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# Juan de Nova Island
## Geology
### Important Bird Area {#important_bird_area}
The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it supports a very large colony of sooty terns, with up to 100,000 breeding pairs. It also has a much smaller colony of greater crested terns -- with at least 50 breeding pairs recorded in 1994. Of at least seven species of land birds present, most are probably introduced.
### Climate
The island exhibits a tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*). A year on the island can be divided into two seasons: the cool season and the rainy season.
Period Temperature Precipitation Humidity
-------------- ------------------- ----------------------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------------------
Cool season April to November 28.4 °C (April) to 25 °C (August) 1.9 mm to 39.6 mm 79% to 66%
Rainy season December to March Stable: 28.4 °C - 28.5 °C 100.7 mm to 275
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# Jan Berglin
**Jan Berglin** (born March 24, 1960) is a Swedish cartoonist who made his debut in the Uppsala student newspaper *Ergo* in 1985. After completing his studies, Berglin has been living in Gävle where he works as a teacher of Swedish and religion. He published his early strips in the local social democratic newspaper *Arbetarbladet*, but became known to a wider audience in 1995, when he started to draw for the Stockholm-based but nationally distributed conservative newspaper *Svenska Dagbladet*. His strips have been collected and republished in several albums.
Berglin\'s strips, usually in four panels, tend to find their humour in a sometimes absurd mix of everyday situations and literary and philosophical references or reflections. When he was awarded the Alf Henrikson Prize in 2004, the jury\'s motivation spoke of his renditions of the \"existence of the everyday human between ideals and matter\".
In later years Berglin has acknowledged the input of his wife Maria Berglin, an artist and literary critic, within his strips by signing them \"Berglins\".
## Albums
- *Samlade serier* (\"Collected comics\") (1992)
- *Avanti! -- Serier för förryckta* (1995)
- *Mitt i currykrysset -- serier mot sekelslutsleda* (1997)
- *Andra bullar!* (1998)
- *Knektöppning -- Ess i topp* (1999)
- *Magnum Berglin: Samlade teckningar 1989-1999* (\"Collected drawings 1989-1999\") (2001)
- *Lagom Berglin* (2002)
- *Pytte Berglin* (2003)
- *Berglinska Tider* (2004)
- *Berglin nästa* (2006)
- *Berglins Tolva* (\"Berglin\'s Twelfth\") (2007)
- *Berglin den trettonde : samlade teckningar av Jan och Maria Berglin* (\"Berglin the Thirteenth: drawings by Jan and Maria Berglin\") (2008)
- *Varje dag man inte köper pizza är en seger* (\"Every day you don\'t get pizza is a victory\") (2009)
- *Berglin den trettonde*, Kartago 2008 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Någon ser dig när du petar näsan* Galago, 2010 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Bronto Berglin*, Galago 2011 (with Maria Berglin) (samlade serier 1999--2008)
- *Den speciella & den allmänna vardagsteorin*, Bonnier Fakta, 2012 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Det är den som möter som ska backa*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2013 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Berglins stora bok om kropp & hälsa*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2014 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Mitt i rondellen*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2014 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Det sista rotavdraget*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2015 (with Maria Berglin)
- *God Jul Luj Dog -- samlade julteckningar*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2015 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Serier från andra våningen*, Wahlström & Widstrand, 2016 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Kaos är granne med Bjällermalms* Natur och Kultur, 2017 (with Maria Berglin)
- *Nämenvaf..
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# Josef Terboven
**Josef Antonius Heinrich Terboven** (23 May 1898 -- 8 May 1945) was a German Nazi Party official and politician who was the long-serving *Gauleiter* of Gau Essen and the *Reichskommissar* for Norway during the German occupation.
Terboven was born in Essen, Germany, and attended *Volksschule* and *Realschule* before he volunteered for military service during the First World War. After the war, he studied law and political science at the University of Munich and the University of Freiburg, where he first got involved in politics. Terboven joined the Nazi Party in 1923, participated in the Beer Hall Putsch and eventually rose through the ranks to become the *Gauleiter* of Essen and the editor of various Nazi newspapers. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Terboven was promoted to *SA-Gruppenführer* and was made a member of the Prussian State Council.
In 1940, he was appointed *Reichskommissar* for Norway, a position that granted him significant power and control. Terboven established multiple concentration camps in Norway, ruthlessly persecuted the Jewish population and focused on crushing the Norwegian resistance movement. His actions led to numerous atrocities, such as the Beisfjord massacre in which hundreds of Yugoslavian political prisoners and prisoners-of-war were murdered.
As the tide of the war turned against Germany, Terboven implemented a scorched earth policy in northern Norway that resulted in the forced evacuation of 50,000 Norwegians and widespread destruction. He hoped to turn Norway into a fortress for the Nazi regime\'s last stand. However, after Adolf Hitler\'s suicide, his successor, *Großadmiral* Karl Dönitz, dismissed Terboven from his post as *Reichskommissar* on 7 May 1945.
On 8 May 1945, the day of Germany\'s surrender, Terboven died of suicide by detonating 50 kg of dynamite in a bunker on the Skaugum compound in Norway. His family survived in West Germany, and his wife, Ilse (Stahl) Terboven died in 1972.
## Early life {#early_life}
Terboven was born in Essen, the son of minor landed gentry of Dutch descent. The family name comes from the Low German *daar boven* (\"up there\"), referring to a farmstead on a hill. Josef Terboven attended *Volksschule* and *Realschule* in Essen until 1915 and then volunteered for military service in the First World War. He served with *Feldartillerie Regiment* 9 and then with the nascent air force. He was awarded the Iron Cross, 1st and 2nd class, and attained the rank of *Leutnant* before being discharged on 22 December 1918. He studied law and political science at the University of Munich and the University of Freiburg, where he first got involved in politics. He dropped out of the university in 1922 without earning a degree and trained as a bank official in Essen, working as a bank clerk through June 1925.
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# Josef Terboven
## Nazi Party career {#nazi_party_career}
Terboven joined the Nazi Party in November 1923 with membership number 25,247 and participated in the abortive Beer Hall Putsch in Munich. As an early Party member, he later would be awarded the Golden Party Badge. When the Party subsequently was outlawed, he continued to work at the bank until after the ban was lifted in February 1925. In August 1925 Terboven went to work full-time for the Party, becoming the head of a small Nazi newspaper and book distributorship in Essen. At this time he also founded the *Ortsgruppe* (Local Group) in Essen, becoming its first *Ortsgruppenleiter*. He also joined the *Sturmabteilung* (SA) becoming the SA-*Führer* in Essen. He formally re-enrolled in the Party on 15 December 1925. By 1927, he had advanced to *Bezirksleiter* (District Leader) of the Essen district in the *Großgau* Ruhr. From 1927 to December 1930, Terboven was the editor of the weekly Nazi newspaper *The New Front: The Weekly Sheet of the Working People.* In 1929, he was sentenced to three months imprisonment for continuing to publish the proscribed paper. In the 20 May 1928 election, Terboven failed in his attempt to be elected to the Prussian Landtag.
On 1 October 1928 upon the dissolution of the *Großgau* Ruhr, the Essen district became an independent unit subordinated to the central Party headquarters in Munich. However, on 1 August 1930 the Essen district officially was raised to Gau status and Terboven was named *Gauleiter*. He would retain this post throughout the Nazi regime.
In 1930, Terboven also became a City Councilor in Essen and a member of the Provincial *Landtag* of the Rhine Province until it was dissolved in 1933. On 14 September 1930, Terboven was elected to the *Reichstag* from electoral constituency 23, Düsseldorf West and would continue to hold this seat until the end of the Nazi regime. From 15 December 1930, Terboven was also the editor of the *National-Zeiting in Essen*.
After the Nazi seizure of power, Terboven was promoted to SA-*Gruppenführer* on 1 March 1933 and made a member of the Prussian State Council on 10 July 1933. On 28 June 1934, Terboven married Ilse Stahl, Joseph Goebbels\'s former secretary and mistress. Adolf Hitler was a witness at the wedding, and while in Essen put into play preparations for the Night of the Long Knives. On 5 February 1935, Terboven was appointed *Oberpräsident* (High President) of Prussia\'s Rhine Province which included Gau Essen and three other Gaue. He thus united under his control the highest party and governmental offices within his jurisdiction. On 27 April 1935 Terboven received the Golden Party Badge. He was promoted to the rank of SA-*Obergruppenführer* on 9 November 1936. On the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939, he was named Reich Defense Commissioner for *Wehrkreis* (Military District) VI, which included his Gau together with Gau Dusseldorf, Gau Cologne-Aachen, most of Gau Westphalia-North and Gau Westphalia-South and part of Gau Weser-Ems. On 16 November 1942, the jurisdiction of the Reich Defense Commissioners was changed from the *Wehrkreis* to the Gau level and Terboven remained Commissioner for only his Gau of Essen.
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# Josef Terboven
## Reichskommissar of Norway {#reichskommissar_of_norway}
Terboven was named *Reichskommissar* for Norway on 24 April 1940 even before the military invasion\'s completion on 10 June. He moved into Skaugum, the official residence of Crown Prince Olav, in September 1940 and made his headquarters in the Norwegian Parliament building. Nothing in Terboven\'s background and training particularly qualified him for that post, but he had Hitler\'s full confidence. He was responsible to no one but Hitler, and within the Nazi governmental hierarchy, his office stood on the same level as the Reich Ministries. Terboven regarded himself as virtually an autonomous viceroy with what he termed \"limitless power of command\". His conception of his role resulted in his attempting to ignore any directives not issued by Hitler himself.
*Reichskommissar* Terboven had supervisory authority over only the German civilian administration, which was very small and did not rule Norway directly. Day-to-day governmental affairs were managed by the existing seven-member Norwegian Administrative Council, which had been set up by the Norwegian Supreme Court after the king and cabinet fled into exile. On 25 September 1940, Terboven dismissed the Administrative Council and appointed a thirteen-member Provisional State Council to administer affairs. All the members were Terboven\'s hand-picked appointees and worked under his control and supervision. A proclamation was issued deposing King Haakon VII, outlawing the government-in-exile, disbanding the Storting and banning all political parties except Vidkun Quisling's Nasjonal Samling. Terboven therefore remained in ultimate charge of Norway until the end of the war in 1945, even after he had permitted the formation of a Norwegian puppet regime on 1 February 1942 under Quisling as minister-president, the so-called Quisling government.
Terboven also did not have authority over the 400,000 regular German Army forces that were stationed in Norway which were under the command of *Generaloberst* Nikolaus von Falkenhorst, but he commanded a personal force of around 6,000 men of whom 800 were part of the secret police. In contrast to the military forces commanded by Falkenhorst, which aimed to reach an understanding with the Norwegian people and were under orders by Falkenhorst to treat Norwegians with courtesy, Terboven behaved in a petty and ruthless way and was widely disliked not only by the Norwegians but also by many Germans. Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda, expressed annoyance in his diaries about what he called Terboven\'s \"bullying tactics\" against the Norwegians, as they alienated the population against the Germans. Terboven\'s relations with the army commander were strained, but his relations with the Higher SS and Police Leader, Wilhelm Rediess, were very good, and he co-operated in providing Rediess\'s staff a free hand with their policies of repression.
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# Josef Terboven
## Reichskommissar of Norway {#reichskommissar_of_norway}
### Repression and crimes against humanity {#repression_and_crimes_against_humanity}
Terboven established multiple concentration camps in Norway, including Falstad concentration camp near Levanger and Bredtvet concentration camp in Oslo in late 1941. At one of those camps on 18 July 1942 the Beisfjord massacre took place, the murder of hundreds of Yugoslavian political prisoners and prisoners-of-war by German and Norwegian concentration camp guards. Some 288 prisoners were shot to death, and many others were burned to death when the barracks were set on fire. Terboven had ordered the massacre a few days earlier. In July 1942, at least one German guard assigned to the Korgen prison camp was killed. The commandant ordered retribution: execution by gunfire for \"39 prisoners at Korgen and 20 at Osen\";. In the days that followed, Terboven also ordered retribution, and around 400 prisoners shot and killed in various camps.`{{self-published source|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki}
From 1941, Terboven increasingly focused on crushing the Norwegian resistance movement, which engaged in acts of sabotage and assassination against the Germans. On 17 September, Terboven decreed that special SS and Police Tribunals would have jurisdiction over Norwegian citizens who violated his decrees. They were summary proceedings with the accused provided no adequate defense. The trials were not open to the public, and the proceedings were not published. Sentences were carried out shortly after they were pronounced with no right of appeal. It is estimated that some 150 individuals were sentenced to death by these tribunals. Many more were sentenced to long terms of hard labour.
On 26 April 1942, the Nazis learned that two members of the resistance were being sheltered by the inhabitants of Telavåg, a small fishing village. When the Gestapo arrived, shots were exchanged, and two Gestapo agents were killed. Terboven was outraged and personally led a reprisal raid on 30 April that was quick and brutal. All buildings were burned to the ground, all boats were sunk or confiscated and all livestock taken away. All men in the village were either executed or sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, in Germany. Of the 72 who were deported from Telavåg, 31 were murdered in captivity. The women and the children were imprisoned for two years. Another 18 Norwegian prisoners unrelated to Telavåg, who were held at the Trandum internment camp, were also executed as reprisals. In another incident, the shooting of two German police officials on 6 September 1942 led to Terboven personally declaring martial law in Trondheim from 5 to 12 October 1942. He imposed a curfew from 8:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. and suppressed all newspapers, public assemblies and railroad transportation. On Terboven\'s orders, ten prominent citizens were executed in reprisal, and their assets were confiscated. In addition, Terboven set up an ad hoc extrajudicial tribunal to try Norwegians considered \"hostile to the state\". An additional 24 men were tried and summarily executed over the next three days.
Despite the small number of Jews in Norway\'s population (around 1,800), Terboven persecuted them relentlessly. Some 930 managed to escape to neighboring Sweden, but some 770 were rounded up and deported to Germany. The main deportation occurred on 26 November 1942, when 532 Jews were shipped to Stettin aboard the *SS Donau*. From there, they were transported to the Auschwitz concentration camp, and only 9 survived the war. On 25 February 1943, another 158 were similarly deported aboard the M*S Gotenland*, and only six survived.
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# Josef Terboven
## Last months of the war and death {#last_months_of_the_war_and_death}
On 25 September 1944, Terboven, in his capacity as *Gauleiter* of Essen, was named commander of the *Volkssturm* units in the Gau. In reality, it was his Deputy *Gauleiter*, Fritz Schlessmann, who executed those duties as he had been Acting *Gauleiter* in Essen during Terboven\'s absence in Norway since 1940. In October 1944, in response to the Red Army advance in to the Finnmark region of northern Norway, Terboven instituted a scorched earth policy that resulted in the forced evacuation of 50,000 Norwegians and widespread destruction, including the burning of 10,000 homes; 4700 farms; and hundreds of schools, churches, shops and industrial buildings.
As the tide of the war turned against Germany, Terboven\'s personal aspiration was to organise Festung Norwegen (Fortress Norway) for the Nazi regime\'s last stand. However, after Hitler\'s suicide, his successor, *Großadmiral* Karl Dönitz, summoned Terboven to his headquarters in Flensburg on 3 May 1945 and ordered him to cooperate with winding down hostilities. Terboven expressed his desire to continue fighting. Consequently, Dönitz dismissed Terboven from his post as *Reichskommissar* on 7 May and transferred his powers to *General der Gebirgstruppe* Franz Böhme.
With the announcement of Germany\'s surrender, Terboven committed suicide on 8 May 1945 by detonating 50 kg of dynamite in a bunker on the Skaugum compound. He died alongside the body of SS-*Obergruppenführer* Rediess, who had shot himself earlier. Terboven\'s family survived in West Germany, although his daughter, Inga, in an event in 1964 unrelated to her father\'s history, killed her two-year-old daughter by strangulation. Terboven\'s wife, Ilse, died in 1972
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# Jon Postel
**Jonathan Bruce Postel** (`{{IPAc-en|p|ə|ˈ|s|t|ɛ|l}}`{=mediawiki}; August 6, 1943 -- October 16, 1998) was an American computer scientist who made many significant contributions to the development of the Internet, particularly with respect to standards. He is known principally for being the Editor of the Request for Comment (RFC) document series, for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and for administering the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) until his death.
During his lifetime he was referred to as the \"god of the Internet\" for his comprehensive influence; Postel himself noted that this \"compliment\" came with a barb, the suggestion that he should be replaced by a \"professional,\" and responded with typical self-effacing matter-of-factness: \"Of course, there isn't any \'God of the Internet.\' The Internet works because a lot of people cooperate to do things together.\"
## Career
Postel attended Van Nuys High School, and then UCLA where he earned his B.S. (1966) as well as his M.S. (1968) in Engineering. There he completed his Ph.D. in computer science in 1974, with Dave Farber as his thesis advisor.
Postel started work at UCLA on 23 December 1969 as a Postgraduate Research Engineer (I) where he was involved in early work on the ARPANET. He was involved in the development of the Internet domain system and, at his instigation, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn developed a second set of protocols for handling data between networks, which is now known as Internet protocol suite. Together with Cerf and Steve Crocker, Postel worked on implementing most of the ARPANET protocols. Cerf would later become one of the principal designers of the TCP/IP standard, which works because of the sentence known as Postel\'s Law.
Postel worked with ARPANET until 24 August 1973 when he left to join MITRE Corporation. He assisted with Network Information Center, which was being set up at SRI by Elizabeth Feinler. In March 1977, he joined the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California as a research scientist.
Postel was the RFC Editor from 1969 until his death, and wrote and edited many important RFCs, including RFC 791, RFC 792 and RFC 793, which define the basic protocols of the Internet protocol suite, and RFC 2223, *Instructions to RFC Authors*. Between 1982 and 1984 Postel co-authored the RFCs which became the foundation of today\'s DNS (RFC 819, RFC 881, RFC 882 and RFC 920) which were joined in 1995 by RFC 1591 which he also co-wrote. In total, he wrote or co-authored more than 20 RFCs.
Postel served on the Internet Architecture Board and its predecessors for many years. He was the Director of the names and number assignment clearinghouse, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), from its inception. He was the first member of the Internet Society, and was on its Board of Trustees. He was the original and long-time .us Top-Level Domain administrator. He also managed the Los Nettos Network.
All of the above were part-time activities he assumed in conjunction with his primary position as Director of the Computer Networks Division, Division 7, of the Information Sciences Institute at the University of Southern California.\*
-
-
-
-
### DNS Root Authority test, U.S. response {#dns_root_authority_test_u.s._response}
thumb\|upright=1.1\|Postel in 1994 with map of Internet top-level domains On January 28, 1998, Postel, as a test, emailed eight of the twelve operators of Internet\'s regional root nameservers on his own authority and instructed them to reconfigure their servers, changing the root zone server from then SAIC subsidiary Network Solutions\' A.ROOT-SERVERS.NET (198.41.0.4) to IANA\'s DNSROOT.IANA.ORG (198.32.1.98). The operators complied with Postel\'s instructions, thus dividing control of Internet naming between the non-government operators with IANA and the 4 remaining U.S. Government roots at NASA, DoD, and BRL with NSI. Though usage of the Internet was not interrupted, Postel was threatened by US Presidential science advisor Ira Magaziner with the statement \"You\'ll never work on the Internet again\" and was ordered to end the test,
-
-
-
-
- which he did. Within a week, the US NTIA issued *A proposal to improve technical management of Internet names and addresses*, including changes to authority over the Internet DNS root zone, which ultimately, and controversially, increased U.S. control.
## Death
On October 16, 1998, Postel died of complications from heart surgery in Los Angeles. He was recovering from a surgery to replace a leaking heart valve.
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# Jon Postel
## Legacy
The significance of Jon Postel\'s contributions to building the Internet, both technical and personal, were such that a memorial recollection of his life and his work forms part of the core technical literature sequence of the Internet in the form of [RFC2468](https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2468) \"I Remember IANA\", written by Vint Cerf.
The Postel Center at Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern California, is named in his honor, as is the annual Postel Award. In 2012, Postel was inducted into the Internet Hall of Fame. The Channel Islands\' Domain Registry building was named after him in early 2016.
Another tribute, \"Working with Jon: Tribute delivered at UCLA, October 30, 1998\" ([RFC2441](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2441)), was written by Danny Cohen.
Perhaps his most famous legacy is from [RFC760](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc760), which includes a robustness principle often called Postel\'s law: \"an implementation should be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior\" (reworded in RFC 1122 as \"Be liberal in what you accept, and conservative in what you send\").
The Jonathan B. Postel Service Award is an award named after Postel. The award has been presented most years since 1999 by the Internet Society to \"honor a person who has made outstanding contributions in service to the data communications community.\" The first recipient of the award was Postel himself, posthumously. The award was created by Vint Cerf as chairman of the Internet Society and announced in *\"I remember IANA\"* published as RFC 2468
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# Joyce K. Reynolds
**Joyce Kathleen Reynolds** (March 8, 1952 -- December 28, 2015) was an American computer scientist who played a significant role in developing protocols underlying the Internet. She authored or co-authored many RFCs, most notably those introducing and specifying the Telnet, FTP, and POP protocols.
## Career
Reynolds held bachelor\'s and master\'s degrees in social sciences from the University of Southern California.
From 1983 until 1998, she worked with Jon Postel to develop early functions of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, such as the global allocation of IP addresses, Autonomous System (AS) number allocation, and management of the root zone of the Domain Name System (DNS). After Postel\'s death in 1998, Reynolds helped supervise the transition of the IANA functions to the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. She worked with ICANN in this role until 2001, while remaining an employee of ISI.
From 1987 to 2006, she served on the editorial team of the Request for Comments series, co-leading the RFC Editor function at the ISI from 1998 until 2006.
As Area Director of the User Services area, she was a member of the Internet Engineering Steering Group of the IETF from 1990 to March 1998.
## Death
Reynolds died due to complications from cancer on December 28, 2015, at the age of 63.
## Recognition
With Bob Braden, she received the 2006 Postel Award in recognition of her services to the Internet. She is mentioned, along with a brief biography, in RFC 1336, *Who\'s Who in the Internet* (1992). Upon her death, former IETF Chairman Brian Carpenter suggested that \"What would Joyce have said?\" should be a guiding question for the organization.
## Selected works {#selected_works}
- Reynolds, J. K., Postel, J. B., Katz, A. R., Finn, G. G., & DeSchon, A. L. (1985). The DARPA experimental multimedia mail system. *Computer*, *18*(10), 82-89.
- Postel, J. B., Finn, G. G., Katz, A. R., & Reynolds, J. K. (1988). An experimental multimedia mail system. *ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS)*, *6*(1), 63-81.
- Postel, J., & Reynolds, J. K. (1988). RFC1042: Standard for the transmission of IP datagrams over IEEE 802 networks.
- Reynolds, J. K. (1989). RFC1135: Helminthiasis of the Internet.
- Reynolds, J. K. (1991). The helminthiasis of the Internet. *Computer networks and ISDN systems*, *22*(5), 347-361.
- Marine, A. N., Reynolds, J. K., & Malkin, G. S. (1994). FYI on Questions and Answers-Answers to Commonly asked\" New Internet User\" Questions. *RFC*, *1594*, 1-44
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# Julmust
***Julmust*** (*jul* \"Christmas\" and **must** English: \'must\' \"not-yet-fermented fruit juice\") is a soft drink that is mainly consumed in Sweden around Christmas. During Easter, the name is ****påskmust**** (from **påsk**, \"Easter\"). During the rest of the year, it is sometimes sold under the name *must*. The content is the same regardless of the marketing name, and the drink is most closely associated with Christmas. 45 million litres of *julmust* are consumed during December, which is around 50% of the total soft drink volume in December and 75% of the total yearly must sales. Must was created by Harry Roberts and his father Robert Roberts in 1910 as a non-alcoholic alternative to beer.
## Ingredients
The syrup is still made exclusively by Roberts in Örebro. The syrup is sold to different soft drink manufacturers who then make the final product in their own way. This means that the must from different companies does not taste the same, although they are made of the same syrup.
Must is made of carbonated water, sugar, hop extract, malt extract, spices, caramel colouring, citric acid, and preservatives. The hops and malt extracts give the must a somewhat root beer-like taste without the sassafras -- or British/Caribbean malt drinks such as Supermalt. It can be aged provided it is stored in a glass bottle. Some people buy *julmust* in December only to store it a year before drinking it. In 2013, a rumour occurred that the EU would ban julmust due to a directive banning the selling of malt beverages containing caramel colouring. The rumour however turned out to be false since julmust is not a fermented beverage and hence not affected by the directive.
## *Julmust* and Coca-Cola {#julmust_and_coca_cola}
In Sweden, *julmust* outsells Coca-Cola during the Christmas season; in fact, the consumption of Coca-Cola drops by as much as 50% over the holiday. This was quoted as one of the main reasons that The Coca-Cola Company broke away from their contract with the local brewer Pripps and started Coca-Cola Drycker Sverige AB instead. Coca-Cola Drycker Sverige AB produced its own *julmust*, with The Coca-Cola Company\'s name occupying only a small space on the label. Their *julmust* was never advertised until 2004, when Coca-Cola started marketing their *julmust* under the brand \"Bjäre julmust\", but they bought the syrup from Roberts AB. By 2007, the \"Bjäre julmust\" was only sold at McDonald\'s restaurants and it had completely disappeared from Coca-Colas range of products by Christmas 2008, only to return for Christmas 2011
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# Coen brothers
Joel Cohen}} `{{About|the shared career and activities of two American directors|the individuals|Joel Coen|and|Ethan Coen}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use American English|date=March 2022}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2021}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Infobox person
| name = Coen brothers
| image = Coen brothers Cannes 2015 2 (CROPPED).jpg
| caption = Ethan (left) and Joel Coen, at the [[2015 Cannes Film Festival]]
| birth_name = Joel Daniel Coen<br />{{Birth date and age|1954|11|29}}<hr />Ethan Jesse Coen<br />{{Birth date and age|1957|9|21}}
| birth_place = [[St. Louis Park, Minnesota]], U.S. (both)
| years_active = 1984–present
| other_names = {{Plainlist|
* Coen brothers
* Roderick Jaynes
* Reginald Jaynes
* Mike Zoss
}}
| education = [[St. Louis Park High School]]
| alma_mater = '''Joel:''' [[New York University]] ([[Bachelor of Fine Arts|BFA]])<br />[[Bard College at Simon's Rock]] ([[Associate of Arts|AA]])<hr />'''Ethan:''' [[Princeton University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])<br />[[Bard College at Simon's Rock]] ([[Associate of Arts|AA]])
| occupation = {{hlist|Film directors|producers|screenwriters|editors}}
| awards = [[List of awards and nominations received by the Coen brothers|Full list]]
| website =
| spouse = '''Joel:'''<br/>{{marriage|[[Frances McDormand]]|1984}}<hr />'''Ethan:'''<br/>{{marriage|[[Tricia Cooke]]|1990}}
| children = '''Joel:''' 1<hr />'''Ethan:''' 2
}}`{=mediawiki}
Joel Coen and Ethan Coen, together known as the **Coen brothers** (`{{IPAc-en|'|k|oʊ|ə|n}}`{=mediawiki}), are an American filmmaking duo. Their films span many genres and styles, which they frequently subvert or parody. Among their most acclaimed works are *Blood Simple* (1984), *Raising Arizona* (1987), *Miller\'s Crossing* (1990), *Barton Fink* (1991), *Fargo* (1996), *The Big Lebowski* (1998), *O Brother, Where Art Thou?* (2000), *No Country for Old Men* (2007), *A Serious Man* (2009), *True Grit* (2010) and *Inside Llewyn Davis* (2013).
The brothers generally write, direct and produce their films jointly, although due to DGA regulations, Joel received sole directing credit while Ethan received sole production credit until *The Ladykillers* (2004), from which point on they would be credited together as directors and producers; they also shared editing credits under the alias **Roderick Jaynes**. The duo started directing separately in the 2020s, resulting in Joel\'s *The Tragedy of Macbeth* (2021) and Ethan\'s *Jerry Lee Lewis: Trouble in Mind* (2022) and *Drive-Away Dolls* (2024). They have been nominated for 13 Academy Awards together, plus one individual nomination for each, sharing wins for Best Original Screenplay for *Fargo*, and Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay for *No Country for Old Men*. Their movie *Barton Fink* won the *italic=no* at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival.
The Coens have written films for other directors, including Sam Raimi\'s *Crimewave* (1985), Angelina Jolie\'s World War II biopic *Unbroken* (2014) and Steven Spielberg\'s Cold War drama *Bridge of Spies* (2015). They produced Terry Zwigoff\'s *Bad Santa* (2003) and John Turturro\'s *Romance and Cigarettes* (2005). Ethan is also a writer of short stories, theater and poetry.
They are known for their distinctive stylistic trademarks including genre hybridity. *No Country for Old Men*, *A Serious Man* and *Inside Llewyn Davis* were included on the BBC\'s 2016 poll of the greatest motion pictures since 2000. In 1998, the American Film Institute (AFI) ranked *Fargo* among the 100 greatest American movies. Richard Corliss wrote of the Coens: \"Dexterously flipping and reheating old movie genres like so many pancakes, they serve them up fresh, not with syrup but with a coating of comic arsenic.\"
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# Coen brothers
## Background
### Early life {#early_life}
Joel Daniel Coen (born November 29, 1954) and Ethan Jesse Coen (born September 21, 1957) were born and raised in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis. Their mother, Rena (née Neumann; 1925--2001), was an art historian at St. Cloud State University, and their father, Edward Coen (1919--2012), was a professor of economics at the University of Minnesota. The brothers have an older sister, Deborah, who is a psychiatrist in Israel.
Both sides of the Coen family were Eastern European Ashkenazi Jews. Their paternal grandfather, Victor Coen, was a barrister in the Inns of Court in London before retiring to Hove with their grandmother. Edward Coen was an American citizen born in the United States, but grew up in Croydon, London and studied at the London School of Economics. Afterwards he moved to the United States, where he met the Coens\' mother, and served in the United States Army during World War II.
The Coens developed an early interest in cinema through television. They grew up watching Italian films (ranging from the works of Federico Fellini to the *Sons of Hercules* films) aired on a Minneapolis station, the Tarzan films, and comedies (Jerry Lewis, Bob Hope and Doris Day).
In the mid-1960s, Joel saved money from mowing lawns to buy a Vivitar Super 8 camera. Together, the brothers remade movies they saw on television, with their neighborhood friend Mark Zimering (\"Zeimers\") as the star. Cornel Wilde\'s *The Naked Prey* (1965) became their *Zeimers in Zambezi*, which featured Ethan as a native with a spear. *Lassie Come Home* (1943) was reinterpreted as their *Ed\... A Dog*, with Ethan playing the mother role in his sister\'s tutu. They also made original films like *Henry Kissinger, Man on the Go*, *Lumberjacks of the North* and *The Banana Film*.
### Education
Joel and Ethan graduated from St. Louis Park High School in 1973 and 1976, respectively, and from Bard College at Simon\'s Rock in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.
After Simon\'s Rock, Joel spent four years in the undergraduate film program at New York University, where he made a 30-minute thesis film, *Soundings*. In 1979, he briefly enrolled in the graduate film program at the University of Texas at Austin, following a woman he had married who was in the graduate linguistics program. The marriage soon ended in divorce and Joel left UT Austin after nine months.
Ethan went on to Princeton University and earned an undergraduate degree in philosophy in 1979. His senior thesis was a 41-page essay, \"Two Views of Wittgenstein\'s Later Philosophy\", which was supervised by Raymond Geuss.
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# Coen brothers
## Career
### 1980s
After graduating from New York University, Joel worked as a production assistant on a variety of industrial films and music videos. He developed a talent for film editing and met Sam Raimi while assisting Edna Ruth Paul in editing Raimi\'s first feature film, *The Evil Dead* (1981).
The duo made their debut with *Blood Simple* (1984). Set in Texas, it tells the tale of a bar owner (Dan Hedaya) who hires a detective (M. Emmet Walsh) to kill his wife and her lover (Frances McDormand and John Getz, respectively). It contains elements that point to their future direction: distinctive homages to genre movies (in this case noir and horror), plot twists layered over a simple story, snappy dialogue and dark humor. Janet Maslin wrote: \"The camera work by Barry Sonnenfeld is especially dazzling. So is the fact that Mr. Coen, unlike many people who have directed great-looking film noir efforts, knows better than to let handsomeness become the film\'s entire raison d\'être. In addition to its stylishness, *Blood Simple* has the kind of purposefulness and coherence that show Mr. Coen to be headed for bigger, even better, things.\" Joel\'s direction was recognized at the Sundance and Independent Spirit awards. It was the first film shot by Sonnenfeld, who collaborated with the Coens on their two subsequent films and went on to be a director. It marked the first of many collaborations between the Coens and composer Carter Burwell. It was also the screen debut of McDormand, who went on to feature in many of the Coens\' films (and marry Joel).
Their next project was *Crimewave* (Raimi, 1985), written by the Coens and Raimi. Joel and Raimi also made cameos in *Spies Like Us* (1985).
The brothers wanted to follow their debut with something fast-paced and funny. *Raising Arizona* (1987) follows an unlikely married couple: ex-convict H.I. (Nicolas Cage) and police officer Ed (Holly Hunter), who long for a baby but are unable to conceive. When furniture tycoon Nathan Arizona (Trey Wilson) appears on television with his newly born quintuplets and jokes that they \"are more than we can handle\", H.I. steals one of the quintuplets to bring up as their own. Pauline Kael noted its \"cornpone-surreal quality\" and wrote that the Coens \"are going with their strengths. They\'re making a contraption, and they\'re good at it because they know how to make the camera behave mechanically, which is just right here---it mirrors the mechanics of farce \... The Sunsets look marvellously ultra-vivid; the paint doesn\'t seem to be dry---it\'s like opening day at a miniature-golf course.\" Geoff Andrew wrote: \"the lives and times of Hi, Ed and friends are painted in splendidly seedy colours, turning Arizona into a mythical haven for a memorable gaggle of no-hopers, halfwits and has-beens. Starting from a point of delirious excess, the film leaps into dark and virtually uncharted territory to soar like a comet.\" The film featured McDormand, William Forsythe, Sam McMurray, Randall \"Tex\" Cobb and marked the first of many collaborations between the Coens and John Goodman.
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# Coen brothers
## Career
### 1990s {#s_1}
*Miller\'s Crossing* (1990) is a gangster film inspired by Dashiell Hammett\'s *Red Harvest* (1929) and *The Glass Key* (1931). It stars Gabriel Byrne as Irish mobster Tom Reagan and features Albert Finney, Marcia Gay Harden, Steve Buscemi, Jon Polito and John Turturro. The film was released almost simultaneously with *Goodfellas* and was not a commercial success, but received positive reviews. Christopher Orr calls it \"a distillation of all the tropes and themes and moods of the classic gangster film.\" It was the Coens\' first collaboration with production designer Dennis Gassner.
They followed it with *Barton Fink* (1991); set in 1941, it follows a New York playwright, the eponymous Fink (Turturro), who moves to Los Angeles to write a B-picture for a venal movie mogul (Michael Lerner). Fink is modeled on playwright Clifford Odets, and the character W.P. Mayhew (John Mahoney) is based on William Faulkner. *Barton Fink* was a critical success, earning Oscar nominations and winning Best Director, Best Actor and *italic=no* at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival. It was their first film with cinematographer Roger Deakins, a key collaborator for the next 25 years.
*The Hudsucker Proxy* (1994) is an homage to the screwball comedies of Frank Capra and Howard Hawks. Co-written with Raimi, the film follows a mailroom clerk (Tim Robbins) who is promoted to president of the Hudsucker corporation by a cynical director (Paul Newman) in a scheme to devalue the company\'s stock; a fast-talking newspaperwoman (Jennifer Jason Leigh) tries to scoop the story. Critics praised the production design but criticized the tone. It was a box office bomb (\$30 million budget, \$3 million gross in the US).
The brothers bounced back with the \"homespun murder story\" *Fargo* (1996), set in their home state of Minnesota. In it, car salesman Jerry Lundegaard (William H. Macy), who has serious financial problems, has his wife kidnapped so that his wealthy father-in-law (Harve Presnell) will pay the ransom, which he plans to split with the kidnappers (Buscemi and Peter Stormare). Complications ensue, and local cop Marge Gunderson (McDormand) starts to investigate. Produced on a small budget of \$7 million, *Fargo* was a critical and commercial success, with particular praise for its dialogue and McDormand\'s performance. The film received several awards, including a BAFTA award and Cannes award for direction, and two Oscars: a Best Original Screenplay and a Best Actress Oscar for McDormand. Roger Ebert wrote that \"it rotates its story through satire, comedy, suspense, and violence, until it emerges as one of the best films I\'ve ever seen. To watch it is to experience steadily mounting delight, as you realize the filmmakers have taken enormous risks, gotten away with them, and have made a movie that is completely original, and as familiar as an old shoe -- or a rubber-soled hunting boot from Land\'s End, more likely.\"
*The Big Lebowski* (1998) is a crime comedy about Jeff \"The Dude\" Lebowski (Jeff Bridges), a Los Angeles slacker who is involved in a kidnapping case after being mistaken for a millionaire of the same name (David Huddleston.) It features Philip Seymour Hoffman as Lebowski\'s flunky, Goodman and Buscemi as The Dude\'s bowling buddies and Julianne Moore as his \"special lady friend\". It was influenced by Raymond Chandler\'s *The Big Sleep* (1939) and Robert Altman\'s *The Long Goodbye*. It has become a cult classic. An annual festival, Lebowski Fest, began in 2002, and many adhere to the philosophy of \"Dudeism\". *Entertainment Weekly* ranked it 8th on their Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years list in 2008. It was the first collaboration between the Coens and T Bone Burnett, credited as \"Music Archivist\".
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# Coen brothers
## Career
### 2000s {#s_2}
The Coen brothers\' next film, *O Brother, Where Art Thou?* (2000), was another critical and commercial success. The title was borrowed from the Preston Sturges film *Sullivan\'s Travels* (1941), whose lead character, movie director John Sullivan, had planned to make a film with that title. Based loosely on Homer\'s *Odyssey* (complete with a Cyclops, sirens, *et al.*), the story is set in Mississippi in the 1930s and follows a trio of escaped convicts who, after absconding from a chain gang, journey home to recover bank-heist loot the leader has buried---but they have no clear perception of where they are going. The film highlighted the comic abilities of George Clooney as the oddball lead character Ulysses Everett McGill, and of Tim Blake Nelson and John Turturro, his sidekicks. The film\'s bluegrass and old-time soundtrack, offbeat humor and digitally desaturated cinematography made it a critical and commercial hit. It was the first feature film to use all-digital color grading. The film\'s soundtrack CD was also successful, spawning a concert and concert/documentary DVD, *Down from the Mountain.*
The Coens next produced another noirish thriller, *The Man Who Wasn\'t There* (2001).
The Coens directed the 2003 film *Intolerable Cruelty*, starring George Clooney and Catherine Zeta-Jones, a throwback to the romantic comedies of the 1940s. It focuses on hotshot divorce lawyer Miles Massey and a beautiful divorcée whom Massey managed to prevent from receiving any money in her divorce. She vows to get even with him while, at the same time, he becomes smitten with her. *Intolerable Cruelty* received generally positive reviews, although it is considered one of the duo\'s weaker films. Also that year, they executive produced and did an uncredited rewrite of the Christmas black comedy *Bad Santa*, which garnered positive reviews.
In 2004, the Coens made *The Ladykillers*, a remake of the British classic by Ealing Studios. A professor, played by Tom Hanks, assembles a team to rob a casino. They rent a room in an elderly woman\'s home to plan the heist. When the woman discovers the plot, the gang decides to murder her to ensure her silence. The Coens received some of the most lukewarm reviews of their careers in response to this film.
They directed two short films for two separate anthology films---*Paris, je t\'aime* (*Tuileries*, 2006) starring Steve Buscemi, and *To Each His Own Cinema* (*World Cinema*, 2007) starring Josh Brolin. Both films received highly positive reviews. *No Country for Old Men*, released in November 2007, closely follows the 2005 novel of the same name by Cormac McCarthy. Vietnam veteran Llewelyn Moss (Josh Brolin), living near the Texas/Mexico border, stumbles upon, and decides to take, two million dollars in drug money. He must then go on the run to avoid those trying to recover the money, including sociopathic killer Anton Chigurh (Javier Bardem), who confounds both Llewelyn and local sheriff Ed Tom Bell (Tommy Lee Jones). The plotline is a return to noir themes, but in some respects it was a departure for the Coens; with the exception of Stephen Root, none of the stable of regular actors appears in the film. *No Country* received nearly universal critical praise, garnering a 94% \"Fresh\" rating at Rotten Tomatoes. It won four Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay, all of which were received by the Coens, as well as Best Supporting Actor received by Bardem. The Coens, as \"Roderick Jaynes\", were also nominated for Best Editing, but lost. It was the first time since 1961 (when Jerome Robbins and Robert Wise won for *West Side Story*) that two directors received the Academy Award for Best Director at the same time.
In January 2008, Ethan Coen\'s play *Almost an Evening* premiered off-broadway at the Atlantic Theater Company Stage 2, opening to mostly enthusiastic reviews. The initial run closed on February 10, 2008, but the same production was moved to a new theatre for a commercial off-Broadway run at the Bleecker Street Theater in New York City. Produced by The Atlantic Theater Company, it ran there from March 2008 through June 1, 2008. and Art Meets Commerce. In May 2009, the Atlantic Theater Company produced Coen\'s *Offices*, as part of their mainstage season at the Linda Gross Theater.
*Burn After Reading*, a comedy starring Brad Pitt and George Clooney, was released September 12, 2008, and portrays a collision course between two gym instructors, spies and Internet dating. Released to positive reviews, it debuted at No. 1 in North America.
In 2009, the Coens directed a television commercial titled \"Air Freshener\" for the Reality Coalition.
They next directed *A Serious Man*, released October 2, 2009, a \"gentle but dark\" period comedy (set in 1967) with a low budget. The film is based loosely on the Coens\' childhoods in an academic family in the largely Jewish suburb of Saint Louis Park, Minnesota; it also drew comparisons to the *Book of Job*. Filming took place late in the summer of 2008, in the neighborhoods of Roseville and Bloomington, Minnesota, at Normandale Community College, and at St. Olaf College. The film was nominated for the Oscars for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay.
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# Coen brothers
## Career
### 2010s {#s_3}
*True Grit* (2010) is based on the 1968 novel of the same name by Charles Portis. Filming was done in Texas and New Mexico. Hailee Steinfeld stars as Mattie Ross along with Jeff Bridges as Marshal Rooster Cogburn. Matt Damon and Josh Brolin also appear in the movie. *True Grit* was nominated for ten Academy Awards including Best Picture.
Ethan Coen wrote the one-act comedy *Talking Cure*, which was produced on Broadway in 2011 as part of *Relatively Speaking*, an anthology of three one-act plays by Coen, Elaine May, and Woody Allen.
In 2011, the Coen brothers won the \$1 million Dan David Prize for their contribution to cinema and society.
*Inside Llewyn Davis* (2013) is a treatise on the 1960s folk music scene in New York City\'s Greenwich Village, and very loosely based on the life of Dave Van Ronk. The film stars Oscar Isaac, Justin Timberlake, and Carey Mulligan. It won the Grand Prix at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, where it was highly praised by critics. They received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Original Song for \"Please Mr. Kennedy\", which is heard in the film.
*Fargo*, a television series inspired by their film of the same name, premiered in April 2014 on the FX network. It is created by Noah Hawley and executive produced by the brothers.
The Coens also contributed to the screenplay for *Unbroken*, along with Richard LaGravenese and William Nicholson. The film is directed by Angelina Jolie and based on Laura Hillenbrand\'s non-fiction book, *Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption* (2010) which itself was based on the life of Louis Zamperini. It was released on December 25, 2014, to average reviews.
The Coens co-wrote, with playwright Matt Charman, the screenplay for the dramatic historical thriller *Bridge of Spies*, about the 1960 U-2 Incident. The film was directed by Steven Spielberg, and released on October 4, 2015, to critical acclaim. They were nominated for the Best Original Screenplay at the 88th Academy Awards.
The Coens directed the film *Hail, Caesar!*, about a \"fixer\" in 1950s Hollywood trying to discover what happened to a cast member who vanishes during filming. It stars Coen regulars George Clooney, Josh Brolin, Frances McDormand, Scarlett Johansson and Tilda Swinton, as well as Channing Tatum, Ralph Fiennes, Jonah Hill, and Alden Ehrenreich. The film was released on February 5, 2016.
In 2016, the Coens gave to their longtime friend and collaborator John Turturro the right to use his character of Jesus Quintana from *The Big Lebowski* in his own spin-off, *The Jesus Rolls*, which he would also write and direct. The Coens have no involvement in the production. In August 2016, the film began principal photography.
The Coens first wrote the script for *Suburbicon* in 1986. The film was eventually directed by George Clooney and began filming in October 2016. It was released by Paramount Pictures in the fall of 2017.
The Coens directed *The Ballad of Buster Scruggs*, a Western anthology starring Tim Blake Nelson, Liam Neeson, and James Franco. It began streaming on Netflix on November 16, 2018, after a brief theatrical run.
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# Coen brothers
## Career
### 2020s {#s_4}
It was announced in March 2019 that Joel Coen would be directing an adaptation of *Macbeth* starring Denzel Washington and Frances McDormand. The film, titled *The Tragedy of Macbeth*, was Joel\'s first directorial effort without his brother, who was taking a break from films to focus on theater. The film premiered at the 2021 New York Film Festival. The 2022 Cannes Film Festival had a special screening of *Jerry Lee Lewis: Trouble in Mind*, an archival documentary film directed solely by Ethan Coen and edited by his wife Tricia Cooke. In 2022, it was announced that Ethan Coen would be directing *Drive-Away Dolls* for Focus Features and Working Title from a script he co-wrote with Cooke. It would be Ethan\'s first narrative film without his brother. The film was released in February 2024.
### Planned and uncompleted projects {#planned_and_uncompleted_projects}
### Production company {#production_company}
The Coen brothers\' own film production company, Mike Zoss Productions located in New York City, has been credited on their films from *O Brother, Where Art Thou?* onwards. It was named after Mike Zoss Drug, an independent pharmacy in St. Louis Park since 1950 that was the brothers\' beloved hangout when they were growing up in the Twin Cities. The name was also used for the pharmacy in *No Country for Old Men*. The Mike Zoss logo consists of a crayon drawing of a horse, standing in a field of grass with its head turned around as it looks back over its hindquarters.
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# Coen brothers
## Directing distinctions {#directing_distinctions}
Up to 2003, Joel received sole credit for directing and Ethan for producing, due to guild rules that disallowed multiple director credits to prevent dilution of the position\'s significance. The only exception to this rule is if the co-directors are an \"established duo\". Since 2004 they have been able to share the director credit and the Coen brothers have become only the third duo to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director.
With four Academy Award nominations for *No Country for Old Men* for the duo (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing as Roderick Jaynes), the Coen brothers matched the record for the most nominations by a single nominee (counting an \"established duo\" as one nominee) for the same film. Orson Welles set the record in 1941 with *Citizen Kane* being nominated for Best Picture (though at the time, individual producers were not named as nominees), Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Original Screenplay. Warren Beatty received the same nominations, first for *Heaven Can Wait* in 1978 and again in 1981 with *Reds*. Alan Menken also then achieved the same feat when he was nominated for Best Score and triple-nominated for Best Song for *Beauty and the Beast* in 1991. More recently Chloé Zhao matched this record in 2021 when she was nominated for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Film Editing for *Nomadland* (which also starred McDormand in her third Oscar-winning role). In 2025, Sean Baker matched this record at the 97th Academy Awards with his nominations for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Film Editing, winning all four to become the first person to win four Oscars in the same year since Walt Disney in 1953, and the first person to win four Oscars in the same night for the same film.
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# Coen brothers
## Personal lives {#personal_lives}
Joel has been married to actress Frances McDormand since 1984. In 1995, they adopted a son from Paraguay when he was six months old. McDormand has acted in a number of Coen Brothers films: *Blood Simple*, *Raising Arizona*, *Miller\'s Crossing*, *Barton Fink*, *Fargo*, *The Man Who Wasn\'t There*, *Burn After Reading*, *Hail, Caesar!*, and *The Tragedy of Macbeth*. For her performance in *Fargo*, she won the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Ethan married film editor Tricia Cooke in 1993. They have two children: a daughter and a son. The two describe their relationship as \"nontraditional\"; Cooke is both queer and a lesbian and Ethan is straight, and the two have separate partners. They co-wrote the film *Drive-Away Dolls*, which Ethan directed and Tricia edited. Ethan published *Gates of Eden*, a collection of short stories, in 1998. The same year, he co-wrote the comedy *The Naked Man*, directed by their storyboard artist J. Todd Anderson.
Ethan Coen and family live in New York, while Joel Coen and Frances McDormand live in Marin County, California.
## Filmography
Year Title Distribution
------ -------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------
1984 *Blood Simple* Circle Films
1987 *Raising Arizona* 20th Century Fox
1990 *Miller\'s Crossing*
1991 *Barton Fink*
1994 *The Hudsucker Proxy* Warner Bros. Pictures / PolyGram Filmed Entertainment
1996 *Fargo* Gramercy Pictures / PolyGram Filmed Entertainment
1998 *The Big Lebowski*
2000 *O Brother, Where Art Thou?* Buena Vista Pictures Distribution / Universal Pictures
2001 *The Man Who Wasn\'t There* USA Films
2003 *Intolerable Cruelty* Universal Pictures
2004 *The Ladykillers* Buena Vista Pictures Distribution
2007 *No Country for Old Men* Miramax / Paramount Vantage
2008 *Burn After Reading* Focus Features
2009 *A Serious Man*
2010 *True Grit* Paramount Pictures
2013 *Inside Llewyn Davis* CBS Films
2016 *Hail, Caesar!* Universal Pictures
2018 *The Ballad of Buster Scruggs* Netflix
: Directed features
Year Title Distribution
------ -------------------------- -----------------
2021 *The Tragedy of Macbeth* A24 / Apple TV+
: Joel only
Year Title Distribution
------ ------------------------------------ ----------------
2022 *Jerry Lee Lewis: Trouble in Mind* A24
2024 *Drive-Away Dolls* Focus Features
2025 *Honey Don\'t!*
: Ethan only
## Collaborators
## Accolades
Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards
------------- -------------------------------- ---------------- ------ --------------
Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations
1991 *Barton Fink* 3
1996 *Fargo* 7 2 6
2000 *O Brother, Where Art Thou?* 2 4
2001 *The Man Who Wasn\'t There* 1 1
2007 *No Country for Old Men* 8 4 9
2008 *Burn After Reading* 3
2009 *A Serious Man* 2 1
2010 *True Grit* 10 8
2013 *Inside Llewyn Davis* 2 3
2016 *Hail, Caesar!* 1 1
2018 *The Ballad of Buster Scruggs* 3 1
2021 *The Tragedy of Macbeth* 3 1
**Total** 42 6 38
### Directed Academy Award performances {#directed_academy_award_performances}
Under the Coen brothers\' direction, these actors have received Academy Award nominations (and wins) for their performances in their respective roles.
Year Performer Film Result
----------------------------------------------- ------------------- -------------------------- --------
**Academy Award for Best Actor**
2010 Jeff Bridges *True Grit*
2021 Denzel Washington *The Tragedy of Macbeth*
**Academy Award for Best Actress**
1996 Frances McDormand *Fargo*
**Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor**
1991 Michael Lerner *Barton Fink*
1996 William H
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# June 6
| 3 |
June 6
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# June 11
| 3 |
June 11
| 0 |
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# January 25
| 3 |
January 25
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# June 3
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# June 8
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June 8
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# January 27
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January 27
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# John Lynch (New Hampshire governor)
**John Hayden Lynch** (born November 25, 1952) is an American attorney, businessman, and politician who served as the 80th governor of New Hampshire from 2005 to 2013. Lynch was first elected governor in 2004, defeating first-term Republican incumbent Craig Benson -- the first time a first-term incumbent New Hampshire governor was defeated for re-election in 80 years. Lynch won re-election in landslide victories in 2006 and 2008, and comfortably won a fourth term in 2010.
Lynch is the most popular governor in New Hampshire history and, while in office, consistently ranked among the nation\'s most popular governors.
Since 2013, Lynch has served as a Senior Lecturer in the MBA program at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College.
## Early life, education and career {#early_life_education_and_career}
Lynch was born in Waltham, Massachusetts, the fifth of William and Margaret Lynch\'s six children. Lynch earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of New Hampshire in 1974, a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School, and a Juris Doctor from Georgetown University Law Center.
During his business career, Lynch served as Director of Admissions at Harvard Business School and President of The Lynch Group, a business consulting firm in Manchester, New Hampshire. Lynch served as CEO of Knoll Inc., a national furniture manufacturer, where he transformed the company previously losing \$50 million a year, to making a profits of nearly \$240 million yearly. Under his leadership, Knoll created new jobs, gave factory workers annual bonuses, established a scholarship program for the children of employees, created retirement plans for employees who didn\'t have any, and gave workers stock in the company. Before announcing his run for governor, Lynch was serving as chairman of the University System of New Hampshire Board of Trustees.
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# John Lynch (New Hampshire governor)
## Governor of New Hampshire {#governor_of_new_hampshire}
### Electoral history {#electoral_history}
In June 2004, Lynch launched his campaign for Governor of New Hampshire.
Lynch spent the five months preceding the election relentlessly criticizing Governor Craig Benson, the first-term Republican incumbent, for what Lynch claimed was a lack of integrity following a long series of scandals during Benson\'s tenure. Lynch accused Benson of creating a \"culture of corruption\" and cronyism at the State House.
On September 15, Lynch won the Democratic primary and on November 2, Lynch defeated Benson 51% to 49%.
Lynch was the first challenger to defeat a first-term incumbent in New Hampshire since 1924. On January 6, 2005, Lynch was inaugurated as the 80th Governor of New Hampshire. On November 7, 2006, Lynch was re-elected governor in a 74% to 26% landslide victory over Republican challenger Jim Coburn. Lynch\'s 74% of the vote was the largest margin of victory ever in a New Hampshire gubernatorial race.
Lynch\'s coattails carried his party to control of both chambers of the State Legislature and both of New Hampshire\'s two U.S. House seats.
On November 4, 2008, he was elected to a third term in another landslide victory. Lynch defeated Republican challenger Joseph Kenney, a New Hampshire state senator and U.S. Marine, 70% to 28%, with 2% of the vote won by the Libertarian candidate. Democrats maintained control of the state legislature and held both U.S. House seats, and gained a U.S. Senate seat.
On November 2, 2010, Lynch was elected to a historic fourth term as Governor of New Hampshire, in a victory over former State Health and Human Service\'s Commissioner John Stephen, 53% to 45%. Lynch was the only Democrat elected to statewide office. As had happened in many states throughout the U.S. during the 2010 midterm elections, Democrats suffered heavy losses. Democrats lost control of both chambers of the State Legislature, control of the Executive Council and both of the U.S. House seats.
According to the Concord Monitor, when Lynch was inaugurated on January 6, 2011, he became \"the state\'s longest-serving governor in nearly two centuries. John Taylor Gilman was the last governor to serve longer than six years, serving 14 one-year terms as governor between 1794 and 1816. (The state switched to two-year terms in 1877)\" New Hampshire and neighboring Vermont are the only two States in the U.S. that use two-year terms.
On September 15, 2011, Lynch announced he would not seek a historic fifth term as governor.
During the announcement Lynch said \"I feel like I have the passion and the energy to keep doing this work for a long, long time, but democracy demands periodic change. To refresh and revive itself, democracy needs new leaders and new ideas.\"
On January 3, 2013, Lynch was succeeded by fellow Democrat Maggie Hassan, marking the first time a Democrat succeeded a Democrat as the state\'s governor since the 19th century.
Year Winning candidate Party Pct Opponent Party Pct Opponent Party Pct
------ ------------------------- ------------------ -------------- ----------------------- -------------- ---------- ---------------- --------------- --------
2004 \|**John Lynch** \|**Democratic** \|**51.02%** \|Craig Benson (inc.) \|Republican \|48.87%
2006 \|**John Lynch (inc.)** \|**Democratic** \|**73.5%** \|Jim Coburn \|Republican \|26.5%
2008 \|**John Lynch (inc.)** \|**Democratic** \|**69.8%** \|Joseph Kenney \|Republican \|27.9% \|Susan Newell \|Libertarian \|2.2%
2010 \|**John Lynch (inc.)** \|**Democratic** \|**52.6%** \|John Stephen \|Republican \|45.1% \|John Babiarz \|Libertarian \|2.2%
: New Hampshire gubernatorial election (General Election)
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# John Lynch (New Hampshire governor)
## Governor of New Hampshire {#governor_of_new_hampshire}
### Tenure
#### Taxes
As a candidate for governor, Lynch took \"The Pledge\" not to enact any broad-based taxes, especially a sales or income tax. As governor, Lynch kept his promise. Lynch does not support an amendment to the State Constitution banning an income tax.
In 2007, Lynch signed into law the Research and Development Tax credit, which for the following five years appropriated \$1,000,000 for companies to write off qualifying \"manufacturing research and development\" expenditures. In 2012, during his final State of the State address, Lynch proposed doubling the tax credit, citing its success in creating jobs, and slammed lawmakers for slashing funding to the state\'s community college system to fund a 10-cent reduction in the tobacco tax.
In June 2010, Lynch signed a budget-balancing measure that repealed the state\'s LLC tax.
#### Crime
Lynch worked with the state Attorney General, police chiefs, and lawmakers to pass sex offender laws; increase the state police force; and increase the number of state prosecutors. New Hampshire was rated the \"Safest State\" in the Nation in 2008 and 2009. New Hampshire again boasts the nation\'s lowest murder rate and the second-lowest rates for aggravated assault, according to *CQ Press*. Lynch issued the following statement after the announcement of the award in 2009:
#### Death penalty {#death_penalty}
Lynch upheld the death penalty while in office, stating \"there are crimes so heinous that the death penalty is warranted.\" The New Hampshire House of Representatives passed legislation in March 2009 to abolish the death penalty, which Lynch threatened to veto. Due to the veto threat, the Senate tabled the legislation in April of that year. In June, Lynch compromised with legislators and signed legislation to form the New Hampshire Commission to Study the Death Penalty. In December 2010, the Commission recommended, by a 12 to 10 vote, to retain the death penalty. However, the panel unanimously recommended against expanding it. In 2011, Lynch signed legislation to expand the death penalty to include home invasions.
#### Natural disaster response {#natural_disaster_response}
In April 2006, Lynch was awarded the \"National Chairman of Volunteers\" Award for Volunteer Excellence by the American Red Cross, due to his leadership during the 2005 floods.
#### Same-sex marriage {#same_sex_marriage}
On June 3, 2009, Lynch signed a same-sex marriage bill into law, despite being personally opposed to gay marriages, making New Hampshire the fifth state in the United States to allow such unions.
### Historic popularity {#historic_popularity}
Throughout his eight year tenure, Lynch enjoyed very high approval ratings, often being ranked among the most popular of U.S. governors. According to the WMUR/Granite State Poll conducted by the University of New Hampshire, just three months after taking office in January 2005, Lynch\'s approval rating surpassed 50% and stayed upwards of 55% throughout his tenure. Likewise, between February 2006 and February 2009 his approval rating was above 70%. In April 2012, Lynch\'s approval rating was again above 70% making him the second most popular governor in the United States, behind New York Governor Andrew Cuomo. Lynch enjoyed bipartisan support and is the most popular governor in the state\'s history.
### Presidential endorsements {#presidential_endorsements}
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, Lynch was one of eight superdelegates from New Hampshire. Lynch remained neutral during the New Hampshire primary because as governor he needed to \"focus on being a good host to the primary\", according to a statement by spokesman Colin Manning. At an event on June 27, 2008 in Unity, New Hampshire, Lynch formally endorsed Barack Obama for president.
Lynch endorsed President Barack Obama in the 2012 presidential election, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, and former Vice President Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Lynch and his wife, Susan Lynch, a pediatrician, have three children
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# Jason
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Jason, between the jaws of the dragon which guards the Golden Fleece, is saved by Athena. The fleece hangs from a tree behind them. Attic kylix, c. lk=yes480--470 BC, attributed to Douris. `{{Greek mythology sidebar}}`{=mediawiki}
**Jason** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|eɪ|s|ən}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|JAY|sən}}`{=mediawiki}; *Iásōn* `{{IPA|grc|i.ǎːsɔːn|}}`{=mediawiki}) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Medea, the granddaughter of the sungod Helios.
Jason appeared in various literary works in the classical world of Greece and Rome, including the epic poem *Argonautica* and the tragedy *Medea*. In the modern world, Jason has emerged as a character in various adaptations of his myths, such as the 1963 film *Jason and the Argonauts* and the 2000 TV miniseries of the same name.
## Persecution by Pelias {#persecution_by_pelias}
Pelias (Aeson\'s half-brother) was power-hungry and sought to gain dominion over all of Thessaly. Pelias was the progeny of a union between their shared mother, Tyro (\"high born Tyro\"), the daughter of Salmoneus, and the sea god Poseidon. In a bitter feud, he overthrew Aeson (the rightful king), killing all the descendants of Aeson that he could. He spared his half-brother for unknown reasons.
Aeson\'s wife Alcimede I had a newborn son named Jason, whom she saved from Pelias by having female attendants cluster around the infant and cry as if he were stillborn. Fearing that Pelias would eventually notice and kill her son, Alcimede sent him away to be reared by the centaur Chiron. She claimed that she had been having an affair with him all along. Pelias, fearing that his ill-gotten kingship might be challenged, consulted an oracle, who warned him to beware of a man wearing only one sandal.
Many years later, Pelias was holding games in honor of Poseidon when the grown Jason arrived in Iolcus, having lost one of his sandals in the river Anauros (\"wintry Anauros\") while helping an old woman (actually the goddess Hera in disguise) to cross. She blessed him, for she knew what Pelias had planned. When Jason entered Iolcus (the present-day city of Volos), he was announced as a man wearing only one sandal. Jason, aware that he was the rightful king, so informed Pelias. Pelias replied, \"To take my throne, which you shall, you must go on a quest to find the Golden Fleece.\" Jason readily accepted this condition.
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# Jason
## The Argonauts and the Quest for the Golden Fleece {#the_argonauts_and_the_quest_for_the_golden_fleece}
Jason assembled for his crew, a number of heroes, known as the Argonauts after their ship, the *Argo*. The group of heroes included:
- Acastus;
- Admetus;
- Argus, the eponymous builder of the Argo;
- Atalanta;
- Augeas;
- the winged Boreads, Zetes & Calaïs;
- the Dioscuri, Castor & Polydeuces;
- Euphemus;
- Heracles;
- Idas;
- Idmon, the seer;
- Lynceus;
- Meleager;
- Orpheus;
- Peleus;
- Philoctetes;
- Telamon; and
- Tiphys, the helmsman
### The Isle of Lemnos {#the_isle_of_lemnos}
The isle of Lemnos is situated in the north Aegean Sea, near the Western coast of Asia Minor (modern day Turkey).
The island was inhabited by a race of women who had killed their husbands. The women had neglected their worship of Aphrodite, and as a punishment the goddess made the women so foul in stench that their husbands could not bear to be near them. The men then took concubines from the Thracian mainland opposite, and the spurned women, angry at Aphrodite, killed all the male inhabitants while they slept. The king, Thoas, was saved by Hypsipyle, his daughter, who put him out to sea sealed in a chest from which he was later rescued. The women of Lemnos lived for a while without men, with Hypsipyle as their queen.
During the visit of the Argonauts the women mingled with the men creating a new \"race\" called Minyae. Jason fathered twins with the queen. Heracles pressured them to leave as he was disgusted by the antics of the Argonauts. He had not taken part, which is truly unusual considering the numerous affairs he had with other women.
### Cyzicus
After Lemnos the Argonauts landed among the Doliones, whose king Cyzicus treated them graciously. He told them about the land beyond Bear Mountain, but forgot to mention what lived there. What lived in the land beyond Bear Mountain were the Gegeines, which are a tribe of Earthborn giants with six arms who wore leather loincloths.
While most of the crew went into the forest to search for supplies, the Gegeines saw that few Argonauts were guarding the ship and raided it. Heracles was among those guarding the ship at the time and managed to kill most of them before Jason and the others returned. Once some of the other Gegeines were killed, Jason and the Argonauts set sail.
The Argonauts departed, losing their bearings and landing again at the same spot that night. In the darkness, the Doliones took them for enemies and they started fighting each other. The Argonauts killed many of the Doliones, among them the king Cyzicus. Cyzicus\' wife killed herself. The Argonauts realized their horrible mistake when dawn came and held a funeral for him.
### Phineus and the harpies {#phineus_and_the_harpies}
Soon, Jason reached the court of Phineus of Salmydessus in Thrace. Zeus had sent the harpies to steal the food put out for Phineus each day. Jason took pity on the emaciated king and killed the Harpies when they returned; in other versions, Calais and Zetes chase the harpies away. In return for this favor, Phineus revealed to Jason the location of Colchis and how to pass the Symplegades, or The Clashing Rocks, and then they parted.
### The Symplegades {#the_symplegades}
The only way to reach Colchis was to sail through the Symplegades (Clashing Rocks), huge rock cliffs that came together and crushed anything that traveled between them. Phineus told Jason to release a dove when they approached these islands, and if the dove made it through, to row with all their might. If the dove was crushed, he was doomed to fail. Jason released the dove as advised, which made it through, losing only a few tail feathers. Seeing this, they rowed strongly and made it through with minor damage at the extreme stern of the ship. From that time on, the clashing rocks were forever joined leaving free passage for others to pass.
### The arrival in Colchis {#the_arrival_in_colchis}
Jason arrived in Colchis (modern Black Sea coast of Georgia) to claim the fleece as his own. It was owned by King Aeetes of Colchis. The fleece was given to him by Phrixus. Aeetes promised to give it to Jason only if he could perform three certain tasks. Presented with the tasks, Jason became discouraged and fell into depression. However, Hera had persuaded Aphrodite to convince her son Eros to make Aeetes\' daughter, Medea, fall in love with Jason. As a result, Medea aided Jason in his tasks.
First, Jason had to plow a field with fire-breathing oxen, the Khalkotauroi, that he had to yoke himself. Medea provided an ointment that protected him from the oxen\'s flames. Then, Jason sowed the teeth of a dragon into a field. The teeth sprouted into an army of warriors (spartoi). Medea had previously warned Jason of this and told him how to defeat this foe.
Before they attacked him, he threw a rock into the crowd. Unable to discover where the rock had come from, the soldiers attacked and defeated one another. His last task was to overcome the sleepless dragon which guarded the Golden Fleece. Jason sprayed the dragon with a potion, given by Medea, distilled from herbs. The dragon fell asleep, and Jason was able to seize the Golden Fleece.
He then sailed away with Medea. Medea distracted her father, who chased them as they fled, by killing her brother Apsyrtus and throwing pieces of his body into the sea; Aeetes stopped to gather them. In another version, Medea lured Apsyrtus into a trap. Jason killed him, chopped off his fingers and toes, and buried the corpse. In any case, Jason and Medea escaped.
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# Jason
## The return journey {#the_return_journey}
On the way back to Iolcus, Medea prophesied to Euphemus, the Argo\'s helmsman, that one day he would rule Cyrene. This came true through Battus, a descendant of Euphemus. Zeus, as punishment for the slaughter of Medea\'s own brother, sent a series of storms at the *Argo* and blew it off course. The *Argo* then spoke and said that they should seek purification with Circe, a nymph living on the island of Aeaea. After being cleansed, they continued their journey home.
### Sirens
Chiron had told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens---the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer\'s epic poem the *Odyssey*. The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which would result in the wrecking of their ship on the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was more beautiful and louder, drowning out the Sirens\' bewitching songs.
### Talos
The *Argo* then came to the island of Crete, guarded by the bronze man, Talos. As the ship approached, Talos hurled huge stones at the ship, keeping it at bay. Talos had one ichor vessel which went from his neck to his ankle, bound shut by only one bronze nail (as in metal casting by the lost wax method). Medea cast a spell on Talos to calm him; she removed the bronze nail and Talos bled to death. The *Argo* was then able to sail on.
### Jason returns {#jason_returns}
Thomas Bulfinch has an antecedent to the interaction of Medea and the daughters of Pelias. Jason, celebrating his return with the Golden Fleece, noted that his father was too aged and infirm to participate in the celebrations. He had seen and been served by Medea\'s magical powers. He asked Medea to take some years from his life and add them to the life of his father. She did so, but at no such cost to Jason\'s life. Medea withdrew the blood from Aeson\'s body and infused it with certain herbs; putting it back into his veins, returning vigor to him. Pelias\' daughters saw this and wanted the same service for their father.
Medea, using her sorcery, claimed to Pelias\' daughters that she could make their father smooth and vigorous as a child by chopping him up into pieces and boiling the pieces in a cauldron of water and magical herbs. She demonstrated this remarkable feat with the oldest ram in the flock, which leapt out of the cauldron as a lamb. The girls, rather naively, sliced and diced their father and put him in the cauldron. Medea did not add the magical herbs, and Pelias was dead. Pelias\' son, Acastus, drove Jason and Medea into exile for the murder, and the couple settled in Corinth.
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# Jason
## The return journey {#the_return_journey}
### Treachery of Jason {#treachery_of_jason}
In Corinth, Jason became engaged to marry Creusa (sometimes referred to as Glauce), a daughter of the King of Corinth, to strengthen his political ties. When Medea confronted Jason about the engagement and cited all the help she had given him, he retorted that it was not she that he should thank, but Aphrodite who made Medea fall in love with him. Infuriated with Jason for breaking his vow that he would be hers forever, Medea took her revenge by presenting to Creusa a cursed dress, as a wedding gift, that stuck to her body and burned her to death as soon as she put it on.
Creusa\'s father, Creon, burned to death with his daughter as he tried to save her. Then Medea killed the two boys that she bore to Jason, fearing that they would be murdered or enslaved as a result of their mother\'s actions. When Jason learned of this, Medea was already gone. She fled to Athens in a chariot of dragons sent by her grandfather, the sun-god Helios.
Although Jason calls Medea most hateful to gods and men, the fact that the chariot is given to her by Helios indicates that she still has the gods on her side. As Bernard Knox points out, Medea\'s last scene with concluding appearances parallels that of a number of indisputably divine beings in other plays by Euripides. Just like these gods, Medea \"interrupts and puts a stop to the violent action of the human being on the lower level, \... justifies her savage revenge on the grounds that she has been treated with disrespect and mockery, \... takes measures and gives orders for the burial of the dead, prophesies the future\", and \"announces the foundation of a cult\".
Later Jason and Peleus, father of the hero Achilles, attacked and defeated Acastus, reclaiming the throne of Iolcus for himself once more. Jason\'s son, Thessalus, then became king.
As a result of breaking his vow to love Medea forever, Jason lost his favor with Hera and died lonely and unhappy. He was asleep under the stem of the rotting *Argo* when it fell on him, killing him instantly.
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# Jason
## Family
### Parentage
Jason\'s father is invariably Aeson, but there is great variation as to his mother\'s name. According to various authors, she could be:
- Alcimede, daughter of Phylacus and Clymene
- Polymede, or Polymele, or Polypheme, a daughter of Autolycus
- Amphinome
- Theognete, daughter of Laodicus
- Rhoeo
- Arne or Scarphe
Jason was also said to have had a younger brother, Promachus.
### Children
Children by Medea:
- Alcimenes, murdered by Medea.
- Thessalus, twin of Alcimenes and king of Iolcus.
- Tisander, murdered by Medea
- Mermeros killed either by the Corinthians or by Medea
- Pheres, as above
- Eriopis, their only daughter
- Medus or Polyxenus, otherwise son of Aegeus
- Argus
- seven sons and seven daughters
Children by Hypsipyle:
- Euneus, King of Lemnos and his twin
- Nebrophonus or
- Deipylus or
- Thoas
Relation Name Source
------------------- ------------------------ -------- ------------------------
*(Sch. on) Homer* *(Sch. on) Euripides* *(Sch. on) Apollonius*
*Parentage* Aeson and Polymele or ✓
Aeson and Polypheme or
Aeson and Polymede
Aeson and Alcimede
Aeson and Theognete
Aeson and Amphinome
Aeson and Rhoe
Aeson and Arne
Aeson and Scarphe
*Sibling* Promachus
*Consort* Medea ✓
Hypsipyle
*Children* Mermeros ✓
Pheres ✓
Alcimenes
Thessalus
Tisandrus
7 sons & 7 daughters
Eriopis
Medus or Polyxemus
Argus
Euneus
Nebrophonus
Deipylus
Thoas
: Comparative table of Jason\'s family
## In literature {#in_literature}
Though some of the episodes of Jason\'s story draw on ancient material, the definitive telling, on which this account relies, is that of Apollonius of Rhodes in his epic poem *Argonautica*, written in Alexandria in the late 3rd century BC.
Another *Argonautica* was written by Gaius Valerius Flaccus in the late 1st century AD, eight books in length. The poem ends abruptly with the request of Medea to accompany Jason on his homeward voyage. It is unclear if part of the epic poem has been lost, or if it was never finished. A third version is the *Argonautica Orphica*, which emphasizes the role of Orpheus in the story.
Jason is briefly mentioned in Dante\'s *Divine Comedy* in the poem *Inferno*. He appears in the Canto XVIII. In it, he is seen by Dante and his guide Virgil being punished in Hell\'s Eighth Circle (Bolgia 1) by being driven to march through the circle for all eternity while being whipped by devils. He is included among the panderers and seducers (possibly for his seduction and subsequent abandoning of Medea).
The story of Medea\'s revenge on Jason is told with devastating effect by Euripides in his tragedy *Medea*.
William Morris wrote an English epic poem, *The Life and Death of Jason*, published in 1867.
In the 1898 short novel *The Story of Perseus and the Gorgon\'s Head* the mythical story of Jason is described.
Padraic Colum wrote an adaptation for children, *The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived Before Achilles*, illustrated by Willy Pogany and published in 1921.
The mythical geography of the voyage of the Argonauts has been connected to specific geographic locations by Livio Stecchini but his theories have not been widely adopted
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# Jeff Mills
**Jeff Mills** (born June 18, 1963, in Detroit, Michigan), also known as \"**the** **Wizard**\", is an American DJ, record producer, and composer. In the late 1980s Mills founded the techno collective Underground Resistance with fellow Detroit techno producers \'Mad\' Mike Banks and Robert Hood but left the group to pursue a career as a solo artist in the early 90s. Mills founded the Chicago based Axis Records in 1992, which is responsible for the release of much of his solo work.
Mills has received international recognition for his work as a DJ and producer. He featured in *Man from Tomorrow*, a documentary about techno music that he produced along with French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux. He continued working in film, releasing *Life to Death and Back*, a film he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum where he also had a four-month residency. In 2017 the president of the Arab World Institute and former French Minister of Culture Jack Lang awarded Mills the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his services to the arts.
## Career
### Early career and radio DJ {#early_career_and_radio_dj}
A 1981 graduate of Mackenzie High School, Mills started his career in the early 1980s using the name \"the Wizard\". He performed DJ tricks like beat juggling and scratching during his sets. He had a nightly show as the Wizard at WDRQ and later at WJLB under the same name. He would highlight local techno artists, giving light to artists such as Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson and Juan Atkins.
In his early career, Mills managed numerous residencies in the Detroit area. He credits The Necto as the residency where he was able to experiment with new ideas in techno music. Mills played The Necto where he began incorporating concepts such as different equipment setups, including positioning himself on the dance floor with the people. For his radio DJ spots, Mills had a music spending budget to use for his sets. Mills would also drive as far as Toronto or Chicago in order to purchase newly released music.
### Underground Resistance {#underground_resistance}
Mills is a founding member of Underground Resistance, a techno collective that he started with former Parliament bass player \'Mad\' Mike Banks. The group embraced revolutionary rhetoric and only appeared in public dressed in ski masks and black combat suits. Mills never \"officially\" left the group, but did begin to pursue his own ventures outside of the collective. Many of Underground Resistance\'s labelmate\'s early releases were the product of various experiments by Banks and Mills, both solo and in collaboration, before Mills left the collective in 1991 to achieve international success as a solo artist and DJ. The collective continues to be a mainstay of Detroit\'s music scene.
UR related the aesthetics of early Detroit Techno to the complex social, political, and economic circumstances which followed on from Reagan-era inner-city economic recession, producing uncompromising music geared toward promoting awareness and facilitating political change. UR\'s songs created a sense of self-exploration, experimentation and the ability to change yourself and circumstances. Additionally, UR wanted to establish a means of identification beyond traditional lines of race and ethnicity. Another form of UR\'s rebellion concerns the rejection of the commercialization of techno. This is evident in the messages scratched in UR\'s records, lyrics and sounds expressing economic independence from major record labels.
### Solo work and independent labels {#solo_work_and_independent_labels}
Mills left Underground Resistance in 1991 to pursue his own ventures. He relocated from Detroit, first to New York, then Berlin (as a resident at the Tresor club), and then Chicago. There in 1992, with fellow Detroit native Robert Hood, he set up the record label Axis, and later, sub-labels Purpose Maker, Tomorrow, and 6277, all aiming for a more minimal sound than most of the techno being produced in those years.
Mills released *Blue Potential* in 2006, a live album of him playing with the 70 piece Montpelier Philharmonic Orchestra in 2005. The album was a remix for classical interpretation, following musical acts such as Radiohead. In 2013, he released Where Light Ends, an album inspired by the Japanese astronaut Mamoru Mohri and his first trip to space. In 2018, Mills recorded E.P. *Tomorrow Comes The Harvest* with legendary afro-jazz drummer Tony Allen.
### Film, soundtracks, and documentary {#film_soundtracks_and_documentary}
Mills performed a live set in January 2015 at the Jewish Community Center in San Francisco, California. The set was performed with four turntables to create a cinemix soundtrack for Woman in the Moon, the 1929 silent film from Fritz Lang. The set was performed during a screening of the film at the center. Mills has previously completed work highlighting Lang\'s career, including composing, performing, and releasing a soundtrack to Lang\'s 1927 silent film Metropolis, releasing the soundtrack in 2000.
Mills became involved in film with the help of French filmmaker Jacqueline Caux. He helped Caux produce the film *Man from Tomorrow*, a documentary about techno music that featured Mills. He continued in the film industry with the release of the independent film *Life to Death and Back* which he shot in the Egyptian wing of the Louvre Museum in France, the same museum where he had a four-month residency.
## Music style {#music_style}
In his DJ sets, Mills usually uses three decks, a Roland TR-909 drum machine, and up to 70 records in one hour. Mills\' *Exhibitionist* DVD, from 2004, features him mixing live on three decks and CD player in a studio. In 2011, Mills switched to using three or four CD decks for most of his club appearances, instead of the usual Technics turntables. *Mixmag* described Mills as the \"master\" of the 909.
He was mentioned by Detroit rapper Eminem in his song \"Groundhog Day\", from his album *The Marshall Mathers LP 2*. Eminem says: \"\...and discovered this DJ who was mixing, I say it to this day, if you ain\'t listened to the Wizard, you ain\'t have a fucking clue what you was missing\...\"
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# Jeff Mills
## Art exhibits {#art_exhibits}
Mills is also an artist and has shown his works at exhibits internationally. His works have included \"Man of Tomorrow,\" a portrait of Mills that shows his perception of the future as well as \"Critical Arrangements\" exhibited at Pompidou Centre in 2008 as a part of \"Le Futurisme à Paris -- une avant-garde explosive.\" One of his most notable works was exhibited in 2015. Known as \"The Visitor,\" it was a sculpture of a drum machine inspired by a UFO sighting in Los Angeles from the 1950s.
## Discography
### Studio albums {#studio_albums}
Year, *Title* (Label)
- 1992, *Waveform Transmission Vol.1* (Tresor)
- 1994, *Waveform Transmission Vol. 3* (Tresor)
- 1996, *Live at the Liquid Room, Tokyo* (Sony/React)
- 1997, *The Other Day* (Sony/React/Labels)
- 1997, *Purpose Maker Compilation* (React/Labels/NEWS/Neuton/Energy/Watts)
- 1998, *From the 21st* (Sony)
- 2000, *Lifelike* (Sony/Labels/NEWS)
- 2000, *Art of Connecting* (Next Era/Hardware)
- 2000, *Metropolis* (Tresor)
- 2001, *Time Machine* (Tomorrow)
- 2001, *Every Dog Has Its Day CD* (Sony/Labels/NEWS)
- 2002, *Actual* (Axis)
- 2002, *At First Sight* (Sony/React/NEWS/Energy/Intergroove)
- 2003, *Medium* (Axis)
- 2004, *Exhibitionist* (Axis/React/NEWS/Sonar)
- 2005, *Three Ages* (MK2)
- 2005, *Contact Special* (Cisco/Soundscape)
- 2006, *One Man Spaceship* (Cisco/Soundscape)
- 2008, *X-102 Rediscovers the Rings of Saturn* (Tresor)
- 2008, *Gamma Player Compilation Vol. 1: The Universe by Night* (Axis)
- 2009, *Sleep Wakes* (Third Ear)
- 2010, *The Occurrence* (Third Ear)
- 2011, *The Power* (Axis)
- 2011, *2087* (Axis)
- 2011, *Jeff Mills/Dj Surgeles Something in the Sky Mix* (Axis)
- 2011, *Fantastic Voyage* (Axis)
- 2012, *The Messenger* (Axis)
- 2012, *Waveform Transmission Vol. 1 Remastered* (Axis)
- 2012, *Sequence -- The Retrospective of Axis Records* (Axis)
- 2013, *The Jungle PlanetH*
- 2014, *Emerging Crystal Universe* (Axis)
- 2014, *Woman in the Moon* (Axis)
- 2015, *When Time Splits (with Mikhail Rudy)* (Axis)
- 2015, *Proxima Centauri* (Axis)
- 2016, *Free Fall Galaxy* (Axis)
- 2017, *A Trip to the Moon* (Axis)
- 2017, *Planets* (Axis)
- 2019, *Moon - The Area of Influence* (Axis)
### Extended plays {#extended_plays}
Year, *Title* (Label)
- 1992, *Tranquilizer* (Axis)
- 1993, *Mecca* (Axis)
- 1993, *Thera* (Axis)
- 1994, *Cycle 30* (Axis)
- 1994, *Growth* (Axis)
- 1995, *Purpose Maker EP* (Axis)
- 1995, *Humana* (Axis)
- 1995, *Tephra* (Axis)
- 1996, *Other Day EP* (Axis)
- 1996, *Very* (Axis)
- 1996, *AX-009ab* (Axis)
- 1996, *Java* (Purpose Maker)
- 1996, *Kat Moda* (Purpose Maker)
- 1997, *Universal Power* (Purpose Maker)
- 1997, *Our Man in Havana* (Purpose Maker)
- 1997, *Steampit* (Purpose Maker)
- 1997, *More Drama* (Axis)
- 1997, *Tomorrow EP* (Axis)
- 1998, *Vanishing* (Purpose Maker)
- 1998, *Live Series* (Purpose Maker)
- 1999, *Skin Deep* (Purpose Maker)
- 1999, *If/Tango* (w/ Anna F.) (Purpose Maker)
- 1999, *Apollo* (Axis)
- 1999, *Preview* (Tomorrow)
- 2000, *Every Dog Has Its Day vol.1* (Axis)
- 2000, *Lifelike EP* (Axis)
- 2000, *Metropolis EP* (Axis)
- 2000, *Every Dog Has Its Day vol.2* (Axis)
- 2000, *Circus* (Purpose Maker)
- 2001, *Jetset* (Purpose Maker)
- 2001, *Electrical Experience* (Purpose Maker)
- 2001, *4Art/UFO*
- 2002, *Every Dog Has Its Day vol.3* (Axis)
- 2002, *Actual* (Axis)
- 2003, *Every Dog Has Its Day vol
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# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
thumb\|upright=1.21\| *Canon triplex a 6*: first printed in 1747 (below), it appears on both versions of the portrait Haussmann made of Bach (1746, 1748 -- above). In the 19th-century Bach Gesellschaft edition the canon was published in Volume 45^1^, p. 138. In 1950 the piece was assigned the number 1076 in Schmieder\'s catalogue of Bach\'s works (BWV). The 1998 edition of that catalogue (BWV^2a^) mentions Haussmann\'s paintings as original sources for the work (p. 438), and likewise the Bach digital website gives a description of both paintings as sources for the piece (linked from Bach digital Work page `{{BDW|1262}}`{=mediawiki}). `{{Lists of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki}
Johann Sebastian Bach\'s vocal music includes cantatas, motets, masses, Magnificats, Passions, oratorios, four-part chorales, songs and arias. His instrumental music includes concertos, suites, sonatas, fugues, and other works for organ, harpsichord, lute, violin, viola da gamba, cello, flute, chamber ensemble, and orchestra.
There are over 1,000 known compositions by Bach. Almost all are listed in the **\[\[Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis\]\]** (BWV), which is the best known and most widely used catalogue of Bach\'s compositions. `{{TOC limit|4}}`{=mediawiki}
## Listing Bach\'s compositions {#listing_bachs_compositions}
Some of the early biographies of Johann Sebastian Bach contain lists of his compositions. For instance, his obituary contains a list of the instrumental compositions printed during the composer\'s lifetime, followed by an approximate list of his unpublished work. The first separately published biography of the composer, by Johann Nikolaus Forkel, follows the same approach: its ninth chapter first lists printed works (adding four-part chorales which had been published in the second half of the 18th century), followed by a rough overview of the unpublished ones. In the first half of the 19th century more works were published, so the next biographies (Schauer and Hilgenfeldt in 1850) had more elaborate appendices listing printed works, referring to these works by publisher, and the number or page number given to the works in these publications. So, for example, the Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major can be indicated as \"C. F. Peters Vol. III No. 1\", or any of the variants (\"Griepenkerl and Roitzsch Vol. 3 p. 2\", \"Peters Book 242 p. 2\", \"P. S. V., Cah. 3 (242), No. 1\", etc.)
### BG
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Prelude in F minor of *The Well-Tempered Clavier* book 1, in the BGA known as Vol. 14, p. 44, over eighty years before it was given the number 857 in the *Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis* In the 2nd half of the 19th century the Bach-Gesellschaft (BG) published all Bach\'s works in around 50 volumes, the so-called Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe (BGA). This offered a unique identification of all Bach\'s known works, a system that was quickly adopted, for instance, by the biographers: Philipp Spitta used it complementarily to the Peters edition\'s numbering for the BG volumes that had appeared when he was writing his Bach-biography in the second half of the 19th century (e.g. \"B. G., III., p. 173\" for the above-mentioned Prelude in E-flat major), and Terry used it in the third Appendix to his 20th-century translation of Forkel\'s biography.
Despite this, there was still much confusion. Some authors preferred to list Bach\'s works according to Novello\'s editions, or Augener\'s, or Schirmer\'s, giving rise to various conversion tables at the end of books on Bach\'s compositions (e.g. [Harvey Grace\'s in a 1922 book on Bach\'s organ compositions](https://archive.org/stream/organworksofbach00grac#page/305/mode/1up)).
#### NBG
In 1900 the BG published its last volume, and dissolved itself, as its primary goal, publishing all of Bach\'s known works, was accomplished. The BG was succeeded by the Neue Bachgesellschaft (NBG), with a new set of goals (Bach yearbook, Bach festivals, and a Bach museum). Occasionally however the NBG published newly discovered works, or variants not published in the BGA. For instance the 1740s version of *O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht* was published in NBG XVII^1^ in 1916 (the 1730s version of the same piece, with a different orchestration, had been published in BG 24, pp. 185--192).
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## Listing Bach\'s compositions {#listing_bachs_compositions}
### BWV
In 1950 the *Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis* was published, allocating a unique number to every known composition by Bach. Wolfgang Schmieder, the editor of that catalogue, grouped the compositions by genre, largely following BG for the collation (e.g. BG cantata number = BWV number of the cantata): thumb\|upright=1.2\|The BWV is a thematic catalogue, thus it identifies every movement of every composition by its first measures, like the opening of BWV 1006, movement 2 (Loure) above.
1. Kantaten (Cantatas), BWV 1--224
2. Motetten (Motets), BWV 225--231
3. Messen, Messensätze, Magnificat (Masses, Mass movements, Magnificat), BWV 232--243
4. Passionen, Oratorien (Passions, Oratorios), BWV 244--249
5. Vierstimmige Choräle (Four-part chorales), BWV 250--438
6. Lieder, Arien, Quodlibet (Songs, Arias and Quodlibet), BWV 439--524
7. Werke für Orgel (Works for organ), BWV 525--771
8. Werke für Klavier (Keyboard compositions), BWV 772--994
9. Werke für Laute (Lute compositions), BWV 995--1000
10. Kammermusik (Chamber music), BWV 1001--1040
11. Orchesterwerke (Works for orchestra), BWV 1041--1071, originally in two separate chapters: Concertos (BWV 1041--1065) and Overtures (BWV 1066--1071)
12. Kanons (Canons), BWV 1072--1078
13. Musikalisches Opfer, Kunst der Fuge (Musical Offering, Art of the Fugue), BWV 1079--1080
For instance, the Prelude and Fugue in E-flat major now became BWV 552, situated in the range of the works for organ. In contrast to other catalogues such as the Köchel catalogue for Mozart\'s compositions there is no attempt at chronological organization in the BWV numbering, for instance BWV 992 is an early composition by Bach. Exceptionally BWV numbers are also indicated as Schmieder (S) numbers (e.g. S. 225 = BWV 225).
Another consequence of the ordering principles of the BWV was that it tore known collections apart, for instance Clavier-Übung III was partly in the organ compositions range (BWV 552 and 669--689), with the four duets listed among the keyboard compositions (BWV 802--805).
#### BWV Anh. {#bwv_anh.}
The Anhang (Anh.), i.e. Appendix, of the BWV listed works that were not suitable for the main catalogue, in three sections:
- I -- lost works, or works of which only a tiny fraction had survived (Anh. 1--23)
- II -- works of dubious authenticity (Anh. 24--155)
- III -- works that were once attributed to Bach, but for which it had been established they were not composed by him (Anh. 156--189)
Within each section of the Anhang the works are sorted by genre, following the same sequence of genres as the main catalogue.
Schmieder published the BWV\'s second edition in 1990, with some modifications regarding authenticity discriminations, and more works added to the main catalogue and the Anhang. A strict numerical collation was abandoned to insert additions, or when for another reason compositions were regrouped. For example, BWV 11, formerly listed as a Cantata, was moved to the fourth chapter of the main catalogue as an Oratorio. Rather than renumbering a composition, an arrow indicated where the composition was inserted: \"`{{nobreak|BWV 11/249b→}}`{=mediawiki}\" meaning \"BWV 11, inserted after BWV 249b\" (4th chapter). Similarly, `{{nobreak|BWV 1083/243a→}}`{=mediawiki} meant BWV 1083, inserted after BWV 243a (3rd chapter). Also authenticity discriminations, based on new research, could lead to such repositionings within the catalogue, e.g. \"`{{nobreak|BWV Anh. II 114}}`{=mediawiki}\" became \"`{{nobreak|Anh. II 114/Anh. III 183→}}`{=mediawiki} indicating it was now considered a spurious work.
In 1998 Alfred Dürr and Yoshitake Kobayashi published a small edition of the catalogue, based on the 1990 second edition. This edition, known as BWV^2a^, contained a few further updates and collation rearrangements.
New additions (Nachträge) to BWV^2^/BWV^2a^ included:
- BWV 1081--1126
- BWV Anh. 190--213
A few exceptions to the principle that compositions were not renumbered were when a composition from the Anhang could be recovered or authenticated as Bach\'s, so that it deserved a place in the main catalogue, in which case it was given a number above 1080. So, for example, BWV Anh. 205 (BWV^2^) → BWV 1121 (BWV^2a^, where it is in section 7 as a work for organ).
Other renumberings and additional numbers involved alternative or earlier versions of basically the same composition, which were indicated by adding a lower case letter to the BWV number. Examples:
- BWV 243a: 1723 E`{{flat}}`{=mediawiki} major version of the 1733 Magnificat in D major BWV 243
- BWV 1071 renumbered to BWV 1046a (early version of the first *Brandenburg Concerto*)
- BWV Anh. 198 renumbered to BWV 149/1a (earlier abandoned version of the opening movement of Cantata BWV 149)
Some versions were completely removed from the catalogue, e.g. BWV 655b and c.
Slashes indicate movements: e.g. BWV 149/1 indicates the first movement of the Cantata BWV 149. Another example: the Agnus Dei of the Mass in B minor can be indicated as BWV 232/22 (22nd movement of the composition), or alternatively as BWV 232^IV^/4 (BWV 232, fourth movement of Part IV).
#### 21st-century additions {#st_century_additions}
Numbers above BWV 1126 were added in the 21st century.
#### Reconstructed versions {#reconstructed_versions}
An upper case R added to a BWV number indicates a reconstructed version, that is a conjectured earlier version of a known composition. One of such reconstructions, the Concerto for oboe and violin, as published in NBA VII/7 (Supplement) p. 75, based on the double harpsichord concerto BWV 1060, is known as BWV 1060R.
#### BWV^3^
As of mid-2018 the Bach digital website started to implement the new numbers of the 3rd edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis, which has been announced for publication in 2020. For example, the Leipzig version of the *Christ lag in Todes Banden* cantata used to be BWV 4 in previous versions of the catalogue, and, in BWV^3^, has become BWV 4.2.
### NBA
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The NBA illustrates its score editions with facsimiles from manuscripts or contemporary editions: for instance NBA Series IV Volume 4 (*Clavier-Übung III*) contains a facsimile of the title page of the 1739 first edition of that collection. In the meantime, the New Bach Edition (Neue Bach-Ausgabe, abbreviated as NBA) was being published, offering a new system to refer to Bach\'s works, e.g. `{{nobreak|NBA IV/4: 2, 105}}`{=mediawiki}, which is Series IV, Volume 4, p. 2 (Prelude) and p. 105 (Fugue), for BWV 552.
#### NBArev
Some years after the completion of the NBA in 2007 its publisher Bärenreiter joined with the Bach Archive again to publish revised editions of some of Bach\'s scores. These revised editions, aligning with the NBA editions (format, layout), but outside that group of publications, were published under the name Johann Sebastian Bach: New Edition of the Complete Works -- Revised Edition (Johann Sebastian Bach: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke -- Revidierte Edition), in short: New Bach Edition -- Revised (Neue Bach-Ausgabe -- Revidierte Edition), abbreviated as NBArev. Where the original NBA editions were exclusively in German, the volumes of the Revised series have their introductions both in German and English. Its first volume, NBArev 1, was a new edition of the Mass in B minor, appearing in 2010.
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# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Listing Bach\'s compositions {#listing_bachs_compositions}
### BC
The Bach Compendium (BC), a catalogue covering Bach\'s vocal works was published in 1985. Occasionally works that have no BWV number can be identified by their BC number, e.g. BC C 8 for \"Der Gerechte kömmt um\" an arrangement attributed to Bach on stylistic grounds, however unmentioned in the BWV.
### BNB
Bachs Notenbibliothek (BNB) is a list of works Bach had at his disposition. Works of other composers which were arranged by Bach or which he (had) copied for performance usually have a BNB number.
### SBB
The Berlin State Library (Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin = SBB) holds an important collection of composition manuscripts relating to Bach. Some versions of works are best known by their principal manuscript in the SBB, for instance `{{nobreak|BWV 525a}}`{=mediawiki} = `{{nobreak|SBB ''St 345''}}`{=mediawiki}, or according to the abbreviations used at the Bach-digital website [`{{nobreak|D-B Mus. ms. Bach ''St 345''}}`{=mediawiki}](http://www.bach-digital.de/receive/BachDigitalSource_source_00002542).
### By opus number, and chronological lists {#by_opus_number_and_chronological_lists}
thumb\|upright=1.20\|Title page of Bach\'s Opus 1 (*Clavier-Übung I*, 1731), the only time he seems to have used an opus number Apart from indicating his first published keyboard composition as Opus 1, Bach did not use opus numbers. Lists following publication chronologies are for example implied in the first list in Bach\'s obituary, and BG numbers (within the BGA sequence of publication) -- overall lists covering all of Bach\'s compositions in order of first publication are however not a way Bach\'s compositions are usually presented.
Listing Bach\'s works according to their time of composition cannot be done comprehensively: for many works the period in which they were composed is a very wide range. For Bach\'s larger vocal works (cantatas, Passions,\...) research has led to some more or less generally accepted chronologies, covering most of these works: a catalogue in this sense is Philippe (and Gérard) Zwang\'s list giving a chronological number to the cantatas BWV 1--215 and 248--249. This list was published in 1982 as *Guide pratique des cantates de Bach* in Paris, `{{ISBN|2-221-00749-2}}`{=mediawiki}. A revised edition was published in 2005 (`{{ISBN|2747598888}}`{=mediawiki}).
### Other composers {#other_composers}
Various catalogues with works by other composers have intersections with collections of works associated with Bach:
BR-WFB (or) BR : Bach-Repertorium numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g. BWV 970 = BR A49
: Other BRs:
- **BR-CPEB**: works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (for this composer Helm or Wotquenne numbers are however more often used)
- **BR-JCFB**: works by Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach
Fk (or) F : Falck catalogue numbers for works by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach, e.g. BWV 970 = F 25/2\
H : Helm numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g. BWV 1036 = H 569\
HWV : Works by George Frideric Handel, e.g. BWV Anh. 106 = HWV 605\
TWV : Compositions by Georg Philipp Telemann, e.g. BWV 824 = TWV 32:14\
Warb (or) W : Warburton numbers for works by Johann Christian Bach, e.g. `{{nobreak|BWV Anh. II 131}}`{=mediawiki} = W A22 (or: `{{nobreak|Warb A 22}}`{=mediawiki})\
Wq : Wotquenne numbers for works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, e.g. BWV 1036 = Wq 145
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# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Works in Bach\'s catalogues and collections {#works_in_bachs_catalogues_and_collections}
There are over 1500 works that feature in a catalogue of works by Bach, like the *Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis*, or in a collection of works associated with Bach (e.g. in one of the *Notebooks for Anna Magdalena Bach*). Of these around a thousand are original compositions by Bach, that is: more than a mere copy or transcription of an earlier work by himself or another composer.
BWV (original ranges in parentheses)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
`{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 2|2. Motets]] (225–231) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 3|3. Masses, Mass movements, Magnificat]] (232–243) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 4|4. Passions, Oratorios]] (244–249) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 5|5. Four-part chorales]] (250–438) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 6|6. Songs, Arias and Quodlibet]] (439–524) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 7|7. Works for organ]] (525–771) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 8|8. Keyboard compositions]] (772–994) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 9|9. Lute compositions]] (995–1000) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 10|10. Chamber music]] (1001–1040) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 11|11. Works for orchestra]] (1041–1071) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 12|12. Canons]] (1072–1078) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Chapter 13|13. ''Musical Offering'', ''The Art of Fugue'']] (1079–1080) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Later|Later additions]] (1081–...) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#Reconstructions|Reconstructions]]}}`{=mediawiki}
BWV Anhang (Appendix)
`{{nobreak|[[#BWV Anhang II|II: Doubtful (24–155)]] •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Anhang III|III: Spurious]] (156–189) •}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nobreak|[[#BWV Anhang New|N: Nachträge]] (New additions, 190–213)}}`{=mediawiki}
Not in BWV (BWV deest)
Sorted by BC, BGA, BNB, NBA, etc.
: Table sections (collated as in BWV^2a^ for BWV 1--1126 and Anhang)
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Without resorting the table (i.e. collection kept together in BWV^2a^) |
+======================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| • `{{nobreak|[[#Christmas Oratorio|''Christmas Oratorio'', BWV 248]]}}`{=mediawiki} • `{{nobreak|[[#Goldberg Variations|''Clavier-Übung IV'' = ''Goldberg Variations'' BWV 988]]}}`{=mediawiki} • `{{nobreak|[[#Inventions BWV 772–786|Inventions BWV 772–786]]}}`{=mediawiki} • `{{nobreak|[[#Sinfonias BWV 787–801|Sinfonias BWV 787–801]]}}`{=mediawiki} • `{{nobreak|[[#Sonatas and partitas for solo violin|Sonatas and partitas for solo violin BWV 1001–1006]]}}`{=mediawiki} |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Using the sort function (not available in all browsers) |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| - Cantatas by function (Advent I → Trinity XXVII; other Feasts, celebrations and church services; Secular cantatas): sort by NBA → **I/1** |
| - *Clavier-Übung I* (1731): sort by NBA → **V/1** |
| - *Clavier-Übung II* (1735): sort by NBA → **V/2** |
| - *Clavier-Übung III* (1739): sort by NBA → **IV/4** |
| - Kirnberger collection of chorale preludes: sort by BWV → **BWV 690** |
| - Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1720): sort by NBA → **V/5** |
| - *Twelve Little Preludes*: sort by BG → **36: 118** |
| - *Neumeister Chorales* by J. S. Bach (without BWV 601, 639, 719, 723, 737 and 751): sort by NBA → **IV/9** |
| - Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (1722): sort by Name → ***Notebook A. M. Bach* (1722)** |
| - Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach (1725): sort by Name → ***Notebook A. M. Bach* (1725)** |
| - Vivaldi arrangements: sort by Additional info → **after Vivaldi** |
| - *The Well-Tempered Clavier* book I (1722): sort by BG → **Vol. 14** |
| - *The Well-Tempered Clavier* book II (1739--1742): sort by NBA → **V/6.2** |
| - *The Well-Tempered Clavier* book II (1744): sort by BG → **14: 91** |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Collections
\|- id=\"BWV Chapter 1\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0000.z99\" \| **1.** \| data-sort-value=\"001.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Cantatas (see also: List of Bach cantatas, Church cantata (Bach) and List of secular cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"0000a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:Bach cantata}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 2\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0224.z99\" \| **2.** \| data-sort-value=\"228.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Motets (see also: List of motets by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"0281a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:List of motets by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} `{{:List of masses, passions and oratorios by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 5\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0249.z99\" \| **5.** \| data-sort-value=\"284.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Four-part chorales (see also: List of chorale harmonisations by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"0319a\" \| Up ↑ \|- id=\"Three wedding chorales\" style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0250.000\" \| 250 \| data-sort-value=\"284.002\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1736-07-01\" \| 1734--1738 \| chorale setting \"Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan\" (Three wedding chorales No. 1) \| \| data-sort-value=\"SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc\" \| SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc \| data-sort-value=\"000.13 1: 147\" \| 13^1^: 147 \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 000a\" \| III/2.1: 3 \| text by Rodigast \| `{{BDW|0320}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0251.000\" \| 251 \| data-sort-value=\"284.003\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1736-07-01\" \| 1734--1738 \| chorale setting \"Sei Lob und Ehr dem höchsten Gut\" (Three wedding chorales No. 2) \| \| data-sort-value=\"SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc\" \| SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc \| data-sort-value=\"000.13 1: 148\" \| 13^1^: 148 \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 000b\" \| III/2.1: 4 \| text by Schütz, J. J. \| `{{BDW|0321}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0252.000\" \| 252 \| data-sort-value=\"284.004\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1736-07-01\" \| 1734--1738 \| chorale setting \"Nun danket alle Gott\" (Three wedding chorales No. 3) \| \| data-sort-value=\"SATB Hnx2 Ob Oba Str Bc\" \| SATB 2Hn Ob Oba Str Bc \| data-sort-value=\"000.13 1: 149\" \| 13^1^: 149 \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 000c\" \| III/2.1: 5 \| text by Rinkart \| `{{BDW|0322}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Chorale harmonisations BWV 253–438}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0500.a00\" \| 500a \| data-sort-value=\"302.003\" \| 5. \| 1726-04-19 \| chorale setting \"So gehst du nun, mein Jesu, hin\" (in Bach\'s Leipzig versions of *St Mark Passion* attributed to Keiser) \| \| SATB Str Bc \| \| data-sort-value=\"II/09: 075\" \| II/9: 75 \| text by `{{Interlanguage link multi|Friedrich Nachtenhöfer|de|3=Kaspar Friedrich Nachtenhöfer|lt=Nachtenhöfer}}`{=mediawiki}; ↔ BWV 500 \| `{{BDW|0571}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1084.000\" \| 1084 \| data-sort-value=\"302.004\" \| 5. \| 1726-04-19 \| chorale setting \"O hilf Christe, Gottes Sohn\" (in Bach\'s Leipzig versions of *St Mark Passion* attributed to Keiser) \| \| SATB Str Bc \| \| data-sort-value=\"II/09: 076\" \| II/9: 76 \| text by Weiße; after BC D 5a/14 \| `{{BDW|1270}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"1089.000\" \| 1089 \| data-sort-value=\"302.006\" \| 5. \| \| chorale setting \"Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund\" \| \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 2: 216\" \| III/2.2: 216 \| text by `{{Interlanguage link multi|Georg Lilius|de|3=Georg Lilien|lt=Lilius}}`{=mediawiki} \| `{{BDW|1275}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #F6E3CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1122.000\" \| 1122 \| data-sort-value=\"303.003\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1730-01-01\" \| c. 1735 or earlier \| chorale setting \"Denket doch, ihr Menschenkinder\" \| F maj. \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 038\" \| III/2.1: 31\
III/2.2: 217 \| text by Hübner? \| `{{BDW|1720}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #F6E3CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1123.000\" \| 1123 \| data-sort-value=\"303.004\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1730-01-01\" \| c. 1735 or earlier \| chorale setting \"Wo Gott zum Haus gibt nicht sein Gunst\" \| G maj. \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 050\" \| III/2.1: 40 \| data-sort-value=\"after Z 0305; text by Kolross\" \| after Z 305; text by Kolross \| `{{BDW|1721}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #F6E3CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1124.000\" \| 1124 \| data-sort-value=\"303.005\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1730-01-01\" \| c. 1735 or earlier \| chorale setting \"Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ\" \| E min. \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 069\" \| III/2.1: 51 \| after Z 7400; text by Agricola, J. \| `{{BDW|1722}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #F6E3CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1125.000\" \| 1125 \| data-sort-value=\"303.006\" \| 5. \| data-sort-value=\"1730-01-01\" \| c. 1735 or earlier \| chorale setting \"O Gott, du frommer Gott\" \| D maj. \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 113\" \| III/2.1: 79 \| after Z 5206b; text by Heermann \| `{{BDW|1723}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"1126.000\" \| 1126 \| data-sort-value=\"303.007\" \| 5. \| \| chorale setting \"Lobet Gott, unsern Herren\" \| \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 2: 218\" \| III/2.2: 218 \| \| `{{BDW|1724}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 6\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0438.z99\" \| **6.** \| data-sort-value=\"304.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Songs, Arias and Quodlibet (see also: List of songs and arias of Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"0508a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:List of songs and arias by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 7\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0524.z99\" \| **7.** \| data-sort-value=\"311.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Works for organ (see also: List of organ compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"0596a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:List of organ compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} `{{:List of keyboard and lute compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 10\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1000.z99\" \| **10.** \| data-sort-value=\"411.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Chamber music (see also: List of chamber music works by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"1178aa\" \| Up ↑ `{{:List of chamber music works by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Chapter 11\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1040.z99\" \| **11.** \| data-sort-value=\"424.001\" colspan=\"8\" \| Works for orchestra (see also: List of orchestral works by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"1222a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:List of orchestral works by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} `{{:List of fugal works by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV Later\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"1080.z99\" \| **Later** \| data-sort-value=\"442.010\" colspan=\"8\" \| Later additions to the main catalogue (above BWV 1128: BWV^3^) \| data-sort-value=\"1266a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"Reconstructions\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A214.ZZZ999998\" \| **R** \| data-sort-value=\"448.153\" colspan=\"8\" \| Reconstructions (see also Reconstruction of music by Johann Sebastian Bach) \| data-sort-value=\"1524a\" \| Up ↑ `{{:Reconstruction of music by Johann Sebastian Bach}}`{=mediawiki} `{{:BWV Anh.}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"BWV deest\" style=\"background: #D8D8D8;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A214.ZZZ999999\" \| **---** \| data-sort-value=\"485.999\" colspan=\"8\" \|
------------------------------------------------------------------------
| 1,478 |
List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
| 3 |
15,910 |
# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Works in Bach\'s catalogues and collections {#works_in_bachs_catalogues_and_collections}
\| data-sort-value=\"1524b\" \| Up ↑ \|- \| data-sort-value=\"0655.B00\" \| 655b \| data-sort-value=\"500.001\" \| -- \| data-sort-value=\"1748-12-31\" \| 1708--1789 \| chorale setting \"Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend\" (alternative version \"a\" in BGA) \| \| Organ \| data-sort-value=\"000.25 2: 159\" \| 25^2^: 159 \| \| data-sort-value=\"after BWV 0655\" \| after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655c \| `{{BDW|0754}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"0655.C00\" \| 655c \| data-sort-value=\"500.002\" \| -- \| data-sort-value=\"1748-12-31\" \| 1708--1789 \| chorale setting \"Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend\" (alternative version \"b\" in BGA) \| \| Organ \| data-sort-value=\"000.25 2: 160\" \| 25^2^: 160 \| \| data-sort-value=\"after BWV 0655\" \| after BWV 655(a); ↔ 655b \| `{{BDW|0755}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"0813.A00\" \| 813a \| data-sort-value=\"500.010\" \| -- \| \| *French Suites*, No. 2 -- Version B (early version): No. 6 Menuet II \| C min. \| Keyboard \| data-sort-value=\"000.36: 236\" \| 36: 236 \| data-sort-value=\"V/08: 079\" \| V/8: 79 \| \| `{{BDW|0947}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BCC.008.000\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"503.080\" \| BC\
C 8 \| data-sort-value=\"1736-12-31\" \| 1723--1750?\
(JSB?) \| Motet *Der Gerechte kömmt um* (*Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt*/39; funer. motet?) \| E min. \| data-sort-value=\"SSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc\" \| SSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc \| \| I/41: 127 \| by Kuhnau? (*Tristis est\...*); arr. by Bach? \| `{{BDW|1532}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BCD.001.000\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"504.010\" \| BC\
D 1 \| data-sort-value=\"1717-03-28\" \| 1717-03-28? \| Passion *Weimarer Passion* \| \| data-sort-value=\"stbSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc\" \| ?stbSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc \| \| \| data-sort-value=\"→ BWV 0023/4\" \| → BWV 23/4 (and 55/3; 244/29; 245a--c; 283?) \| `{{BDW|1533}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BCD.005.A00\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"505.051\" \| BC\
D 5a \| data-sort-value=\"1712-12-31\" \| 1707 (Kei)\
before 1713\
(JSB) \| Passion *Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet* (*St Mark Passion* pastiche, Weimar version) \| \| SATB 2Vl 2Va Hc \| \| data-sort-value=\"II/9: 069\" \| II/9: 69 \| Pasticcio (Keiser G.?, Bach) \| `{{BDW|1534}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BCD.005.B00\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"505.052\" \| BC\
D 5b \| 1726-04-19\
(JSB) \| Passion *Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet* (*St Mark Passion* pastiche, 1st Leipzig version) \| \| SATB 2Vl 2Va Org \| \| II/9 \| Pasticcio after BC D 5a (Keiser G.?, Bach) adding BWV 500a and 1084) \| `{{BDW|1535}}`{=mediawiki} \|- \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BCD.010.000\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"505.100\" \| BC\
D 10 \| data-sort-value=\"1750-07-01\" \| c. 1750? \| Passion *Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt* \| D min. \| data-sort-value=\"satbSSATB Flx2 Obx2 Str Bc\" \| satbSSATB 2Fl 2Ob Str Bc \| \| data-sort-value=\"I/41: 095\" \| I/41: 95 \| Pasticcio (Graun, C. H.; Telemann; Bach; \...) \| `{{BDW|0991|1}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #F6E3CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"0008.107\" \| deest\
(8/6\*) \| data-sort-value=\"507.131\" \| BC F 131 .1c \| data-sort-value=\"1735-07-01\" \| c. 1735 \| chorale setting \"Liebster Gott, wenn werd ich sterben\" \| E♭ maj. \| SATB \| \| data-sort-value=\"III/02 1: 148\" \| III/2.1: 100 \| after Z 6634; text by Neumann \| `{{BDW|1072|1}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BGA.432.035\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"643.535\" \| BGA \| data-sort-value=\"1725-07-01\" \| 1725 (JSB) \| *Notebook A. M. Bach* (1725) No. 21 Menuet fait par Mons. Böhm \| G maj. \| Keyboard \| data-sort-value=\"000.43 2: 035\" \| 43^2^: 35 \| data-sort-value=\"V/04: 082\" \| V/4: 82 \| by Böhm \| \|- id=\"BNB I/B/48\" style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BNB.01B.048\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"710.248\" \| BNB\
I/B\
/48 \| data-sort-value=\"1738-07-01\" \| `{{nobreak|1709 (Bas.)}}`{=mediawiki}\
c. 1738\
(JSB) \| data-sort-value=\"Massx6\" \| 6 Masses without Benedictus and Agnus Dei from `{{Interlanguage link multi|Acroama missale|scores|3=Acroama missale (Bassani, Giovanni Battista)|lt=''Acroama missale''}}`{=mediawiki} \| \| data-sort-value=\"SATBx2 Tbnx3 Str Bc\" \| 2SATB 3Tbn Str Bc \| \| \| by Bassani; copied by Bach (BNB I/B/48), later adding BWV 1081 \| `{{BDW|8834}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id= \"BNB I/C/1\" style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BNB.01C.001\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"710.301\" \| BNB\
I/C/1 \| data-sort-value=\"1741-09-15\" \| 1740--1742 (JSB) \| Magnificat \| C maj. \| data-sort-value=\"SATB Tbnx4 Tmp Bc\" \| SATB 4Tbn Tmp Bc \| \| \| by Caldara; → BWV 1082; in [DBB 2755/1](http://www.bachdigital.de/receive/BachDigitalSource_source_00018350) \| `{{BDW|8841}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.BNB.01K.002\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"711.102\" \| BNB\
I/K/2 \| data-sort-value=\"1747-01-01\" \| before 1719\
(Han.)\
1743--1748\
(JSB) \| Passion *Jesus Christus ist um unsrer Missetat willen verwundet* (*St Mark Passion* pastiche, 2nd Leipzig version) \| \| stSATB 2Ob 2Bas 2Vl 2Va Vc Vne Hc \| \| II/9 \| Pasticcio after BC D 5b (Keiser G.?, Bach) and HWV 48/9 /23 /41 /44 /47 /52 /55 (Handel) \| `{{BDW|1680}}`{=mediawiki} \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.209.013\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"829.013\" \| NBA \| data-sort-value=\"1742-07-01\" \| `{{nobreak|1591 (Pal.)}}`{=mediawiki}\
c. 1742\
(JSB) \| Kyrie--Gloria Mass arranged from *Missa sine nomine* a 6 \| E min. \| SSATTB 2Co 4Tro Vne Hc Org \| \| data-sort-value=\"II/09: 013\" \| II/9: 13 \| by Palestrina after anon. motet *Beata Dei genitrix*; arr. by Bach \| `{{BDW|1676}}`{=mediawiki} \|- id=\"NBA V-5\" style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.505.002\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"855.002\" \| NBA \| 1720-01-22 \| data-sort-value=\"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 0\" \| Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3a: Claves signatae (introduction on clefs) \| \| \| data-sort-value=\"000.45 1: 213\" \| 45^1^: 213 \| data-sort-value=\"V/05: 002\" \| V/5 \| \| \|- style=\"background: #E3F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.505.003\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"855.003\" \| NBA \| 1720-01-22 \| data-sort-value=\"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 00\" \| Klavierbüchlein WFB, p. 3b: Explication\... (introduction on ornaments) \| \| \| data-sort-value=\"000.45 1: 213\" \| 45^1^: 213 \| data-sort-value=\"V/05: 003\" \| V/5 \| \| \|- style=\"background: #F5F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.505.040\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"855.040\" \| NBA \| data-sort-value=\"1720-07-01\" \| 1720 (WFB) \| data-sort-value=\"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 30\" \| Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 25: Pièce pour le Clavecin \| \| Keyboard \| data-sort-value=\"000.45 1: 218\" \| 45^1^: 218 \| data-sort-value=\"V/05: 040\" \| V/5: 40 \| by `{{Interlanguage link multi|Johann Christoph Richter|de|3=Johann Christoph Richter (Musiker)|lt=Richter, J. C.}}`{=mediawiki} \| \|- \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.505.045\" \| deest \| data-sort-value=\"855.045\" \| NBA \| data-sort-value=\"1720-07-01\" \| 1720 (anon) \| data-sort-value=\"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 30\" \| Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 30: Bass sketch \| G min. \| \| data-sort-value=\"000.45 1: 220\" \| 45^1^: 220 \| data-sort-value=\"V/05: 045\" \| V/5: 45 \| \| \|- style=\"background: #F5F6CE;\" \| data-sort-value=\"A215.NBA.505.087\" \| \| data-sort-value=\"855.087\" \| NBA \| data-sort-value=\"1720-07-01\" \| 1720 (WFB) \| data-sort-value=\"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach No. 48a-d\" \| Klavierbüchlein WFB No. 48^a--d^: Partita \| \| Keyboard \| data-sort-value=\"000.45 1: 223\" \| 45^1^: 223 \| data-sort-value=\"V/05: 087\" \| V/5: 82 \| by Stölzel \| \|} `{{Bach's compositions (scoring)}}`{=mediawiki}
| 1,050 |
List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
| 4 |
15,910 |
# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Works in Bach\'s catalogues and collections {#works_in_bachs_catalogues_and_collections}
### By genre {#by_genre}
#### Cantatas (BWV 1--224) {#cantatas_bwv_1224}
: *See #BWV Chapter 1 in the table above*
In the 1950 first edition of the BWV the cantatas were largely listed according to their BGA number:
- BWV 1--200: Church cantatas
- BWV 201--216: Secular cantatas
- BWV 217--224: Cantatas with various issues (lost, incomplete, spurious, doubtful)
Additionally Anh. I of the first edition of the BWV started with a list of some 20 lost cantatas, while Anh. III of that edition listed a few cantata (movements) by other composers (Anh. 156--158).
BWV^2a^ added many more lost cantatas (BWV Anh. 190--199 and 209--212) and alternative versions to known works indicating (partially) lost cantatas or cantata versions, e.g. BWV 244a, the music of which was partially preserved in the *St Matthew Passion*, BWV 244.
#### Motets (BWV 225--231) {#motets_bwv_225231}
: *See #BWV Chapter 2 in the table above*
There are over a dozen motets attributed to Bach, about half of which are authentic by all accounts:
- BWV 225--230 are the six compositions that have always been considered motets composed by Bach
- BWV 231 was later renumbered to BWV 28/2a, a variant of the second movement of cantata BWV 28
- BWV 118, published as a cantata in the 19th century, was later recategorised as a motet, following Bach\'s designation on the score.
- BWV Anh. 159--165 are motets with a doubtful or spurious assignation to Bach, the first of which is however most likely composed by Bach.
#### Liturgical works in Latin (BWV 232--243) {#liturgical_works_in_latin_bwv_232243}
: *See #BWV Chapter 3 in the table above*
Bach\'s involvement with Latin church music, as composer, arranger or copyist, includes:
- BWV 232--242: Masses and Mass movements (Mass in B minor; Kyrie--Gloria Masses; separate Mass movements)
- BWV 243: Magnificat
- BWV 1081--1083: later additions to the BWV catalogue
- BWV Anh. 24--30, 166--168: doubtful and spurious works
- BNB I/B/48, I/C/1, I/P/2: copies and arrangements
#### Passions and oratorios (BWV 244--249) {#passions_and_oratorios_bwv_244249}
: *See #BWV Chapter 4 in the table above*
Passions and oratorios composed or contributed to by Bach include:
- BWV 244--247: Passions (*St Matthew Passion*; *St John Passion*; *St Luke Passion*; *St Mark Passion*)
- BWV 248--249: Oratorios (*Christmas Oratorio*; *Easter Oratorio*)
- BWV 11: *Ascension Oratorio*
- BWV 127/1, 500a, 1084, 1088, deest: *St Mark Passion* (attributed to Keiser), *Weimarer Passion*, *Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt*
- BWV Anh. 169: passion text by Picander (not set by Bach, apart from using some parts of this text in his *St Matthew Passion*)
#### Four-part chorales (BWV 250--438) {#four_part_chorales_bwv_250438}
: *See #BWV Chapter 5 in the table above*
Bach\'s chorale settings (usually for SATB choir) are included in:
- BWV 250--438: separate chorale settings
- Cantatas (most prominently in the chorale cantatas), motets, passions, oratorios, Second *Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach*
- BWV 1089, 1122--1126: later additions to the BWV catalogue
- BWV Anh. 31, 201--204: doubtful and spurious
#### Songs and arias (BWV 439--524) {#songs_and_arias_bwv_439524}
: *See #BWV Chapter 6 in the table above*
Songs and (separate) arias by Bach are included in several collections:
- BWV 439--507: *Schemellis Gesangbuch*
- BWV 508--518: Second *Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach*
- BWV 519--523: [D-B Mus. ms. Bach P 802, a manuscript](http://www.bachdigital.de/receive/BachDigitalSource_source_00001776) by Johann Ludwig Krebs
- BWV Anh. 32--39: *Deutsche Übersetzungen und Gedichte* (doubtful)
- BWV Anh. 40--41: *Singende Muse an der Pleiße* (doubtful)
Associated with the Songs and Arias group:
- BWV 524: (Wedding) Quodlibet for four voices (incomplete)
- BWV 1127: \"Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn\' ihn\" (strophic aria rediscovered in 2005)
#### Works for organ (BWV 525--771) {#works_for_organ_bwv_525771}
: *See #BWV Chapter 7 in the table above*
Bach\'s organ compositions include:
- BWV 525--530: Sonatas
- BWV 531--582: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Toccata/Adagio/Passacaglia or Fugue
- BWV 583--591: various free organ compositions (Trios/Aria/Canzona/Allabreve/Pastorale/*Kleines harmonisches Labyrinth*)
- BWV 592--597: Concertos (transcriptions)
- BWV 598: *Pedal-Exercitium*
- BWV 599--764: Chorale preludes (*Orgelbüchlein*; *Schübler Chorales*; *Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes* or *Leipzig Chorales*; Chorale preludes from *Clavier-Übung III*; Kirnberger chorale preludes; other chorale preludes)
- BWV 765--768: Chorale partitas
- BWV 769--771: Chorale variations (includes Canonic Variations on \"Vom Himmel hoch da komm\' ich her\")
- BWV 1085--1087, 1121, 1128: various later additions to the BWV catalogue
- BWV 1090--1120: Neumeister Chorales
- BWV Anh. 42--79, 171--178, 200, 206, 208, 213: lost, doubtful and spurious organ pieces
#### Works for keyboard (BWV 772--994) {#works_for_keyboard_bwv_772994}
: *See #BWV Chapter 8 in the table above*
Bach\'s works for harpsichord, clavichord and other keyboard instruments include:
- BWV 772--801: Inventions and Sinfonias
- BWV 802--805: Duets from *Clavier-Übung III*
- BWV 806--845: Suites and suite movements (*English Suites*; *French Suites*; Partitas = *Clavier-Übung I*; *Overture in the French style* from *Clavier-Übung II*; etc.)
- BWV 846--893: *The Well-Tempered Clavier* (book I, book II)
- BWV 894--962: compositions of the type Prelude/Fantasia/Concerto/Toccata or Fugue/Fughetta (includes Chromatic Fantasia and Fugue, *Six Little Preludes*, several parts of the *Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach*, etc.)
- BWV 963--970: Sonatas and sonata movements
- BWV 971--987: Concertos (includes *Italian Concerto* from *Clavier-Übung II* and various concerto transcriptions)
- BWV 988--991: Variations (includes *Goldberg Variations* = *Clavier-Übung IV* and *Aria variata alla maniera italiana*)
- BWV 992--994: Capriccios and Applicatio (includes *Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother*)
#### Works for solo lute (BWV 995--1000) {#works_for_solo_lute_bwv_9951000}
: *See #BWV Chapter 9 in the table above*
Bach\'s compositions for lute or lute-harpsichord (Lautenwerck) include:
- BWV 995--1000 suites and separate movements for lute or lute-harpsichord
- BWV 1006a: transcription of BWV 1006
#### Chamber music (BWV 1001--1040) {#chamber_music_bwv_10011040}
: *See #BWV Chapter 10 in the table above*
Bach wrote chamber music for solo violin, cello or flute, sonatas for harpsichord and an instrumental soloist, and trio sonatas:
- BWV 1001--1006: Sonatas and partitas for solo violin
- BWV 1007--1012: Cello Suites
- BWV 1013: Partita for solo flute
- BWV 1014--1026: works for accompanied violin (sonatas, suite for violin and harpsichord; sonatas, fugue for violin and basso continuo)
- BWV 1027--1029: sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord
- BWV 1030--1035: sonatas for accompanied flute (sonatas for flute and harpsichord; sonatas for flute and basso continuo)
- BWV 1036--1040: trio sonatas
#### Orchestral works (BWV 1041--1071) {#orchestral_works_bwv_10411071}
: *See #BWV Chapter 11 in the table above*
Bach wrote concertos and orchestral suites:
- BWV 1041--1045: Violin concertos (in A minor, in E major, *Double Concerto*); *Triple Concerto*; Concerto movement/Sinfonia fragment
- BWV 1046--1051: *Brandenburg Concertos*
- BWV 1052--1065: Harpsichord concertos
- BWV 1066--1071: Orchestral suites and Sinfonia (early version of BWV 1046)
#### Canons (BWV 1072--1078) {#canons_bwv_10721078}
: *See #BWV Chapter 12 in the table above*
Separate canons by Bach are listed in the 12th chapter of the BWV:
- BWV 1072--1078: canons
- BWV 1086--1087: later additions
#### Late contrapuntal works (BWV 1079--1080) {#late_contrapuntal_works_bwv_10791080}
: *See #BWV Chapter 13 in the table above*
The list of late contrapuntal works contains only two items:
- BWV 1079: *The Musical Offering*
- BWV 1080: *The Art of Fugue*
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# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Works in Bach\'s catalogues and collections {#works_in_bachs_catalogues_and_collections}
### 20th-century additions to the BWV catalogue and Anhang {#th_century_additions_to_the_bwv_catalogue_and_anhang}
Additions as published in BWV^2a^
#### Additions to the main catalogue (BWV 1081--1126) {#additions_to_the_main_catalogue_bwv_10811126}
- BWV 1081 -- Credo in unum Deum in F major (for choir), included in Chapter 3 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1082 -- Suscepit Israel by Antonio Caldara (for choir), as copied by Bach; Included in Chapter 3 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1083 -- Tilge, Höchster, meine Sünden (motet, \"parody\", i.e., reworked version, of Pergolesi\'s Stabat Mater), included in Chapter 3 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1084 -- O hilf, Christe, Gottes Sohn (chorale from Bach\'s Leipzig versions of the *St Mark Passion* attributed to Keiser), included in Chapter 5 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1085 -- O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (chorale prelude), included in Chapter 7 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1086 -- Canon *Concordia discors*, included in Chapter 12 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1087 -- 14 canons on the First Eight Notes of Goldberg Variations Ground (discovered 1974), included in Chapter 12 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1088 -- \"So heb ich denn mein Auge sehnlich auf\" (arioso for bass), No. 20 in *Wer ist der, so von Edom kömmt* (pasticcio Passion oratorio); Included in Chapter 4 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1089 -- Da Jesus an dem Kreutze stund (four-part chorale), included in Chapter 5 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1090--1120 -- 31 chorale preludes for organ from the Neumeister Collection, discovered in 1985 in the archives of the Yale University library; Included in Chapter 7 in BWV^2a^, except for BWV 1096, attributed to Johann Pachelbel, which was moved to Anh. III (spurious works).
- BWV 1121, previously Anh. 205 -- Fantasie in C minor (organ), included in Chapter 7 in BWV^2a^
- BWV 1122--1126 -- five four-part chorales, moved to Chapter 5 in BWV^2a^
#### Additions to the Anhang (BWV Anh. 190--213) {#additions_to_the_anhang_bwv_anh._190213}
BWV Anh. 190--213 were added between the 1950 and 1990s editions of the catalogue
- BWV Anh. 190--197 -- Cantatas added to Anh. I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas
- BWV Anh. 198 -- Abandoned sketch of a cantata opening, renumbered to BWV 149/1a and added to Chapter 1 in BWV^2a^
- BWV Anh. 199 -- Cantata added to Anh. I (music lost); see also List of Bach cantatas
- BWV Anh. 200 -- Fragment of a chorale prelude *O Traurigkeit, o herzeleid*, added to Anh. I (unused sketch for the *Orgelbüchlein*)
- BWV Anh. 201--204 -- Four-part chorales added to Anh. II (doubtful)
- BWV Anh. 205 -- Fantasia in C minor, authenticated as BWV 1121 and added to Chapter 7 in BWV^2a^
- BWV Anh. 206 -- Doubtful chorale prelude, added to Anh. II
- BWV Anh. 207 -- Doubtful keyboard fugue, added to Anh. II
- BWV Anh. 208 -- Spurious organ fugue, added to Anh. III
- BWV Anh. 209--212 -- Lost cantatas added to Anh. I; see also List of Bach cantatas
- BWV Anh. 213 -- Lost arrangement for organ of an unidentified Telemann concerto, added to Anh. I
### 21st-century additions to the BWV catalogue (BWV 1127 and higher) {#st_century_additions_to_the_bwv_catalogue_bwv_1127_and_higher}
: *See also #BWV Later in the table above*
BWV numbers assigned after the publication of BWV^2a^:
- BWV 1127: strophic aria \"Alles mit Gott und nichts ohn\' ihn\" (discovered June 2005)
- BWV Anh. 71, renumbered to BWV 1128: chorale fantasia for organ \"Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns hält\" (`{{nobreak|BWV Anh. II 71}}`{=mediawiki} was authenticated as a composition by Bach after Wilhelm Rust\'s 1877 copy was recovered in March 2008)
- BWV 1129 and higher: BWV^3^ numbers, see BWV#Numbers above BWV 1126
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# List of compositions by Johann Sebastian Bach
## Derivative works {#derivative_works}
There is not much system in the way works derived from Bach\'s compositions are listed. The \"R\" addition to the BWV number is only well-established for the reconstructions included in NBA VII/7 (e.g. solo violin reconstructions of BWV 565 are not usually indicated as BWV 565R, neither is the system used for reconstructed vocal works). For some series of transcriptions and arrangements works catalogues of these transcribers/arrangers may hold sublists with works derived from compositions by Bach.
### Reconstructed concertos {#reconstructed_concertos}
: *See also #Reconstructions in the table above*
Each reconstructed concerto is created after the harpsichord concerto for the presumed original instrument. Such reconstructions are commonly referred to as, for example, BWV 1052R (where the R stands for \'reconstructed\'). Other reconstructions and completions of for instance BWV 1059 have been indicated as BWV 1059, or BWV 1059a.
### Adaptations
Transcriptions and arrangements in the catalogues of works by other composers include:
Ferruccio Busoni: Catalogue numbers BV B 20 to B 46 are arrangements of works by Bach, many of which published in the Bach-Busoni Editions
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# June 16
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# Jack L. Chalker
**Jack Laurence Chalker** (December 17, 1944 -- February 11, 2005) was an American science fiction author. Chalker was also a Baltimore City Schools history teacher in Maryland for 12 years, retiring during 1978 to write full-time. He also was a member of the Washington Science Fiction Association and was involved in the founding of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society.
## Career and family life {#career_and_family_life}
Chalker was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland. Some of his books said that he was born in Norfolk, Virginia although he later claimed that was a mistake; he attended high school at the Baltimore City College. Chalker earned a BA degree in English from Towson University in Towson, Maryland, where he was a theater critic for the school newspaper, *The Towerlight*. During 2003, Towson University named Chalker their Liberal Arts Alumnus of the Year. He received a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
Chalker intended to become a lawyer, but financial problems caused him to become a teacher instead. He taught history and geography in the Baltimore City Public Schools from 1966 to 1978, most notably at Baltimore City College and the now defunct Southwestern Senior High School. Chalker lectured on science fiction and technology at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and numerous universities.
Chalker was a member of the Maryland Air National Guard\'s 135th Special Operations Group, where he was a member of the group information office. He was deployed into Baltimore during the Baltimore riot of 1968.
Chalker was married in 1978 and had two children, David, a game designer, and Samantha, a computer security consultant.
Chalker\'s hobbies included esoteric audio, travel, and working on science-fiction convention committees. He also had a great interest in ferryboats; at his fiancée\'s suggestion, their marriage was performed on the Roaring Bull boat, part of the Millersburg Ferry, in the middle of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania.
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# Jack L. Chalker
## Science fiction {#science_fiction}
Chalker joined the Washington Science Fiction Association in 1958, and in 1963, he and two friends founded the Baltimore Science Fiction Society. Chalker attended every World Science Fiction Convention, except one, from 1965 until 2004.
Chalker contributed a chapter to *The New H. P. Lovecraft Bibliography* in 1962; he published his first novel, *A Jungle of Stars*, in 1976.
He founded an amateur SF journal, *Mirage*, in 1960. He ran the fanzine until 1971 (a finalist nominee for the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Fanzine), producing ten issues. Another journal, *Interjection*, was published 1968--1987 in association with the Fantasy Amateur Press Association. Chalker also initiated a publishing house, Mirage Press, Ltd., for releasing nonfiction and bibliographic works concerning science fiction and fantasy.
Chalker\'s awards included the Daedalus Award (1983), The Gold Medal of the West Coast Review of Books (1984), Skylark Award (1980), and the Hamilton-Brackett Memorial Award (1979). He was twice a nominee for the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer and for the Hugo Award twice. Chalker was posthumously awarded the Phoenix Award by the Southern Fandom Confederation on April 9, 2005.
Chalker was a three-term treasurer of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. Chalker was also the co-author (with Mark Owings) of *The Science Fantasy Publishers* (third edition during 1991, updated annually), published by Mirage Press, Ltd, a bibliographic guide to genre small press publishers which was a Hugo Award nominee during 1992. The Maryland Young Writers Contest, sponsored by the Baltimore Science Fiction Society, was renamed \"\'The Jack L. Chalker Young Writers Contest\" effective April 8, 2006.
### Novels
Chalker is best known for his *Well World* series of novels, but he also wrote many other novels (most, but not all, part of a series, or large novels which were split into \'series\' by the publishers), and at least nine short stories.
Many of Chalker\'s works involve some physical transformation of the main characters. For instance, in the *Well World* novels, immigrants to the Well World are transformed from their original form to become a member of one of the 1,560 sentient species that inhabit that artificial planet. Another example would be that the *Wonderland Gambit* series resembles traditional Buddhist jataka-type reincarnation stories set in a science fiction environment. Samantha Chalker announced that *Wonderland Gambit* might be made into a movie, but supposedly its close resemblance to *The Matrix* resulted in the project being canceled.
At the time of his death, Chalker left one unfinished novel, *Chameleon*. He was planning to write another novel, *Ripsaw*, after *Chameleon*.
## Illness and death {#illness_and_death}
On September 18, 2003, during Hurricane Isabel, Chalker passed out and was taken to a hospital where he was diagnosed with a coronary occlusion. He was later released, but was severely weakened. On December 6, 2004, he was again taken to hospital with breathing problems and disorientation, and was diagnosed with a skin infection. Chalker was hospitalized in critical condition, then upgraded to stable condition on December 9, although he did not regain consciousness until December 15. After several more weeks in deteriorating condition and in a persistent vegetative state, with several transfers to different hospitals, Chalker died on February 11, 2005, of kidney failure and sepsis at Bon Secours Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland.
Some of Chalker\'s remains are interred in the family plot at Loudon Park Cemetery in Baltimore. The remainder were distributed off the ferry between Hainan Island and the Chinese mainland, a ferry in Vietnam, White\'s Ferry on the Potomac River in Virginia on Father\'s Day 2007, and on author H. P. Lovecraft\'s grave in Providence, Rhode Island on December 17, 2005
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# January 24
| 3 |
January 24
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# Journal of the Travellers Aid Society
***Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society*** is a role-playing game magazine devoted to Traveller, commonly abbreviated **JTAS**.
## History
Loren K. Wiseman created a magazine in 1979 to support *Traveller*, with Game Designers\' Workshop publishing *The Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* (JTAS), which Wiseman would continue to develop as its editor. J. Andrew Keith wrote so much material for *JTAS* that he used the pseudonyms John Marshal and Keith Douglass (although a reader performed a word-use analysis of these articles and realized that the same person wrote them all). Marc Miller decided that, rather than using modern dates for the magazine, each issue would instead be based on the in-game calendar of the Imperium, which advanced roughly 90 days for each quarterly issue. *JTAS* #2 (1979) began to include in-universe excerpts from the fictional \'Traveller News Service\', which talked about \'current\' events going on in the Imperium; that issue was dated 274--1105, and included two news excerpts from Regina sector, which were dated 097-1105 and 101--1105 on the Imperium calendar. *JTAS* #9 (1981) contributed to the development of the *Traveller* metaplot by detailing the beginning of a war with the alien Zhodani species. The original run of the magazine ended with *The Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* #24 (1984), but GDW replaced it with the magazine *Challenge*, continuing the numbering from *JTAS* with issue #25 (1986) but included material for all games published by GDW rather than just *Traveller*.
Imperium Games published *Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* #25 in 1996, and published just the next issue of the *Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* as their final issue in 1997.
Steve Jackson Games obtained a license for the *Traveller* setting, so they brought back *Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* as an online magazine in 2000.
Mongoose Publishing produced six volumes of *Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society* in 2020 as part of their *Traveller* licence. *Journal of the Traveller's Aid Society, Volume I* is 128 pages long and contains two adventures.
## Name
The Journal of the Travellers Aid Society takes its name from the fictional Travellers\' Aid Society (TAS) that was first mentioned in the original incarnation of the Traveller game published by Game Designers Workshop \[GDW\]. In the original Traveller game, it was not too uncommon for characters to obtain membership in the TAS during character creation. The idea of the TAS is that it is an organization that exists to support what are basically \'transients,\' or \'wanderers\' \[\'Travellers\' in the game\'s terminology\] around the galaxy. It does so by maintaining low-cost hostels at many of the large starports, and, most importantly, by maintaining its \'rating system,\' which warns of the dangers inherent in visiting certain worlds. Under this system, a world which should be approached with caution is denoted an \'Amber Zone,\' and a world that should not be approached at all is denoted a \'Red Zone.\' x§
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# Journal of the Travellers Aid Society
## Issues
### GDW
- 01 Annic Nova (1979) `{{ASIN|B004RI229S}}`{=mediawiki}
- 02 Victoria (1979) `{{ASIN|B0027DVL9C}}`{=mediawiki}
- 03 Asteroids (1979) `{{ASIN|B004RHU40I}}`{=mediawiki}
- 04 Gazelle Class Close Escorts (1980) `{{ASIN|B004RHZ2K0}}`{=mediawiki}
- 05 Imperium (1980) `{{ASIN|B001AHZJ1C}}`{=mediawiki}
- 06 Scouts (1980) `{{ASIN|B000QYIUX4}}`{=mediawiki}
- 07 Starports (1981) `{{ASIN|B002GUOU76}}`{=mediawiki}
- 08 Broadsword Class Mercenary Cruisers (1981) `{{ASIN|B000QYIYT4}}`{=mediawiki}
- 09 WAR! (1981) `{{ASIN|B000QYH9E0}}`{=mediawiki}
- 10 Planet Building (1981) `{{ASIN|B001CZ8Z54}}`{=mediawiki}
- 11 Striker (1981) `{{ASIN|B000QYFZZU}}`{=mediawiki}
- 12 Merchant Prince, including Special Supplement 1, Merchant Prince (1982 `{{ASIN|B000QYJ7YA}}`{=mediawiki}
- 13 Hivers (1982) `{{ASIN|B000QYG5PO}}`{=mediawiki}
- 14 Laws and Lawbreakers (1982) `{{ASIN|B002JHEIPU}}`{=mediawiki}
- 15 Azun (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYHLZW}}`{=mediawiki}
- 16 SuSAG (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYHNIM}}`{=mediawiki}
- 17 Atmospheres , including Special Supplement 2, Atmospheres (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYGDWE}}`{=mediawiki}
- 18 Travelling without Jumping (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYHSUA}}`{=mediawiki}
- 19 Skyport Authority (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYHUY4}}`{=mediawiki}
- 20 Prologue (1984) `{{ASIN|B000QYN2D2}}`{=mediawiki}
- 21 Vargr, including Special Supplement 3: Missiles in Traveller (1984) `{{ASIN|B000QYI2IW}}`{=mediawiki}
- 22 Port to Jumppoint (1985) `{{ASIN|B000QYJYJI}}`{=mediawiki}
- 23 Zhodani Philosophies (1985) `{{ASIN|B000QYN9ZI}}`{=mediawiki}
- 24 Religion in the 2000 Worlds (1985) `{{ASIN|B000QYI85E}}`{=mediawiki}
- Best of JTAS Volume 1 Issues 1-4 (1981) `{{ASIN|B000F955T2}}`{=mediawiki}
- Best of JTAS Volume 2 Issues 5-8 (1980) `{{ASIN|B000QYFGWM}}`{=mediawiki}
- Best of JTAS Volume 3 Issues 9-12 (1982) `{{ASIN|B000QYFJIS}}`{=mediawiki}
- Best of JTAS Volume 4 Issues 13-16 (1983) `{{ASIN|B000QYFKNC}}`{=mediawiki}
### GDW JTAS in Challenge Magazine {#gdw_jtas_in_challenge_magazine}
- Challenge Magazine 25 Fleet Escort Lisiani (1986) `{{ASIN|B000U338EM}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 26 Cargo (A Merchant Prince Variant) (1986) `{{ASIN|B000KTXQOS}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 27 Grandfather\'s Worlds (1986) `{{ASIN|B000ERM0KM}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 28 K\'kree Starships (1987) `{{ASIN|B000ERI5Z6}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 29 The Sabmiqys (1987) `{{ASIN|B000KTZUDS}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 30 The Fall of the Imperium (1987) `{{ASIN|B000ERK356}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 31 Hazardous Cargoes (1987) `{{ASIN|B000KTZUBU}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 32 A World On Its Own (1988) `{{ASIN|B000G30DVM}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 33 IRIS 1 (1988) `{{ASIN|B000E5DI50}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 34 IRIS 2 (1988) `{{ASIN|B000E5ED3G}}`{=mediawiki}
- Challenge Magazine 35 The Spice of Life (1988)
- Challenge Magazine 36 IRIS 3 (1988) `{{ASIN|B000KTZUBK}}`{=mediawiki}
### Imperium Games T4 - Marc Miller\'s Traveller {#imperium_games_t4___marc_millers_traveller}
- Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society #25 (1996) `{{ASIN|B000F9JG2E}}`{=mediawiki}
- Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society #26 (1997) `{{ASIN|B000NPSB0I}}`{=mediawiki}
### The Best of JTAS {#the_best_of_jtas}
- The Best of JTAS, Volume 1 (2000)
- The Best of the Journal of the Travellers\' Aid Society, Volume 2: a collection of articles originally published in issues 5 through 8 of the journal. William A. Barton reviewed it in *The Space Gamer* No. 53. Barton commented that \"*The Best of the JTAS*, Vol. 2 should prove welcome to anyone who missed any *Journals* from 5 through 8.\"
### Far Future Enterprises {#far_future_enterprises}
These are collections of the earlier GDW publications.
- Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #1-12
- Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #13-24 `{{isbn|978-1558782068}}`{=mediawiki}
- Journal of the Travellers Aid Society Issues #25-33 (2004) `{{isbn|978-1558782075}}`{=mediawiki}
## Reception
The *Journal of the Travellers Aid Society* won the H.G. Wells award for Best Magazine Covering Roleplaying of 1979.
William A. Barton reviewed the \"Merchant Prince\" supplement from *Journal of the Travellers Aid Society* #12 in *The Space Gamer* No. 53. Barton commented that \"Although it probably won\'t totally supplant *Merchants & Merchandise* as *the* book for generating merchant characters, *Merchant Prince* is a well-conceived and viable alternative to M&M. Its inclusion in the *Journal* makes it a special bargain. I recommend it to every *Traveller* player, especially those who find the merchant life the most appealing
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# Jötunheimr
The terms **Jötunheimr** (in Old Norse orthography: **Jǫtunheimr** `{{IPA|non|ˈjɔtonˌhɛimz̠|}}`{=mediawiki}; often anglicised as **Jotunheim**) or **Jötunheimar** refer to either a land or multiple lands respectively in Nordic mythology inhabited by the jötnar (relatives of the gods, in English sometimes inaccurately called \"giants\").
are typically, but not exclusively, presented in Eddic sources as prosperous lands located to the north and are commonly separated from the lands inhabited by gods and humans by barriers that cannot be traversed by usual means.
## Etymology
is a compound word formed from *\'\[\[jǫtunn\]\]\'* and *\'heimr\'*, meaning a \'home\' or \'world\'. When attested in Eddic sources, the word is typically found in its plural form, *Jǫtunheimar* (\'*jǫtunn*-lands\').
## Attestations
### Poetic Edda {#poetic_edda}
*Jötunheimar* are mentioned in three poems of the Poetic Edda. In the beginning of Völuspá, the coming of three women out of *Jötunheimar* marks the end of the Age of Gold for the gods. Towards the end of the poem, in the section describing the onset of Ragnarök, they are mentioned as follows:
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| Old Norse text | Bellows translation |
+================+========================================================+
| : | : Yggdrasil shakes, and shiver on high |
| | : The ancient limbs, and the giant is loose; |
| : | : To the head of Mim does Othin give heed, |
| | : But the kinsman of Surt shall slay him soon. |
| : | |
| | ```{=html} |
| : | <!-- --> |
| | ``` |
| ```{=html} | |
| <!-- --> | : How fare the gods? how fare the elves? |
| ``` | : All Jotunheim groans, the gods are at council; |
| | : Loud roar the dwarfs by the doors of stone, |
| : | : The masters of the rocks: would you know yet more? |
| | |
| : | |
| | |
| : | |
| | |
| : | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
In the prose prologue Skírnismál, while sitting on Hliðskjálf, Freyr sees Gerðr, the daughter of Gymir, in *Jötunheimar* and falls in love with her. A further prose section then describes that he gives his servant Skírnir his horse and sends him to her home at Gymisgarðar in *Jötunheimar*, which he reaches after travelling through wet mountains, a flickering flame and darkness. After his journey, Skírnir meets Gerðr and her family living in a hall and tending to animals in the daylight, protected by a fence and dogs. Upon his return, Freyr asks in a stanza of the tidings from *Jötunheimar*, to which his servant replies that she will meet him in nine nights at Barri.
In Þrymskviða, Loki uses Freyja\'s fjaðrhamr to fly to Þrymr\'s home in *jötunheimar* to find Thor\'s hammer. The *jötunn* tells the god that he will only return the hammer in exchange for Freyja\'s hand in marriage. When she refuses to go to *jötunheimar*, Thor goes in her place, disguised in a wedding veil, with Loki as his handmaid. In this account, Þrymr\'s estate is presented as wealthy, with him holding dogs on golden leashes and telling that has cattle with golden horns in his stables and many jewels, with Freyja being the only thing he lacked.
### Gylfaginning
upright=1.35\|thumb\|*Giant Skrymir and Thor* by Louis Huard *Jötunheimar* are referenced throughout Gylfaginning such as when Gefjun takes four oxen, who were her sons with a *jötunn*, out of the *jötunheimar* to the north and uses them to plough land out of Sweden, forming Zealand. *Jötnar* and *\[\[gýgjar\]\]* are also described as living in *jötunheimar* such as the father of Night, Narfi and Angrboða, the mother of Fenrir. Beings may also come out from *Jötunheimar* to interact with others, such as the wright who, with the help of his horse Svaðilfari, builds fortifications for the gods to protect them from *jötnar*.
### Skáldskaparmál
Skáldskaparmál tells of how Loki was once coerced into helping the *jötunn* Þjazi abduct Iðunn who carried her northwards, back to his home in *Jötunheimar* named Þrymheimr. Using Freyja\'s fjaðrhamr, Loki became a hawk and flew to Þjazi\'s home while the *jötunn* was away, having rowed out to sea. Upon reaching Iðunn, Loki turned her into a nut and flew away with her in his talons. Þjazi later finds out that Iðunn is gone and he chases after them as an eagle, but is killed as he reached Asgard when he flies into a fire that the gods made.
Later in Skáldskaparmál, Odin rides to *Jötunheimar* on Sleipnir where he meets the *jötunn* made of stone Hrungnir and wagers that no horse there was as good as his. Angered, Hrungnir chases Odin back to Asgard on his horse Gullfaxi whereupon the gods invite him to drink with them. Becoming drunk, he boasts that he will perform a number of acts including carrying Valhall to *Jötunheimar* and abduct both Sif and Freyja. When the gods tired of his bragging, they called for Thor. Hrungnir claimed that as he was unarmed, Thor would gain no honour from killing him and so challenged him to a fight in *Jötunheimar*, at his home Grjótúnagarðar. Thor later meets him there and kills him with Mjölnir, which on its way to Hrungnir, hits the hone that the *jötunn* was fighting with, shattering it. One of the pieces flies into Thor\'s head, becoming stuck. To remove it, he went to the völva Gróa, who began a *\[\[galdr\]\]* to loosen it. While she was singing, Thor told her that he had carried her husband Aurvandil as he travelled southwards out of *Jötunheimar* and that he would soon be with her. In her excitement, she forgot the *galdr* and the shard remained lodged in Thor\'s head.
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# Jötunheimr
## Position in cosmology {#position_in_cosmology}
, along with other lands such as Hel, constitute \"the otherworld\" in Eddic sources that is either journeyed to or from, often leading to a confrontation that forms the basis for the narrative. There is no single location that *jötunheimar* are found in Nordic cosmology however, instead being travelled to by a number of different directions and often separated from the lands of humans and gods by a barrier that is difficult to cross such as bodies of water, fells, fire or forests.
are typically found in the North and East, with explicit references to *jötunheimar* locating them in the North, however in Gylfaginning, Snorri Sturluson writes that after the killing of Ymir, the gods gave the shores around the world to the *jötnar* to settle, suggesting a worldview in which Midgard is located centrally and that the *jötnar* dwell in the periphery, likely in contrast with how contemporary Icelanders would have viewed wilderness. Later in Gylfaginning, Thor journeys with Loki, Thjálfi and Röskva to *jötunheimar* which is located to the east and over the deep sea. They then travel through a great forest before eventually reaching the hall of Útgarða-Loki. Sometimes *jötnar* are positioned in specific geographical locations such as Ægir on the island of Læsø.
It has been proposed that rather than being conceived of as a physical land that can be located geographically relative to the regions of the world inhabited by humans, *jötunheimar* should be seen as connected to other realms by a number of passageways that cannot be traversed by ordinary means, and may seem contradictory from a naturalistic viewpoint in that a single location could be reached from a start point in a number of distinct directions. In this model, the *jötunheimar* would not be located in these opposing directions, only the passageways by which they are reached. It has been further noted that in Eddic sources, it seems that *jötnar* are located to some extent in all directions and that they can be reached if one travels sufficiently far away from the area inhabited by people. From this, it has been suggested that it may be an intrinsic quality of *jötnar* as the \"other\" that they cannot be restricted to a single location, however, not all these lands inhabited by *jötnar* are explicitly described as being *jötunheimar*
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# Johann Friedrich Agricola
**Johann Friedrich Agricola** (4 January 1720 -- 2 December 1774) was a German composer, organist, singer, pedagogue, and writer on music. He sometimes wrote under the pseudonym **Flavio Anicio Olibrio**.
## Biography
Agricola was born in Dobitschen, Thuringia.
### Leipzig
While a student of law at Leipzig (1738--41) he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach.
### Berlin
In 1741 Agricola went to Berlin, where he studied musical composition under Johann Joachim Quantz. He was soon generally recognized as one of the most skillful organists of his time. The success of his comic opera, *Il filosofo convinto in amore*, performed at Potsdam in 1750, led to an appointment as court composer to Frederick the Great. In 1759, on the death of Carl Heinrich Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra. He married the noted court operatic soprano Benedetta Emilia Molteni, despite the king\'s prohibition of court employees marrying each other. Because of this trespass, the king reduced Molteni\'s and Agricola\'s combined salaries to a single annual salary of 1,000 *Thalers* (Agricola\'s annual salary alone had been 1,500 *Thalers*). Agricola died in Berlin at age 54.
## Legacy
Agricola wrote a number of Italian operas, as well as *Lieder,* chorale preludes, various other keyboard pieces and church music, especially oratorios and cantatas. His reputation chiefly rests, however, on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects.
### Author
In 1754 he co-authored, with Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, J. S. Bach\'s obituary. His 1757 *Anleitung zur Singekunst* (*Introduction to the Art of Singing*) is a translation of Pier Francesco Tosi\'s 1723 treatise *Opinioni de\' cantori antichi e moderni* with Agricola\'s own extensive comments. He edited and added extensive commentary to the 1768 (posthumous) edition of Jakob Adlung\'s *Musica mechanica organoedi* ([English translation](http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook/6/)). His annotations are considered an important source of information on J. S. Bach\'s views on the fortepiano designs of Gottfried Silbermann, on the lute-harpsichord, and on organ building.
### Copyist
Agricola is also noted in Bach studies as one of the copyists for both books of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the St. Matthew Passion
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# Jakob Abbadie
**Jakob Abbadie** (`{{IPA|fr|abadi|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; c. 1654`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}25 September 1727), also known as **Jacques** or **James Abbadie**, was a French Protestant minister and writer. He became Dean of Killaloe, in Ireland.
## Life
Jacques Abbadie was born at Nay, Béarn, probably in 1654, although 1657 and 1658 have been given; he is \"most probably the Jacques Abbadie who was the third child of Violente de Fortaner and Pierre Abbadie, baptized on 27 April 1654.\" Samuel Smiles stated that he was \"the scion of a distinguished Béarnese family\"; although it is probable that the poverty of his parents would have excluded him from a learned career if some of the leading Protestants of the district had not charged themselves with the expenses of his education, which was begun under M. Jean de la Placette, the minister of Nay, He studied at Puylaurens, the Academy of Saumur, and the Academy of Sedan, receiving the degree of doctor in theology, it is said, at the age of seventeen. An obituary notice, however, which appeared in the *Daily Courant* for 5 October 1727, says: \"He was not above twenty-two when he undertook of himself his admirable treatise on the *Truth of the Christian Religion*\".
About the same time he was sent for by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, to be minister of the French church at Berlin; the electoral summons found Abbadie at Paris, and it was conveyed through the Count d\'Espense, who had been commissioned by his master to make the selection. The congregation of refugees, small enough at first to be accommodated in an apartment of the Count d\'Espense\'s residence, grew gradually from increased emigration to Brandenburg, caused by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. The elector ordered the ancient chapel of his palace to be prepared for the congregation, and the services were frequently attended by the younger members of his family. Abbadie\'s arrival in Berlin has been variously assigned to the years 1680 and 1681. During seven or eight years he used his increasing favour with the elector to relieve the distress of the refugees from France, and especially from his native province of Béarn. Abbadie continued to occupy his pastorate at Berlin until the death of the great elector, which took place 29 April 1688.
He then accompanied Marshal Schomberg to England in 1688, and the following year became minister of the French Church of the Savoy, London. In the autumn of 1689 he went to Ireland with the marshal.
After the Battle of the Boyne, Abbadie returned to London. He subsequently published a revised version of the French translation of the English liturgy used at this church, with an epistle dedicatory to George I. He was often appointed to deliver occasional discourses, both in London and Dublin, but his lack of facility in English prevented his preferment in England, and also excluded him from the deanery of St. Patrick\'s, Dublin, to which William III wished to promote him. Abbadie\'s health suffered from devotion to his duties in the Savoy and from the English climate. He therefore settled in Ireland, and in 1699 the deanery of Killaloe was conferred on him by the king. whose favour he had attracted by a vindication of the Revolution of 1688.
The remainder of Abbadie\'s life was spent in writing and preaching, and in the performance---not too sedulous, for he was frequently absent from his benefice---of the ordinary duties of his office, varied by visits to England and to Holland, where most of his books were printed. Abbadie visited Holland to see his *La Vérité* through the press, and stayed more than three years in Amsterdam, 1720--23, during the preparation of *Le Triomphe* and other works. He returned to Ireland in 1723. Abbadie\'s income as dean of Killaloe was so small that he could not afford a literary amanuensis; and Hugh Boulter, archbishop of Armagh, having appealed in vain to Lord Carteret, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, on Abbadie\'s behalf, gave him a letter of introduction to Dr. Edmund Gibson, bishop of London, and Abbadie left Ireland. He established himself at Marylebone. He died at his lodgings at Marylebone on Monday, 25 September 1727, aged 73.
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# Jakob Abbadie
## Works
Abbadie is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were translated from the original French into other languages and had a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of these are *Traite de la verité de la religion chrétienne* (1684); its continuation, *Traité de la divinité de Jesus-Christ* (1689); and *L\'Art de se connaitre soi-meme* (1692).
While at Berlin, he made several visits to the Netherlands, in 1684, 1686, and 1688, chiefly for the purpose of superintending the printing of several of his works, including the *Traité de la Vérité*, Rotterdam, 1684. The book went through a vast number of editions and was translated into several languages, an English version, by Henry Lussan, appearing in 1694. Completed by a third volume, the *Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-Christ*, it appeared at Rotterdam, 1689. An English translation, entitled *A Sovereign Antidote against Arian Poyson*, appeared in London, 1719, and again \"revised, corrected, and, in a few places, abridged\", by Abraham Booth, under the title of *The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion*, 1777. The entire apology for Christianity formed by the three volumes of the *Traité*, which combated severally the heresies of atheism, deism, and Socinianism, was received with praise. *La Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne Réformée* (1717) was a controversial treatise which in its four parts attacks the characteristic doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church; it was translated into English, for the use of the Roman Catholics of his diocese of Dromore, by Dr. Ralph Lambert, afterwards bishop of Meath. The work was completed in 1723 in *Le Triomphe de la Providence et de la Religion; ou, l\'Ouverture des sept Seaux par le Fils de Dieu, où l\'on trouvera la première partie de l\'Apocalypse clairement expliquée par ce qu\'il y a de plus connu dans l\'Histoire et de moins contesté dans la Parole de Dieu. Avec une nouvelle et très-sensible Démonstration de la Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne*.
It was in the Irish camp with Schomberg that Abbadie commenced one of his most successful works, which was published at Rotterdam in 1692, as *L\'Art de se connoître soi-même; ou, La Recherche des Sources de la Morale*, and went through many editions and amplifications. Translations of this work into other languages include a popular English version by the Rev. Thomas Woodcock, *The Art of Knowing One-self*, 1694. The last 50 pages of this 274-page work deals with pride, which he divided into five branches: love of esteem, presumptuousness, vanity, ambition and arrogance.
Among the early writings of Abbadie were four *Sermons sur divers Textes de l\'Ecriture*, 1680; *Réflexions sur la Présence réelle du Corps de Jésus-Christ dans l\'Eucharistie*, 1685; and two highly adulatory addresses on persons in high stations, entitled respectively *Panégyrique de Monseigneur l\'Electeur de Brandebourg*, 1684; and *Panégyrique de Marie Stuart, Reine d\'Angleterre, d\'Ecosse, de France, et d\'Irlande, de glorieuse et immortelle mémoire, décédée à Kensington le 28 décembre 1694*, 1695, also published in England as *A Panegyric on our late Sovereign Lady*, 1695. These four productions, with other occasional sermons, were in 1760 republished collectively, in three volumes, at Amsterdam, and preceded by an *Essai historique sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Abbadie*. The pamphlet on the Eucharist was also reprinted at Toulouse, in 1835, under the title of *Quatre Lettres sur la Trans-substantiation*, and appeared in an English translation, by John W. Hamersley, as the *Chemical Change in the Eucharist*, 1867.
*Défense de la Nation Britannique*, 1693 was an elaborate defence of the Glorious Revolution, written in answer to Pierre Bayle\'s *Avis important aux Réfugiés*, 1690. He gave a funeral oration on Queen Mary. Abbadie had also written, at the request of the king, *Histoire de la dernière Conspiration d\'Angleterre*, 1696, a history of the conspiracy of 1696, which was reprinted in Holland and translated into English, and for which the Earl of Portland and Secretary Sir William Trumbull placed original documents at the author\'s disposal. This work helped Abbadie\'s preferment. After its production, \"his majesty sent him to Ireland, with an order to the lords justices to confer upon him some dignity in the church, which order was complied with by his promotion to the deanery of Killalow\" (*Daily Courant,* 5 October 1727).
He revised his works for a complete edition in four volumes, in which were also to be included two unpublished treatises, *Nouvelle Manière de prouver l\'Immortalité de l\'Ame*, and *Notes sur le Commentaire philosophique de M. Bayle*. No trace of them could be found after his death.
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# Jakob Abbadie
## Works {#works_1}
- 1684 - [*Traité de la Vérité*](https://archive.org/details/bim_early-english-books-1641-1700_traite-de-la-verit-de-l_abbadie-jacques_1684)
- 1689 - [*Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-christ*](https://archive.org/details/Traite-de-la-Divinite-de-Notre-Seigneur/page/n5/mode/2up)
- 1695 - [*\'A Panegyric on our late Sovereign Lady*](https://archive.org/details/bim_early-english-books-1641-1700_a-panegyric-on-our-late-_abbadie-jacques_1695)
- 1696 - [*Histoire de la derniere conspiration d\'Angleterre, avec le detail de diverses enteprises contre le roy et la nation*](https://archive.org/details/bim_early-english-books-1641-1700_histoire-de-la-derniere-_abbadie-jacques_1696)
- 1717 - [*La Vérité de la Religion Chrétienne Réformée*](https://archive.org/details/traitdelaverit02abba/page/n7/mode/2up)
- 1719 - [*Traité de la Divinité de Nôtre Seigneur Jésus-Christ*](https://archive.org/details/Traite-de-la-Divinite-de-Notre-Seigneur/page/n5/mode/2up)
- 1723 - *Le triomphe de la Providence et de la religion ou l\'ouverture des sept seaux par le fils de Dieu; ou l\'on trouvera la premiere partie de l\'Apocalypse \... avec une nouvelle & tres sensible demonstration de la verité de la Religion chretienne*
- [Tome premier](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_sTLtBN9-WXgC/page/n3/mode/2up)
- [Tome second](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rLQSrO8xve4C/page/n3/mode/2up)
- [Tome troisième](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_rlmm1c0uMBQC/page/n3/mode/2up)
- [Tome quatrième](https://archive.org/details/letriomphedelap00abbagoog/page/n4/mode/2up)
- 1777 - [*The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian Religion*](https://archive
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# Johannes Agricola
**Johann** or **Johannes Agricola** (originally Schneider, then Schnitter; 20 April 1494 -- 22 September 1566) was a German Protestant Reformer during the Protestant Reformation. He was a follower and friend of Martin Luther, who became his antagonist in the matter of the binding obligation of the law on Christians.
## Biography
### Early life {#early_life}
Agricola was born at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Martin Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfurt in 1525 to establish the Protestant mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained until 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church.
### Controversy
In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the name Antinomian, maintaining that while non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone. (See also: Law and Gospel). The controversy made the two theologians break apart. Philip Melanchthon taught that it was necessary to do good works, but they were an outgrowth of faith and not the reason for receiving forgiveness. Agricola felt that Melanchthon\'s view of the law was at odds with Luther\'s. Agricola felt there was no need for the law after justification possibly ignoring the idea that someone could still fall from faith. This may be closer to the Calvinistic view of \"Once saved, Always saved\".
### Restoration and later life {#restoration_and_later_life}
As a consequence of the bitter controversy with Luther, in 1540 Agricola left Wittenberg secretly for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of his prior views. Luther, however, seems not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin.
Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg, having taken Agricola into his favour, appointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He held both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in Brandenburg was one of great activity and influence.
Along with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg Interim of 1548, a proposed settlement under which Protestants would accept all Catholic authority, being permitted to retain the Protestant teaching on communion under both kinds and married clergy, but otherwise compelled to accept Catholic doctrine and practice, including the rejection of justification by faith alone. From that time, he was an outcast among Protestant theologians. It was an irony that one of the most radical Reformers ended his life viewed as having capitulated to Catholics.
He endeavored in vain to appease the Adiaphoristic controversy.
He died during an epidemic of plague on 22 September 1566 in Berlin.
## Writings
Agricola wrote a number of theological works. He was among the first to make a commentated collection of German proverbs. The first volume contains 300 proverbs and was published in 1529 (*Drey hundert Gemeyner Sprichworter, der wir Deutschen vns gebrauchen, vnd doch nicht wissen woher sie kommen*; first published in Low German the year before); the second volume contains 450 proverbs and was published in 1530 (*Das ander teyl gemainer Tewtscher Sprichwörter, mit jhrer außlegung : hat fünffthalb hundert newer Wörtter*). A revised edition containing the seven hundred and fifty proverbs of the previous two volumes was published in 1534 (*Sybenhundert und fünfftzig teütscher Sprichwörter, verneüwert und gebessert*) and later republished with updated orthography, for example, in Wittenberg in 1592.
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# Johannes Agricola
## In literature {#in_literature}
In 1836, Robert Browning used him as the subject of an early poetic soliloquy, \"Johannes Agricola in Meditation\"
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# January 7
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# Johann Heinrich Alsted
**Johann Heinrich Alsted** (March 1588 -- November 9, 1638), \"the true parent of all the Encyclopædias\",s:Budget of Paradoxes/O.
was a German-born Transylvanian Saxon Calvinist minister and academic, known for his varied interests: in Ramism and Lullism, pedagogy and encyclopedias, theology and millenarianism. His contemporaries noted that an anagram of Alstedius was *sedulitas*, meaning \"hard work\" in Latin.
## Life
Alsted was born in Mittenaar. He was educated at Herborn Academy in the state of Hesse, studying under Johannes Piscator. From 1606 he was at the University of Marburg, taught by Rudolf Goclenius, Gregorius Schönfeld and Raphaël Egli. The following year he went to Basel, where his teachers were Leonhardt Zubler for mathematics, Amandus Polanus von Polansdorf for theology, and Johann Buxtorf. From about 1608 he returned to the Herborn Academy to teach as professor of philosophy and theology.
Alsted was later in exile from the Thirty Years\' War in Transylvania, where he remained for the rest of his life. In 1629 he left war-torn Germany for Weißenburg (now Alba Iulia in Romania) to found a Calvinist Academy: the context was that the Transylvanian royal family had just returned from Unitarianism to Calvinism, and Alsted and Johannes Bisterfeld were German professors brought in to improve standards. Among the students there was János Apáczai Csere.
Alsted died in Alba Iulia in 1638.
## Works
### Encyclopedist
Alsted has been called \'one of the most important encyclopedists of all time\'. He was a prolific writer, and his *Encyclopaedia* (1630) long had a high reputation. It was preceded by shorter works, including the 1608 *Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici*. His major encyclopedia of 1630, the *Encyclopaedia, Septem Tomis Distincta*, was divided into 35 books, and had 48 synoptical tables as well as an index. Alsted described it as \"a methodical systemization of all things which ought to be learned by men in this life. In short, it is the totality of knowledge.\" In its time it was praised by Bernard Lamy and Cotton Mather, and it informed the work of Alsted\'s student John Amos Comenius. An unfinished encyclopedic project by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz began as a plan to expand and modernize it, and the famous diarist Samuel Pepys purchased a copy in 1660---thirty years after its initial publication. Although Jacob Thomasius criticised it for plagiarism for verbatim copying without acknowledgment, Augustus De Morgan later called it \"the true parent of all the Encyclopædias, or collections of treatises, or works in which that character predominates\".
*The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy*, p. 632, in the context of Calvinist metaphysics, states
> \"In the works of authors like Clemens Timpler of Heidelberg and Steinfurt, Bartolomaeus Keckermann of Heidelberg and Danzig, and Johann Heinrich Alsted of Herborn there appeared a new, unified vision of the encyclopaedia of the scientific disciplines in which ontology had the role of assigning to each of the particular sciences its proper domain.\"
In his *The New England Mind*, Perry Miller writes about the *Encyclopaedia*:
: \"It was indeed nothing short of a summary, in sequential and numbered paragraphs, of everything that the mind of European man had yet conceived or discovered. The works of over five hundred authors, from Aristotle to James I, were digested and methodized, including those of Aquinas, Scotus, and medieval theology, as also those of medieval science, such as *De Natura Rerum*.\"
It was reissued as a 4-volume facsimile reprint, edited by W. Schmidt-Biggemann (Fromann-Holzboog Press, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt, 1989--1990).
#### Alstedius\' Encyclopedia Biblica {#alstedius_encyclopedia_biblica}
In 1610, Alstedius published the first edition of his Encyclopedia. In 1630, he published a second edition in a much more comprehensive form, in two large folio volumes. In the second edition, he professes to reduce the several branches of art and science then known and studied into a system. In this work, and his Encyclopedia Biblica, he tries to prove that the foundation and materials of the whole can be found in the Sacred Scriptures. The first four books contain an exposition of the various subjects to be discussed. He devotes six books to philology, ten to speculative philosophy, and four to practical matters. Then follow three on theology, jurisprudence, and medicine; three on mechanical arts, and five on history, chronology, and miscellanies. This work exhibited a great improvement on other published works that purported to be encyclopedias in the latter half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries.
### Logician
Alsted published *Logicae Systema Harmonicum* (1614). In writing a semi-Ramist encyclopedia, he then applied his conception of logic to the sum of human knowledge. To do that, he added the Lullist topical art of memory to Ramist topical logic, indeed reversing one of the original conceptions of Ramus. He had a reputation in his own time as a distinctive methodologist. John Prideaux in 1639 asked:
> Q. Is it true that the seven dialectical theories of method in use today, to wit, i) the Aristotelian, 2) the Lullian, 3) the Ramistic, 4) the Mixt, whether indeed in the manner of Keckermann or of Alsted, 5) the Forensic of Hotman, 6) the Jesuitic, and 7) the Socinian, differ mostly in respect to manner of treatment, not in respect to purpose?
To which the pupil\'s answer was to be \"yes\"; as it was to be to the question \"Is it true that a Mixt ought to be preferred to a Peripatetic, a Ramist, a Lullian, and the others?\" A \"Mixt\" took elements from both Aristotle and Ramus; Philippo-Ramists, who blended Melanchthon with Ramus, were a type of \"Mixt\"; \"Systematics\" were \"Mixts\" who followed Keckermann in a belief in system, as Alsted did.
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# Johann Heinrich Alsted
## Works
### Theologian
From his Transylvanian period dates Alsted\'s *Prodromus* (printed 1641, but dated 1635). The *Prodromus* was a Calvinist refutation of one of the most influential anti-Trinitarian works, *De vera religione* of Johannes Völkel. This work was a compendium of the arguments of Völkel\'s teacher Fausto Sozzini, figurehead of the Polish Unitarian movement.
## Publications
Alsted is now remembered as an encyclopedist, and for his millenarian views. His approach to the encyclopedia took two decades of preliminaries, and was an effort of integration of tools and theories to hand.
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------
Sedulus in libris scribendis atque legendi Alstedius nomen Sedulitatis habet (*Encyclopaedia Scientiarum Omnium*, Leyden 1649, ad init.)
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------
In 1609 Alsted published *Clavis artis Lullianae*. In 1610 he published the *Artificium perorandi* of Giordano Bruno; and in the same year the *Panacea philosophica*, an attempt to find the common ground in the work of Aristotle, Raymond Lull, and Petrus Ramus. In 1612 Alsted edited the *Explanatio* of Bernard de Lavinheta, a Lullist work. In 1613 he published an edition of the *Systema systematum* of Bartholomäus Keckermann. *Theologia naturalis* (1615) was an apologetical work of natural theology.
- *Clavis artis lullianae* (1609).
- *Panacea philosophica* (1610).
- *Metaphysica, tribus libris tractata* (1613).
- *[Methodus admirandorum mathematicorum completens novem libris matheseos universae](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zy9mAAAAcAAJ)* (1613) Herbornae Nassoviarum:Johann Heinrich Alsted
- *Logicae Systema Harmonicum* (1614).
- *Theologia naturalis* (1615).
- *Cursus Philosophici Encyclopediae Libris XXVII*, 1620.
- *Methodus sacrosanctae theologiae octo libris tradita in Quorum* Hanau:Konrad Eifried
- *Encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta: 1. Praecognita disciplinarum; 2. Philologia; 3. Philosophia theoretica; 4. Philosophia practica; 5. Tres superiores facultates; 6. Artes mechanicae; 7. Farragines disciplinarum* (1630).
- *Templum musicum* (1664), `{{OCLC|1070907097}}`{=mediawiki}, 93 pp
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# Jean-Jacques Ampère
**Jean-Jacques Ampère** (12 August 1800 -- 27 March 1864) was a French philologist and man of letters.
Born in Lyon, he was the only son of the physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775--1836). Jean-Jacques\' mother died while he was an infant. (But André-Marie Ampère had a daughter -- Albine (1807--1842) -- with his second wife.) On his tomb at the cemetery of Montmartre, Paris, he is named Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampère. His father\'s father was also named Jean-Jacques Ampère (executed in Lyon, 1793).
He studied the folk songs and popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended tour in northern Europe. Returning to France in 1830, he delivered a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry at the Athenaeum in Marseille. The first of these was printed as *De l\'Histoire de la poésie* (1830), and was practically the first introduction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German epics.
Moving to Paris, he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor of the history of French literature at the Collège de France. A journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Mérimée, Jean de Witte and Charles Lenormant. This bore fruit in his *Voyage dantesque* (printed in his *Grèce, Rome et Dante*, 1848), which did much to popularize the study of Dante in France.
In 1848 he became a member of the Académie française, and in 1851 he visited America. From this time he was occupied with his chief work, *L\'Histoire romaine à Rome* (4 vols., 1861--1864), until his death at Pau.
The *Correspondence et souvenirs* (2 vols.) of A-M and J-J Ampère (1805--1854) was published in 1875. Notices of J-J Ampère are to be found in Sainte-Beuve\'s *Portraits littéraires,* vol. iv., and *Nouveaux Lundis,* vol. xiii.; in P Mérimée\'s *Portraits historiques et littéraires* (2nd ed., 1875); and in Alexis de Tocqueville\'s *Recollections* (1893).
The Ampère Museum, close to Lyon, France, includes some documents presenting the life and works of Jean-Jacques Ampère
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# Joseph Severn
**Joseph Severn** (7 December 1793 -- 3 August 1879) was an English portrait and subject painter and a personal friend of the English poet John Keats. He exhibited portraits, Italian genre, literary and biblical subjects, and a selection of his paintings can today be found in some of the most important museums in London, including the National Portrait Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum and Tate Britain.
## Background
The eldest son of a music teacher, Severn was born in Hoxton, near London, and apprenticed at the age of 14 to William Bond, an engraver. Severn was one of seven children; two of his brothers, Thomas (1801--1881) and Charles (1806--1894), became professional musicians, and Severn himself was an adroit pianist. During his early years he practised portraiture as a miniaturist.
## Early years in London 1815-1820 {#early_years_in_london_1815_1820}
In 1815, he was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in London and exhibited his first work in oil, *Hermia and Helena*, a subject from *A Midsummer Night\'s Dream*, along with a portrait miniature, *J. Keats, Esq*, in the Royal Academy Exhibition of 1819. He probably first met the poet John Keats in the spring of 1816.
In 1819, Severn was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Academy for his painting *Una and the Red Cross Knight in the Cave of Despair* which was inspired by the epic poem The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser. It was the first time the prize had been awarded in eight years, and the painting was exhibited at the Academy in 1820. This award also allowed Severn to apply for a three years\' travelling studentship, paid for by the Royal Academy. The painting was purchased by Lord Houghton, the first biographer of Keats; although it was recorded as sold by Christie\'s in June 1963, it has since disappeared from public view and there are no reproductions of it in the public domain.
According to a new edition of Severn\'s letters and memoirs, Severn fathered an illegitimate child named Henry (b. 31 Aug 1819) about a year before leaving England for Italy. In 1826 there were plans for father and son to reunite, but Henry died, aged 11, before he could make the journey to Rome.
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# Joseph Severn
## Journey to Italy with John Keats, 1820--1821 {#journey_to_italy_with_john_keats_18201821}
On 17 September 1820, Severn set sail aboard the *Maria Crowther* from England to Italy with the English poet John Keats. Keats and Severn had known one another in England, but they were only passing acquaintances. Yet it was Severn who agreed to accompany the poet to Rome when all others could, or would, not. The trip was intended to cure Keats\'s lingering illness, which he suspected was tuberculosis; however, his friends and several doctors disagreed and urged him to spend some time in a warm climate. After a harrowing voyage, they arrived in the Bay of Naples on 21 October, only to be placed in quarantine for ten days. The two men remained in Naples for a week before travelling to Rome in a small carriage, where they arrived mid-November 1820 and met Keats\'s physician, Dr. James Clark. In Rome they lived in an apartment at number 26 Piazza di Spagna, just at the bottom right of the Spanish Steps and overlooking Bernini\'s Barcaccia fountain.
Severn had left England against his father\'s wishes and with little money. In fact, his father was so incensed by his departure that, as Severn reported in a late memoir, \"in his insane rage he struck me a blow which fell me to the ground.\" He was never to see his father again. While in Rome during the winter of 1820-21, Severn wrote numerous letters about Keats to their mutual friends in England, in particular William Haslam and Charles Armitage Brown, who then shared them with other members of the Keats circle, including the poet\'s fiancée, Fanny Brawne. These journal-letters now represent the only surviving account of the poet\'s final months and as a consequence are used as the primary historical source for biographers of Keats\' last days.
Severn nursed Keats until his death on 23 February 1821, three months after they had arrived in Rome. As he reported to John Taylor two weeks afterwards, \"Each day he would look up in the doctors face to discover how long he should live \-- he would say \-- \"how long will this posthumous life of mine last\"---that look was more than we could ever bear---the extreme brightness of his eyes---with his poor pallid face---were not earthly \--\" Severn\'s ordeal was recognised by Keats himself, who, a month before his death, said, \"Severn I can see under your quiet look \-- immense twisting and contending \-- you dont know what you are reading \-- you are induring `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} for me more than I\'d have you \-- O! that my last hour was come \--\" He was later thanked for his devotion by the poet Percy B. Shelley in the preface to his elegy, Adonais, which was written for Keats in 1821. It was also at this time that Severn met, among other notables, the sculptors John Gibson and Antonio Canova, and Lord Byron\'s friend, the adventurer Edward John Trelawny. Severn made a sketch of Trelawny in 1838.
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# Joseph Severn
## Life and work after the death of Keats {#life_and_work_after_the_death_of_keats}
Until recently,`{{when?|date=June 2025}}`{=mediawiki} it was believed that Severn\'s life culminated in his association with Keats and that he lived on this fame for the rest of his long life. In reality, Severn launched his own successful artistic career soon after Keats died, becoming a versatile painter in Rome during the 1820s and 1830s. He painted miniatures and altarpieces, landscapes and frescoes, historical and religious scenes, and subjects from the Bible, Greek mythology and Shakespeare. His pictures of Italian peasant life and pastoral genre scenes became very popular with British visitors on the continent and attracted many commissions for his work.
Severn was also instrumental in helping to found the British Academy of Arts in Rome, which drew the support of such influential figures as the Duke of Devonshire, John Flaxman and Sir Thomas Lawrence. Severn\'s spacious apartment in the Via di San Isidoro became the busy centre of Academy life. Among those who joined the academy were Charles Eastlake, Richard Westmacott (the younger), William Bewick and Thomas Uwins. Perhaps the most dedicated patron of Severn\'s work in the 1830s was William Gladstone, who was drawn to Severn more for his reputation as a painter than as Keats\'s friend.
On his return to England in 1841 Severn fell on hard times, trying desperately to earn enough money to support his growing family by painting portraits. Although he was never able to match his early artistic success in Rome and eventually had to flee his creditors for the Isle of Jersey in 1853, between 1819 and 1857, Severn exhibited 53 paintings at the Royal Academy in London.
In 1861, Severn was appointed British Consul in Rome during the ferment over Italian unification. A few months before his arrival Garibaldi had seized the Kingdom of Naples, and all of Southern Italy and Sicily had been annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy. Many of the kingdoms, principalities and dukedoms in the Italian peninsula had come together under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II, but Rome and its surroundings remained as the rump of the Papal States. This was the case throughout the majority of Severn\'s tenure as Consul, as Pope Pius IX managed to retain a fragile hold on power, relying on a garrison of French troops to control Rome. Although the official position of the British government on \"The Roman Question\" was neutrality and nonintervention, Severn often took diplomatic action that his superiors viewed as exceeding his mandate as Consul. On several occasions, such as when he used his office to liberate Italian political prisoners in 1864, he was rebuked by the Foreign Office. His knowledge of the Italian language and his affability and good humour, however, often helped in mediating between the papal regime and the British government. He welcomed British visitors to Rome, such as Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning, telling them about the time he nursed Keats, and he was able on many occasions to offer advice and protection for British visitors who found themselves in awkward scrapes. He eventually retired as Consul in 1872.
## Marriage and family {#marriage_and_family}
In 1828 Severn married Elizabeth Montgomerie, the natural (i.e. illegitimate) daughter of Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773--1814) and the ward of the Countess of Westmoreland, one of the artist\'s patrons in Rome. Together they had seven children, three of whom became noteworthy artists: Walter and Arthur Severn, and Ann Mary Newton, who married the archeologist and Keeper of Antiquities at the British Museum, Charles Thomas Newton. Mary had a successful painting career in England, supporting the family for a time, and executing a number of portraits of the Royal Family. Her early death from measles at the age of 32 affected Severn. In 1871, Arthur Severn married Joan Ruskin Agnew, a cousin of the Victorian art and social critic John Ruskin. The Severns had another child, Arthur, who died as an infant in a crib accident. He is buried between Keats and Severn in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome.
## Death
Severn died on 3 August 1879 at the age of 85, and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery alongside John Keats. Both gravestones are still standing today. Shelley and Trelawny are also buried side by side in the same cemetery.
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# Joseph Severn
## Paintings
Severn is best known for his many portraits of Keats, the most famous being the miniature portrait in The Fitzwilliam Museum (1819), the pen-and-ink sketch, *Keats on his Deathbed* (1821), in the Keats-Shelley house, Rome, and the oil painting of the poet reading, *John Keats at Wentworth Place* (1821--23), in the National Portrait Gallery. A later painting, *Keats, at Hampstead, when he first imagined his Ode to a Nightingale* (1849), now at Keats House, is also notable. In the 1860s Severn produced a number of copies and memory portraits as Keats\' reputation continued to grow. The most influential of Severn\'s early Italian genre paintings are *The Vintage*, commissioned by the Duke of Bedford in 1825, and *The Fountain* (Royal Palace, Brussels) commissioned by Leopold I of Belgium in 1826. The latter picture probably influenced J. M. W. Turner\'s major work, *View of Orvieto*. One of his most remarkably inventive works is the *Rime of the Ancient Mariner* (1839), based on Samuel Coleridge\'s famous poem, which recently sold at Sotheby\'s for £32,400. Another historical subject, *The Abdication of Mary, Queen of Scots*, sold for £115,250 at Sotheby\'s Gleneagles sale on 26 August 2008.
Severn also painted such works as *Cordelia Watching by the Bed of Lear*, *Shepherds in the Campagna*, *Shelley Composing Prometheus Unbound*, *Isabella and the Pot of Basil*, *Portia with the Casket*, *Ariel*, *Rienzi*, *The Infant of the Apocalypse Saved from the Dragon*, a large altarpiece for the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, and many portraits of statesman and aristocrats, including Baron Bunsen and William Gladstone. The last picture he exhibited at the Royal Academy was a scene from Oliver Goldsmith\'s *The Deserted Village* in 1857.
## Biographies and books {#biographies_and_books}
In 1892 the first significant collection of Severn\'s papers was published by William Sharp in *The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn*. Modern critics have cast doubt on the accuracy of Sharp\'s transcriptions and noted important omissions and embellishments.
In 1965, Sheila Birkenhead published *Illustrious Friends: The story of Joseph Severn and his son Arthur*.
In 2005, Grant F. Scott published *Joseph Severn: Letters and Memoirs* in which he re-edited the original material, added hundreds of newly discovered letters, included numerous reproductions of Severn\'s paintings, and prefaced this material with a critical introduction and commentary.
In 2009, Sue Brown published the biography *Joseph Severn, A Life: The Rewards of Friendship* using Scott\'s new information to provide a reassessment of Severn\'s character, his friendship with Keats, and his own subsequent artistic and diplomatic career
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# John Irving
**John Winslow Irving** (born **John Wallace Blunt Jr.**; March 2, 1942) is an American and Canadian novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter.
Irving achieved critical and popular acclaim after the international success of his fourth novel *The World According to Garp* in 1978. Many of Irving\'s novels, including *The Hotel New Hampshire* (1981), *The Cider House Rules* (1985), *A Prayer for Owen Meany* (1989), and *A Widow for One Year* (1998), have been bestsellers. He won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay at the 72nd Academy Awards in 2000 for his script of the film adaptation of *The Cider House Rules*.
Five of his novels have been fully or partially adapted into the films *The World According to Garp* (1982), *The Hotel* *New Hampshire* (1984), *Simon Birch* (1998), *The Cider House Rules* (1999), and *The Door in the Floor* (2004). Several of Irving\'s books and short stories have been set in and around New England, in fictional towns resembling Exeter, New Hampshire.
## Early life {#early_life}
Irving was born John Wallace Blunt Jr. in Exeter, New Hampshire, the son of Helen Frances (née Winslow) and John Wallace Blunt Sr., a writer and executive recruiter; the couple separated during pregnancy. Irving was raised by his mother and stepfather, Colin Franklin Newell Irving, who was a Phillips Exeter Academy faculty member. His uncle Hammy Bissell was also part of the faculty. John Irving was in the Phillips Exeter wrestling program as a student athlete and as an assistant coach, and wrestling features prominently in his books, stories, and life. While a student at Exeter, Irving was taught by author and Christian theologian Frederick Buechner, whom he quoted in an epigraph in *A Prayer for Owen Meany*. Irving has dyslexia.
Irving never met his biological father, who was a pilot in the Army Air Forces during World War II. In July 1943, John Blunt Sr. was shot down over Burma but survived. The incident was incorporated into *The Cider House Rules*. Irving did not find out about his father\'s heroism until 1981, when he was almost 40 years old.
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# John Irving
## Career
Irving\'s career began at the age of 26 with the publication of his first novel, *Setting Free the Bears* (1968). The novel was reasonably well reviewed but failed to gain a large readership. In the late 1960s, he studied under Kurt Vonnegut at the University of Iowa Writers\' Workshop. His second and third novels, *The Water-Method Man* (1972) and *The 158-Pound Marriage* (1974), were similarly received. In 1975, Irving accepted a position as assistant professor of English at Mount Holyoke College.
Frustrated at the lack of promotion his novels were receiving from his first publisher, Random House, Irving offered his fourth novel, *The World According to Garp* (1978), to Dutton, which promised him stronger commitment to marketing. The novel became an international bestseller and cultural phenomenon. It was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction in 1979 (which ultimately went to Tim O\'Brien for *Going After Cacciato*) and its first paperback edition won the Award the next year. *Garp* was later made into a film directed by George Roy Hill, starring Robin Williams in the title role and Glenn Close as his mother; it garnered several Academy Award nominations, including nominations for Close and John Lithgow. Irving makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as the referee in one of Garp\'s high school wrestling matches. *The World According to Garp* was among three books recommended to the Pulitzer Advisory Board for consideration for the 1979 Award in Fiction in the Pulitzer Jury Committee report, although the award was given to *The Stories of John Cheever* (1978).
*Garp* transformed Irving from an obscure literary writer to a household name, and his subsequent books were bestsellers. The next was *The Hotel New Hampshire* (1981), which sold well despite mixed reviews from critics. Like *Garp*, the novel was quickly made into a film, this time directed by Tony Richardson and starring Jodie Foster, Rob Lowe, and Beau Bridges. \"Interior Space\", a short story originally published in *Fiction* magazine in 1980, was selected for the 1981 O. Henry Prize Stories collection.
In 1985, Irving published *The Cider House Rules*. An epic set in a Maine orphanage, the novel\'s central topic is abortion. Many drew parallels between the novel and Charles Dickens\' *Oliver Twist* (1838). Irving\'s next novel was *A Prayer for Owen Meany* (1989), another New England family epic about religion set in a New England boarding school and in Toronto, Ontario. The novel was influenced by *The Tin Drum* (1959) by Günter Grass, and the plot contains further allusions to *The Scarlet Letter* (1850) by Nathaniel Hawthorne and the works of Dickens. In *Owen Meany,* Irving for the first time examined the consequences of the Vietnam War---particularly mandatory conscription, which Irving avoided because he was a married father when of age for the draft. *Owen Meany* became Irving\'s best selling book since *Garp.*
Irving returned to Random House for his next book, *A Son of the Circus* (1995). Arguably his most complicated and difficult book, and a departure from the themes and settings of his previous novels, it received ambivalent reviews by American critics but became a national and international bestseller on the strength of Irving\'s reputation for fashioning literate, engrossing page-turners. Irving returned in 1998 with *A Widow for One Year*, which was named a *New York Times* Notable Book.
In 1999, after nearly 10 years in development, Irving\'s screenplay for *The Cider House Rules* was made into a film directed by Lasse Hallström, starring Michael Caine, Tobey Maguire, Charlize Theron, and Delroy Lindo. Irving also made a cameo appearance as a disapproving stationmaster. The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and earned Irving an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.
Irving wrote *My Movie Business*, a memoir about his involvement in creating the film version of *The Cider House Rules*. After its publication in 1999, he appeared on the CBC Television program *Hot Type* to promote the book. During the interview, he was asked about author Tom Wolfe \"once again\" proclaiming the death of the modern novel. Irving responded, \"I don\'t read Tom Wolfe, so I didn\'t hear what he said.\" The episode then cut to a photo of Wolfe, and Irving elaborating that Wolfe \"can\'t write\" and his writing made Irving gag. When asked about his statements subsequently, Irving has said he believed the *Hot Type* interview was over and he was speaking off the record, and that footage from the interview had been manipulated. Wolfe appeared on *Hot Type* later in 1999, calling Irving, Norman Mailer, and John Updike his \"three stooges\" who were panicked by his newest novel, *A Man in Full* (1998).
Irving\'s 10th book, *The Fourth Hand* (2001), also became a bestseller. In 2004, *A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound*, a children\'s picture book originally included in *A Widow for One Year*, was published with illustrations by Tatjana Hauptmann. Irving\'s 11th novel, *Until I Find You*, was released on July 12, 2005.
On June 28, 2005, *The New York Times* published an article revealing that *Until I Find You* (2005) contains two specifically personal elements about his life that he had never before discussed publicly: his sexual abuse at age 11 by an older woman, and the recent entrance in his life of his biological father\'s family.
In his 12th novel, *Last Night in Twisted River*, published in 2009, Irving\'s central character is a novelist with, as critic Boyd Tonkin puts it, \"a career that teasingly follows Irving\'s own.\"
Irving has had four novels reach number one on the bestseller list of *The New York Times*: *The Hotel New Hampshire* (September 27, 1981), which stayed number one for seven weeks, and was in the top 15 for over 27 weeks; *The Cider House Rules* (June 16, 1985); *A Widow for One Year* (June 14, 1998); and *The Fourth Hand* (July 29, 2001).
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# John Irving
## Other projects {#other_projects}
Before the publication of *Garp* made him independently wealthy, Irving sporadically accepted short-term teaching positions (including one at his *alma mater*, the Iowa Writers\' Workshop). He also served as an assistant coach on his sons\' high school wrestling teams until he was 47 years old. Irving was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as an Outstanding American in 1992.
In addition to his novels, he has also published *Trying to Save Piggy Sneed* (1996), a collection of his writings including a brief memoir and unpublished short fiction, *My Movie Business*, an account of the protracted process of bringing *The Cider House Rules* to the big screen, and *The Imaginary Girlfriend*, a short memoir focusing on writing and wrestling. In 2000, Irving revealed that he and Tod \"Kip\" Williams were co-writing a screenplay for an adaptation of the novel *A Widow for One Year* (1998). This adaptation became *The Door in the Floor*, starring Jeff Bridges and Kim Basinger, released in 2004, directed by Williams.
In 2002, his four most highly regarded novels, *The World According to Garp*, *The Cider House Rules*, *A Prayer for Owen Meany*, and *A Widow for One Year*, were published in Modern Library editions. *Owen Meany* was adapted into the 1998 film *Simon Birch* (Irving required that the title and character names be changed because the screenplay\'s story was \"markedly different\" from that of the novel; Irving is on record as having enjoyed the film, however).
In 2005, Irving received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.
In a *New York Magazine* interview in 2009, Irving stated that he had begun work on a new novel, his 13th, based in part on a speech from Shakespeare\'s *Richard II.* Simon & Schuster published the novel, titled *In One Person* (2012), taking over from Random House. *In One Person* has a first-person viewpoint, Irving\'s first such narrative since *A Prayer for Owen Meany* (Irving decided to change the first-person perspective of *Until I Find You* to third person less than a year before publication). *In One Person* features a 60-year-old, bisexual protagonist named William, looking back on his life in the 1950s and \'60s. The novel shares a similar theme and concern with *The World According to Garp*, the latter being in part about \"people who hate you for your sexual differences,\" said Irving.
He won a Lambda Literary Award in 2013 in the Bisexual Fiction category for *In One Person*, and was also awarded the organization\'s Bridge Builder Award to honor him as an ally of the LGBT community.
On June 10, 2013, Irving announced his next novel, his 14th, titled *Avenue of Mysteries*, named after a street in Mexico City. In an interview the previous year, he had revealed the last line of the book: \"Not every collision course comes as a surprise.\"
On December 19, 2014, Irving posted a message on the Facebook page devoted to him and his work that he had \"finished \'Avenue of Mysteries.\' It is a shorter novel for me, comparable in length to \'In One Person.\'\" Simon & Schuster published the book in November, 2015.
On November 3, 2015, Irving revealed that he\'d been approached by HBO and Warner Brothers to reconstruct *The World According to Garp* as a miniseries. He described the project as being in the early stages. According to the byline of a self-penned, February 20, 2017, essay for The Hollywood Reporter, Irving had completed his teleplay for the five-part series based on *The World According to Garp* and was working on his fifteenth novel.
On June 28, 2017, Irving revealed in a long letter to fans on Facebook that his new novel was primarily a ghost story. \"\...I have a history of being interested in ghosts. And here come the ghosts again. In my new novel, my fifteenth, the ghosts are more prominent than before; the novel begins and ends with them. Like *A Widow for One Year*, this novel is constructed as a play in three acts. I\'m calling Act I \'Early Signs.\' I began writing it on New Year\'s Eve---not a bad night to start a ghost story.\"
In an interview with Mike Kilen for *The Des Moines Register*, published on October 26, 2017, Irving revealed that the title of his novel-in-progress was \"Darkness As a Bride.\" The title was taken from Shakespeare\'s play, *Measure for Measure:* \"If I must die, / I will encounter darkness as a bride, / and hug it in mine arms.\" He later changed the title to *[The Last Chairlift](https://john-irving.com/the-last-chairlift-by-john-irving/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229090401/https://john-irving.com/the-last-chairlift-by-john-irving/ |date=February 29, 2024 }}`{=mediawiki}*. The novel was published by Simon & Schuster in October 2022.
Irving received the Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award at the annual Dayton Literary Peace Prize gala on October 28, 2018.
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# John Irving
## Works
### Novels
- *Setting Free the Bears* (Random House, 1968) `{{ISBN|0-345-21812-4|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Water-Method Man* (Random House, 1972) `{{ISBN|0-394-47332-9|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The 158-Pound Marriage* (Random House, 1974) `{{ISBN|0-394-48414-2|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The World According to Garp* (Dutton, 1978) `{{ISBN|0-525-23770-4|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Hotel New Hampshire* (Dutton, 1981) `{{ISBN|0-525-12800-X|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Cider House Rules* (William Morrow, 1985) `{{ISBN|0-688-03036-X|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *A Prayer for Owen Meany* (William Morrow, 1989) `{{ISBN|0-688-07708-0|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *A Son of the Circus* (Random House, 1994) `{{ISBN|0-679-43496-8|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *A Widow for One Year* (Random House, 1998) `{{ISBN|0-375-50137-1|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Fourth Hand* (Random House, 2001) `{{ISBN|0-375-50627-6|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Until I Find You* (Random House, 2005) `{{ISBN|1-4000-6383-3|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Last Night in Twisted River* (Random House, 2009) `{{ISBN|1-4000-6384-1|}}`{=mediawiki}
- *In One Person* (Simon & Schuster, 2012) `{{ISBN|9781451664126|}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Avenue of Mysteries* (Simon & Schuster, 2015) `{{ISBN|9781451664164|}}`{=mediawiki})
- *The Last Chairlift* (Simon & Schuster, 2022) `{{ISBN|9781501189272}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Queen Esther* (Simon & Schuster, 2025) `{{ISBN|9781501189449|}}`{=mediawiki}
### Short fiction {#short_fiction}
- *Trying to Save Piggy Sneed* (Arcade Publishing, 1996) `{{ISBN|1-55970-323-7|}}`{=mediawiki}
### Other fiction {#other_fiction}
- *The Cider House Rules: A Screenplay* (1999)
- *A Sound Like Someone Trying Not to Make a Sound* (children\'s) (2004)
### Nonfiction
- *The Imaginary Girlfriend* (1995)
- *My Movie Business* (1999)
### Filmography based on writings {#filmography_based_on_writings}
- *The World According to Garp* (1982)
- *The Hotel New Hampshire* (1984)
- *Simon Birch* (1998) (partly based on *A Prayer for Owen Meany*)
- *The Cider House Rules* (1999)
- *The Door in the Floor* (2004) (based on *A Widow for One Year*)
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1964, Irving married Shyla Leary, whom he had met at Harvard in 1963 while taking a summer course in German, before traveling to Vienna with IES Abroad. They have two sons, Colin and Brendan. The couple divorced in the early 1980s. In 1987, he married Janet Turnbull, who had been his publisher at Bantam-Seal Books and is now one of his literary agents. They have one daughter, actor and writer Eva Everett Irving.
Irving has homes in Toronto and Pointe au Baril, Ontario. On December 13, 2019, Irving became a Canadian citizen. He has said he plans to keep his U.S. citizenship, reserving the right to be outspoken about the United States and his dislike of Donald Trump.
Irving was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2007 and subsequently had a radical prostatectomy.
Irving is a second cousin of academic Amy Bishop, who was convicted of perpetrating the 2010 University of Alabama in Huntsville shooting.
In 2018, Irving was an honorary degree recipient at Williams College
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# Juruá River
The **Juruá River** (*links=no* `{{IPA|pt|ʒuɾuˈa|}}`{=mediawiki}; *links=no*) is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River. The Juruá emerges from highlands in east-central Peru, then winds its way through lowlands in Brazil, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression; and having all the characteristics of the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses.
For most of its length, the river flows through the Purus várzea ecoregion. This is surrounded by the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion. The Juruá rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and unobstructed for a distance of 1,133 km above its junction with the Amazon. It has a total length of approximately 3,283 km, and is one of the longest tributaries of the Amazon.
The 251577 ha Médio Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 1997, is on the left bank of the river as it meanders in a generally northeast direction through the municipality of Carauari. The lower Juruá River forms the western boundary of the 187982 ha Baixo Juruá Extractive Reserve, created in 2001. Since 2018, the lower portion of the river in Brazil has been designated a protected Ramsar site
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# Johnson solid
In geometry, a **Johnson solid**, sometimes also known as a **Johnson--Zalgaller solid**, is a convex polyhedron whose faces are regular polygons. They are sometimes defined to exclude the uniform polyhedrons. There are ninety-two solids with such a property: the first solids are the pyramids, cupolas, and a rotunda; some of the solids may be constructed by attaching with those previous solids, whereas others may not.
## Definition and background {#definition_and_background}
A Johnson solid is a convex polyhedron whose faces are all regular polygons.`{{r|diudea}}`{=mediawiki} The convex polyhedron means as bounded intersections of finitely many half-spaces, or as the convex hull of finitely many points.`{{r|bk}}`{=mediawiki} Although there is no restriction that any given regular polygon cannot be a face of a Johnson solid, some authors required that Johnson solids are not uniform. This means that a Johnson solid is not a Platonic solid, Archimedean solid, prism, or antiprism.`{{r|todesco|williams}}`{=mediawiki} A convex polyhedron in which all faces are nearly regular, but some are not precisely regular, is known as a near-miss Johnson solid.`{{r|kaplan-hart}}`{=mediawiki}
The solids were named after the mathematicians Norman Johnson and Victor Zalgaller.`{{r|uehara}}`{=mediawiki} `{{harvtxt|Johnson|1966}}`{=mediawiki} published a list including ninety-two solids---excluding the five Platonic solids, the thirteen Archimedean solids, the infinitely many uniform prisms, and the infinitely many uniform antiprisms---and gave them their names and numbers. He did not prove that there were only ninety-two, but he did conjecture that there were no others.`{{r|johnson}}`{=mediawiki} `{{harvtxt|Zalgaller|1969}}`{=mediawiki} proved that Johnson\'s list was complete.`{{r|zalgaller}}`{=mediawiki}
## Naming and enumeration {#naming_and_enumeration}
The naming of Johnson solids follows a flexible and precise descriptive formula that allows many solids to be named in multiple different ways without compromising the accuracy of each name as a description. Most Johnson solids can be constructed from the first few solids (pyramids, cupolae, and a rotunda), together with the Platonic and Archimedean solids, prisms, and antiprisms; the center of a particular solid\'s name will reflect these ingredients. From there, a series of prefixes are attached to the word to indicate additions, rotations, and transformations:`{{r|berman}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Bi-* indicates that two copies of the solid are joined base-to-base. For cupolae and rotundas, the solids can be joined so that either like faces (*ortho-*) or unlike faces (*gyro-*) meet. Using this nomenclature, a pentagonal bipyramid is a solid constructed by attaching two bases of pentagonal pyramids. Triangular orthobicupola is constructed by two triangular cupolas along their bases.
- *Elongated* indicates a prism is joined to the base of the solid, or between the bases; *gyroelongated* indicates an antiprism. *Augmented* indicates another polyhedron, namely a pyramid or cupola, is joined to one or more faces of the solid in question.
- *Diminished* indicates a pyramid or cupola is removed from one or more faces of the solid in question.
- *Gyrate* indicates a cupola mounted on or featured in the solid in question is rotated such that different edges match up, as in the difference between ortho- and gyrobicupolae.
The last three operations---*augmentation*, *diminution*, and *gyration*---can be performed multiple times for certain large solids. *Bi-* & *Tri-* indicate a double and triple operation respectively. For example, a *bigyrate* solid has two rotated cupolae, and a *tridiminished* solid has three removed pyramids or cupolae. In certain large solids, a distinction is made between solids where altered faces are parallel and solids where altered faces are oblique. *Para-* indicates the former, that the solid in question has altered parallel faces, and *meta-* the latter, altered oblique faces. For example, a *parabiaugmented* solid has had two parallel faces augmented, and a *metabigyrate* solid has had two oblique faces gyrated.`{{r|berman}}`{=mediawiki}
The last few Johnson solids have names based on certain polygon complexes from which they are assembled. These names are defined by Johnson with the following nomenclature:`{{r|berman}}`{=mediawiki}
- A *lune* is a complex of two triangles attached to opposite sides of a square.
- *Spheno*- indicates a wedgelike complex formed by two adjacent lunes. *Dispheno-* indicates two such complexes.
- *Hebespheno*- indicates a blunt complex of two lunes separated by a third lune.
- *Corona* is a crownlike complex of eight triangles.
- *Megacorona* is a larger crownlike complex of twelve triangles.
- The suffix -*cingulum* indicates a belt of twelve triangles.
The enumeration of Johnson solids may be denoted as $J_n$, where $n$ denoted the list\'s enumeration (an example is $J_1$ denoted the first Johnson solid, the equilateral square pyramid).`{{r|uehara}}`{=mediawiki} The following is the list of ninety-two Johnson solids, with the enumeration followed according to the list of `{{harvtxt|Johnson|1966}}`{=mediawiki}: `{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
# [[Equilateral square pyramid]]
# [[Pentagonal pyramid]]
# [[Triangular cupola]]
# [[Square cupola]]
# [[Pentagonal cupola]]
# [[Pentagonal rotunda]]
# [[Elongated triangular pyramid]]
# [[Elongated square pyramid]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal pyramid]]
# [[Gyroelongated square pyramid]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid]]
# [[Triangular bipyramid]]
# [[Pentagonal bipyramid]]
# [[Elongated triangular bipyramid]]
# [[Elongated square bipyramid]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal bipyramid]]
# [[Gyroelongated square bipyramid]]
# [[Elongated triangular cupola]]
# [[Elongated square cupola]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal cupola]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal rotunda]]
# [[Gyroelongated triangular cupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated square cupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda]]
# [[Gyrobifastigium]]
# [[Triangular orthobicupola]]
# [[Square orthobicupola]]
# [[Square gyrobicupola]]
# [[Pentagonal orthobicupola]]
# [[Pentagonal gyrobicupola]]
# [[Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda]]
# [[Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda]]
# [[Pentagonal orthobirotunda]]
# [[Elongated triangular orthobicupola]]
# [[Elongated triangular gyrobicupola]]
# [[Elongated square gyrobicupola]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda]]
# [[Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda]]
# [[Gyroelongated triangular bicupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated square bicupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda]]
# [[Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda]]
# [[Augmented triangular prism]]
# [[Biaugmented triangular prism]]
# [[Triaugmented triangular prism]]
# [[Augmented pentagonal prism]]
# [[Biaugmented pentagonal prism]]
# [[Augmented hexagonal prism]]
# [[Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism]]
# [[Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism]]
# [[Triaugmented hexagonal prism]]
# [[Augmented dodecahedron]]
# [[Parabiaugmented dodecahedron]]
# [[Metabiaugmented dodecahedron]]
# [[Triaugmented dodecahedron]]
# [[Metabidiminished icosahedron]]
# [[Tridiminished icosahedron]]
# [[Augmented tridiminished icosahedron]]
# [[Augmented truncated tetrahedron]]
# [[Augmented truncated cube]]
# [[Biaugmented truncated cube]]
# [[Augmented truncated dodecahedron]]
# [[Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron]]
# [[Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron]]
# [[Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron]]
# [[Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron]]
# [[Snub disphenoid]]
# [[Snub square antiprism]]
# [[Sphenocorona]]
# [[Augmented sphenocorona]]
# [[Sphenomegacorona]]
# [[Hebesphenomegacorona]]
# [[Disphenocingulum]]
# [[Bilunabirotunda]]
# [[Triangular hebesphenorotunda]]
}}`{=mediawiki}
Some of the Johnson solids may be categorized as elementary polyhedra. This means the polyhedron cannot be separated by a plane to create two small convex polyhedra with regular faces; examples of Johnson solids are the first six Johnson solids---square pyramid, pentagonal pyramid, triangular cupola, square cupola, pentagonal cupola, and pentagonal rotunda---tridiminished icosahedron, parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron, tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron, snub disphenoid, snub square antiprism, sphenocorona, sphenomegacorona, hebesphenomegacorona, disphenocingulum, bilunabirotunda, and triangular hebesphenorotunda.`{{r|johnson|hartshorne}}`{=mediawiki} The other Johnson solids are composite polyhedron because they are constructed by attaching some elementary polyhedra.`{{r|timofeenko-2010}}`{=mediawiki}
## Properties
As the definition above, a Johnson solid is a convex polyhedron with regular polygons as their faces. However, there are several properties possessed by each of them.
- All but five of the 92 Johnson solids are known to have the Rupert property, meaning that it is possible for a larger copy of themselves to pass through a hole inside of them. The five which are not known to have this property are: gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron, parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron, metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron, trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron, and paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron.`{{r|fred}}`{=mediawiki}
- From all of the Johnson solids, the elongated square gyrobicupola (also called the pseudorhombicuboctahedron) is unique in being locally vertex-uniform: there are four faces at each vertex, and their arrangement is always the same: three squares and one triangle. However, it is not vertex-transitive, as it has different isometry at different vertices, making it a Johnson solid rather than an Archimedean solid
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# Jonathan Demme
**Robert Jonathan Demme** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɛ|m|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|DEM|ee}}`{=mediawiki}; February 22, 1944 -- April 26, 2017) was an American filmmaker, whose career directing, producing, and screenwriting spanned more than 30 years and 70 feature films, documentaries, and television productions. He was an Academy Award and a Directors Guild of America Award winner, and received nominations for a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, and three Independent Spirit Awards.
Beginning his career under B-movie producer Roger Corman, Demme made his directorial debut with the 1974 women-in-prison film *Caged Heat*, before becoming known for his casually humanist films such as *Melvin and Howard* (1980), *Swing Shift* (1984), *Something Wild* (1986), and *Married to the Mob* (1988). His 1991 psychological horror film *The Silence of the Lambs*, based on the novel of the same title, won five Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Picture.
His subsequent films earned similar acclaim, notably the HIV/AIDS-themed drama *Philadelphia* (1993), the supernatural Gothic horror *Beloved* (1998), the conspiracy thriller *The Manchurian Candidate* (2004), and the independent drama *Rachel Getting Married* (2008). Demme also directed numerous concert films such as *Stop Making Sense* (1984), *Neil Young: Heart of Gold* (2006), and *Justin Timberlake + The Tennessee Kids* (2016), and worked on several television series as both a producer and director.
## Early life {#early_life}
Demme was born on February 22, 1944, in Baldwin, New York, the son of Dorothy Louise (`{{née}}`{=mediawiki} Rogers) and Robert Eugene Demme, a public relations executive. He was raised in Rockville Centre, New York and Miami, where he graduated from Southwest Miami High School before attending the University of Florida.
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# Jonathan Demme
## Career
### Early films {#early_films}
Demme broke into feature film working for exploitation film producer Roger Corman early in his career, co-writing and producing *Angels Hard as They Come* (1971), a motorcycle movie very loosely based on *Rashomon*, and *The Hot Box* (1972). He then moved on to directing three films for Corman\'s studio New World Pictures: *Caged Heat* (1974), *Crazy Mama* (1975), and *Fighting Mad* (1976). After *Fighting Mad*, Demme directed the comedy film *Handle with Care* (originally titled *Citizens Band*, 1977) for Paramount Pictures. The film was well received by critics, but received little promotion, and performed poorly at the box office. He also directed a 1978 episode of *Columbo*.
Demme\'s next film, *Melvin and Howard* (1980), did not get a wide release, but received a groundswell of critical acclaim and film award recognition, including Academy Award nominations, winning two of its three nominations (Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Mary Steenburgen, and Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay -- Bo Goldman). This acclaim led to the signing of Demme to direct the Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell star vehicle *Swing Shift* (1984). Intended as a prestige picture for Warner Bros. as well as a major commercial vehicle for Demme, it instead became a troubled production due to the conflicting visions of Demme and star Hawn. Demme ended up renouncing the finished product, and when the film was released in May 1984, it was generally panned by critics and neglected by moviegoers. After *Swing Shift*, Demme stepped back from Hollywood to make the Talking Heads concert film *Stop Making Sense* (also 1984) which won the National Society of Film Critics Award for best documentary; the eclectic screwball action-romantic comedy *Something Wild* (1986); a film-version of the stage production *Swimming to Cambodia* (1987), by monologist Spalding Gray; and the New York Mafia-by-way-of Downtown comedy *Married to the Mob* (1988).`{{cref|a}}`{=mediawiki}
Demme formed his production company, Clinica Estetico, with producers Edward Saxon and Peter Saraf in 1987. They were based out of New York City for fifteen years. Further information: topic=the 1981 film presentation, Made in Texas
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# Jonathan Demme
## Career
### Later films {#later_films}
Demme won the Academy Award for *The Silence of the Lambs* (1991)---one of only three films to win all the major categories (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actor, and Best Actress). Inspired by his friend Juan Suárez Botas\'s illness with AIDS and fueled by his own moral convictions, Demme then used his influence to make *Philadelphia* (1993), one of the first major films to address the AIDS crisis and which garnered star Tom Hanks his first Best Actor Oscar. He also co-directed (with his nephew Ted) the music video for Bruce Springsteen\'s Best Song Oscar-winning \"Streets of Philadelphia\" from the film\'s soundtrack. Jonathan used several of the same actors for both movies.
Subsequently, his films included an adaptation of Toni Morrison\'s *Beloved* (1998), and remakes of two films from the 1960s: *The Truth About Charlie* (2002), based on *Charade*, that starred Mark Wahlberg in the Cary Grant role; and *The Manchurian Candidate* (2004), with Denzel Washington and Meryl Streep. Demme\'s documentary film *Man from Plains* (2007), a documentary about former U.S. President Jimmy Carter\'s promotional tour publicizing his book *Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid*, had its premiere at the Venice Film Festival and Toronto International Film Festival.
His art-house hit *Rachel Getting Married* (2008) was compared by many critics to Demme\'s films of the late 1970s and 1980s. It was included in many 2008 \"best of\" lists, and received numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress by lead Anne Hathaway. In 2010, Demme made his first foray into theater, directing *Family Week*, a play by Beth Henley. The play was produced by MCC Theater and co-starred Rosemarie DeWitt and Kathleen Chalfant.
At one time, Demme was signed on to direct, produce, and write an adaptation of Stephen King\'s sci-fi novel *11/22/63*, but later left the project due to disagreements with King on what should be included in the script.
He returned to the concert documentary format with *Justin Timberlake + the Tennessee Kids* (2016), which he described as a \"performance film, but also a portrait of an artist at a certain moment in the arc of his career\", and his last project was a history of rock & roll for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame compiled from footage from Hall of Fame induction ceremonies set to debut in summer 2017.
Demme directed music videos for artists such as Suburban Lawns, New Order, KRS-One\'s H.E.A.L. project and Bruce Springsteen. He also produced a compilation of Haitian music called *Konbit: Burning Rhythms of Haiti* that was released in 1989. (Lou Reed selected *Konbit\...* as one of his \'picks of 1989\').
Demme was on the board of directors at Jacob Burns Film Center in Pleasantville, New York. In addition to his role on the board, he curated and hosted a monthly series called *Rarely Seen Cinema*.
## Style
Throughout 1986--2004, Demme was known for his dramatic close-ups in films. This style of close-ups involves the character looking directly into the camera during crucial moments. According to Demme, this was done to put the viewer into the character\'s shoes. Beginning with *Rachel Getting Married* (2008), Demme adopted a documentary style of filmmaking.
He was known for his use of recurring supporting players, including Charles Napier, Harry Northup, Tracey Walter, Ann Dowd, LisaGay Hamilton, Kimberly Elise, Paul Lazar, Ron Vawter, Dean Stockwell, Obba Babatundé, Ted Levine, Paul Le Mat, Mary Steenburgen, Jason Robards, Scott Glenn, and his former producer Roger Corman, as well as casting musicians and bands in roles. These included Sister Carol, Chris Isaak, Tunde Adebimpe, the Feelies, Charles Aznavour, Steve Scales, the Flirtations, Manno Charlemagne, Bernie Worrell, David Johansen, Beau Sia, Q Lazzarus, and Rick Springfield. In addition to Corman, Demme cast a number of other fellow directors in cameos, including John Sayles, Agnès Varda, George A. Romero, Sidney Lumet, and John Waters. Many of these performers received opening credits billing in films they appeared in, despite sometimes having only one or two lines.
Writer/director Paul Thomas Anderson has paid homage to Demme in his films and has cited him as a major influence in his work. In an interview, Anderson jokingly stated that the three filmmakers who inspired him the most are \"Jonathan Demme, Jonathan Demme and Jonathan Demme.\" Other directors such as Alexander Payne and Wes Anderson have been known to be inspired by his close-ups in their own work.
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# Jonathan Demme
## Political activism {#political_activism}
Demme was involved in various political projects. In 1981, he directed a series of commercials for the liberal advocacy group People for the American Way. The spots, titled \"Eggs\", \"Music\", and \"Sports\", were produced by Norman Lear and featured Muhammad Ali, Carol Burnett, and Goldie Hawn celebrating Freedom of Expression. In 1985, he directed a video for Artists United Against Apartheid. The short, featured various international musicians including Afrika Bambaataa, Rubén Blades, Jimmy Cliff, Herbie Hancock, Little Steven, Run--D.M.C., and Bruce Springsteen, calling for a boycott of the South African luxury resort Sun City during Apartheid. His documentary *Haiti Dreams of Democracy* (1988) captured Haiti\'s era of democratic rebuilding after dictatorship, while his documentary *The Agronomist* (2008) profiled Haitian journalist and human rights activist Jean Dominique. Demme spent six years on the documentary *I\'m Carolyn Parker* (2011), which highlighted rebuilding efforts in New Orleans Lower Ninth Ward after Hurricane Katrina.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Demme was married twice. His first marriage to Evelyn Purcell ended in divorce. In 1987, he married artist Joanne Howard, with whom he had three children. He was the uncle of film director Ted Demme, who died in 2002. Demme\'s cousin was the Rev. Robert Wilkinson Castle Jr., an Episcopal priest who appeared in some of Demme\'s films.
Demme was a member of the steering committee of the Friends of the Apollo Theater, Oberlin, Ohio, along with Danny DeVito and Rhea Perlman. In 2013, he returned to Oberlin as part of an alumni reunion during the class of 2013 graduation ceremony and received the award for Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts.
In 2009, Demme signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown \"freely and safely\", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door \"for actions of which no-one can know the effects.\"
Demme was an avid collector and devotee of Haitian art, in particular of Hector Hyppolite - so much so that he called it \"an addiction\". In 2014, he held an auction in Philadelphia selling thousands from his collection, much of which was donated to a cultural center in Port-au-Prince.
## Death
Demme died at his home in Manhattan on April 26, 2017, from complications from esophageal cancer and heart disease; he was 73. `{{blockquote|"I am heart-broken to lose a friend, a mentor, a guy so singular and dynamic you'd have to design a hurricane to contain him. Jonathan was as quirky as his comedies and as deep as his dramas. He was pure energy, the unstoppable cheerleader for anyone creative. Just as passionate about music as he was about art, he was and will always be a champion of the soul. JD, most beloved, something wild, brother of love, director of the lambs. Love that guy. Love him so much." | [[Jodie Foster]]'s statement following Demme's death.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2017/film/news/jonathan-demme-jodie-foster-tribute-silence-of-the-lambs-1202399502/#respond|title=Jodie Foster Pays Tribute to Jonathan Demme, 'A Champion of the Soul'|date=26 April 2017|access-date=26 April 2018|archive-date=November 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128164752/https://variety.com/2017/film/news/jonathan-demme-jodie-foster-tribute-silence-of-the-lambs-1202399502/#respond|url-status=live}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Director Brady Corbet dedicated his 2018 film *Vox Lux* to Demme\'s memory, as did Luca Guadagnino with his 2018 film *Suspiria* and Paul Thomas Anderson with his 2017 film *Phantom Thread* starring Daniel Day-Lewis. Demme is thanked in the credits of Spike Lee\'s 2020 concert film *American Utopia* starring David Byrne. The album *A Beginner\'s Mind* by musicians Sufjan Stevens and Angelo De Augustine is dedicated to Demme, with one of its songs, \"Cimmerian Shade\", mentioning him and referencing *The Silence of the Lambs* within its lyrics.
## Filmography
Year Title Distribution
------ ---------------------------- -------------------------
1974 *Caged Heat* New World Pictures
1975 *Crazy Mama*
1976 *Fighting Mad* 20th Century Fox
1977 *Handle with Care* Paramount Pictures
1979 *Last Embrace* United Artists
1980 *Melvin and Howard* Universal Pictures
1984 *Swing Shift* Warner Bros
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# Juan Gris
**José Victoriano González-Pérez** (23 March 1887 -- 11 May 1927), better known as **Juan Gris** (`{{IPA|es|ˈxwaŋ ˈɡɾis|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|fr|gʀi|lang}}`{=mediawiki}), was a Spanish painter born in Madrid who lived and worked in France for most of his active period. Closely connected to the innovative artistic genre Cubism, his works are among the movement\'s most distinctive.
## Life
Gris was born in Madrid and later studied engineering at the Madrid School of Arts and Sciences. There, from 1902 to 1904, he contributed drawings to local periodicals. From 1904 to 1905, he studied painting with the academic artist José Moreno Carbonero. It was in 1905 that José Victoriano González adopted the more distinctive name Juan Gris.
In 1909, Lucie Belin (1891--1942)---Gris\' wife---gave birth to Georges Gonzalez-Gris (1909--2003), the artist\'s only child. The three lived at the Bateau-Lavoir, 13 Rue Ravignan, Paris, from 1909 to 1911. In 1912 Gris met Charlotte Augusta Fernande Herpin (1894--1983), also known as Josette. Late 1913 or early 1914 they lived together at the Bateau-Lavoir until 1922. Josette Gris was Juan Gris\' second companion and unofficial wife.
## Career
In 1906, after he sold all his possessions, he moved to Paris and became friends with the poets Guillaume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, and artists Henri Matisse, Georges Braque, Fernand Léger and Jean Metzinger. He submitted darkly humorous illustrations to journals such as the anarchist satirical magazine *L\'Assiette au Beurre*, and also *Le Rire*, *Le Charivari*, and *Le Cri de Paris*. In Paris, Gris followed the lead of Metzinger and another friend and fellow countryman, Pablo Picasso.
Gris began to paint seriously in 1911 (when he gave up working as a satirical cartoonist), developing at this time a personal Cubist style. In *A Life of Picasso*, John Richardson writes that Jean Metzinger\'s 1911 work, *Le goûter (Tea Time)*, persuaded Juan Gris of the importance of mathematics in painting. Gris exhibited for the first time at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants (a painting entitled *Hommage à Pablo Picasso*).
\"He appears with two styles\", writes art historian Peter Brooke, \"In one of them a grid structure appears that is clearly reminiscent of the *Goûter* and of Metzinger\'s later work in 1912.\" In the other, Brooke continues, \"the grid is still present but the lines are not stated and their continuity is broken. Their presence is suggested by the heavy, often triangular, shading of the angles between them\... Both styles are distinguished from the work of Picasso and Braque by their clear, rational and measurable quality.\" Although Gris regarded Picasso as a teacher, Gertrude Stein wrote in *The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas* that \"Juan Gris was the only person whom Picasso wished away\".
In 1912, Gris exhibited at the *Exposició d\'art cubista*, Galeries Dalmau in Barcelona, the first declared group exhibition of Cubism worldwide; the gallery Der Sturm in Berlin; the *Salon de la Société Normande de Peinture Moderne* in Rouen; and the Salon de la Section d\'Or in Paris. Gris, in that same year, signed a contract that gave Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler exclusive rights to his work.
At first Gris painted in the style of *Analytical Cubism*, a term he himself later coined, but after 1913 he began his conversion to *Synthetic Cubism*, of which he became a steadfast interpreter, with extensive use of papier collé or, collage. Unlike Picasso and Braque, whose Cubist works were practically monochromatic, Gris painted with bright harmonious colors in daring, novel combinations in the manner of his friend Matisse. Gris exhibited with the painters of the Puteaux Group in the Salon de *la Section d\'Or* in 1912. His preference for clarity and order influenced the Purist style of Amédée Ozenfant and Charles Edouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier), and made Gris an important exemplar of the post-war \"return to order\" movement. In 1915 he was painted by his friend, Amedeo Modigliani. In November 1917 he made one of his few sculptures, the polychrome plaster *Harlequin*.
## Crystal Cubism {#crystal_cubism}
Gris\'s works from late 1916 through 1917 exhibit a greater simplification of geometric structure, a blurring of the distinction between objects and setting, between subject matter and background. The oblique overlapping planar constructions, tending away from equilibrium, can best be seen in *Woman with Mandolin, after Corot* (September 1916) and in its epilogue, *Portrait of Josette Gris* (October 1916; Museo Reina Sofia).
The clear-cut underlying geometric framework of these works seemingly controls the finer elements of the compositions; the constituent components, including the small planes of the faces, become part of the unified whole. Though Gris certainly had planned the representation of his chosen subject matter, the abstract armature serves as the starting point.
The geometric structure of Juan Gris\'s Crystal period is already palpable in *Still Life before an Open Window, Place Ravignan* (June 1915; Philadelphia Museum of Art). The overlapping elemental planar structure of the composition serves as a foundation to flatten the individual elements onto a unifying surface, foretelling the shape of things to come.
In 1919 and particularly 1920, artists and critics began to write conspicuously about this \'synthetic\' approach, and to assert its importance in the overall scheme of advanced Cubism.
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# Juan Gris
## Designer and theorist {#designer_and_theorist}
In 1924, he designed ballet sets and costumes for Sergei Diaghilev and the famous Ballets Russes.
Gris articulated most of his aesthetic theories during 1924 and 1925. He delivered his definitive lecture, *Des possibilités de la peinture*, at the Sorbonne in 1924. Major Gris exhibitions took place at the Galerie Simon in Paris and the Galerie Flechtheim in Berlin in 1923 and at the Galerie Flechtheim in Düsseldorf in 1925.
## Death
After October 1925, Gris was frequently ill with bouts of uremia and cardiac problems. He died of kidney failure in Boulogne-sur-Seine (Paris) on 11 May 1927, at the age of 40, leaving a wife, Josette, and a son, Georges.
## Art market {#art_market}
The top auction price for a Gris work is \$57.1 million (£34.8 million), achieved for his 1915 painting *Nature morte à la nappe à carreaux (Still Life with Checked Tablecloth)*. This surpassed previous records of \$20.8 million for his 1915 still life *Livre, pipe et verres*, \$28.6 million for the 1913 artwork *Violon et guitare* and \$31.8 million for *The musician\'s table*, now in the Met.
## Selected works {#selected_works}
- *Violin Hanging on a Wall (Le violon accroché)*, (1913). Guggenheim Museum, New York
- *Pears and Grapes on a Table*, (autumn 1913). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
- *Bottle of Rum and Newspaper (Bouteille de rhum et journal)*, (June 1914). Guggenheim Museum, New York
- *Cherries (Les cerises)*, (1915). Guggenheim Museum, New York
- *Fruit Dish on a Checkered Tablecloth (Compotier et nappe à carreaux)*, (November 1917). Guggenheim Museum, New York
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# Juan Gris
## Gallery
<File:Juan> Gris, 1911, Maisons à Paris (Houses in Paris), oil on canvas, 52.4 x 34.2 cm, Guggenheim Museum.jpg\|*Maisons à Paris* (*Houses in Paris*), 1911, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York <File:Juan> Legua MET DT4462.jpg\|*Juan Legua*, 1911, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York <File:Juan> Gris - Guitar and Pipe.jpg\|*Guitar and Pipe,* 1913, Dallas Museum of Art, Texas <File:Juan> Gris - Glass of Beer and Playing Cards.jpg\|*Glass of Beer and Playing Cards*, 1913, Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio <File:Juan> Gris - Violin and Checkerboard.jpg\|*Violin and Checkerboard*, 1913, Private collection <File:Juan> Gris - La bouteille d\'anis - Google Art Project.jpg\|*The Bottle of Anís del Mono*, 1914, Queen Sofia Museum, Madrid <File:Fantômas> - Juan Gris.JPG\|*Fantômas*, 1915, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. <File:Juan> gris, la colazione, 1915.JPG\|*The Breakfast*, 1915, Musée National d\'Art Moderne, Paris <File:Newspaper> and Fruit Dish Juan Gris.jpeg\|*Newspaper and Fruit Dish*, 1916, Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, CT <File:Juan> Gris, Glass and Checkerboard, c. 1917, NGA 166491.jpg\|*Glass and Checkerboard*, c. 1917, National Gallery of Art <File:Juan> Gris, 1917, Compotier et nappe à carreaux, oil on wood panel, 80.6 x 53.9 cm, Guggenheim Museum.jpg\|*Compotier et nappe à carreaux*, 1917, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York <File:Juan> Gris.jpg\|*The Guitar (La Guitarra)*, 1918, Fundación Telefónica at Queen Sofia Museum, Madrid <File:Juan> Gris - Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin.jpg\|*Still Life with Fruit Dish and Mandolin*, 1919, Private collection, Paris <File:Juan> Gris, 1919, Arlequin à la guitare, oil on canvas, 116 x 89 cm, Musée National d\'Art Moderne.jpg\|*Harlequin with Guitar*, 1919, Musée National d\'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris <File:Le> Canigou Juan Gris.jpeg\|*Le Canigou*, 1921, Albright--Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York <File:Le> Tapis bleu.jpg\|*The blue carpet*, 1925, Centre national d\'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou, Paris <File:The> Painter\'s Window Juan Gris
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# January 9
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# Jericho
**Jericho** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛr|ɪ|k|oʊ}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|JERR|ik|oh}}`{=mediawiki}; *Arīḥā*, `{{IPA|ar|ʔaˈriːħaː|IPA|ArJericho.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, and the capital of the Jericho Governorate. Jericho is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It had a population of 20,907 in 2017.
From the end of the era of Mandatory Palestine, the city was annexed and ruled by Jordan from 1949 to 1967 and, with the rest of the West Bank, has been subject to Israeli occupation since 1967; administrative control was handed over to the Palestinian Authority in 1994.
Jericho is among the oldest cities in the world, and it is also the city with the oldest known defensive wall. Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of more than 20 successive settlements in Jericho, the first of which dates back 11,000 years (to 9000 BCE), almost to the very beginning of the Holocene epoch of the Earth\'s history. Copious springs in and around the city have attracted human habitation for thousands of years. Jericho is described in the Bible as the \"city of palm trees\".
In 2023, the archaeological site in the center of the city, known as Tell es-Sultan / Old Jericho, was inscribed in UNESCO\'s list as a World Heritage Site in the State of Palestine, and described as the \"oldest fortified city in the world\".
## Etymology
Jericho\'s name in Biblical Hebrew, *Yəriḥo* (*יְרִיחוֹ*) is generally thought to derive from the Canaanite word *rēḥ* `{{gloss|fragrant}}`{=mediawiki}, but other theories hold that it originates in the Canaanite word *Yaraḥ* `{{gloss|[[moon]]}}`{=mediawiki} or the name of the lunar deity Yarikh, for whom the city was an early centre of worship.
Jericho\'s Arabic name, `{{transliteration|ar|DIN|Arīḥā}}`{=mediawiki}, means `{{gloss|fragrant}}`{=mediawiki} and also has its roots in Canaanite *rēḥ*.
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
The first excavations of the site were carried out by Charles Warren in 1868. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-\'Alayiq between 1907 and 1909, and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936. Kathleen Kenyon worked there between 1952 and 1958, followed by Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolò Marchetti in 1997--2000. Since 2009 the Italian-Palestinian archaeological project of excavation and restoration was resumed by Rome \"La Sapienza\" University and Palestinian MOTA-DACH under the direction of Lorenzo Nigro and Hamdan Taha, and Jehad Yasine since 2015. The Italian-Palestinian Expedition carried out 13 seasons in 20 years (1997--2017), with some major discoveries, like Tower A1 in the Middle Bronze Age southern Lower Town and Palace G on the eastern flanks of the Spring Hill overlooking the Spring of \'Ain es-Sultan dating from Early Bronze III.
### Stone Age: Tell es-Sultan and spring {#stone_age_tell_es_sultan_and_spring}
The earliest excavated settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan (or Sultan\'s Hill), a couple of kilometers from the current city. In both Arabic and Hebrew, *tell* means \"mound\" -- consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East and Anatolia. Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) periods.
#### Natufian hunter-gatherers, c. 10,000 BCE {#natufian_hunter_gatherers}
Epipaleolithic construction at the site appears to predate the invention of agriculture, with the construction of Natufian culture structures beginning earlier than 9000 BCE, the beginning of the Holocene epoch in geologic history.
Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to c. 10,000 BCE. During the Younger Dryas period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of any one location was impossible. However, the Ein es-Sultan spring at what would become Jericho was a popular camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups, who left a scattering of crescent-shaped microlith tools behind them. Around 9600 BCE, the droughts and cold of the Younger Dryas stadial had come to an end, making it possible for Natufian groups to extend the duration of their stay, eventually leading to year-round habitation and permanent settlement.
#### Pre-Pottery Neolithic, c. 9500--6500 BCE {#pre_pottery_neolithic_95006500_bce}
The Pre-Pottery Neolithic at Jericho is divided in Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B.
##### Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) {#pre_pottery_neolithic_a_ppna}
The first permanent settlement on the site of Jericho developed near the Ein es-Sultan spring between 9,500 and 9000 BCE. As the world warmed up, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed \"Pre-Pottery Neolithic A\" (abbreviated as PPNA). Its cultures lacked pottery, but featured the following:
- small circular dwellings
- burial of the dead under the floor of buildings
- reliance on hunting of wild game
- cultivation of wild or domestic cereals
At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, which were plastered together with a mud mortar. Each house measured about 5 m across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush. Hearths were located within and outside the homes.
The Pre-Sultan (c. 8350 -- 7370 BCE)`{{dubious|Contradicts dates given in this paragraph: "between 9,400 and 9000", "about 9400 BCE", but fits somewhat with time when the tower was used according to Barkai & Liran: "The tower was constructed and used between ≈8300 BCE and ≈7800 BCE (Burleigh 1981, 1983)." It also fits with starting date of PPNB indicated in the next paragraph.|date=February 2016}}`{=mediawiki} is sometimes called Sultanian. The site is a 40000 m2 settlement surrounded by a massive stone wall over 3.6 m high and 1.8 m wide at the base, inside of which stood a stone tower, over 8.5 m high, containing an internal staircase with 22 stone steps and placed in the centre of the west side of the tell. This tower and the even older ones excavated at Tell Qaramel in Syria are the oldest towers ever to be discovered. The wall of Jericho may have served as a defence against flood-water, with the tower used for ceremonial purposes. The wall and tower were built during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) period around 8000 BCE. For the tower, carbon dates published in 1981 and 1983 indicate that it was built around 8300 BCE and stayed in use until c. 7800 BCE. The wall and tower would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct, thus suggesting some kind of social organization. The town contained round mud-brick houses, yet no street planning. The identity and number of the inhabitants of Jericho during the PPNA period is still under debate, with estimates going as high as 2,000--3,000, and as low as 200--300. It is known that this population had domesticated emmer wheat, barley and pulses and hunted wild animals.
##### Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) {#pre_pottery_neolithic_b_ppnb}
The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) was a period of about 1.4 millennia, from 7220 to 5850 BCE`{{clarify|reason=Leaves two substantial gaps, one -, one +: if PPNB covers 9,500-9000, and PPN altogether ends around 6500, that leaves 1780 years belonging nowhere (9000-7220), and extends PPN from the stated 6500 by 650 years to 5850 BC. Must be addressed.|date=October 2021}}`{=mediawiki} (though carbon-14-dates are few and early). The following are PPNB cultural features:
- Expanded range of domesticated plants
- Possible domestication of sheep
- Apparent cult involving the preservation of human skulls, with facial features reconstructed using plaster, and eyes set with shells in some cases
thumb\|upright=1.35\|Area of the Fertile Crescent, c. 7500 BC, with main sites. Jericho was a foremost site of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. The area of Mesopotamia proper was not yet settled by humans.
After a few centuries, the first settlement was abandoned. After the PPNA settlement phase, there was a settlement hiatus of several centuries, then the PPNB settlement was founded on the eroded surface of the tell. This second settlement, established in 6800 BCE, perhaps represents the work of an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their dominant culture. Artifacts dating from this period include ten plastered human skulls, painted so as to reconstitute the individuals\' features. These represent either teraphim or the first example of portraiture in art history,`{{dubious|reason=see [[Tell Awad]] and discussion on Jericho's talk page|date=August 2013}}`{=mediawiki} and it is thought that they were kept in people\'s homes while the bodies were buried.
The architecture consisted of rectilinear buildings made of mudbricks on stone foundations. The mudbricks were loaf-shaped with deep thumb prints to facilitate bonding. No building has been excavated in its entirety. Normally, several rooms cluster around a central courtyard. There is one big room (6.5 x`{{dubious|reason=conversion via template displays unwarranted (false) precision|date=February 2018}}`{=mediawiki} and 7 x)`{{dubious|reason=conversion via template displays unwarranted (false) precision|date=February 2018}}`{=mediawiki} with internal divisions; the rest are small, presumably used for storage. The rooms have red or pinkish terrazzo-floors made of lime. Some impressions of mats made of reeds or rushes have been preserved. The courtyards have clay floors.
Kathleen Kenyon interpreted one building as a shrine. It contained a niche in the wall. A chipped pillar of volcanic stone that was found nearby might have fitted into this niche.
The dead were buried under the floors or in the rubble fill of abandoned buildings. There are several collective burials. Not all the skeletons are completely articulated, which may point to a time of exposure before burial. A skull cache contained seven skulls. The jaws were removed and the faces covered with plaster; cowries were used as eyes. A total of ten skulls were found. Modelled skulls were found in Tell Ramad and Beisamoun as well.
Other finds included flints, such as arrowheads (tanged or side-notched), finely denticulated sickle-blades, burins, scrapers, a few tranchet axes, obsidian, and green obsidian from an unknown source. There were also querns, hammerstones, and a few ground-stone axes made of greenstone. Other items discovered included dishes and bowls carved from soft limestone, spindle whorls made of stone and possible loom weights, spatulae and drills, stylised anthropomorphic plaster figures, almost life-size, anthropomorphic and theriomorphic clay figurines, as well as shell and malachite beads.
In the late 4th millennium BCE, Jericho was occupied during Neolithic 2`{{dubious|Neol. 2 seems to be equivalent with PPNB, which ends long before M4 BCE. Unless pottery appeared at Jericho later than M4, this is a mistake AND THIS BELONGS EITHER UNDER CHALCOLITHIC OR BRONZE AGE.|date=February 2016}}`{=mediawiki} and the general character of the remains on the site link it culturally with Neolithic 2 (or PPNB) sites in the West Syrian and Middle Euphrates groups. This link is established by the presence of rectilinear mud-brick buildings and plaster floors that are characteristic of the age.
### Chalcolithic
A succession of settlements followed from 4500 BCE onward.
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### Early Bronze Age {#early_bronze_age}
In Early Bronze I, the strategraphic layers are Sultan IIIA1 village (EB IA, c. 3500-3200 BCE) and Sultan IIIA2 rural town (proto-urban, EB IB, c. 3200-3000 BCE).
In Early Bronze II, the strategraphic layers are Sultan IIIB1 foritifed town (EB IIA, c. 3000-2850 BCE) and Sultan IIIB2 with added towers and bastions to the fortification (EB IIB, c. 2850-2700 BCE).
In the Early Bronze IIIA (c. 2700 -- 2500/2450 BCE; Sultan IIIC1), the settlement reached its largest extent around 2600 BCE.
During Early Bronze IIIB (c. 2500/2450--2350 BCE; Sultan IIIC2) there was a Palace G on Spring Hill and city walls.
In Early Bronze IV, the strategraphic layers are Sultan IIID1 (EB IVA; 2300-2200 BCE) and Sultan IIID2 (EB IVB; 2200-2000 BCE).
### Middle Bronze Age {#middle_bronze_age}
Jericho was continually occupied into the Middle Bronze Age; it was destroyed in the Late Bronze Age, after which it no longer served as an urban centre. The city was surrounded by extensive defensive walls strengthened with rectangular towers, and possessed an extensive cemetery with vertical shaft-tombs and underground burial chambers; the elaborate funeral offerings in some of these may reflect the emergence of local kings.
During the Middle Bronze Age, Jericho was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BCE. It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north. Kathleen Kenyon reported \"the Middle Bronze Age is perhaps the most prosperous in the whole history of Kna\'an. \... The defenses \... belong to a fairly advanced date in that period\" and there was \"a massive stone revetment \... part of a complex system\" of defenses. Bronze Age Jericho fell in the 16th century at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the calibrated carbon remains from its City-IV destruction layer dating to 1617--1530 BCE. Carbon dating c. 1573 BCE confirmed the accuracy of the stratigraphical dating c. 1550.
Chronology (Nigro 2016)
- Middle Bronze IA, Tell es-Sultan IVa1 (c. 2000/1950-1900 BC)
- Middle Bronze IB, Tell es-Sultan IVa2 (c. 1900-1800 BC)
- Middle Bronze IIA, Tell es-Sultan IVb1 (c. 1800-1700 BC)
- Middle Bronze IIB, Tell es-Sultan IVb2 (c. 1700-1650 BC)
- Middle Bronze IIC/III, Tell es-Sultan IVc (c. 1650-1550 BC)
### Late Bronze Age {#late_bronze_age}
Decades after the destruction of the Middle Bronze Age city, it recovered again on a smaller scale during the Late Bronze Age (1450--1200 BC), with the previous Middle Bronze city wall being refurbished by adding a mudbrick wall on top of its emerging crest. Excavations have found a structure known as the \"Middle Building\" which apparently served as the residence of the city\'s local rulers, then vassals of the Egyptian empire. Ultimately, the Middle Building was destroyed, although it was later reused in the early Iron Age. According to Nigro (2023), the Late Bronze IIB layers of the tell were heavily cut by levelling operations during the Iron Age, which explains the scarcity of 13th century BCE materials.
Hebrew Bible narrative
The Hebrew Bible tells the story of the Battle of Jericho led by Joshua, leading to the fall of the Canaanite city, the first one captured by the Israelites in the Promised Land. The historicity of biblical account is not generally accepted by scholars. Italian archaeologist Lorenzo Nigro suggests that the story might have developed from local memories of the destructions suffered by the Canaanite city in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE, which were later used by the biblical writers to create their narrative.
### Iron Age {#iron_age}
Occupation in Tell es-Sultan appears to have resumed in the 11th century BCE, with the town becoming fortified again in the 10th century. Of this new city not much more remains than a four-room house on the eastern slope. By the 7th century, Jericho had become an extensive town, but this settlement was destroyed in the Babylonian conquest of Judah in the late 6th century.
### Persian and Early Hellenistic periods {#persian_and_early_hellenistic_periods}
After the destruction of the Judahite city by the Babylonians in the late 6th century, whatever was rebuilt in the Persian period as part of the Restoration after the Babylonian captivity, left only very few remains. The tell was abandoned as a place of settlement not long after this period. During the Persian through Hellenistic periods, there is little in terms of occupation attested throughout the region.
Jericho went from being an administrative centre of Yehud Medinata (\"the Province of Judah\") under Persian rule to serving as the private estate of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BCE after his conquest of the region. In the middle of the 2nd century BCE Jericho was under Hellenistic rule of the Seleucid Empire, when the Syrian General Bacchides built a number of forts to strengthen the defences of the area around Jericho against the revolt by the Macabees. One of these forts, built at the entrance to Wadi Qelt, was later refortified by Herod the Great, who named it *Kypros* after his mother.
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### Hasmonean and Herodian periods {#hasmonean_and_herodian_periods}
After the abandonment of the Tell es-Sultan location, the new Jericho of the Late Hellenistic or Hasmonean and Early Roman or Herodian periods was established as a garden city in the vicinity of the royal estate at Tulul Abu el-\'Alayiq and expanded greatly thanks to the intensive exploitation of the springs of the area. The new site consists of a group of low mounds on both banks of Wadi Qelt. The Hasmoneans were a dynasty descending from a priestly group (kohanim) from the tribe of Levi, who ruled over Judea following the success of the Maccabean Revolt until Roman influence over the region brought Herod to claim the Hasmonean throne.
The rock-cut tombs of a Herodian- and Hasmonean-era cemetery lie in the lowest part of the cliffs between Nuseib al-Aweishireh and Mount of Temptation. They date between 100 BCE and 68 CE.
#### Herodian period {#herodian_period}
Herod had to lease back the royal estate at Jericho from Cleopatra, after Mark Antony had given it to her as a gift. After their joint suicide in 30 BCE, Octavian assumed control of the Roman Empire and granted Herod absolute rule over Jericho, as part of the new Herodian domain. Herod\'s rule oversaw the construction of a hippodrome-theatre (*Tell es-Samrat*) to entertain his guests and new aqueducts to irrigate the area below the cliffs and reach his winter palaces built at the site of *Tulul Abu el-Alaiq* (also written *ʾAlayiq*). In 2008, the Israel Exploration Society published an illustrated volume of Herod\'s third Jericho palace.
The murder of Aristobulus III in a swimming pool at the Hasmonean royal winter palaces, as described by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, took place during a banquet organized by Herod\'s Hasmonean mother-in-law. After the construction of the palaces, the city had functioned not only as an agricultural center and as a crossroad, but also as a winter resort for Jerusalem\'s aristocracy.
Herod was succeeded in Judea by his son, Herod Archelaus, who built a village in his name not far to the north, Archelaïs (modern Khirbet al-Beiyudat), to house workers for his date plantation.
First-century Jericho is described in Strabo\'s *Geography* as follows:
#### In the New Testament {#in_the_new_testament}
The Christian Gospels state that Jesus of Nazareth passed through Jericho where he healed blind beggars (`{{bibleverse|Matthew|20:29}}`{=mediawiki}), and inspired a local chief tax collector named Zacchaeus to repent of his dishonest practices (`{{bibleverse|Luke|19:1–10}}`{=mediawiki}). The road between Jerusalem and Jericho is the setting for the Parable of the Good Samaritan.
John Wesley, in his New Testament Notes on this section of Luke\'s Gospel, claimed that \"about twelve thousand priests and Levites dwelt there, who all attended the service of the temple\".
Smith\'s *Bible Names Dictionary* suggests that \"Jericho was once more \'a city of palms\' when our Lord visited it. Here he restored sight to the blind (`{{bibleverse|Matthew|20:30}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{bibleverse|Mark| 10:46}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{bibleverse|Luke| 18:35}}`{=mediawiki}). Here the descendant of Rahab did not disdain the hospitality of Zacchaeus the publican. Finally, between Jerusalem and Jericho was laid the scene of his story of the good Samaritan.\"
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### Roman province {#roman_province}
After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian\'s armies in the Great Revolt of Judea in 70 CE, Jericho declined rapidly, and by 100 CE it was but a small Roman garrison town. A fort was built there in 130 and played a role in putting down the Bar Kochba revolt in 133.
### Byzantine period {#byzantine_period}
Accounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are given in 333. Shortly thereafter the built-up area of the town was abandoned and a Byzantine Jericho, *Ericha*, was built 1600 metres (1 mi) to the east, on which the modern town is centered. Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated. A number of monasteries and churches were built, including the Monastery of Saint George of Choziba in 340 CE and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus. At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE. The monasteries were abandoned after the Sasanian invasion of 614.
The Jericho synagogue in the Royal Maccabean winter palace at Jericho dates from 70 to 50 BCE. A synagogue dating to the late 6th or early 7th century CE was discovered in Jericho in 1936, and was named Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue, or \"peace unto Israel\", after the central Hebrew motto in its mosaic floor. It was controlled by Israel after the Six Day War, but after the handover to Palestinian Authority control per the Oslo Accords, it has been a source of conflict. On the night of 12 October 2000, the synagogue was vandalized by Palestinians who burned holy books and relics and damaged the mosaic.
The Na\'aran synagogue, another Byzantine era construction, was discovered on the northern outskirts of Jericho in 1918. While less is known of it than Shalom Al Yisrael, it has a larger mosaic and is in similar condition.
### Early Muslim period {#early_muslim_period}
Jericho, by then named \"Ariha\" in Arabic variation, became part of Jund Filastin (\"Military District of Palestine\"), part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham. The Arab Muslim historian Musa b. \'Uqba (died 758) recorded that caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab exiled the Jews and Christians of Khaybar to Jericho (and Tayma).
By 659, that district had come under the control of Mu\'awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. That year, an earthquake destroyed Jericho. A decade later, the pilgrim Arculf visited Jericho and found it in ruins, all its \"miserable Canaanite\" inhabitants now dispersed in shanty towns around the Dead Sea shore.
A palatial complex long attributed to the tenth Umayyad caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724--743) and thus known as Hisham\'s Palace, is located at Khirbet al-Mafjar, about 1.5 kilometres (1 mi) north of Tell es-Sultan. This \"desert castle\" or *qasr* was more likely built by Caliph Walid ibn Yazid (r. 743--744), who was assassinated before he could complete the construction. The remains of two mosques, a courtyard, mosaics, and other items can still be seen *in situ* today. The unfinished structure was largely destroyed in an earthquake in 747.
Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties. Irrigated agriculture was developed under Islamic rule, reaffirming Jericho\'s reputation as a fertile \"City of the Palms\". Al-Maqdisi, the Arab geographer, wrote in 985 that \"the water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor\". Jericho is also referred to by him as one of the principal cities of Jund Filastin.
### Crusader period {#crusader_period}
In 1179, the Crusaders rebuilt the Monastery of St. George of Koziba, at its original site 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the center of town. They also built another two churches and a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist, and were credited by 19th-century authors with introducing sugarcane production to the city, although now scholars date it to the pre-Crusader, Early Arab period. The Crusaders, however, have raised sugar production to the level of a large-scale industry. The site of Tawahin es-Sukkar (lit. \"sugar mills\") holds remains of a Crusader sugar production facility. In 1187, the Crusaders were evicted by the Ayyubid forces of Saladin after their victory in the Battle of Hattin, and the town slowly went into decline.
### Ayyubid and Mamluk periods {#ayyubid_and_mamluk_periods}
In 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi said of Jericho, \"it has many palm trees, also sugarcane in quantities, and bananas. The best of all the sugar in the *Ghaur* land is made here.\" In the 14th century, Abu al-Fida writes there are sulfur mines in Jericho, \"the only ones in Palestine\".
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### Ottoman period {#ottoman_period}
#### 16th century {#th_century}
Jericho was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine, and in 1545 a revenue of 19,000 Akçe was recorded, destined for the new Waqf for the Haseki Sultan Imaret of Jerusalem. The villagers processed indigo as one source of revenue, using a cauldron specifically for this purpose that was loaned to them by the Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem. Later that century, the Jericho revenues no longer went to the Haseki Sultan Imaret.
In 1596 Jericho appeared in the tax registers under the name of *Riha*, being in the *nahiya* of Al-Quds in the *liwa* of Al-Quds. It had a population of 51 households, all Muslims. They paid a fixed tax-rate of 33.3% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, vineyards and fruit trees, goats and beehives, water buffaloes, in addition to occasional revenues; a total of 40,000 Akçe. All of the revenue still went to a Waqf.
#### 17th century {#th_century_1}
The French traveller Laurent d\'Arvieux described the city in 1659 as \"now desolate, and consists only of about fifty poor houses, in bad condition \... The plain around is extremely fertile; the soil is middling fat; but it is watered by several rivulets, which flow into the Jordan. Notwithstanding these advantages only the gardens adjacent to the town are cultivated.\"
#### 19th century {#th_century_2}
In the 19th century, European scholars, archaeologists and missionaries visited often. At the time it was an oasis in a poor state, similar to other regions in the plains and deserts. Edward Robinson (1838) reported 50 families, which were about 200 people, Titus Tobler (1854) reported some 30 poor huts, whose residents paid a total of 3611 kuruş in tax. Abraham Samuel Herschberg (1858--1943) also reported after his 1899--1900 travels in the region of some 30 poor huts and 300 residents. At that time, Jericho was the residence of the region\'s Turkish governor. The main water sources for the village were a spring called *Ein al-Sultan*, lit. \"Sultan\'s Spring\", in Arabic and *Ein Elisha*, lit. \"Elisha Spring\", in Hebrew, and springs in Wadi Qelt.
J. S. Buckingham (1786--1855) describes in his 1822 book how the male villagers of er-Riha, although nominally sedentary, engaged in Bedouin-style raiding, or *ghazzu*: the little land cultivation he observed was done by women and children, while men spent most of their time riding through the plains and engaging in \"robbery and plunder\", their main and most profitable activity.
An Ottoman village list from around 1870 showed that *Riha*, Jericho, had 36 houses and a population of 105, though the population count included men only.
The first excavation at Tell es-Sultan was carried out in 1867.
#### 20th century {#th_century_3}
The Greek Orthodox monasteries of St. George of Choziba and John the Baptist were refounded and completed in 1901 and 1904, respectively.
### British Mandate period {#british_mandate_period}
After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Jericho came under British rule, as part of Mandatory Palestine.
According to the 1922 census of Palestine, Jericho had 1,029 inhabitants (931 Muslims, 92 Christians, and six Jews). The Christian population consisted of 45 Orthodox, 12 Roman Catholics, 13 Greek Catholics (Melkite Catholics), 6 Syrian Catholic, 11 Armenians, four Copts and one Church of England.
In 1927, an earthquake struck and affected Jericho and other cities. Around 300 people died, but by the 1931 census the population had increased to 1,693 inhabitants (1,512 Muslims, 170 Christians, seven Druze, and four Jews), in 347 houses.
In the 1938 statistics, Jericho lists a population of 1,996 people (including five Jews).
In the 1945 statistics, Jericho\'s population was 3,010 (2,570 Muslims, 260 Christians, 170 Jews, and 10 \"other\") and it had jurisdiction over 37,481 dunams of land. Of this, 948 dunams were used for citrus and bananas, 5,873 dunams were for plantations and irrigable land, 9,141 for cereals, while a total of 38 dunams were urban, built-up areas.
During World War II The British built fortresses in Jericho with the help of the Jewish company Solel Boneh, and bridges were rigged with explosives in preparation for a possible invasion by German allied forces.
### Jordanian period {#jordanian_period}
Jericho came under Jordanian control after the 1948 Arab--Israeli War. The Jericho Conference, organized by King Abdullah and attended by over 2,000 Palestinian delegates in 1948 proclaimed \"His Majesty Abdullah as King of all Palestine\" and called for \"the unification of Palestine and Transjordan as a step toward full Arab unity\". In mid-1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and Jericho residents, like other residents of West Bank localities became Jordanian citizens.
In 1961, the population of Jericho was 10,166, of whom 935 were Christian, and the rest were Muslim.
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### 1967 and aftermath {#and_aftermath}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|2018 United Nations map of the area, showing the Israeli occupation arrangements
Jericho has been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967 along with the rest of the West Bank. It was the first city handed over to Palestinian Authority control in accordance with the Oslo Accords. The limited Palestinian self-rule of Jericho was agreed on in the Gaza--Jericho Agreement of 4 May 1994. Part of the agreement was a \"Protocol on Economic Relations\", signed on 29 April 1994. The city is in an enclave of the Jordan Valley that is in Area A of the West Bank, while the surrounding area is designated as being in Area C under full Israeli military control. Four roadblocks encircle the enclave, restricting Jericho\'s Palestinian population\'s movement through the West Bank.
In response to the 2001 Second Intifada and suicide bombings, Jericho was re-occupied by Israeli troops. A 2 m deep trench was built around a large part of the city to control Palestinian traffic to and from Jericho.
On 14 March 2006, the Israel Defense Forces launched Operation Bringing Home the Goods, raiding a Jericho prison to capture the PFLP general secretary, Ahmad Sa\'adat, and five other prisoners, all of whom had been charged with assassinating the Israeli tourist minister Rehavam Zeevi in 2001.
After Hamas assaulted a neighborhood in Gaza mostly populated by the Fatah-aligned Hilles clan, in response to their attack that killed six Hamas members, the Hilles clan was relocated to Jericho on 4 August 2008.
In 2009, Palestinian Authority Prime Minister Salam Fayyad and U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs David Johnson inaugurated the Presidential Guard Training Center in Jericho, a \$9.1 million training facility for Palestinian Authority security forces built with U.S. funding. In 2024, a Jericho street was named after Aaron Bushnell, a U.S. soldier who self-immolated in support of Palestine.
## Geography and environment {#geography_and_environment}
Jericho is located 258 m below sea level in an oasis in Wadi Qelt in the Jordan Valley, which makes it the lowest city in the world. The nearby spring of *Ein es-Sultan* produces 3.8 m^3^ (1,000 gallons) of water per minute, irrigating some 2500 acre through multiple channels and feeding into the Jordan River, 6 mi away.
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# Jericho
## History and archaeology {#history_and_archaeology}
### Important Bird Area {#important_bird_area}
A 3,500 ha site encompassing the city of Jericho and its immediate surrounds has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of black francolins, lanner falcons, lesser kestrels, and Dead Sea sparrows.
### Climate
Annual rainfall is 204 mm, mostly concentrated in the winter months and into early spring. The average temperature is 11 C in January and 31 C in July. According to the Köppen climate classification, Jericho has a hot desert climate (*BWh*). Rich alluvial soil and abundant spring water have made Jericho an attractive place for settlement.
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# Jericho
## Demographics
In the first census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, Jericho\'s population was 14,674. Palestinian refugees constituted 43.6% of the residents or 6,393 people. The gender make-up of the city was 51% male and 49% female. Jericho has a young population, with nearly half (49.2%) of the inhabitants being under the age of 20. People between the ages of 20 and 44 made up 36.2% of the population, 10.7% between the ages of 45 and 64, and 3.6% were over the age of 64. In the 2007 census by the PCBS, Jericho had a population of 18,346.
In a 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi, 3,010 inhabitants is the figure given for Jericho, of which 94% (2840) were Arab and 6% (170) were Jews. Today, the overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim. The Christian community makes up around 1% of the population. A large community of black Palestinians lives in Jericho.
## Economy
In 1994, Israel and Palestine signed an economic accord that enabled Palestinians in Jericho to open banks, collect taxes and engage in export and import in preparation for self-rule. Agriculture is another source of income, with banana groves ringing the city.
The Jericho Agro-Industrial Park is a public-private enterprise being developed in the Jericho area. Agricultural processing companies are being offered financial concessions to lease plots of land in the park in a bid to boost Jericho\'s economy.
## Tourism
In 1998, a \$150 million casino-hotel was built in Jericho with the backing of Yasser Arafat. The casino is now closed, though the hotel on the premises is open for guests.
In 2010, Jericho, with its proximity to the Dead Sea, was declared the most popular destination among Palestinian tourists.
### Biblical and Christian landmarks {#biblical_and_christian_landmarks}
Christian tourism is one of Jericho\'s primary sources of income. There are several major Christian pilgrimage sites in and around Jericho.
- Ein es-Sultan, known as the Spring of Elisha to Jews and Christians;
- Qasr al-Yahud on the Jordan River, across from Bethany beyond the Jordan, traditionally identified as the location of the baptism of Jesus;
- Mount of Temptation (Jebel Quruntul), traditionally identified as the location of the Temptation of Jesus;
- The Greek Orthodox Monastery of the Temptation halfway up the mountain, beside a cave said to be the location where Jesus fasted for 40 days. It is connected to Jericho by a cable car;
- 2 sycamore trees, both identified as the one mentioned in relation to Zacchaeus;
- Deir Hajla, the monastery of St. Gerasimos in the Jordan Valley near Jericho;
- Saint George Monastery in Wadi Qelt above Jericho.
### Archaeological landmarks {#archaeological_landmarks}
- Stone, Bronze and Iron Age cities at **Tell es-Sultan**;
- Hasmonean and Herodian winter palaces at **Tulul Abu el-\'Alayiq**;
- Byzantine-period synagogues at Jericho (Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue) and Na\'aran;
- Umayyad palace at Khirbet al-Mafjar known as Hisham\'s Palace;
- Crusader sugar production facility at **Tawahin es-Sukkar** (lit. \"sugar mills\");
- Nabi Musa, the Mamluk and Ottoman shrine claimed to be the resting place of Moses (\"Prophet Musa\" to the Muslims)
## Schools and religious institutions {#schools_and_religious_institutions}
In 1925, Christian friars opened a school for 100 pupils that became the Terra Santa School. The city has 22 state schools and a number of private schools.
## Health care {#health_care}
In April 2010, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) held a groundbreaking ceremony for the renovation of the Jericho Governmental Hospital. USAID is providing \$2.5 million in funding for this project.
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# Jericho
## Sports
The sports team Hilal Areeha plays association football in the West Bank First Division. They play home games in the 15,000-spectator Jericho International Stadium
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# Jan Karon
**Jan Karon** (born March 14, 1937) is an American novelist who writes for both adults and young readers. She is the author of the *New York Times*-bestselling Mitford novels, featuring Father Timothy Kavanagh, an Episcopal priest, and the fictional village of Mitford. Her most recent Mitford novel, *To Be Where You Are*, was released in September 2017.
She has been designated a lay Canon for the Arts in the Episcopal Diocese of Quincy (Illinois) by Keith Ackerman, Episcopal Bishop of Quincy, and in May 2000 she was awarded the Degree, Doctor of Humane Letters honoris causa by Nashotah House, a theological seminary in Nashotah, Wisconsin. {"More from Mitford" Volume 4, Number 10, Fall 2000.} In 2015, she was awarded the Library of Virginia\'s Literary Lifetime Achievement Award.
## Early life {#early_life}
Jan Karon was born in the Blue Ridge foothills town of Lenoir, North Carolina as **Janice Meredith Wilson**. She was named after the novel *Janice Meredith*. Before she was 4, her parents split up and left her with her maternal grandparents on a farm a few miles away in Hudson, North Carolina.
Her mother Wanda, who was 15 at Jan\'s birth, went to Charlotte. Her father, Robert Wilson, joined the Royal Canadian Air Force. At age 12, Jan moved from Hudson to Charlotte, to rejoin her mother, who had married Toby Setzer and had two more children. She dropped out of school in ninth grade at age 14, and married Robert Freeland in South Carolina, where girls her age could do so legally. Freeland, who was five years older, worked at a Charlotte tire store, while Jan worked in a clothing store. At age 15, she gave birth to her only child, Candace Freeland.
Jan and Freeland\'s marriage was troubled from the beginning, and tragedy rocked it further. While Freeland was sitting in a car with one of his brothers and one or more friends, a gun was handed through the window and went off. The bullet punctured one of Robert Freeland\'s lungs and chipped his spine, nearly killing him and leaving him paralyzed. Jan was distraught, the marriage suffered, and she filed for divorce.
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# Jan Karon
## Career
Janice, age 18, was on her own with her daughter Candace. She took a receptionist job at Walter J. Klein Co., a Charlotte advertising agency. Bored with answering the phone, she submitted writing examples. Klein soon had her writing advertising copy. In her early 20s, Jan married Bill Orth, a Duke Power chemist. Orth was active with her in theater and the Unitarian Church. By the late 1960s, Jan and Orth were divorced, and she married a third time, to Arthur Karon, a clothing salesman, and became Jan Karon. Arthur moved his wife and her daughter to Berkeley, California, where they lived for three years.
In California, Karon practiced Judaism, but she did not convert from Christianity. Karon wanted to be a novelist, and tried all through the 1960s. When Karon\'s third marriage ended she returned to Charlotte and again worked in advertising. By 1985, Karon had moved to Raleigh and the McKinney & Silver advertising agency, where she had worked in the late 1970s. Karon and Michael Winslow, a Mckinney designer, collaborated on a tourism campaign, interviewing artisans, musicians and others for print ads aimed at showing that North Carolina had other attractions besides theme parks and big hotels. One ad featured mountain musicians under the headline, \"The Best Place to Hear Old English Music Is 3,000 Miles West of London.\" The campaign, which ran in *National Geographic* and other magazines, won the 1987 Kelly Award, the print advertising equivalent of the Academy Award. Karon and Winslow split a \$100,000 prize.
In 1988, Karon quit her job, traded her Mercedes for a used Toyota and moved to Blowing Rock, North Carolina. In Blowing Rock, Karon began writing Father Tim stories for the *Blowing Rocket* newspaper. An agent circulated Karon\'s fiction to publishers, but got only rejections. In 1994, Karon herself placed her work with a small religious publisher, which brought out a volume titled *At Home in Mitford*. Karon kept writing, and employed her marketing skills to promote her book, writing press releases and cold-calling bookstores. But the publisher offered limited distribution and little marketing muscle of its own. Two more Mitford novels appeared. Sales remained modest. Then Karon\'s friend Mary Richardson, mother of Carolina Panthers\' owner Jerry Richardson, showed *At Home in Mitford* to Nancy Olson, owner of Quail Ridge Books & Music in Raleigh. Olson felt there was a large audience looking for clean, well-written fiction. She sent Karon\'s book to a New York agent friend, who got it to Carolyn Carlson, an editor at Viking Penguin and daughter of a Lutheran minister. Carlson faced opposition at Viking Penguin, a mainstream publisher unused to Christian fiction. But in 1996 the New York firm brought out Karon\'s first three titles as paperbacks. By the late 1990s, Karon\'s books were *New York Times* bestsellers.
In 2021 Karon founded The Mitford Museum in her former elementary school in Hudson, NC. The museum features family history as well as a wealth of information about her writing. Happy Endings Bookstore sells signed copies of her books along with Mitford-related items. The museum is open Wednesday-Saturday from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 2000, Karon left Blowing Rock and moved to Albemarle County, Virginia, where she restored a historic 1816 home and 100 acre farm, Esmont Farm, built by Dr. Charles Cocke (who served in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly before the American Civil War).
## Works
### *The Mitford Years* {#the_mitford_years}
- *At Home in Mitford* (1994)
- *A Light in the Window* (1995)
- *These High, Green Hills* (1996)
- *Out to Canaan* (1997)
- *A New Song* (1999)
- *A Common Life: The Wedding Story* (2001) --- takes place after *A Light in the Window*
- *In This Mountain* (2002)
- *Shepherds Abiding* (2003)
- *Light from Heaven* (2005)
- *Home to Holly Springs* (2007)
- *In the Company of Others* (2010)
- *Somewhere Safe with Somebody Good* (2014)
- *Come Rain or Come Shine* (2015)
- *To Be Where You Are* (2017)
### Mitford companion books {#mitford_companion_books}
- *Patches of Godlight: Father Tim\'s Favorite Quotes* (2001)
- *The Mitford Snowmen* (2001)
- *Esther\'s Gift: A Mitford Christmas Story* (2002)
- *Jan Karon\'s Mitford Cookbook and Kitchen Reader* (2004)
- *A Continual Feast: Words of Comfort and Celebration, collected by Father Tim* (2005)
- *The Mitford Bedside Companion* (2006)
- *Bathed in Prayer: Father Tim\'s Prayers, Sermons, and Reflections from the Mitford Series* (2018)
### Children\'s books {#childrens_books}
Source:
- *Miss Fannie\'s Hat* (1998)
- *Jeremy: The Tale of an Honest Bunny* (2000)
- *Jan Karon Presents: Violet Comes to Stay* (2006)
- *Jan Karon Presents:* *Violet Goes to the Country* (2007)
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# Jan Karon
## Works
### Other books {#other_books}
- *The Trellis and the Seed: A Book of Encouragement for All Ages* (2003)
### Short works {#short_works}
\"The Day Aunt Maude Left\" in *Response* 1.4 (1961)
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# Jan Karon
## Archive
Jan Karon\'s papers are held at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia, and regular additions are made to document Karon\'s new works. The papers include preparatory materials for all of Karon\'s books, personal correspondence and papers, extensive papers related to her historical restoration of Esmont Farm, and correspondence with readers
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# Johnny Haynes
**John Norman Haynes** (17 October 1934 -- 18 October 2005) was an English association footballer who played as an inside forward. He made 56 appearances for his country including 22 as captain. He was selected for three World Cup finals squads playing in the latter two of those. Nicknamed \"the Maestro\", his attacking play was noted for two-footed passing ability, vision and deftness of touch. Haynes is widely regarded as Fulham\'s greatest ever player, remaining loyal there for twenty years despite coming no nearer to a major trophy win than two FA Cup semi-final appearances. Immediately following the abolition of the £20 maximum wage in 1961, he became the first player to be paid £100 a week. He also had a spell on loan with Toronto City in 1961 and ended his playing days at Durban City, winning there the only trophy he won in his football career.
## Playing career {#playing_career}
The son of a post office engineer, Haynes was born in Kentish Town and supported Arsenal as a boy. He signed for Fulham as a 15-year-old amateur in 1950 when Fulham were in a three-season spell in the First Division. He was loaned to then non-League Wimbledon. He made his senior debut aged 18 in the 1952 Boxing Day visit of Southampton to Fulham, then in their first season back in the Second Division.
Haynes made his debut for England in October 1954, scoring a goal in a 2--0 victory over Northern Ireland in Belfast. He first captained England in 1960 and played for them in two World Cups.
He was one of many signatories of a letter to *The Times* on 17 July 1958 opposing \"the policy of apartheid\" in international sport and defending \"the principle of racial equality which is embodied in the Declaration of the Olympic Games\".
Haynes played in his first of two FA Cup semi-finals in 1958. Fulham were eliminated in a replay by the remnants of Manchester United\'s Busby Babes team that had been devastated by the Munich air disaster the month before. United were the first top-division team Fulham played in that cup run. Fulham were promoted to the top division after finishing runners-up behind Sheffield Wednesday in 1959. In the 1959--60 season, Fulham finished 10th in the First Division, which was their highest league position until finishing 9th in the 2003--04 Premier League season. Following the abolition of the £20 maximum wage in 1961, he became Britain\'s first footballer to earn £100 per week. He played in a second FA Cup semi-final in 1962, losing in a replay to Burnley. In 1961, during the English off-season, he played abroad in the Eastern Canada Professional Soccer League with Toronto City.
In August 1962 on Blackpool promenade, the sports car in which he was returning late to his hotel was blown by a gust of wind into the path of another vehicle. Haynes suffered broken bones in both feet and a badly injured knee. He recounted that the police officer who attended the incident reassured him by saying \"Don\'t worry son, you\'ve only broken your legs\". He missed almost the entire season and, when he returned to the Fulham side, was not quite the same player. Prior to the accident, he had captained England 22 times, and, being only 27, was expected to lead them in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, but he was never again selected for the national team.
Fulham were relegated in 1968. Haynes then had a single spell in football management, taking charge of Fulham for eighteen days in November that year after the dismissal of Bobby Robson as player-manager, but Haynes never had any ambition to go into coaching. That season, Fulham endured a second successive relegation. His last appearance for Fulham\'s first team was on 17 January 1970 in a Third Division home match against Stockport County. In total, he made 657 appearances for Fulham and scored 157 goals.
In 1970, Haynes announced his retirement, aged 35, and joined Durban City, playing one season and winning South Africa\'s 1970--71 National Football League. This was his only winner\'s medal in senior football. During the 1972--73 season, Haynes made three league appearances for non-League club Wealdstone.
## Post-playing career {#post_playing_career}
On retiring from playing in 1970 he was already an active bookmaker. He sold his chain of bookmakers to The Tote in 1976. In 1985 he moved to Edinburgh, the city of his partner Avril. Haynes first met Avril in the 1960s when she travelled down to London to buy stock for boutiques she ran in Edinburgh. On moving to Edinburgh he ran a laundry business with Avril, played golf and watched local club, Heart of Midlothian. In 2004 he and Avril married in a private ceremony at Dalkeith registry office.
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# Johnny Haynes
## Death
On 17 October 2005, his 71st birthday, Haynes was driving his car, with Avril as passenger, on Edinburgh\'s Dalry Road when he suffered a brain haemorrhage, instantaneously effectively rendering him brain-dead. The vehicle veered across the road and crashed into a van. After being kept on a ventilator for some 30 hours, the ventilator was turned off on the evening of 18 October 2005. The funeral at Mortonhall Crematorium was attended by ex-players Bobby Charlton, George Cohen, Sven-Göran Eriksson, Dave Mackay, Alan Mullery, Jimmy Murray and Bobby Robson, and also George Foulkes. Avril was unable to attend due to injuries from the car accident. Haynes was survived by Avril and his two stepchildren.
## Tributes
In 2002 Haynes became an inaugural inductee into the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his football talents and impact on the English game.
On the day of Haynes\' death, Alan Mullery, another ex-Fulham and England player, made the following tribute: \"He was the only reason I went to Fulham as a young boy of 15 leaving school. He was my hero, the captain of England and Fulham. The word great rolls off the tongue quite easily these days but he really was. He was the best passer of a ball I have ever seen---I don\'t know anyone who could pass a ball as accurately. Anyone who saw him will know what a great player he was.\"
Shortly after his death, the Stevenage Road Stand at Craven Cottage was renamed The Johnny Haynes Stand.
George Cohen, a World Cup winner for England in 1966 and a Fulham teammate of Johnny Haynes, stated: \"I have a hundred individual memories of the beauty of John\'s play. One stands out for the sheer perfection of his skill. It was a charity match which, but for that one second, has faded completely from my memory. The ball came to him at speed on a wet, slippery surface but with the slightest of adjustments, one that was almost imperceptible, he played it inside a full-back and into the path of an on-running winger. I looked at our coach Dave Sexton on the bench and he caught my glance and shook his head as if to say \'fantastic\'. Haynes could give you goose bumps on a wet night in a match that didn\'t matter.\"
Bobby Moore, England captain from 1964 to 1973, said of him: \"Once you get used to watching that perfection you realised the rest of the secret. John was always available, always hungry for the ball, always wanting to play. I loved watching the player. Later I learnt to love the man.\" Pelé said he had \"never seen a better passer of the ball\" than Haynes.
The Fulham Supporters Trust stated: \"His dedication, skill, professionalism, grace and charm---both in his playing days and in retirement---serve as a poignant reminder to many of today\'s footballers about what true greatness really means.\" On 28 July 2008, Fulham announced that fundraising had commenced, with the co-operation of a fan\'s group, to produce a lasting tribute to Haynes. The Johnny Haynes Statue was unveiled outside the stadium before the 0--0 draw v Sunderland on Saturday 18 October 2008.
## Career statistics {#career_statistics}
### Club
Club Season League FA Cup
-------------- ---------- ----------------- ------ ------- -------- -------
Division Apps Goals Apps Goals Apps Goals
Fulham 1952--53 Second Division 18 1
1953--54 Second Division 41 16
1954--55 Second Division 37 8
1955--56 Second Division 40 18
1956--57 Second Division 33 5
1957--58 Second Division 38 15
1958--59 Second Division 34 26
1959--60 First Division 31 10
1960--61 First Division 39 9
1961--62 First Division 38 5
1962--63 First Division 8 0
1963--64 First Division 40 8
1964--65 First Division 39 5
1965--66 First Division 33 6
1966--67 First Division 36 6
1967--68 First Division 34 5
1968--69 Second Division 28 1
1969--70 Third Division 27 3
Career total 594 147
: Appearances and goals by club, season and competition
### International
National team Year Apps Goals
--------------- ------ ------ -------
England 1954 1 1
1955 2 0
1956 7 4
1957 6 3
1958 10 4
1959 7 1
1960 7 3
1961 8 2
1962 8 0
Total 56 18
: Appearances and goals by national team and year
: *Scores and results list England\'s goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Haynes goal.*
No
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# Joseph Yoakum
**Joseph Elmer Yoakum** (c. February 22, 1891 -- December 25, 1972) was an American self-taught painter. He was of African-American and possibly of Native American--descent, and was known for his landscape paintings in the outsider art-style. He was age 76 when he started to record his memories in the form of imaginary landscapes and produced over 2,000 drawings during the last decade of his life.
## Early life {#early_life}
Joseph Elmer Yoakum\'s biographical information is difficult to verify but he also claimed to be of African, French, and Cherokee descent. New York Times critic Will Heinrich called his biography \"tricky\...It's poorly documented, and the artist himself was not a reliable narrator.\" His birthdates have also been given as 1886, 1888, and 1891, and his Veteran\'s Administration record says he was born in Springfield, Missouri. A 9 year old Joe Yoakum does show up in the 1900 U.S. census in Greene County, Missouri, listed as Black with his father\'s birthplace being listed as Indian Territory. His father John Yoakum is listed in the 1880 census as Black with his birthplace listed as Cherokee Nation.
Yoakum was born in Ash Grove, Missouri, but told a story of being born in Arizona, in 1888, as a Navajo Indian on the Window Rock Navajo reservation. Taking pride in his exaggerated Native heritage, Yoakum would pronounce \"Navajo\" as \"Na-va-JOE\" (as in \"Joseph\"). He spent his early childhood on a Missouri farm.
Yoakum left home when he was nine years old to join the Great Wallace Circus. As a bill poster, he also traveled across the U.S. with Buffalo Bill\'s Wild West Show and the Ringling Brothers, among the five different circuses. He later traveled to Europe as a stowaway.
In 1908, he returned to Missouri and started a family with his girlfriend Myrtle Julian, with whom he had his first son in 1909; the couple married in 1910. Around 1916, he worked in a coal mine, Hale Coal and Mining to support his family. Yoakum was drafted into the United States Army in 1918 and worked in the 805th Pioneer Infantry repairing roads and railroads. After the war, he traveled around the United States, working odd jobs, but never returned to his family. He later remarried and moved to Chicago. In 1946, Yoakum was committed to a psychiatric hospital there. He soon left and by the early 1950s he was drawing on a regular basis.
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# Joseph Yoakum
## Artistic work {#artistic_work}
Yoakum was again living and painting in Chicago by 1962. Tom Brand, owner of Galaxy Press on the south side of Chicago, in 1968 had some printing to deliver to a coffee shop called \"The Whole\". While there he noticed the colored pencil drawings of Yoakum and was immediately taken by them. Brand had an account with the Ed Sherbyn Gallery on the north side of Chicago, and he persuaded Sherbyn to exhibit Yoakum\'s works and even printed his own poster for this show. Norman Mark of *The Chicago Daily News* wrote an article about Yoakum called \"My drawings are a spiritual unfoldment\"; this article was printed on the back of the poster. Brand informed his artist friends (including Whitney Halstead) about Yoakum and encouraged them to visit \"The Whole\" coffee shop. Halstead, an artist and instructor at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, became the greatest promoter of Yoakum\'s work during his lifetime. He believed that his story was \"more invention than reality\... in part myth, Yoakum\'s life as he would have wished to have lived it.\"
In 1967, Yoakum was discovered by the mainstream art community through John Hopgood, an instructor at the Chicago State College, who saw Yoakum\'s work hanging in his studio window and purchased twenty-two pictures. A group of students including Roger Brown, Gladys Nilsson, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi, and teachers at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, including Ray Yoshida and Whitney Halstead, took an interest in promoting his work. In 1972, just one month before his death, Yoakum was given a one-man show at the Whitney Museum in New York City.
He started drawing familiar places, such as *Green Valley Ashville Kentucky*, as a method to capture his memories. However, he shifted towards imaginary landscapes in places he had never visited, like *Mt Cloubelle of West India* or *Mt Mowbullan in Dividing Range near Brisbane Australia*. Drawing outlines with ballpoint pen, rarely making corrections, he colored his drawings within the lines using watercolors and pastels. He became known for his organic forms, always using two lines to designate land masses.
During the final four months of his life Yoakum\'s work was marked by a use of pure abstraction, as in his illustration *Flooding of Sock River through Ash Grove Mo \[Missouri\] on July 4, 1914 in that \[waters\] drove many persons from Homes I were with the Groupe `{{sic|leiving}}`{=mediawiki} their homes for safety*. That painting was one of his autobiographical works.
In 2018--19 Yoakum\'s work was included in the exhibition *Outliers and American Vanguard Art* at the National Gallery of Art, High Museum of Art, and Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Following this event, Venus Over Manhattan presented an exhibition featuring more than sixty works on paper, which constituted the largest collection of Yoakum's art assembled in New York since 1972. In 2021, the Museum of Modern Art presented more than 100 of his works in an exhibition called *Joseph E. Yoakum: What I Saw.* It was organized by the Art Institute of Chicago, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Menil Drawing Institute, which is part of the Menil Collection. His work is represented in the National Gallery of Art, among other institutions
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# John Engler
**John Mathias Engler** (born October 12, 1948)`{{r|Whitney (2005)}}`{=mediawiki} is an American politician, lawyer, businessman, and lobbyist who served as the 46th governor of Michigan from 1991 to 2003. Considered one of the country\'s top lobbyists, he is a member of the Republican Party.
Engler was serving in the Michigan Senate when he enrolled at Thomas M. Cooley Law School and graduated with a Juris Doctor degree, having served as a Michigan State senator since 1979. He was elected Senate majority leader in 1984 and served there until being elected governor in 1990. He was reelected in 1994 and 1998, and is the last Michigan governor to serve more than two terms. After his governorship, he worked for Business Roundtable.
Engler served on the board of advisors of the Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal, an educational organization that continues the intellectual legacy of noted conservative and Michigan native Russell Kirk. Engler also served on the board of trustees of the Marguerite Eyer Wilbur Foundation, which funds many Kirk Center programs. Engler was a member of the Annie E. Casey Foundation board of trustees until 2014. As of 2018, he serves on the board of directors of Universal Forest Products. Previous board service included serving as a director of Dow Jones and Delta Air Lines and as a trustee of Munder Funds.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Engler, a Roman Catholic, was born in Mount Pleasant, Michigan, on October 12, 1948, to Mathias John Engler and his wife, Agnes Marie (née Neyer), but grew up on a cattle farm near Beal City.
He attended Michigan State University, graduating with a degree in agricultural economics in 1971, and Thomas M. Cooley Law School, graduating with a Doctor of Jurisprudence degree in 1981.
He was elected to the Michigan House of Representatives as a state representative in 1970 at the age of 22. He served in the House from 1971 to 1978. His campaign manager in that first election was a college friend, Dick Posthumus. Engler later became the first Republican youth vice-chair for the Michigan Republican Party, defeating future U.S. Senator Spencer Abraham. Posthumus later went on to be elected a state senator, Senate Majority Leader and Lieutenant Governor. He was Engler\'s running mate in the 1998 election and served from 1999 to 2003.
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# John Engler
## Career
### Governorship
Engler\'s administration was characterized by privatization of state services, income tax reduction, a sales tax increase, educational reform, welfare reform, and major reorganization of executive branch departments.
In 1996, he was elected chairman of the Republican Governors Association, and in 2001, he was elected to head the National Governors Association.
In 2002, near the end of his final term, Engler and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality attempted to negotiate a consent order with Dow Chemical that would have resulted in a ninefold increase in the allowable levels of dioxins. The consent order would have resulted in Dow not having to pay to clean up high levels of toxins in Midland, Michigan, near its plant there, as well as in the Tittabawassee flood plain, which had been contaminated by dioxins dumped into the river from the facility and from overflow from waste ponds. The consent order fell through in late 2002.
### Vice presidential speculation {#vice_presidential_speculation}
#### 1996
During the 1996 presidential election, Engler was considered to be a potential vice presidential running mate for Republican nominee Bob Dole. However, Dole instead selected Jack Kemp, a former representative and HUD secretary.
#### 2000 {#section_1}
Engler endorsed Texas Governor George W. Bush in the 2000 Republican primary. After Bush secured the GOP nomination, Engler\'s name was again floated as a possible running mate. In his book *Decision Points*, Bush says that Engler was someone he was \"close\" with and could \"work well with.\" Ultimately, Engler was passed over for the running mate position in favor of Dick Cheney. After the election, Engler\'s close political ally Spencer Abraham, who narrowly lost his re-election bid for the Senate to Debbie Stabenow, was chosen as Bush\'s Secretary of Energy.
### 2002 elections
Engler\'s lieutenant governor, Dick Posthumus, sought to succeed Engler in the 2002 gubernatorial race. Posthumus lost the race to the state\'s attorney general, Democrat Jennifer Granholm.
### Election results {#election_results}
In 1990, Engler, then the state senate majority leader, challenged Governor James Blanchard in his bid for a third term. Political observers viewed his bid as a long shot, and he trailed Blanchard by double digits in the polls the weekend before the election. However, on election day, Engler pulled off the upset, defeating Blanchard by approximately 17,000 votes---a margin of less than one percentage point. In 1994, Engler ran for his second term. The Democrats nominated former Representative Howard Wolpe, who had close ties to the labor movement---a potent force in Democratic politics in Michigan. Engler bested Wolpe 61 to 39 percent, and the state Republican Party made significant gains. Spencer Abraham picked up the Senate seat of retiring Democrat Donald Riegle. Republicans gained a seat to break a tie in the state House of Representatives, taking a 56--54 majority, while also picking up a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Republican Candice Miller won an upset victory to win the post of Secretary of State.
Michigan voters re-elected Engler to his third and final term in 1998. He won a landslide victory over lawyer Geoffrey Fieger. Engler took 1,883,005 votes---62 percent of the total---to Fieger\'s 38 percent and 1,143,574 votes. Engler\'s landslide helped the state Republican Party gain six seats in the state House of Representatives, taking control of the chamber they had lost two years previously with a 58--52 margin, as well as picking up an additional seat in the State Senate, for a 23--15 majority. Republicans also gained a seat on the technically non-partisan state Supreme Court, holding a 4--3 majority over the Democrats.
### Electoral history {#electoral_history}
### After governorship {#after_governorship}
After leaving the governor\'s mansion in January 2003, Engler served as president of the state and local government sector of Electronic Data Systems. Engler left that position in June 2004 to be elected president and CEO of the National Association of Manufacturers. Engler\'s tenure at the NAM ended in January 2011. In January 2011, Engler was named president of the Business Roundtable.
In 2017, Engler was appointed to a four-year term on the governing board of the National Assessment of Educational Progress project.`{{r|Spangler (2017)}}`{=mediawiki}
### Interim presidency of Michigan State University {#interim_presidency_of_michigan_state_university}
On January 30, 2018, Engler was named the interim president of Michigan State University to replace Lou Anna Simon, who was embroiled with the school in the USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal involving Larry Nassar. The appointment of Engler sparked controversy due to his previous handling of sexual misconduct as governor of Michigan. Engler\'s tenure as interim president was plagued by controversies, brought on by Engler\'s apparent callous statements and actions toward survivors during Board of Trustees meetings and statements that were reported by the press. One of Nassar\'s victims, Rachael Denhollander, said Engler \"chose to stand against every child and every sexual assault victim in the entire state, to protect an institution.\"
Engler resigned on January 16, 2019 after the Board of Trustees indicated its intent to ask him to resign following a series of embarrassing incidents regarding Nassar\'s victims and his responses to issues in the aftermath. Engler initially indicated he planned to resign on January 23, 2019 but the Board required him to resign the morning after he submitted his resignation letter.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1975, Engler married Colleen House, who served in the Michigan House of Representatives before running for lieutenant governor of Michigan in 1986. The day after she lost the race for lieutenant governor, she filed for divorce. The couple had no children together; she remarried in 2002, and died in 2022.
Engler married Michelle DeMunbrun, a Texas attorney, on December 8, 1990. The couple has triplet daughters, born November 13, 1994. As First Lady, Michelle Engler served as the founding chair of the Michigan Community Service Commission. Michelle Engler was named to the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) board in 2001 by President George W. Bush, and re-appointed in 2002
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