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# Jurisdiction
## International dimension {#international_dimension}
### International
This concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed *\[\[forum non conveniens\]\]*.
To deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. The Hague Conference and other international bodies have made recommendations on jurisdictional matters, but litigants with the encouragement of lawyers on a contingent fee continue to shop for forums.
#### Jurisdictional principles {#jurisdictional_principles}
Under international law there are different principles that are recognized to establish a state\'s ability to exercise criminal jurisdiction when it comes to a person. There is no hierarchy when it comes to any of the principles. States must therefore work together to solve issues of who may exercise their jurisdiction when it comes to issues of multiple principles being allowed. The principles are Territorial Principle, Nationality Principle, Passive Personality Principle, Protective Principle, Universality Principle
Territorial principle: This principle states that the State where the crime has been committed may exercise jurisdiction. This is one of the most straightforward and least controversial of the principles. This is also the only principle that is territorial in nature; all other forms are extraterritorial.
Nationality principle (also known as the Active Personality Principle): This principle is based around a person\'s nationality and allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to their nationality, both within and outside the State\'s territory. Seeing as the territoriality principle already gives the State the right to exercise jurisdiction, this principle is primarily used as a justification for prosecuting crimes committed abroad by a States nationals. There is a growing trend to allow States to also apply this principle to permanent residents abroad as well (for example: Denmark Criminal Code (2005), sec 7; Finland Criminal Code (2015), sec 6; Iceland Criminal Code (2014), art 5; Latvia Criminal Code (2013), sec 4; Netherlands Criminal Code (2019), art 7; Norway Criminal Code (2005), sec 12; Swedish Criminal Code (1999), sec 2; Lithuania Criminal Code (2015), art 5).
Passive Personality Principle: This principle is similar to the Nationality Principle, except you are exercising jurisdiction against a foreign national that has committed a criminal act against its own national. The idea is that a State has a duty to protect its nationals and therefore if someone harms their nationals that State has the right to prosecute the accused.
Protective principle: This principle allows States to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to foreign nationals for acts committed outside their territory that have or are intended to have a prejudicial impact upon the State. It is especially used when it comes to matters of national security.
Universality principle: This is the broadest of all the principles. The basis is that a State has the right, sometimes even the obligation, to exercise jurisdiction when it comes to the most serious violations of international criminal law; for example genocide, crimes against humanity, extrajudicial executions, war crimes, torture, and forced disappearances. This principle also goes further than the other principles as there is attached to it the obligation to either prosecute the accused or extradite them to a State that will, known as *\[\[aut dedere aut judicare\]\]*.
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# Jurisdiction
## International dimension {#international_dimension}
### Supranational
At a supranational level, countries have adopted a range of treaty and convention obligations to relate the right of individual litigants to invoke the jurisdiction of national courts and to enforce the judgments obtained. For example, the member nations of the EEC signed the Brussels Convention in 1968 and, subject to amendments as new nations joined, it represents the default law for all twenty-seven Member States of what is now termed the European Union on the relationships between the courts in the different countries. In addition, the Lugano Convention (1988) binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association.
In effect from 1 March 2002, all the European Union member states except Denmark accepted Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001, which makes major changes to the Brussels Convention and is directly effective in the member nations. Council Regulation (EC) 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the reciprocal enforcement of foreign judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the traditional rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area.
### National
Many nations are subdivided into states or provinces (i.e. a subnational \"state\"). In a federation---as can be found in Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico, and the United States---such subunits will exercise *jurisdiction* through the court systems as defined by the executives and legislatures.
When the jurisdictions of government entities overlap one another---for example between a state and the federation to which it belongs---their jurisdiction is a *shared* or *concurrent* jurisdiction. Otherwise, one government entity will have exclusive jurisdiction over the shared area. When jurisdiction is concurrent, one government entity may have supreme jurisdiction over the other entity if their laws conflict. If the executive or legislative powers within the jurisdiction are not restricted, or have only limited restrictions, these government branches have plenary power such as a national policing power. Otherwise, an enabling act grants only limited or enumerated powers.
Child custody cases in the U.S. are a prime example of jurisdictional dilemmas caused by different states under a federal alignment. When parents and children are in different states, there is the possibility of different state court orders over-ruling each other. The U.S. solved this problem by adopting the Uniform Child Custody Jurisdiction and Enforcement Act. The act established criteria for determining which state has primary jurisdiction, which allows courts to defer the hearing of a case if an appropriate administrative agency determines so.
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# Jurisdiction
## United States {#united_states}
The primary distinctions between areas of jurisdiction are codified at the federal level. In the United States\' common law system, jurisdiction is conceptually divided between jurisdiction over the *subject matter* of a case and personal jurisdiction over the parties to the case.
A court whose subject matter jurisdiction is limited to certain types of controversies (for example, suits in admiralty or suits where the monetary amount sought is less than a specified sum) is sometimes referred to as a *court of special jurisdiction* or *court of limited jurisdiction*.
In U.S. federal courts, courts must consider subject matter jurisdiction sua sponte and therefore recognize their own lack of jurisdiction even if neither party has raised the matter.
### General and limited jurisdiction {#general_and_limited_jurisdiction}
A court whose subject matter is not limited to certain types of controversy is referred to as a *court of general jurisdiction*. In the U.S. states, each state has courts of general jurisdiction; most states also have some courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal courts (those operated by the federal government) are all courts of limited jurisdiction. Federal jurisdiction is divided into federal question jurisdiction and diversity jurisdiction. The United States district courts may hear only cases arising under federal law and treaties, cases involving ambassadors, admiralty cases, controversies between states or between a state and citizens of another state, lawsuits involving citizens of different states, and against foreign states and citizens.
Certain courts, particularly the United States Supreme Court and most state supreme courts, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning that they can choose which cases to hear from among all the cases presented on appeal. Such courts generally only choose to hear cases that would settle important and controversial points of law. Though these courts have discretion to deny cases they otherwise could adjudicate, no court has the discretion to hear a case that falls outside of its subject matter jurisdiction.
### Original and appellate jurisdiction {#original_and_appellate_jurisdiction}
It is also necessary to distinguish between original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. A court of original jurisdiction has the power to hear cases as they are first initiated by a plaintiff, while a court of appellate jurisdiction may only hear an action after the court of original jurisdiction (or a lower appellate court) has heard the matter. For example, in United States federal courts, the United States district courts have original jurisdiction over a number of different matters (as mentioned above), and the United States court of appeals have appellate jurisdiction over matters appealed from the district courts. The U.S. Supreme Court, in turn, has appellate jurisdiction (of a discretionary nature) over the Courts of Appeals, as well as the state supreme courts, by means of writ of certiorari.
However, in a special class of cases, the U.S. Supreme Court has the power to exercise original jurisdiction. Under `{{UnitedStatesCode|28|1251}}`{=mediawiki}, the Supreme court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over controversies between two or more states, and original (but non-exclusive) jurisdiction over cases involving officials of foreign states, controversies between the federal government and a state, actions by a state against the citizens of another state or foreign country.
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# Jurisdiction
## United States {#united_states}
### Example of jurisdiction {#example_of_jurisdiction}
As a practical example of court jurisdiction, as of 2013 Utah has five types of courts, each for different legal matters and different physical territories. One-hundred-and-eight judges oversee Justice Courts, which handle traffic and parking citations, misdemeanor crimes, and most small claims cases. Seventy-one judges preside over District Courts, which deal with civil cases exceeding small claims limits, probate law, felony criminal cases, divorce and child custody cases, some small claims, and appeals from Justice Courts. Twenty-eight judges handle Juvenile Court, which oversees most people under 18 years old who are accused of a crime, as well as cases of alleged child abuse or neglect; serious crimes committed by 16 or 17 year old persons may be referred to the District Courts. Seven judges in the Appeals Court hear most criminal appeals from District Courts, all appeals from juvenile court and all domestic/divorce cases from District Court, as well as some cases transferred to them by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court seats five judges who hear appeals on first-degree felonies (the most serious) including capital crimes, as well as all civil cases from District Court (excepting divorce/domestic cases). The Supreme Court also oversees cases involving interpretation of the state Constitution, election matters, judicial conduct, and alleged misconduct by lawyers. This example shows how matters arising in the same physical territory might be seen in different courts. A minor traffic infraction originating in Orem, Utah is handled by the Orem Justice Court. However, a second-degree felony arrest and a first-degree felony arrest in Orem would be under the jurisdiction of the District Court in Provo, Utah. If both the minor traffic offense and the felony arrests resulted in guilty verdicts, the traffic conviction could be appealed to the District Court in Provo, while the second-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Appeals Court in Salt Lake City and the first-degree felony appeal would be heard by the Supreme Court. Similarly for civil matters, a small claims case arising in Orem would probably be heard in the Orem Justice Court, while a divorce filed by an Orem resident would be heard by the District Court in Provo. The above examples apply only to cases of Utah state law; any case under Federal jurisdiction would be handled by a different court system. All Federal cases arising in Utah are under the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Utah, headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and would be heard in one of three Federal courthouses.
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# Jurisdiction
## Australia
In Australia, unless a matter is brought before the courts in a way amounting to an abuse of process, a court recognizing its jurisdiction is obliged to exercise it. But as Australia is a federal country, no court is vested with an unrestricted jurisdiction. Therefore, the rules of jurisdiction are used to determine the ambit of those restrictions upon the courts.
### State and federal jurisdiction {#state_and_federal_jurisdiction}
This idea of restrictions on jurisdiction is well illustrated by the difference in competence between federal and state courts.
Federal courts are the High Court of Australia, the Federal Court of Australia, the Family Court of Australia, and other subsidiaries. Federal courts exercise federal jurisdiction - the judicial powers granted to the federal government by the constitution of Australia. The extent of that jurisdiction is outlined in both the Constitution and legislation enacted by the federal parliament. For example, section 73(ii) of the Constitution empowers the High Court to hear appeals from the supreme court of any state, and from other courts exercising federal jurisdiction. Likewise, section 39B(1A)(c) of the *Judiciary Act* 1903 (Cth) empowers the Federal Court of Australia to hear any matter arising under laws enacted by the federal parliament.
Similarly, the jurisdiction of state courts is created by the states' constitutions and is further delineated by legislation passed by their respective parliaments. In the *Constitution of Queensland 2001* (QLD), it is written at s58(1) that the Supreme Court of the state has all jurisdiction necessary for the administration of justice in Queensland. That is the extent of its jurisdiction.
In New South Wales, the courts' jurisdiction is not mentioned in the constitution. Instead, the state's legislature is empowered to make laws for the peace, welfare, and good governance of New South Wales. Amongst these laws, it is stated in section 23 of the *Supreme Court Act 1970* (NSW) that the Supreme Court shall have all jurisdiction necessary for the administration of justice in NSW.
In Victoria, that same power is conferred by section 85(1) of its constitution.
In summary, the jurisdiction of the courts of each state extends (at a basic level) to matters occurring within their state. Meanwhile, the jurisdiction of the Federal Court of Australia is over matters arising under federal law. The jurisdiction of the High Court is to hear appeals from states' Supreme Courts, the Federal Court, and over matters prescribed in the Constitution of Australia.
### Original and appellate jurisdiction {#original_and_appellate_jurisdiction_1}
That approach to jurisdiction is useful to determine what questions a court may answer in examining a matter before it. Original jurisdiction permits courts to answer all questions of law and fact when a matter is brought before them for the first time (for practical reasons, courts hearing appeals from administrative bodies will also exercise original jurisdiction, this does not subvert the rule).
Appellate jurisdiction is corrective in nature. There, courts examine how lower previous decision-makers answered questions of law, whether an error was made in that process, as well as whether and how that error ought to be rectified. Their job is to correct errors made in answering the said questions - essentially, to correct errors of law.
### Cross-vesting scheme {#cross_vesting_scheme}
The jurisdiction of Supreme Courts of states and territories may be vested in each other in special circumstances, the federal jurisdiction may also be vested in them. Technicalities aside, the scheme compels courts to transfer matters to another court if, in the interests of justice, the second court is a more appropriate place to litigate. In assessing the interests of justice in any particular matter, the court will have regard to the interests of the parties.
The mere existence of criteria to transfer matters over to different courts nonetheless means that parties have an interest in commencing proceedings in the most convenient jurisdiction to them. The advantage conferred onto first movers is not exclusive to the Australian federal court system, parties involved in international disputes will already be familiar with that concept. However, the threshold for intra-Australia transfer is notably lower than that pertaining to international transfer.
## Territorial meaning {#territorial_meaning}
The word \"jurisdiction\" is also used, especially in informal writing, to refer to a state or political subdivision generally, or to its government, rather than to its legal authority.
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# Jurisdiction
## Franchise jurisdiction {#franchise_jurisdiction}
In the history of English common law, a jurisdiction could be held as a form of property (or more precisely an incorporeal hereditament) called a franchise. Traditional franchise jurisdictions of various powers were held by municipal corporations, religious houses, guilds, early universities, the Welsh Marches, and counties palatine. Types of franchise courts included courts baron, courts leet, merchant courts, and the stannary courts that dealt with disputes involving the tin miners of Cornwall. The original royal charters of the American colonies included broad grants of franchise jurisdiction along with other governmental powers to corporations or individuals, as did the charters for many other colonial companies such as the British East India Company and British South Africa Company. Analogous jurisdiction existed in medieval times on the European Continent. Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, franchise jurisdictions were largely eliminated. Several formerly important franchise courts were not officially abolished until Courts Act of 1971
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# John Abernethy (surgeon)
**John Abernethy** `{{Post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS}}`{=mediawiki} (3 April 1764 -- 20 April 1831) was an English surgeon. He is popularly remembered for having given his name to the Abernethy biscuit, a coarse-meal baked good meant to aid digestion.
## Life
John Abernethy was the grandson of John Abernethy. He was born in Coleman Street in the City of London on 3 April 1764, where his father was a merchant. Educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School, he was apprenticed in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745--1815), a surgeon at St Bartholomew\'s Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743--1835) at the London Hospital, and was employed to assist as *demonstrator*; he also attended Percivall Pott\'s surgical lectures at St Bartholomew\'s Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On Pott\'s resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew\'s, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787.
In this capacity Abernethy began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the hospital built a theatre (1790--1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the medical school of St Bartholomew\'s. He held the office of assistant-surgeon for twenty-eight years, until, in 1815, he was elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been appointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons (1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is associated with the treatment of aneurysm by ligature of the external iliac artery.
In 1823, Abernethy was president of the Medical and Chirurgical Society of London.
Abernethy was an anti-vivisectionist. Although he carried out experiments on animals, he killed them first, for he abhorred vivisection.
Abernethy\'s *Surgical Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases* (1809) -- known as \"My Book\", from the great frequency with which he referred his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name -- was one of the earliest popular works on medical science. So great was his zeal in encouraging patients to read the book that he earned the nickname *\"Doctor My-Book\"*. He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was exceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his views. It has been said however, that the influence he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry. The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his great professional skill, but also in part to his eccentricity. He was very blunt with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes even rudely.
Abernethy resigned his position at St Bartholomew\'s Hospital in 1827. He died at his residence at Enfield on 20 April 1831 and was buried at St Andrew\'s Enfield. Joined there in 1854 by his wife Anne (née Threlfal; married 1800) and by three of their children.
## Abernethy biscuit {#abernethy_biscuit}
Abernethy believed that a variety of diseases originated in a disordered state of the digestive organs, and that treating underlying maldigestion and dyspepsia was essential to restoring health. He invented, or at least gave his name to, a digestive biscuit called the Abernethy biscuit that he promoted from about 1829 until his death.
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# John Abernethy (surgeon)
## Awards and works {#awards_and_works}
In 1819, Abernethy was awarded the Hunterian Professorship. He contributed articles to *Rees\'s Cyclopædia* on Anatomy and Physiology, but the topics are not known. A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A biography, [*Memoirs of John Abernethy*](https://archive.org/details/memoirsofjohnabe00maciuoft), by George Macilwain (1797--1882), appeared in 1853.
## In literature {#in_literature}
John Abernethy is mentioned in Edgar Allan Poe\'s *The Purloined Letter* (1844).
His debate with Sir William Lawrence is believed by Marilyn Butler to have influenced Mary Shelley\'s Frankenstein
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# Jacques Maroger
**Jacques Maroger** (`{{IPA|fr|maʁɔʒe}}`{=mediawiki}; 1884--1962) was a painter and the technical director of the Louvre Museum\'s laboratory in Paris. He devoted his life to understanding the oil-based media of the Old Masters. He emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became an influential teacher. His book, *The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters*, has been criticized by some modern writers on painting who say that the painting medium Maroger promoted is unsound.
## Training and early career {#training_and_early_career}
In 1907, Maroger began to study with Louis Anquetin and worked under his direction until Anquetin\'s death in 1932. Anquetin worked closely and exhibited with the artists Vincent van Gogh, Charles Angrand, Émile Bernard, Paul Gauguin, Camille Pissarro, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Anquetin\'s early style was influenced by Impressionism, but in his later years he became very interested in the works of the Flemish masters. As Maroger\'s teacher, Anquetin provided guidance in the study of drawing, anatomy and master painting techniques. Maroger began to become famous around 1931, when the National Academy of Design in New York City reported Maroger\'s painting discoveries.
From 1930 to 1939, Maroger started to work at the Louvre Museum in Paris as Technical Director of the Louvre Laboratory. He served as a professor at the Louvre School, a Member of the Conservation Committee, General Secretary of the International Experts, and President of the Restorers of France. In 1937, he received the Légion d\'honneur, and his pride at the honor is reflected in his self-portrait of the time, in which one can see his Legion pin on his lapel.
He emigrated to the United States in 1939 and became a lecturer at the Parsons School of Design in New York. His New York students, Reginald Marsh, John Koch, Fairfield Porter and Frank Mason adopted his Old Master painting techniques, and taught it in turn to their own students.
In 1942, Maroger became a Professor at the Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore and established a school of painting. At the Maryland Institute he led a group of painters who came to be known as the Baltimore Realists, including the painters Earl Hofmann, [Thomas Rowe](https://web.archive.org/web/20120402134100/http://www.smcm.edu/art/students/rowe.html), [Joseph Sheppard](http://www.josephsheppard.com/), Ann Didusch Schuler, Frank Redelius, John Bannon, Evan Keehn, and [Melvin Miller](http://melvinmiller.com/).
Maroger published *The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters* in 1948. When Maroger\'s book became available, Reginald Marsh drew on Maroger\'s book-jacket an airplane dropping an atomic bomb on the Maryland Art Institute, a reference to the controversy Maroger was causing in the local press over the abstract art versus realism debate.
Maroger\'s formula and techniques have been studied by many modern painters who wish to obtain the paint quality of the Old Masters. The \"secret formula\" that Maroger devised during his lifetime included the main ingredient white lead. White lead when cooked into linseed oil acts as a drying agent, accelerating the polymerization of the oil film.
Maroger claimed to have introduced to the modern day artist what the masters achieved centuries before in their paintings, a way to ensure permanence and color quality in oils without sacrificing fluid and subtle paint handling. Equipped with these formulas, the artist could once again blend his paint easily without losing control of his brush. The paint stays where it is applied and does not run off the panel. It dries very fast so that he can paint on the same areas the very next day, which speeds up painting.
Frank Redelius, one of Maroger\'s protégés from the Baltimore Realists group, wrote a book that updates, builds upon and revises Jacques Maroger\'s research of the painting techniques and formulas of the Old Masters. Redelius was assisting Maroger with a revision of *The Secret Formulas and Techniques of the Masters* before Maroger\'s death in 1962. Frank Redelius\' book, published in 2009, is titled *The Master Keys: A Painter\'s Treatise On The Pictorial Technique Of Oil Painting*.
## Critics of Maroger {#critics_of_maroger}
Maroger has been criticized by some modern writers on painting because of his bold assertions about having found the secret formulas of the Masters. The current proprietary Maroger\'s Medium is in fact the jelly-like medium also known as Megilp (Macgilp, McGuilp, etc.). This material, made by mixing heavy mastic varnish with a linseed oil that has been cooked to blackness with litharge or white lead, was introduced in the late 18th century and employed extensively during the 19th, and therefore is not of centuries-old pedigree.
The archival quality of the medium itself is controversial in art circles, in part because its documented use dates back less than a century. This is from Michael Skalka, Conservation Administrator, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.:
See the work of Lance Mayer and Gay Myers for more information on Curry and Maroger.
Maroger medium which is not made properly may contain a large amount of dirt and impurities from improperly filtered mastic varnish, or the black oil may be overcooked, both of which would contribute to darkening and weakening of the work. In addition the overuse of megilp media (or any medium for that matter) tends to create weak paint films. Conservation science has shown that the presence of natural resins like mastic in the paint film causes embrittlement, darkening, and continued solubility. See the work of Leslie Carlyle or Joyce Townsend for problems related to 18th-century painting that contain megilp.
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# Jacques Maroger
## Lost old master formulas by Maroger {#lost_old_master_formulas_by_maroger}
### Six formulas of Maroger taken from his book on painting formulas {#six_formulas_of_maroger_taken_from_his_book_on_painting_formulas}
1. Lead Medium -- attributed to Antonello da Messina -- One part litharge (yellow lead oxide) or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts linseed.
2. Lead Medium -- attributed to Leonardo da Vinci -- One part litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with three to four parts raw linseed oil, and three to four parts water.
3. Lead Medium -- attributed to the Venetian painters -- Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto -- One or two parts litharge or lead white, combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil.
4. Lead Medium -- attributed to Peter Paul Rubens -This medium was allegedly based on the black oil of Giorgione with an addition of mastic resin, Venice turpentine and beeswax. One or two parts litharge or lead white, combines by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed. A little more than one spoonful of \"black oil\" combined with even one spoonful of mastic varnish resulted in the \"jelly\" medium thought to be Megilp (another name of Maroger media).
5. Lead Medium -- (attributed to the \"Little Dutch Masters\") This medium was the same as the one used by Rubens, but did not include beeswax.
6. Lead Medium -- attributed to Velázquez -- One part verdigris (derived from copper -- this material is substituted for the lead-based metallic driers), combined by cooking with 20 parts raw linseed or walnut oil.
The majority of these recipes are not employed today, as there are few companies that produce them. The primary form of \"Maroger medium\" known today is black oil (\"Giorgione\'s\" medium) and mastic varnish combined in approximately equal parts to form a gel.
While Maroger medium is usually mixed directly with oil paints, its proportion should be kept to no more than 20% of the mixture. A useful technique is to rub a very thin film of Maroger medium over the area to be painted and paint into that---known as \"painting into the couch.\" This lubricates the brush stroke. Maroger medium (or any other painting medium, for that matter) should never be used as a final picture varnish, as Maroger requires reaction by admixture with oil paint in order to dry.
The reduced availability of lead, combined with injunctions against lead use in household products and other factors has caused most major paint makers to discontinue the production of Maroger\'s medium. Many paint makers now offer faux-maroger\'s media or faux-megilps, generally made by substituting different materials, such as lime, for genuine lead, or (as in the case of Gamblin\'s Neo-Megilp) by creating a similar product out of specially thickened alkyd medium. These products produce effects similar to, but not the same as those of real Maroger medium, which depends on specific chemical reactions between leaded oil, mastic resin, and turpentine (the mastic varnish vehicle).
## Home and Studio {#home_and_studio}
The white gingerbread cottage that was Maroger\'s home in Baltimore is found on the east campus of Loyola College in Maryland and is used for drawing and painting courses. The building, created in the style of a Parisian studio, is aptly called the Maroger Art Studio
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# Joseph Greenberg
**Joseph Harold Greenberg** (May 28, 1915 -- May 7, 2001) was an American linguist, known mainly for his work concerning linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages.
## Life
### Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Joseph Greenberg was born on May 28, 1915, to Jewish parents in Brooklyn, New York. His first great interest was music. At the age of 14, he gave a piano concert in Steinway Hall. He continued to play the piano frequently throughout his life.
After graduating from James Madison High School, he decided to pursue a scholarly career rather than a musical one. He enrolled at Columbia College in New York in 1932. During his senior year, he attended a class taught by Franz Boas concerning American Indian languages. He graduated in 1936 with a bachelor\'s degree. With references from Boas and Ruth Benedict, he was accepted as a graduate student by Melville J. Herskovits at Northwestern University in Chicago and graduated in 1940 with a doctorate degree. During the course of his graduate studies, Greenberg did fieldwork among the Hausa people of Nigeria, where he learned the Hausa language. The subject of his doctoral dissertation was the influence of Islam on a Hausa group that, unlike most others, had not converted to it.
During 1940, he began postdoctoral studies at Yale University. These were interrupted by service in the U.S. Army Signal Corps during World War II, for which he worked as a codebreaker in North Africa and participated with the landing at Casablanca. He then served in Italy until the end of the war.
Before leaving for Europe during 1943, Greenberg married Selma Berkowitz, whom he had met during his first year at Columbia University.
### Career
After the war, Greenberg taught at the University of Minnesota before returning to Columbia University in 1948 as a teacher of anthropology. While in New York, he became acquainted with Roman Jakobson and André Martinet. They introduced him to the Prague school of structuralism, which influenced his work.
In 1962, Greenberg relocated to the anthropology department at Stanford University in California, where he continued working for the rest of his life. In 1965 Greenberg served as president of the African Studies Association. That same year, he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. He was later elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1973) and the American Philosophical Society (1975). In 1996 he received the highest award for a scholar in Linguistics, the Gold Medal of Philology.
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# Joseph Greenberg
## Contributions to linguistics {#contributions_to_linguistics}
### Linguistic typology {#linguistic_typology}
Greenberg is considered the founder of modern linguistic typology, a field that he has revitalized with his publications in the 1960s and 1970s. Greenberg\'s reputation rests partly on his contributions to synchronic linguistics and the quest to identify linguistic universals. During the late 1950s, Greenberg began to examine languages covering a wide geographic and genetic distribution. He located a number of interesting potential universals as well as many strong cross-linguistic tendencies.
In particular, Greenberg conceptualized the idea of \"implicational universal\", which has the form, \"if a language has structure X, then it must also have structure Y.\" For example, X might be \"mid front rounded vowels\" and Y \"high front rounded vowels\" (for terminology see phonetics). Many scholars adopted this kind of research following Greenberg\'s example and it remains important in synchronic linguistics.
Like Noam Chomsky, Greenberg sought to discover the universal structures on which human language is based. Unlike Chomsky, Greenberg\'s method was functionalist, rather than formalist. An argument to reconcile the Greenbergian and Chomskyan methods can be found in *Linguistic Universals* (2006), edited by Ricardo Mairal and Juana Gil.
Many who are strongly opposed to Greenberg\'s methods of language classification (see below) acknowledge the importance of his typological work. In 1963 he published an article : \"Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements\".
### Mass comparison {#mass_comparison}
Greenberg rejected the opinion, prevalent among linguists since the mid-20th century, that comparative reconstruction was the only method to discover relationships between languages. He argued that genetic classification is methodologically prior to comparative reconstruction, or the first stage of it: one cannot engage in the comparative reconstruction of languages until one knows which languages to compare (1957:44).
He also criticized the prevalent opinion that comprehensive comparisons of two languages at a time (which commonly take years to perform) could establish language families of any size. He argued that, even for 8 languages, there are already 4,140 ways to classify them into distinct families, while for 25 languages there are 4,638,590,332,229,999,353 ways (1957:44). For comparison, the Niger--Congo family is said to have some 1,500 languages. He thought language families of any size needed to be established by some scholastic means other than bilateral comparison. The theory of mass comparison is an attempt to demonstrate such means.
Greenberg argued for the virtues of breadth over depth. He advocated restricting the amount of material to be compared (to basic vocabulary, morphology, and known paths of sound change) and increasing the number of languages to be compared to all the languages in a given area. This would make it possible to compare numerous languages reliably. At the same time, the process would provide a check on accidental resemblances through the sheer number of languages under review. The mathematical probability that resemblances are accidental decreases strongly with the number of languages concerned (1957:39).
Greenberg used the premise that mass \"borrowing\" of basic vocabulary is unknown. He argued that borrowing, when it occurs, is concentrated in cultural vocabulary and clusters \"in certain semantic areas\", making it easy to detect (1957:39). With the goal of determining broad patterns of relationship, the idea was not to get every word right but to detect patterns. From the beginning with his theory of mass comparison, Greenberg addressed why chance resemblance and borrowing were not obstacles to its being useful. Despite that, critics consider those phenomena caused difficulties for his theory.
Greenberg first termed his method \"mass comparison\" in an article of 1954 (reprinted in Greenberg 1955). As of 1987, he replaced the term \"mass comparison\" with \"multilateral comparison\", to emphasize its contrast with the bilateral comparisons recommended by linguistics textbooks. He believed that multilateral comparison was not in any way opposed to the comparative method, but is, on the contrary, its necessary first step (Greenberg, 1957:44). According to him, comparative reconstruction should have the status of an explanatory theory for facts already established by language classification (Greenberg, 1957:45).
Most historical linguists (Campbell 2001:45) reject the use of mass comparison as a method for establishing genealogical relationships between languages. Among the most outspoken critics of mass comparison have been Lyle Campbell, Donald Ringe, William Poser, and the late R. Larry Trask.
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# Joseph Greenberg
## Contributions to linguistics {#contributions_to_linguistics}
### Genetic classification of languages {#genetic_classification_of_languages}
#### Languages of Africa {#languages_of_africa}
Greenberg is known widely for his development of a classification system for the languages of Africa, which he published as a series of articles in the *Southwestern Journal of Anthropology* from 1949 to 1954 (reprinted together as a book, *The Languages of Africa*, in 1955). He revised the book and published it again during 1963, followed by a nearly identical edition of 1966 (reprinted without change during 1970). A few more changes of the classification were made by Greenberg in an article during 1981.
Greenberg grouped the hundreds of African languages into four families, which he dubbed Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger--Congo, and Khoisan. During the course of his work, Greenberg invented the term \"Afroasiatic\" to replace the earlier term \"Hamito-Semitic\", after showing that the Hamitic group, accepted widely since the 19th century, is not a valid language family. Another major feature of his work was to establish the classification of the Bantu languages, which occupy much of Central and Southern Africa, as a part of the Niger--Congo family, rather than as an independent family as many Bantuists had maintained.
Greenberg\'s classification rested largely in evaluating competing earlier classifications. For a time, his classification was considered bold and speculative, especially the proposal of a Nilo-Saharan language family. Now, apart from Khoisan, it is generally accepted by African specialists and has been used as a basis for further work by other scholars.
Greenberg\'s work on African languages has been criticised by Lyle Campbell and Donald Ringe, who do not believe that his classification is justified by his data and request a re-examination of his macro-phyla by \"reliable methods\" (Ringe 1993:104). Harold Fleming and Lionel Bender, who were sympathetic to Greenberg\'s classification, acknowledged that at least some of his macrofamilies (particularly the Nilo-Saharan and the Khoisan macrofamilies) are not accepted completely by most linguists and may need to be divided (Campbell 1997). Their objection was methodological: if mass comparison is not a valid method, it cannot be expected to have brought order successfully out of the confusion of African languages.
By contrast, some linguists have sought to combine Greenberg\'s four African families into larger units. In particular, Edgar Gregersen (1972) proposed joining Niger--Congo and Nilo-Saharan into a larger family, which he termed Kongo-Saharan. Roger Blench (1995) suggests Niger--Congo is a subfamily of Nilo-Saharan.
#### The languages of New Guinea, Tasmania, and the Andaman Islands {#the_languages_of_new_guinea_tasmania_and_the_andaman_islands}
During 1971 Greenberg proposed the Indo-Pacific macrofamily, which groups together the Papuan languages (a large number of language families of New Guinea and nearby islands) with the native languages of the Andaman Islands and Tasmania but excludes the Australian Aboriginal languages. Its principal feature was to reduce the manifold language families of New Guinea to a single genetic unit. This excludes the Austronesian languages, which have been established as associated with a more recent migration of people.
Greenberg\'s subgrouping of these languages has not been accepted by the few specialists who have worked on the classification of these languages. However, the work of Stephen Wurm (1982) and Malcolm Ross (2005) has provided considerable evidence for his once-radical idea that these languages form a single genetic unit. Wurm stated that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese and the West Papuan and Timor--Alor families \"are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity \[\...\] in a number of instances.\" He believes this to be due to a linguistic substratum.
#### The languages of the Americas {#the_languages_of_the_americas}
Most linguists concerned with the native languages of the Americas classify them into 150 to 180 independent language families. Some believe that two language families, Eskimo--Aleut and Na-Dené, were distinct, perhaps the results of later migrations into the New World.
Early on, Greenberg (1957:41, 1960) became convinced that many of the language groups considered unrelated could be classified into larger groupings. In his 1987 book *Language in the Americas*, while agreeing that the Eskimo--Aleut and Na-Dené groupings as distinct, he proposed that all the other Native American languages belong to a single language macro-family, which he termed Amerind.
*Language in the Americas* has generated lively debate, but has been criticized strongly; it is rejected by most specialists of indigenous languages of the Americas and also by most historical linguists. Specialists of the individual language families have found extensive inaccuracies and errors in Greenberg\'s data, such as including data from non-existent languages, erroneous transcriptions of the forms compared, misinterpretations of the meanings of words used for comparison, and entirely spurious forms.
Historical linguists also reject the validity of the method of multilateral (or mass) comparison upon which the classification is based. They argue that he has not provided a convincing case that the similarities presented as evidence are due to inheritance from an earlier common ancestor rather than being explained by a combination of errors, accidental similarity, excessive semantic latitude in comparisons, borrowings, onomatopoeia, etc.
However, Harvard geneticist David Reich notes that recent genetic studies have identified patterns that support Greenberg\'s Amerind classification: the \"First American" category. \"The cluster of populations that he predicted to be most closely related based on language were in fact verified by the genetic patterns in populations for which data are available." Nevertheless, this category of \"First American\" people also interbred with and contributed a significant amount of genes to the ancestors of both Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dené populations, with 60% and 90% \"First American\" DNA respectively constituting the genetic makeup of the two groups.
#### The languages of northern Eurasia {#the_languages_of_northern_eurasia}
Later in his life, Greenberg proposed that nearly all of the language families of northern Eurasia belong to a single higher-order family, which he termed Eurasiatic. The only exception was Yeniseian, which has been related to a wider Dené--Caucasian grouping, also including Sino-Tibetan. During 2008 Edward Vajda related Yeniseian to the Na-Dené languages of North America as a Dené--Yeniseian family.
The Eurasiatic grouping resembles the older Nostratic groupings of Holger Pedersen and Vladislav Illich-Svitych by including Indo-European, Uralic, and Altaic. It differs by including Nivkh, Japonic, Korean, and Ainu (which the Nostraticists had excluded from comparison because they are single languages rather than language families) and in excluding Afroasiatic. At about this time, Russian Nostraticists, notably Sergei Starostin, constructed a revised version of Nostratic. It was slightly larger than Greenberg\'s grouping but it also excluded Afroasiatic.
Recently, a consensus has been emerging among proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis. Greenberg basically agreed with the Nostratic concept, though he stressed a deep internal division between its northern \'tier\' (his Eurasiatic) and a southern \'tier\' (principally Afroasiatic and Dravidian).
The American Nostraticist Allan Bomhard considers Eurasiatic a branch of Nostratic, alongside other branches: Afroasiatic, Elamo-Dravidian, and Kartvelian. Similarly, Georgiy Starostin (2002) arrives at a tripartite overall grouping: he considers Afroasiatic, Nostratic and Elamite to be roughly equidistant and more closely related to each other than to any other language family. Sergei Starostin\'s school has now included Afroasiatic in a broadly defined Nostratic. They reserve the term Eurasiatic to designate the narrower subgrouping, which comprises the rest of the macrofamily. Recent proposals thus differ mainly on the precise inclusion of Dravidian and Kartvelian.
Greenberg continued to work on this project after he was diagnosed with incurable pancreatic cancer and until he died during May 2001. His colleague and former student Merritt Ruhlen ensured the publication of the final volume of his Eurasiatic work (2002) after his death.
## Selected works by Joseph H. Greenberg {#selected_works_by_joseph_h._greenberg}
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# Joseph Greenberg
## Contributions to linguistics {#contributions_to_linguistics}
### Books
- (Photo-offset reprint of the *SJA* articles with minor corrections.)
-
- (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955. From the same publisher: second, revised edition, 1966; third edition, 1970. All three editions simultaneously published at The Hague by Mouton & Co.)
- (Reprinted 1980 and, with a foreword by Martin Haspelmath, 2005.)
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### Books (editor) {#books_editor}
- (Second edition 1966.)
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### Articles and reviews {#articles_and_reviews}
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- (Reprinted in *Genetic Linguistics*, 2005.)
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- (In second edition of *Universals of Language*, 1966: pp. 73--113.)
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- (Reprinted in *Genetic Linguistics*, 2005
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# Jan van Goyen
**Jan Josephszoon van Goyen** (`{{IPA|nl|ˈjɑɱ vɑŋ ˈɣoːi.ə(n)}}`{=mediawiki}; 13 January 1596 -- 27 April 1656) was a Dutch landscape painter. The scope of his landscape subjects was very broad as he painted forest landscapes, marine paintings, river landscapes, beach scenes, winter landscapes, cityscapes, architectural views and landscapes with peasants. The list of painters he influenced is much longer. He was an extremely prolific artist who left approximately twelve hundred paintings and more than one thousand drawings.
## Biography
Jan van Goyen was the son of a shoemaker and started as an apprentice in Leiden, the town of his birth. Like many Dutch painters of his time, he studied art in the town of Haarlem with Esaias van de Velde. At age 35, he established a permanent studio at The Hague (Den Haag). Crenshaw tells (and mentions the sources) that van Goyen\'s landscape paintings rarely fetched high prices, but he made up for the modest value of individual pieces by increasing his production, painting thinly and quickly with a limited palette of inexpensive pigments. Despite his market innovations, he always sought more income, not only through related work as an art dealer and auctioneer but also by speculating in tulips (he was the last known victim of the tulip mania of the 1630s) and real estate. Although the latter was usually a safe avenue of investing money, in van Goyen\'s experience it led to enormous debts. Paulus Potter rented one of his houses. Though he seems to have kept a workshop, his only registered pupils were Nicolaes van Berchem, Jan Steen, and Adriaen van der Kabel. The list of painters he influenced is much longer.
In 1652 and 1654, he was forced to sell his collection of paintings and graphic art, and he subsequently moved to a smaller house. He died in 1656 in The Hague, still unbelievably 18,000 guilders in debt, forcing his widow to sell their remaining furniture and paintings. Van Goyen\'s troubles also may have affected the early business prospects of his student and son-in-law Jan Steen, who left The Hague in 1654.
## Dutch painting {#dutch_painting}
Typically, a Dutch painter of the 17th century will fall into one of four categories: a painter of portraits, landscapes, still-lifes, or genre painting. Dutch painting was highly specialized and rarely could an artist hope to achieve greatness in more than one area in a lifetime of painting. Jan van Goyen would be classified primarily as a landscape artist with an eye for the genre subjects of everyday life. He painted many of the canals in and around The Hague as well as the villages surrounding the countryside of Delft, Rotterdam, Leiden, and Gouda. Other popular Dutch landscape painters of the sixteenth and seventeenth century were Jacob van Ruisdael, Aelbert Cuyp, Hendrick Avercamp, Ludolf Backhuysen, Meindert Hobbema, Aert van der Neer.
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# Jan van Goyen
## Van Goyen\'s technique {#van_goyens_technique}
Jan van Goyen would begin a painting using a support primarily of thin oak wood. To this panel, he would scrub on several layers of a thin animal hide glue. With a blade, he would then scrape over the entire surface a thin layer of tinted white lead to act as a ground and to fill the low areas of the panel. The ground was tinted light brown, sometimes reddish, or ochre in colour.
Next, van Goyen would loosely and very rapidly sketch out the scene to be painted with pen and ink without going into the small details of his subject. This walnut ink drawing can be clearly seen in some of the thinly painted areas of his work. For a guide, he would have turned to a detailed drawing. The scene would have been drawn from life outdoors and then kept in the studio as reference material. Drawings by artists of the time were rarely works of art in their own right as they are viewed today.
On his palette he would grind out a colour collection of neutral grays, umbers, ochre and earthen greens that looked like they were pulled from the very soil he painted. A varnish oil medium was used as vehicle to grind his powdered pigments into paint and then used to help apply thin layers of paint which he could easily blend.
The dark areas of the painting were kept very thin and transparent with generous amounts of the oil medium. The light striking the painting in these sections would be lost and absorbed into the painting ground. The lighter areas of the picture were treated heavier and opaque with a generous amount of white lead mixed into the paint. Light falling on the painting in a light section is reflected back at the viewer. The effect is a startling realism and three-dimensional quality. The surface of a finished painting resembles a fluid supple mousse, masterfully whipped and modeled with the brush.
According to the art historian H. U. Beck, \"In his freely composed seascapes of the 1650s he reached the apex of his creative work, producing paintings of striking perfection.\"
Some of Van Goyen\'s Works can be seen at the Thyssen Bornemisza Museum in Madrid, one from the public collection (*Winter landscape with figures on ice*, 1643) and others from the Carmen Thyssen Collection also shown there (*River Landscape with Ferry boat and Cottages*, 1634).
## Legacy
Jan van Goyen was famously influential on the landscape painters of his century. His tonal quality was a feature that many imitated. According to the Netherlands Institute for Art History, he influenced Cornelis de Bie, Jan Coelenbier, Cornelis van Noorde, Abraham Susenier, Herman Saftleven, Pieter Jansz van Asch, and Abraham van Beijeren.
Van Goyen is mentioned by his fellow countryman Vincent van Gogh in Vincent\'s second letter from the asylum: \"Through the iron-barred window I can make out a square of wheat in an enclosure, a perspective in the manner of Van Goyen, above which in the morning I see the sun rise in its glory.\"
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# Jan van Goyen
## Gallery
\> <File:Leipzig>, Museum der bildenden Künste, Jan van Goyen, Bauerngehöft.JPG\|*Farmhouse* (1628), oil on panel, 27.5 x 37.5 cm., Museum der bildenden Künste <File:Goyen> 1633 Peasant Huts with a Sweep Well.jpg\|*Peasant Huts with a Sweep Well* (1633), oil on panel, 55 x 80 cm., Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister <File:Goyen> 1636 Village at the River.jpg\|*Village at the River* (1636), oil on panel, 39,5 x 60 cm., Alte Pinakothek <File:Zeil-> en roeiboten in een riviermonding Rijksmuseum Amsterdam SK-C-1780.png\|*Sailing and Row boats in an Estuary* (1640), oil on panel, 77 x 116 cm., Museum De Lakenhal <File:Landskapsmålning>, 1600-tal, van Goyen - Hallwylska museet - 21748 (cropped).tif\|*Landscape with a Rainbow* (no date), oil on canvas, 124.5 x 154.5 cm., Hallwyl Museum <File:Jan> van Goyen - Landscape with Two Oaks - WGA10186.jpg\|*Landscape with Two Oaks* (1641), oil on canvas, 88.5 x 110.5 cm., Rijksmuseum <File:Goyen> 1641 The Thunderstorm.jpg\|*The Thunderstorm* (1641), oil on canvas, 137.8 x 183.2 cm., Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco <File:Goyen> 1642 A Windmill by a River.jpg\|*A Windmill by a River* (1642), oil on panel, 29,4 x 36,3 cm., National Gallery <File:Jan> van Goyen (1596-1656) - A River Scene - NG 1013 - National Galleries of Scotland.jpg\|*A River Scene* (1646), oil on panel, 42.6 x 56.5 cm., National Galleries of Scotland <File:Ice> Scene near a Wooden Observation Tower A25869.jpg\|*Ice Scene near a Wooden Observation Tower* (1646), oil on panel, 36.5 × 34.3 cm., National Gallery of Art <File:Jan> Josephsz. van Goyen - Panorama Landscape with a View of Arnheim - Google Art Project.jpg\|*Panorama Landscape with a View of Arnhem* (1646), oil on canvas, 98.5 x 135 cm., Museum Kunstpalast <File:A> View of The Hague from the Northwest MET DP147601.jpg\|*View of The Hague from the Northwest* (1647), oil on panel, 66 x 96.2 cm., Metropolitan Museum of Art <File:Jan> van Goyen - River Landscape with Peasants in a Ferryboat, 1648 SC232133.jpg\|*River Landscape with Boats and Cottages on the Bank* (1648), oil on panel, 54 x 73.7 cm., Museum of Fine Arts, Boston <File:River> Scene by Jan van Goyen.jpeg\|*River Landscape* (1652), oil on panel, 66.7 x 98 cm., Wallraf--Richartz Museum <File:An> van Goyen (1596--1656)- A Stormy Seascape - Myrskyinen merimaisema - Stormigt hav (29178839560).jpg\|*A Stormy Seascape* (1655), oil on canvas, 110 × 159 cm., Sinebrychoff Art Museum <File:Jan> Josephsz. van Goyen - River Landscape with a Ferry and a Church - 07.502 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg\|*River Landscape with a Ferry and a Church* (ca. 1656), oil on panel, 47.3 x 66.7 cm
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# Johann Tetzel
**Johann Tetzel** `{{post-nominals|post-noms=[[Dominican Order|OP]]}}`{=mediawiki} (c. 1465 -- 11 August 1519) was a German Dominican friar and preacher. He was appointed Inquisitor for Poland and Saxony, later becoming the Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany. Tetzel was known for granting indulgences on behalf of the Catholic Church in exchange for tithes to the Church. Indulgences grant a degree of expiation of the punishments of purgatory due to sin. However, the misuse of indulgences within the Church largely contributed to Martin Luther writing his Ninety-five Theses. The main usage of the indulgences by Tetzel was to help fund and build the new St. Peter\'s Basilica in Rome.
## Life
Tetzel was born in Pirna, Saxony, and studied theology and philosophy at Leipzig University. He entered the Dominican order in 1489, became a famous preacher, and was in 1502 commissioned by Cardinal Giovanni de\' Medici, later Pope Leo X, to preach the Jubilee indulgence, which he did throughout his life. In 1509 he was made an inquisitor of Poland and in January 1517 was made commissioner of indulgences for Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt.
He acquired the degree of Licentiate of Sacred Theology in the University of Frankfurt an der Oder in 1517, and then of Doctor of Sacred Theology in 1518, by defending in two disputations the doctrine of indulgences against Martin Luther. The accusation that he had sold full forgiveness for sins not yet committed caused a great scandal. It was believed that all of the money that Tetzel raised was for the ongoing reconstruction of St. Peter\'s Basilica, although half the money went to the Archbishop of Mainz, Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (under whose authority Tetzel was operating), to pay off the debts incurred in securing Albert\'s appointment to the archbishopric. Tetzel made much of his money by selling his indulgences throughout Leipzig. The way that he persuaded many people to buy his indulgences was offering access directly to heaven even for people who were already dead and in purgatory. He was very good at his job, which led him to be paid very well. Men would even announce, weeks in advance, his arrival to town. Luther did not agree with Tetzel\'s practices and began to preach openly against him. He was inspired to write his famous *Ninety-five Theses* in part due to Tetzel\'s actions. In the theses, he states,`{{Blockquote|27. They preach only human doctrines who say that as soon as the money clinks into the money chest, the soul flies out of purgatory.<br>
28. It is certain that when money clinks in the money chest, greed and avarice can be increased; but when the church intercedes, the result is in the hands of God alone.}}`{=mediawiki}
Tetzel was also accused, but exonerated, of immorality. When Karl von Miltitz accused him of perpetrating frauds and embezzlements, he withdrew to the Dominican monastery in Leipzig where, worn out by the controversies surrounding him, he died in 1519. Miltitz was later discredited to the point that his claims carry no historical weight.
When Luther heard that Tetzel was mortally ill and on his deathbed, he wrote to comfort him and bade him \"not to be troubled, for the matter did not begin on his account, but the child had quite a different father.\" After his death, Tetzel was given an honorable burial and interred before the high altar of the Dominican Church in Leipzig.
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# Johann Tetzel
## Doctrinal positions {#doctrinal_positions}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Tetzel\'s coffer, on display at the St. Nikolai church in Jüterbog
Tetzel overstated Catholic doctrine in regard to indulgences for the dead. He became known for a couplet attributed to him:
> As soon as the gold in the casket rings The rescued soul to heaven springs
This oft-quoted saying was by no means representative of the official Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather, more a reflection of Tetzel\'s capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was pure Catholic teaching. The German Catholic historian Ludwig von Pastor explains:
> Above all, a most clear distinction must be made between indulgences for the living and those for the dead.\
> As regards indulgences for the living, Tetzel always taught pure (Catholic) doctrine. The assertion that he put forward indulgences as being not only a remission of the temporal punishment of sin but as a remission of its guilt, is as unfounded as is that other accusation against him, that he sold the forgiveness of sin for money, without even any mention of contrition and confession, or that, for payment, he absolved from sins which might be committed in the future. His teaching was, in fact, very definite, and quite in harmony with the theology of the (Catholic) Church, as it was then and as it is now, i.e., that indulgences \"apply only to the temporal punishment due to sins which have been already repented of and confessed\"\...
>
> The case was very different from indulgences for the dead. As regards these there is no doubt that Tetzel did, according to what he considered his authoritative instructions, proclaim as Christian doctrine that nothing but an offering of money was required to gain the indulgence for the dead, without there being any question of contrition or confession. He also taught, in accordance with the opinion then held, that an indulgence could be applied to any given soul with unfailing effect. Starting from this assumption, there is no doubt that his doctrine was virtually that of the well known drastic proverb.
>
> The Papal Bull of indulgence gave no sanction whatever to this proposition. It was a vague scholastic opinion, rejected by the Sorbonne in 1482, and again in 1518, and certainly not a doctrine of the Church, which was thus improperly put forward as dogmatic truth. The first among the theologians of the Roman court, Cardinal Cajetan, was the enemy of all such extravagances and declared emphatically that, even if theologians and preachers taught such opinions, no faith need be given them. \"Preachers\", he said, \"speak in the name of the Church only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination, they must not be accepted as mouthpieces of the Church. No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error.\"
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# Johann Tetzel
## Luther\'s impression {#luthers_impression}
Luther claimed Tetzel had received a substantial amount of money at Leipzig from a nobleman, who asked him for a letter of indulgence for a future sin he would commit. Supposedly Tetzel answered in the affirmative, insisting that the payment had to be made at once. The nobleman did so and received a letter and seal from Tetzel.
However, when Tetzel left Leipzig, the nobleman attacked him along the way and gave him a thorough beating, sending him back empty-handed to Leipzig, saying that was the future sin which he had in mind. Duke George at first was quite furious about the incident, but when he heard the whole story, he let it go without punishing the nobleman.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Tetzel has been portrayed on stage and screen by the following:
- Jakob Tiedtke in the 1928 German film *Luther*.
- Alexander Gauge in the 1953 film *Martin Luther*.
- In John Osborne\'s 1961 play *Luther*, Tetzel was played by Peter Bull in the original London and Broadway productions, Hugh Griffith in the 1973 film of the play, and Richard Griffiths in a 2001 National Theatre revival.
- Clive Swift in the 1983 film *Martin Luther, Heretic*.
- Alfred Molina in the 2003 film *Luther*
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# James Tiptree Jr.
**Alice Bradley Sheldon**, better known as **James Tiptree Jr.** (born **Alice Hastings Bradley**; August 24, 1915 -- May 19, 1987), was an American science fiction and fantasy author. It was not publicly known until 1977 that James Tiptree Jr. was a pen name of a woman, which she used from 1967 until her death. From 1974 to 1985, she also occasionally used the pen name **Raccoona Sheldon**. Tiptree was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2012.
Tiptree\'s debut story collection, *Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home*, was published in 1973 and her first novel, *Up the Walls of the World*, was published in 1978. Her other works include the 1973 novelette \"The Women Men Don\'t See\", the 1974 novella \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\", the 1976 novella \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\", the 1985 novel *Brightness Falls from the Air*, and the 1974 short story \"Her Smoke Rose Up Forever\".
## Early life, family and education {#early_life_family_and_education}
Alice Hastings Bradley came from a family in the intellectual enclave of Hyde Park, a university neighborhood in Chicago. Her father was Herbert Edwin Bradley, a lawyer and naturalist, and her mother was Mary Hastings Bradley, a prolific writer of fiction and travel books. From an early age she traveled with her parents, and in 1921--22, the family made their first trip to central Africa. During these trips, she played the role of the \"perfect daughter, willing to be carried across Africa like a parcel, always neatly dressed and well behaved, a credit to her mother.\" This later contributed to her short story, \"The Women Men Don\'t See.\"
She is the title character in two non-fiction accounts by her mother of their travels: *Alice in Jungleland* (1927) and *Alice in Elephantland* (1929). These were both travel books for children which included photos of young Alice visiting parts of Africa not yet fully discovered by Westerners. The illustrated cover of *Alice in Jungleland* is credited to Alice Hastings Bradley.
Between trips to Africa, Bradley attended school in Chicago. At the age of ten, she went to the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, which was an experimental teaching workshop with small classes and loose structure. When she was fourteen, she was sent to finishing school in Lausanne in Switzerland, before returning to the US to attend boarding school in Tarrytown in New York.
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# James Tiptree Jr.
## Adulthood and early career: 1934--1967 {#adulthood_and_early_career_19341967}
Bradley was encouraged by her mother to seek a career, but her mother also hoped that she would get married and settle down. In 1934, at age 19, she met William (Bill) Davey and eloped to marry him. She dropped out of Sarah Lawrence College, which did not allow married students to attend. They moved to Berkeley, California, where they took classes and Davey encouraged her to pursue art. The marriage was not a success; he was an alcoholic and irresponsible with money and she disliked keeping house. The couple divorced in 1940. Later on, she became a graphic artist, a painter, and---still under the name \"Alice Bradley Davey\"---an art critic for the *Chicago Sun* between 1941 and 1942.
After the divorce, Bradley joined the Women\'s Army Auxiliary Corps where she became a supply officer. In 1942 she joined the United States Army Air Forces and worked in the Army Air Forces photo-intelligence group. She later was promoted to major, a high rank for women at the time. In the army, she \"felt she was among free women for the first time.\" As an intelligence officer, she became an expert in reading aerial intelligence photographs.
In 1945, at the close of the war, while she was on assignment in Paris, she married her second husband, Huntington D. Sheldon, known as \"Ting.\" She was discharged from the military in 1946, at which time she set up a small business in partnership with her husband. The same year, a non-fiction piece about Polish refugees working in Germany (entitled \"The Lucky Ones\") was published in the November 16, 1946 issue of *The New Yorker*, and credited to \"Alice Bradley\" in the magazine. In 1952 she and her husband were invited to join the CIA, which she accepted. At the CIA, she worked as an intelligence officer, but she did not enjoy the work. She resigned her position in 1955 and returned to college.
She studied for her bachelor of arts degree at American University (1957--1959). She received a doctorate from George Washington University in Experimental Psychology in 1967. She wrote her doctoral dissertation on the responses of animals to novel stimuli in differing environments. During this time, she wrote and submitted a few science fiction stories under the name James Tiptree Jr., in order to protect her academic reputation.
### Art career {#art_career}
Bradley began illustrating when she was nine years old, contributing to her mother\'s book, *Alice in Elephantland*, a children\'s book about the family\'s second trip to Africa, appearing in it as herself. She later had an exhibit of her drawings of Africa at the Chicago Gallery, arranged by her parents. Although she illustrated several of her mother\'s books, she only sold one illustration during her lifetime, in 1931, to *The New Yorker*, with help from Harold Ober, a New York agent who worked with her mother. The illustration, of a horse rearing and throwing off its rider, sold for ten dollars.
In 1936, Bradley participated in a group show at the Art Institute of Chicago, to which she had connections through her family, featuring new American work. This was an important step forward for her painting career. During this time she also took private art lessons from John Sloan. Bradley disliked prudery in painting. While examining an anatomy book for an art class, she noticed that the genitals were blurred, so she restored the genitals of the figures with a pencil.
In 1939, her nude self-portrait titled *Portrait in the Country* was accepted for the \"All-American\" biennial show at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington D.C., where it was displayed for six weeks. While these two shows were considered big breaks, she disparaged these accomplishments, saying that \"only second rate painters sold\" and she preferred to keep her works at home.
By 1940, Bradley felt she had mastered all the techniques she needed and was ready to choose her subject matter. However, she began to doubt whether she should paint. She kept working at her painting techniques, fascinated with the questions of form, and read books on aesthetics in order to know what scientifically made a painting \"good.\" She stopped painting in 1941. As she was in need of a way to support herself, her parents helped her find a job as an art critic for the *Chicago Sun*.
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# James Tiptree Jr.
## Science fiction career: 1967--1987 {#science_fiction_career_19671987}
Bradley discovered science fiction in 1924, when she read her first issue of *Weird Tales,* but she didn\'t write any herself until years later. Unsure what to do with her new degrees and her new/old careers, she began to write science fiction. She adopted the pseudonym of James Tiptree Jr. in 1967. The name \"Tiptree\" came from a branded jar of marmalade, and the \"Jr.\" was her husband\'s idea. In an interview, she said: \"A male name seemed like good camouflage. I had the feeling that a man would slip by less observed. I\'ve had too many experiences in my life of being the first woman in some damned occupation.\" She also made the choice to start writing science fiction she, herself, was interested in and \"was surprised to find that her stories were immediately accepted for publication and quickly became popular.\"
Her first published short story was \"Birth of a Salesman\" in the March 1968 issue of *Analog Science Fact & Fiction*, edited by John W. Campbell. Three more followed that year in *If* and *Fantastic*. Other pen names that she used included \"Alice Hastings Bradley\", \"Major Alice Davey\", \"Alli B. Sheldon\", \"Dr. Alice B. Sheldon\", and \"Raccoona Sheldon\".
Writing under the pseudonym Raccoona, she was not very successful getting published until her other alter ego, Tiptree, wrote to publishers to intervene.
The pseudonym was successfully maintained until late 1977, partly because, although \"Tiptree\" was widely known to be a pseudonym, it was generally understood that its use was intended to protect the professional reputation of an intelligence community official. Readers, editors and correspondents were permitted to assume gender, and generally, but not invariably, they assumed \"male\". There was speculation, based partially on the themes in her stories, that Tiptree might be female. In 1975, in the introduction to *Warm Worlds and Otherwise,* a collection of Tiptree\'s short stories, Robert Silverberg wrote: \"\[i\]t has been suggested that Tiptree is female, a theory that I find absurd, for there is to me something ineluctably masculine about Tiptree\'s writing.\" Silverberg also likened Tiptree\'s writing to Ernest Hemingway\'s, arguing there was a \"prevailing masculinity about both of them---that preoccupation with questions of courage, with absolute values, with the mysteries and passions of life and death as revealed by extreme physical tests, by pain and suffering and loss.\"`{{quote box
| width = 23em
| quote = [Tiptree's work is] proof of what she said, that men and women can and do speak both to and for one another, if they have bothered to learn how.
| salign = right
| source = —[[Ursula K. Le Guin]],<ref name="James. 2014">Quoted in Tiptree Jr., James. ''Brightness Falls from the Air''. Open Road Media, 2014. Ebook.</ref> ''Khatru''
}}`{=mediawiki}\"Tiptree\" never made any public appearances, but she did correspond regularly with fans and other science fiction authors through the mail. When asked for biographical details, Tiptree/Sheldon was forthcoming in everything but her gender. According to her biographer, Julie Phillips, \"No one had ever seen or spoken to the owner of this voice. He wrote letters, warm, frank, funny letters, to other writers, editors, and science fiction fans\". In her letters to fellow writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Joanna Russ, she would present herself as a feminist man; however, Sheldon did not present herself as male in person. Writing was a way to escape a male-dominated society, themes Tiptree explored in the short stories later collected in *Her Smoke Rose Up Forever*. One story in particular offers an excellent illustration of these themes. \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\" follows a group of astronauts who discover a future Earth whose male population has been wiped out; the remaining females have learned to get along just fine in their absence.
In 1976, \"Tiptree\" mentioned in a letter that \"his\" mother, also a writer, had died in Chicago---details that led inquiring fans to find the obituary, with its reference to Alice Sheldon; soon all was revealed. Once the initial shock was over, Sheldon wrote to Le Guin, one of her closest friends, confessing her identity. She wrote, \"I never wrote you anything but the exact truth, there was no calculation or intent to deceive, other than the signature which over 8 years became just another nickname; everything else is just plain me. The thing is, I am a 61-year-old woman named Alice Sheldon---nickname Alli---solitary by nature but married for 37 years to a very nice man considerably older \[Huntington was 12 years her senior\], who doesn\'t read my stuff but is glad I like writing\".
After Sheldon\'s identity was revealed, several prominent science fiction writers suffered some embarrassment. Robert Silverberg, who had argued that Tiptree could not be a woman from the evidence of her stories, added a postscript to his introduction to the second edition of Tiptree\'s *Warm Worlds and Otherwise*, published in 1979. Harlan Ellison had introduced Tiptree\'s story in the anthology *Again, Dangerous Visions* with the opinion that \"\[Kate\] Wilhelm is the woman to beat this year, but Tiptree is the man\".
Only then did she complete her first full-length novel, *Up the Walls of the World*, which was a Doubleday Science Fiction Book Club selection. Before that she had worked on and built a reputation only in the field of short stories.
### Themes
A constant theme in Sheldon\'s work is gender; she was influenced by the rise of second-wave feminism. A strong example is \"The Women Men Don\'t See\" (1973), where Sheldon, as in most of her stories, devises a convincing male point of view. We see the two women in the story (Ruth Parsons and her daughter) through the eyes of Don Fenton, who assesses them critically as possible sexual partners and is also concerned to protect them. He is confused when Ruth shows courage and common sense, failing to \"fulfill stereotypical female roles,\" according to Anne Cranny-Francis. Ruth tries to explain the alienation of women in general and herself in particular, but to Fenton it seems nonsense. The Parsons\' decision to leave Earth on an alien spaceship jars him into, if not understanding, at least remembering Ruth\'s words. The title of the short story itself reflects the idea that women are invisible during Sheldon\'s time. As Cranny-Francis states, \"\'The Women Men Don\'t See\' is an outstanding example ... of the subversive use of genre fiction to produce an unconventional discursive position, the feminist subject.\"
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# James Tiptree Jr.
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
Sheldon continued writing under the Tiptree pen name for another decade. In the last years of her life, she suffered from depression and heart trouble, while her husband began to lose his eyesight, becoming almost completely blind in 1986. In 1976, then 61-year-old Sheldon wrote to Silverberg expressing her desire to end her own life while she was still able-bodied and active; she said that she was reluctant to act upon this intention, as she did not want to leave her husband behind and could not bring herself to kill him. Later, she suggested to her husband that they make a suicide pact when their health began to fail. On July 21, 1977, she wrote in her diary: \"Ting agreed to consider suicide in 4--5 years\".
Ten years later, on May 19, 1987, Sheldon shot her husband and then herself; she telephoned her attorney after the first shooting to announce her actions. They were found dead, hand-in-hand in bed, in their Virginia home. According to biographer Julie Phillips, the suicide note Sheldon left was written in September 1979 and saved until needed. Although the circumstances surrounding the Sheldons\' deaths are not clear enough to rule out caregiver murder--suicide (in that perhaps her husband was not ready to die), testimony of those closest to them suggests a suicide pact.
## Sexual orientation {#sexual_orientation}
Sheldon was attracted to women throughout her life and described herself as a lesbian in the years before her death. In 1980 she wrote to Joanna Russ and stated \"I am a Lesbian `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} \[\...\] I `{{em|like}}`{=mediawiki} some men a lot, but from the start, before I knew anything it was always girls and women who lit me up\". Sheldon had affairs with men and \"passionate crushes\" on women during her first marriage, and later remarked \"the 2 or 3 great loves of my life were girls\".
## James Tiptree Jr. Award {#james_tiptree_jr._award}
The James Tiptree Jr. Award, honoring works of science fiction and fantasy that expand or explore the understanding of gender, was created by authors Karen Joy Fowler and Pat Murphy in February 1991. Works of fiction such as *Half Life* by Shelley Jackson and *Light* by M. John Harrison have received the award. Due to controversy over the circumstances of her and her husband\'s deaths, the name of the award was changed to the Otherwise Award in 2019.
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# James Tiptree Jr.
## Works
### Short story collections {#short_story_collections}
- *Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home* (1973)
- *Warm Worlds and Otherwise* (1975)
- *Star Songs of an Old Primate* (1978)
- *Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions* (1981)
- *Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories* (1985)
- *The Starry Rift* (1986) (linked stories)
- *Tales of the Quintana Roo* (1986) (linked stories)
- *Crown of Stars* (1988)
- *Her Smoke Rose Up Forever* (omnibus collection) (1990)
- *The Voice That Murmurs in the Darkness* (omnibus collection) (2023)
The abbreviation(s) after each title indicate its appearance in one or more of the following collections:
Collection title Year of publication Abbreviation
--------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------- --------------
*Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home* 1973 *LYFH*
*Warm Worlds and Otherwise* 1975 *WWO*
*Star Songs of an Old Primate* 1978 *SSOP*
*Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions* 1981 *OE*
*Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories* 1985 *BB*
*Tales of the Quintana Roo* (linked stories) 1986 *QR*
*The Starry Rift* (linked stories) 1986 *SR*
*Crown of Stars* 1988 *CS*
*Her Smoke Rose Up Forever* (omnibus collection) 1990 *SRU*
*Meet Me at Infinity* (fiction, essays & other non-fiction) 2000 *MM*
*The Voice That Murmurs in the Darkness* (omnibus collection) \(2023\) *VNM*
- 1968
- \"The Mother Ship\" (later retitled \"Mamma Come Home\") (novelette): *LYFH*
- \"Pupa Knows Best\" (later retitled \"Help\"; novelette): *LYFH*
- \"Birth of a Salesman\" (short story): *LYFH*
- \"Fault\" (short story): *WWO, VNM*
- \"Happiness Is a Warm Spaceship\" (short story): *MM*
- \"Please Don\'t Play With the Time Machine\" (very short story): *MM*
- \"A Day Like Any Other\' (very short story): *MM*
- 1969
- \"Beam Us Home\" (short story): *LYFH, BB, VNM*
- \"The Last Flight of Doctor Ain\" (short story): *WWO, SRU*
- \"Your Haploid Heart\" (novelette): *SSOP*
- \"The Snows Are Melted, The Snows Are Gone\" (novelette): *LYFH, VNM*
- \"Parimutuel Planet\" (later retitled \"Faithful to Thee, Terra, in Our Fashion\") (novelette): *LYFH*
- 1970
- \"The Man Doors Said Hello To\" (short story): *LYFH, VNM*
- \"I\'m Too Big But I Love to Play\" (novelette): *LYFH*
- \"The Nightblooming Saurian\" (short story): *WWO*
- \"Last Night and Every Night\" (short story): *CS*
- 1971
- \"The Peacefulness of Vivyan\" (short story): *LYFH, BB*
- \"I\'ll Be Waiting for You When the Swimming Pool Is Empty\" (short story): *LYFH, BB*
- \"And So On, and So On\" (short story): *SSOP, SRU*
- \"Mother in the Sky with Diamonds\" (novelette): *LYFH*
- 1972
- \"The Man Who Walked Home\" (short story): *LYFH, BB, SRU*
- \"And I Have Come Upon This Place by Lost Ways\" (novelette): *WWO, SRU*
- \"And I Awoke and Found Me Here on the Cold Hill\'s Side\" (short story): *LYFH, SRU*
- *On the Last Afternoon* (novella): *WWO, SRU*
- \"Painwise\" (novelette): *LYFH*
- \"Forever to a Hudson Bay Blanket\" (short story): *LYFH*
- \"Filomena & Greg & Rikki-Tikki & Barlow & the Alien\" (later retitled \"All the Kinds of Yes\") (novelette): *WWO, VNM*
- \"The Milk of Paradise\" (short story): *WWO*
- \"Amberjack\" (short story): *WWO*
- \"Through a Lass Darkly\" (short story): *WWO*
- \"The Trouble Is Not in Your Set\" (short story): *MM* (previously unpublished)
- \"Press Until the Bleeding Stops\" (short story): *MM*
- 1973
- \"Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death\" (short story): *WWO, BB, SRU*
- \"The Women Men Don\'t See\" (novelette): *WWO, SRU*
- \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\" (novelette): *WWO, SRU*
- 1974
- \"Her Smoke Rose Up Forever\" (novelette): *SSOP, SRU*
- \"Angel Fix\" (novelette, under the name \"Raccoona Sheldon\"): *OE*
- 1975
- *A Momentary Taste of Being* (novella): *SSOP, SRU*
- 1976
- \"Your Faces, O My Sisters! Your Faces Filled of Light!\" (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): *OE, BB, SRU*
- \"Beaver Tears\" (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): *OE*
- \"She Waits for All Men Born\" (short story): *SSOP, SRU*
- *Houston, Houston, Do You Read?* (novella): *SSOP, SRU* (Hugo award winner; Nebula award winner)
- \"The Psychologist Who Wouldn\'t Do Awful Things to Rats\" (novelette): *SSOP, VNM*
- 1977
- \"The Screwfly Solution\" (novelette, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): *OE, SRU*
- \"Time-Sharing Angel\" (short story): *OE, VNM*
- 1978
- \"We Who Stole the Dream\" (novelette): *OE, SRU*
- 1980
- *Slow Music* (novella): *OE, SRU*
- \"A Source of Innocent Merriment\" (short story): *OE*
- 1981
- \"Excursion Fare\" (novelette): *BB, VNM*
- \"Lirios: A Tale of the Quintana Roo\" (later retitled \"What Came Ashore at Lirios\") (novelette): *QR, VNM*
- \"Out of the Everywhere\" (novelette): *OE, VNM*
- *With Delicate Mad Hands* (novella): *OE, BB, SRU*
- 1982
- \"The Boy Who Waterskied to Forever\" (short story): *QR*
- 1983
- \"Beyond the Dead Reef\" (novelette): *QR*
- 1985
- \"Morality Meat\" (novelette, under the name Racoona Sheldon): *CS*
- *The Only Neat Thing to Do* (novella): *SR, VNM*
- \"All This and Heaven Too\" (novelette): *CS*
- \"Trey of Hearts\" (short story): *MM* (previously unpublished)
- 1986
- \"Our Resident Djinn\" (short story): *CS*
- \"In the Great Central Library of Deneb University\" (short story): *SR*
- *Good Night, Sweethearts* (novella): *SR*
- *Collision* (novella): *SR*
- *The Color of Neanderthal Eyes* (novella): *MM*
- 1987
- \"Second Going\" (novelette): *CS*
- \"Yanqui Doodle\" (novelette): *CS, VNM*
- \"In Midst of Life\" (novelette): *CS, VNM*
- 1988
- \"Come Live with Me\" (novelette): *CS*
- *Backward, Turn Backward* (novella): *CS*
- \"The Earth Doth Like a Snake Renew\" (novellette): *CS* \[written in 1973\]
### Novels
- *Up the Walls of the World* (1978)
- *Brightness Falls from the Air* (1985)
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# James Tiptree Jr.
## Works
### Other collections {#other_collections}
- *Neat Sheets: The Poetry of James Tiptree Jr.* (Tachyon Publications, 1996)
- *Meet Me at Infinity* (a collection of previously uncollected and unpublished fiction, essays and other non-fiction, with much biographical information, edited by Tiptree\'s friend Jeffrey D. Smith) (2000)
### Adaptations
- \"The Man Who Walked Home\" (1977): comic book adaptation in Canadian underground comic *[Andromeda](http://comicsyrup.com/2011/06/02/andromeda/)* [Vol. 2](http://sirrealcomix.mrainey.com/page/a/Andromeda01-1.htm), [No. 1](https://web.archive.org/web/20110629222650/http://www.comicsbronzeage.com/?p=5214); September; Silver Snail Comics, Ltd.; Toronto; pp. 6--28. Pencils by John Allison, inks by Tony Meers.
- \"Houston, Houston, Do You Read?\" (1990): radio drama for the National Public Radio series *Sci-Fi Radio*. Originally aired as two half-hour shows, February 4 and 11.
- \"Yanqui Doodle\" (1990): half-hour radio drama for the National Public Radio series *Sci-Fi Radio*. Aired March 18.
- *Weird Romance* (1992): Off-Broadway musical by Alan Menken. Act 1 is based on \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\".
- \"The Girl Who Was Plugged In\" (1998): television film: episode 5 of the series *Welcome to Paradox*
- *The Screwfly Solution* (2006): television film: season 2, episode 7 of the series *Masters of Horror*
- *Xenophilia* (2011): based on the lives and works of Tiptree and Connie Converse; arranged and choreographed by Maia Ramnath; produced by the aerial dance and theater troupe Constellation Moving Company, performed at the Theater for the New City, presented November 10--13, 2011. Reviewer Jen Gunnels writes, \"The performance juxtaposed some of Tiptree\'s short stories with Converse\'s songs, mixing in biographical elements of both women while kinesthetically exploring both through dance and aerial work on trapeze, lyra (an aerial ring), and silks (two lengths of fabric which the artist manipulates to perform aerial acrobatics). The result was elegant, eerie, and deeply moving.\"
## Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors}
The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Tiptree in 2012. She also won several annual awards for particular works of fiction (typically the preceding calendar year\'s best):
- Hugo Awards: 1974 novella, *The Girl Who Was Plugged In*; 1977 novella, *Houston, Houston, Do You Read?*
- Nebula Awards: 1973 short story, \"Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death\"; 1976 novella, *Houston, Houston, Do You Read?*; 1977 novelette, \"The Screwfly Solution\" (published as by Raccoona Sheldon)
- World Fantasy Award: 1987 collection, *Tales of the Quintana Roo*
- Locus Award: 1984 short story, \"Beyond the Dead Reef\"; 1986 novella, *The Only Neat Thing to Do*
- *Science Fiction Chronicle* Award: 1986 novella, *The Only Neat Thing to Do*
- Jupiter Award: 1977 novella, *Houston, Houston, Do You Read?*
Japanese-language translations of her fiction also won two Hayakawa Awards and three Seiun Awards as the year\'s best under changing designations (foreign, overseas, translated)
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# Otherwise Award
The **Otherwise Award**, originally known as the **James Tiptree Jr. Award**, is an American annual literary prize for works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore one\'s understanding of gender. It was initiated in February 1991 by science fiction authors Pat Murphy and Karen Joy Fowler, subsequent to a discussion at WisCon.
In addition to the award itself, the judges publish an Honor List, which they describe as \"a strong part of the award\'s identity\", \"used by many readers as a recommended reading list\".
In 2024, the award administrators announced that they would be switching from a single winner each year to a shortlist of three to six winners.
The award was originally named for Alice B. Sheldon, who wrote under the pseudonym James Tiptree Jr. Due to controversy over the appropriateness of naming an award after Tiptree, the committee administering the award announced on October 13, 2019, that the award would be renamed the Otherwise Award.
## Background
### Choice of the Tiptree name {#choice_of_the_tiptree_name}
By choosing a masculine *nom de plume*, having her stories accepted under that name and winning awards with them, Alice Sheldon helped demonstrate that the division between male and female science fiction writing was illusory. Years after \"Tiptree\" first published science fiction, Sheldon wrote some work under the female pen name \"Raccoona Sheldon\"; later, the science fiction world discovered that \"Tiptree\" had been female all along. This discovery led to widespread discussion over which aspects of writing, if any, have an intrinsic gender. To remind audiences of the role gender plays in both reading and writing, the award was named in Sheldon\'s honor at the suggestion of Karen Joy Fowler.
### Controversy and name change {#controversy_and_name_change}
In 2019, controversy arose over the appropriateness of naming an award after Tiptree. In 1987, Alice Sheldon shot and killed her ailing husband Huntington Sheldon before killing herself in the same manner. Although some have called the killing a \"suicide pact\" based on Sheldon\'s personal writings, others characterize the act as \"caregiver murder\"---i.e., the murder of a disabled person by the person responsible for caring for them. In light of these allegations, the Tiptree Motherboard received requests to change the name of the award. On September 2, 2019, in response to these requests, the Motherboard made a statement that \"a change to the name of the Tiptree Award is \[not\] warranted now\"; but nine days later, on September 11, they announced that the award \"can\'t go on under its existing name\".
On October 13, 2019, the Tiptree Motherboard released an announcement stating that the Tiptree Award would become the Otherwise Award. The name refers to \"the act of imagining gender otherwise\" at the core of what the award has always honored, as well as being \"wise to the experience of being the other\". The title also draws from the Black queer scholarship of Ashon Crawley around what is termed \"otherwise politics\". According to the statement, \"*Otherwise* means finding different directions to move in---toward newly possible places, by means of emergent and multiple pathways and methods.\"
## Administration
The Tiptree award is administered by the Tiptree \"Motherboard\".
Fundraising efforts for the Tiptree include publications (two cookbooks), \"feminist bake sales\", and auctions. The Tiptree cookbook *The Bakery Men Don\'t See*, edited by WisCon co-founder Jeanne Gomoll, was nominated for a 1992 Hugo Award. Tiptree Award juries traditionally consist of four female and one male juror (the \"token man\").
In 2011, the Tiptree Motherboard received the Science Fiction Research Association\'s Thomas D. Clareson Award for Distinguished Service for its \"outstanding service activities -- promotion of SF teaching and study, editing, reviewing, editorial writing, publishing, organizing meetings, mentoring, and leadership in SF/fantasy organizations\".
## Anthologies
Selections of the winners, various short-listed fiction, and essays have appeared in four Tiptree-related collections, *Flying Cups and Saucers* (1999) and a series of annual anthologies published by Tachyon Publications of San Francisco. These include:
- *Flying Cups and Saucers: Gender Explorations in Science Fiction and Fantasy* edited by The Secret Feminist Cabal and Debbie Notkin (1999)
- *The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1* edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2005)
- *The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2* edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2006)
- *The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3* edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2007)
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# Otherwise Award
## Winners
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| Year | Author(s) | Work | Publisher | Ref. |
+======+===========+===========================================================+========================================================+======+
| 1991 | | | William Morrow | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *White Queen* | Victor Gollancz Ltd | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1992 | | *China Mountain Zhang* | Tor | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1993 | | *Ammonite* | Del Rey Books | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1994 | | | Broken Mirrors Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Larque on the Wing* | AvoNova | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1995 | | *Waking the Moon* | HarperPrism | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Random House | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Motherlines* | Berkeley-Putnam | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Walk to the End of the World* | Ballantine | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Walker & Co. | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Bantam Books | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Doubleday | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1996 | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Random House | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1997 | | *Black Wine* | Tor | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Small Beer Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1998 | | | Tor | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 1999 | | | Tor | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2000 | | *Wild Life* | Simon & Schuster | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2001 | | | Red Deer Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2002 | | *Light* | Victor Gollancz Ltd | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2003 | | *Set This House in Order: A Romance of Souls* | HarperCollins | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2004 | | *Camouflage* | Ace | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Not Before Sundown (Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi)*\ | Peter Owen Publishers | |
| | | Published in the United States as *Troll -- a love story* | | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2005 | | *Air* | St. Martin\'s Griffin | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2006 | | *Half Life* | HarperCollins | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Spectra Books | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *James Tiptree, Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon* | St. Martin\'s Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2007 | | | Faber and Faber (UK 2007); HarperCollins (US 2008) | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2008 | | | Walker & Co. (UK); Candlewick Press (US) | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Filter House* | Aqueduct Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2009 | | *Cloud and Ashes: Three Winter\'s Tales* | Small Beer Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | | Hakusensha (Japan); VIZ Media (English-speaking world) | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2010 | | *Baba Yaga Laid an Egg* | Canongate Books | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2011 | | *Redwood and Wildfire* | Aqueduct Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2012 | | | Roc Books | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Ancient, Ancient* | Aqueduct Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2013 | | *Rupetta* | Tartarus Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2014 | | | Penguin Random House | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *My Real Children* | Tor | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2015 | | | Dell Magazines | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| | | *Lizard Radio* | Candlewick Press | |
+------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+------+
| 2016 | | *When the Moon Was Ours* | Thomas Dunne Books / St
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# Jan Długosz
**Jan Długosz** (`{{IPA|pl|ˈjan ˈdwuɡɔʂ}}`{=mediawiki}; 1 December 1415 -- 19 May 1480), also known in Latin as **Johannes Longinus**, was a Polish priest, chronicler, diplomat, soldier, and secretary to Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki of Kraków. He is considered Poland\'s first historian.
## Life
Jan Długosz is best known for his Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland (*Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae*) in 12 volumes and originally written in Latin, covering events throughout southeastern and western Europe, from 965 to 1480, the year he died. Długosz combined features of Medieval chronicles with elements of humanistic historiography. For writing the history of the Kingdom of Poland, Długosz also used Ruthenian chronicles including those that did not survive to our times (among which there could have been used the Kyiv collection of chronicles of the 11th century in the Przemysl\'s edition around 1100 and the Przemysl episcopal collections of 1225--40).
His work was first printed in 1701--1703. It was originally printed at the Jan Szeliga printing house in Dobromyl financed by Jan Szczęsny Herburt. Whenever Jan Długosz bothers to mention himself in the book, he writes of himself in the third person. He belonged to the Wieniawa coat-of-arms.
Długosz was a canon at Kraków, where he lived in the Długosz House, and was educated at the University of Krakow. He was sent by King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland on diplomatic missions to the Papal and Imperial courts, and was involved in the King\'s negotiations with the Teutonic Knights during the Thirteen Years\' War (1454--66) and at the peace negotiations.
When scholar Sandivogius of Czechel left Krakow, Długosz as his friend kept him in touch with the university.
In 1434, Długosz\'s uncle, the first pastor at Kłobuck, appointed him to take over his position as canon of St. Martin church there. The town was in the Opole territory of Silesia, but had recently been conquered by Władysław II Jagiełło. Długosz stayed until 1452 and while there, founded the canonical monastery.
In 1450, Długosz was sent by Queen Sophia of Halshany and King Casimir to conduct peace negotiations between John Hunyadi and the Bohemian noble Jan Jiskra of Brandýs, and after six days\' of talks convinced them to sign a truce.
In 1455 in Kraków, a fire spread which destroyed much of the city and the castle, but which spared Długosz\'s House.
In 1461 a Polish delegation which included Długosz met with emissaries of George of Podebrady in Bytom, Silesia. After six days of talks, they concluded an alliance between the two factions. In 1466 Długosz was sent to the legate of Wrocław, in order to attempt to obtain assurance that the legate was not biased in favor of the Teutonic Knights. He was successful, and was in 1467 entrusted with tutoring the king\'s son.
Długosz declined the offer of the Archbishopric of Prague, but shortly before his death was nominated Archbishop of Lwów. This nomination was only confirmed by Pope Sixtus IV on 2 June 1480, two weeks after his death.
His work *Banderia Prutenorum* of 1448 is his description of the 1410 Battle of Grunwald, which took place between villages of Grunwald and Stębark.
At some point in his life Długosz loosely translated Wigand of Marburg\'s *Chronica nova Prutenica* from Middle High German into Latin, however with many mistakes and mixup of names and places.
## Works
- *Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis*
- *Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae* (Annals or Chronicles of the Famous Kingdom of Poland)
: *Roczniki, czyli kroniki sławnego Królestwa Polskiego* (new Polish translation of the *Annals*, 1961--2006)
: *The Annals of Jan Dlugosz* (English translation of key sections of the work, `{{ISBN|1-901019-00-4}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Historiae Polonicae libri xii* (Polish Histories, in Twelve Books; written 1455--80; first published 1711--12, in 2 volumes)
- *Banderia Prutenorum*, flag book, completed in or shortly after 1448, when Stanisław Durink painted the illuminations
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# Justus
**Justus** (died on 10 November between 627 and 631) was the fourth archbishop of Canterbury. Pope Gregory the Great sent Justus from Italy to England on a mission to Christianise the Anglo-Saxons from their native paganism; he probably arrived with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601. Justus became the first bishop of Rochester in 604 and signed a letter to the Irish bishops urging the native Celtic church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter. He attended a church council in Paris in 614.
Following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent in 616, Justus was forced to flee to Gaul but was reinstated in his diocese the following year. In 624, he was elevated to Archbishop of Canterbury, overseeing the despatch of missionaries to Northumbria. After his death, he was revered as a saint and had a shrine in St Augustine\'s Abbey, Canterbury, to which his remains were translated in the 1090s.
## Arrival in Britain {#arrival_in_britain}
Justus was a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England by Pope Gregory I. Almost everything known about Justus and his career is derived from the early 8th-century *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum* of Bede. As Bede does not describe Justus\'s origins, nothing is known about him before he arrived in England. He probably arrived in England with the second group of missionaries, sent at the request of Augustine of Canterbury in 601. Some modern writers describe Justus as one of the original missionaries who arrived with Augustine in 597, but Bede believed that Justus came in the second group. The second group included Mellitus, who later became Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury.
If Justus was a member of the second group of missionaries, then he arrived with a gift of books and \"all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church\". A 15th-century Canterbury chronicler, Thomas of Elmham, claimed that there were some books brought to England by that second group still at Canterbury in his day, although he did not identify them. An investigation of extant Canterbury manuscripts shows that one possible survivor is the St Augustine Gospels, now in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge Manuscript (MS) 286.
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# Justus
## Bishop of Rochester {#bishop_of_rochester}
Augustine consecrated Justus as a bishop in 604 over a province including the Kentish town of Rochester. The historian Nicholas Brooks argues that the choice of Rochester was probably not because it had been a Roman-era bishopric, but rather because of its importance in the politics of the time. Although the town was small, with just one street, it was at the junction of Watling Street and the estuary of the Medway and was thus a fortified town. Because Justus was probably not a monk (Bede did not call him that), his cathedral clergy was very likely non-monastic too.
A charter purporting to be from King Æthelberht, dated 28 April 604, survives in the *Textus Roffensis*, as well as a copy based on the Textus in the 14th-century *Liber Temporalium*. Written mostly in Latin but using an Old English boundary clause, the charter records a land grant near Rochester to Justus\'s church. Among the witnesses is Laurence, Augustine\'s future successor, but not Augustine himself. The text turns to two different addressees. First, Æthelberht is made to admonish his son Eadbald, who had been established as a sub-ruler in the region of Rochester. The grant itself is addressed directly to Saint Andrew, the patron saint of the church, a usage parallelled by other charters in the same archive.
Wilhelm Levison, writing in 1946, was sceptical about the authenticity of this charter. He felt that the two separate addresses were incongruous, suggesting that the first address, occurring before the preamble, may have been inserted by someone familiar with Bede to echo Eadbald\'s future conversion (see below). A more recent and more positive appraisal by John Morris argues that the charter and its witness list are authentic because they incorporate titles and phraseology that had fallen out of use by 800.
Æthelberht built Justus a cathedral church in Rochester; the foundations of a nave and chancel partly underneath the present-day Rochester Cathedral may date from that time. What remains of the foundations of an early rectangular building near the southern part of the current cathedral might also be contemporary with Justus or may be part of a Roman building.
Together with Mellitus, the bishop of London, Justus signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the native Celtic church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter (the *computus*). This letter also mentioned the fact that Irish missionaries, such as Dagan, had refused to share meals with the missionaries. Although the letter has not survived, Bede quoted from parts of it.
In 614, Justus attended the Council of Paris, held by the Frankish king, Chlothar II. It is unclear why Justus and Peter, the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul in Canterbury, were present. It may have been just chance, but the historian James Campbell has suggested that Chlothar summoned clergy from Britain to attend in an attempt to assert overlordship over Kent. N. J. Higham offers another explanation for their attendance, arguing that Æthelberht sent the pair to the council because of shifts in Frankish policy towards the Kentish kingdom, which threatened Kentish independence, and that the two clergymen were sent to negotiate a compromise with Chlothar.
A pagan backlash against Christianity followed Æthelberht\'s death in 616, forcing Justus and Mellitus to flee to Gaul. The pair probably took refuge with Chlothar, hoping that the Frankish king would intervene and restore them to their sees, and by 617 Justus had been reinstalled in his bishopric by the new king. Mellitus also returned to England, but the prevailing pagan mood did not allow him to return to London; after Laurence\'s death, Mellitus became Archbishop of Canterbury. According to Bede, Justus received letters of encouragement from Pope Boniface V (r. 619--625), as did Mellitus, although Bede does not record the actual letters---the historian J. M. Wallace-Hadrill assumes both letters were general statements encouraging the missionaries.
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# Justus
## Archbishop
Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury in 624, receiving his pallium---the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops---from Pope Boniface V, following which Justus consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester. Boniface also gave Justus a letter congratulating him on the conversion of King \"Aduluald\" (probably King Eadbald of Kent), a letter which is included in Bede\'s *Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum*. Bede\'s account of Eadbald\'s conversion states that it was Laurence, Justus\'s predecessor at Canterbury, who converted the king to Christianity, but D. P. Kirby argues that the letter\'s reference to Eadbald makes it likely that it was Justus. Other historians, including Barbara Yorke and Henry Mayr-Harting, conclude that Bede\'s account is correct, and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence. Yorke argues that there were two kings of Kent during Eadbald\'s reign, Eadbald and Æthelwald, and that Æthelwald was the \"Aduluald\" referred to by Boniface. Yorke argues that Justus converted Æthelwald back to Christianity after Æthelberht\'s death. Justus consecrated Paulinus as the first bishop of York, before the latter accompanied Æthelburg of Kent to Northumbria for her marriage to King Edwin of Northumbria. Bede records Justus as having died on 10 November, but does not give a year, although it is likely to have between 627 and 631. After his death, Justus was regarded as a saint, and was given a feast day on 10 November. The 9th-century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day, along with Mellitus and Laurence. In the 1090s, his remains were translated, or ritually moved, to a shrine beside the high altar of St Augustine\'s Abbey in Canterbury. At about the same time, a *Life* was written about him by Goscelin, as well as a poem by Reginald of Canterbury. Other material from Thomas of Elmham, Gervase of Canterbury, and William of Malmesbury, later medieval chroniclers, adds little to Bede\'s account of Justus\'s life
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# John Eccles (neurophysiologist)
**Sir John Carew Eccles** (27 January 1903 -- 2 May 1997) was an Australian neurophysiologist and philosopher who won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the synapse. He shared the prize with Andrew Huxley and Alan Lloyd Hodgkin.
## Life and work {#life_and_work}
### Early life {#early_life}
Eccles was born in Melbourne, Australia. He grew up there with his two sisters and his parents: William and Mary Carew Eccles (both teachers, who home schooled him until he was 12). He initially attended Warrnambool High School (now Warrnambool College) (where a science wing is named in his honour), then completed his final year of schooling at Melbourne High School. Aged 17, he was awarded a senior scholarship to study medicine at the University of Melbourne. As a medical undergraduate, he was never able to find a satisfactory explanation for the interaction of mind and body; he started to think about becoming a neuroscientist. He graduated (with first class honours) in 1925, and was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study under Charles Scott Sherrington at Magdalen College, Oxford University, where he received his Doctor of Philosophy in 1929.
In 1937 Eccles returned to Australia, where he worked on military research during World War II. During this time, Eccles was the director of the Kanematsu Institute at Sydney Medical School, where he and Bernard Katz gave research lectures at the University of Sydney, strongly influencing the intellectual environment of the university. After the war, he became a professor at the University of Otago in New Zealand. From 1952 to 1962, he worked as a professor at the John Curtin School of Medical Research (JCSMR) of the Australian National University. From 1966 to 1968, Eccles worked at the Feinberg School of Medicine at Northwestern University in Chicago.
### Career
In the early 1950s, Eccles and his colleagues performed the research that would lead to his receiving the Nobel Prize. To study synapses in the peripheral nervous system, Eccles and colleagues used the stretch reflex as a model, which is easily studied because it consists of only two neurones: a sensory neurone (the muscle spindle fibre) and the motor neurone. The sensory neurone synapses onto the motor neurone in the spinal cord. When a current is passed into the sensory neurone in the quadriceps, the motor neurone innervating the quadriceps produced a small excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). When a similar current is passed through the hamstring, the opposing muscle to the quadriceps, an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is produced in the quadriceps motor neurone. Although a single EPSP was not enough to fire an action potential in the motor neurone, the sum of several EPSPs from multiple sensory neurones synapsing onto the motor neurone can cause the motor neurone to fire, thus contracting the quadriceps. On the other hand, IPSPs could subtract from this sum of EPSPs, preventing the motor neurone from firing.
Apart from these seminal experiments, Eccles was key to a number of important developments in neuroscience. Until around 1949, Eccles believed that synaptic transmission was primarily electrical rather than chemical. Although he was wrong in this hypothesis, his arguments led him and others to perform some of the experiments which proved chemical synaptic transmission. Bernard Katz and Eccles worked together on some of the experiments which elucidated the role of acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
### Honours
He was appointed a Knight Bachelor in 1958 in recognition of services to physiological research.
He won the Australian of the Year Award in 1963, the same year he won the Nobel Prize.
In 1964, he became an honorary member to the American Philosophical Society, and in 1966 he moved to the United States to work as a professor at the Institute for Biomedical Research at the Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago. Unhappy with the working conditions there, he left to become a professor at The State University of New York at Buffalo from 1968 until he retired in 1975. After retirement, he moved to Switzerland and wrote on the mind--body problem.
In 1981, Eccles became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.
In 1990 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in recognition of service to science, particularly in the field of neurophysiology. He died at the age of 94 in 1997 in Tenero-Contra, Locarno, Switzerland.
In March 2012, the Eccles Institute of Neuroscience was constructed in a new wing of the John Curtin School of Medical Research, with the assistance of a \$63M grant from the Commonwealth Government. In 2021, a new \$60M animal research building was opened at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, and named the Eccles Building.
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# John Eccles (neurophysiologist)
## Philosophy
In *The Understanding of the Brain* (1973), Eccles summarises his philosophy: \"Now before discussing brain function in detail I will at the beginning give an account of my philosophical position on the so-called \'brain-mind problem\' so that you will be able to relate the experimental evidence to this philosophical position. I have written at length on this philosophy in my book *Facing Reality*. In Fig. 6-1 you will be able to see that I fully accept the recent philosophical achievements of Sir Karl Popper with his concept of three worlds. I was a dualist, now I am a trialist! Cartesian dualism has become unfashionable with many people. They embrace monism to escape the enigma of brain-mind interaction with its perplexing problems. But Sir Karl Popper and I are interactionists, and what is more, *trialist interactionists*! The three worlds are very easily defined. I believe that in the classification of Fig. 6-1 there is nothing left out. It takes care of everything that is in existence and in our experience. All can be classified in one or other of the categories enumerated under Worlds 1, 2 and 3.
**Fig. 6-1, Three Worlds**
WORLD 1 WORLD 2 WORLD 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PHYSICAL OBJECTS AND STATES STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS KNOWLEDGE IN OBJECTIVE SENSE
1\. Inorganic: Matter and Energy of Cosmos Subjective Knowledge Records of Intellectual Efforts
2\. Biology: Structure and Actions of All Living Beings; Human Brains Experience of: Perception, Thinking, Emotions, Dispositional Intentions, Memories, Dreams, Creative Imagination Philosophical, Theological, Scientific, Historical, Literary, Artistic, Technological
3\. Artifacts: Material Substrates of human creativity, of tools, of machines, of books, of works of art, of music. Theoretical Systems: Scientific Problems, Critical Arguments
\"In Fig. 6-1, World 1 is the world of physical objects and states. It comprises the whole cosmos of matter and energy, all of biology including human brains, and all artifacts that man has made for coding information, as for example, the paper and ink of books or the material base of works of art. World 1 is the total world of the materialists. They recognise nothing else. All else is fantasy.
\"World 2 is the world of states of consciousness and subjective knowledge of all kinds. The totality of our perceptions comes in this world. But there are several levels. In agreement with Polten, I tend to recognise three kinds of levels of World 2, as indicated in Fig. 6-2, but it may be more correct to think of it as a spectrum.
FIG. 6-2, World of Consciousness
Outer Sense Inner Sense Pure Ego
------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------
Light, Colour, Sound, Smell, Taste, Pain, Touch Thoughts, Feelings, Memories, Dreams, Imaginings, Intentions The Self -- self soul and spirit
\"The first level (outer sense) would be the ordinary perceptions provided by all our sense organs, hearing and touch and sight and smell and pain. All of these perceptions are in World 2, of course: vision with light and colour; sound with music and harmony; touch with all its qualities and vibration; the range of odours and tastes, and so on. These qualities do not exist in World 1, where correspondingly there are but electromagnetic waves, pressure waves in the atmosphere, material objects, and chemical substances.
\"In addition there is a level of *inner sense*, which is the world of more subtle perceptions. It is the world of your emotions, of your feelings of joy and sadness and fear and anger and so on. It includes all your memory, and all your imaginings and planning into the future. In fact there is a whole range of levels which could be described at length. All the subtle experiences of the human person are in this inner sensory world. It is all private to you but you can reveal it in linguistic expression, and by gestures of all levels of subtlety.
\"Finally, at the core of World 2 there is the *self* or *pure ego*, which is the basis of our unity as an experiencing being throughout our whole lifetime.
\"This World 2 is our *primary reality*. Our conscious experiences are the basis of our knowledge of World 1, which is thus a world of *secondary reality*, a derivative world. Whenever I am doing a scientific experiment, for example, I have to plan it cognitively, all in my thoughts, and then consciously carry out my plan of action in the experiment. Finally I have to look at the results and evaluate them in thought. For example, I have to see the traces of the oscilloscope and their photographic records or hear the signals on the loudspeaker. The various signals from the recording equipment have to be received by my sense organs, transmitted to my brain, and so to my consciousness, then appropriately measured and compared before I can begin to think about the significance of the experimental results. We are all the time, in every action we do, incessantly playing backwards and forwards between World 1 and World 2.
\"And what is World 3? As shown in Fig. 6-1 it is the whole world of culture. It is the world that was created by man and that reciprocally made man. This is my message in which I follow Popper unreservedly. The whole of language is here. All our means of communication, all our intellectual efforts coded in books, coded in the artistic and technological treasures in the museums, coded in every artefact left by man from primitive times---this is World 3 right up to the present time. It is the world of civilisation and culture. Education is the means whereby each human being is brought into relation with World 3. In this manner he becomes immersed in it throughout life, participating in the heritage of mankind and so becoming fully human. World 3 is the world that uniquely relates to man. It is the world which is completely unknown to animals. They are blind to all of World 3. I say that without any reservations. This is then the first part of my story.
\"Now I come to consider the way in which the three worlds interact\...\"
Despite these words, in his late book *How the Self Controls Its Brain*, Eccles proposed a dualistic mechanism of mind.
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# John Eccles (neurophysiologist)
## Personal life and death {#personal_life_and_death}
Eccles had nine children. Eccles married Irene Miller Eccles (1904-2002) in 1928 and divorced in 1968. After his divorce in 1968, Eccles married Helena Táboríková (1925-2017); a fellow neuropsychologist and M.D. of Charles University. The two often collaborated in research and they remained married until his death. Eccles died on 2 May 1997 in his home of Contra, Switzerland. He was buried in Contra, Switzerland.
## Styles
- Mr John Eccles (1903--1929)
- Dr John Eccles (1929--1944)
- Prof
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# James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger
**James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger**, `{{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|PC}}`{=mediawiki} (13 December 1769 -- 17 April 1844) was a British lawyer, politician and judge.
## Early life {#early_life}
James Scarlett was born in the British colony of Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, owned slave plantations. In the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his education at Hawkshead Grammar School and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he took the advice of Samuel Romilly, studied law on his own for a year, and then was taught by George Wood. He was called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the Lancashire sessions.`{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Abinger, James Scarlett, 1st Baron|volume=1|page=63}}`{=mediawiki} This cites:
- Peter Campbell Scarlett, *A Memoir of the Right Honorable James, First Lord Abinger, Chief Baron of Her Majesty\'s Court of Exchequer*, 1877
- Edward Foss, *Lives of the Judges*
- Edward Manson, *Builders of our Law*, 1904
## Legal and political career {#legal_and_political_career}
Though Scarlett had no professional connections, he gradually obtained a large practice, ultimately confining himself to the Court of King\'s Bench and the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income reached £18,500, a large sum for that period. He first entered parliament in 1819 as Whig member for Peterborough, representing that constituency with a short break (1822--1823) till 1830, when he was elected for the borough of Malton. He became Attorney General, and was made a Knight Bachelor when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and though he resigned when the Duke of Wellington came into power in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the Duke in 1830.
His opposition to the Reform Bill caused him to leave the Whigs and join the Tories, and he was elected, first for Cockermouth in 1831 and then in 1832 for Norwich, for which he sat until the dissolution of parliament in 1835. He was appointed Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1834, and presided in that court for more than nine years. He was appointed to the Privy Council at the end of that year. He was raised to the peerage as **Baron Abinger**, *of Abinger in the County of Surrey and of the City of Norwich* in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in 1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were not equalled on the bench; he had a reputation for unfairness, and complaints were made about his domineering attitude towards juries.
While he was studying in England, he became the guardian of Edward Moulton, who later assumed his mother\'s family name, and became the father of the poet Elizabeth Barrett, later Elizabeth Barrett Browning. The Scarletts and the Barretts had been friends for many years in Jamaica, and it seems natural that James Scarlett would have been selected to keep an eye on young Moulton, while the boy was at school in England. In a note prefixed to the *Collected Edition* of his wife\'s poems, Robert Browning tells us that \"On the early death of his father, he (Edward Moulton) was brought from Jamaica to England when a very young child, as ward to the late Chief Baron Lord Abinger, then Mr. Scarlett, whom he frequently accompanied in his post-chaise when on pursuit.\"
## Family
Lord Abinger was twice married (the second time only six months before his death), and by his first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title passing to his eldest son, Robert. His second son was General Sir James Yorke Scarlett, leader of the heavy cavalry charge at Balaklava. His third son, Peter Campbell Scarlett, was a diplomat. His elder daughter, Mary, married John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden. Sir William Anglin Scarlett, Lord Abinger\'s younger brother, was chief justice of Jamaica. While attending the Norfolk circuit on 2 April, Lord Abinger was suddenly seized with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury St Edmunds.
A more distant relation was the painter John Scarlett Davis.
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# James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger
## Cases
- *Fouldes v. Willoughby* (1841)
## Property
In 1836, Scarlett was awarded compensation of £626 2s 2d for 30 slaves on the Spring Grove estate in Manchester, Jamaica
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# Jewish views on marriage
thumb\|260px \|Jewish marriage certificate, dated 1740 (Brooklyn Museum)
**Marriage in Judaism** is the documentation of a contract between a Jewish man and a Jewish woman. Because marriage under Jewish law is essentially a private contractual agreement between a man and a woman, it does not require the presence of a rabbi or any other religious official. It is common, however, for rabbis to officiate and there are rules governing the process of betrothal and consecration.
Non-Orthodox developments have brought changes in who may marry whom. Intermarriage is often discouraged, though opinions vary.
In Judaism, a marriage can end either because of a divorce document given by the man to his wife, or by the death of either party. Certain details, primarily as protections for the wife, were added in Talmudic times.
## Overview
### Historic view {#historic_view}
In traditional Judaism, marriage is viewed as a contractual bond commanded by God in which a Jewish man and a Jewish woman come together to create a relationship in which God is directly involved. Though procreation is not the sole purpose, a Jewish marriage is traditionally expected to fulfil the commandment to have children. In this view, marriage is understood to mean that the husband and wife are merging into a single soul, which is why a man is considered \"incomplete\" if he is not married, as his soul is only one part of a larger whole that remains to be unified.
### Recent non-Orthodox views {#recent_non_orthodox_views}
Non-Orthodox Jewish denominations, such as Reconstructionist, Reform, and Conservative Judaism, recognize same-sex marriage, and de-emphasize procreation, focusing on marriage as a bond between a couple.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Betrothal and marriage {#betrothal_and_marriage}
In Jewish law, marriage consists of two separate acts, called `{{transliteration|he|[[erusin]]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{transliteration|he|kiddushin}}`{=mediawiki}, which is the betrothal ceremony, and `{{transliteration|he|nissu'in}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{transliteration|he|[[chupah]]}}`{=mediawiki}, the actual Jewish wedding ceremony. `{{transliteration|he|Erusin}}`{=mediawiki} changes the couple\'s personal circumstances, while `{{transliteration|he|nissu'in}}`{=mediawiki} brings about the legal consequences of the change of circumstances. In Talmudic times, these two ceremonies usually took place up to a year apart; the bride lived with her parents until the actual marriage ceremony (`{{transliteration|he|nissuin}}`{=mediawiki}), which would take place in a room or tent that the groom had set up for her. Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a combined ceremony performed in public.
In Ancient Judaism a marriage could be established in three ways: money, contract, or sexual intercourse.
According to the Talmud, `{{transliteration|he|erusin}}`{=mediawiki} involves the groom handing an object to the bride -- either an object of value such as a ring, or a document stating that she is being betrothed to him. In order to be valid, this must be done in the presence of two unrelated male witnesses. After `{{transliteration|he|erusin}}`{=mediawiki}, the laws of adultery apply, and the marriage cannot be dissolved without a religious divorce. After `{{transliteration|he|nisuin}}`{=mediawiki}, the couple may live together.
The act of `{{transliteration|he|erusin}}`{=mediawiki} may be made by the intending parties or by their respective parents or other relatives on their behalf with their consent. A man and a woman cannot be betrothed to one another without agency and consent. The act is formalized in a document known as the `{{transliteration|he|Shtar Tena'im}}`{=mediawiki}, the \"Document of Conditions\" which is read prior to the `{{transliteration|he|badekin}}`{=mediawiki}. After the reading, the mothers of the future bride and groom break a plate. Today, some sign the contract on the day of the wedding, some do it as an earlier ceremony, and some do not do it at all. It should also be emphasized that this practice is not explicitly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.
In Haredi communities, marriages may be arranged by the parents of the prospective bride and groom, who may arrange a `{{transliteration|he|[[shidduch]]}}`{=mediawiki} by engaging a professional match-maker (`{{transliteration|he|shadchan}}`{=mediawiki}) who finds and introduces the prospective bride and groom and receives a fee for their services. The young couple is not forced to marry if either does not accept the other.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Matrimony
### Marital harmony {#marital_harmony}
Marital harmony, known as `{{transliteration|he|shalom bayis}}`{=mediawiki} (*שלום בית*), is valued in Jewish tradition. The Talmud states that a man should love his wife as much as he loves himself, and honour her more than he honours himself; indeed, one who honours his wife was said, by the classical rabbis, to be rewarded with wealth. Similarly, a husband was expected to discuss with his wife any worldly matters that might arise in his life. The Talmud forbids a husband from being overbearing to his household, and domestic abuse by him was also condemned. It was said of a wife that \"God counts her tears\".
As for the wife, the greatest praise the Talmudic rabbis offered to any woman was that given to a wife who fulfils the wishes of her husband; to this end, an early midrash states that a wife should not leave the home \"too frequently\". A wife, also, was expected to be modest, even when alone with her husband. God\'s presence dwells in a pure and loving home.
### Conjugal rights and obligations {#conjugal_rights_and_obligations}
Marriage obligations and rights in Judaism are ultimately based on those apparent in the Bible, which have been clarified, defined, and expanded on by many prominent rabbinic authorities throughout history.
Traditionally, the obligations of the husband include providing for his wife. He is obligated to provide for her sustenance for her benefit; in exchange, he is also entitled to her income. However, this is a right to the wife, and she can release her husband of the obligation of sustaining her, and she can then keep her income exclusively for herself. The document that provides for this is the `{{transliteration|he|[[ketubah]]}}`{=mediawiki}.
The Bible itself gives the wife protections, as per Exodus 21:10, although the rabbis may have added others later. The rights of the husband and wife are described in tractate `{{transliteration|he|[[Ketubot (tractate)|Ketubot]]}}`{=mediawiki} in the Talmud, which explains how the rabbis balanced the two sets of rights of the wife and the husband.
According to the non-traditional view, in the Bible the wife is treated as a possession owned by her husband, but later Judaism imposed several obligations on the husband, effectively giving the wife several rights and freedoms; indeed, being a Jewish wife was often a more favourable situation than being a wife in many other cultures. For example, the Talmud establishes the principle that a wife is entitled, but not compelled, to the same dignity and social standing as her husband, and is entitled to keep any additional advantages she had as a result of her social status before her marriage.
#### In the Bible {#in_the_bible}
Biblical Hebrew has two words for \"husband\": `{{transliteration|hbo|ba'al}}`{=mediawiki} (also meaning \"master\"), and `{{transliteration|hbo|ish}}`{=mediawiki} (also meaning \"man\", parallel to `{{transliteration|hbo|isha}}`{=mediawiki} meaning \"woman\" or \"wife\"). The words are contrasted in Hosea 2:16, where God speaks to Israel as though it is his wife: \"On that day, says the Lord, you will call \[me\] \'my husband\' (`{{transliteration|hbo|ish}}`{=mediawiki}), and will no longer call me \'my master\' (`{{transliteration|hbo|ba'al}}`{=mediawiki}).\"
Early nomadic communities practised a form of marriage known as `{{transliteration|hbo|[[Beena marriage|beena]]}}`{=mediawiki}, in which a wife would own a tent of her own, within which she retains complete independence from her husband; this principle appears to survive in parts of early Israelite society, as some early passages of the Bible appear to portray certain wives as each owning a tent as a personal possession (specifically, Jael, Sarah, and Jacob\'s wives). In later times, the Bible describes wives as being given the innermost room(s) of the husband\'s house, as her own private area to which men were not permitted; in the case of wealthy husbands, the Bible describes their wives as having each been given an entire house for this purpose.
It was not, however, a life of complete freedom. The descriptions of the Bible suggest that a wife was expected to perform certain household tasks: spinning, sewing, weaving, manufacture of clothing, fetching of water, baking of bread, and animal husbandry. The Book of Proverbs contains an entire acrostic about the duties which would be performed by a virtuous wife.
The husband, too, is indirectly implied to have responsibilities to his wife. The Torah obligates a man to not deprive his wife of food, clothing, or of sexual activity (`{{transliteration|hbo|[[onah]]}}`{=mediawiki}); if the husband does not provide the first wife with these things, she is to be divorced, without cost to her. The Talmud interprets this as a requirement for a man to provide food and clothing to, and have sex with, each of his wives, even if he only has one.
As a `{{not a typo|[[polygynous]]}}`{=mediawiki} society, the Israelites did not have any laws which imposed monogamy on men. Adulterous married and betrothed women, as well as their male accomplices, were subject to the death penalty by the biblical laws against adultery. According to the Book of Numbers, if a woman was suspected of adultery, she was to be subjected to the ordeal of the bitter water, a form of trial by ordeal, but one that took a miracle to convict. The literary prophets indicate that adultery was a frequent occurrence, despite their strong protests against it, and these legal strictnesses.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Matrimony
### Conjugal rights and obligations {#conjugal_rights_and_obligations}
#### In the Talmud and Rabbinic Judaism {#in_the_talmud_and_rabbinic_judaism}
The Talmud sets a minimum provision which a husband must provide to his wife:
- Enough bread for at least two meals a day
- Sufficient oil for cooking and for lighting purposes
- Sufficient wood for cooking
- Fruit and vegetables
- Wine, if it is customary in the locality for women to drink it
- Three meals on each shabbat consisting of fish and meat
- An allowance of a silver coin (Hebrew: `{{transliteration|hbo|ma'ah}}`{=mediawiki}) each week
Rabbinic courts could compel the husband to make this provision, if he fails to do so voluntarily. The Chatam Sofer, a prominent 19th century halachic decisor, argued that if a man could not provide his wife with this minimum, he should be compelled to divorce her; other Jewish rabbis argued that a man should be compelled to hire himself out, as a day-labourer, if he cannot otherwise make this provision to his wife.
According to prominent Jewish writers of the Middle Ages, if a man is absent from his wife for a long period, the wife should be allowed to sell her husband\'s property, if necessary to sustain herself. Similarly, they argued that if a wife had to take out a loan to pay for her sustenance during such absence, her husband had to pay the debt on his return.
In order to offset the husband\'s duty to support his wife, she was required by the Talmud to surrender all her earnings to her husband, together with any profit she makes by accident, and the right of usufruct on her property; the wife was not required to do this if she wished to support herself. Although the wife always retained ownership of her property itself, if she died while still married to her husband, he was to be her heir, according to the opinion of the Talmud; this principle, though, was modified, in various ways, by the rabbis of the Middle Ages.
##### Home and household {#home_and_household}
In Jewish tradition, the husband was expected to provide a home for his wife, furnished in accordance to local custom and appropriate to his status; the marital couple were expected to live together in this home, although if the husband\'s choice of work made it difficult to do so, the Talmud excuses him from the obligation. Traditionally, if the husband changed his usual abode, the wife was considered to have a duty to move with him. In the Middle Ages, it was argued that if a person continued to refuse to live with their spouse, the spouse in question had sufficient grounds for divorce.
Most Jewish religious authorities held that a husband must allow his wife to eat at the same table as him, even if he gave his wife enough money to provide for herself. By contrast, if a husband mistreated his wife, or lived in a disreputable neighbourhood, the Jewish religious authorities would permit the wife to move to another home elsewhere, and would compel the husband to finance her life there.
Expanding on the household tasks which the Bible implies a wife should undertake, rabbinic literature requires her to perform all the housework (such as baking, cooking, washing, caring for her children, etc.), unless her marriage had given the husband a large dowry; in the latter situation, the wife was expected only to tend to \"affectionate\" tasks, such as making his bed and serving him his food. Jewish tradition expected the husband to provide the bed linen and kitchen utensils. If the wife had young twin children, the Talmud made her husband responsible for caring for one of them.
##### Clothing
The Talmud elaborates on the biblical requirement of the husband to provide his wife with clothing, by insisting that each year he must provide each wife with 50 zuzim\'s-worth of clothing, including garments appropriate to each season of the year. The Talmudic rabbis insist that this annual clothing gift should include one hat, one belt, and three pairs of shoes (one pair for each of the three main annual festivals: Passover, Shabu\'ot, and Sukkoth). The husband was also expected by the classical rabbis to provide his wife with jewelry and perfumes if he lived in an area where this was customary.
##### Physical obligations {#physical_obligations}
The Talmud argues that a husband is responsible for the protection of his wife\'s body. If his wife became ill, then he would be compelled, by the Talmud, to defray any medical expense which might be incurred in relation to this; the Talmud requires him to ensure that the wife receives care. Although he technically had the right to divorce his wife, enabling him to avoid paying for her medical costs, several prominent rabbis throughout history condemned such a course of action as inhuman behaviour, even if the wife was suffering from a prolonged illness.
If the wife dies, even if not due to illness, the Talmud\'s stipulations require the husband to arrange, and pay for, her burial; the burial must, in the opinion of the Talmud, be one conducted in a manner befitting the husband\'s social status, and in accordance with the local custom. Prominent rabbis of the Middle Ages clarified this, stating that the husband must make any provisions required by local burial customs, potentially including the hiring of mourners and the erection of a tombstone. According to the Talmud, and later rabbinic writers, if the husband was absent, or refused to do these things, a rabbinical court should arrange the wife\'s funeral, selling some of the husband\'s property in order to defray the costs.
If the wife was captured, the husband was required by the Talmud and later writers to pay the ransom demanded for her release; there is some debate whether the husband was required only to pay up to the wife\'s market value as a slave, or whether he must pay any ransom, even to the point of having to sell his possessions to raise the funds. If the husband and wife were both taken captive, the historic Jewish view was that the rabbinic courts should first pay the ransom for the wife, selling some of the husband\'s property in order to raise the funds.
##### Fidelity
In the classical era of the rabbinic scholars, the death penalty for adultery was rarely applied. It forbids conviction if:
- the woman had been raped, rather than consenting to the crime;
- the woman had mistaken the paramour for her husband;
- the woman was unaware of the laws against adultery before she committed the crime;
- the woman had not been properly warned. This requires that the two witnesses testifying against her warn her that the Torah prohibits adultery; that the penalty for adultery is death; and that she immediately responded that she is doing so with full knowledge of those facts. Even if she was warned, but did not acknowledge those facts immediately upon hearing them, and immediately before doing the act, she is not put to death. These conditions apply in all death-penalty convictions.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Matrimony
### Conjugal rights and obligations {#conjugal_rights_and_obligations}
#### In the Talmud and Rabbinic Judaism {#in_the_talmud_and_rabbinic_judaism}
##### Fidelity
These rules made it practically impossible to convict any woman of adultery; in nearly every case, women were acquitted. However, due to the belief that a priest should be untainted, a Kohen was compelled to divorce his wife if she had been raped.
In Talmudic times, once the death penalty was no longer enforced for any crime, even when a woman was convicted, the punishment was comparatively mild: adulteresses were flogged instead. Nevertheless, the husbands of convicted adulteresses were not permitted by the Talmud to forgive their guilty wives, instead being compelled to divorce them; according to Maimonides, a conviction for adultery nullified any right that the wife\'s marriage contract (Hebrew: `{{transliteration|he|ketubah}}`{=mediawiki}) gave her to a compensation payment for being divorced. Once divorced, an adulteress was not permitted, according to the Talmudic writers, to marry her paramour.
As for men who committed adultery (with another man\'s wife ), Abba ben Joseph and Abba Arika are both quoted in the Talmud as expressing abhorrence, and arguing that such men would be condemned to Gehenna.
##### Family purity {#family_purity}
The laws of \"family purity\" (`{{transliteration|he|taharat hamishpacha}}`{=mediawiki}) are considered an important part of an Orthodox Jewish marriage, and adherence to them is (in Orthodox Judaism) regarded as a prerequisite of marriage. This involves observance of the various details of the menstrual `{{transliteration|he|[[niddah]]}}`{=mediawiki} laws. Orthodox brides and grooms attend classes on this subject prior to the wedding. The niddah laws are regarded as an intrinsic part of marital life (rather than just associated with women). Together with a few other rules, including those about the ejaculation of semen, these are collectively termed \"family purity\".
##### Sexual relations {#sexual_relations}
In marriage, conjugal relations are guaranteed as a fundamental right for a woman, along with food and clothing. This obligation is known as `{{transliteration|he|[[onah]]}}`{=mediawiki}. Sex within marriage is the woman\'s right, and the man\'s duty. The husband is forbidden from raping his wife, they are not to be intimate while drunk or while either party is angry at the other. A woman should be granted a `{{transliteration|he|[[Get (divorce document)|get]]}}`{=mediawiki} (divorce) if she seeks it because her husband is disgusting or loathsome to her. If either partner consistently refuses to participate, that person is considered rebellious, and the other spouse can sue for divorce. A very large number of Jewish texts attempting to regulate marital sexuality exist. This category can vary: it can mean a few biblical verse, chapters in medieval books of law, or self-standing modern traditional Jewish guides to marital sexuality. One should always remember that the fact a certain activity is recommended or forbidden, does not mean that in reality the advice is followed. We can know what generally traditional Jews were told to do or not to do in their bedrooms. We can very rarely know what actually happened.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Age of marriage`{{anchor|Child marriage}}`{=mediawiki} {#age_of_marriage}
Citing the primacy of the divine command given in Genesis 1:28, the time between puberty and age twenty has been considered the ideal time for men and women to be wed in traditional Jewish thought. Some rabbis have gone further to commend the age of eighteen as most ideal, while others have advocated for the time immediately following puberty, closer to the age of fourteen, essentially \"as early in life as possible.\" Babylonian rabbis understood marriage as God\'s means of keeping male sexuality from going out of control, so they advocated for early marriage to prevent men from succumbing to temptation in their youth. The ḳeṭannah (children aged three to twelve) might be given in marriage by her father, and the marriage was valid, necessitating a formal divorce if separation was desired. Some commended early marriage for its benefits: Rabbi Ḥisda maintained that early marriage could lead to increased intelligence.
A large age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against as unwise. A younger woman marrying a significantly older man however is especially problematic: marrying one\'s young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution. Moreover, it is problematic for an older man to be unmarried in the first place. Marriage is held to be uniquely mandatory for men, and an unmarried man over the age of twenty is considered \"cursed by God Himself.\"
There is evidence however that in some communities males did not marry until \"thirty or older.\" In medieval Jewish Ashkenazi communities, women continued to be married young. Since the Enlightenment, young marriage has become rarer among Jewish communities.
### Consent
According to the Talmud, a father is commanded not to marry his daughter to anyone until she grows up and says, \"I want this one\". A marriage that takes place without the consent of the girl is not an effective legal marriage.
A `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki} (literally meaning \"little \[one\]\") was any girl between the age of 3 years and that of 12 years plus one day; she was subject to her father\'s authority, and he could arrange a marriage for her without her agreement. However, after reaching the age of maturity, she would have to agree to the marriage to be considered as married. If the father was dead or missing, the brothers of the `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki}, collectively, had the right to arrange a marriage for her, as had her mother. In these situations, a `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki} would always have the right to annul her marriage, even if it was the first.
If the marriage did end (due to divorce or the husband\'s death), any further marriages were optional; the `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki} retained her right to annul them. The choice of a `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki} to annul a marriage, known in Hebrew as `{{transliteration|he|mi'un}}`{=mediawiki} (literally meaning \"refusal\", \"denial\", \"protest\"), led to a true annulment, not a divorce; a divorce document (`{{transliteration|he|[[Get (divorce document)|get]]}}`{=mediawiki}) was not necessary, and a `{{transliteration|he|ketannah}}`{=mediawiki} who did this was not regarded by legal regulations as a divorcee, in relation to the marriage. Unlike divorce, `{{transliteration|he|mi'un}}`{=mediawiki} was regarded with distaste by many rabbinic writers, even in the Talmud; in earlier classical Judaism, one major faction -- the House of Shammai -- argued that such annulment rights only existed during the betrothal (not engagement) period (`{{transliteration|he|[[erusin]]}}`{=mediawiki}) and not once the actual marriage (`{{transliteration|he|[[Nissuin|nissu'in]]}}`{=mediawiki}) had begun.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Intermarriage
Rates of marriage between Jews and non-Jews have increased in countries other than Israel (the Jewish diaspora). According to the National Jewish Population Survey 2000-01, 47% of marriages involving Jews in the United States between 1996 and 2001 were with non-Jewish partners. Jewish leaders in different branches generally agree that possible assimilation is a crisis, but they differ on the proper response to intermarriage.
### Attitudes
- All branches of Orthodox Judaism do not sanction the validity or legitimacy of intermarriages.Orthodox teachings view marriage between a Jewish man and woman as a reunion of two halves of the same soul, thus a Jewish man to have any relationship with a \"Shiksa\" (gentile woman) or a Jewish woman to have any relationship with a goy (gentile man) would be considered a disgrace. Some Orthodox families observe shiva (mourning rites) for relatives who marry outside the faith, symbolically mourning the potential loss of future generations who may not be raised as Jewish. Intermarriage is sometimes referred to in Orthodox circles as the \"Silent Holocaust.\" The only legal way for children of such relationships to be part of a Jewish community, is for them of their own free will to willingly accept the Iron Yoke of the Torah with help from Orthodox Jewish guidance.
- Conservative Judaism does not sanction intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the non-Jewish spouse within the family, hoping that such acceptance will lead to conversion.
- Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism permit total personal autonomy in interpretation of Jewish Law, and intermarriage is not forbidden. Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis are free to take their own approach to performing marriages between a Jewish and non-Jewish partner. Many, but not all, seek agreement from the couple that the children will be raised as Jewish.
There are also differences between streams on what constitutes an intermarriage, arising from their differing criteria for being Jewish in the first place. Orthodox Jews only consider a child to be Jewish if the mother is of Jewish ancestry or has undergone a proper conversion as conducted by proper rabbinical authorities.
Among the general Jewish population in Israel, interfaith marriages are extremely rare; only about two percent were in an interfaith marriage. In addition, about 97 percent of Jews in the same Pew Research Center study, conducted in 2014-2015, did not approve of their child marrying a Muslim while 89 percent expressed similar views when asked about a hypothetical marriage to a Christian.
### Interracial Marriage {#interracial_marriage}
Jewish prohibitions on marriage typically concern interfaith marriages. There is no historical prohibition of interracial marriage, nor is there explicit permission of such. However, debates around Numbers 12:1 suggest that Zipporah, the wife of Moses, is described as a \"Cushite woman\" to highlight a potentially much darker skin tone. Under modern social constructs, this would constitute Moses\'s marriage as an interracial one. However, there is no concrete proof that the Cushite woman referred to in Numbers is the same Zipporah from Exodus.
## Marriage in Israel {#marriage_in_israel}
In Israel, the only institutionalized form of Jewish marriage is the religious one, i.e., a marriage conducted under the auspices of the rabbinate. Specifically, marriage of Israeli Jews must be conducted according to Jewish Law (`{{transliteration|he|[[halakha]]}}`{=mediawiki}), as viewed by Orthodox Judaism. One consequence is that Jews in Israel who cannot marry according to Jewish law (e.g., a `{{transliteration|he|[[kohen]]}}`{=mediawiki} and a divorcée, or a Jew and one who is not halachically Jewish), cannot marry each other. This has led for calls, mostly from the secular segment of the Israeli public, for the institution of civil marriage.
Some secular-Jewish Israelis travel abroad to have civil marriages, either because they do not wish an Orthodox wedding or because their union cannot be sanctioned by `{{transliteration|he|halakha}}`{=mediawiki}. These marriages are legally recognized by the State, but are not recognized by the State Rabbinate.
Marriages performed in Israel must be carried out by religious authorities of an official religion (Judaism, Islam, Christianity, or Druze), unless both parties are without religion.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Divorce
(Jewish Law) allows for divorce. The document of divorce is termed a `{{transliteration|he|[[Get (divorce document)|get]]}}`{=mediawiki}. The final divorce ceremony involves the husband giving the `{{transliteration|he|get}}`{=mediawiki} document into the hand of the wife or her agent, but the wife may sue in rabbinical court to initiate the divorce. In such a case, a husband may be compelled to give the `{{transliteration|he|get}}`{=mediawiki}, if he has violated any of his numerous obligations outlined in Jewish law and the couple\'s specific *ketubah*; Historically, this was sometimes accomplished by beating and or monetary coercion. The rationale was that since he was required to divorce his wife due to his (or her) violations of the contract, his good inclination desires to divorce her, and the community helps him to do what he wants to do anyway. In this case, the wife may or may not be entitled to a payment.
Since around the 12th century, some officials within Judaism have recognized the right of a wife abused physically or psychologically to a forced divorce.
Conservative Judaism follows halacha, although differently than Orthodox Judaism. Reform Jews usually use an egalitarian form of the `{{transliteration|he|Ketubah}}`{=mediawiki} at their weddings. They generally do not issue Jewish divorces, seeing a civil divorce as both necessary and sufficient; however, some Reform rabbis encourage the couple to go through a Jewish divorce procedure. Orthodox Judaism does not recognize civil law as overriding religious law, and thus does not view a civil divorce as sufficient. Therefore, a man or woman may be considered divorced by the Reform Jewish community, but still married by the Conservative community. Orthodox Judaism usually does not recognize Reform weddings because according to Talmudic law, the witnesses to the marriage must be Jews who observe `{{transliteration|he|halakha}}`{=mediawiki}, which is believed by Orthodox authorities to seldom be the case in Reform weddings.
### `{{transliteration|he|Agunah}}`{=mediawiki}
Traditionally, when a husband fled, or his whereabouts were unknown for any reason, the woman was considered an `{{transliteration|he|[[agunah]]}}`{=mediawiki} (literally \"an anchored woman\"), and was not allowed to remarry; in traditional Judaism, divorce can only be initiated by the husband. Prior to modern communication, the death of the husband while in a distant land was a common cause of this situation. In modern times, when a husband refuses to issue a `{{transliteration|he|get}}`{=mediawiki} due to money, property, or custody battles, the woman who cannot remarry is considered a `{{transliteration|he|[[Agunah#Mesorevet get (Get refusal)|Mesorevet get]]}}`{=mediawiki}, not an agunah. A man in this situation would not be termed a `{{transliteration|he|Misarev Get}}`{=mediawiki} (literally, \"a refuser of a divorce document\"), unless a legitimate Beis Din had required him to issue a Get. The term `{{transliteration|he|agunah}}`{=mediawiki} is often used in such circumstances, but it is not technically accurate.
Within both the Conservative and Orthodox communities, there are efforts to avoid situations where a woman is not able to obtain a Jewish divorce from her husband. The `{{transliteration|he|[[ketubah]]}}`{=mediawiki} serves this function in Conservative Judaism in order to prevent husbands from refusing to give their wives a divorce. To do this, the `{{transliteration|he|ketubah}}`{=mediawiki} has built in provisions; so, if predetermined circumstances occur, the divorce goes into effect immediately. After the fact, various Jewish and secular legal methods are used to deal with such problems. None of the legal solutions addresses the `{{transliteration|he|agunah}}`{=mediawiki} problem in the case of a missing husband.
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# Jewish views on marriage
## Same-sex marriage {#same_sex_marriage}
### In Orthodox Judaism {#in_orthodox_judaism}
Orthodox Judaism does not have a Jewish legal construct of same-gender marriage. While any two Jewish adults may be joined by a Jewish legal contract, the rites of `{{transliteration|he|kiddushin}}`{=mediawiki} are reserved for a union of a man and woman.
### In Conservative Judaism {#in_conservative_judaism}
In June 2012, the American branch of Conservative Judaism formally approved same-sex marriage ceremonies in a 13--0 vote with one abstention.
### In Reform Judaism {#in_reform_judaism}
In 1996, the Central Conference of American Rabbis passed a resolution approving same-sex civil marriage. However, this same resolution made a distinction between civil marriages and religious marriages; this resolution thus stated:
In 1998, an ad hoc CCAR committee on human sexuality issued its majority report (11 to 1, 1 abstention) which stated that the holiness within a Jewish marriage \"may be present in committed same gender relationships between two Jews and that these relationships can serve as the foundation of stable Jewish families, thus adding strength to the Jewish community.\" The report called for CCAR to support rabbis in officiating at same-sex marriages. Also in 1998, the Responsa Committee of the CCAR issued a lengthy `{{transliteration|he|teshuvah}}`{=mediawiki} (rabbinical opinion) that offered detailed argumentation in support of both sides of the question whether a rabbi may officiate at a commitment ceremony for a same-sex couple.
In March 2000, CCAR issued a new resolution stating that \"We do hereby resolve that the relationship of a Jewish, same gender couple is worthy of affirmation through appropriate Jewish ritual, and further resolve, that we recognize the diversity of opinions within our ranks on this issue. We support the decision of those who choose to officiate at rituals of union for same-sex couples, and we support the decision of those who do not.\"
### In Reconstructionist Judaism {#in_reconstructionist_judaism}
The Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association (RRA) encourages its members to officiate at same-sex marriages, though it does not require it of them
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# James Alan McPherson
**James Alan McPherson** (September 16, 1943 -- July 27, 2016) was an American essayist and short-story writer. He was the first African-American writer to win the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and was included among the first group of artists who received a MacArthur Fellowship. At the time of his death, McPherson was a professor emeritus of fiction at the Iowa Writers\' Workshop.
## Life and work {#life_and_work}
### Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
McPherson was born in Savannah, Georgia, on September 16, 1943, the second of four children. His father was a master electrician (the first African-American so recognized in Georgia), and his mother (born Mabel Small) was a maid. While McPherson was growing up, his father struggled with alcohol and spent time in jail. In the essay \"Going Up To Atlanta,\" McPherson describes the many odd jobs he took on during this time to help support his mother, brother, and sisters. But it was his discovery of the \"colored branch\" of the public library that changed his life. When he started reading books, McPherson learned that words, even without pictures, \"gave up their secret meanings, spoke of other worlds, made me know that pain was a part of other people\'s lives.\"
He attended Morgan State University from 1963 to 1964 before receiving his undergraduate degree in history and English from Morris Brown College in 1965. In 1968, McPherson received a LL.B. from Harvard Law School, where he partially financed his studies by working as a janitor.
While at Harvard, McPherson studied fiction writing with Alan Lebowitz in 1967 and worked on his stories when he found some spare time. It was the publication of his short story \"Gold Coast\" in *The Atlantic Monthly*, following an \"open reading\" competition they had sponsored, that first brought him public recognition. During this period, McPherson established a close working relationship with Edward Weeks, an editor at *The Atlantic Monthly,* which led to McPherson becoming a contributing editor at that magazine in 1969. His fiction would go on to appear in numerous journals and magazines throughout the following decade. Many of his stories were anthologized, beginning with \"Gold Coast\" when it appeared in *The Best American Stories* in 1969. His first collection of short stories, *Hue and Cry*, was published by Atlantic Monthly Press that year.
In 1971, he received an M.F.A. in fiction from the Iowa Writers\' Workshop, where he studied briefly with the short-story writer and novelist Richard Yates. While studying creative writing, McPherson decided not to practice law; however, he would continue to utilize his legal training in various projects. In a 1972 *Atlantic Monthly* essay, he exposed exploitative business practices against black homeowners, presaging the later work of Ta-Nehisi Coates.
During this period in his life, he gained the attention of Ralph Ellison (1913--1994), who became both a friend and mentor to the young McPherson. In December 1970, McPherson interviewed Ellison for an *Atlantic Monthly* cover story and collaborated with him on the essay \"Invisible Man.\" This relationship with Ellison would have a lasting influence on his own life and work, as McPherson acknowledges in his essay \"Gravitas,\" which he published in 1999 as both a tribute to the (then) recently deceased writer, and to observe the posthumous publication of Ellison\'s novel *Juneteenth* that same year. McPherson also initiated a friendship with Albert Murray shortly after the publication of Murray\'s *The Omni-Americans: Black Experience & American Culture* (1970).
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# James Alan McPherson
## Life and work {#life_and_work}
### Career
McPherson taught English and creative writing at the University of California, Santa Cruz (assistant professor; 1969--1971), the Harvard University summer school (1972), Morgan State University (assistant professor; 1975--1976) and the University of Virginia (associate professor; 1976--1981) before joining the Iowa Writers\' Workshop in 1981, with whom he was associated for the remainder of his life. He served as acting director of the program for two years following the death of Frank Conroy in 2005. Following the publication of *Elbow Room* (his final collection of fiction) in 1977, McPherson primarily focused on his teaching career, with the *Chicago Tribune* characterizing him as being \"only slightly more gregarious than J.D. Salinger.\"
He was also a visiting scholar at Yale Law School (1978--1979) and a fellow at Stanford University\'s Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (1997--1998; 2002--2003). Significantly, McPherson lectured in Japan (at Meiji University and Chiba University), a country whose society and culture profoundly affected him. It was in Japan, he once wrote, where he went to lay down \"the burden carried by all black Americans, especially the males.\"
*Crabcakes: A Memoir*, his first original work since *Elbow Room*, was published in 1998. His final book (*A Region Not Home: Reflections on Exile*, an essay collection) was published in 2000.
## Recognition
In 1972, McPherson was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship. He received the Pulitzer Prize in 1978 for his short story collection *Elbow Room*, becoming the first black writer to receive the program\'s Fiction Prize.
He was the recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship in 1981, a member of the first group (21 recipients in all) ever selected for one of the MacArthur Foundation\'s so-called \"genius grants.\" In 1995, McPherson was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2000, John Updike selected McPherson\'s short story \"Gold Coast\" for his collection *Best American Short Stories of the Century* (Houghton Mifflin).
In October 2011, McPherson was honored as the inaugural recipient of the Paul Engle Award from the Iowa City UNESCO City of Literature. According to the citation:
In 2020, an Iowa City park was renovated and renamed after McPherson. Previously Creekside Park, James Alan McPherson Park serves as a memorial and a gathering space for the community.
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# James Alan McPherson
## Death
McPherson died in hospice on July 27, 2016, in Iowa City, Iowa, due to complications of pneumonia. He was 72. He is survived by a daughter, Rachel McPherson (a child from his first marriage to the former Sarah Charlton, which had ended in divorce); a son from another relationship, Benjamin Miyamoto; a sister; and a brother.
## Works
### Fiction
- *Hue and Cry: Stories* (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1969) `{{ISBN|9780316563260}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Elbow Room: Stories* (New York: Atlantic-Little, Brown, 1977) `{{ISBN|0316563285}}`{=mediawiki}
### Nonfiction
- *Railroad: Trains and Train People in American Culture,* edited with Miller Williams; (New York: Random House, 1976); `{{ISBN|0394732375}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Confronting Racial Difference,* edited with DeWitt Henry; Ploughshares Vol. 16, Nos 2 & 3 (Fall 1990); `{{ISBN|0933277946}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Fathering Daughters: Reflections by Men,* edited with DeWitt Henry; (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1998); `{{ISBN|9780807062197}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Crabcakes: A Memoir* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); `{{ISBN|0684834650}}`{=mediawiki}
- *A Region Not Home: Reflections on Exile* (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000); `{{ISBN|9780684834641}}`{=mediawiki}
- *On Becoming an American Writer: Essays & Nonfiction*, selected and introduced by Anthony Walton (Boston, MA: Godine, 2023); ISBN 9781567927481
### Stories
Title Publication Collected in
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ---------------
\"Gold Coast\" *The Atlantic* (November 1968) *Hue and Cry*
\"A Matter of Vocabulary\" *The Atlantic* (February 1969)
\"Of Cabbages and Kings\" *The Atlantic* (April 1969)
\"On Trains\" *Hue and Cry* (Summer 1969)
\"A Solo Song: For Doc\"
\"All the Lonely People\"
\"An Act of Prostitution\"
\"Private Domain\"
\"A New Place\"
\"Hue and Cry\"
\"The Silver Bullet\" *Playboy* (July 1972) *Elbow Room*
\"The Faithful\" *The Atlantic* (April 1973)
\"The Story of a Scar\" *The Atlantic* (December 1973)
\"Why I Like Country Music\" *The Harvard Advocate* (Winter 1974)
\"I Am an American\" *Ploughshares* 2.2 (1974)
\"Problems of Art\" *The Iowa Review* 6.2 (Spring 1975)
\"A Sense of Story\" *The Massachusetts Review* 18.3 (Autumn 1977)
\"The Story of a Dead Man\" *Elbow Room* (Autumn 1977)
\"Widows and Orphans\"
\"A Loaf of Bread\"
\"Just Enough for the City\"
\"Elbow Room\"
\"There Was Once a State Called Franklin\" *Callaloo* 2
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# Takamine Jōkichi
was a Japanese chemist. He is known for being the first to isolate epinephrine in 1901.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Takamine was born in Takaoka, Toyama Prefecture, in November 1854. His father was a doctor; his mother a member of a family of *sake* brewers. He spent his childhood in Kanazawa, capital of present-day Ishikawa Prefecture in central Honshū. He learned English as a child from a Dutch family in Nagasaki, and so always spoke English with a Dutch accent. He was educated in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo, graduating from one of the predecessors of Tokyo Imperial University in 1879. He did postgraduate work at University of Glasgow and Anderson College in Scotland until 1883.
## Career
### Japan
In 1883, Takamine returned to Japan and joined the division of chemistry at the newly established Department of Agriculture and Commerce until 1887. He then founded the Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, where he later isolated the enzyme takadiastase, an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of starch. Takamine developed his diastase from *koji,* a fungus used in the manufacture of soy sauce and *miso*. Its Latin name is *Aspergillus oryzae*, and it is a \"designated national fungus\" (*kokkin*) in Japan.
### United States {#united_states}
In 1884, Takamine went as co-commissioner of the World Cotton Centennial Exposition to New Orleans, where he met Lafcadio Hearn and 18 year old Caroline Field Hitch, his future wife. In 1885, he became the temporary Chief of the Japanese Patent Office and helped to lay the foundations of patent administration. He founded he Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, importing large amounts of phosphate from Charleston, South Carolina. In 1890, he emigrated with his wife and two sons to Chicago.
He established his own research laboratory in New York City but licensed the exclusive production rights for takadiastase to one of the largest US pharmaceutical companies, Parke-Davis. This turned out to be a shrewd move as he became a millionaire in a relatively short time and by the early 20th century was estimated to be worth \$30 million.`{{dead link|date=July 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
In 1894, Takamine applied for, and was granted, a US patent titled \"Process of Making Diastatic Enzyme\" (`{{US Patent|525,823}}`{=mediawiki}), the first patent on a microbial enzyme in the United States.
In 1901, he isolated and purified the hormone adrenaline, which became the first effective bronchodilator for asthma from animal glands, becoming the first to accomplish this for a glandular hormone.
In 1904, the Emperor Meiji of Japan honored Takamine with an unusual gift. In the context of the St. Louis World Fair (Louisiana Purchase Exposition), the Japanese government had replicated a historical Japanese structure, the \"Pine and Maple Palace\" (*Shofu-den*), modelled after the Kyoto Imperial Coronation Palace of 1,300 years ago. This structure was given to Dr. Takamine in grateful recognition of his efforts to further friendly relations between Japan and the United States. He had the structure transported in sections from Missouri to his summer home in upstate New York, seventy-five miles north of New York City. In 1909, the structure served as a guest house for Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi and Princess Kuni of Japan, who were visiting the area. Although the property was sold in 1922, the reconstructed structure remained in its serene setting. In 2008, it still continues to be one of the undervalued tourist attractions of New York\'s Sullivan County.
In 1905, Takamine founded the Nippon Club, which was for many years located at 161 West 93rd Street in Manhattan.
Takamine devoted his life to maintaining goodwill between the US and Japan.
In 1912, the mayor of Tokyo (Yukio Ozaki) and Jokichi Takamine gifted cherry blossom trees, which were planted in the West Potomac Park surrounding the Tidal Basin in Washington, DC.
A 1915 photo presents Jōkichi Takamine as the host for a banquet honoring the visiting Japanese diplomat Baron Eiichi Shibusawa. This illustration is linked to Jōkichi Takamine\'s involvement in the gifting of the cherry blossom trees to Washington, DC in 1912, which has evolved into the National Cherry Blossom Festival which is celebrated yearly.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
On August 10, 1887, Takamine travelled to the US and married Caroline Field Hitch in New Orleans. They had two sons Jokichi Takamine, born 1888 in Tokyo, Japan, and Ebenezer Takashi Takamine born in 1889. The family emigrated to the US arriving in Chicago in December 1890. Due to her influence he converted to Catholicism. According to historical records, he would maintain this faith throughout his life.
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# Takamine Jōkichi
## Awards and honors {#awards_and_honors}
- In 1899, Takamine was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Engineering by what is now the University of Tokyo.
- On April 18, 1985, the Japan Patent Office selected him as one of Ten Japanese Great Inventors.
- In 2024 he was posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for his research leading to use of adrenaline (epinephrine) in medicine.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
As of 2011, two films about the life of Takamine have been made by `{{Interlanguage link multi|Toru Ichikawa|ja}}`{=mediawiki}. In the 2010 film *`{{Interlanguage link multi|Sakura, Sakura|ja|3=さくら、さくら 〜サムライ化学者・高峰譲吉の生涯〜}}`{=mediawiki}* Takamine was portrayed by Masaya Kato. A sequel titled *Takamine*, also directed by Ichikawa and starring Hatsunori Hasegawa, was released in 2011.
As of 2009, the Takamine home in Kanazawa could still be seen. It was relocated to near the grounds of Kanazawa Castle in 2001
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# Jacob Neusner
**Jacob Neusner** (July 28, 1932 -- October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Neusner\'s application of form criticism---a methodology derived from scholars of the New Testament---to Rabbinic texts was influential, but subject to criticism. Neusner\'s grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic has been challenged within academia.
## Early life and study {#early_life_and_study}
Neusner was born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Reform Jewish parents. He graduated from William H. Hall High School in West Hartford. He then attended Harvard University, where he met Harry Austryn Wolfson and first encountered Jewish religious texts. After graduating from Harvard in 1953, Neusner spent a year at the University of Oxford.
Neusner then attended the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, where he was ordained as a Conservative Jewish rabbi. After spending a year at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, he returned to the Jewish Theological Seminary and studied the Talmud under Saul Lieberman, who would later write a famous, and highly negative, critique of Neusner\'s translation of the Jerusalem Talmud. He graduated in 1960 with a master\'s degree. Later that year, he received a doctorate in religion from Columbia University.
## Career
After his studies, Neusner briefly taught at Dartmouth College. Neusner also held positions at University of Wisconsin--Milwaukee, Brandeis University, and Brown University. From 1990 to 2000 he was distinguished research professor at the University of South Florida.
In 1994, Neusner began teaching at Bard College, working there until 2014. While at Bard College, he founded the Institute for Advanced Theology with Bruce Chilton.
He was a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He was the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.
Neusner died on October 8, 2016, at the age of 84.
## Scholarship
Neusner\'s research centered on rabbinic Judaism of the Mishnaic and Talmudic eras. His work focused on bringing the study of rabbinical text into nonreligious educational institutions and treating them as non-religious documents. Neusner\'s five-volume *History of the Jews in Babylonia*, published between 1965 and 1969, is said to be the first to consider the Babylonian Talmud in its Iranian context. Neusner studied Persian and Middle Persian to do so.
Neusner, with his contemporaries, translated into English nearly the entire Rabbinic canon. This work has opened up many Rabbinic documents to scholars of other fields unfamiliar with Hebrew and Aramaic, within the academic study of religion, as well as in ancient history, culture and Near and Middle Eastern Studies.
In addition to his work on Rabbinic texts, Neusner was involved in Jewish Studies and Religious Studies. Neusner saw Judaism as \"not particular but exemplary, and Jews not as special but (merely) interesting.\"
### Interfaith work {#interfaith_work}
Neusner also wrote a number of works exploring the relationship of Judaism to other religions. His *A Rabbi Talks with Jesus* attempts to establish a religiously sound framework for Judaic-Christian interchange. It earned the praise of Pope Benedict XVI and the nickname \"The Pope\'s Favorite Rabbi\". In his book *Jesus of Nazareth,* Benedict referred to it as \"by far the most important book for the Jewish-Christian dialogue in the last decade.\"
## Political views {#political_views}
Neusner called himself a Zionist, but also said \"Israel's flag is not mine. My homeland is America.\" He was culturally conservative, and opposed feminism and affirmative action.
Neusner was a signer of the conservative Christian Cornwall Declaration on Environmental Stewardship, which expresses concern over what it called \"unfounded or undue concerns\" of environmentalists such as \"fears of destructive manmade global warming, overpopulation, and rampant species loss\".
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# Jacob Neusner
## Critical assessment of Neusner\'s work {#critical_assessment_of_neusners_work}
Neusner\'s original adoption of form criticism to the rabbinic texts proved highly influential both in North American and European studies of early Jewish and Christian texts. His later detailed studies of Mishnaic law lack the densely footnoted historical approach characteristic of his earlier work. As a result, these works, focusing on literary form, tend to ignore contemporary external sources and modern scholarship dealing with these issues. The irony was that his approach adopted the analytic methodology developed by Christian scholars for the New Testament, while denying there was any relationship between the Judeo-Christian corpus and rabbinic works, the latter being treated as isolates detached from their broader historical contexts.
A number of scholars in his field of study were critical of this phase in his work.
Some were critical of his methodology, and asserted that many of his arguments were circular or attempts to prove \"negative assumptions\" from a lack of evidence, while others concentrated on Neusner\'s reading and interpretations of Rabbinic texts, finding that his account was forced and inaccurate.
Neusner\'s view that the Second Commonwealth Pharisees were a sectarian group centered on \"table fellowship\" and ritual food purity practices, and lacked interest in wider Jewish moral values or social issues, has been criticized by E. P. Sanders, Solomon Zeitlin and Hyam Maccoby.
Some scholars questioned Neusner\'s grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic. The most famous and biting criticism came from one of Neusner\'s former teachers, Saul Lieberman, about Neusner\'s translation of the Jerusalem Talmud. Lieberman wrote, in an article circulated before his death and then published posthumously: \"\...one begins to doubt the credibility of the translator \[Neusner\]. And indeed after a superficial perusal of the translation, the reader is stunned by the translator\'s ignorance of rabbinic Hebrew, of Aramaic grammar, and above all of the subject matter with which he deals.\" Ending his review, Lieberman states \"I conclude with a clear conscience: The right place for \[Neusner\'s\] English translation is the waste basket\" while at the same time qualifying that \"\[i\]n fairness to the translator I must add that his various essays on Jewish topics are meritorious. They abound in brilliant insights and intelligent questions.\" Lieberman highlights his criticism as being of Neusner\'s \"ignorance of the original languages,\" which Lieberman claims even Neusner was originally \"well aware of\" inasmuch as he had previously relied on responsible English renderings of rabbinic sources, e.g., Soncino Press, before later choosing to create his own renderings of rabbinic texts. Lieberman\'s views were seconded by Morton Smith, another teacher who resented Neusner\'s criticism of his views that Jesus was a homosexual magician.
Neusner thought Lieberman\'s approach reflected the closed mentality of a yeshiva-based education that lacked familiarity with modern formal textual-critical techniques, and he eventually got round to replying to Lieberman\'s charges by writing in turn an equally scathing monograph entitled: *Why There Never Was a Talmud of Caesarea: Saul Lieberman's Mistakes* (1994). In it he attributed to Lieberman \'obvious errors of method, blunders in logic\' and argued that Lieberman\'s work showed a systematic inability to accomplish critical research
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# Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg
**Joachim I Nestor** (21 February 1484 -- 11 July 1535) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1499--1535), the fifth member of the House of Hohenzollern. His nickname was taken from King Nestor of Greek mythology.
## Biography
The eldest son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim received an excellent education under the supervision of Dietrich von Bülow, Bishop of Lebus and Chancellor of Frankfurt University. He became Elector of Brandenburg upon his father\'s death in January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth of Denmark, daughter of King John of Denmark in 1502. They had five children:
1. Joachim II Hector (9 January 1505 -- 3 January 1571)
2. Anna (1507 -- 19 June 1567) married Albert VII, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow
3. Elisabeth (24 August 1510 -- 25 May 1558) in 1525 married firstly Eric I of Brunswick-Kalenberg and in 1545 secondly Poppo XII, count of Henneberg
4. Margaret (29 September 1511 -- 1577), married firstly on 23 January 1530 George I, Duke of Pomerania and after his death secondly in 1534 John V, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst.
5. John (3 August 1513 -- 13 January 1571)
Joachim took some part in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his electorate, where he succeeded in restoring some degree of order through stern measures. He also improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was sympathetic to the needs to the towns. On the approach of the 1519 imperial election, Joachim\'s vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of King Francis I of France, and Charles of Habsburg. Having treated with both parties, and received lavish promises from them, he appears to have hoped to be Emperor himself; but when the election came, he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of this, relations between the Emperor and the Elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was frequently in communication with Charles\' enemies.
In the course of Hohenzollern power politics Joachim Nestor and his brother managed to get the latter, Albert of Mainz, first onto the sees of Magdeburg and then its suffragan of Halberstadt, both prince-bishoprics also comprising princely territories. Since prince-episcopal sees were so influential, competing candidates usually ran for them. A candidature could turn into a bribery competition, without ever knowing exactly how much competitors paid to obtain office. The expenditures involved, as far as they exceeded one\'s own potential, were usually advanced by creditors and had then to be recovered by levying dues from the subjects and parishioners in the prince-bishoprics and dioceses that were just acquired. The acquisition in 1514 of the very influential Archbishopric-Electorate of Mainz for Albert was a coup that provided the Hohenzollerns with control over two of the seven electoral votes in imperial elections and many suffragan dioceses to levy dues.
According to canon law, Albert was too young to hold such a position and since he would not give up the archiepiscopal see of Magdeburg (in order to terminate the accumulation of archdioceses, which was also prohibited by canon law), the Hohenzollerns had to dispense ever greater briberies at the Holy See. This exhausted their means and caused them to incur vast debts with the Fuggers.
To assist in the recovery of the enormous expenditures employed to assist Albert, mediators stipulated with the Holy See that Pope Leo X would allow Albert to sell indulgences to the believers in his archdioceses and their suffragans. The sales proceeds had to cover the amortisation and servicing of the debts; a share for the Holy See, for allowing this exploitation of the believers; the expenditure paid from the Hohenzollerns own pockets; and the charges involved with the sales.
The neighbouring Electorate of Saxony also bid for the See of Mainz, but failed to secure it. The Saxon elector Frederick the Wise had debts of his own as a result, but no see to show for it and no privilege to sell indulgences to recover his expenditures. Frustrated, he forbade the sale of indulgences in his electorate and allowed Martin Luther to polemicize against them.
Joachim Nestor, in contrast, became known as a pugnacious adherent of Roman Catholic orthodoxy. Joachim Nestor\'s brother, Archbishop Albert, was the initial object of Luther\'s attack. He urged on the Emperor the need to enforce the Edict of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers.
A patron of learning, Joachim Nestor established the Viadrina university of Frankfurt (Oder) in 1506. He promoted Georg von Blumenthal, the \"Pillar of Catholicism\", as Chancellor of Frankfurt University, Bishop of Lebus and a Privy Counsellor. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525 and was a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But against his will, his wife joined her brother Christian II of Denmark in converting to Lutheranism. In 1528 she fled for safety to Saxony. Joachim Nestor experienced the mortification of seeing Protestantism also favoured by other members of his family. He died at Stendal in 1535
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# John Rutsey
**John Howard Rutsey** (July 23, 1952 -- May 11, 2008) was a Canadian musician best known as a founding member and original drummer of Rush. He performed on the band\'s 1974 debut album, but left shortly after its release due to health problems which limited his ability to tour with the band. He was subsequently replaced by Neil Peart, who would remain the drummer of Rush on the band\'s future recordings and for the rest of its active history.
## Biography
### Personal life {#personal_life}
Rutsey was the son of *Toronto Telegram* crime reporter Howard Rutsey. He had an older brother named Bill, and a younger brother named Mike who became a baseball writer. Following the death of their father by heart attack, the brothers were raised by their mother, Eva.
Rutsey was a student at St. Patrick's School, and it was there that he met Gary Weinrib and Alex Zivojinovich (who would later change their names to Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson respectively). Whereas Lee and Lifeson were listening to progressive rock bands such as Yes, Pink Floyd and Genesis at that time, Rutsey drew more inspiration from the harder styles of bands such as Bad Company.
### Formation of Rush {#formation_of_rush}
Rutsey and Lifeson became close friends while attending St. Patrick's School, and the pair would play street hockey together in their neighborhood. Both were interested in rock music, and talked often about forming a band. Together, they initially were members of the bands The Projection with Bill Fitzgerald and \"Doc\" Cooper. Eventually their mutual school friend, Geddy Lee, joined them and the earliest version of Rush was formed.
Rutsey\'s commitment has been credited with providing the band\'s early direction, as it was he who took the band most seriously and would insist on regular practice sessions. According to Ian Grandy, a member of the band\'s early road crew, \"I\'ve said it before and I\'ll say it again: There would have been no \'Rush\' without John.\" At Rutsey\'s suggestion, Rush was initially a glam rock band. \"John led the guys as far as being \'glam rockers\', with really flashy jackets and pants, and eight-inch high boots\", according to Grandy. \"One time, he was speaking to me at the Gasworks and I said, \'Didn\'t we used to be the same height (5\'8\")?\' He laughed and said \'Well, maybe a long time ago!{{\'\"}}
It was Rutsey\'s brother, Bill, who came up with the name Rush for the band during a rehearsal in the Rutsey family basement in mid 1968.
### Career
The band formed with Rutsey on drums, Lifeson on guitars, and Jeff Jones on vocals and bass, but after their first concert Jones left and was succeeded by Lee. During these early years, Rutsey played on the \"Not Fade Away\"/\"You Can\'t Fight It\" single as well as the debut album *Rush*.
Lee and Lifeson have each acknowledged that during the writing and recording sessions for the band\'s debut album, Rutsey was given the role of chief lyricist. When the time came to start recording, however, he did not deliver any lyrics. In interviews, Lee and Lifeson have both said that Rutsey was dissatisfied with what he had written and had torn up the lyric sheets. Lee hastily wrote the lyrics to all the songs before recording the vocal tracks. When Rush performed live, Rutsey was the one who would introduce the band members to the audience, and tell them the name of the song before they would perform it.
Soon after Rush released its debut album, Rutsey left the band, due to musical differences, health concerns related to diabetes, and his general distaste for touring. Rutsey\'s final performance with the group was on July 25, 1974, at Centennial Hall in London, Ontario. He was replaced by Neil Peart.
### Later life {#later_life}
Lifeson stated in a 1989 interview that he still often had seen Rutsey, and after leaving the band Rutsey went into bodybuilding. Lifeson remarked, \"He competed on an amateur level for a while, doing that for a few years, and has sort of been in and out of that, but he still works out, and I work out with him a few times a week at a local gym -- at a Gold\'s, here in Toronto.\" In 2005, Lifeson said that he had not seen Rutsey since around 1990.
### Death
On May 11, 2008, Rutsey died in his sleep of an apparent heart attack, related to complications from diabetes. Rutsey\'s family wished to keep the funeral a private affair, although donations would be sent to the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation in Markham, Ontario.
## Aftermath
After Rutsey\'s death, Lee and Lifeson released this statement: \"Our memories of the early years of Rush when John was in the band are very fond to us. Those years spent in our teens dreaming of one day doing what we continue to do decades later are special. Although our paths diverged many years ago, we smile today, thinking back on those exciting times and remembering John\'s wonderful sense of humour and impeccable timing. He will be deeply missed by all he touched.\"
Rutsey\'s part in the band\'s early history is acknowledged in the 2010 documentary *Rush: Beyond the Lighted Stage*. Tape-recorded comments from him are heard during the film, and the DVD release includes two performances with him on drums in its bonus features. A third performance is included as a bonus feature on the *Time Machine 2011: Live in Cleveland* home video release
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# John von Neumann Theory Prize
The **John von Neumann Theory Prize** of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) is awarded annually to an individual (or sometimes a group) who has made fundamental and sustained contributions to theory in operations research and the management sciences.
The Prize named after mathematician John von Neumann is awarded for a body of work, rather than a single piece. The Prize was intended to reflect contributions that have stood the test of time. The criteria include significance, innovation, depth, and scientific excellence.
The award is \$5,000, a medallion and a citation.
The Prize has been awarded since 1975. The first recipient was George B. Dantzig for his work on linear programming.
## List of recipients {#list_of_recipients}
- 2024 Jim Dai
- 2023 Christos Papadimitriou and Mihalis Yannakakis
- 2022 Vijay Vazirani
- 2021 Alexander Shapiro
- 2020 Adrian Lewis
- 2019 Dimitris Bertsimas and Jong-Shi Pang
- 2018 Dimitri Bertsekas and John Tsitsiklis
- *for contributions to Parallel and Distributed Computation as well as Neurodynamic Programming.*
- 2017 Donald Goldfarb and Jorge Nocedal
- *for seminal contributions to the theory and applications of nonlinear optimization over the past several decades.*
- 2016 Martin I. Reiman and Ruth J. Williams
- *for seminal research contributions over the past several decades, to the theory and applications of "stochastic networks/systems" and their "heavy traffic approximations."*
- 2015 Vašek Chvátal and Jean Bernard Lasserre
- *for seminal and profound contributions to the theoretical foundations of optimization.*
- 2014 Nimrod Megiddo
- *for fundamental contributions across a broad range of areas of operations research and management science, most notably in linear programming, combinatorial optimization, and algorithmic game theory.*
- 2013 Michel Balinski
- 2012 George Nemhauser and Laurence Wolsey
- 2011 Gérard Cornuéjols, IBM University Professor of Operations Research at Carnegie Mellon University\'s Tepper School of Business
- *for his fundamental and broad contributions to discrete optimization including his deep research on balanced and ideal matrices, perfect graphs and cutting planes for mixed-integer optimization.*
- 2010 Søren Asmussen and Peter W. Glynn
- 2009 Yurii Nesterov and Yinyu Ye
- 2008 Frank Kelly
- 2007 Arthur F. Veinott, Jr.
- *for his profound contributions to three major areas of operations research and management science: inventory theory, dynamic programming and lattice programming.*
- 2006 Martin Grötschel, László Lovász and Alexander Schrijver
- *for their fundamental path-breaking work in combinatorial optimization.*
- 2005 Robert J. Aumann
- *in recognition of his fundamental contributions to game theory and related areas*
- 2004 J. Michael Harrison
- *for his profound contributions to two major areas of operations research and management science: stochastic networks and mathematical finance.*
- 2003 Arkadi Nemirovski and Michael J. Todd
- *for their seminal and profound contributions in continuous optimization*.
- 2002 Donald L. Iglehart and Cyrus Derman
- *for their fundamental contributions to performance analysis and optimization of stochastic systems*
- 2001 Ward Whitt
- *for his contributions to queueing theory, applied probability and stochastic modelling*
- 2000 Ellis L. Johnson and Manfred W. Padberg
- 1999 R. Tyrrell Rockafellar
- 1998 Fred W. Glover
- 1997 Peter Whittle
- 1996 Peter C. Fishburn
- 1995 Egon Balas
- 1994 Lajos Takacs
- 1993 Robert Herman
- 1992 Alan J. Hoffman and Philip Wolfe
- 1991 Richard E. Barlow and Frank Proschan
- 1990 Richard Karp
- 1989 Harry M. Markowitz
- 1988 Herbert A. Simon
- 1987 Samuel Karlin
- 1986 Kenneth J. Arrow
- 1985 Jack Edmonds
- 1984 Ralph Gomory
- 1983 Herbert Scarf
- 1982 Abraham Charnes, William W. Cooper, and Richard J. Duffin
- 1981 Lloyd Shapley
- 1980 David Gale, Harold W. Kuhn, and Albert W. Tucker
- 1979 David Blackwell
- 1978 John F. Nash and Carlton E. Lemke
- 1977 Felix Pollaczek
- 1976 Richard Bellman
- 1975 George B. Dantzig *for his work on linear programming*
There is also an IEEE John von Neumann Medal awarded by the IEEE annually \"for outstanding achievements in computer-related science and technology\"
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# Jean Richard (actor)
**Jean Richard** (18 April 1921 -- 12 December 2001) was a French actor, comedian, and circus entrepreneur.`{{Better source needed|reason=Lentz doesn't cite any sources for this entry and uses "several sources on the internet" for the book|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} He is best remembered for his role as Georges Simenon\'s *Maigret* in the eponymous French television series, which he played for more than twenty years, and for his circus activities.
Richard was born in Bessines, Deux-Sevres. In the 1970s--1980s, he owned and managed three major circuses, two theme parks near Paris, La Mer de Sable and La Vallée des Peaux-Rouges, and a private zoo in his property of Ermenonville, Oise. He died on 12 December 2001 in Senlis, aged 80.
## Filmography
- 1947: *Six heures à perdre* (directed by Alex Joffé Jean Lévitte) -- Le sergent de ville
- 1949: *Mission à Tanger* (directed by André Hunebelle) -- Le président
- 1949: *I Like Only You* -- Un passager de l\'avion
- 1950: *King Pandora* (directed by André Berthomieu) -- Quichenette
- 1950: *Adémaï au poteau-frontière* (directed by Paul Colline)
- 1951: *The King of the Bla Bla Bla* -- Jacques
- 1951: *Bernard and the Lion* (directed by Robert Dhéry) -- Le brigadier
- 1951: *Le passage de Vénus*
- 1952: *Le Costaud des Batignolles* (directed by Guy Lacourt) -- L\'inspecteur de police
- 1952: *Les Sept Péchés capitaux* -- Le paysan (segment \"Gourmandise, La / Gluttony\")
- 1952: *La Demoiselle et son revenant* (directed by Marc Allégret) -- Ricard
- 1952: *Drôle de noce* (directed by Léo Joannon) -- Joseph Bonhomme
- 1953: *Deux de l\'escadrille* (directed by Maurice Labro) -- Pierre Dourdan -- dit \'Saucisse\'
- 1953: *Wonderful Mentality* (directed by André Berthomieu) -- Honoré Bonvalet
- 1953: *Week-end à Paris* (directed by Gordon Parry)
- 1953: *Le Portrait de son père* (directed by André Berthomieu) -- Paul
- 1953: *Cinema d\'altri tempi* -- Pasquale
- 1954: *Si Versailles m\'était conté* (directed by Sacha Guitry) -- Du Croisy / Tartuffe
- 1954: *Service Entrance* (directed by Carlo Rim) -- Jules Béchard
- 1954: *Scènes de ménage* -- Des Rillettes
- 1954: *The Cheerful Squadron* -- Il soldato Laperrine
- 1954: *Les Deux font la paire* (directed by André Berthomieu) -- Achille Baluchet
- 1954: *Casta Diva* (directed by Carmine Gallone) -- Domenico Fiorillo
- 1955: *Chéri-Bibi* (directed by Marcello Pagliero) -- Chéri-bibi / Maxime du Touchais
- 1955: *Madelon* (directed by Jean Boyer) -- Antoine Pichot
- 1955: *Eléna et les hommes* (directed by Jean Renoir) -- Hector
- 1956: *La vie est belle* -- L\'employé
- 1956: *Short Head* (directed by Norbert Carbonnaux) -- Ferdinan Galiveau, éleveur de volailles à Parthenay
- 1957: *Nous autres à Champignol* (directed by Jean Bastia) -- Claudius Binoche
- 1957: *The Bear\'s Skin* (directed by Claude Boissol) -- Commissaire Étienne Ledru
- 1957: *C\'est arrivé à 36 chandelles* -- Jean Richard (uncredited)
- 1957: *Les Truands* (directed by Carlo Rim) -- Alexandre Benoit
- 1958: *En bordée* (directed by Pierre Chevalier) -- Prosper Cartahu
- 1958: *Life Together* (directed by Clément Duhour) -- André Le Lorrain
- 1959: *Cigarettes, Whiskey and Wild Women* -- Le client assommé qui demande du wisky (uncredited)
- 1959: *The Gendarme of Champignol* (directed by Jean Bastia) -- Claudius Binoche
- 1959: *Messieurs les ronds de cuir* (directed by Henri Diamant-Berger) -- Boudin
- 1959: *Vous n\'avez rien à déclarer?* (directed by Clément Duhour) -- Frontignac
- 1959: *Arrêtez le massacre* (directed by André Hunebelle) -- Antoine Martin
- 1959: *Mon pote le gitan* (directed by François Gir) -- Pittuiti
- 1959: *The Goose of Sedan* (directed by Helmut Käutner) -- Leon Riffard
- 1959: *Certains l\'aiment froide* (directed by Jean Bastia and Guy Lionel) -- Jérôme Valmorin
- 1960: *Tête folle* (directed by Robert Vernay)
- 1960: *Candide ou l\'optimisme au XXe siècle* -- Le trafiquant du marché noir / Black Marketeer
- 1960: *Les Tortillards* (directed by Jean Bastia) -- César Beauminet
- 1960: *Les Fortiches* (directed by Georges Combret) -- Dédé
- 1961: *The Fenouillard Family* (directed by Yves Robert) -- Agénor Fenouillard
- 1961: *Ma femme est une panthère* (directed by Raymond Bailly) -- Roger
- 1961: *La Belle Américaine* (directed by Robert Dhéry) -- le serrurier
- 1961: *It Can\'t Always Be Caviar* (directed by Géza von Radványi) -- Siméon
- 1961: *This Time It Must Be Caviar* (directed by Géza von Radványi) -- Siméon
- 1962: *La Guerre des boutons* (directed by Yves Robert) -- Lebrac\'s father
- 1962: *Tartarin of Tarascon* (directed by Francis Blanche) -- Le directeur du cirque \'Mitaine\'
- 1962: *Un clair de lune à Maubeuge* (directed by Jean Chérasse) -- Philibert
- 1962: *Nous irons à Deauville* (directed by Francis Rigaud) -- Le plombier -- M. Simeon
- 1962: *Du mouron pour les petits oiseaux* (directed by Marcel Carné) -- Louis -- le boucher
- 1963: *The Bamboo Stroke* (directed by Jean Boyer) -- Albert
- 1963: *Dragées au poivre* (directed by Jacques Baratier) -- Lepetit (le nounou 2)
- 1963: *Bebert and the Train* (directed by Yves Robert) -- M. Martin
- 1964: *Clémentine chérie* (directed by Pierre Chevalier) -- Auguste
- 1964: *Jealous as a Tiger* (directed by Darry Cowl) -- Le monsieur à la voiture accidentée
- 1964: *Allez France* (directed by Robert Dhéry and Pierre Tchernia) -- Un français dans le bus
- 1964: *Comment épouser un premier ministre* (directed by Michel Boisrond) -- Le promoteur
- 1964: *Le Dernier tiercé* (directed by Richard Pottier) -- Laredon
- 1965: *La Bonne occase* (directed by Michel Drach)
- 1965: *Black Humor* -- Polyte -- segment 1 \'La Bestiole\'
- 1965: *Les Mordus de Paris* -- M
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# Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems
**Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems** or **JINTACCS** is a program of the United States Department of Defense for the development and maintenance of tactical information exchange configuration items (CIs) and operational procedures. It was originated in 1977 to ensure that the command and control (C2 and C3) and weapons systems of all US military services and NATO forces would be compatible.
It is made up of standard Message Text Formats (MTF) for man-readable and machine-processable information, a core set of common warfighting symbols, and data link standards called Tactical Data Links (TDLs).
JINTACCS was initiated by the US Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1977 as a successor to the Joint Interoperability of Tactical Command and Control Systems in Support of Ground and Amphibious Military Operations (1971-1977). As of 1982 the command was hosted at Fort Monmouth in Monmouth County, New Jersey, and employed 39 military people and 23 civilians
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# Julian Jaynes
**Julian Jaynes** (February 27, 1920 -- November 21, 1997) was an American psychologist who worked at the universities of Yale and Princeton for nearly 25 years and became best known for his 1976 book *The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind*. His work focused on the problem of consciousness: \"the difference between what others see of us and our sense of our inner selves and the deep feelings that sustain it. \... Men have been conscious of the problem of consciousness almost since consciousness began.\" Jaynes\'s solution touches on many disciplines, including neuroscience, linguistics, psychology, archeology, history, religion and analysis of ancient texts.
## Early life {#early_life}
Jaynes was born and lived in West Newton, Massachusetts, son of Julian Clifford Jaynes (1854--1922), a Unitarian minister, and Clara Bullard Jaynes (1884--1980). He had an older sister, Helen, and a younger brother, Robert. The family had a summer home in Keppoch, Prince Edward Island, which was a place Jaynes loved, and which gave him a Canadian connection for his entire life.
In the summer of 1939 he registered to attend Harvard University but took a scholarship from McGill University, where he graduated in 1941 with a bachelor\'s degree in psychology, and then began graduate studies at the University of Toronto to learn more about the brain. His studies were interrupted during the Second World War: because of his Unitarian principles, he applied for and received official recognition as a conscientious objector, but refused to comply with the U.S. government\'s law for pacifists; Jaynes spent three years in the penitentiary at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, working in the prison hospital. On his release in 1946 he enrolled at Yale University hoping that in animal behavior he would find clues to the beginnings of consciousness. Jaynes received his master\'s degree in 1948, and then refused to accept his doctorate, again on a dispute of \"principle\" regarding educational credentials. After Yale, Jaynes spent several years in England working as an actor and playwright.
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# Julian Jaynes
## Academic career {#academic_career}
He returned to Yale in 1954, working as an Instructor and Lecturer until 1960, making significant contributions in the fields of experimental psychology, learning, and ethology, and co-publishing some papers with Frank A. Beach. Jaynes had begun to turn his focus to comparative psychology and the history of psychology, and in 1964 he became a research associate at Princeton University. There he befriended Edwin G. Boring, and with plenty of time to pursue the problem of consciousness, Princeton became his academic home until 1995.
### Research and motivations {#research_and_motivations}
Jaynes had dedicated years of research in psychology to the problem of consciousness and he had sought the roots of consciousness in the processes of learning and cognition that animals and humans shared in common, in accord with prevailing evolutionary assumptions that dominated mid-20th century thinking. He had established his reputation in the study of animal learning and natural animal behaviour, and in 1968 he lectured on the history of comparative psychology at the National Science Foundation Summer Institute. In September 1969 he gave his first public address on his \"new theory of consciousness\" at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association.
His \"radical approach\" explained the phenomena of introspection as dependent on culture and language, especially metaphors, more than on the physiology of the brain. This was a challenge to mainstream assumptions of 20th century research, especially to those that justified looking for origins of consciousness in evolution. It was also a challenge to the behaviorists, who, \"under the tutelage of John Watson, solved the problem of consciousness by ignoring it.\" What they had \'ignored\' were the problems of introspection and the weaknesses of introspectionist methods of 19th century psychologists. Those 20th century thinkers who questioned the existence of introspection never doubted the existence of sense perception, however; they clearly distinguished between the two. On the other hand, in later years Jaynes\'s approach had become \"radical\" for emphasizing the distinction. Jaynes differed with those who ignored it, for example Stuart Sutherland, who simply defined consciousness as \'awareness\'. Jaynes acknowledged that his whole argument was \"contradictory to the usual and \[\...\] superficial views of consciousness\", and he insisted that \"the most common error\" people make \"is to confuse consciousness with perception.\"
> But there can be no progress in the science of consciousness until careful distinctions have been made between what is introspectable and all the hosts of other neural abilities we have come to call cognition. Consciousness is not the same as cognition and should be sharply distinguished from it.
In the years following, Jaynes talked more about how consciousness began, presenting \"his talk \[\...\] widely, as word of his slightly outrageous but tantalizing theory had spread.\" In 1972 he had delivered a paper, \"The Origin of Consciousness\", at Cornell University, writing: \"For if consciousness is based on language, then it follows that only humans are conscious, and that we became so at some historical epoch after language was evolved.\" This took Jaynes, as he put it, directly into \"the earliest writings of mankind to see if we can find any hints as to when this important invention of consciousness might have occurred.\" He went to ancient texts searching for early evidence of consciousness, and found what he believed to be evidence of remarkably recent `{{em|voice-hearing without consciousness}}`{=mediawiki}. In the semi-historical Greek epic the *Iliad* Jaynes found \"the earliest writing of men in a language that we can really comprehend, \[which\] when looked at objectively, reveals a very different mentality from our own.\" In a 1978 interview, Richard Rhodes reported that Jaynes \"took up the study of Greek to trace Greek words for mind back to their origins. By the time he got to the *Iliad*, the words had become concrete, but there is no word for mind in the *Iliad* at all.\"
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# Julian Jaynes
## Academic career {#academic_career}
### Publications and theories {#publications_and_theories}
Jaynes\'s one and only book, published in 1976, is *The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind*. The topic of consciousness -- \"the human ability to introspect\" -- is introduced by reviewing prior efforts to explain its problematic nature: those efforts, as one of Jaynes\'s early critics has acknowledged, add up to a \"spectacular history of failure\". Abandoning the assumption that consciousness is innate, Jaynes explains it instead as a learned behavior that \"arises \... from language, and specifically from metaphor.\" With this understanding, Jaynes then demonstrates that ancient texts and archeology can reveal a history of human mentality alongside the histories of other cultural products. His analysis of the evidence leads him not only to place the origin of consciousness during the 2nd millennium BCE but also to hypothesize the existence of an older non-conscious \"mentality that he calls the bicameral mind, referring to the brain\'s two hemispheres\".
After publishing `{{em|[[The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind]]}}`{=mediawiki}, Jaynes was frequently invited to speak at conferences and as a guest lecturer at other universities. In 1984, he was invited to give the plenary lecture at the Wittgenstein Symposium in Kirchberg, Austria. He gave six major lectures in 1985 and nine in 1986. He was awarded an honorary PhD by Rhode Island College in 1979 and another from Elizabethtown College in 1985.
Jaynes wrote an extensive afterword for the 1990 edition of his book, in which he addressed criticisms and clarified that his theory has four separate hypotheses: 1) consciousness is based on and accessed by language; 2) the non-conscious bicameral mind is based on verbal hallucinations; 3) the breakdown of bicameral mind precedes consciousness, but the dating is variable; 4) the \'double brain\' of bicamerality is based on the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex being organized differently from today\'s functional lateralization. He also expanded on the impact of consciousness on imagination and memory, notions of the self, emotions, anxiety, guilt, and sexuality.
## Death
Jaynes died at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, on November 21, 1997. In 2006, his biographers Woodward and Tower reported that Jaynes \"felt he had not truly succeeded\" in his lifelong work because, in their words, \"\[h\]e was right\" about his feeling that \"there were people who disagreed with him \[who\] had not really read his book or understood it.\"
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# Julian Jaynes
## Legacy
The **Julian Jaynes Society** was founded by Marcel Kuijsten in 1997, shortly after Jaynes\'s death. The society has published a number of books on Julian Jaynes\'s theory including foreign-language editions of Julian Jaynes\'s theory in French, German, and Spanish. The society also maintains a member area, with articles, lectures, and interviews on Jaynes\'s theory.
## Works
Articles
-
-
Books
-
- A collection of articles, interviews, and discussion with Julian Jaynes
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# Jan Borukowski
**Jan Borukowski** of Bielin (1524--1584) was the Bishop of Przemyśl, and was the royal secretary of Poland from 1553. In 1569, he signed the act of annexation of Podlaskie, Volhynia and Kyiv to the kingdom during Sejm in Lublin
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# Joel Marangella
**Joel Marangella** is an American oboist who has performed in concert with many of the world\'s leading orchestras. A founding member of the Speculum Musicae, he was the principal oboist for the West Australian Symphony Orchestra, and a founding member of the New Music Ensemble.
## Biography
Marangella was born in Washington, D.C., and first studied in France with Fernand Eché at the Conservatoire National de Musique d'Orléans, and later with Pierre Pierlot, Maurice Bourgue, and Etienne Baudo at the Conservatoire de Paris. He pursued further studies at the Juilliard School in New York City, earning both bachelor\'s and master\'s degrees in music. While there he was a member of the Juilliard Ensemble under the direction of Luciano Berio, performing with them not only in New York but also the University of Hawaii and Dartmouth College.
In 1971 Marangella won the Young Concert Artists International Auditions which led to his recital debut at Carnegie Hall. That same year he helped form the Speculum Musicae. He soon began to perform with notable music groups throughout the United States, notably playing the American premiere of Hans Werner Henze's *Double Concerto* with the National Symphony Orchestra at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. He has also appeared at several chamber music festivals, including the Spoleto Festival of the Two Worlds in Italy.
Marangella has served as principal oboist for numerous ballet orchestras throughout his career. Former posts include Principal Oboe with the New York City Ballet, the American Ballet Theatre, the Bolshoi Ballet, the Royal Ballet, the Royal Swedish Ballet, and the Royal Danish Ballet.
More recently Marangella\'s career has been centered in Australia. He has appeared as a soloist for all the major Australian orchestras, and has been Guest Principal Oboe with the Sydney Symphony
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# Jeroboam II
**Jeroboam II** (*יָרָבְעָם*, *Yāroḇʿām*; *Ἱεροβοάμ*; *Hieroboam/Jeroboam*), also referred to as **Jeroboam son of Jehoash**, was the successor of Jehoash (alternatively spelled Joash) and the thirteenth king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, over which he ruled for forty-one years in the eighth century BC. His reign was contemporary with those of Amaziah and Uzziah, kings of Judah. Jeroboam is the fourth king of the House of Jehu and the longest-reigning king of the kingdom of Israel in Samaria. He is described as a military commander who fought Syria.
## History
William F. Albright has dated his reign to 786--746 BC, while E. R. Thiele says he was coregent with Jehoash 793 to 782 BC and sole ruler 782 to 753 BC.
He extended Israel to its former limits, from \"the entering of Hamath to the sea of the plain\".
In 1910, G. A. Reisner found sixty-three inscribed potsherds while excavating the royal palace at Samaria, which were later dated to the reign of Jeroboam II and mention regnal years extending from the ninth to the 17th of his reign. These ostraca, while unremarkable in themselves, contain valuable information about the script, language, religion and administrative system of the period. During the excavations at Megiddo in 1904, an 8th century BCE Hebrew seal was found with the image of a roaring lion and the inscription \"Belonging to Shema, servant of Jeroboam.\" In 2020, a number of scholars claimed to have authenticated an unprovenanced bulla belonging to the same official, but others hold that it is a forgery based on the Megiddo seal.
Archaeological evidence confirms the biblical account of his reign as the most prosperous that the northern kingdom of Israel had yet known. By the late 8th century BC, the territory of Israel was the most densely settled in the entire Levant, with a population of about 350,000. This prosperity was built on trade in olive oil, wine, and possibly horses, with Egypt and especially Assyria providing the markets. According to the prophet Amos, the triumphs of the king had engendered a haughty spirit of boastful overconfidence at home. Oppression and exploitation of the poor by the mighty, luxury in palaces of unheard-of splendor, and a craving for amusement were some of the internal fruits of these external triumphs. Archaeologist Israel Finkelstein has argued that many of the stories of King Solomon\'s rule over a large, prosperous kingdom were inspired by memories or records of the reign of Jeroboam II. For example, Finkelstein claimed that a list of districts in 1 Kings 4 supposedly under Solomonic rule actually matches the geographic boundaries of the Kingdom of Israel in the time of Jeroboam II. Thomas Römer has argued that Jeroboam I may not have existed and that Deuteronomistic redactors transferred the reign of Jeroboam II to Jeroboam I, although Lester L. Grabbe finds this theory unlikely.
Under Jeroboam II, the God of Israel was worshiped at Dan and Beth-el and at other old Israelite shrines, through actual images, such as the golden calf. These services at Dan and Beth-el, at Gilgal and Beer-sheba, were of a nature to arouse the indignation of the prophets, and the foreign cults, both numerous and degrading, contributed still further to arousing of the prophetic spirit. Jeroboam\'s reign was the period of the prophets Hosea, Joel, Amos and Jonah, all of whom condemned the materialism and selfishness of the Israelite elite of their day: \"Woe unto those who lie upon beds of ivory \... eat lambs from the flock and calves \... \[and\] sing idle songs \...\" The Book of Kings condemns Jeroboam for doing \"evil in the eyes of the Lord\", meaning both the oppression of the poor and his continuing support of the cult centres of Dan and Bethel, in opposition to the temple in Jerusalem. He was allowed to reign for 41 years because he protected the prophet Amos.
### Earthquake in Israel c. 760 BC {#earthquake_in_israel_c._760_bc}
A major earthquake had occurred in Israel c. 760 BC, which may have been during the time of Jeroboam II, towards the end of his rule. This earthquake is mentioned in the Book of Amos as having occurred during the rule of \"Jeroboam son of Jehoash\".
Geologists believe they have found evidence of this big earthquake in sites throughout Israel and Jordan. Archeologists Yigael Yadin and Israel Finkelstein dated the earthquake level at Tel Hazor to 760 BC based on stratigraphic analysis of the destruction debris. Similarly, David Ussishkin arrived at the same date based on the \"sudden destruction\" level at Lachish.
According to Steven A. Austin, the magnitude of this earthquake may have been at least 7.8, but more likely as high as 8.2. \"This magnitude 8 event of 750 B.C. appears to be the largest yet documented on the Dead Sea transform fault zone during the last four millennia.\"
The epicenter of this earthquake may have been 200--300 km north of present-day Israel.
Multiple biblical references exist to this earthquake in the Book of Amos, and also in Zechariah 14:5.
Recent excavations by Aren Maeir in ancient Gath have revealed evidence of a major earthquake.
> \"Based on the tight stratigraphic context, this can be dated to the mid-8th cent. BCE\" \...
## In the Bible {#in_the_bible}
His name occurs in the Old Testament only in 2 Kings; 1 Chronicles; Book of Hosea; and Book of Amos. In all other passages it is Jeroboam I, the son of Nebat that is meant
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# Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted
**Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted** (`{{IPA|da|joˈhænˀəs ne̝koˈlɛːus ˈpʁɶnsteð|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 22 February 1879 -- 17 December 1947) was a Danish physical chemist who is best known for developing the Brønsted--Lowry acid--base theory; he developed the theory at the same time as (but independently of) Martin Lowry.
## Biography
Brønsted was born in Varde, Denmark on 22 February 1879. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his father died when Brønsted was 14 years old; he then moved to Copenhagen with his older sister and his stepmother. In 1897, Brønsted began his studies as a chemical engineer at the Polytechnic Institute in Copenhagen. After his first degree, Brønsted changed fields and received his magister degree in chemistry in 1902 from the University of Copenhagen. In 1905, he became an assistant at the Chemical Institute and obtained his doctoral degree in 1908. In the same year, Brønsted became a professor of physical and inorganic chemistry at the University of Copenhagen.
In 1929, Brønsted was a visiting professor at Yale University. His research gained worldwide recognition, resulting in four Nobel Prize nominations, a gold H. C. Ørsted Medal and being appointed as a fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Brønsted married Charlotte Warberg, whom he met during his first degree. The couple had four children. In World War II, Brønsted\'s opposition to the Nazis led to his election to the Danish parliament in 1947, but he was too ill to take his seat and died shortly after the election.
## Research
Early in his career, Brønsted studied chemical thermodynamics and later studied electrolyte solutions and carried out an extensive series of solubility measurements. These measurements led him to establish general laws which were later confirmed when the Debye--Hückel theory was proposed.
Brønsted is best known for his work on reaction kinetics, in particular acid--base reactions. In 1923, he recognized that acid--base reactions involved the transfer of a proton, from the acid (proton donor) to the base (proton acceptor). Almost simultaneously and independently, the British chemist Martin Lowry arrived at the same conclusion, thus the name Brønsted--Lowry acid--base theory. Also in 1923, Gilbert N. Lewis proposed an electronic theory of acid--base reactions, but both theories remain commonly used.
Later in his career, Brønsted kept studying reaction kinetics, with a special focus on reactions taking place in non-aqueous solutions. He also developed some work about the effect of molecular size on the thermodynamical properties of hydrocarbons, polymers and colloids. He also worked with the Nobel prize winner George de Hevesy on isotope separation by fractional distillation
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# Jacob Grimm
**Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm** (4 January 1785 -- 20 September 1863), also known as **Ludwig Karl**, was a German author, linguist, philologist, jurist, and folklorist. He formulated Grimm\'s law of linguistics, and was the co-author of the *Deutsches Wörterbuch*, the author of *Deutsche Mythologie*, and the editor of *Grimms\' Fairy Tales*. He was the older brother of Wilhelm Grimm; together, they were the literary duo known as the Brothers Grimm.
## Life and books {#life_and_books}
Jacob Grimm was born 4 January 1785, in Hanau in Hesse-Kassel. His father, Philipp Grimm, was a lawyer who died while Jacob was a child, and his mother Dorothea was left with a very small income. Her sister was the lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, and she helped to support and educate the family. Jacob was sent to the public school at Kassel in 1798 with his younger brother Wilhelm.
In 1802, he went to the University of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had been intended by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a severe illness, and likewise began the study of law. He then later with his brother, Wilhelm Grimm, wrote Grimms\' Fairy Tales.
### Meeting von Savigny {#meeting_von_savigny}
Jacob Grimm became inspired by the lectures of Friedrich Carl von Savigny, a noted expert of Roman law; Wilhelm Grimm, in the preface to the *Deutsche Grammatik* (German Grammar), credits Savigny with giving the brothers an awareness of science. Savigny\'s lectures also awakened in Jacob a love for historical and antiquarian investigation, which underlies all his work. It was in Savigny\'s library that Grimm first saw Bodmer\'s edition of the Middle High German minnesingers and other early texts, which gave him a desire to study their language.
At the beginning of 1805, he was invited by Savigny to Paris, to help him in his literary work. There Grimm strengthened his taste for the literature of the Middle Ages. Towards the close of the year, he returned to Kassel, where his mother and brother had settled after Wilhelm finished his studies. The following year, Jacob obtained a position in the war office with a small salary of 100 thalers. He complained that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform and pigtail, but the role gave him spare time for the pursuit of his studies.
### Librarianship
In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the private library of Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Kassel had been incorporated by Napoleon. Grimm was appointed an auditor to the state council, while retaining his superintendent post. His salary rose to 4000 francs and his official duties were nominal. In 1813, after the expulsion of Bonaparte and the reinstatement of an elector, Grimm was appointed Secretary of Legation accompanying the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814, he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of books taken by the French, and he attended the Congress of Vienna as Secretary of Legation in 1814--1815. Upon his return from Vienna, he was sent to Paris again to secure book restitutions. Meanwhile, Wilhelm had obtained a job at the Kassel library, and Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel in 1816. Upon the death of Volkel in 1828, the brothers both expected promotion, and they were dissatisfied when the role of the first librarian was given to Rommel, the keeper of the archives. Consequently, they moved the following year to the University of Göttingen, where Jacob was appointed professor and librarian, and Wilhelm under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on the *Germania* of Tacitus.
### Later work {#later_work}
Grimm joined other academics, known as the Göttingen Seven, who signed a protest against the King of Hanover\'s abrogation of the liberal constitution which had been established some years before. As a result, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the Kingdom of Hanover in 1837. He returned to Kassel with his brother, who had also signed the protest. They remained there until 1840 when they accepted King Frederick William IV\'s invitation to move to the University of Berlin, where they both received professorships and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Grimm was not under any obligation to lecture, and seldom did so; he spent his time working with his brother on their dictionary project. During their time in Kassel, he regularly attended the meetings of the academy and read papers on varied subjects, including Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann, Friedrich Schiller, old age, and the origin of language. He described his impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing more general observations with linguistic details. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857.
Grimm died in Berlin at the age of 78, working until the very end of his life. He describes his own work at the end of his autobiography:
> Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of the written monuments.
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# Jacob Grimm
## Linguistic work {#linguistic_work}
### *History of the German Language* {#history_of_the_german_language}
Grimm\'s *Geschichte der deutschen Sprache* (History of the German Language) explores German history hidden in the words of the German language and is the oldest linguistic history of the Teutonic tribes. He collected scattered words and allusions from classical literature and tried to determine the relationship between the German language and those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and other nations whose languages were known only through Greek and Latin authors. Grimm\'s results were later greatly modified by a wider range of available comparisons and improved methods of investigation. Many questions that he raised remain obscure due to the lack of surviving records of the languages, but his book\'s influence was profound.
### *German Grammar* {#german_grammar}
Grimm\'s famous *Deutsche Grammatik* (German Grammar) was the outcome of his purely philological work. He drew on the work of past generations, from the humanists onwards, consulting an enormous collection of materials in the form of text editions, dictionaries, and grammars, mostly uncritical and unreliable. Some work had been done in the way of comparison and determination of general laws, and the concept of a comparative Germanic grammar had been grasped by the Englishman George Hickes by the beginning of the 18th century, in his *Thesaurus*. Ten Kate in the Netherlands had made valuable contributions to the history and comparison of Germanic languages. Grimm himself did not initially intend to include all the languages in his *Grammar*, but he soon found that Old High German postulated Gothic, and that the later stages of German could not be understood without the help of other West Germanic varieties including English, and that the literature of Scandinavia could not be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the *Grammar*, which appeared in 1819, treated the inflections of all these languages, and included a general introduction in which he vindicated the importance of a historical study of the German language against the quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue.
In 1822 the book appeared in a second edition (really a new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, he had to \"mow the first crop down to the ground\"). The considerable gap between the two stages of Grimm\'s development of these editions is shown by the fact that the second volume addresses phonology in 600 pages -- more than half the volume. Grimm had concluded that all philology must be based on rigorous adherence to the laws of sound change, and he subsequently never deviated from this principle. This gave to all his investigations a consistency and force of conviction that had been lacking in the study of philology before his day.
His advances have been attributed mainly to the influence of his contemporary Rasmus Christian Rask. Rask was two years younger than Grimm, but the Icelandic paradigms in Grimm\'s first editions are based entirely on Rask\'s grammar; in his second edition, he relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask is shown by comparing his treatment of Old English in the two editions. For example, in the first edition he declines *dæg, dæges*, plural *dægas*, without having observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. (The correct plural is *dagas.*) The appearance of Rask\'s Old English grammar was probably the primary impetus for Grimm to recast his work from the beginning. Rask was also the first to clearly formulate the laws of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the vowels (previously ignored by etymologists).
The *Grammar* was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation, composition and syntax, the last of which was unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The *Grammar* is noted for its comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail, with all his points illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators. Diez\'s grammar of the Romance languages is founded entirely on Grimm\'s methods, which have had a profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-European languages in general.
### Grimm\'s law {#grimms_law}
Jacob is recognized for enunciating Grimm\'s law, the Germanic Sound Shift, which was first observed by the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask. Grimm\'s law, also known as the \"Rask-Grimm Rule\" or the First Germanic Sound Shift, was the first law in linguistics concerning a non-trivial sound change. It was a turning point in the development of linguistics, enabling the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historic linguistic research. It concerns the correspondence of consonants between the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language and its Germanic descendants, Low Saxon and High German, and was first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first part of his *Grammar*. The correspondence of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors, including Friedrich von Schlegel, Rasmus Christian Rask and Johan Ihre, the last having established a considerable number of *literarum permutationes*, such as **b** for **f**, with the examples *bœra* = *ferre* (\"to bear\"), *befwer* = *fibra* (\"fiber\"). Rask, in his essay on the origin of the Icelandic language, gave the same comparisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentioned Rask\'s essay, there is every probability that it inspired his own investigations. But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations described by his predecessors and his own comprehensive generalizations. The extension of the law to High German in any case is entirely Grimm\'s work.
The idea that Grimm wished to deprive Rask of his priority claims is based on the fact that he does not expressly mention Rask\'s results in his second edition, but it was always his plan to refrain from all controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first edition, he calls attention to Rask\'s essay and praises it ungrudgingly. Nevertheless, a certain bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, after Rask refused to consider the value of Grimm\'s views when they clashed with his own.
### *German Dictionary* {#german_dictionary}
Grimm\'s monumental dictionary of the German Language, the *Deutsches Wörterbuch*, was started in 1838 and first published in 1854. The Brothers anticipated it would take 10 years and encompass some six to seven volumes. However, it was undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for them to complete it. The dictionary, as far as it was worked on by Grimm himself, has been described as a collection of disconnected antiquarian essays of high value. It was finally finished by subsequent scholars in 1961 and supplemented in 1971. At 33 volumes at some 330,000 headwords, it remains a standard work of reference to the present day. A current project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities is underway to update the *Deutsches Wörterbuch* to modern academic standards. Volumes A--F were planned for completion in 2012 by the Language Research Centre at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the University of Göttingen.
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# Jacob Grimm
## Literary work {#literary_work}
The first work Jacob Grimm published, *Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang* (1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay, Grimm showed that *Minnesang* and *Meistergesang* were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of development, and also announced his important discovery of the invariable division of the *Lied* into three strophic parts.
Grimm\'s text-editions were mostly prepared in conjunction with his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the *Hildebrandslied* and the *Weißenbrunner Gebet*, Jacob having discovered what until then had never been suspected --- namely the alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for text editing, and, as he himself confessed, working on a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre.
Both Brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published In 1816--1818 a collection of legends culled from diverse sources and published the two-volume *Deutsche Sagen* (German Legends). At the same time they collected all the folktales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812--1815 the first edition of those *Kinder- und Hausmärchen* (Children\'s and Household Tales), which has carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the western world. The closely related subject of the satirical beast epic of the Middle Ages also held great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the *Reinhart Fuchs* in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken jointly with his brother, and was published in 1815. However, this work was not followed by any others on the subject.
The first edition of his *Deutsche Mythologie* (German Mythology) appeared in 1835. This work covered the whole range of the subject, attempting to trace the mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct evidence, and following their evolution to modern-day popular traditions, tales, and expressions.
## Legal scholarship {#legal_scholarship}
Grimm\'s work as a jurist was influential for the development of the history of law, particularly in Northern Europe.
His essay *Von der Poesie im Recht* (*Poetry in Law*, 1816) developed a far-reaching, suprapositivist Romantic conception of law. The *Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer* (*German Legal Antiquities*, 1828) was a comprehensive compilation of sources of law from all Germanic languages, whose structure allowed an initial understanding of older German legal traditions not influenced by Roman law. Grimm\'s *Weisthümer* (4 vol., 1840--63), a compilation of partially oral legal traditions from rural Germany, allows research of the development of written law in Northern Europe.
## Politics
Jacob Grimm\'s work tied in strongly with his views on Germany and its culture. His work on both fairy tales and philology dealt with the country\'s origins. He wished for a united Germany, and, like his brother, supported the Liberal movement for a constitutional monarchy and civil liberties, as demonstrated by their involvement in the Göttingen Seven protest. In the German revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Frankfurt National Parliament. The people of Germany had demanded a constitution, so the Parliament, formed of elected members from various German states, met to form one. Grimm was selected for the office largely because of his part in the University of Göttingen\'s refusal to swear to the king of Hanover. In Frankfurt, he made some speeches and was adamant that the Danish-ruled but German-speaking duchy of Holstein be under German control. Grimm soon became disillusioned with the National Assembly and asked to be released from his duties to return to his studies.
He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1863.
## Death
Jacob Grimm died on 20 September 1863, in Berlin, Germany from disease, at the age of 78.
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# Jacob Grimm
## Works
The following is a complete list of Grimm\'s separately published works. Those he published with his brother are marked with a star (\*). For a list of his essays in periodicals, etc., see vol. V of his *Kleinere Schriften*, from which the present list is taken. His life is best studied in his own *Selbstbiographie*, in vol. I of the *Kleinere Schriften*. There is also a brief memoir by Karl Goedeke in *Göttinger Professoren* (Gotha (Perthes), 1872).
- *Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang* (Göttingen, 1811)
- \**Kinder- und Hausmärchen* (Berlin, 1812--1815) (many editions)
- \**Das Lied von Hildebrand und des Weissenbrunner Gebet* (Kassel, 1812)
- *Altdeutsche Wälder* (Kassel, Frankfurt, 1813--1816, 3 vols.)
- \**Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann von der Aue* (Berlin, 1815)
- *Irmenstrasse und Irmensäule* (Vienna, 1815)
- \**Die Lieder der alten Edda* (Berlin, 1815)
- *Silva de romances viejos* (Vienna, 1815)
- \**Deutsche Sagen* (Berlin, 1816--1818, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1865--1866)
- *Deutsche Grammatik* (Göttingen, 1819, 2nd ed., Göttingen, 1822--1840) (reprinted 1870 by Wilhelm Scherer, Berlin)
- *Wuk Stephanowitsch\' Kleine Serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer Vorrede* (Leipzig and Berlin, 1824) Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic -- Serbian Grammar
- *Zur Recension der deutschen Grammatik* (Kassel, 1826)
- \**Irische Elfenmärchen, aus dem Englischen* (Leipzig, 1826)
- *Deutsche Rechtsaltertümer* (Göttingen, 1828, 2nd ed., 1854)
- *Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. interpretatio theodisca* (Göttingen, 1830)
- *Reinhart Fuchs* (Berlin, 1834)
- *Deutsche Mythologie* (Göttingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.)
- *Taciti Germania edidit* (Göttingen, 1835)
- *Über meine Entlassung* (Basel, 1838)
- (together with Schmeller) *Lateinische Gedichte des X. und XI. Jahrhunderts* (Göttingen, 1838)
- *Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann über Reinhart Fuchs* (Berlin, 1840)
- *Weistümer, Th. i.* (Göttingen, 1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840--1869)
- *Andreas und Elene* (Kassel, 1840)
- *Frau Aventure* (Berlin, 1842)
- *Geschichte der deutschen Sprache* (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.)
- *Des Wort des Besitzes* (Berlin, 1850)
- \**Deutsches Wörterbuch*, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1854)
- *Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede über das Alter* (Berlin, 1868, 3rd ad., 1865)
- *Kleinere Schriften* (F. Dümmler, Berlin, 1864--1884, 7 vols.).
- vol. 1 : *Reden und Abhandlungen* (1864, 2nd ed. 1879)
- vol. 2 : *Abhandlungen zur Mythologie und Sittenkunde* (1865)
- vol. 3 : *Abhandlungen zur Litteratur und Grammatik* (1866)
- vol. 4 : *Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze*, part I (1869)
- vol. 5 : *Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze*, part II (1871)
- vol. 6 : *Recensionen und vermischte Aufsätze*, part III
- vol
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# Java (board game)
***Java*** is a German-style board game designed by Wolfgang Kramer and Michael Kiesling, illustrated by Franz Vohwinkel, and published in 2000 by Ravensburger in German and by Rio Grande Games in English. In the game, players build the island of Java to set up palace festivals and gain victory points. Upon its release, the game received several awards.
## Gameplay
The game provides the atmosphere of the island of Java on a hexagonal board. Players build the island and score by setting up palace festivals at opportune moments. When players run out of hexagons to build the island, the game is over. A final scoring phase now takes place and a winner is declared.
## Reception
Bernhard Fischer, reviewing from *Spieletest*, praised the game's strategy and tactics. However, he criticised its poor appeal for intermediate players and complex rules. *Java* also placed 9th place in the 2001 *Deutscher Spiele Preis* award and the *Games Magazine* Best Advanced Strategy Game in 2002. It is the second game in the Mask Trilogy, following *Tikal* and followed by *Mexica*
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# Joual
***Joual*** (`{{IPA|fr|ʒwal}}`{=mediawiki}) is an accepted name for the linguistic features of Quebec French that are associated with the French-speaking working class in Montreal which has become a symbol of national identity for some. *Joual* has historically been stigmatized by some, and celebrated by others. While *Joual* is often considered a sociolect of the Québécois working class, many feel that perception is outdated, with *Joual* becoming increasingly present in the arts.
Speakers of Quebec French from outside Montreal usually have other names to identify their speech, such as Magoua in Trois-Rivières, and Chaouin south of Trois-Rivières. Linguists tend to eschew this term, but historically some have reserved the term *Joual* for the variant of Quebec French spoken in Montreal.
Both the upward socio-economic mobility among the Québécois, and a cultural renaissance around *Joual* connected to the Quiet Revolution in the Montreal East-End have resulted in *Joual* being spoken by people across the educational and economic spectrum. Today, many Québécois who were raised in Quebec during the 20th century (command of English notwithstanding) can understand and speak at least some *Joual. Joual* is also commonly spoken in a few Francophone communities in Ontario, such as Hearst.
## History
The creation of *Joual* can be traced back to the \"era of silence\", the period from the 1840s to the 1960s and the start of the Quiet Revolution. The \"era of silence\" was marked with stark stigmatization of the common working man. Written documents were not shared with the typical working class man, and the very strict form of French that was used by elites excluded a majority of the population. The Quiet Revolution during the 1960s was a time of awakening, in which the Quebec working class demanded more respect in society, including wider use of Québécois in literature and the performing arts. Michel Tremblay is an example of a writer who deliberately used *Joual* and Québécois to represent the working class populations of Quebec. *Joual*, a language of the working class, quickly became associated with slang and vulgar language. Despite its continued use in Canada, there are still ideologies present which place a negative connotation on the use of *Joual*.
## Origin of the name {#origin_of_the_name}
Although coinage of the name *joual* is often attributed to French-Canadian journalist André Laurendeau, who in October 1959 wrote an article in *Le Devoir* criticizing the quality of the French language spoken by French Canadian students, the usage of this term throughout French-speaking Canada likely predates this text.
The actual word *Joual* is the representation of how the word *cheval* (Standard French: `{{IPA|fr|ʃəval|}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{gloss|horse}}`{=mediawiki}) is pronounced by those who speak *Joual*. (\"Horse\" is used in a variation of the phrase *parler français comme une vache* `{{gloss|to speak French like a cow}}`{=mediawiki}, i.e. to speak French terribly; hence, a put-down of the Québécois dialect.) The weak schwa vowel `{{IPA|[ə]}}`{=mediawiki} disappeared. Then the voiceless `{{IPA|[ʃ]}}`{=mediawiki} was voiced to `{{IPAblink|ʒ}}`{=mediawiki}, thereby creating `{{IPA|[ʒval]}}`{=mediawiki}. Next, the `{{IPA|[v]}}`{=mediawiki} at the beginning of a syllable in some regional dialects of French or even in very rapid speech in general weakened to become the semi-vowel `{{IPA|[w]}}`{=mediawiki} written `{{angbr|ou}}`{=mediawiki}. The end result is the word `{{IPA|[ʒwal]}}`{=mediawiki} transcribed as *Joual*.
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# Joual
## Most notable or stereotypical linguistic features {#most_notable_or_stereotypical_linguistic_features}
Diphthongs are normally present where long vowels would be present in standard French. There is also the usage of *sontaient, sonté* (*ils étaient, ils ont été*).
Although *moé* and *toé* are today considered substandard slang pronunciations of *moi* and *toi*, these were the original pronunciations of *ancien régime* French used in all provinces of Northern France, by the royalty, aristocracy, and common people. After the 1789 French Revolution, the standard pronunciation in France changed to that of a previously-stigmatized form in the speech of Paris, but Quebec French continued to evolve from the historically older dialects, having become isolated from France following the 1760 British conquest of New France.
*Joual* shares many features with modern Oïl languages, such as Norman, Gallo, Picard, Poitevin and Saintongeais though its affinities are greatest with the 17th century koiné of Paris. Speakers of these languages of France predominated among settlers to New France.
It could be argued that at least some aspects of more modern *Joual* are further linguistic contractions of standard French. *D\'la* (*de la*) is an example where the word *de* has nearly fallen out of usage over time and has become contracted. This argument does apply to other words, and this phenomenon has become widespread throughout contemporary French language.
A defining characteristic of the sociolect is the deliberate use of the pronoun *tu* to indicate a question. The pronoun maintains its traditional usage, that of representing the second person singular, but is also used in conjunction with a verb, to indicate a question. *Tu* is used, for this purpose, regardless of the technically relevant grammatical person. This is because *tu*, in this use-case, is a contraction of the antiquated *t-il* particle originating from 13th century France, which was used to indicate a question. For example, in metropolitan french, a question may be asked as simply *\"Veut-il manger?\"* whereas in Joual, it may be asked as *\"Il veux-tu manger?\"*
Another significant characteristic of *Joual* is the liberal use of profanities called *sacre* in everyday speech.
### Words of English origin {#words_of_english_origin}
There are a number of English loanwords in *Joual*, although they have been stigmatized since the 1960s, instead favoring alternative terms promoted by the *Office québécois de la langue française*. The commonality of English loanwords in *Joual* is attributed to the unilingually anglophone nature of the factory owners, business higher-ups, and industrial supervisors which employed the majority of French-speaking blue-collar workers throughout 20th century. This need to use English in workplace environments, when referring to technical elements of the worker\'s labour, caused the gradual integration of English loanwords into French. These words would eventually come to be conjugated and integrated as though they were traditionally French words (such as \"Check\" becoming the verb \"Chequer\"). The usage of deprecated anglicisms varies both regionally and historically. In the table below are a few common *Joual* words of English origin.
Joual word Pronunciation (approximation) Standard French word (approximation) English meaning Example
----------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bécosse (f) toilette extérieure (f) outdoor toilet (from \"back house\") *le boss des bécosses* (someone who behaves as though they are the boss)
Bécik (m) or `{{IPA|[bɛsɪk]}}`{=mediawiki} bicyclette (f), vélo (m) bicycle
Bike (m) motocyclette (f) motorbike
Bines (f) fèves (f) beans
Braker \[bʁeike\] freiner to brake (verb)
Breakeur (m) \[bʁeikɚ\] disjoncteur (m) circuit breaker
Bum (m) \[bʌm\] clochard (m) bum, vagrant
Chequer vérifier to check something out (verb) *check ben ça* (\"check this out\")
Chum (m, sometimes f) \[tʃɔm\] copain (m), ami (m), amie (f) boyfriend or male friend, occasionally female friend
Domper \[dõpe\] jeter, rompre avec to throw out (rubbish) or to break up with someone (verb) *domper la puck* (in hockey-\"dumping the puck\")
Flat (m) \[flat\] crevaison (f), plongeon sur le ventre (m) flat tyre or belly flop (in the pool)
Frencher \[fʁɛntʃe\] embrasser (avec langue) to French kiss (verb)
Froque (f) manteau (m) jacket
Hood (m) like in English or `{{IPA|[ʊd]}}`{=mediawiki} capot (m) hood of a car
Lift (m) \[lɪft\] lift (as in giving someone a lift in a vehicle)
Pinotte (f) like in English, but with a shorter i arachide (f) peanut, also street slang for \"amphetamines\"
States (les) États-Unis (les) the United States
Tank (m) \[tẽːk\] réservoir (m) container, *tank à gaz*: \"fuel tank\"
Toaster (m) \[tostɚ\] grille-pain (m) toaster
Tough \[tɔf\] dur, difficile tough
Truck (m) \[tʁɔk\] camion (m) truck
Skidoo (m) motoneige (f) snowmobile (from Bombardier\'s \"Ski-Doo\")
Screen (m) moustiquaire (f) screen of a window
Windshield pare-brise (m) windshield
Some words were also previously thought to be of English origin, although modern research has shown them to be from regional French dialects:
- Pitoune (log, cute girl, loose girl): previously thought to come from \"happy town\" although the word *pitchoune* exists in dialects from southern France (possibly coming from the Occitan word *pichona*, \"little girl\"), now used to mean \"cute girl\".
- Poutine: was thought to come from \"pudding\", but some have drawn a parallel with the Occitan language (also called Provençal or Languedoc) term *podinga*, a stew made of scraps, which was the previous use of the term in Montreal.
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# Joual
## Most notable or stereotypical linguistic features {#most_notable_or_stereotypical_linguistic_features}
### Glossary
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Joual | French | English |
+======================================================================================================================================================+=====================================================================+============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| | (from classic French pronunciation of toi) | you (singular, oblique) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | (from classic French pronunciation of moi) | me |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| pis, pis quoi | et puis, puis quoi | and, So what |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| moé j\'vo \[ʒvɔ\] or j\'va \[ʒvʌ\] | moi je vais au/a la | I will, I am going |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Çé | c\'est | It is |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Lé | Les | The (plural) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ço \[sɔ\] | Ça | That |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Po \[pɔ\] | Pas | Not |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Lo \[ʟɔ\] | Là | There |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| j\'fa, j\'fasse, je fasse | je fais | I am doing |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| D\'la | De la | Of the (feminine), from the (feminine), some (feminine), a quantity of (feminine) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| té, t\'es | tu es | you are |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Yé | Il est | He is, it is |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| tsé (tsé là), t\'sais | tu sais | you know |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| je s\'ré | je serai | I will be |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| j\'cres, j\'cré | je crois | I believe |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| pantoute | pas du tout (de *pas en tout*) | not at all |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| y | il | he |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| a, a\'l\'o | elle, elle a | she, she has |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ouais or ouin | oui | yeah, yep |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| y\'o \[jɔ\] | il y a, il a | there is, he has |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| toul\', tou\'l\' | tout le | all of the |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| icitte | ici | here |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ben | bien | well / very / many (contextual) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| tu d\'ben | peut-être | maybe |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| bengadon, ben r\'gardon, ben gardon | bien regarde-donc | well look at |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ga don ço, gadon ço, r\'gardon ço | Regarde donc ça | Look at that |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| su, d\'su, de su | sur, dessus | on, over top of |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| su la, s\'a | sur la | on the (feminine) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| su\'l | sur le | on the (masculine) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| anyway, en tout co \[ã tu̥ kɔ\], entouco, entéco, ent\'lé co, entouka | en tout cas, en tous les cas | in any case, however, anyway (from English \"anyway\" addition of this word is non-ubiquitous, but en tout co has broad usage) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Aweille!, Enweille! | Envoye! Bouge! Allez! | Send! Move! Go on! (contextual) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| enweille don, àweille don | envoie donc, allez | come on |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| faite, fette | saoul | drunk |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| fette, faite, té faite | fini, tu es fini | finished, you are finished |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| nuitte | nuit | night |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ti / \'tite, p\'tite / p\'tit | petit / petite | small (masculine / feminine) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| déhor, d\'wor, dewor, dowor | dehors | outside, get out (contextual) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| boutte (masculine) | bout | end, tip, bit (un ti boutte = un petit bout = a little bit or a little while) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| toutte | tout | everything, all, the whole |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| litte | lit | bed |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| tusuite, tudsuite, tud\'suite, tu\'d\'suite, toud\'suite | tout de suite | right now |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| astheure, asteur\ | maintenant, couramment | now, currently, from now on |
| (from \"à cette heure\") | | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| han? | hein? | eh? huh? or what? |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| heille | hé | hey |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| frette | froid | cold |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| fà | fait | make/do |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| s\'fèque, s\'fà que, sfàk | donc (ça fait que) | so, therefore |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| mèk, mainque, main que | lorsque (from old French « mais que ») | as soon as, upon |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| dins, dan lé | dans les | in the (plural) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| cé | c\'est, ceci est | this is |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| c\'pos, cé po, s\'po\[spɔ\] | ce n\'est pas | it\'s not |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| end\'ssour, end\'ssou | en dessous | under |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| s\'assir, s\'assoère | s\'asseoir | to sit down |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ak, ac, a\'ec, èk, èque | avec | with |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| boète \[bwaɪ̯t\] | boîte | box |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| à soère, à swère | ce soir | tonight |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| àmandonné, aman\'né | à un moment donné | at some point, at any given time |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| bouette | boue | mud |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| c\'t\'un, cé t\'un, s\'t\'un | c\'est un | it\'s a |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| j\'suis, chuis | je suis (un) | I am |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| garah, gararh | garage | garage (non-ubiquitous usage) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| char | voiture | car, short for chariot |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| tarla, con, nono | stupide | dumb |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| kétaine, quétaine | de mauvais goût, ringard (France) | tasteless, cheesy (fashion) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| fif, fifi | éfféminé | sissy, feminine male (can also mean queer, derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| tapette (une) | pédé (un) | queer, feminine male, male homosexual or pre sex change male (all usage is derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| grand slack | grand et mince | tall and skinny (from English \"slack\") |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| smatte (té), smartte (té) | sympatique, gentil | friendly, kind |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| plotte | chatte, vagin | cunt, whore, pussy, vagina (contextually derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| graine, grène | pénis | Cock, penis (graine is the literal translation of the word seed, contextually derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| botare | bâtard | bastard |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| eulle | l\' le | the |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| étchoeuré | écœuré | tired (annoyed) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| t\'su, d\'su | mettre sur | put on |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| vert (té) | inexpérimenté (tu es) | (you are) inexperienced (being new, \"green\", to something, vert is the literal translation of the word green) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| troud\'cu, trou\'d\'cu, trou d\'cul | enfoiré, trou de cul | ass hole (contextually derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| panel (un) | camionnette, fourgon | van (panel van, cargo van, non-ubiquitous usage) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| jarret, hârret | mollet | calf |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| lulu | mèche (deux) | twintails (non-ubiquitous usage) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Drette lo | Ici même (droit là) | Right there |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Ç\'à d\'l\'air à ço, Ç\'à d\'l\'air de\'d ço | Ça ressemble à ça | It looks like that |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| J\'te dis | Je te dis | I tell you |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| J\'toute fourré, j\'s\'tout fourré, schtout fourré | Je suis confus | I\'m so confused, I\'m all fucked up |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| J\'cogne des clous | Je suis épuisé | I\'m so tired |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Checke-moé le don, | Regarde le (donc) lui | Look at him |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Checke Fern, Checke checke | Regarde ça/lui/elle, Regarde | Look at him/her/that or simply look (gender neutral form, contextual, non-ubiquitous usage, circa 1980s but still holds meaning) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| \'Stacoze de\'d, stacoze de, C\'t-à-cause de, | c\'est à cause de | it is because of |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| \'Stacé | C\'est assez | That\'s enough |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Viarge | Putain ! | Damn ! |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Grouille (toé) | Dépêche-toi | Hurry up |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ta yeul!, la yeul!, ferme ta boète!, la ferme!, la farme! | tais-toi! ferme ta gueule! | shut up!, shut your animal mouth! (derogatory), shut your box! (derogatory) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Y pue d\'la yeul (referring to a human male, Y means Il singular third person male whereas A (pronounced à) means Elle singular third person female) | Ça pue de la gueule (animal), Il a la mauvaise haleine (human male) | He has a stinky animal mouth, He has bad breath, He stinks from the mouth (gueule directly translates to animal mouth, hence the sentence is derogatory if relating to a human male. Pue is the literal translation of a conjugation of the verb to stink) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Chus dan marde | Je suis dans le pétrin (Je suis dans la merde) | I\'m in big trouble (I\'m in shit) |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
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# Joual
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The two-act play *Les Belles-sœurs* by Canadian writer Michel Tremblay premiered in 1968 at the Théâtre du Rideau Vert in Montreal. Many consider it to have had a profound impact on Canadian culture, as it was one of the first times *Joual* was seen on a national stage. The play follows a working-class woman named Germaine in Montréal. After winning a million trading stamps, she invites her friends over to help paste them into booklets to redeem them. But Germaine is unsuspecting of her jealous friends who are envious of her winnings. The fact that the play was originally written in *Joual* is very important to the socio-linguistic aspect of the women. The characters all come from the working class and for the most part, speak in *Joual*, which at the time was not seen on the main stage. The play was cited at the time as a \"radical element among Quebec critics as the dawn of a new era of liberation, both political and aesthetic\".
When *Les Belles-sœurs* premiered in Paris, France in 1973 as it was originally written, in *Joual*, it was met with some initial criticism. One critic described it as difficult to understand as ancient Greek. Tremblay responded, \"a culture should always start with speak to herself. The ancient Greeks spoke to each other\". `{{Verify quote|date=August 2021}}`{=mediawiki} The popularity of the play has since caused it to be translated into multiple languages, raising controversies in the translation community over retaining the authenticity of *Les Belles-sœurs* even when not performed in the original dialect of *Joual*.
Writing in *Joual* gave Tremblay an opportunity to resist cultural and linguistic \"imperialism\" of France, while signifying the secularization of Québec culture
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# Johann Homann
**Johann Baptist Homann** (20 March 1664 -- 1 July 1724) was a German geographer and cartographer, who also made maps of the Americas.
## Life
Homann was born in Oberkammlach near Kammlach in the Electorate of Bavaria. Although educated at a Jesuit school, and preparing for an ecclesiastical career, he eventually converted to Protestantism and from 1687 worked as a civil law notary in Nuremberg. He soon turned to engraving and cartography; in 1702 he founded his own publishing house.
Homann acquired renown as a leading German cartographer, and in 1715 was appointed Imperial Geographer by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. Giving such privileges to individuals was an added right that the Holy Roman Emperor enjoyed. In the same year he was also named a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Of particular significance to cartography were the imperial printing privileges (Latin: *privilegia impressoria*). These protected for a time the authors in all scientific fields such as printers, copper engravers, map makers and publishers. They were also very important as a recommendation for potential customers.
In 1716 Homann published his masterpiece *Grosser Atlas ueber die ganze Welt* (Grand Atlas of all the World). Numerous maps were drawn up in cooperation with the engraver Christoph Weigel the Elder, who also published *Siebmachers Wappenbuch*.
Homann died in Nuremberg in 1724. He was succeeded by his son Johann Christoph (1703--1730). The company carried on upon his death as *Homann heirs* company, managed by Johann Michael Franz and Johann Georg Ebersberger. After subsequent changes in management the company folded in 1852. The company was known as \"Homann Erben\", \"Homanniani Heredes\", or \"Heritiers de Homann\" abroad. {{-}}
<File:Virginia> Marylandia et Carolina by Johann Baptist Homann.jpg\|*Virginia Marylandia et Carolina*, c. 1714. <File:1730> Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics - Geographicus - Scandinavia-homann-1730.jpg\|*Homann Map of Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Baltics*, dated around 1730. <File:Homann> Planiglobii Terrestris Cumutroq Hemisphaerio Caelesti Generalis Exhibitio 1707 UTA.jpg\|*Planiglobii Terrestris Cum Utroq\[ue\] Hemisphærio Cælesti Generalis Exhibitio*, Nürnberg, 1707. <File:Homann> Amplissimae Regionis Mississipi c. 1720 UTA.jpg\|*Amplissimae Regionis Mississipi*, circa 1720 <File:1725> Homann Map of the Caspian Sea and Kamchatka (as Yedso) - Geographicus - CaspianKamchatka-homann-1725.jpg\|*Homann Map of the Caspian Sea and Kamchatka*, from 1725. <File:Homann> Schlarraffenlandes 1694 Cornell CUL PJM 1015 01.jpg\|*Schlarraffenlandes*, 1694
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# John Akii-Bua
**John Akii-Bua** (3 December 1949 -- 20 June 1997) was a Ugandan hurdler and the first Olympic champion from his country Uganda. In 1986, he was a recipient of the Silver Olympic Order.
## Biography
Akii-Bua was raised in a family of 43 children from one father and his eight wives. Akii-Bua started his athletic career as a short-distance hurdler, but failed to qualify for the 1968 Olympics. Coached by British-born athletics coach Malcolm Arnold, he was introduced to the 400 meter hurdles.
Although he finished fourth in the 1970 Commonwealth Games and running the fastest time of 1971 and finishing second at the British 1972 AAA Championships, he was not a big favourite for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, having limited competitive experience. Nevertheless, he won the final there, setting a world record time of 47.82 seconds despite running on the inside lane. He missed the 1976 Olympics and a showdown with United States rival Edwin Moses because of the boycott by Uganda and other African nations.
As a police officer, Akii-Bua was promoted by Ugandan president Idi Amin and given a house as a reward for his athletic prowess. When the Amin regime was collapsing, he fled to Kenya with his family, fearful that he would be seen as a collaborator; this was more likely because he was a member of the Langi tribe, many of whom were persecuted by Amin, whereas Akii-Bua was cited by Amin as an example of a Langi who was doing well. However, in Kenya he was put into a refugee camp. From there, he was freed by his shoe-manufacturer Puma and lived in Germany working for Puma for 3--4 years. He represented Uganda once again at the 1980 Summer Olympics. Later he returned to Uganda and became a coach.
Akii-Bua died a widower, at the age of 47, survived by eleven children. He was given a state funeral. His nephew is international footballer David Obua, and his brother Lawrence Ogwang competed in the long jump and triple jump at the 1956 Olympics.
The phrase \"*akii-buas*\" has come to colloquially mean \"runs\" in Uganda
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# John Sealy Hospital
\_\_NOTOC\_\_ **John Sealy Hospital** is a hospital that is a part of the University of Texas Medical Branch complex in Galveston, Texas, United States.
## History
Sealy opened on January 10, 1890. It was founded by the widow and brother of one of the richest citizens of Texas, John Sealy after his death. Accompanied by the John Sealy Hospital Training School for Nurses, which was opened two months after the hospital, the foundation became the primary teaching facility of University of Texas Medical Branch opened in October 1891. In 1922, John Sealy\'s children, John Sealy, II and Jennie Sealy Smith established the Sealy & Smith Foundation for the hospital. This enabled construction of several new facilities, including the Rebecca Sealy Nurses\' home.
A second John Sealy Hospital was built in 1954 to replace the 1890 building. Today it is known as the John Sealy Annex and houses administrative and support services.
The current John Sealy Hospital was completed in 1978 at a cost of \$32.5 million and was funded in full by the Sealy & Smith Foundation. The 12-story hospital includes single-patient rooms and specialized intensive care units. Other features include the Acute Care for Elders Unit, or ACE Unit and a Level I Trauma Center, one of only three in the entire Greater Houston area.
The Sealy & Smith Foundation has contributed over \$600 million to UTMB since its inception.
## Hurricane Ike {#hurricane_ike}
Hurricane Ike forced the closing of UTMB temporarily. John Sealy Hospital and its trauma center have reopened, with renovations being undertaken in damaged areas
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# John the Evangelist
**John the Evangelist** (c. 6 AD -- c. 100 AD) is the name traditionally given to the author of the Gospel of John. Christians have traditionally identified him with John the Apostle, John of Patmos, and John the Presbyter, although there is no consensus on how many of these may actually be the same individual.
## Identity
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Print of John the Evangelist
The exact identity of John -- and the extent to which his identification with John the Apostle, John of Patmos and John the Presbyter is historical -- is disputed between Christian tradition and scholars.
The Gospel of John refers to an otherwise unnamed \"disciple whom Jesus loved\", who \"bore witness to and wrote\" the Gospel\'s message. The author of the Gospel of John seemed interested in maintaining the internal anonymity of the author\'s identity, although interpreting the Gospel in the light of the Synoptic Gospels and considering that the author names (and therefore is not claiming to be) Peter, and that James was martyred as early as AD 44, Christian tradition has widely believed that the author was the Apostle John, though modern scholars believe the work to be pseudepigrapha.
Christian tradition says that John the Evangelist was John the Apostle. John, Peter and James the Just were the *three pillars* of the Jerusalem church after Jesus\' death. He was one of the original twelve apostles and is thought to be the only one to escape martyrdom. It had been believed that he was exiled (around AD 95) to the Aegean island of Patmos, where he wrote the Book of Revelation. However, some attribute the authorship of Revelation to another man, called John the Presbyter, or to other writers of the late first century AD. Bauckham argues that the early Christians identified John the Evangelist with John the Presbyter.
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# John the Evangelist
## Authorship of the Johannine works {#authorship_of_the_johannine_works}
Since at least the 2nd century AD, scholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works---whether they were written by one author or many, and if any of the authors can be identified with John the Apostle.
The gospel and epistles traditionally and plausibly came from Ephesus, `{{c.|90–110}}`{=mediawiki}, although some scholars argue for an origin in Syria. Eastern Orthodox tradition attributes all of the Johannine books to John the Apostle. Some today agree that the gospel and epistles may have been written by a single author, whether or not this was the apostle.
Other scholars conclude that the author of the epistles was different from that of the gospel, although all four works originated from the same community. In the 6th century, the *\[\[Decretum Gelasianum\]\]* argued that the Second and Third Epistle of John have a separate author known as \"John the priest.\"
Historical critics like H.P.V. Nunn, Reza Aslan and Bart Ehrman, believe with most modern scholars that the apostle John wrote none of these works. Some scholars, though, such as John Robinson, F. F. Bruce, Leon Morris, and Martin Hengel, still hold the apostle to be behind at least some of the works in question, particularly the gospel.Morris, Leon (1995) *[The Gospel According to John](https://books.google.com/books?id=II-33dS9esAC&q=Continental+scholars&pg=PA4)* Volume 4 of The new international commentary on the New Testament, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, `{{ISBN|978-0-8028-2504-9}}`{=mediawiki}, pp. 4--5, 24, 35--7. \"Continental scholars have \[\...\] abandoned the idea that this gospel was written by the apostle John, whereas in Great Britain and America scholarship has been much more open to the idea.\" Abandonment is due to changing opinion rather \"than to any new evidence.\" \"Werner, Colson, and I have been joined, among others, by I. Howard Marshall and J.A.T. Robinson in seeing the evidence as pointing to John the son of Zebedee as the author of this Gospel.\" The view that John\'s history is substandard \"is becoming increasingly hard to sustain. Many recent writers have shown that there is good reason for regarding this or that story in John as authentic. \[\...\] It is difficult to \[\...\] regard John as having little concern for history. The fact is John is concerned with historical information. \[\...\] John apparently records this kind of information because he believes it to be accurate. \[\...\] He has some reliable information and has recorded it carefully. \[\...\] The evidence is that where he can be tested John proves to be remarkably accurate.\"
- Bruce 1981 pp. 52--4, 58. \"The evidence \[\...\] favor\[s\] the apostolicity of the gospel. \[\...\] John knew the other gospels and \[\...\] supplements them. \[\...\] The synoptic narrative becomes more intelligible if we follow John.\" John\'s style is different so Jesus\' \"abiding truth might be presented to men and women who were quite unfamiliar with the original setting. \[\...\] He does not yield to any temptation to restate Christianity. \[\...\] It is the story of events that happened in history. \[\...\] John does not divorce the story from its Palestinian context.\"
- Dodd p. 444. \"Revelation is distinctly, and nowhere more clearly than in the Fourth Gospel, a historical revelation. It follows that it is important for the evangelist that what he narrates happened.\"
- Temple, William. \"Readings in St. John\'s Gospel\". MacMillan and Co, 1952. \"The synoptists give us something more like the perfect photograph; St. John gives us the more perfect portrait\".
- Edwards, R. A. \"The Gospel According to St. John\" 1954, p 9. One reason he accepts John\'s authorship is because \"the alternative solutions seem far too complicated to be possible in a world where living men met and talked\".
- Hunter, A. M. \"Interpreting the New Testament\" P 86. \"After all the conjectures have been heard, the likeliest view is that which identifies the Beloved Disciple with the Apostle John.
Dr. Craig Blomberg, cited in Lee Strobel *The Case for Christ*, 1998, Chapter 2.
- Marshall, Howard. \"The Illustrated Bible Dictionary\", ed J. D. Douglas et al. Leicester 1980. II, p 804
- Robinson, J. A. T. \"The Priority of John\" P 122
- Cf. Marsh, \"John seems to have believed that theology was not something which could be used to read a meaning into events but rather something that was to be discovered in them. His story is what it is because his theology is what it is; but his theology is what it is because the story happened so\" (p 580--581).
The Book of Revelation is today generally agreed to have a separate author, John of Patmos, `{{c.|95}}`{=mediawiki} with some parts possibly dating to Nero\'s reign in the early 60s.
## Feast day {#feast_day}
The feast day of Saint John in the Catholic Church, Anglican Communion, and the Lutheran Calendar, is on 27 December, the third day of Christmastide. In the Tridentine calendar he was commemorated also on each of the following days up to and including 3 January, the Octave of the 27 December feast. This Octave was abolished by Pope Pius XII in 1955. The traditional liturgical color is white.
Freemasons celebrate this feast day, dating back to the 18th century when the Feast Day was used for the installation of Grand Masters.
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# John the Evangelist
## In art {#in_art}
John is traditionally depicted in one of two distinct ways: either as an aged man with a white or gray beard, or alternatively as a beardless youth like John the Apostle. The first way of depicting him was more common in Byzantine art, where it was possibly influenced by antique depictions of Socrates; the second was more common in the art of Medieval Western Europe and can be dated back as far as 4th-century Rome.
In medieval works of painting, sculpture and literature, Saint John is often presented in an androgynous or feminized manner. Historians have related such portrayals to the circumstances of the believers for whom they were intended. For instance, John\'s feminine features are argued to have helped to make him more relatable to women. Likewise, Sarah McNamer argues that because of John\'s androgynous status, he could function as an \'image of a third or mixed gender\' and \'a crucial figure with whom to identify\' for male believers who sought to cultivate an attitude of affective piety, a highly emotional style of devotion that, in late-medieval culture, was thought to be poorly compatible with masculinity.
Legends from the \"Acts of John\" contributed much to medieval iconography; it is the source of the idea that John became an apostle at a young age. One of John\'s familiar attributes is the chalice, often with a snake emerging from it. According to one legend from the Acts of John, John was challenged to drink a cup of poison to demonstrate the power of his faith, and thanks to God\'s aid the poison was rendered harmless. The chalice can also be interpreted with reference to the Last Supper, or to the words of Christ to John and James: \"My chalice indeed you shall drink.\" According to the 1910 *Catholic Encyclopedia*, some authorities believe that this symbol was not adopted until the 13th century. There was also a legend that John was at some stage boiled in oil and miraculously preserved. Another common attribute is a book or a scroll, in reference to his writings. John the Evangelist is symbolically represented by an eagle, one of the creatures envisioned by Ezekiel (1:10) and in the Book of Revelation (4:7).
## Gallery
File: Joan_de_Joanes\_-\_St_John_the_Evangelist\_-\_WGA12061.jpg\|*St. John the Evangelist* by Joan de Joanes (1507--1579), oil on panel <File:Zampieri> St John Evangelist.jpg\|*Saint John the Evangelist* by Domenichino (1621--29) <File:1490> Gleismüller Johannes auf Patmos anagoria.JPG\|*Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos*, 1490 <File:Piero> di Cosimo (Piero di Lorenzo) - St. John the Evangelist, c. 1500.jpg\|Piero di Cosimo, *Saint John the Evangelist*, oil on panel, 1504--6, Honolulu Museum of Art <File:El> Greco, The Vision of Saint John (1608-1614).jpg \|*The Vision of Saint John* (1608--1614), by El Greco <File:Simone> Cantarini - São João Batista em Meditação.jpg\|*Saint John the Evangelist in meditation* by Simone Cantarini\
(1612--1648), Bologna <File:Sts-john-and-bartholomew-with-donor-dosso-dossi.jpg>\|*Saints John and Bartholomew*, by Dosso Dossi <File:Enniscorthy> St. Aidan\'s Cathedral East Aisle Second Window Evangelist John Detail 2009 09 28.jpg\|Stained glass window in St. Aidan\'s Cathedral, Ireland <File:Cano> - San Juan.jpg\|\
*Saint John and the Poisoned Cup* by Alonzo Cano\
Spain (1635--1637) <File:GRM> Inv. J-3182.jpg\|*Saint John and the eagle* by Vladimir Borovikovsky in Kazan Cathedral, Saint Petersburg <File:KellsFol291vPortJohn.jpg%7CA> portrait from the Book of Kells, c. 800 <File:El> Greco 034.jpg\|*Saint John and the cup* by El Greco <File:St-johns-seminary-st-john.jpg%7CStatue> of *John the Evangelist* outside St. John\'s Seminary, Boston <File:De> Grey Hours f.26.v St. John the Evangelist.png\|St John the Evangelist depicted in a 14th-century manuscript in the Flemish style <File:San> Juan Evangelista, por Francisco Pacheco.jpg\|*St John the Evangelist*, by Francisco Pacheco (1608, Museo del Prado) <File:Prochorus> and St John Miniature, 1224.jpg\|Prochorus and St John depicted in Xoranasat\'s gospel manuscript in 1224. Armenian manuscript. <File:Pendentiefkoepel> (detail) - Johannes (evangelist) - Onbekend - Onze-Lieve-Vrouw Sint-Pieterskerk Gent (1).jpg\|Depiction of \"John the Evangelist\" on pendentive dome of the St
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# John Stauber
**John Stauber** is an American writer. Stauber has co-authored five books about government propaganda, private interests and the public relations industry. His work includes one book about how industry manipulates science (*Trust Us, We\'re Experts*), one about the history and current scope of the public relations industry (*Toxic Sludge is Good for You*), and one about mad cow disease (*Mad Cow USA*), which predicted the surfacing of the disease within the United States.
In July 2003, Stauber and Sheldon Rampton wrote *Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush\'s War on Iraq*, which argued that the Bush administration deceived the American public into supporting the war. In 2004, the two co-authored *Banana Republicans,* which argued that the Republican Party is turning the U.S. into a one-party state. The book argues that the far-right and its functionaries in the media, lobbying establishment and electoral system are undermining dissent and squelching pluralistic politics in the United States. In 2006 the two wrote *The Best War Ever: Lies, Damned Lies, and the Mess in Iraq,* which builds upon the arguments they posited in *Weapons of Mass Deception*.
Stauber is the founder and former executive director of the Center for Media and Democracy, which sponsors PR Watch and SourceWatch. Since the 1960s, he has worked with public interest, consumer, family farm, environmental and community organizations at the local, state and national level. He edits and writes for the Center\'s quarterly newsmagazine, *PR Watch*. He is also a member of the Liberty Tree Board of Advisers.
Stauber grew up in a conservative Republican household in Marshfield, Wisconsin, but the war in Vietnam turned him into an anti-war and environmental activist while still in high school
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# James P. Hogan (writer)
**James Patrick Hogan** (27 June 1941 -- 12 July 2010) was a British science fiction author. His major works include the *Giants* series of five novels published between 1977 and 2005.
## Biography
Hogan was born in London, England. He was raised in the Portobello Road area on the west side of London. After leaving school at the age of sixteen, he worked various odd jobs until, after receiving a scholarship, he began a five-year program at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough studying the practice and theory of electrical, electronic, and mechanical engineering. He was married four times and fathered six children.
Hogan worked as a design engineer for several companies and eventually began working with sales during the 1960s, traveling around Europe as a sales engineer for Honeywell. During the 1970s he joined the Digital Equipment Corporation\'s Laboratory Data Processing Group and during 1977 relocated to Boston, Massachusetts to manage its sales training program. He published his first novel, *Inherit The Stars*, during the same year to win an office bet.
He quit DEC during 1979 and began writing full-time, relocating to Orlando, Florida, for a year where he met his third wife Jackie. They later relocated to Sonora, California.
During his later years, Hogan adopted a number of contrarian opinions. He was a proponent of Immanuel Velikovsky\'s version of catastrophism, arguing Velikovsky\'s critics were part of \"an entrenched priesthood\" who refused to seriously examine Velikovsky even when some of his predictions were validated (such as Venus\'s extremely high surface temperature which was contrary to prevailing scientific opinion in the 1950s); and as of 1999 Hogan accepted the Peter Duesberg hypothesis that AIDS is caused by pharmaceutical use rather than HIV (see AIDS denialism). He criticized the idea of the gradualism of evolution, though he did not propose theistic creationism as an alternative. Hogan was skeptical of scientific consensus about climate change and ozone depletion.
Hogan believed that the Holocaust did not happen in the manner described by mainstream historians, writing that he found the work of Arthur Butz and Mark Weber to be \"more scholarly, scientific, and convincing than what the history written by the victors says\". In March 2010, in an essay defending Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel, Hogan stated that the mainstream history of the Holocaust includes \"claims that are wildly fantastic, mutually contradictory, and defy common sense and often physical possibility\".
Hogan died of heart failure at his home in Ireland on Monday, 12 July 2010, aged 69
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# Koto (instrument)
The `{{nihongo|'''koto'''|[[wikt:箏|箏]] or [[wikt:琴|琴]]}}`{=mediawiki} is a Japanese plucked half-tube zither instrument, and the national instrument of Japan. It is derived from the Chinese `{{transliteration|zh|[[guzheng|zheng]]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|zh|[[se (instrument)|se]]}}`{=mediawiki}, and similar to the Mongolian `{{transliteration|mn|[[yatga]]}}`{=mediawiki}, the Korean `{{transliteration|ko|[[gayageum]]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|ko|[[ajaeng]]}}`{=mediawiki}, the Vietnamese *\[\[đàn tranh\]\]*, the Sundanese `{{transliteration|su|[[kacapi]]}}`{=mediawiki} and the Kazakh `{{transliteration|kk|[[jetigen]]}}`{=mediawiki}. Koto are roughly 180 cm in length, and made from Paulownia wood (*Paulownia tomentosa*, known as `{{transliteration|ja|kiri}}`{=mediawiki}). The most common type uses 13 strings strung over movable bridges used for tuning, different pieces possibly requiring different tuning. Seventeen-string koto are also common, and act as bass in ensembles. Koto strings are generally plucked using three fingerpicks (`{{transliteration|ja|tsume}}`{=mediawiki}), worn on the first three fingers of the right hand. `{{Listen|filename=Koto performance.ogg|title=Koto performance|description=13-stringed koto performance of the song "[[Sakura Sakura]]"|format=[[ogg]]}}`{=mediawiki}
## Names and types {#names_and_types}
The character for *koto* is *箏\]\]*, although *琴\]\]* is often used. However, *琴* (*koto*) is the general term for all string instruments in the Japanese language, including instruments such as the `{{transliteration|ja|kin no koto}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|ja|sō no koto}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|ja|yamato-goto}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|ja|wagon}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|ja|nanagen-kin}}`{=mediawiki}, and so on. When read as `{{transliteration|ja|kin}}`{=mediawiki}, it indicates the Chinese instrument `{{transliteration|zh|[[guqin]]}}`{=mediawiki}. The term is used today in the same way.
The term *koto* appears in the `{{transliteration|ja|[[Kojiki]]}}`{=mediawiki} in reference to an ancient string instrument in this usage. Variations of the instrument were eventually created, and eventually a few of them would become the standard variations for modern day koto. The four types of koto (`{{transliteration|ja|gakuso, chikuso, zokuso, tagenso}}`{=mediawiki}) were all created by different subcultures, but also adapted to change the playing style.
One regional style of the koto is the *Tategoto* (竪琴) from the Amami Islands. Unlike other varieties of the koto, it is held upright on the lap and played with one hand, may have more strings, is shorter, and is typically strung with steel strings.
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# Koto (instrument)
## History
The ancestor of the koto was the Chinese `{{transliteration|zh|[[guzheng]]}}`{=mediawiki}. It was first introduced to Japan from China in the 7th and 8th centuries. The first known version had five strings, which eventually increased to seven strings. The Japanese koto belongs to the Asian zither family that also comprises the Chinese `{{transliteration|zh|zheng}}`{=mediawiki} (ancestral to the other zithers in the family), the Korean `{{transliteration|ko|[[gayageum]]}}`{=mediawiki}, and the Vietnamese *\[\[đàn tranh\]\]*. This variety of instrument came in two basic forms, a zither that had bridges and a zither without bridges.
When the koto was first imported to Japan, the native word koto was a generic term for any and all Japanese stringed instruments. As the number of different stringed instruments in Japan grew, the once-basic definition of koto could not describe the wide variety of these instruments and so the meanings changed. The `{{transliteration|ja|azumagoto}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{transliteration|ja|[[yamatogoto]]}}`{=mediawiki} was called the `{{transliteration|ja|wagon}}`{=mediawiki}, the `{{transliteration|ja|kin no koto}}`{=mediawiki} was called the `{{transliteration|ja|[[Guqin|kin]]}}`{=mediawiki}, and the `{{transliteration|ja|sau no koto}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{transliteration|ja|sau}}`{=mediawiki} being an older pronunciation of *箏*) was called the `{{transliteration|ja|sō}}`{=mediawiki} or koto.
The modern koto originates from the `{{transliteration|ja|gakusō}}`{=mediawiki} used in Japanese court music (`{{transliteration|ja|[[gagaku]]}}`{=mediawiki}). It was a popular instrument among the wealthy; the instrument was considered a romantic one. Some literary and historical records indicate that solo pieces for koto existed centuries before `{{transliteration|ja|sōkyoku}}`{=mediawiki}, the music of the solo koto genre, was established. According to Japanese literature, the koto was used as imagery and other extra music significance. In one part of *The Tale of Genji*, the titular character falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman whom he has never seen before, after hearing her playing the koto from a distance.
The koto of the `{{transliteration|ja|chikuso}}`{=mediawiki} was made for the `{{transliteration|ja|Tsukushigato}}`{=mediawiki} tradition, originally intended only for blind men. Women were forbidden from playing the instrument in the professional world, nor were they allowed to teach it. When these strict rules were relieved, women began to play the koto, with the exception of the `{{transliteration|ja|chikuso}}`{=mediawiki}, as its design for the blind led to a decline in use; other koto proved more useful. The two main koto varieties still used today are the `{{transliteration|ja|gakuso}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{transliteration|ja|zokuso}}`{=mediawiki}. These two have relatively stayed the same, with the exception of material innovations such as the use of plastic, as well as modern material for the strings. The `{{transliteration|ja|tagenso}}`{=mediawiki} is the newest addition to the koto family, surfacing in the 19th century. It was purposefully created to extend the range of the instrument and advance the style of play. These were made with 17, 21, and 31 strings.
Perhaps the most important influence on the development of koto was Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614--1685). Yatsuhashi was a gifted blind musician from Kyoto who vastly extended the limited selection of only six traditional koto songs to a brand-new style of koto music which he called `{{transliteration|ja|kumi uta}}`{=mediawiki}. Yatsuhashi changed the `{{transliteration|ja|tsukushi goto}}`{=mediawiki} tunings, which were based on the older `{{transliteration|ja|[[gagaku]]}}`{=mediawiki} ways of tuning; and with this change, a new style of koto was born. Yatsuhashi is now known as the \"Father of Modern Koto\".
A smaller influence in the evolution of the koto is found in the inspiration of a woman named Keiko Nosaka. Nosaka (a musician who won Grand Prize in Music from the Japanese Ministry of Culture in 2002), felt confined by playing a koto with just 13 strings, and created new versions of the instrument with 20 or more strings.
Japanese developments in bridgeless zithers include the one-stringed koto (`{{transliteration|ja|[[ichigenkin]]}}`{=mediawiki}) and two-stringed koto (`{{transliteration|ja|nigenkin}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{transliteration|ja|yakumo goto}}`{=mediawiki}). Around the 1920s, Goro Morita created a new version of the two-stringed koto. On this koto, one would push down buttons above the metal strings like the western autoharp. It was named the `{{transliteration|ja|[[taishōgoto]]}}`{=mediawiki} after the Taishō period.
At the beginning of the Meiji Period (1868--1912), Western music was introduced to Japan. Michio Miyagi (1894--1956), a blind composer, innovator, and performer, is considered to have been the first Japanese composer to combine western music and traditional koto music. Miyagi is largely regarded as being responsible for keeping the koto alive when traditional Japanese arts were being forgotten and replaced by Westernization. He wrote over 300 new works for the instrument before his death in a train accident at the age of 62. He also invented the popular 17-string bass koto, created new playing techniques, advanced traditional forms, and most importantly increased the koto\'s popularity. He performed abroad and by 1928 his piece for koto and `{{transliteration|ja|[[shakuhachi]]}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{transliteration|ja|[[Haru no Umi]]}}`{=mediawiki} (\"Spring Sea\") had been transcribed for numerous instruments. `{{transliteration|ja|Haru no Umi}}`{=mediawiki} is even played to welcome each New Year in Japan.
Since Miyagi\'s time, many composers such as Kimio Eto (1924--2012) and Tadao Sawai (1937--1997) have written and performed works that continue to advance the instrument. Sawai\'s widow Kazue Sawai, who as a child was Miyagi\'s favored disciple, has been the largest driving force behind the internationalization and modernization of the koto. Her arrangement of composer John Cage\'s prepared piano duet \"Three Dances\" for four prepared bass koto was a landmark in the modern era of koto music.
For about 150 years after the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese shirked their isolationist ideals and began to openly embrace American and European influences, the most likely explanation for why the koto has taken on many different variations of itself.
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# Koto (instrument)
## Construction
A koto is typically made of Paulownia wood (known as `{{transliteration|ja|kiri}}`{=mediawiki}), although treatment of the wood varies tremendously between artisans. A koto may or may not be adorned. Adornments include inlays of ivory and ebony, tortoise shell, metal figures, etc. The wood is also cut into two patterns, `{{transliteration|ja|itame}}`{=mediawiki} (also called `{{transliteration|ja|mokume}}`{=mediawiki}), which has a swirling pattern, or straight-lined `{{transliteration|ja|masame}}`{=mediawiki}. The straight lined pattern is easier to manufacture, so the swirl raises the cost of production, and is therefore reserved for decorative and elegant models.
The body of a traditional koto is made of Paulownia wood. Every piece of the instrument comes with cultural significance, especially since the koto is the national instrument. The wood is dried and cut into precise measurements. The size of the soundboard on a standard modern koto has remained approximately 182 cm, where in the past it ranged from 152 to.
The bridges (`{{transliteration|ja|ji}}`{=mediawiki}) used to be made of ivory, but nowadays are typically made of plastic, and occasionally made of wood. One can alter the pitch of a string by manipulating or moving the bridge. For some very low notes, there are small bridges made, as well as specialty bridges with three different heights, depending on the need of the tuning. When a small bridge is unavailable for some very low notes, some players may, as an emergency measure, use a bridge upside down, though this is unstable and not ideal. Bridges have been known to break during playing, and with some older instruments which have the surface where the bridges rest being worn due to much use, the bridges may fall during playing, especially when pressing strings. There are, of course, various sorts of patch materials sold to fill the holes which cause the legs of a bridge to rest on an unstable area. About 6 ft long and 1 ft wide, the koto is traditionally placed on the floor in front of the player, who kneels.
The strings are made from a variety of materials. Various types of plastic strings are popular. Silk strings, typically yellow in color, are still made, despite their higher price and lower durability than modern strings; some musicians prefer them, perceiving a difference in sound quality to modern strings. The strings are tied with a half hitch to a roll of paper or cardboard, about the size of a cigarette butt, strung through the holes at the head of the koto, threaded through the holes at the back, tightened, and tied with a special knot. Strings can be tightened by a special machine, but often are tightened by hand, and then tied. One can tighten by pulling the string from behind, or sitting at the side of the koto, although the latter is much harder and requires much arm strength. Some instruments may have tuning pins (like a piano) installed, to make tuning easier.
The `{{transliteration|ja|makura ito}}`{=mediawiki}, the silk thread used in the instrument, is a pivotal part of its construction. This feature was not seen on the speculated nobility-style instruments because they used a more tension of theirs and valued the relict nature of their instruments. The commoners did all the innovations that made the koto not only a sturdy instrument, but more sonically adept. The `{{transliteration|ja|makura ito}}`{=mediawiki} was used in paper so the fine silk was in abundance in Japan. As of the beginning of the 19th century, an ivory called `{{transliteration|ja|makura zuno}}`{=mediawiki} became the standard for the koto.
For every part of the koto, there is a traditional name which connects with the opinion that the body of a koto resembles that of a dragon. Thus, the top part is called the `{{nihongo|"dragon's shell"|竜甲|ryūkō}}`{=mediawiki}, while the bottom part is called the `{{nihongo|"dragon's stomach"|竜腹|ryūfuku}}`{=mediawiki}. One end of the koto, noticeable because of the removable colorful fabricshell, is known as the `{{nihongo|"dragon's head"|竜頭|ryūzu}}`{=mediawiki}, consisting of parts such as the `{{nihongo|"dragon's horns"|竜角|ryūkaku}}`{=mediawiki} -- the saddle of the bridge or the `{{nihongo||枕角|makurazono}}`{=mediawiki} -- `{{nihongo|"dragon's tongue"|竜舌|ryūzetsu}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{nihongo|"dragon's eyes"|竜眼|ryūgan|the holes for the strings}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nihongo|"dragon's forehead"|竜額|ryūgaku}}`{=mediawiki} -- the space above the `{{transliteration|ja|makurazuno}}`{=mediawiki}. The other end of the koto is called the `{{nihongo|"dragon's tail"|竜尾|ryūbi}}`{=mediawiki}; the string nut is called the `{{nihongo|"cloud horn"|雲角|unkaku}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Koto (instrument)
## Koto today {#koto_today}
The influence of Western pop music has made the koto less prominent in Japan, although it is still developing as an instrument. The 17-string bass koto (`{{transliteration|ja|jūshichi-gen}}`{=mediawiki}) has become more prominent over the years since its development by Michio Miyagi. There are also 20-, 21-, and 25-string koto. Works are being written for 20- and 25-string koto and 17-string bass koto. Reiko Obata has also made the koto accessible to Western music readers with the publication of two books for solo koto using Western notation. The current generation of koto players, such as American performers Reiko Obata and Miya Masaoka, Japanese master Kazue Sawai, and Michiyo Yagi, are finding places for the koto in today\'s jazz, experimental music and even pop music. The members of the band Rin\' are popular 17-string koto players in the modern music scene.
June Kuramoto of the jazz fusion group Hiroshima was one of the first koto performers to popularize the koto in a non-traditional fusion style. Reiko Obata, founder of East West Jazz, was the first to perform and record an album of jazz standards featuring the koto. Obata also produced the first-ever English language koto instructional DVD, titled \"You Can Play Koto\". Obata is one of the few koto performers to perform concertos with United States orchestras, having done so on multiple occasions, including with Orchestra Nova for San Diego\'s KPBS in 2010.
Other solo performers outside Japan include award-winning recording artist Elizabeth Falconer, who also studied for a decade at the Sawai Koto School in Tokyo, and Linda Kako Caplan, Canadian `{{transliteration|ja|daishihan}}`{=mediawiki} (grandmaster) and member of Fukuoka\'s Chikushi Koto School for over two decades. Another Sawai disciple, Masayo Ishigure, holds down a school in New York City. Yukiko Matsuyama leads her KotoYuki band in Los Angeles. Her compositions blend the timbres of world music with her native Japanese culture. She performed on the Grammy-winning album *Miho: Journey to the Mountain* (2010) by the Paul Winter Consort, garnering additional exposure to Western audiences for the instrument. In November 2011, worldwide audiences were further exposed to the koto when she performed with Shakira at the Latin Grammy Awards.
In March 2010, the koto received widespread international attention when a video linked by the Grammy Award-winning hard rock band Tool on its website became a viral hit. The video showed Tokyo-based ensemble Soemon playing member Brett Larner\'s arrangement of the Tool song \"Lateralus\" for six bass and two bass koto. Larner had previously played koto with John Fahey, Jim O\'Rourke, and members of indie rock groups including Camper Van Beethoven, Deerhoof, Jackie O Motherfucker, and Mr. Bungle.
In older pop and rock music, David Bowie used a koto in the instrumental piece \"Moss Garden\" on his album *\"Heroes\"* (1977). The multi-instrumentalist, founder, and former guitarist of The Rolling Stones Brian Jones played the koto in the song \"Take It Or Leave It\" on the album *Aftermath* (1966).
Paul Gilbert, a popular guitar virtuoso, recorded his wife Emi playing the koto on his song \"Koto Girl\" from the album *Alligator Farm* (2000). Rock band Kagrra, are well known for using traditional Japanese musical instruments in many of their songs, an example being `{{nihongo||うたかた|"Utakata"}}`{=mediawiki}, a song in which the koto has a prominent place. Winston Tong, the singer of Tuxedomoon, uses it on his 15-minute song \"The Hunger\" from his debut solo album *Theoretically Chinese* (1985).
The rock band Queen used a (toy) koto in \"The Prophet\'s Song\" on their 1975 album *A Night at the Opera*. Ex-Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett used a koto on the instrumental song \"The Red Flower of Tachai Blooms Everywhere\" from the album *Spectral Mornings* (1979), and Genesis keyboardist Tony Banks sampled a koto using an Emulator keyboard for the band\'s song \"Mama\". A koto played by Hazel Payne is featured in A Taste of Honey\'s 1981 English cover of the Japanese song \"Sukiyaki\". A synthesized koto appears in their cover of The Miracles\' \"I\'ll Try Something New\". Steve Howe used a koto in the instrumental break of Asia\'s single \"Heat of the Moment\", from their self-titled 1982 album. Howe also played a koto on the Yes song \"It Will Be a Good Day (The River)\", from the 1999 album *The Ladder*.
Dr. Dre\'s 1999 album *2001* prominently features a synthesized koto on two of its tracks, \"Still D.R.E.\" and \"The Message\". A 2020 acoustic cover of Led Zeppelin\'s \"The Battle of Evermore\" by PianoRock feat. Dean McNeill also prominently features a synthesized koto
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# KDE
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# Geography of Kazakhstan
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Detailed map of Kazakhstan
**Kazakhstan** is located in Central Asia, with a small portion in Eastern Europe. With an area of about 2724900 km2 Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the world, more than twice the combined size of the other four Central Asian states and 60% larger than Alaska. The country borders Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan to the south; Russia to the north; Russia and the Caspian Sea to the west; and China\'s Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the east.
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|With land area of 2.6 million km^2^, Kazakhstan is the largest country in Central Asia and the ninth largest in the world According to CIA World Factbook estimates:
Area:
:\* Total: 2,724,900 km2
:\*\* *country rank in the world*: 9th
:\* Land: 2,699,700 km2
:\* Water: 25,200 km2
Area comparative
:\* Australia comparative: slightly larger than Western Australia
:\* Canada comparative: slightly less than `{{sfrac|1|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} times the size of Nunavut
:\* United States comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|3|5}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Alaska
Land boundaries:
:\* Total: 13,364 km
:\* Border countries:
:\*\*People\'s Republic of China (to the southeast) 1,765 km
:\*\*Kyrgyzstan (to the southeast) 1,212 km
:\*\*Russia (to the north) 7,644 km
:\*\*Turkmenistan (to the southwest) 413 km
:\*\*Uzbekistan (to the south) 2,330 km.
Coastline:
:\*0 km (0 mi)
:\*\*Note: Kazakhstan borders the Caspian Sea. Its coastline with the Caspian Sea is 1,894 km.
Maritime claims:
:\* Border disputes with Russia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan
Elevation extremes:
:\* Lowest point: Karagiye Depression −132 m
:\* Highest point: Khan Tengri 6,995 m
## Lands
More than three-quarters (75%) of the country, including the entire west and most of the south, is either semidesert (33.2 percent) or desert (44 percent).
:\*Deserts: 44% (1,198,956 km^2^)
:\*Semi-deserts: 14% (381,486 km^2^)
:\*Steppe: 26% (708,474 km^2^)
:\*Forests: only 5.5% (149,870 km^2^)
:\*Deserts + semi-deserts: 58% (1,580,442 km^2^)
:\*Deserts + semi-deserts + steppe: 84% (2,288,916 km^2^)
### Land use {#land_use}
According to CIA World Factbook estimates:
Agricultural land 77.4% (2011):
:\*Arable land: 8.9%
:\*Permanent crops: 0%
:\*Permanent pastures: 68.5%
:\*Forest: 1.2%
:\*Other: 21.4%
Irrigated land (2012):
:\*20,660 km^2^
### Deserts
1. Aral Karakum Desert 40,000 km^2^
2. Aralkum Desert
3. Barsuki Desert
4. Betpak-Dala 75,000 km^2^
5. Kyzylkum Desert 298,000 km^2^
6. Moiynkum Desert 37,500 km^2^
7. Ryn Desert 40,000 km^2^
8. Saryesik-Atyrau Desert
9. Taukum 10,000 km^2^
10. Ustyurt Plateau 200,000 km^2^
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# Geography of Kazakhstan
## Topography and drainage {#topography_and_drainage}
There is considerable topographical variation within Kazakhstan. The highest point is the top of the mountain Khan Tengri, on the Kyrgyz and Chinese border in the Tian Shan range, with an elevation of 6995 m (7010 m with ice cap) above sea level; the lowest point is the bottom of the Karagiye depression at 132 m below sea level, in the Mangystau province east of the Caspian Sea. Most of the country lies at between 200-300 m above sea level, but Kazakhstan\'s Caspian shore includes some of the lowest elevations on Earth.
Many of the peaks of the Altay and Tien Shan ranges are covered with snow, year-round, and their runoff is the source for most of Kazakhstan\'s freshwater rivers, streams, and lakes. Kazakhstan\'s Almaty region is also home to the Mynzhylky mountain plateau.
Except for the Tobol, Ishim, and Irtysh rivers (the Kazakh names for which are, respectively, Tobyl, Esil, and Ertis), portions of which flow through Kazakhstan, all of Kazakhstan\'s rivers and streams are part of landlocked systems. They either flow into isolated bodies of water such as the Caspian Sea or simply disappear into the steppes and deserts of central and southern Kazakhstan. Many rivers, streams, and lakes are seasonal, evaporating in summer. The three largest bodies of water are Lake Balkhash, a partially fresh, partially saline lake in the east, near Almaty, the Caspian Sea, and the Aral Sea, all of which lie partially within Kazakhstan.
Some 9.4 percent of Kazakhstan\'s land is mixed prairie and forest or treeless prairie, primarily in the north or in the basin of the Ural River in the west. More than three-quarters of the country, including the entire west and most of the south, is either semidesert (33.2 percent) or desert (44 percent). The terrain in these regions is bare, eroded, broken uplands (Upland and lowland), with sand dunes in the Qizilqum (\"The Red Sands\"; in the Russian form, Kyzylkum), Moyunqum (in the Russian form, Muyunkum) and Barsuki deserts, which occupy south-central Kazakhstan.
### Water resources {#water_resources}
Total renewable water resources:
:\*107.5 km^3^ (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
:\*Total: 21.14 km^3^/yr (4%/30%/66%)
:\*Per capita: 1,304 m^3^/yr (2010)
### Waters (rivers and lakes) {#waters_rivers_and_lakes}
:\*Northeastern shore of the Caspian Sea
:\*Part of Aral Sea
:\*48,000 large and small lakes such as Balkhash Lake, Lake Zaysan and Lake Alakol.
:\*8,500 rivers
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# Geography of Kazakhstan
## Climate
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Kazakhstan map of Köppen climate classification. The climate of Kazakhstan consists of mostly continental, semi-arid, and cold desert climates. In summer the temperatures average more than 30 °C and in winter average -9 °C.
The climatic charts seen below are some noteworthy examples of the country\'s differing climates, taken from two contrasting cities (with their respective tables) representing two different parts of the country; Aktau and the Caspian Sea shore on the country\'s west having a distinct cold desert climate and cold semi-arid climate, while Petropavl features a climate typical to the rest of the country; an extreme variation of the humid continental climate known for its uneven rainfall distribution and drastic temperature ranges between seasons.
Despite the nation\'s relatively low precipitation rates and mostly arid geography, spring floods brought on by occasional heavy rainfall and snowmelt are not unusual in the northern and central regions of the country. In April 2017, following a winter with snow volumes 60 percent above average, heavy rains resulted in widespread damage and temporarily displaced thousands of people. `{{climate chart
|[[Aktau]] ([[Caspian Sea]] shore)
| -2 | 1 | 8
| -2 | 2 | 9
| 1 | 6 | 15
| 7 | 14 | 17
| 15 | 22 | 20
| 19 | 26 | 16
| 22 | 29 | 16
| 21 | 28 | 16
| 16 | 23 | 17
| 9 | 16 | 16
| 3 | 9 | 16
| 0 | 3 | 16
|float=right
|clear=none
|source= Svali.ru<ref name="svali.ru">{{cite web
| url = http://www.svali.ru/catalog~42~38111~index.htm | title = Svali.ru| access-date = May 7, 2012
| language = ru}}</ref>
|date=May 2012
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{climate chart
|[[Petropavl]] ([[North Kazakhstan Region|North Kazakhstan]])
| -20.0 | -11.8 | 22.0
| -19.4 | -10.4 | 17.0
| -12.5 | -2.8 | 16.0
| -1.2 | 9.1 | 22.0
| 6.2 | 19.3 | 31.0
| 12.0 | 24.6 | 37.0
| 14.0 | 25.5 | 66.0
| 11.6 | 23.0 | 47.0
| 5.7 | 16.4 | 33.0
| -0.3 | 8.4 | 30.0
| -10.9 | -3.6 | 30.0
| -17.6 | -9.7 | 27.0
|float=right
|clear=none
|source= Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="pogoda">{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161125135032/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/28676.htm
| archive-date = 25 November 2016
| url = http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate/28676.htm
| title = Weather and Climate - The Climate of Petropavlovsk (Petropavl)
| access-date = 25 November 2016
| publisher = Weather and Climate (Погода и климат)
| language = ru}}</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki}
Location July (°C) July (°F) January (°C) January (°F)
----------- ----------- ----------- -------------- --------------
Almaty 30/18 86/64 0/−8 33/17
Shymkent 32/17 91/66 4/−4 39/23
Karaganda 27/14 80/57 −8/−17 16/1
Astana 27/15 80/59 −10/−18 14/−1
Pavlodar 28/15 82/59 −11/−20 12/−5
Aktobe 30/15 86/61 −8/−16 17/2
: Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for large cities in Kazakhstan
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# Geography of Kazakhstan
## Environmental problems {#environmental_problems}
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Portions of Kazakhstan (top) and Kyrgyzstan at the bottom. The lake at the top of the image is Lake Balkhash. The environment of Kazakhstan has been badly damaged by human activity. Most of the water in Kazakhstan is polluted by industrial effluents, pesticide and fertilizer residue, and, in some places, radioactive elements. The most visible damage has been to the Aral Sea, which as recently as the 1970s was larger than any of the Great Lakes of North America save Lake Superior. The sea began to shrink rapidly when sharply increased irrigation and other demands on the only significant tributaries, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya (the latter reaching the Aral from neighboring Uzbekistan), all but eliminated inflow. During the Soviet Era, Kazakhstan received water from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan provided oil and gas for these two nations in return. However, after the collapse of the USSR this system had collapsed and no plan to replace this system has been put in place. According to research conducted by the International Crisis Group, there is little political will to solve this problem despite Central Asia\'s need for mutual resource-sharing. By 1993 the Aral Sea had lost an estimated 60 percent of its volume, in the process breaking into three unconnected segments. Increasing salinity and reduced habitat have killed the Aral Sea\'s fish, hence destroying its once-active fishing industry, and the receding shoreline has left the former port of Aral\'sk more than seventy kilometers from the water\'s edge. The depletion of this large body of water has increased temperature variations in the region, which in turn have affected agriculture. A much greater agricultural impact, however, has come from the salt- and pesticide-laden soil that the wind is known to carry as far away as the Himalaya Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Deposition of this heavily saline soil on nearby fields effectively sterilizes them. Evidence suggests that salts, pesticides, and residues of chemical fertilizers are also adversely affecting human life around the former Aral Sea; infant mortality in the region approaches 10 percent compared with the national rate of 2.7 percent in 1991.
By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully. At the northern end of the sea, more than 10,000 square kilometres of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded. Experts estimate that if current rates of increase persist, the coastal city of Atyrau, eighty-eight other population centers, and many of Kazakhstan\'s Caspian oil fields could be submerged soon.
Wind erosion has also affected the northern and central parts of the republic because of the introduction of wide-scale dryland wheat farming. During the 1950s and 1960s, much soil was lost when vast tracts of Kazakhstan\'s prairies were plowed under as part of Khrushchev\'s Virgin Lands agricultural project. By the mid-1990s, an estimated 60 percent of the republic\'s pastureland was in various stages of desertification.
Industrial pollution is a bigger concern in Kazakhstan\'s manufacturing cities, where aging factories pump huge quantities of unfiltered pollutants into the air and groundwater. The former capital, Almaty, is particularly threatened, in part because of the postindependence boom in private automobile ownership.
The gravest environmental threat to Kazakhstan comes from radiation, especially in the Semey (Semipalatinsk) region of the northeast, where the Soviet Union tested almost 500 nuclear weapons, 116 of them above ground. Often, such tests were conducted without evacuating or even alerting the local population. Although nuclear testing was halted in 1990, radiation poisoning, birth defects, severe anemia, and leukemia are thought to be very common in the area.
With some conspicuous exceptions, lip service has been the primary official response to Kazakhstan\'s ecological problems. In February 1989, opposition to Soviet nuclear testing and its ill effects in Kazakhstan led to the creation of one of the republic\'s largest and most influential grass-roots movements, Nevada-Semipalatinsk, which was founded by Kazak poet and public figure Olzhas Suleymenov. In the first week of the movement\'s existence, Nevada-Semipalatinsk gathered more than two million signatures from Kazakhstanis of all ethnic groups on a petition to Mikhail Gorbachev demanding the end of nuclear testing in Kazakhstan. After a year of demonstrations and protests, the test ban took effect in 1990. It remained in force in 1996, although in 1995 at least one unexploded device reportedly was still in position near Semey.
Once its major ecological objective was achieved, Nevada-Semipalatinsk made various attempts to broaden into a more general political movement; it has not pursued a broad ecological or \"green\" agenda. A very small green party, Tabigat, made common cause with the political opposition in the parliament of 1994.
The government has established a Ministry of Ecology and Bioresources, with a separate administration for radioecology, but the ministry\'s programs are underfunded and given low priority. In 1994 only 23 percent of budgeted funds were actually allotted to environmental programs. Many official meetings and conferences are held (more than 300 have been devoted to the problem of the Aral Sea alone), but few practical programs have gone into operation. In 1994 the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United States Environmental Protection Agency agreed to give Kazakhstan \$62 million to help the country overcome ecological problems
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# Politics of Kazakhstan
The **politics of Kazakhstan** takes place in the framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Kazakhstan is head of state and nominates the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament.
None of the elections held in Kazakhstan have been considered free or fair by Western standards with issues noted including ballot tampering, multiple voting, harassment of opposition candidates and press censorship.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
Image Post Name Party Term
------- ---------------- ----------------------- ------------- -----------------
President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev Independent 20 March 2019
Prime Minister Oljas Bektenov Amanat 6 February 2024
The president is elected by popular vote for a [five-year term.](http://www.kazakhstanlive.com/3en.aspx) The prime minister and first deputy prime minister are appointed by the president. Council of Ministers is also appointed by the president. President Nazarbayev expanded his presidential powers by decree: only he can initiate constitutional amendments, appoint and dismiss the government, dissolve Parliament, call referendums at his discretion, and appoint administrative heads of regions and cities.
The president is the head of state. He also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who was in office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in the 1999 election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. A major political opponent, former prime minister Akezhan Kazhegeldin, was prohibited from running against the president because he had attended an unauthorized meeting of \"the movement for free elections\". On top of this the election was unconstitutionally called two years ahead of schedule. Free access to the media is also denied to opposing opinions. In 2002 a law set very stringent requirements for the maintenance of legal status of a political party, which lowered the number of legal parties from 19 in 2002 to 8 in 2003. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan\'s head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Bakhytzhan Sagintayev became the Prime Minister in September 2016.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The legislature, known as the Parliament (**Parliament**), has two chambers. The Lower House Assembly (*Mazhilis*) has 107 seats, elected for a four-year term, 98 seats are from party lists, 9 - from Assembly of People. All MPs are elected for 5 years. The Upper House Senate has 47 members, 40 of whom are elected for six-year terms in double-seat constituencies by the local assemblies, half renewed every two years, and 7 presidential appointees. In addition, ex-presidents are *ex officio* senators for life. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though most legislation considered by the Parliament is proposed by the government. Several deputies are elected from the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
There are 65 judges on the Supreme Court of Kazakhstan. There are seven members of the Constitutional Council. Out of the 7 members, 3 are appointed by the president.
There are local and oblast (regional) level courts, and a national-level Supreme Court. Local level courts serve as courts of first instance for less serious crimes such as theft and vandalism. Oblast level courts hear more serious criminal cases and also hear cases in rural areas where no local courts have been established. A judgment by a local court may be appealed to the oblast level. The Supreme Court is a cassation court that hears appeals from the oblast courts.
The constitution establishes a seven-member Constitutional Council to determine the constitutionality of laws adopted by the legislature. It also rules on challenges to elections and referendums and interprets the constitution. The president appoints three of its members, including the chair.
Under constitutional amendments of 1998, the president appoints a chairperson of a Higher Judicial Council, which nominates judges for the Supreme Court. The Council consists of the chairperson of the Constitutional Council, the chairperson of the Supreme Court, the Prosecutor General, the Minister of Justice, senators, judges, and other persons appointed by the president. The president recommends and the Senate (upper legislative chamber) approves these nominees for the Supreme Court. Oblast judges (nominated by the Higher Judicial Council) are appointed by the president. Lower level judges are appointed by the president from a list presented by the Higher Judicial Council. Under legislation approved in 2000, judges serve for life.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
Early **presidential elections** were held in Kazakhstan on 9 June 2019 following the resignation of long-term president Nursultan Nazarbayev. Originally scheduled for 2020, seven candidates were registered to participate in the elections, including incumbent president Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, who had assumed the presidency three months before the elections following the resignation of Nazarbayev. Tokayev was subsequently re-elected with 71% of the vote. His closest challenger, Amirjan Qosanov of the Ult Tagdyry party, received 16%. {{#section-h:2019 Kazakh presidential election\|Results}} *Main article: 2016 Kazakh legislative election* {{#section-h:2016 Kazakh legislative election\|Results}}
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# Politics of Kazakhstan
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved. Improvement in these areas has been made for in 2012, Kazakhstan was elected by United Nations members to serve on the UN Human Rights Council. Despite this, Kazakhstan is still considered to have a very poor human rights record by analysts such as The Economist Intelligence Unit
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# History of Kenya
A part of Eastern Africa, the territory of what is known as Kenya has seen human habitation since the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic. The Bantu expansion from a West African centre of dispersal reached the area by the 1st millennium AD. With the borders of the modern state at the crossroads of the Bantu, Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic ethno-linguistic areas of Africa, Kenya is a multi-ethnic state. The Wanga Kingdom was formally established in the late 17th century. The Kingdom covered from the Jinja in Uganda to Naivasha in the East of Kenya. This is the first time the Wanga people and Luhya tribe were united and led by a centralized leader, a king, known as the Nabongo.
The European and Arab presence in Mombasa dates back to the Early Modern period, but European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, from 1920 known as the Kenya Colony.
During the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, Kenya gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1963, had Elizabeth II as its first head of state, and Jomo Kenyatta as its Prime Minister. It became a republic in 1964, and was ruled as a *de facto* one-party state by the Kenya African National Union (KANU), led by Kenyatta from 1964 to 1978. Kenyatta was succeeded by Daniel arap Moi, who ruled until 2002. Moi attempted to transform the *de facto* one-party status of Kenya into a *de jure* status during the 1980s. However, with the end of the Cold War, the practices of political repression and torture that had been \"overlooked\" by the Western powers as necessary evils in the effort to contain communism were no longer tolerated in Kenya.
Moi came under pressure, notably from US ambassador Smith Hempstone, to restore a multi-party system, which he did by 1991. Moi won elections in 1992 and 1997, which were overshadowed by politically motivated killings on both sides. During the 1990s, evidence of Moi\'s involvement in human rights abuses and corruption, such as the Goldenberg scandal, was uncovered. He was constitutionally barred from running in the 2002 election, which was won by Mwai Kibaki. Widely reported electoral fraud on Kibaki\'s side in the 2007 elections resulted in the 2007--2008 Kenyan crisis. Kibaki was succeeded by Uhuru Kenyatta in the 2013 general election. There were allegations that his rival Raila Odinga actually won the contest; however, the Supreme Court, through a thorough review of evidence adduced, found no malpractice during the conduct of the 2013 general election both from the IEBC and the Jubilee Party of Uhuru Kenyatta. Uhuru was re-elected in office five years later in 2017. His victory was, however, controversial. The supreme court had vitiated Uhuru\'s win after Raila Odinga disputed the result through a constitutionally allowed supreme court petition. Raila Odinga would later boycott a repeat election ordered by the court, allowing Uhuru Kenyatta sail through almost unopposed with 98% of the vote ( 50+1%).
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# History of Kenya
## Paleolithic
Fossils found in Kenya have shown that primates inhabited the area for more than 20 million years. In 1929, the first evidence of the presence of ancient early human ancestors in Kenya was discovered when Louis Leakey unearthed one million year old Acheulian handaxes at the Kariandusi Prehistoric Site in southwest Kenya. Subsequently, many species of early hominid have been discovered in Kenya. The oldest, found by Martin Pickford in 2000, is the six million year old *Orrorin tugenensis*, named after the Tugen Hills where it was unearthed. It is the second oldest fossil hominid in the world after *Sahelanthropus tchadensis*.
In 1995 Meave Leakey named a new species of hominid *Australopithecus anamensis* following a series of fossil discoveries near Lake Turkana in 1965, 1987 and 1994. It is around 4.1 million years old.
In 2011, 3.2 million year old stone tools were discovered at Lomekwi near Lake Turkana - these are the oldest stone tools found anywhere in the world and pre-date the emergence of *Homo*.
One of the most famous and complete hominid skeletons ever discovered was the 1.6-million-year-old *Homo erectus* known as Nariokotome Boy, which was found by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 on an excavation led by Richard Leakey.
The oldest Acheulean tools ever discovered anywhere in the world are from West Turkana, and were dated in 2011 through the method of magnetostratigraphy to about 1.76 million years old.
East Africa, including Kenya, is one of the earliest regions where modern humans (*Homo sapiens*) are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of modern behaviors including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known *Homo sapiens* fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of *Homo sapiens*. Further evidence of modern behavior was found in 2021 when evidence of Africa\'s earliest funeral was found. A 78,000-year-old Middle Stone Age grave of a three-year-old child was discovered in Panga ya Saidi cave. Researchers said the child\'s head appeared to have been laid on a pillow. The body had been laid in a fetal position. Michael Petraglia, a professor of human evolution and prehistory at the Max Planck Institute said, "It is the oldest human burial in Africa. It tells us something about our cognition, our sociality, and our behaviors and they are all very familiar to us today."
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# History of Kenya
## Neolithic
The first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakers. The Kansyore culture, dating from the mid 5th millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE was one of East Africa\'s earliest ceramic producing group of hunter-gatherers. This culture was located at Gogo falls in Migori county near Lake Victoria. Kenya\'s rock art sites date between 2000BCE and 1000 CE. This tradition thrived at Mfangano Island, Chelelemuk hills, Namoratunga and Lewa Downs. The rock paintings are attributed to the Twa people, a hunter-gatherer group that was once widespread in East Africa. For the most part, these communities were assimilated into various food-producing societies that began moving into Kenya from the 3rd millennium BCE.
Linguistic evidence points to a relative sequence of population movements into Kenya that begins with the entry into northern Kenya of a possibly Southern Cushitic speaking population around the 3rd millennium BCE. They were pastoralists who kept domestic stock, including cattle, sheep, goat, and donkeys. Remarkable megalithic sites from this time period include the possibly archaeoastronomical site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana. One of these megalithic sites, Lothagam North Pillar Site, is East Africa\'s earliest and largest monumental cemetery. At least 580 bodies are found in this well planned cemetery. By 1000 BCE and even earlier, pastoralism had spread into central Kenya and northern Tanzania. Eburran hunter gatherers, who had lived in the Ol Doinyo Eburru volcano complex near Lake Nakuru for thousands of years, start adopting livestock around this period.
In present times the descendants of the Southern Cushitic speakers are located in north central Tanzania near Lake Eyasi. Their past distribution, as determined by the presence of loanwords in other languages, encompasses the known distribution of the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture.
Beginning around 700 BCE, Southern Nilotic speaking communities whose homelands lay somewhere near the common border between Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia moved south into the western highlands and Rift Valley region of Kenya.
The arrival of the Southern Nilotes in Kenya occurred shortly before the introduction of iron to East Africa. The past distribution of the Southern Nilotic speakers, as inferred from place names, loan words and oral traditions includes the known distribution of Elmenteitan sites.
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# History of Kenya
## Iron Age {#iron_age}
Evidence suggests that autochthonous Iron production developed in West Africa as early as 3000--2500 BCE. The ancestors of Bantu speakers migrated in waves from west/central Africa to populate much of Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa from the first millennium BC. They brought with them iron forging technology and novel farming techniques as they migrated and integrated with the societies they encountered. The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached western Kenya around 1000 BCE.
The Urewe culture is one of Africa\'s oldest iron smelting centers. Dating from 550 BCE to 650 BCE, this culture dominated the Great Lakes region including Kenya. Sites in Kenya include Urewe, Yala, and Uyoma in northern Nyanza. By the first century BC, Bantu-speaking communities in the Great lakes region developed iron forging techniques that enabled them to produce carbon steel.
Later migrations through Tanzania led to settlement on the Kenyan coast. Archaeological findings have shown that by 100 BCE to 300 AD, Bantu-speaking communities were present at the coastal areas of Misasa in Tanzania, Kwale in Kenya. These communities also integrated and intermarried with the communities already present on the coast. Between 300 AD-1000 AD, through participation in the long-existing Indian Ocean trade route, these communities established links with Arabian and Indian traders leading to the development of the Swahili culture.
Historians estimate that in the 15th century, Southern Luo speakers started migrating to Western Kenya. The Luo descend from migrants closely related to other Nilotic Luo Peoples (especially the Acholi and Padhola people) who moved from South Sudan through Uganda into western Kenya in a slow and multi-generational manner between the 15th and 20th centuries. As they moved into Kenya and Tanzania, they underwent significant genetic and cultural admixture as they encountered other communities that were long established in the region.
The walled settlement of Thimlich Ohinga is the largest and best preserved of 138 sites containing 521 stone structures that were built around the Lake Victoria region in Nyanza Province. Carbon dating and linguistic evidence suggest that the site is at least 550 years old. Archaeological and ethnographic analysis of the site taken with historical, linguistic, and genetic evidence suggests that the populations that built, maintained, and inhabited the site at various phases had significant ethnic admixture.
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# History of Kenya
## Swahili culture and trade {#swahili_culture_and_trade}
Swahili people inhabit the **Swahili coast** which is the coastal area of the Indian Ocean in Southeast Africa. It includes the coastal areas of Southern Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Northern Mozambique with numerous islands, cities and towns including Sofala, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Comoros, Mombasa, Gede, Malindi, Pate Island and Lamu. The Swahili coast was historically known as Azania in the Greco-Roman era and as Zanj or Zinj in Middle Eastern, Chinese and Indian literature from the 7th to the 14th century. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea is a Graeco-Roman manuscript that was written in the first century AD. It describes the East African coast (Azania) and a long existing Indian Ocean Trade route. The East African Coast was long inhabited by hunter-gatherer and Cushitic groups since at least 3000BC. Evidence of indigenous pottery and agriculture dating as far back as this period has been found along the coast and offshore islands. International trade goods including Graeco-Roman pottery, Syrian glass vessels, Sassanian pottery from Persia and glass beads dating to 600BC have been found at the Rufiji River delta in Tanzania. The oldest indigenous inhabitants of the Kenyan coast are the Cushitic-speaking peoples, including the Orma, Boni, Sanye, and Somali, who were later displaced by Bantu-speaking groups, now forming the Mijikenda, Pokomo, Taita, and Swahili clusters.
Bantu Groups had migrated to the Great Lakes Region by 1000BCE. Some Bantu speakers continued to migrate further southeast towards the East African Coast. These Bantu speakers mixed with the local inhabitants they encountered at the coast. The earliest settlements in the Swahili coast to appear on the archaeological record are found at Kwale in Kenya, Misasa in Tanzania and Ras Hafun in Somalia. The Kenyan coast had hosted communities of ironworkers and communities of Eastern Bantu subsistence-farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with outside areas. Between 300AD -- 1000AD Azanian and Zanj settlements in the Swahili coast continued to expand with local industry and international trade flourishing. Between 500 and 800 A.D. they shifted to a sea-based trading economy and began to migrate south by ship. In the following centuries, trade in goods from the African interior, such as gold, ivory, and slaves stimulated the development of market towns such as Mogadishu, Shanga, Kilwa, and Mombasa. These communities formed the earliest city-states in the region which were collectively known to the Roman Empire as \"Azania\".
By the 1st century CE, many of the settlements such as those in Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar - began to establish trade relations with Arabs. This led ultimately to the increased economic growth of the Swahili, the introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, and cultural diffusion. Islam rapidly spread across Africa between 614AD -- 900AD. Starting with the first Hijrah (migration) of Prophet Muhammad\'s followers to Ethiopia, Islam spread across Eastern, Northern and Western Africa. The Swahili city-states became part of a larger trade network. Many historians long believed that Arab or Persian traders established the city-states, but archeological evidence has led scholars to recognize the city-states as an indigenous development which, though subjected to foreign influence due to trade, retained a Bantu cultural core. The Azanian and Zanj communities had a high degree of intercultural exchange and admixture. This fact is reflected in the language, culture and technology present at the coast. For instance, between 630AD - 890AD, Archaeological evidence indicates that crucible steel was manufactured at Galu, south of Mombasa. Metallurgical analysis of iron artefacts indicates that the techniques used by the inhabitants of the Swahili coast combined techniques used in other African sites as well as those in West and South Asian sites. The Swahili City States begin to emerge from pre-existing settlements between 1000AD and 1500AD. The earliest gravestone found at Gedi Ruins dates to the earlier part of this period. The oldest Swahili texts in existence also date to this period. They were written in old Swahili script (Swahili-Arabic alphabet) based on Arabic letters. This is the script found on the earliest gravestones.
One of the most travelled people of the ancient world, Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta, visited Mombasa on his way to Kilwa in 1331. He describes Mombasa as a large island with banana, lemon and citron trees. The local residents were Sunni Muslims who he described as "religious people, trustworthy and righteous." He noted that their mosques were made of wood and were expertly built. Another ancient traveller, Chinese Admiral Zheng He visited Malindi in 1418. Some of his ships are reported to have sunk near Lamu Island. Recent genetic tests done on local inhabitants confirmed that some residents had Chinese ancestry.
Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed`{{when|date=November 2018}}`{=mediawiki} as a *lingua franca* for trade between the different peoples. A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably in Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa. The impact of Arabic and Persian traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture remains controversial. During the Middle Ages,
> the East African Swahili coast \[including Zanzibar\] was a wealthy and advanced region, which consisted of many autonomous merchant cities. Wealth flowed into the cities via the Africans\' roles as intermediaries and facilitators of Indian, Persian, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian, African and Chinese merchants. All of these peoples enriched the Swahili culture to some degree. The Swahili culture developed its own written language; the language incorporated elements from different civilisations, with Arabic as its strongest quality. Some Arab settlers were rich merchants who, because of their wealth, gained power---sometimes as rulers of coastal cities.
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# History of Kenya
## Portuguese and Omani influences {#portuguese_and_omani_influences}
Portuguese explorers appeared on the East African coast at the end of the 15th century. The Portuguese did not intend to found settlements, but to establish naval bases that would give Portugal control over the Indian Ocean. After decades of small-scale conflict, Arabs from Oman defeated the Portuguese in Kenya.
The Portuguese became the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya: Vasco da Gama visited Mombasa in April 1498. Da Gama\'s voyage successfully reached India (May 1498), and this initiated direct maritime Portuguese trade links with South Asia, thus challenging older trading networks over mixed land and sea routes, such as the spice-trade routes that utilised the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. (The Republic of Venice had gained control`{{when|date=June 2020}}`{=mediawiki} over much of the trade between Europe and Asia. Especially after the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453, Turkish control of the eastern Mediterranean inhibited the use of traditional land-routes between Europe and India. Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to bypass political, monopolistic and tariff barriers.)
Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when a naval force under the command of Dom Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in the south-east of present-day Tanzania.
The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe and Asia. Portuguese naval vessels disrupted the commerce of Portugal\'s enemies within the western Indian Ocean, and the Portuguese demanded high tariffs on items transported through the area, given their strategic control of ports and of shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 aimed to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa, besieging Portuguese fortresses. Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728), but by 1730 the Omanis had expelled the remaining Portuguese from the coasts of present-day Kenya and Tanzania. By this time the Portuguese Empire had already lost interest in the spice-trade sea-route because of the decreasing profitability of that traffic. (Portuguese-ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south, in Mozambique, until 1975.)
Under Seyyid Said (ruled 1807--1856), the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in 1840, the Arabs set up long-distance trade-routes into the African interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by semi-nomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long-distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenyan coast on the east and to the kingdoms of Uganda on the west. Arab, Shirazi and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up-country commodities, including slaves.
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