommunication Sector** (**ITU-R**) is one of the three sectors (divisions or units) of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is responsible for radio communications.
Its role is to manage the international radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit resources and to develop standards for radiocommunication systems with the objective of ensuring the effective use of the spectrum.
ITU is required, according to its constitution, to allocate spectrum and register frequency allocation, orbital positions and other parameters of satellites, \"in order to avoid harmful interference between radio stations of different countries\". The international spectrum management system is therefore based on regulatory procedures for frequency coordination, notification and registration.
ITU-R has a permanent secretariat, the Radiocommunication Bureau, based at the ITU HQ in Geneva, Switzerland. The elected Director of the Bureau is Mario Maniewicz; he was first elected by the ITU membership to the directorship in 2018.
## History
The **CCIR**---**Comité consultatif international pour la radio**, **Consultative Committee on International Radio** or **International Radio Consultative Committee**---was founded in 1927.
In 1932 the CCIR and several other organizations (including the original ITU, which had been founded as the International Telegraph Union in 1865), merged to form what would in 1934 become known as the International Telecommunication Union. In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R
| 213 |
ITU-R
| 0 |
15,220 |
# Imprecise language
**Imprecise language**, **informal spoken language**, or **everyday language** is less precise than any more formal or academic languages.
Language might be said to be imprecise because it exhibits one or more of the following features:
- ambiguity -- when a word or phrase pertains to its having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs.
- vagueness -- when borderline cases interfere with an interpretation.
- equivocation -- the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).
- accent -- when the use of bold or italics causes confusion over the meaning of a statement.
- amphiboly -- when a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to ambiguous sentence structure.
While **imprecise language** is not desirable in various scientific fields, it may be helpful, illustrative or discussion-stimulative in other contexts. Imprecision in a discourse may or may not be the intention of the author(s) or speaker(s). The role of imprecision may depend on audience, end goal, extended context and subject matter. Relevant players and real stakes will also bear on truth-grounds of statements
| 199 |
Imprecise language
| 0 |
15,222 |
# IEEE 802.2
**IEEE 802.2** is the original name of the **ISO/IEC 8802-2** standard which defines logical link control (LLC) as the upper portion of the data link layer of the OSI Model. The original standard developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in collaboration with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1998, but it remains an integral part of the family of IEEE 802 standards for local and metropolitan networks.
LLC is a software component that provides a uniform interface to the user of the data link service, usually the network layer. LLC may offer three types of services:
- unacknowledged connectionless mode services (mandatory);
- connection mode services (optional);
- acknowledged connectionless mode services (optional).
The LLC uses the services of the media access control (MAC), which is dependent on the specific transmission medium (Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, 802.11, etc.). Using LLC is compulsory for all IEEE 802 networks with the exception of Ethernet. It is also used in Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) which is not part of the IEEE 802 family.
The IEEE 802.2 sublayer adds some control information to the message created by the upper layer and passed to the LLC for transmission to another node on the same data link. The resulting packet is generally referred to as *LLC protocol data unit (PDU)* and the additional information added by the LLC sublayer is the *LLC HEADER*. The LLC Header consist of *DSAP* (*Destination Service Access Point*), *SSAP* (*Source Service Access Point*) and the *Control* field.
The two 8-bit fields DSAP and SSAP allow multiplexing of various upper layer protocols above LLC. However, many protocols use the Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) extension which allows using EtherType values to specify the protocol being transported atop IEEE 802.2. It also allows vendors to define their own protocol value spaces.
The 8 or 16 bit HDLC-style Control field serves to distinguish communication mode, to specify a specific operation and to facilitate connection control and flow control (in connection mode) or acknowledgements (in acknowledged connectionless mode).
## Operational modes {#operational_modes}
IEEE 802.2 provides two connectionless and one connection-oriented operational modes:
- **Type 1** is an unacknowledged connectionless mode for a datagram service. It allows for sending frames
- to a single destination (point-to-point or unicast transfer);
- to multiple destinations on the same network (multicast);
- or to all stations of the network (broadcast).
The use of multicasts and broadcasts reduces network traffic when the same information needs to be propagated to all stations of the network. However the Type 1 service provides no guarantees regarding the order of the received frames compared to the order in which they have been sent; the sender does not even get an acknowledgment that the frames have been received.
- **Type 2** is a connection-oriented operational mode. Sequence numbering ensures that the frames received are guaranteed to be in the order they have been sent, and no frames are lost.
- **Type 3** is an acknowledged connectionless service. It supports point-to-point communication only.
Each device conforming to the IEEE 802.2 standard must support service type 1. Each network node is assigned an **LLC Class** according to which service types it supports:
+-------+-------------------------+
| LLC\ | Supported Service Types |
| Class | |
+=======+=========================+
| 1 | 2 |
+-------+-------------------------+
| I | X |
+-------+-------------------------+
| II | X |
+-------+-------------------------+
| III | X |
+-------+-------------------------+
| IV | X |
+-------+-------------------------+
| 585 |
IEEE 802.2
| 0 |
15,222 |
# IEEE 802.2
## LLC header {#llc_header}
Any 802.2 LLC PDU has the following format:
802.2 LLC Header
------------------ --------------
DSAP address SSAP address
8 bits 8 bits
When Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) extension is used, it is located at the start of the Information field:
802.2 LLC Header
------------------ -------- --------------
DSAP SSAP Control
8 bits 8 bits 8 or 16 bits
The 802.2 header includes two eight-bit address fields, called **service access points** (SAP) or collectively LSAP in the OSI terminology:
- SSAP (Source SAP) is an 8-bit long field that represents the logical address of the network layer entity that has created the message.
- DSAP (Destination SAP) is an 8-bit long field that represents the logical addresses of the network layer entity intended to receive the message.
### LSAP values {#lsap_values}
Although the LSAP fields are 8 bits long, the low-order bit is reserved for special purposes, leaving only 128 values available for most purposes.
The low-order bit of the DSAP indicates whether it contains an individual or a group address:
- If the low-order bit is 0, the remaining 7 bits of the DSAP specify an individual address, which refers to a single local service access point (LSAP) to which the packet should be delivered.
- If the low-order bit is 1, the remaining 7 bits of the DSAP specify a group address, which refers to a group of LSAPs to which the packet should be delivered.
The low-order bit of the SSAP indicates whether the packet is a command or response packet:
- If it\'s 0, the packet is a command packet.
- If it\'s 1, the packet is a response packet.
The remaining 7 bits of the SSAP specify the LSAP (always an individual address) from which the packet was transmitted.
LSAP numbers are globally assigned by the IEEE to uniquely identify well established international standards.
Value
------- -----
Dec Hex
0 00
2 02
4 04
6 06
14 0E
24 18
66 42
78 4E
94 5E
126 7E
128 80
130 82
134 86
142 8E
152 98
166 A6
170 AA
188 BC
224 E0
240 F0
244 F4
248 F8
250 FA
254 FE
: Individual LSAP addresses
Value
------- -----
Dec Hex
3 03
5 05
245 F5
255 FF
: Group DSAP addresses (not valid for SSAP)
The protocols or families of protocols which have assigned one or more SAPs may operate directly on top of 802.2 LLC. Other protocols may use the Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) with IEEE 802.2 which is indicated by the hexadecimal value 0xAA (or 0xAB, if the source of a response) in SSAP and DSAP. The SNAP extension allows using EtherType values or private protocol ID spaces in all IEEE 802 networks. It can be used both in datagram and in connection-oriented network services.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) networks are an exception; the IEEE 802.3x-1997 standard explicitly allowed using of the Ethernet II framing, where the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses does not carry the length of the frame followed by the IEEE 802.2 LLC header, but the EtherType value followed by the upper layer data. With this framing only datagram services are supported on the data link layer.
### IPv4, IPX, and 802.2 LLC {#ipv4_ipx_and_802.2_llc}
Although IPv4 has been assigned an LSAP value of 6 (0x06) and ARP has been assigned an LSAP value of 152 (0x98), IPv4 is almost never directly encapsulated in 802.2 LLC frames without SNAP headers. Instead, the Internet standard RFC 1042 is usually used for encapsulating IPv4 traffic in 802.2 LLC frames with SNAP headers on FDDI and on IEEE 802 networks other than Ethernet. Ethernet networks typically use Ethernet II framing with EtherType 0x800 for IP and 0x806 for ARP.
The IPX protocol used by Novell NetWare networks supports an additional Ethernet frame type, 802.3 raw, ultimately supporting four frame types on Ethernet (802.3 raw, 802.2 LLC, 802.2 SNAP, and Ethernet II) and two frame types on FDDI and other (non-Ethernet) IEEE 802 networks (802.2 LLC and 802.2 SNAP).
It is possible to use diverse framings on a single network. It is possible to do it even for the same upper layer protocol, but in such a case the nodes using unlike framings cannot directly communicate with each other.
### Control Field {#control_field}
Following the destination and source SAP fields is a control field. IEEE 802.2 was conceptually derived from HDLC, and has the same three types of PDUs:
- unnumbered format PDUs, or **U-format** PDUs, with an 8-bit control field, which are intended for connectionless applications;
- information transfer format PDUs, or **I-format** PDUs, with a 16-bit control and sequence numbering field, which are intended to be used in connection-oriented applications;
- supervisory format PDUs, or **S-format** PDUs, with a 16-bit control field, which are intended to be used for supervisory functions at the LLC (Logical Link Control) layer.
To carry data in the most-often used unacknowledged connectionless mode the U-format is used. It is identified by the value \'11\' in lower two bits of the single-byte control field
| 846 |
IEEE 802.2
| 1 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
The **Inuit languages** are a closely related group of indigenous American languages traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and the adjacent subarctic regions as far south as Labrador. The Inuit languages are one of the two branches of the Eskimoan language family, the other being the Yupik languages, which are spoken in Alaska and the Russian Far East. Most Inuit people live in one of three countries: Greenland, a self-governing territory within the Kingdom of Denmark; Canada, specifically in Nunavut, the Inuvialuit Settlement Region of the Northwest Territories, the Nunavik region of Quebec, and the Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut regions of Labrador; and the United States, specifically in northern and western Alaska.
The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional languages is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence. Greenland census estimates place the number of Inuit language speakers there at roughly 50,000. According to the 2021 Canadian census, the Inuit population of Canada is 70,540, of which 33,790 report Inuit as their first language. Greenland and Canada account for the bulk of Inuit speakers, although about 7,500 Alaskans speak some variety of an Inuit language out of a total population of over 13,000 Inuit. An estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in Denmark, the largest group outside of North America. Thus, the total population of Inuit speakers is about 100,000 people.
Although they are from two different language families, Inuit also speak both Inuit Sign Language (IUR) in Canada and Greenlandic Sign Language in Greenland. It is unknown to academia if the two sign languages are related. It also remains unknown to what extent IUR is spoken across Inuit Nunangat. Finally, even though IUR is slowly being replaced by American Sign Language, there are efforts to support the native sign language underway.
| 309 |
Inuit languages
| 0 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Nomenclature
The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other; some people do not think of it as a single language but rather a group of languages. However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member languages since it forms a dialect continuum. Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely its neighbours\' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level.
As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for its own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it.
In Greenland the official form of Inuit language, and the official language of the state, is called *Kalaallisut*. In other languages, it is often called *Greenlandic* or some cognate term. The Inuit languages of Alaska are called *Inupiatun*, but the variants of the Seward Peninsula are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them *Qawiaraq*, or for some dialects, *Bering Strait Inupiatun*.
In Canada, the word *Inuktitut* is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. However, one of the variants of western Nunavut, and the eastern Northwest Territories, is called *Inuinnaqtun* to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called *Inuvialuktun* and have in the past sometimes been called *Inuktun*. In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as *Inuktitun* to reflect dialectal differences in pronunciation. The Inuit language of Quebec is called *Inuttitut* by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In Labrador, the language is called *Inuttut* or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name *Labradorimiutut*. Furthermore, Canadians`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}both Inuit and non-Inuit`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}sometimes use the word *Inuktitut* to refer to *all* Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland.
The phrase *\"Inuit language\"* is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can\'t necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. In Nunavut the government groups all dialects of Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun under the term *Inuktut*.
Although many people refer to the Inuit language as *Eskimo language*, this is a broad term that also includes the Yupik languages, and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on *Eskimo* for more information on this word.
| 478 |
Inuit languages
| 1 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Classification and history {#classification_and_history}
The Inuit languages constitute a branch of the Eskimo--Aleut language family. They are closely related to the Yupik languages and more remotely to Aleut. These other languages are all spoken in western Alaska, United States, and eastern Chukotka, Russia. They are not discernibly related to other indigenous languages of the Americas or northeast Asia, although there have been some unsubstantiated proposals that they are distantly related to the Uralic languages of western Siberia and northern Europe, in a proposed Uralo-Siberian grouping, or even to the Indo-European languages as part of a Nostratic superphylum. Some had previously lumped them in with the Paleosiberian languages, though that is a geographic rather than a linguistic grouping.
Early forms of the Inuit language are believed to have been spoken by the Thule people, who migrated east from Beringia towards the Arctic Archipelago, which had been occupied by people of the Dorset culture since the beginning of the 2nd millennium. By 1300, the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the Viking colonies in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastward migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the Yupik languages spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka.
Until 1902, a possible enclave of the Dorset, the *Sadlermiut* (in modern Inuktitut spelling *Sallirmiut*), existed on Southampton Island. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a \"strange dialect\". This suggests that they also spoke an Inuit language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today.
The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates:
English Central Yupik Iñupiatun North Baffin Inuktitut Kalaallisut
--------- --------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------------- -------------
person `{{IPA|[iɲuk]}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{wikt-lang|iu|ᐃᓄᒃ}}`{=mediawiki})
frost (*ᑲᓂᖅ*)
river (`{{wikt-lang|iu|ᑰᒃ}}`{=mediawiki})
outside `{{IPA|[siʎami]}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{wikt-lang|iu|ᓯᓚᒥ}}`{=mediawiki})
The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup\'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup\'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world.
| 359 |
Inuit languages
| 2 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Geographic distribution and variants {#geographic_distribution_and_variants}
thumb\|center\|upright=3\|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic
The Inuit languages are a fairly closely linked set of languages which can be broken up using a number of different criteria. Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncrasies in language: The dialect of Igloolik versus the dialect of Iqaluit, for example. However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit languages because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary. This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic. This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum. This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature.
In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland Denmark, and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of Canada which are outside traditional Inuit lands.
### Alaska
Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan Iñupiat, as few as 3000 may still be able to speak the Iñupiaq, with most of them over the age of 40. Alaskan Inupiat speak three distinct dialects, which have difficult mutual intelligibility:
- Qawiaraq is spoken on the southern side of the Seward Peninsula and the Norton Sound area. In the past it was spoken in Chukotka, particularly Big Diomede island, but appears to have vanished in Russian areas through assimilation into Yupik, Chukchi and Russian-speaking communities. It is radically different in phonology from other Inuit language variants.
- Inupiatun (North Slope Iñupiaq) is spoken on the Alaska North Slope and in the Kotzebue Sound area.
- Malimiutun or Malimiut Inupiatun, which are the variants of the Kotzebue Sound area and the northwest of Alaska .
### Canada
Further information: Inuvialuktun
The Inuit languages are official in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut (the dominant language in the latter); have a high level of official support in Nunavik, a semi-autonomous portion of Quebec; and are still spoken in some parts of Labrador. Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as *Inuktitut*, but the terms *Inuvialuktun*, *Inuinnaqtun*, and *Inuttut* (also called *Nunatsiavummiutut*, *Labradorimiutut* or *Inuttitut*) have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas.
#### Western Canadian Inuit {#western_canadian_inuit}
- Inuvialuktun (from west to east)
- Uummarmiutun (Canadian Iñupiaq)
- Siglitun (Sallirmiutun)
- Inuinnaqtun
- Natsilingmiutut
- Kivallirmiutut (Kivalliq)
- Aivilingmiutut (Ailivik)
- Iglulingmiut (Qikiqtaaluk Uannanganii)
#### Eastern Canadian Inuit {#eastern_canadian_inuit}
- Inuktitut
- Qikiqtaaluk Nigiani
- Nunavimmiututut
- Inuttitut (Nunatsiavummiut)
| 465 |
Inuit languages
| 3 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Geographic distribution and variants {#geographic_distribution_and_variants}
### Greenland
Greenland counts approximately 50,000 speakers of the Inuit languages, over 90% of whom speak west Greenlandic dialects at home.
- Kalaallisut, Greenlandic in English, is the standard dialect and official language of Greenland. This standard national language has been taught to all Greenlanders since schools were established, regardless of their native dialect. It reflects almost exclusively the language of western Greenland and has borrowed a great deal of vocabulary from Danish (in contrast the Canadian and Alaskan Inuit languages have tended to borrow from English, French or Russian). It is written using the Latin script. The dialect of the Upernavik area in northwest Greenland is somewhat different in phonology from the standard dialect.
- Tunumiit oraasiat, the Tunumiit dialect (or Tunumiisut in Greenlandic, often East Greenlandic in other languages), is the dialect of eastern Greenland. It differs sharply from other Inuit language variants and has roughly 3000 speakers according to Ethnologue.
- Inuktun (Or Avanersuarmiutut in Greenlandic) is the dialect of the area around Qaanaaq in northern Greenland. It is sometimes called the Thule dialect or North Greenlandic. This area is the northernmost settlement area of the Inuit and has a relatively small number of speakers. It is reputed to be fairly close to the North Baffin dialect, since a group of migratory Inuit from Baffin Island settled in the area during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It counts under 1000 speakers according to Ethnologue.
Greenlandic was strongly supported by the Danish Christian mission (conducted by the Danish state church) in Greenland. Several major dictionaries were created, beginning with Poul Egedes\'s *Dictionarium Grönlandico-danico-latinum* (1750) and culminating with Samuel Kleinschmidt\'s (1871) *Den grønlandske ordbog* (\'The Greenlandic Dictionary\'), which contained a Greenlandic grammatical system that has formed the basis of modern Greenlandic grammar. Together with the fact that until 1925 Danish was not taught in the public schools, these policies had the consequence that Greenlandic has always and continues to enjoy a very strong position in Greenland, both as a spoken as well as written language.
## Phonology and phonetics {#phonology_and_phonetics}
Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen consonants and three vowels (which can be long or short).
Consonants are arranged with five places of articulation: bilabial, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular; and three manners of articulation: voiceless stops, voiced continuants, and nasals, as well as two additional sounds---voiceless fricatives. The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation, the *retroflex*, which was present in proto-Inuit language. Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects. In Natsilingmiutut, the voiced palatal stop `{{IPA|/ɟ/}}`{=mediawiki} derives from a former retroflex.
Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world: parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska.
| 481 |
Inuit languages
| 4 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Morphology and syntax {#morphology_and_syntax}
The Inuit languages, like other Eskimo--Aleut languages, have very rich morphological systems in which a succession of different morphemes are added to root words (like verb endings in European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require several words to express. (See also: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language) All Inuit words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. Fortunately for learners, the language has a highly regular morphology. Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other Indo-European languages do.
This system makes words very long, and potentially unique. For example, in central Nunavut Inuktitut:
This sort of word construction is pervasive in the Inuit languages and makes them very unlike English. In one large Canadian corpus`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}the *Nunavut Hansard*`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size. This makes the application of Zipf\'s law quite difficult in the Inuit language. Furthermore, the notion of a part of speech can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit languages. Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns. The word ilisaijuq can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb: \"he studies\", but can also be interpreted as a noun: \"student\". That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context.
The morphology and syntax of the Inuit languages vary to some degree between dialects, and the article *Inuit grammar* describes primarily central Nunavut dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to Yupik languages as well.
| 295 |
Inuit languages
| 5 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Vocabulary
### Toponymy and names {#toponymy_and_names}
Both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated. *Iqaluit*, for example, is simply the plural of the noun *iqaluk* \"fish\" (\"Arctic char\", \"salmon\" or \"trout\" depending on dialect). *Igloolik* (*Iglulik*) means *place with houses*, a word that could be interpreted as simply *town*; *Inuvik* is *place of people*; *Baffin Island*, *Qikiqtaaluk* in Inuktitut, translates approximately to \"big island\".
Common native names in Canada include \"Ujarak\" (rock), \"Nuvuk\" (headland), \"Nasak\" (hat, or hood), \"Tupiq\" or \"Tupeq\" in Kalaallisut (tent), and \"Qajaq\" (kayak). Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: \"Nanuq\" or \"Nanoq\" in Kalaallisut (polar-bear), \"Uqalik\" or \"Ukaleq\" in Kalaallisut (Arctic hare), and \"Tiriaq\" or \"Teriaq\" in Kalaallisut (mouse) are favourites. In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had. Examples include \"Itigaituk\" (has no feet), \"Anana\" or \"Anaana\" (mother), \"Piujuq\" (beautiful) and \"Tulimak\" (rib). Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members.
### Disc numbers and Project Surname {#disc_numbers_and_project_surname}
In the 1920s, changes in lifestyle and serious epidemics such as tuberculosis made the government of Canada interested in tracking the Inuit of Canada\'s Arctic. Traditionally Inuit names reflect what is important in Inuit culture: environment, landscape, seascape, family, animals, birds, spirits. However these traditional names were difficult for non-Inuit to parse. Also, the agglutinative nature of Inuit language meant that names seemed long and were difficult for southern bureaucrats and missionaries to pronounce.
Thus, in the 1940s, the Inuit were given disc numbers, recorded on a special leather ID tag, similar to a dog tag. They were required to keep the tag with them always. (Some tags are now so old and worn that the number is polished out.) The numbers were assigned with a letter prefix that indicated location (E = east), community, and then the order in which the census-taker saw the individual. In some ways this state renaming was abetted by the churches and missionaries, who viewed the traditional names and their calls to power as related to shamanism and paganism.
They encouraged people to take Christian names. So a young woman who was known to her relatives as \"Lutaaq, Pilitaq, Palluq, or Inusiq\" and had been baptised as \"Annie\" was under this system to become Annie E7-121. People adopted the number-names, their family members\' numbers, etc., and learned all the region codes (like knowing a telephone area code).
Until Inuit began studying in the south, many did not know that numbers were not normal parts of Christian and English naming systems. Then in 1969, the government started Project Surname, headed by Abe Okpik, to replace number-names with patrilineal \"family surnames\".
### Words for snow {#words_for_snow}
A popular belief exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for snow. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, the Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: \'qanniq-\' (\'qanik-\' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb *to snow*, and \'aput\', which means *snow* as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading.
The Inuit languages can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words. Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that English uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (e.g. \"falling snow\", \"blowing snow\", \"snow on the ground\", \"snow drift\", etc.)
The \"fact\" that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often that it has become a journalistic cliché.
### Numbers
The Inuit use a base-20 counting system.
| 664 |
Inuit languages
| 6 |
15,227 |
# Inuit languages
## Writing
Because the Inuit languages are spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language.
Currently there are six \"standard\" ways to write the languages:
1. ICI Standard Syllabics (Canada)
2. ICI Standard Latin script (Canada)
3. Nunatsiavut Latin script (Canada)
4. Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait (Canada)
5. Alaskan Inupiaq script (US)
6. Greenlandic
Though all except the syllabics use a Latin-based script, the alphabets differ in use of diacritics, non-Latin letters, etc. Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a script called Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. The western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories use a Latin-script alphabet usually identified as Inuinnaqtun. In Alaska, another Latin alphabet is used, with some characters using diacritics. Nunatsiavut uses an alphabet devised with German-speaking Moravian missionaries, which includes the letter *kra*. Greenland\'s Latin alphabet was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but underwent a spelling reform in 1973 to bring the orthography in line with changes in pronunciation and better reflect the phonemic inventory of the language.
### Canadian syllabics {#canadian_syllabics}
thumb\|upright=1.81\|right\|The syllabics used to write Inuktitut *(titirausiq nutaaq)*. The characters with the dots represent long vowels: in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.
Inuktitut syllabics, used in Canada, is based on Cree syllabics, devised by the missionary James Evans based on Devanagari, a Brahmi script. The present form of Canadian Inuktitut syllabics was adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s.
Though presented in syllabic form, syllabics is not a true syllabary but an abugida, since syllables starting with the same consonant are written with graphically similar letters.
All of the characters needed for Inuktitut syllabics are available in the Unicode character repertoire, in the blocks Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics.
### Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait {#inuktut_qaliujaaqpait}
The Canadian national organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami adopted Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait, a unified orthography for all varieties of Inuktitut, in September 2019. It is based on the Latin alphabet without diacritics
| 353 |
Inuit languages
| 7 |
15,237 |
# Iterative method
In computational mathematics, an **iterative method** is a mathematical procedure that uses an initial value to generate a sequence of improving approximate solutions for a class of problems, in which the *i*-th approximation (called an \"iterate\") is derived from the previous ones.
A specific implementation with termination criteria for a given iterative method like gradient descent, hill climbing, Newton\'s method, or quasi-Newton methods like BFGS, is an algorithm of an iterative method or a **method of successive approximation**. An iterative method is called *convergent* if the corresponding sequence converges for given initial approximations. A mathematically rigorous convergence analysis of an iterative method is usually performed; however, heuristic-based iterative methods are also common.
In contrast, **direct methods** attempt to solve the problem by a finite sequence of operations. In the absence of rounding errors, direct methods would deliver an exact solution (for example, solving a linear system of equations $A\mathbf{x}=\mathbf{b}$ by Gaussian elimination). Iterative methods are often the only choice for nonlinear equations. However, iterative methods are often useful even for linear problems involving many variables (sometimes on the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive (and in some cases impossible) even with the best available computing power.
## Attractive fixed points {#attractive_fixed_points}
If an equation can be put into the form *f*(*x*) = *x*, and a solution **x** is an attractive fixed point of the function *f*, then one may begin with a point *x*~1~ in the basin of attraction of **x**, and let *x*~*n*+1~ = *f*(*x*~*n*~) for *n* ≥ 1, and the sequence {*x*~*n*~}~*n* ≥ 1~ will converge to the solution **x**. Here *x*~*n*~ is the *n*th approximation or iteration of *x* and *x*~*n*+1~ is the next or *n* + 1 iteration of *x*. Alternately, superscripts in parentheses are often used in numerical methods, so as not to interfere with subscripts with other meanings. (For example, *x*^(*n*+1)^ = *f*(*x*^(*n*)^).) If the function *f* is continuously differentiable, a sufficient condition for convergence is that the spectral radius of the derivative is strictly bounded by one in a neighborhood of the fixed point. If this condition holds at the fixed point, then a sufficiently small neighborhood (basin of attraction) must exist.
| 366 |
Iterative method
| 0 |
15,237 |
# Iterative method
## Linear systems {#linear_systems}
In the case of a system of linear equations, the two main classes of iterative methods are the **stationary iterative methods**, and the more general Krylov subspace methods.
### Stationary iterative methods {#stationary_iterative_methods}
#### Introduction
Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an operator approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error in the result (the residual), form a \"correction equation\" for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyze, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices.
#### Definition
An *iterative method* is defined by $\mathbf{x}^{k+1} := \Psi ( \mathbf{x}^k ), \quad k \geq 0$ and for a given linear system $A \mathbf x = \mathbf b$ with exact solution $\mathbf{x}^*$ the *error* by $\mathbf{e}^k := \mathbf{x}^k - \mathbf{x}^*, \quad k \geq 0.$ An iterative method is called *linear* if there exists a matrix $C \in \R^{n\times n}$ such that $\mathbf{e}^{k+1} = C \mathbf{e}^k \quad \forall k \geq 0$ and this matrix is called the *iteration matrix*. An iterative method with a given iteration matrix $C$ is called *convergent* if the following holds $\lim_{k \to \infty} C^k = 0.$
An important theorem states that for a given iterative method and its iteration matrix $C$ it is convergent if and only if its spectral radius $\rho(C)$ is smaller than unity, that is, $\rho(C) < 1.$
The basic iterative methods work by splitting the matrix $A$ into $A = M - N$ and here the matrix $M$ should be easily invertible. The iterative methods are now defined as $M \mathbf{x}^{k+1} = N \mathbf{x}^k + \mathbf{b}, \quad k \geq 0,$ or, equivalently, $\mathbf{x}^{k+1} = \mathbf{x}^k + M^{-1} \left(\mathbf{b} - A \mathbf{x}^k\right), \quad k \geq 0.$ From this follows that the iteration matrix is given by $C = I - M^{-1} A = M^{-1} N.$
#### Examples
Basic examples of stationary iterative methods use a splitting of the matrix $A$ such as $A = D + L + U \,, \quad D := \operatorname{diag}( (a_{ii})_i)$ where $D$ is only the diagonal part of $A$, and $L$ is the strict lower triangular part of $A$. Respectively, $U$ is the strict upper triangular part of $A$.
- Richardson method: $M := \frac{1}{\omega} I \quad (\omega \neq 0)$
- Jacobi method: $M := D$
- Damped Jacobi method: $M:=\frac{1}{\omega}D \quad (\omega \neq 0)$
- Gauss--Seidel method: $M := D + L$
- Successive over-relaxation method (SOR): $M := \frac{1}{\omega} D + L \quad (\omega \neq 0)$
- Symmetric successive over-relaxation (SSOR): $M := \frac{1}{\omega \left(2 - \omega\right)} \left(D + \omega L\right) D^{-1} \left(D + \omega U\right) \quad (\omega \not \in \{0,2\})$
Linear stationary iterative methods are also called relaxation methods.
### Krylov subspace methods {#krylov_subspace_methods}
Krylov subspace methods work by forming a basis of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the **Krylov sequence**). The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed. The prototypical method in this class is the conjugate gradient method (CG) which assumes that the system matrix $A$ is symmetric positive-definite. For symmetric (and possibly indefinite) $A$ one works with the minimal residual method (MINRES). In the case of non-symmetric matrices, methods such as the generalized minimal residual method (GMRES) and the biconjugate gradient method (BiCG) have been derived.
#### Convergence of Krylov subspace methods {#convergence_of_krylov_subspace_methods}
Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in *N* iterations, where *N* is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice *N* can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the spectrum of the operator.
### Preconditioners
The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods such as GMRES (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area.
## Methods of successive approximation {#methods_of_successive_approximation}
Mathematical methods relating to successive approximation include:
- Babylonian method, for finding square roots of numbers
- Fixed-point iteration
- Means of finding zeros of functions:
- Halley\'s method
- Newton\'s method
- Differential-equation matters:
- Picard--Lindelöf theorem, on existence of solutions of differential equations
- Runge--Kutta methods, for numerical solution of differential equations
### History
Jamshīd al-Kāshī used iterative methods to calculate the sine of 1° and `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} in *The Treatise of Chord and Sine* to high precision. An early iterative method for solving a linear system appeared in a letter of Gauss to a student of his. He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest .
The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of D.M. Young starting in the 1950s. The conjugate gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by Cornelius Lanczos, Magnus Hestenes and Eduard Stiefel, but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for partial differential equations, especially the elliptic type
| 891 |
Iterative method
| 1 |
15,238 |
# International judicial institution
**International judicial institutions** can be divided into courts, arbitral tribunals and quasi-judicial institutions. Courts are permanent bodies, with near the same composition for each case. Arbitral tribunals, by contrast, are constituted anew for each case. Both courts and arbitral tribunals can make binding decisions. Quasi-judicial institutions, by contrast, make rulings on cases, but these rulings are not in themselves legally binding; the main example is the individual complaints mechanisms available under the various UN human rights treaties.
Institutions can also be divided into global and regional institutions.
The listing below incorporates both currently existing institutions, defunct institutions that no longer exist, institutions which never came into existence due to non-ratification of their constitutive instruments, and institutions which do not yet exist, but for which constitutive instruments have been signed. It does not include mere proposed institutions for which no instrument was ever signed.
## International courts {#international_courts}
- International Court of Justice
- International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
- International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
- International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
- International Criminal Court
- International Military Tribunal (Defunct)
- International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Defunct)
- International Prize Court (Never established)
- Permanent Court of International Justice (Defunct
| 210 |
International judicial institution
| 0 |
15,239 |
# International Prize Court
The **International Prize Court** was an international court proposed at the beginning of the 20th century, to hear prize cases. An international agreement to create it, the *Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court*, was made at the Second Hague Conference in 1907 but never came into force.
The capturing of prizes (enemy equipment, vehicles, and especially ships) during wartime is a tradition that goes back as far as organized warfare itself. The International Prize Court was to hear appeals from national courts concerning prize cases. Even as a draft, the convention was innovative for the time, in being both the first ever treaty for a truly international court (as opposed to a mere arbitral tribunal), and in providing individuals with access to the court, going against the prevailing doctrines of international law at the time, according to which only states had rights and duties under international law. The convention was opposed, particularly by elements within the United States and the United Kingdom, as a violation of national sovereignty.
The 1907 convention was modified by the *Additional Protocol to the Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court*, done at the Hague on October 18, 1910. The protocol was an attempt to resolve some concerns expressed by the United States at the court, which felt it to be in violation of its constitutional provision that provides for the U.S. Supreme Court being the final judicial authority. However, neither the convention nor the subsequent protocol ever entered into force, since only Nicaragua ratified the agreements. As a result, the court never came into existence.
On February 15, 1911, the U.S. Senate ratified the International Prize Court Convention.
A number of ideas from the International Prize Court proposal can be seen in present-day international courts, such as its provision for judges *ad hoc*, later adopted in the Permanent Court of International Justice and the subsequent International Court of Justice
| 326 |
International Prize Court
| 0 |
15,242 |
# Instrument flight rules
In aviation, **instrument flight rules** (**IFR**) is one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations; the other is visual flight rules (VFR).
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration\'s (FAA) *Instrument Flying Handbook* defines IFR as: \"Rules and regulations established by the FAA to govern flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals.\" It is also a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan.
## Basic information {#basic_information}
### Comparison to visual flight rules {#comparison_to_visual_flight_rules}
It is possible and fairly straightforward, in relatively clear weather conditions, to fly an aircraft solely by reference to outside visual cues, such as the horizon to maintain orientation, nearby buildings and terrain features for navigation, and other aircraft to maintain separation. This is known as operating the aircraft under visual flight rules (VFR), and is the most common mode of operation for small aircraft. However, it is safe to fly VFR only when these outside references can be clearly seen from a sufficient distance. When flying through or above clouds, or in fog, rain, dust or similar low-level weather conditions, these references can be obscured. Thus, cloud ceiling and flight visibility are the most important variables for safe operations during all phases of flight.
The minimum weather conditions for ceiling and visibility for VFR flights are defined in FAR Part 91.155, and vary depending on the type of airspace in which the aircraft is operating, and on whether the flight is conducted during daytime or nighttime. However, typical daytime VFR minimums for most airspace is 3 statute miles of flight visibility and a distance from clouds of 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontally. Flight conditions reported as equal to or greater than these VFR minimums are referred to as visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
Any aircraft operating under VFR must have the required equipment on board, as described in FAR Part 91.205 (which includes some instruments necessary for IFR flight). VFR pilots *may* use cockpit instruments as secondary aids to navigation and orientation, but are not required to; the view outside of the aircraft is the primary source for keeping the aircraft straight and level (orientation), flying to the intended destination (navigation), and avoiding obstacles and hazards (separation).
Visual flight rules are generally simpler than instrument flight rules, and require significantly less training and practice. VFR provides a great degree of freedom, allowing pilots to go where they want, when they want, and allows them a much wider latitude in determining how they get there.
### Instrument flight rules {#instrument_flight_rules}
When operation of an aircraft under VFR is not safe, because the visual cues outside the aircraft are obscured by weather, instrument flight rules must be used instead. IFR permits an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which is essentially any weather condition less than VMC but in which aircraft can still operate safely. Use of instrument flight rules is also required when flying in \"Class A\" airspace regardless of weather conditions. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet above mean sea level to flight level 600 (60,000 feet pressure altitude) above the contiguous 48 United States and overlying the waters within 12 miles thereof. Flight in Class A airspace requires pilots and aircraft to be instrument equipped and rated and to be operating under instrument flight rules (IFR). In many countries commercial airliners and their pilots must operate under IFR as the majority of flights enter Class A airspace. Procedures and training are significantly more complex compared to VFR instruction, as a pilot must demonstrate competency in conducting an entire cross-country flight solely by reference to instruments.
Instrument pilots must carefully evaluate weather, create a detailed flight plan based around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures, and dispatch the flight.
| 677 |
Instrument flight rules
| 0 |
15,242 |
# Instrument flight rules
## Separation and clearance {#separation_and_clearance}
The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed *separation*. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of weather conditions. In controlled airspace, air traffic control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other aircraft using a flight *clearance* based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude. ATC monitors IFR flights on radar, or through aircraft position reports in areas where radar coverage is not available. Aircraft position reports are sent as voice radio transmissions. In the United States, a flight operating under IFR is required to provide position reports unless ATC advises a pilot that the plane is in radar contact. The pilot must resume position reports after ATC advises that radar contact has been lost, or that radar services are terminated.
IFR flights in controlled airspace require an ATC *clearance* for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a *clearance limit*, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes.
In uncontrolled airspace, ATC clearances are unavailable. In some states a form of separation is provided to certain aircraft in uncontrolled airspace as far as is practical (often known under ICAO as an advisory service in class G airspace), but separation is not mandated nor widely provided.
Despite the protection offered by flight in controlled airspace under IFR, the ultimate responsibility for the safety of the aircraft rests with the pilot in command, who can refuse clearances.
| 275 |
Instrument flight rules
| 1 |
15,242 |
# Instrument flight rules
## Weather
It is essential to differentiate between flight plan type (VFR or IFR) and weather conditions (VMC or IMC). While current and forecast weather may be a factor in deciding which type of flight plan to file, weather conditions themselves do not affect one\'s filed flight plan. For example, an IFR flight that encounters visual meteorological conditions (VMC) en route does not automatically change to a VFR flight, and the flight must still follow all IFR procedures regardless of weather conditions. In the US, weather conditions are forecast broadly as VFR, **MVFR** (**marginal visual flight rules**), IFR, or LIFR (low instrument flight rules).
The main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be MVFR or IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for visual meteorological conditions (VMC). To operate safely in IMC (\"actual instrument conditions\"), a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments and ATC provides separation.
It is important not to confuse IFR with IMC. A significant amount of IFR flying is conducted in visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Anytime a flight is operating in VMC and in a volume of airspace in which VFR traffic can operate, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding VFR traffic; however, because the flight is conducted under instrument flight rules, ATC still provides separation services from other IFR traffic, and can in many cases also advise the crew of the location of VFR traffic near the flight path.
Although dangerous and illegal, a certain amount of VFR flying is conducted in IMC. A scenario is a VFR pilot taking off in VMC conditions, but encountering deteriorating visibility while en route. Continued VFR flight into IMC can lead to spatial disorientation of the pilot which is the cause of a significant number of general aviation crashes. VFR flight into IMC is distinct from \"VFR-on-top\", an IFR procedure in which the aircraft operates in VMC using a hybrid of VFR and IFR rules, and \"VFR over the top\", a VFR procedure in which the aircraft takes off and lands in VMC but flies above an intervening area of IMC. Also possible in many countries is \"Special VFR\" flight, where an aircraft is explicitly granted permission to operate VFR within the controlled airspace of an airport in conditions technically less than VMC; the pilot asserts they have the necessary visibility to fly despite the weather, must stay in contact with ATC, and cannot leave controlled airspace while still below VMC minimums.
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, so flying through clouds (or other conditions where there is zero visibility outside the aircraft) is legal and safe. However, there are still minimum weather conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off or to land; these vary according to the kind of operation, the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and the qualifications of the crew. For example, Reno-Tahoe International Airport (KRNO) in a mountainous region has significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway surface, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than when approaching from the south because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport. This higher altitude allows a flight crew to clear the obstacle if a landing is aborted. In general, each specific instrument approach specifies the minimum weather conditions to permit landing.
Although large airliners, and increasingly, smaller aircraft, carry their own terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS), these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.
## Navigation
Because IFR flights often take place without visual reference to the ground, a means of navigation other than looking outside the window is required. A number of navigational aids are available to pilots, including ground-based systems such as DME/VORs and NDBs as well as the satellite-based GPS/GNSS system. Air traffic control may assist in navigation by assigning pilots specific headings (\"radar vectors\"). The majority of IFR navigation is given by ground- and satellite-based systems, while radar vectors are usually reserved by ATC for sequencing aircraft for a busy approach or transitioning aircraft from takeoff to cruise, among other things.
| 741 |
Instrument flight rules
| 2 |
15,242 |
# Instrument flight rules
## Procedures
Specific procedures allow IFR aircraft to transition safely through every stage of flight. These procedures specify how an IFR pilot should respond, even in the event of a complete radio failure, and loss of communications with ATC, including the expected aircraft course and altitude.
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a departure procedure (DP) or standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed unless \"NO DP\" is specified in the notes section of the filed flight plan.
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called *airways*. Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a *direct-to* routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a standard terminal arrival route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an initial approach fix (IAF) from which an instrument approach commences. An instrument approach terminates either by the pilot acquiring sufficient visual reference to proceed to the runway, or with a missed approach because the required visual reference is not seen in time.
## Qualifications
### Pilot
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an instrument rating and must be *current* (meet recency of experience requirements). In the United States, to file and fly under IFR, a pilot must be instrument-rated and, within the preceding six months, have flown six instrument approaches, as well as holding procedures and course interception and tracking with navaids. Flight under IFR beyond six months after meeting these requirements is not permitted; however, currency may be reestablished within the next six months by completing the requirements above. Beyond the twelfth month, examination (\"instrument proficiency check\") by an instructor is required.
Practicing instrument approaches can be done either in the instrument meteorological conditions or in visual meteorological conditions -- in the latter case, a safety pilot is required so that the pilot practicing instrument approaches can wear a view-limiting device which restricts his field of view to the instrument panel. A safety pilot\'s primary duty is to observe and avoid other traffic.
In the UK, an IR (UK restricted) - formerly the \"IMC rating\" - which permits flight under IFR in airspace classes B to G in instrument meteorological conditions, a non-instrument-rated pilot can also elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world, the UK\'s flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in its licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules.
### Aircraft
The aircraft must be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected or tested within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
In the United States, instruments required for IFR flight in addition to those that are required for VFR flight are: heading indicator, sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure, clock with a sweep-second pointer or digital equivalent, attitude indicator, radios and suitable avionics for the route to be flown, alternator or generator, gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator that is either a turn coordinator or the turn and bank indicator. From 1999 single-engine helicopters could not be FAA-certified for IFR. Recently, however, Bell and Leonardo have certified the single engine helicopters for instrument flight rules
| 615 |
Instrument flight rules
| 3 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
The **Immaculate Conception** is the doctrine that the Virgin Mary was free of original sin from the moment of her conception. It is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Debated by medieval theologians, it was not defined as a dogma until 1854, by Pope Pius IX in the papal bull *Ineffabilis Deus*. While the Immaculate Conception asserts Mary\'s freedom from original sin, the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, had previously affirmed her freedom from personal sin.
The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in works of art. The iconography of **Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception** shows Mary standing, with arms outstretched or hands clasped in prayer. The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8.
Many Protestant churches rejected the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as unscriptural, though some Anglicans accept it as a pious devotion. The teaching on the Immaculate Conception among Oriental Orthodoxy varies: Shenouda III, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church, and the Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of the Syriac Orthodox Church opposed the teaching, while the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church accept it.
## History
### Anne, mother of Mary, and original sin {#anne_mother_of_mary_and_original_sin}
Anne, the mother of Mary, first appears in the 2nd-century apocryphal Gospel of James. The author of the gospel borrowed from Greek tales of the childhood of heroes. For Jesus\' grandmother the author drew on the more benign biblical story of Hannah---hence Anna---who conceived Samuel in her old age, thus reprising the miraculous birth of Jesus with a merely remarkable one for his mother. Anne and her husband, Joachim, are infertile, but God hears their prayers and Mary is conceived. According to Stephen J. Shoemaker, within the Gospel of James, the conception occurs without sexual intercourse between Anne and Joachim, which fits well with the Gospel of James\' persistent emphasis on Mary\'s sacred purity, but the story does not advance the idea of an immaculate conception. The author of the Gospel of James may have based this account of Mary\'s conception on that of John the Baptist as recounted in the Gospel of Luke. The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that \"Mary is conceived by her parents as we are all conceived\".
### Church Fathers {#church_fathers}
According to church historian Frederick Holweck, writing in the *Catholic Encyclopedia*, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Cyril of Jerusalem developed the idea of Mary as the New Eve, drawing comparison to Eve, while yet immaculate and incorrupt`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}that is to say, not subject to original sin. Holweck adds that Ephrem the Syrian said she was as innocent as Eve before the Fall.
Ambrose asserted Mary\'s incorruptibility, attributing her virginity to grace and immunity from sin. Severus, Bishop of Antioch, concurred affirming Mary\'s purity and immaculateness. John Damascene extended the supernatural influence of God to Mary\'s parents, suggesting they were purified by the Holy Spirit during her generation. According to Damascene, even the material of Mary\'s origin was deemed pure and holy. This perspective, which emphasized an immaculate active generation and the sanctity of the *conceptio carnis*, found resonance among some Western authors. Notably, the Greek Fathers did not explicitly discuss the Immaculate Conception.
| 545 |
Immaculate Conception
| 0 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## History
### Medieval formulation {#medieval_formulation}
By the 4th century the idea that Mary was free from sin was generally more widespread, but original sin raised the question of whether she was also free of the sin passed down from Adam. The question became acute when the feast of her conception began to be celebrated in England in the 11th century, and the opponents of the feast of Mary\'s conception brought forth the objection that as sexual intercourse is sinful, to celebrate Mary\'s conception was to celebrate a sinful event. The feast of Mary\'s conception originated in the Eastern Church in the 7th century, reached England in the 11th, and from there spread to Europe, where it was given official approval in 1477 and extended to the whole church in 1693; the word \"immaculate\" was not officially added to the name of the feast until 1854.
The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception caused a virtual civil war between Franciscans and Dominicans during the Middle Ages, with Franciscan \'Scotists\' in its favour and Dominican \'Thomists\' against it. The English ecclesiastic and scholar Eadmer (c. 1060) reasoned that it was possible that Mary was conceived without original sin in view of God\'s omnipotence, and that it was also appropriate in view of her role as Mother of God: *Potuit, decuit, fecit*, \"it was possible, it was fitting, therefore it was done\". Others, including Bernard of Clairvaux (1090--1153) and Thomas Aquinas (1225--1274), objected that if Mary were free of original sin at her conception then she would have no need of redemption, making Christ\'s saving redemption superfluous; they were answered by Duns Scotus (1264--1308), who \"developed the idea of preservative redemption as being a more perfect one: to have been preserved free from original sin was a greater grace than to be set free from sin\".
In 1439, the Council of Basel, in schism with Pope Eugene IV who resided at the Council of Florence, declared the Immaculate Conception a \"pious opinion\" consistent with faith and Scripture; the Council of Trent, held in several sessions in the early 1500s, made no explicit declaration on the subject but exempted her from the universality of original sin; and also affirmed that she remained during all her life free from all stain of sin, even the venial one.; by 1571 the revised Roman Breviary set out an elaborate celebration of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on 8 December.
| 406 |
Immaculate Conception
| 1 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## History
### Popular devotion and *Ineffabilis Deus* {#popular_devotion_and_ineffabilis_deus}
According to Patrizia Granziera, the creation of the dogma was slow and elaborate and it was more the fruit of popular devotion than scholarly. The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature and art, and some devotees went so far as to hold that Anne had conceived Mary by kissing her husband Joachim, and that Anne\'s father and grandmother had likewise been conceived without sexual intercourse, although Bridget of Sweden (c. 1303--1373) told how Mary herself had revealed to her that Anne and Joachim conceived their daughter through a sexual union which was sinless because it was pure and free of sexual lust.
In the 16th and especially the 17th centuries there was a proliferation of Immaculatist devotion in Spain, leading the Habsburg monarchs to demand that the papacy elevate the belief to the status of dogma. In France in 1830 Catherine Labouré (May 2, 1806 -- December 31, 1876) saw a vision of Mary standing on a globe while a voice commanded her to have a medal made in imitation of what she saw. The medal said \"O Mary, conceived without sin, pray for us who have recourse to thee\", which was a confirmation from Mary herself that she was conceived without sin. Labouré\'s vision marked the beginning of a great 19th-century Marian revival.
In 1849 Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical *Ubi primum* soliciting the bishops of the church for their views on whether the doctrine should be defined as dogma; ninety percent of those who responded were supportive, although the Archbishop of Paris, Marie-Dominique-Auguste Sibour, warned that the Immaculate Conception \"could be proved neither from the Scriptures nor from tradition\". In 1854 the Immaculate Conception dogma was proclaimed with the bull *Ineffabilis Deus*.
> We declare, pronounce, and define that the doctrine which holds that the most Blessed Virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception, by a singular grace and privilege granted by Almighty God, in view of the merits of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the human race, was preserved free from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine revealed by God and therefore to be believed firmly and constantly by all the faithful.
Dom Prosper Guéranger, Abbot of Solesmes Abbey, who had been one of the main promoters of the dogmatic statement, wrote *Mémoire sur l\'Immaculée Conception*, explaining what he saw as its basis:
> For the belief to be defined as a dogma of faith \[\...\] it is necessary that the Immaculate Conception form part of Revelation, expressed in Scripture or Tradition, or be implied in beliefs previously defined. Needed, afterward, is that it be proposed to the faith of the faithful through the teaching of the ordinary magisterium. Finally, it is necessary that it be attested by the liturgy, and the Fathers and Doctors of the Church.
Guéranger maintained that these conditions were met and that the definition was therefore possible. *Ineffabilis Deus* found the Immaculate Conception in the Ark of Salvation (Noah\'s Ark), Jacob\'s Ladder, the Burning Bush at Sinai, the Enclosed Garden from the Song of Songs, and many more passages. From this wealth of support the pope\'s advisors singled out Genesis 3:15: \"The most glorious Virgin \... was foretold by God when he said to the serpent: \'I will put enmity between you and the woman,{{\' \"}} a prophecy which reached fulfilment in the figure of the Woman in the Revelation of John, crowned with stars and trampling the Dragon underfoot. Luke 1:28, and specifically the phrase \"full of grace\" by which Gabriel greeted Mary, was another reference to her Immaculate Conception: \"she was never subject to the curse and was, together with her Son, the only partaker of perpetual benediction\".
*Ineffabilis Deus* was one of the pivotal events of the papacy of Pius, pope from 16 June 1846 to his death on 7 February 1878. Four years after the proclamation of the dogma, in 1858, the young Bernadette Soubirous said that Mary appeared to her at Lourdes in southern France, to announce that she was the Immaculate Conception; the Catholic Church later endorsed the apparition as authentic. There are other (approved) Marian apparitions in which Mary identified herself as the Immaculate Conception, for example Our Lady of Gietrzwald in 1877, Poland.
| 718 |
Immaculate Conception
| 2 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## Feast, patronages and disputes {#feast_patronages_and_disputes}
*Main article: Feast of the Immaculate Conception, Patronages of the Immaculate Conception* The feast day of the Immaculate Conception is December 8. The Roman Missal and the Roman Rite Liturgy of the Hours include references to Mary\'s immaculate conception in the feast of the Immaculate Conception. Its celebration seems to have begun in the Eastern church in the 7th century and may have spread to Ireland by the 8th, although the earliest well-attested record in the Western church is from England early in the 11th. It was suppressed there after the Norman Conquest (1066), and the first thorough exposition of the doctrine was a response to this suppression. It continued to spread through the 15th century despite accusations of heresy from the Thomists and strong objections from several prominent theologians.
Beginning around 1140 Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian monk, wrote to Lyons Cathedral to express his surprise and dissatisfaction that it had recently begun to be observed there, but in 1477 Pope Sixtus IV, a Franciscan Scotist and devoted Immaculist, placed it on the Roman calendar (i.e., list of church festivals and observances) via the bull *Cum praexcelsa*. Thereafter in 1481 and 1483, in response to the polemic writings of the prominent Thomist, Vincenzo Bandello, Pope Sixtus IV published two more bulls which forbade anybody to preach or teach against the Immaculate Conception, or for either side to accuse the other of heresy, on pains of excommunication.
Pope Pius V kept the feast on the tridentine calendar but suppressed the word \"immaculate\". Gregory XV in 1622 prohibited any public or private assertion that Mary was conceived in sin. Urban VIII in 1624 allowed the Franciscans to establish a military order dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception. Following the promulgation of *Ineffabilis Deus* the typically Franciscan phrase \"immaculate conception\" reasserted itself in the title and euchology (prayer formulae) of the feast. Pius IX solemnly promulgated a mass formulary drawn chiefly from one composed 400 years by a papal chamberlain at the behest of Sixtus IV, beginning \"O God who by the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin\".
| 356 |
Immaculate Conception
| 3 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## Prayers and hymns {#prayers_and_hymns}
thumb\|upright=0.8\|The venerated ivory image of the Immaculate Conception of Batangas City, Philippines, pontifically crowned on December 8, 2022 The Roman Rite liturgical books, including the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours, included offices venerating Mary\'s immaculate conception on the feast of the Immaculate Conception. An example is the antiphon that begins: \"Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis non est in te\" (\"You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain \[of sin\] is not in you\". It continues: \"Your clothing is white as snow, and your face is like the sun. You are all beautiful, Mary, and the original stain \[of sin\] is not in you. You are the glory of Jerusalem, you are the joy of Israel, you give honour to our people. You are all beautiful, Mary\".) On the basis of the original Gregorian chant music, polyphonic settings have been composed by Anton Bruckner, Pablo Casals, Maurice Duruflé, Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki, Ola Gjeilo, José Maurício Nunes Garcia, and Nikolaus Schapfl.
Other prayers honouring Mary\'s immaculate conception are in use outside the formal liturgy. The Immaculata prayer, composed by Maximillian Kolbe, is a prayer of entrustment to Mary as the Immaculata. A novena of prayers, with a specific prayer for each of the nine days has been composed under the title of the Immaculate Conception Novena.
Ave Maris Stella is the vesper hymn of the feast of the Immaculate Conception. The hymn *Immaculate Mary*, addressed to Mary as the Immaculately Conceived One, is closely associated with Lourdes.
The *Loreto Litanies* included the official Latin Marian title of *Regina sine labe originali concepta* (Queen conceived without original sin), which had been granted by Pope Gregory XVI (1831-1846) from 1839 onwards to some dioceses, thus several years before the proclamation of the dogma.
| 303 |
Immaculate Conception
| 4 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## Artistic representation {#artistic_representation}
The Immaculate Conception became a popular subject in literature, but its abstract nature meant it was late in appearing as a subject in art. During the Medieval period it was depicted as \"Joachim and Anne Meeting at the Golden Gate\", meaning Mary\'s conception through the chaste kiss of her parents at the Golden Gate in Jerusalem; the 14th and 15th centuries were the heyday for this scene, after which it was gradually replaced by more allegorical depictions featuring an adult Mary.
The definitive iconography for the depiction of \"Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception\" seems to have been finally established by the painter and theorist Francisco Pacheco in his \"El arte de la pintura\" of 1649: a beautiful young girl of 12 or 13, wearing a white tunic and blue mantle, rays of light emanating from her head ringed by twelve stars and crowned by an imperial crown, the Sun behind her and the Moon beneath her feet. Pacheco\'s iconography influenced other Spanish artists or artists active in Spain such as El Greco, Bartolomé Murillo, Diego Velázquez, and Francisco Zurbarán, who each produced a number of artistic masterpieces based on the use of these same symbols. The popularity of this particular representation of *The Immaculate Conception* spread across the rest of Europe, and has since remained the best known artistic depiction of the concept: in a heavenly realm, moments after her creation, the spirit of Mary (in the form of a young woman) looks up in awe at (or bows her head to) God. The Moon is under her feet and a halo of twelve stars surround her head, possibly a reference to \"a woman clothed with the sun\" from Revelation 12:1--2. Additional imagery may include clouds, a golden light, and putti. In some paintings the putti are holding lilies and roses, flowers often associated with Mary.
| 314 |
Immaculate Conception
| 5 |
15,256 |
# Immaculate Conception
## Other denominations {#other_denominations}
### Oriental Orthodoxy {#oriental_orthodoxy}
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches believe in the Immaculate Conception of the Theotokos. The Ethiopic phrase used to express that the Blessed Virgin Mary is free from original sin is \"መርገመ ስጋ መርገመ ነፍስ የሌለባት\". The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrates the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on Nehasie 7 (August 13). The proposition of Ethiopian Orthodox reads: \"*Our Lady, the Virgin Mary, who conceived and gave birth to Jesus Christ in virginity is free from the original sin derived from the descendants of Adam, clean from any sins of the flesh and soul; embedded in the conscience of God before the time of her birth, free and protected from human desires and frailties, and the choicest from among the chosen. Such is the Virgin Mary - Pure and Holy of Holies*. (Song 4.7)\". This is synodal statement.
### Eastern Orthodoxy {#eastern_orthodoxy}
Eastern Orthodoxy never accepted Augustine\'s specific ideas on original sin, and in consequence did not become involved in the later developments that took place in the Catholic Church, including the Immaculate Conception, although Eastern Orthodoxy affirms Mary\'s purity and preservation from sin.
In 1894, when Pope Leo XIII addressed the Eastern church in his encyclical *Praeclara gratulationis*, Ecumenical Patriarch Anthimos, in 1895, replied with an encyclical approved by the Constantinopolitan Synod in which he stigmatised the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and papal infallibility as \"Roman novelties\" and called on the Roman church to return to the faith of the early centuries. Eastern Orthodox Bishop Kallistos Ware comments that \"the Latin dogma seems to us not so much erroneous as superfluous\".
### Old Catholics {#old_catholics}
In the mid-19th century, some Catholics who were unable to accept the doctrine of papal infallibility left the Roman Church and formed the Old Catholic Church. This movement rejects the Immaculate Conception.
### Protestantism
Protestants overwhelmingly condemned the promulgation of *Ineffabilis Deus* as an exercise in papal power, and the doctrine itself as unscriptural, for it denied that all had sinned and rested on the Latin translation of Luke 1:28 (the \"full of grace\" passage) that the original Greek did not support. Protestants, therefore, teach that Mary was a sinner saved through grace, like all believers.
The Catholic--Lutheran dialogue\'s statement *The One Mediator, the Saints, and Mary*, issued in 1990 after seven years of study and discussion, conceded that Lutherans and Catholics remained separated \"by differing views on matters such as the invocation of saints, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary\"; the final report of the Anglican--Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), created in 1969 to further ecumenical progress between the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, similarly recorded the disagreement of the Anglicans with the doctrine, although Anglo-Catholics may hold the Immaculate Conception as an optional pious belief
| 472 |
Immaculate Conception
| 6 |
15,260 |
# Islands of the North Atlantic
**IONA** (**Islands of the North Atlantic**) is an acronym suggested in 1980 by Sir John Biggs-Davison to refer to a loose linkage of the Channel Islands (Guernsey and Jersey), Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales), Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland), and the Isle of Man, similar to the present day British--Irish Council. Its intended purpose was as a more politically acceptable alternative to the British Isles, which is disliked by some people in Ireland.
The neologism has been criticised on the grounds that it excludes most of the islands in the North Atlantic, and also that the only island referred to by the term that is actually in the North Atlantic Ocean is Ireland (Great Britain is in fact in between the Irish Sea and The North Sea). In the context of the Northern Irish peace process, during the negotiation of the Good Friday Agreement, IONA was unsuccessfully proposed as a neutral name for the proposed council.
One feature of this name is that IONA has the same spelling as the island of Iona which is off the coast of Scotland, but with which Irish people have strong cultural associations. It is therefore a name with which people of both main islands might identify. Taoiseach Bertie Ahern noted the symbolism in a 2006 address in Edinburgh:
In a Dáil Éireann debate, Proinsias De Rossa was less enthusiastic:
The term IONA is used by the World Universities Debating Championship. IONA is one of the regions that appoint a representative onto the committee of the World Universities Debating Council. Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland are included in the definition of IONA used in this context, while Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island are in the North American region. However, none of these islands have yet participated in the World Universities Debating Championships. Otherwise, the term has achieved very little popular usage in any context
| 321 |
Islands of the North Atlantic
| 0 |
15,266 |
# Interactive Fiction Competition
The **Interactive Fiction Competition** (also known as IFComp) is one of several annual competitions for works of interactive fiction. It has been held since 1995. It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it, but longer games are allowed entry. The competition has been described as the \"Super Bowl\" of interactive fiction.
Since 2016 it is operated by the Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation (IFTF).
## Organization
In 2016, operation of the competition was taken over by the Interactive Fiction Technology Foundation.
The lead organizer 2014--2017 was Jason McIntosh, and in 2018 it was Jacqueline Ashwell.
## Categories
Although the first competition had separate sections for Inform and TADS games, subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play the game is freely available.
In addition to the main competition, the entries take part in the Miss Congeniality contest, where the participating authors vote for three games (not including their own). This was started in 1998 to distribute that year\'s surplus prizes; this additional contest has remained unchanged since then, even without the original reason for its existence.
There is also a \'Golden Banana of Discord\' side contest; the distinction is given to the entry with scores with the highest standard deviation.
## Eligibility
The competition differs from the XYZZY Awards, as authors must specifically submit games to the Interactive Fiction Competition, but all games released in the past year are eligible for the XYZZY Awards. Many games win awards in both competitions.
## Judging
Anyone can judge the games. Because anyone can judge and participate in the competition, there is a rule that \"All entries must cost nothing for judges to play\".
## Rules
The competition has rules for judges, authors and everyone to ensure that everyone agrees on the purpose, scope, and spirit of the competition.
## Prizes
Anyone can donate a prize. Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one.
| 355 |
Interactive Fiction Competition
| 0 |
15,266 |
# Interactive Fiction Competition
## Winners
The following is a list of first place winners to date:
- **1995:** Tie: *A Change in the Weather* by Andrew Plotkin and *Uncle Zebulon\'s Will* by Magnus Olsson
- **1996:** *The Meteor, the Stone and a Long Glass of Sherbet* by Graham Nelson
- **1997:** *The Edifice* by Lucian P. Smith
- **1998:** *Photopia* by Adam Cadre
- **1999:** *Winter Wonderland* by Laura A. Knauth
- **2000:** *Kaged* by Ian Finley
- **2001:** *All Roads* by Jon Ingold
- **2002:** *Another Earth, Another Sky* by Paul O\'Brian
- **2003:** *Slouching Towards Bedlam* by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto
- **2004:** *Luminous Horizon* by Paul O\'Brian
- **2005:** *Vespers* by Jason Devlin
- **2006:** *Floatpoint* by Emily Short
- **2007:** *Lost Pig* by Admiral Jota (writing as Grunk)
- **2008:** *Violet* by Jeremy Freese
- **2009:** *Rover\'s Day Out* by Jack Welch and Ben Collins-Sussman
- **2010:** *Aotearoa* by Matt Wigdahl
- **2011:** *Taco Fiction* by Ryan Veeder
- **2012:** *Andromeda Apocalypse* by Marco Innocenti
- **2013:** *Coloratura* by Lynnea Glasser
- **2014:** *Hunger Daemon* by Sean M. Shore
- **2015:** *Brain Guzzlers from Beyond!* by Steph Cherrywell
- **2016:** *Detectiveland* by Robin Johnson
- **2017:** *The Wizard Sniffer* by Buster Hudson
- **2018:** *Alias \"The Magpie\"* by J. J. Guest
- **2019:** *Zozzled* by Steph Cherrywell
- **2020:** Tie: *The Impossible Bottle* by Linus Åkesson and *Tavern Crawler* by Josh Labelle
- **2021:** *And Then You Come to a House Not Unlike the Previous One* by B.J. Best
- **2022:** *The Grown-Up Detective Agency* by Brendan Patrick Hennessy
- **2023:** *Dr Ludwig and the Devil* by SV Linwood
- **2024:** *The Bat* by Chandler Groover
Only two competitors have won more than once: Paul O\'Brian, winning in 2002 and 2004, and Steph Cherrywell, winning in 2015 and 2019.
## Reception
A reviewer for *The A.V. Club* said of the 2008 competition, \"Once again, the IF Competition delivers some of the best writing in games.\" The 2008 competition was described as containing \"some real standouts both in quality of puzzles and a willingness to stretch the definition of text adventures/interactive fiction
| 357 |
Interactive Fiction Competition
| 1 |
15,268 |
# Inquests in England and Wales
**Inquests in England and Wales** are held into sudden or unexplained deaths and also into the circumstances of and discovery of a certain class of valuable artefacts known as \"treasure trove\". In England and Wales, inquests are the responsibility of a coroner, who operates under the jurisdiction of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009. In some circumstances where an inquest cannot view or hear all the evidence, it may be suspended and a public inquiry held with the consent of the Home Secretary.
## Where an inquest is needed {#where_an_inquest_is_needed}
There is a general duty upon every person to report a death to the coroner if an inquest is likely to be required. However, this duty is largely unenforceable in practice and the duty falls on the responsible registrar. The registrar must report a death where:
- The deceased was not attended by a doctor during their last illness
- The death occurred within 24 hours of admission to a hospital
- The cause of death has not been certified by a doctor who saw the deceased after death or within the 14 days before death
- The cause of death is unknown
- The registrar believes that the cause of death was unnatural, caused by violence, neglect or abortion outside the exemptions of the Abortion Act 1967, or occurred in suspicious circumstances
- Death occurred during surgery of any kind or while under anaesthetic both local and general
- The cause of death was or was suspected to be an industrial disease
- The death relates to public health or the general health or welfare of the public-at-large
The coroner must hold an inquest where the death is:
- Violent or unnatural
- Sudden and of unknown cause
- In prison or police custody
- Suspected to be suicide
Where the cause of death is unknown, the coroner may order a post mortem examination in order to determine whether the death was violent. If the death is found to be non-violent, an inquest is unnecessary.
In 2004 in England and Wales, there were 514,000 deaths of which 225,500 were referred to the coroner. Of those, 115,800 resulted in post-mortem examinations and there were 28,300 inquests, 570 with a jury. In 2014 the Royal College of Pathologists claimed that up to 10,000 deaths a year recorded as being from natural causes should have been investigated by inquests. They were particularly concerned about people whose death occurred as a result of medical errors. \"We believe a medical examiner would have been alerted to what was going on in Mid-Staffordshire long before this long list of avoidable deaths reached the total it did,\" said Archie Prentice, the pathologists\' president.
## Juries
A coroner must summon a jury for an inquest if the death was not a result of natural causes and occurred when the deceased was in state custody (for example in prison, police custody, or whilst detained under the Mental Health Act 1983); or if it was the result of an act or omission of a police officer; or if it was a result of a notifiable accident, poisoning or disease. The senior coroner can also call a jury at his or her own discretion. This discretion has been heavily litigated in light of the Human Rights Act 1998, which means that juries are required now in a broader range of situations than expressly required by statute.
| 572 |
Inquests in England and Wales
| 0 |
15,268 |
# Inquests in England and Wales
## Scope of inquest {#scope_of_inquest}
The purpose of the inquest is to answer four questions:
- Identity of the deceased
- Place of death
- Time of death
- How the deceased came by their death
Evidence must be solely for the purpose of answering these questions and no other evidence is admitted. It is not for the inquest to ascertain \"how the deceased died\" or \"in what broad circumstances\", but \"how the deceased came by his death\", a more limited question. Moreover, it is not the purpose of the inquest to determine, or appear to determine, criminal or civil liability, to apportion guilt or attribute blame. For example, where a prisoner hanged himself in a cell, he came by his death by hanging and it was not the role of the inquest to enquire into the broader circumstances such as the alleged neglect of the prison authorities that might have contributed to his state of mind or given him the opportunity. However, the inquest should set out as many of the facts as the public interest requires.
Under the terms of article 2 of the European Convention of Human Rights, governments are required to \"establish a framework of laws, precautions, procedures and means of enforcement which will, to the greatest extent reasonably practicable, protect life\". The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted this as mandating independent official investigation of any death where public servants may be implicated. Since the Human Rights Act 1998 came into force, in those cases alone, the inquest is now to consider the broader question \"by what means and in what circumstances\".
In disasters, such as the 1987 King\'s Cross fire, a single inquest may be held into several deaths. Some inquests, such as the John Lawler inquest, result in a prevention of future deaths report.
| 308 |
Inquests in England and Wales
| 1 |
15,268 |
# Inquests in England and Wales
## Procedure
Inquests are governed by the `{{not a typo|Coroners}}`{=mediawiki} Rules. The coroner gives notice to near relatives, those entitled to examine witnesses and those whose conduct is likely to be scrutinised. Inquests are held in public except where there are real issues and substantial of national security but only the portions which relate to national security will be held behind closed doors.
Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by a legal professional be that a solicitor or barrister at the discretion of the coroner. Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject to the privilege against self-incrimination.
If there are matters of national security or matters which relate to sensitive matters then under Schedule 1 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 an inquest may be suspended and replaced by a public inquiry under s.2 of the Inquiries Act 2005. This can only be ordered by the Home Secretary and must be announced to Parliament with the coroner in charge being informed and the next of kin being informed. The next of kin and coroner can appeal the decision of the Home Secretary.
## Verdict or conclusions {#verdict_or_conclusions}
The following conclusions (formerly called verdicts) are not mandatory but are strongly recommended:
- **Category 1**
- Natural causes
- Industrial diseases
- Dependency on drugs or non-dependent abuse of drugs
- Lack of attention at birth
- Lack of care or self-neglect
- **Category 2**
- Suicide
- Attempted or self-induced abortion
- Accident or misadventure
- Execution of sentence of death
- Lawful killing (formerly \"justifiable homicide\")
- Open verdict (cause of death unknown or unstated)
- **Category 3** -- Unlawful killing
- Murder
- Manslaughter
- Infanticide
- **Category 4**
- Stillbirth
In 2004, 37% of inquests recorded an outcome of death by accident / misadventure, 21% by natural causes, 13% suicide, 10% open verdicts, and 19% other outcomes.
Since 2004 it has been possible for the coroner to record a narrative verdict, recording the circumstances of a death without apportioning blame or liability. Since 2009, other possible verdicts have included \"alcohol/drug related death\" and \"road traffic collision\". The civil standard of proof, on the balance of probabilities, is used for all conclusions. The standard of proof for suicide and unlawful killing changed in 2018 from beyond all reasonable doubt to the balance of probabilities following a case in the courts of appeal.
## Modernisation
Owing in particular to the failures to notice the serial murder committed by Harold Shipman, the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 modernised the system with:
- Greater rights of bereaved people to contribute to coroners\' investigations;
- A new office of chief coroner to lead and supervise practice;
- Full-time coroners with new district boundaries;
- Broader investigatory powers for coroners;
- Improved medical support for coroners\' investigation and decision making;
- Vesting of treasure jurisdiction in the new office of treasure coroner with national responsibility
| 517 |
Inquests in England and Wales
| 2 |
15,276 |
# ISO 3864
**ISO 3864** is an International Organization for Standardization technical standard for safety signs and markings in workplaces and public facilities. These labels are graphical, to overcome language barriers. The standard is split into four parts.
## Parts
ISO 3864 consists of four parts, that provide more specific and situation specific guidance depending on the application.
- ISO 3864-1:2011 Part 1: Design principles for safety signs and safety markings
- ISO 3864-2:2016 Part 2: Design principles for product safety labels
- ISO 3864-3:2012 Part 3: Design principles for graphical symbols for use in safety signs
- ISO 3864-4:2011 Part 4: Colorimetric and photometric properties of safety sign materials
Part 1 explains how to layout the components of safety signage, dictate the color scheme and sizing information. Part 2 covers the same concepts as part one, but specifically for labels applied on machinery, vehicles and consumer goods. Part 3 contains guidance for designing new safety symbols. Part 4 specifies the standards for phosphorescent material and colours of a sign, as well as testing to confirm these signs meets required standards.
## Components of ISO 3864 {#components_of_iso_3864}
### Colours
These are the colours specified in ISO Standard 3864-4 in RAL colour standard.
Meaning RAL Name RAL Number CMYK RGB Hex Example of Colour
---------------------------- --------------- ------------ ------------------ --------- -------------------
Warning Signal Yellow 1003 00, 35, 100, 00 #F9A900
Prohibition/Fire Equipment Signal Red 3001 20, 100, 100, 10 #9B2423
Mandatory Signal Blue 5005 95, 60, 00, 20 #005387
Safe Condition Signal Green 6032 90, 10, 80, 10 #237F52
Backgrounds and Symbol Signal White 9003 00, 00, 00, 00 #ECECE7
Symbol Signal Black 9004 35, 50, 40, 90 #2B2B2C
In addition, ISO standard 3864-2:2016 lays out the following colours that correspond to levels of risk. This standard adds \"Orange\" as an incremental colour to the pallette above.
Meaning Signal word Background colour of panel Contrast colour Definition RGB Hex Example of Colour
---------------------- ------------- ---------------------------- ----------------- --------------------------------------------------- --------- -------------------
Low level of risk CAUTION Yellow Black RAL 1003 (per ISO 3864-4) #F9A900
Medium level of risk WARNING Orange Black RAL 2010, Munsell 2,5YR6/14G, or Munsell 5YR6/15G #D05D29
High level of risk DANGER Red White RAL 3001 (per ISO 3864-4) #9B2423
### Arrows
ISO 3864-3 defines four types of arrow designs, and specifies what situations each type should be used in.
Arrow Type Arrow image Meaning Arrowhead angle in degrees
------------ ------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------
General movement of objects 60°
Direction of rotation 60°
Movement of forces; pressures, fluids, gasses 84°
Movement of people 84° -- 86°
### Safety markings {#safety_markings}
Part 1 also provides design standards for \'safety markings\', which are safety colors combined with a contrasting color in an alternating 45° stripe pattern, intended to increase the visibility of an object, location or safety message.
Marking Colours Meaning
----------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------
borderless\|200x200px Yellow/Black Indicate location of a hazard
borderless\|200x200px Red/White Indicate location of firefighting equipment or a prohibition.
borderless\|200x200px Blue/White Mandatory Action
borderless\|200x200px Green/White Safe condition
### Signage design {#signage_design}
In addition to prescribing colours for safety signage, ISO 3864 also specifies how to layout the elements of the sign: A symbol and optional \'supplemental sign\' which contains the supplementary text message.
ISO 7010 - Mandatory - Vertical Example.svg\|A \'mandatory\' sign, in a vertical format. ISO 7010 - Mandatory - Horizontal Example.svg\|A \'mandatory\' sign, in a horizontal format, with the text box to the right of the symbol. ISO 7010 - Fire Protection - Vertical Example.svg\|A \'fire protection\' sign, in a vertical format. ISO 7010 - Fire Protection - Horizontal Example.svg\|A \'fire protection\' sign, in horizontal format, with the text box to the right of the symbol.
#### Multi-message signs {#multi_message_signs}
For situations where more than one message needs to be communicated, ISO 3864 also provides guidance for \"multiple signs\", which consist of two or more symbol and text messages combined into a single sign. Additionally, fire protection and safe condition signs, which mark the location of equipment or exits can be combined with an arrow to indicate the direction to the item depicted on the sign.
ISO 7010 - Multi-message - Warning, Mandatory - Vertical Example.svg\|A multi-message sign for hazard and mandatory action, in a vertical format ISO 7010 - Multi Message - Warning, Prohibited, Mandatory- Horizontal Example.svg\|A multi-message sign, with hazard, prohibition and mandatory action, in a horizontal format. ISO Exit - Up Left.svg\|An exit symbol, combined with an arrow pointed up, to the left. ISO 7010 F001 with Right Arrow.svg\|A fire extinguisher sign, combined with an arrow to the right.
## Related standards {#related_standards}
The corresponding American standard is ANSI Z535. ANSI Z535.1 also explicitly uses multiple levels of hazard, including Yellow (Pantone 109) for \'caution\' messages, and Orange (Pantone 151) for stronger \'warning\' messages. Like ISO 3864, ANSI Z535 includes multiple sections: ANSI Z535.6-2006 defines an optional accompanying text in one or more languages.
ISO 3864 is extended by ISO 7010, which provides a set of symbols based on the principles and properties specified in ISO 3864
| 829 |
ISO 3864
| 0 |
15,281 |
# Isaac Abendana
**Isaac Abendana** (c. 1640--1699) was the younger brother of Jacob Abendana, and became *hakam* of the Spanish Portuguese Synagogue in London after his brother died.
Abendana moved to England before his brother, in 1662, and taught Hebrew at Cambridge University. He completed an unpublished Latin translation of the *Mishnah* for the university in 1671.
While he was at Cambridge, Abendana sold Hebrew books to the Bodleian Library of Oxford, and in 1689 he took a teaching position in Magdalen College. In Oxford, he wrote a series of Jewish almanacs for Christians, which he later collected and compiled as the *Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews* (1706). Like his brother, he maintained an extensive correspondence with leading Christian scholars of his time, most notably with the philosopher Ralph Cudworth, master of Christ\'s College, Cambridge
| 140 |
Isaac Abendana
| 0 |
15,295 |
# Intelligent design
*Pandoc timed out
| 6 |
Intelligent design
| 0 |
15,336 |
# Italian Greyhound
The **Italian Greyhound** or **Italian Sighthound** (*italic=no*) is an Italian breed of small sighthound.`{{r|fci}}`{=mediawiki} It was bred to hunt hare and rabbit, but is kept mostly as a companion dog.
## History
Small dogs of sighthound type have long been popular with nobility and royalty. Among those believed to have kept them are Frederick II, Duke of Swabia; members of the D\'Este, Medici and Visconti families; the French kings Louis XI, Charles VIII, Charles IX, Louis XIII and Louis XIV;`{{r|enci2}}`{=mediawiki} Frederick the Great of Prussia;`{{r|des|page=519}}`{=mediawiki} Anne of Denmark; Catherine the Great; and Queen Victoria.`{{r|akc}}`{=mediawiki} Dogs of this type have often been represented in sculpture -- including a second-century Roman statue now in the Vatican Museums -- and paintings, notably by Giotto, Sassetta and Tiepolo.`{{r|enci2|enci5}}`{=mediawiki}
Dogs of this kind were taken in the first half of the nineteenth century to the United Kingdom, where they were known as Italian Greyhounds;`{{r|jhw|page=44}}`{=mediawiki} the first volume of *The Kennel Club Calendar and Stud Book*, published in 1874, lists forty of them.`{{r|kc|page=597}}`{=mediawiki} A breed association, the Italian Greyhound Club, was established in Britain in 1900.`{{r|cpli|cecil|page2=157}}`{=mediawiki} Registrations by the American Kennel Club began in 1886.`{{r|akc}}`{=mediawiki}
The history of the modern Piccolo Levriero goes back to the last years of the nineteenth century. A total of six of the dogs were shown in 1901 in Milan and Novara, two in Turin in 1902, and one in Udine in 1903. Numbers began to increase only after the First World War, partly as a result of the work of two individual breeders, Emilio Cavallini and Giulia Ajò Montecuccoli degli Erri.`{{r|enci4|enci5}}`{=mediawiki} In this post-War period the Piccolo Levriero was bred principally in Italy, France and Germany, and some Italian breeders imported dogs from outside the country. Of the forty-five of the dogs registered in 1926--1927 by the Kennel Club Italiano (as it was then known), twenty-eight were born in Italy and seventeen were imported.`{{r|enci4}}`{=mediawiki}
The events of the Second World War brought the Piccolo Levriero close to extinction, and numbers began to recover only in the 1950s, particularly after 1951, when Maria Luisa Incontri Lotteringhi della Stufa brought the influential bitch Komtesse von Gastuna from Austria.`{{r|enci4|enci5}}`{=mediawiki} The breed was definitively accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in October 1956,`{{r|fci}}`{=mediawiki} and in November of that year a breed society, the *Circolo del Levriero Italiano*, was formed under the auspices of the Ente Nazionale della Cinofilia Italiana; it was later renamed the *Circolo del Piccolo Levriero Italiano*.`{{r|enci4}}`{=mediawiki}
In the nine years from 2011 to 2019, the Ente Nazionale della Cinofilia Italiana recorded a total of 2557 new registrations of the Piccolo Levriero, with a minimum of 213 and a maximum of 333 per year.`{{r|enci2}}`{=mediawiki}
## Characteristics
The Italian Greyhound is the smallest of the sighthounds.`{{r|akc}}`{=mediawiki} It weighs no more than `{{val|5|u=kg}}`{=mediawiki} and stands `{{val|32|to|38|u=cm}}`{=mediawiki} at the withers.`{{r|enci}}`{=mediawiki} It is deep in the chest, with a tucked-up abdomen, long slender legs and a long neck. The head is small, elongated and narrow.`{{r|enci}}`{=mediawiki} The gait should be high-stepping and well-sprung, with good forward extension in the trot, and a fast gallop.`{{r|enci}}`{=mediawiki} The coat may be solid black, or grey or isabelline in any shade; white markings are accepted on the chest and feet only.`{{r|enci}}`{=mediawiki}
Median longevity is about 14 years, compared to an average of 12.5 for all dogs.`{{r|dk|page=127|kim|page2=127|uk}}`{=mediawiki}
The dogs may be affected by breed-related neurological abnormalities including congenital deafness and cervical intervertebral disc disease.`{{r|ron|p=291}}`{=mediawiki} In the United States, the Ortheopedic Foundation for Animals has found the Italian Greyhound to be the least affected by hip dysplasia of 157 breeds studied, with an incidence of 0.`{{r|ofa}}`{=mediawiki}
## Use
The original function of the Piccolo Levriero was to hunt hare and rabbit; it is capable of bursts of speed up to 60 kph.`{{r|enci3}}`{=mediawiki} Although assigned to the sighthound or hare-coursing groups by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale and the Ente Nazionale della Cinofilia Italiana,`{{r|fci|enci2}}`{=mediawiki} the Italian Sighthound is -- as it was in the past -- kept mostly as a companion dog.`{{r|cpli2}}`{=mediawiki} It is classified as a toy breed by the American Kennel Club and the Kennel Club of the United Kingdom
| 680 |
Italian Greyhound
| 0 |
15,346 |
# Institute of National Remembrance
The **Institute of National Remembrance** -- **Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation** (*Instytut Pamięci Narodowej -- Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu*, abbreviated **IPN**) is a Polish state research institute in charge of education and archives which also includes two public prosecution service components exercising investigative, prosecution and lustration powers. The IPN was established by the Polish parliament by the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance of 18 December 1998 through reforming and expanding the earlier **Main Commission for the *Investigation* of Crimes against the Polish Nation** of 1991, which itself had replaced the General Commission for Research on Fascist Crimes, a body established in 1945 focused on investigating the crimes of the Nazi administration in Poland during World War II.
In 2018, IPN\'s mission statement was amended by the controversial Amendment to the Act on the Institute of National Remembrance to include \"protecting the reputation of the Republic of Poland and the Polish Nation\". The IPN investigates and prosecutes Nazi and Communist crimes committed between 1917 and 1990, documents its findings, and disseminates them to the public. Some scholars have criticized the IPN for politicization, especially under Law and Justice governments.
The IPN began its activities on 1 July 2000. The IPN is a founding member of the Platform of European Memory and Conscience. Since 2020, the IPN headquarters have been located at Postępu 18 Street in Warsaw. The IPN has eleven branches in other cities and seven delegation offices.
## Purpose
The IPN\'s main areas of activity, in line with its original mission statement, include researching and documenting the losses which were suffered by the Polish Nation as a result of World War II and during the post-war totalitarian period. The IPN informs about the patriotic traditions of resistance against the occupational forces, and the Polish citizens\' fight for sovereignty of the nation, including their efforts in defence of freedom and human dignity in general.
According to the IPN, it is its duty to prosecute crimes against peace and humanity, as much as war crimes. Its mission includes the need to compensate for damages which were suffered by the repressed and harmed people at a time when human rights were disobeyed by the state, and educate the public about recent history of Poland. IPN collects, organises and archives all documents about the Polish Communist security apparatus active from 22 July 1944 to 31 December 1989.
Following the election of the Law and Justice party, the government formulated in 2016 a new IPN law. The 2016 law stipulated that the IPN should oppose publications of false information that dishonors or harms the Polish nation. It also called for popularizing history as part of \"an element of patriotic education\". The new law also removed the influence of academia and the judiciary on the IPN.
A 2018 amendment to the law, added article 55a that attempts to defend the \"good name\" of Poland. Initially conceived as a criminal offense (3 years of jail) with an exemption for arts and research, following an international outcry, the article was modified to a civil offense that may be tried in civil courts and the exemption was deleted. Defamation charges under the act may be made by the IPN as well as by accredited NGOs such as the Polish League Against Defamation. By the same law, the institution\'s mission statement was changed to include \"protecting the reputation of the Republic of Poland and the Polish Nation\".
| 581 |
Institute of National Remembrance
| 0 |
15,346 |
# Institute of National Remembrance
## Organisation
IPN was created by special legislation on 18 December 1998. The IPN is divided into:
- Main Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (*Główna Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu*)
- Bureau of Provision and Archivization of Documents (*Biuro Udostępniania i Archiwizacji Dokumentów*)
- Bureau of Public Education (or Public Education Office, *Biuro Edukacji Publicznej*)
- Lustration Bureau (*Biuro Lustracyjne*) (new bureau, since October 2006)
- local chapters.
On 29 April 2010, acting president Bronislaw Komorowski signed into law a parliamentary act that reformed the Institute of National Remembrance.
### Director
IPN is governed by the director, who has a sovereign position that is independent of the Polish state hierarchy. The director may not be dismissed during his term unless he commits a harmful act. Prior to 2016, the election of the director was a complex procedure, which involves the selection of a panel of candidates by the IPN Collegium (members appointed by the Polish Parliament and judiciary). The Polish Parliament (Sejm) then elects one of the candidates, with a required supermajority (60%). The director has a 5-year term of office. Following 2016 legislation in the PiS controlled parliament, the former pluralist Collegium was replaced with a nine-member Collegium composed of PiS supporters, and the Sejm appoints the director after consulting with the College without an election between candidates.
#### Leon Kieres {#leon_kieres}
The first director of the IPN was Leon Kieres, elected by the Sejm for five years on 8 June 2000 (term 30 June 2000 -- 29 December 2005). The IPN granted some 6,500 people the \"victim of communism\" status and gathered significant archive material. The IPN faced difficulties since it was new and also since the Democratic Left Alliance (containing former communists) attempted to close the IPN. The publication of *Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland* by Jan T. Gross, proved to be a lifeline for the IPN as Polish president Aleksander Kwaśniewski intervened to save the IPN since he deemed the IPN\'s research to be important as part of Jewish-Polish reconciliation and \"apology diplomacy\".
#### Janusz Kurtyka {#janusz_kurtyka}
The second director was Janusz Kurtyka, elected on 9 December 2005 with a term that started 29 December 2005 until his death in the Smolensk airplane crash on 10 April 2010. The elections were controversial, as during the elections a leak against Andrzej Przewoźnik accusing him of collaboration with Służba Bezpieczeństwa caused him to withdraw his candidacy. Przewoźnik was cleared of the accusations only after he had lost the election.
In 2006, the IPN opened a \"Lustration Bureau\" that increased the director\'s power. The bureau was assigned the task of examining the past of all candidates to public office. Kurtyka widened archive access to the public and shifted focus from compensating victims to researching collaboration.
**Franciszek Gryciuk** In 1999, historian Franciszek Gryciuk was appointed to the Collegium of the IPN, which he chaired 2003--2004. From June 2008 to June 2011, he was vice president of the IPN. He was acting director 2010--2011, between the death of the IPN\'s second president, Janusz Kurtyka, in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash and the election of Łukasz Kamiński by the Polish Parliament as the third director.
#### Łukasz Kamiński {#łukasz_kamiński}
Łukasz Kamiński, was elected by the Sejm in 2011 following the death of his predecessor. Kamiński headed the Wroclaw Regional Bureau of Public Education prior to his election. During his term, the IPN faced a wide array of criticism calling for an overhaul or even replacement. Critics founds fault in the IPN being a state institution, the lack of historical knowledge of its prosecutors, a relatively high number of microhistories with a debatable methodology, overuse of the martyrology motif, research methodology, and isolationism from the wider research community. In response, Kamiński implemented several changes, including organizing public debates with outside historians to counter the charge of isolationism and has suggested refocusing on victims as opposed to agents.
#### Jarosław Szarek {#jarosław_szarek}
On 22 July 2016 Jarosław Szarek was appointed to head IPN. He dismissed Krzysztof Persak, co-author of the 2002 two-volume IPN study on the Jedwabne pogrom. In subsequent months, IPN featured in media headlines for releasing controversial documents, including some relating to Lech Wałęsa, for memory politics conducted in schools, for efforts to change Communist street names, and for legislation efforts. According to historian Idesbald Goddeeris, this marks a return of politics to the IPN.
#### Karol Nawrocki {#karol_nawrocki}
On 23 July 2021 Karol Nawrocki was appointed as the head of IPN.
| 758 |
Institute of National Remembrance
| 1 |
15,346 |
# Institute of National Remembrance
## Public prosecutors in the IPN {#public_prosecutors_in_the_ipn}
Two components of the IPN are specialized parts of the Public Prosecution Service of Poland, namely the Main Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation and the Lustration Bureau. Each of these two components exercises its activities autonomically from other components of the Institute and is headed by a director who is *ex officio* Deputy Public Prosecutor General of Poland, while role of the IPN Director is in their case purely accessory and includes no powers regarding conducted investigations, being limited only to providing supporting apparatus and, when vacated, presenting candidates for the offices of the two directors to the Prosecutor General who as their superior has the discretionary power to appoint or reject them.
### Main Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation {#main_commission_for_the_prosecution_of_crimes_against_the_polish_nation}
The Main Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation (*Główna Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu*) is the oldest component of the IPN tracing its origins to 1945. It investigates and prosecutes crimes committed on Polish soil against Polish citizens as well as people of other citizenships wronged in the country. War crimes which are not affected by statute of limitations according to Polish law include:
1. Crimes of the Soviet and Polish Communist regimes committed in the country from 17 September 1939 until the Fall of Communism on 31 December 1989.
2. Deportations to the Soviet Union of Polish soldiers of Armia Krajowa, and other Polish resistance organizations as well as Polish inhabitants of the former Polish eastern territories.
3. Pacifications of Polish communities between Vistula and Bug rivers in the years 1944 to 1947 by UB-NKVD,
4. Crimes committed by the law enforcement agencies of the Polish People\'s Republic, particularly Ministry of Public Security of Poland and Main Directorate of Information of the Polish Army.
5. Crimes under the category of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
### Lustration Bureau {#lustration_bureau}
On 15 March 2007, an amendment to the Polish law regulating the IPN (enacted on 18 December 2006) came into effect. The change gave the IPN new lustration powers and expanded IPN\'s file access. The change was enacted by Law and Justice government in a series of legislative amendments during 2006 and the beginning of 2007. However, several articles of the 2006-7 amendments were held unconstitutional by Poland\'s Constitutional Court on 11 May 2007, though the IPN\'s lustration power was still wider than under the original 1997 law. These powers include loss of position for those who submitted false lustration declarations as well as a lustration process of candidates for senior office.
| 441 |
Institute of National Remembrance
| 2 |
15,346 |
# Institute of National Remembrance
## Other activities {#other_activities}
### Research
The research conducted by IPN from December 2000 falls into four main topic areas:`{{better source needed|date=March 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
- Security Apparatus and Civil Resistance (with separate sub-projects devoted to Political Processes and Prisoners 1944--1956, Soviet Repressions and Crimes committed against Polish Citizens and Martial Law: a Glance after Twenty Years);
- Functioning of the repression apparatus (state security and justice organs) -- its organizational structure, cadres and relations with other state authority and party organs
- Activities of the repression apparatus directed against particular selected social groups and organizations
- Structure and methods of functioning of the People\'s Poland security apparatus
- Security apparatus in combat with the political and military underground 1944--1956
- Activities of the security apparatus against political emigreés
- Security apparatus in combat with the Church and freedom of belief
- Authorities dealing with social crises and democratic opposition in the years 1956--1989 f) List of those repressed and sentenced to death
- Bibliography of the conspiracy, resistance and repression 1944--1989
- War, Occupation and the Polish Underground;
- deepening of knowledge about the structures and activities of the Polish Underground State
- examination of the human fates in the territories occupied by the Soviet regime and of Poles displaced into the Soviet Union
- assessment of sources on the living conditions under the Soviet and German Nazi occupations
- evaluation of the state of research concerning the victims of the war activities and extermination policy of the Soviet and German Nazi occupiers
- examining the Holocaust (Extermination of Jews) conducted by Nazis in the Polish territories
- Response of the Polish Underground State to the extermination of Jewish population
- The Polish Underground press and the Jewish question during the German Nazi occupation
- Poles and Other Nations in the Years 1939--1989 (with a part on Poles and Ukrainians);
- Poles and Ukrainians
- Poles and Lithuanians
- Poles and Germans
- Communist authorities -- Belarusians -- Underground
- Fate of Jewish people in the People\'s Republic of Poland
- Gypsies in Poland
- Peasants and the People\'s Authority 1944--1989 (on the situation of peasants and the rural policy in the years 1944--1989)
- inhabitants of the rural areas during the creation of the totalitarian regime in Poland;
- peasant life during the Sovietisation of Poland in the years 1948--1956;
- attitudes of the inhabitants of rural areas towards the state-Church conflict in the years 1956--1970;
- the role of peasants in the anti-Communist opposition of the 1970s and 1980s.
### Education
The IPN\'s Public Education Office (BEP) vaguely defined role in the IPN act is to inform society of Communist and Nazi crimes and institutions. This vaguely defined role allowed Paweł Machcewicz, BEP\'s director in 2000, freedom to create a wide range of activities.
Researchers at the IPN conduct not only research but are required to take part in public outreach. BEP has published music CDs, DVDs, and serials. It has founded \"historical clubs\" for debates and lectures. It has also organized outdoor historical fairs, picnic, and games.
The *IPN Bulletin* (*Biuletyn IPN*) is a high circulation popular-scientific journal, intended for lay readers and youth. Some 12,000 of 15,000 copies of the *Bulletin* are distributed free of charge to secondary schools in Poland, and the rest are sold in bookstores. The *Bulletin* contains: popular-scientific and academic articles, polemics, manifestos, appeals to readers, promotional material on the IPN and BEP, denials and commentary on reports in the news, as well as multimedia supplements.
The IPN also publishes the *Remembrance and Justice* (*Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość*) scientific journal.
The IPN has issued several board games to help educate people about recent Polish history, including:
- *303 (board game)* -- a game about the Battle of Britain that focuses on the Polish 303 Squadron.
- *Kolejka* -- a game about being forced to queue for basic household products during the Communist era.
### Naming of monuments {#naming_of_monuments}
In 2008, the chairman of the IPN wrote to local administrations, calling for the addition of the word \"German\" before \"Nazi\" to all monuments and tablets commemorating Germany\'s victims, stating that \"Nazis\" is not always understood to relate specifically to Germans. Several scenes of atrocities conducted by Germany were duly updated with commemorative plaques clearly indicating the nationality of the perpetrators. The IPN also requested better documentation and commemoration of crimes that had been perpetrated by the Soviet Union.
The Polish government also asked UNESCO to officially change the name \"Auschwitz Concentration Camp\" to \"Former Nazi German Concentration Camp Auschwitz-Birkenau\", to clarify that the camp had been built and operated by Nazi Germany. In 2007, UNESCO\'s World Heritage Committee changed the camp\'s name to \"Auschwitz Birkenau German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940--1945).\" Previously some German media, including *Der Spiegel*, had called the camp \"Polish\".
### Publications
Since 2019, the Institute publishes the *Institute of National Remembrance Review* (`{{ISSN|2658-1566}}`{=mediawiki}), a yearly peer-reviewed academic journal in English, with Anna Karolina Piekarska as editor-in-chief..
| 831 |
Institute of National Remembrance
| 3 |
15,346 |
# Institute of National Remembrance
## Criticism
According to Georges Mink, common criticisms of the IPN include its dominance in the Polish research field, which is guaranteed by a budget that far supersedes that of any similar academic institution; the \"thematic monotony \... of micro-historical studies \... of no real scientific interest\" of its research; its focus on \"martyrology\"; and various criticisms of methodology and ethics. Some of these criticisms have been addressed by Director Łukasz Kamiński during his tenure and who according to Mink \"has made significant changes\"; however, Mink, writing in 2017, was also concerned with the recent administrative and personnel changes in IPN, including the election of Jarosław Szarek as director, which he posits are likely to result in further the politicization of the IPN. According to Valentin Behr, IPN research into the Communist era is valuable, positing that \"the resources at its disposal have made it unrivalled as a research centre in the academic world\"; at the same time, he said that the research is mostly focused on the era\'s negative aspects, and that it \"is far from producing a critical approach to history, one that asks its own questions and is methodologically pluralistic.\" He added that in recent years that problem is being ameliorated as the IPN\'s work \"has somewhat diversified as its administration has taken note of criticism on the part of academics.\"
According to Robert Traba, \"under the \... IPN, tasks related to the \'national politics of memory\' were -- unfortunately -- merged with the mission of independent academic research. In the public mind, there could be only one message flowing from the institute\'s name: memory and history as a science are one. The problem is that nothing could be further from the truth, and nothing could be more misleading. What the IPN\'s message presents, in fact, is the danger that Polish history will be grossly over-simplified.\"`{{r|Traba 2016|p=43}}`{=mediawiki} Traba states that \"at the heart of debate today is a confrontation between those who support traditional methods and categories of research, and those who support newly defined methods and categories. \... Broadening the research perspective means the enrichment of the historian\'s instrumentarium.\'\" He puts the IPN research, in a broad sense, in the former; he states that \"\[a\] solid, workshop-oriented, traditional, and positivist historiography \... which defends itself by the integrity of its analysis and its diversified source base\" but criticizes its approach for leading to a \"falsely conceived mission to find \'objective truth\' at the expense of \'serious study of event history\', and a \'simplified claim that only \'secret\' sources, not accessible to ordinary mortals\', can lead to that objective truth.\" Traba quotes historian Wiktoria Śliwowska, who wrote: \"The historian must strive not only to reconstruct a given reality, but also to understand the background of events, the circumstances in which people acted. It is easy to condemn, but difficult to understand a complicated past. \... \[Meanwhile, in the IPN\] thick volumes are being produced, into which are being thrown, with no real consideration, further evidence in criminating various persons now deceased (and therefore not able to defend themselves), and elderly people still alive -- known and unknown.\"`{{r|Traba 2016|pp=57-58}}`{=mediawiki} Traba posits that \"there is \... a need for genuine debate that does not revolve around \[the files\] in the IPN archives, \'lustration,\' or short-term and politically inspired discussions designed to establish the \'only real\' truth\", and suggests that adopting varied perspectives and diverse methodologies might contribute to such debate.`{{r|Traba 2016|p=67}}`{=mediawiki}
During PiS\'s control of the government between 2005 and 2007, the IPN was the focus of heated public controversies, in particular in regard to the pasts of Solidarity leader Lech Wałęsa and PZPR secretary Wojciech Jaruzelski. As a result, the *IPN* has been referred to as \"a political institution at the centre of \'memory games\'\".
In 2008, two IPN employees, Sławomir Cenckiewicz and Piotr Gontarczyk, published a book, *SB a Lech Wałęsa* (The Security Service and Lech Wałęsa: A Contribution to a Biography) which caused a major controversy. The book\'s premise was that in the 1970s the Solidarity leader and later president of Poland Lech Wałęsa was a secret informant of the Polish Communist Security Service.
In 2018, the IPN hired Tomasz Greniuch, a historian who in his youth was associated with a far-right group. When he was promoted to a regional director of the Wrocław branch in February 2021, his past came to media attention and resulted in criticism of Greniuch and IPN. Greniuch issued an apology for his past behavior and resigned within weeks.
### Organizational and methodological concerns {#organizational_and_methodological_concerns}
Valentin Behr writes that the IPN is most \"concerned with the production of an official narrative about Poland\'s recent past\" and therefore lacks innovation in its research, while noting that situation is being remedied under recent leadership. He writes that the IPN \"has mainly taken in historians from the fringes of the academic field\" who were either unable to obtain a prominent academic position or ideologically drawn to the IPN\'s approach, and that \"in the academic field, being an \'IPN historian\' can be a stigma\"; Behr explains this by pointing to a generational divide in Polish academia, visible when comparing IPN to other Polish research outlets, and claims: \"Hiring young historians was done deliberately to give the IPN greater autonomy from the academic world, considered as too leftist to describe the dark sides of the communist regime.\" He says that the IPN has created opportunities for many history specialists who can carry dedicated research there without the need for an appointment at another institution, and for training young historians, noting that \"the IPN is now the leading employer of young PhD students and PhDs in history specialized in contemporary history, ahead of Polish universities\".
Historian Dariusz Stola states that the IPN is very bureaucratic in nature, comparing it to a \"regular continental European bureaucracy, with usual deficiencies of its kind\", and posits that in this aspect the IPN resembles the former Communist institutions it is supposed to deal with, equally \"bureaucratic, centralist, heavy, inclined to extensive growth and quantity rather than quality of production\".
An incident which caused controversy involved the \"Wildstein list\", a partial list of persons who allegedly worked for the communist-era Polish intelligence service, copied in 2004 from IPN archives (without IPN permission) by journalist Bronisław Wildstein and published on the Internet in 2005. The list gained much attention in Polish media and politics, and IPN security procedures and handling of the matter came under criticism
| 1,078 |
Institute of National Remembrance
| 4 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
In quantum mechanics, **indistinguishable particles** (also called **identical** or **indiscernible particles**) are particles that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle. Species of identical particles include, but are not limited to, elementary particles (such as electrons), composite subatomic particles (such as atomic nuclei), as well as atoms and molecules. Although all known indistinguishable particles only exist at the quantum scale, there is no exhaustive list of all possible sorts of particles nor a clear-cut limit of applicability, as explored in quantum statistics. They were first discussed by Werner Heisenberg and Paul Dirac in 1926.
There are two main categories of identical particles: bosons, which can share quantum states, and fermions, which cannot (as described by the Pauli exclusion principle). Examples of bosons are photons, gluons, phonons, helium-4 nuclei and all mesons. Examples of fermions are electrons, neutrinos, quarks, protons, neutrons, and helium-3 nuclei.
The fact that particles can be identical has important consequences in statistical mechanics, where calculations rely on probabilistic arguments, which are sensitive to whether or not the objects being studied are identical. As a result, identical particles exhibit markedly different statistical behaviour from distinguishable particles. For example, the indistinguishability of particles has been proposed as a solution to Gibbs\' mixing paradox.
## Distinguishing between particles {#distinguishing_between_particles}
There are two methods for distinguishing between particles. The first method relies on differences in the intrinsic physical properties of the particles, such as mass, electric charge, and spin. If differences exist, it is possible to distinguish between the particles by measuring the relevant properties. However, as far as can be determined, microscopic particles of the same species have completely equivalent physical properties. For instance, every electron has the same electric charge.
Even if the particles have equivalent physical properties, there remains a second method for distinguishing between particles, which is to track the trajectory of each particle. As long as the position of each particle can be measured with infinite precision (even when the particles collide), then there would be no ambiguity about which particle is which.
The problem with the second approach is that it contradicts the principles of quantum mechanics. According to quantum theory, the particles do not possess definite positions during the periods between measurements. Instead, they are governed by wavefunctions that give the probability of finding a particle at each position. As time passes, the wavefunctions tend to spread out and overlap. Once this happens, it becomes impossible to determine, in a subsequent measurement, which of the particle positions correspond to those measured earlier. The particles are then said to be indistinguishable.
| 431 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 0 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Quantum mechanical description {#quantum_mechanical_description}
### Symmetrical and antisymmetrical states {#symmetrical_and_antisymmetrical_states}
What follows is an example to make the above discussion concrete, using the formalism developed in the article on the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.
Let *n* denote a complete set of (discrete) quantum numbers for specifying single-particle states (for example, for the particle in a box problem, take *n* to be the quantized wave vector of the wavefunction.) For simplicity, consider a system composed of two particles that are not interacting with each other. Suppose that one particle is in the state *n*~1~, and the other is in the state *n*~2~. The quantum state of the system is denoted by the expression
: $| n_1 \rang | n_2 \rang$
where the order of the tensor product matters ( if $| n_2 \rang | n_1 \rang$, then the particle 1 occupies the state *n*~2~ while the particle 2 occupies the state *n*~1~). This is the canonical way of constructing a basis for a tensor product space $H \otimes H$ of the combined system from the individual spaces. This expression is valid for distinguishable particles, however, it is not appropriate for indistinguishable particles since $|n_1\rang |n_2\rang$ and $|n_2\rang |n_1\rang$ as a result of exchanging the particles are generally different states.
- \"the particle 1 occupies the *n*~1~ state and the particle 2 occupies the *n*~2~ state\" ≠ \"the particle 1 occupies the *n*~2~ state and the particle 2 occupies the *n*~1~ state\".
Two states are physically equivalent only if they differ at most by a complex phase factor. For two indistinguishable particles, a state before the particle exchange must be physically equivalent to the state after the exchange, so these two states differ at most by a complex phase factor. This fact suggests that a state for two indistinguishable (and non-interacting) particles is given by following two possibilities:
: $|n_1\rang |n_2\rang \pm |n_2\rang |n_1\rang$
States where it is a sum are known as **symmetric**, while states involving the difference are called **antisymmetric**. More completely, symmetric states have the form
: $|n_1, n_2; S\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg)$
while antisymmetric states have the form
: $|n_1, n_2; A\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang - |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg)$
Note that if *n*~1~ and *n*~2~ are the same, the antisymmetric expression gives zero, which cannot be a state vector since it cannot be normalized. In other words, more than one identical particle cannot occupy an antisymmetric state (one antisymmetric state can be occupied only by one particle). This is known as the Pauli exclusion principle, and it is the fundamental reason behind the chemical properties of atoms and the stability of matter.
| 449 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 1 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Quantum mechanical description {#quantum_mechanical_description}
### Exchange symmetry {#exchange_symmetry}
The importance of symmetric and antisymmetric states is ultimately based on empirical evidence. It appears to be a fact of nature that identical particles do not occupy states of a mixed symmetry, such as
: $|n_1, n_2; ?\rang = \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + i |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg)$
There is actually an exception to this rule, which will be discussed later. On the other hand, it can be shown that the symmetric and antisymmetric states are in a sense special, by examining a particular symmetry of the multiple-particle states known as **exchange symmetry**.
Define a linear operator *P*, called the exchange operator. When it acts on a tensor product of two state vectors, it exchanges the values of the state vectors:
: $P \bigg(|\psi\rang |\phi\rang \bigg) \equiv |\phi\rang |\psi\rang$
*P* is both Hermitian and unitary. Because it is unitary, it can be regarded as a symmetry operator. This symmetry may be described as the symmetry under the exchange of labels attached to the particles (i.e., to the single-particle Hilbert spaces).
Clearly, $P^2 = 1$ (the identity operator), so the eigenvalues of *P* are +1 and −1. The corresponding eigenvectors are the symmetric and antisymmetric states:
: $P|n_1, n_2; S\rang = + |n_1, n_2; S\rang$
: $P|n_1, n_2; A\rang = - |n_1, n_2; A\rang$
In other words, symmetric and antisymmetric states are essentially unchanged under the exchange of particle labels: they are only multiplied by a factor of +1 or −1, rather than being \"rotated\" somewhere else in the Hilbert space. This indicates that the particle labels have no physical meaning, in agreement with the earlier discussion on indistinguishability.
Since *P* is Hermitian, it can be regarded as an observable of the system: a measurement can be performed to find out if a state is symmetric or antisymmetric. Furthermore, the equivalence of the particles indicates that the Hamiltonian can be written in a symmetrical form, such as
: $H = \frac{p_1^2}{2m} + \frac{p_2^2}{2m} + U(|x_1 - x_2|) + V(x_1) + V(x_2)$
It is possible to show that such Hamiltonians satisfy the commutation relation
: $\left[P, H\right] = 0$
According to the Heisenberg equation, this means that the value of *P* is a constant of motion. If the quantum state is initially symmetric (antisymmetric), it will remain symmetric (antisymmetric) as the system evolves. Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of *P*, and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space. Thus, that eigenspace might as well be treated as the actual Hilbert space of the system. This is the idea behind the definition of Fock space.
### Fermions and bosons {#fermions_and_bosons}
The choice of symmetry or antisymmetry is determined by the species of particle. For example, symmetric states must always be used when describing photons or helium-4 atoms, and antisymmetric states when describing electrons or protons.
Particles which exhibit symmetric states are called bosons. The nature of symmetric states has important consequences for the statistical properties of systems composed of many identical bosons. These statistical properties are described as Bose--Einstein statistics.
Particles which exhibit antisymmetric states are called fermions. Antisymmetry gives rise to the Pauli exclusion principle, which forbids identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state. Systems of many identical fermions are described by Fermi--Dirac statistics.
Parastatistics are mathematically possible, but no examples exist in nature.
In certain two-dimensional systems, mixed symmetry can occur. These exotic particles are known as anyons, and they obey fractional statistics. Experimental evidence for the existence of anyons exists in the fractional quantum Hall effect, a phenomenon observed in the two-dimensional electron gases that form the inversion layer of MOSFETs. There is another type of statistic, known as braid statistics, which are associated with particles known as plektons.
The spin-statistics theorem relates the exchange symmetry of identical particles to their spin. It states that bosons have integer spin, and fermions have half-integer spin. Anyons possess fractional spin.
### *N* particles {#n_particles}
The above discussion generalizes readily to the case of *N* particles. Suppose there are *N* particles with quantum numbers *n*~1~, *n*~2~, \..., *n*~*N*~. If the particles are bosons, they occupy a **totally symmetric state**, which is symmetric under the exchange of *any two* particle labels:
: $|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = \sqrt{\frac{\prod_n m_n!}{N!}} \sum_p \left|n_{p(1)}\right\rang \left|n_{p(2)}\right\rang \cdots \left|n_{p(N)}\right\rang$
Here, the sum is taken over all different states under permutations *p* acting on *N* elements. The square root left to the sum is a normalizing constant. The quantity *m~n~* stands for the number of times each of the single-particle states *n* appears in the *N*-particle state. Note that `{{nowrap|1=Σ<sub>''n''</sub> ''m''<sub>''n''</sub> = ''N''}}`{=mediawiki}.
In the same vein, fermions occupy **totally antisymmetric states**:
: $|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \operatorname{sgn}(p) \left|n_{p(1)}\right\rang \left|n_{p(2)}\right\rang \cdots \left|n_{p(N)}\right\rang\$
Here, `{{math|sgn(''p'')}}`{=mediawiki} is the sign of each permutation (i.e. $+1$ if $p$ is composed of an even number of transpositions, and $-1$ if odd). Note that there is no $\Pi_n m_n$ term, because each single-particle state can appear only once in a fermionic state. Otherwise the sum would again be zero due to the antisymmetry, thus representing a physically impossible state. This is the Pauli exclusion principle for many particles.
These states have been normalized so that
: $\lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = 1, \qquad \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = 1.$
### Measurement
Suppose there is a system of *N* bosons (fermions) in the symmetric (antisymmetric) state
: $|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang$
and a measurement is performed on some other set of discrete observables, *m*. In general, this yields some result *m*~1~ for one particle, *m*~2~ for another particle, and so forth. If the particles are bosons (fermions), the state after the measurement must remain symmetric (antisymmetric), i.e.
: $|m_1 m_2 \cdots m_N; S/A \rang$
The probability of obtaining a particular result for the *m* measurement is
: $P_{S/A}\left(n_1, \ldots, n_N \rightarrow m_1, \ldots, m_N\right) \equiv \big|\left\lang m_1 \cdots m_N; S/A \,|\, n_1 \cdots n_N; S/A \right\rang \big|^2$
It can be shown that
: $\sum_{m_1 \le m_2 \le \dots \le m_N} P_{S/A}(n_1, \ldots, n_N \rightarrow m_1, \ldots, m_N) = 1$
which verifies that the total probability is 1. The sum has to be restricted to *ordered* values of *m*~1~, \..., *m~N~* to ensure that each multi-particle state is not counted more than once.
| 1,075 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 2 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Quantum mechanical description {#quantum_mechanical_description}
### Wavefunction representation {#wavefunction_representation}
So far, the discussion has included only discrete observables. It can be extended to continuous observables, such as the position *x*.
Recall that an eigenstate of a continuous observable represents an infinitesimal *range* of values of the observable, not a single value as with discrete observables. For instance, if a particle is in a state \|*ψ*⟩, the probability of finding it in a region of volume *d*^3^*x* surrounding some position *x* is
: $|\lang x | \psi \rang|^2 \; d^3 x$
As a result, the continuous eigenstates \|*x*⟩ are normalized to the delta function instead of unity:
: $\lang x | x' \rang = \delta^3 (x - x')$
Symmetric and antisymmetric multi-particle states can be constructed from continuous eigenstates in the same way as before. However, it is customary to use a different normalizing constant:
: \\begin{align}
` |x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S\rang &= \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j n_j!}{N!}} \sum_p \left|x_{p(1)}\right\rang \left|x_{p(2)}\right\rang \cdots \left|x_{p(N)}\right\rang \\`\
` |x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A\rang &= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) \left|x_{p(1)}\right\rang \left|x_{p(2)}\right\rang \cdots \left|x_{p(N)}\right\rang`
\\end{align}
A many-body wavefunction can be written,
: \\begin{align}
` \Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_N)`\
` & \equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S \rang \\[4pt]`\
` & = \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j n_j!}{N!}} \sum_p \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N) \\[10pt]`\
` \Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_N)`\
` & \equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A \rang \\[4pt]`\
` & = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)`
\\end{align} where the single-particle wavefunctions are defined, as usual, by
: $\psi_n(x) \equiv \lang x | n \rang$
The most important property of these wavefunctions is that exchanging any two of the coordinate variables changes the wavefunction by only a plus or minus sign. This is the manifestation of symmetry and antisymmetry in the wavefunction representation:
: \\begin{align}
` \Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) =`\
` \Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots) \\[3pt]`\
` \Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) =`\
` -\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)`
\\end{align}
The many-body wavefunction has the following significance: if the system is initially in a state with quantum numbers *n*~1~, \..., n~N~, and a position measurement is performed, the probability of finding particles in infinitesimal volumes near *x*~1~, *x*~2~, \..., *x*~*N*~ is
: $N! \; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_N) \right|^2 \; d^{3N}\!x$
The factor of *N*! comes from our normalizing constant, which has been chosen so that, by analogy with single-particle wavefunctions,
: $\int\!\int\!\cdots\!\int\; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_N)\right|^2 d^3\!x_1 d^3\!x_2 \cdots d^3\!x_N = 1$
Because each integral runs over all possible values of *x*, each multi-particle state appears *N*! times in the integral. In other words, the probability associated with each event is evenly distributed across *N*! equivalent points in the integral space. Because it is usually more convenient to work with unrestricted integrals than restricted ones, the normalizing constant has been chosen to reflect this.
Finally, antisymmetric wavefunction can be written as the determinant of a matrix, known as a Slater determinant:
: \\Psi\^{(A)}\_{n_1 \\cdots n_N} (x_1, \\ldots, x_N) =
` \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \left|`\
` \begin{matrix}`\
` \psi_{n_1}(x_1) & \psi_{n_1}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_1}(x_N) \\`\
` \psi_{n_2}(x_1) & \psi_{n_2}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_2}(x_N) \\`\
` \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\`\
` \psi_{n_N}(x_1) & \psi_{n_N}(x_2) & \cdots & \psi_{n_N}(x_N) \\`\
` \end{matrix}`\
` \right|`
### Operator approach and parastatistics {#operator_approach_and_parastatistics}
The Hilbert space for $n$ particles is given by the tensor product $\bigotimes_n H$. The permutation group of $S_n$ acts on this space by permuting the entries. By definition the expectation values for an observable $a$ of $n$ indistinguishable particles should be invariant under these permutations. This means that for all $\psi \in H$ and $\sigma \in S_n$
: $(\sigma \Psi )^t a (\sigma \Psi) = \Psi^t a \Psi,$
or equivalently for each $\sigma \in S_n$
: $\sigma^t a \sigma = a$.
Two states are equivalent whenever their expectation values coincide for all observables. If we restrict to observables of $n$ identical particles, and hence observables satisfying the equation above, we find that the following states (after normalization) are equivalent
: $\Psi \sim \sum_{\sigma \in S_n} \lambda_{\sigma} \sigma \Psi$.
The equivalence classes are in bijective relation with irreducible subspaces of $\bigotimes_n H$ under $S_n$.
Two obvious irreducible subspaces are the one dimensional symmetric/bosonic subspace and anti-symmetric/fermionic subspace. There are however more types of irreducible subspaces. States associated with these other irreducible subspaces are called parastatistic states. Young tableaux provide a way to classify all of these irreducible subspaces.
| 773 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 3 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Statistical properties {#statistical_properties}
### Statistical effects of indistinguishability {#statistical_effects_of_indistinguishability}
The indistinguishability of particles has a profound effect on their statistical properties. To illustrate this, consider a system of *N* distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Once again, let *n*~*j*~ denote the state (i.e. quantum numbers) of particle *j*. If the particles have the same physical properties, the *n*~*j*~s run over the same range of values. Let *ε*(*n*) denote the energy of a particle in state *n*. As the particles do not interact, the total energy of the system is the sum of the single-particle energies. The partition function of the system is
: $Z = \sum_{n_1, n_2, \ldots, n_N} \exp\left\{ -\frac{1}{kT} \left[ \varepsilon(n_1) + \varepsilon(n_2) + \cdots + \varepsilon(n_N) \right] \right\}$
where *k* is the Boltzmann constant and *T* is the temperature. This expression can be factored to obtain
: $Z = \xi^N$
where
: $\xi = \sum_n \exp\left[ - \frac{\varepsilon(n)}{kT} \right].$
If the particles are identical, this equation is incorrect. Consider a state of the system, described by the single particle states \[*n*~1~, \..., *n*~*N*~\]. In the equation for *Z*, every possible permutation of the *n*s occurs once in the sum, even though each of these permutations is describing the same multi-particle state. Thus, the number of states has been over-counted.
If the possibility of overlapping states is neglected, which is valid if the temperature is high, then the number of times each state is counted is approximately *N*!. The correct partition function is
: $Z = \frac{\xi^N}{N!}.$
Note that this \"high temperature\" approximation does not distinguish between fermions and bosons.
The discrepancy in the partition functions of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles was known as far back as the 19th century, before the advent of quantum mechanics. It leads to a difficulty known as the Gibbs paradox. Gibbs showed that in the equation *Z* = *ξ*^*N*^, the entropy of a classical ideal gas is
: $S = N k \ln \left(V\right) + N f(T)$
where *V* is the volume of the gas and *f* is some function of *T* alone. The problem with this result is that *S* is not extensive -- if *N* and *V* are doubled, *S* does not double accordingly. Such a system does not obey the postulates of thermodynamics.
Gibbs also showed that using *Z* = *ξ*^*N*^/*N*! alters the result to
: $S = N k \ln \left(\frac{V}{N}\right) + N f(T)$
which is perfectly extensive.
| 401 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 4 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Statistical properties {#statistical_properties}
### Statistical properties of bosons and fermions {#statistical_properties_of_bosons_and_fermions}
There are important differences between the statistical behavior of bosons and fermions, which are described by Bose--Einstein statistics and Fermi--Dirac statistics respectively. Roughly speaking, bosons have a tendency to clump into the same quantum state, which underlies phenomena such as the laser, Bose--Einstein condensation, and superfluidity. Fermions, on the other hand, are forbidden from sharing quantum states, giving rise to systems such as the Fermi gas. This is known as the Pauli Exclusion Principle, and is responsible for much of chemistry, since the electrons in an atom (fermions) successively fill the many states within shells rather than all lying in the same lowest energy state.
The differences between the statistical behavior of fermions, bosons, and distinguishable particles can be illustrated using a system of two particles. The particles are designated A and B. Each particle can exist in two possible states, labelled $|0\rangle$ and $|1\rangle$, which have the same energy.
The composite system can evolve in time, interacting with a noisy environment. Because the $|0\rangle$ and $|1\rangle$ states are energetically equivalent, neither state is favored, so this process has the effect of randomizing the states. (This is discussed in the article on quantum entanglement.) After some time, the composite system will have an equal probability of occupying each of the states available to it. The particle states are then measured.
If A and B are distinguishable particles, then the composite system has four distinct states: $|0\rangle|0\rangle$, $|1\rangle|1\rangle$, $|0\rangle|1\rangle$, and $|1\rangle|0\rangle$. The probability of obtaining two particles in the $|0\rangle$ state is 0.25; the probability of obtaining two particles in the $|1\rangle$ state is 0.25; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the $|0\rangle$ state and the other in the $|1\rangle$ state is 0.5.
If A and B are identical bosons, then the composite system has only three distinct states: $|0\rangle|0\rangle$, $|1\rangle|1\rangle$, and $\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle|1\rangle + |1\rangle|0\rangle)$. When the experiment is performed, the probability of obtaining two particles in the $|0\rangle$ state is now 0.33; the probability of obtaining two particles in the $|1\rangle$ state is 0.33; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the $|0\rangle$ state and the other in the $|1\rangle$ state is 0.33. Note that the probability of finding particles in the same state is relatively larger than in the distinguishable case. This demonstrates the tendency of bosons to \"clump\".
If A and B are identical fermions, there is only one state available to the composite system: the totally antisymmetric state $\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle|1\rangle - |1\rangle|0\rangle)$. When the experiment is performed, one particle is always in the $|0\rangle$ state and the other is in the $|1\rangle$ state.
The results are summarized in Table 1:
Particles Both 0 Both 1 One 0 and one 1
----------------- -------- -------- -----------------
Distinguishable 0.25 0.25 0.5
Bosons 0.33 0.33 0.33
Fermions 0 0 1
: Table 1: Statistics of two particles
As can be seen, even a system of two particles exhibits different statistical behaviors between distinguishable particles, bosons, and fermions. In the articles on Fermi--Dirac statistics and Bose--Einstein statistics, these principles are extended to large number of particles, with qualitatively similar results.
| 525 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 5 |
15,352 |
# Indistinguishable particles
## Homotopy class {#homotopy_class}
To understand why particle statistics work the way that they do, note first that particles are point-localized excitations and that particles that are spacelike separated do not interact. In a flat `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki}-dimensional space `{{mvar|M}}`{=mediawiki}, at any given time, the configuration of two identical particles can be specified as an element of `{{math|''M'' × ''M''}}`{=mediawiki}. If there is no overlap between the particles, so that they do not interact directly, then their locations must belong to the space `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] \ {coincident points},}}`{=mediawiki} the subspace with coincident points removed. The element `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} describes the configuration with particle I at `{{mvar|x}}`{=mediawiki} and particle II at `{{mvar|y}}`{=mediawiki}, while `{{math|(''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki} describes the interchanged configuration. With identical particles, the state described by `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} ought to be indistinguishable from the state described by `{{math|(''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}. Now consider the homotopy class of continuous paths from `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{math|(''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}, within the space `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] \ {coincident points} }}`{=mediawiki}. If `{{mvar|M}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{tmath|\mathbb R^d}}`{=mediawiki} where `{{math|''d'' ≥ 3}}`{=mediawiki}, then this homotopy class only has one element. If `{{mvar|M}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{tmath|\mathbb R^2}}`{=mediawiki}, then this homotopy class has countably many elements (i.e. a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn, a counterclockwise interchange by one and a half turns, two and a half turns, etc., a clockwise interchange by half a turn, etc.). In particular, a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn is *not* homotopic to a clockwise interchange by half a turn. Lastly, if `{{mvar|M}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{tmath|\mathbb R}}`{=mediawiki}, then this homotopy class is empty.
Suppose first that `{{math|''d'' ≥ 3}}`{=mediawiki}. The universal covering space of `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] ∖ {{mset|coincident points}}}}`{=mediawiki}, which is none other than `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] ∖ {{mset|coincident points}}}}`{=mediawiki} itself, only has two points which are physically indistinguishable from `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki}, namely `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} itself and `{{math|(''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}. So, the only permissible interchange is to swap both particles. This interchange is an involution, so its only effect is to multiply the phase by a square root of 1. If the root is +1, then the points have Bose statistics, and if the root is --1, the points have Fermi statistics.
In the case $M = \mathbb R^2,$ the universal covering space of `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] ∖ {{mset|coincident points}}}}`{=mediawiki} has infinitely many points that are physically indistinguishable from `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki}. This is described by the infinite cyclic group generated by making a counterclockwise half-turn interchange. Unlike the previous case, performing this interchange twice in a row does not recover the original state; so such an interchange can generically result in a multiplication by `{{math|exp(''iθ'')}}`{=mediawiki} for any real `{{mvar|θ}}`{=mediawiki} (by unitarity, the absolute value of the multiplication must be 1). This is called anyonic statistics. In fact, even with two *distinguishable* particles, even though `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} is now physically distinguishable from `{{math|(''y'', ''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}, the universal covering space still contains infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from the original point, now generated by a counterclockwise rotation by one full turn. This generator, then, results in a multiplication by `{{math|exp(''iφ'')}}`{=mediawiki}. This phase factor here is called the mutual statistics.
Finally, in the case $M = \mathbb R,$ the space `{{math|[''M'' × ''M''] ∖ {{mset|coincident points}}}}`{=mediawiki} is not connected, so even if particle I and particle II are identical, they can still be distinguished via labels such as \"the particle on the left\" and \"the particle on the right\". There is no interchange symmetry here
| 567 |
Indistinguishable particles
| 6 |
15,365 |
# International Association of Travel Agents Network
The **International Airlines Travel Agent Network** (**IATAN**) is a Miami-based trade association in the United States representing the interests of its member companies (airlines) and the U.S. travel distribution network (travel agencies). It is an independent department of the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
In addition, it (along with the IATA) is the body responsible for the standard international codes for airlines, airports, hotels, cities and car rental firms. These codes provide a method to link international travel network with international suppliers
| 89 |
International Association of Travel Agents Network
| 0 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.