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# Jutes
The **Jutes** (`{{IPAc-en|dʒ|uː|t|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|JOOTS}}`{=mediawiki}) were one of the Germanic tribes who settled in Great Britain after the departure of the Romans. According to Bede, they were one of the three most powerful Germanic nations, along with the Angles and the Saxons:
There is no consensus amongst historians on the origins of the Jutes. One hypothesis is that they originated from the Jutland Peninsula but after a Danish invasion of that area, migrated to the Frisian coast. From the Frisian coast they went on to settle southern Britain in the later fifth century during the Migration Period, as part of a larger wave of Germanic migration into Britain. They were possibly or probably related to the North Germanic tribe Geats.
## Settlement in southern Britain {#settlement_in_southern_britain}
During the period after the Roman occupation and before the Norman conquest, people of Germanic descent arrived in Britain, ultimately forming England. The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* provides what historians regard as foundation legends for Anglo-Saxon settlement.
The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* describes how the brothers Hengist and Horsa in the year 449 were invited to Sub-Roman Britain by Vortigern to assist his forces in fighting the Picts. They landed at Wippidsfleet (Ebbsfleet), and went on to defeat the Picts wherever they fought them. Hengist and Horsa sent word home to Germany asking for assistance. Their request was granted and support arrived. Afterward, more people arrived in Britain from \"the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes\". The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight and Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria (leaving their original homeland, Angeln, deserted).
The *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* also lists *Wihtgar* and *Stuf* as founders of the *Wihtwara* (Isle of Wight) and a man named *Port* and his two sons *Bieda* and *Maeglaof* as founders of the *Meonwara* (southern Hampshire). In 686 Bede tells us that Jutish Hampshire extended to the western edge of the New Forest; however, that seems to include another Jutish people, the Ytene, and it is not certain that these two territories formed a continuous coastal block. Towards the end of the Roman occupation of England, raids on the east coast became more intense and the expedient adopted by Romano-British leaders was to enlist the help of mercenaries to whom they ceded territory. It is thought that mercenaries may have started arriving in Sussex as early as the 5th century.
Before the 7th century, there is a dearth of contemporary written material about the Anglo-Saxons\' arrival. Most material that does exist was written several hundred years after the events. The earlier dates for the beginnings of settlement, provided by the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, have been contested by some findings in archaeology. One alternative hypothesis to the foundation legend suggests, because previously inhabited sites on the Frisian and north German coasts had been rendered uninhabitable by flooding, that the migration was due to displacement. Under this alternative hypothesis, the British provided land for the refugees to settle on in return for peaceful coexistence and military cooperation.
Ship construction in the 2nd or 3rd century adopted the use of iron fastenings, instead of the old sewn fastenings, to hold together the plank built boats of the Jutland peninsula. This enabled them to build stronger sea going vessels. Vessels going from Jutland to Britain probably would have sailed along the coastal regions of Lower Saxony and the Netherlands before crossing the English Channel. This was because navigation techniques of the time required the ship to be moored up overnight. Marine archaeology has suggested that migrating ships would have sheltered in various river estuaries on the route. Artefacts and parts of ships, of the period, have been found that support this theory.
It is likely that the Jutes initially inhabited Kent and from there they occupied the Isle of Wight, southern Hampshire and also possibly the area around Hastings in East Sussex (Haestingas). J E A Jolliffe compared agricultural and farming practices across 5th century Sussex to that of 5th century Kent. He suggested that the Kentish system underlaid the 5th century farming practices of Sussex. He hypothesised that Sussex was probably settled by Jutes before the arrival of the Saxons, with Jutish territory stretching from Kent to the New Forest. The north Solent coast had been a trading area since Roman times. The old Roman roads between Sidlesham and Chichester and Chichester to Winchester would have provided access to the Jutish settlements in Hampshire. Therefore, it is possible that the German folk arriving in the 5th century that landed in the Selsey area would have been directed north to Southampton Water. From there into the mouth of the Meon valley and would have been allowed to settle near the existing Romano-British people. The Jutish kingdom in Hampshire that Bede describes has various placenames that identify the locations as Jutish. These include Bishopstoke (*Ytingstoc*) and the Meon Valley (*Ytedene*).
### Mercian and South Saxon takeover {#mercian_and_south_saxon_takeover}
In Kent, Hlothhere had been ruler since 673/4. He must have come into conflict with Mercia, because in 676 the Mercian king Æthelred invaded Kent and according to Bede: `{{blockquote|In the year of our Lord's incarnation 676, when Ethelred, king of the Mercians, ravaged Kent with a powerful army, and profaned churches and monasteries, without regard to religion, or the fear of God, he among the rest destroyed the city of Rochester|source={{harvnb|Bede|1910|loc=1.15}}}}`{=mediawiki}
In 681 Wulfhere of Mercia advanced into southern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. Shortly after he gave the Isle of Wight and Meonwara to Æthelwealh of Sussex.
In Kent, Eadric was for a time co-ruler alongside his uncle Hlothhere with a law code being issued in their names. Ultimately, Eadric revolted against his uncle and with help from a South Saxon army in about 685, was able to kill Hlothhere, and replace him as ruler of Kent.
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# Jutes
## Settlement in southern Britain {#settlement_in_southern_britain}
### West Saxon invasion {#west_saxon_invasion}
In the 680s, the Kingdom of Wessex was in the ascendant, the alliance between the South Saxons and the Mercians and their control of southern England, put the West Saxons under pressure. Their king Cædwalla, probably concerned about Mercian and South Saxon influence in Southern England, conquered the land of the South Saxons and took over the Jutish areas in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. Bede describes how Cædwalla brutally suppressed the South Saxons and attempted to slaughter the Jutes of the Isle of Wight and replace them with people from \"his own province\", but maintained that he was unable to do so, and Jutes remained a majority on the island. `{{blockquote|After Cædwalla had possessed himself of the kingdom of the [[Gewissae]], he also took the Isle of Wight, which till then was entirely given over to idolatry, and by cruel slaughter endeavoured to destroy all the inhabitants thereof, and to place in their stead people from his own province.|source={{harvnb|Bede|1910|loc=4.16}}}}`{=mediawiki}
Cædwalla killed Aruald, the king of the Isle of Wight. Aruald\'s two younger brothers, who were heirs to the throne, escaped from the island but were hunted down and found at Stoneham, Hampshire. They were killed on Cædwalla\'s orders. The Isle of Wight was then permanently under West Saxon control and the *Meonwara* was integrated into Wessex. Cædwalla also invaded Kent and installed his brother Mul as leader. However, it was not long before Mul and twelve others were burnt to death by the Kentishmen. After Cædwalla was superseded by Ine of Wessex, Kent agreed to pay compensation to Wessex for the death of Mul, but they retained their independence.
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# Jutes
## Influences and culture {#influences_and_culture}
When the Jutish kingdom of Kent was founded, around the middle of the 5th century, Roman ways and influences must have still had a strong presence. The Roman settlement of *Durovernum Cantiacorum* became Canterbury. The people of Kent were described as *Cantawara*, a Germanised form of the Latin *Cantiaci*.
Although not all historians accept Bede\'s scheme for the settlement of Britain into Anglian, Jutish and Saxon areas as perfectly accurate, the archaeological evidence indicates that the peoples of west Kent were culturally distinct from those in the east of Kent, with west Kent sharing the \'Saxon\' characteristics of its neighbours in the southeast of England. Brooches and bracteates found in east Kent, the Isle of Wight and southern Hampshire showed a strong Frankish and North Sea influence from the mid-fifth century to the late sixth century compared to north German styles found elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon England. There is discussion about who crafted the jewellery (found in the archaeological sites of Kent). Suggestions include crafts people who had been trained in the Roman workshops of northern Gaul or the Rhineland. It is also possible that those artisans went on to develop their own individual style. By the late 6th century grave goods indicate that west Kent had adopted the distinctive east Kent material culture.
The Frankish princess Bertha arrived in Kent around 580 to marry the king Æthelberht of Kent. Bertha was already a Christian and had brought a bishop, Liudhard, with her across the Channel. Æthelberht rebuilt an old Romano-British structure and dedicated it to St Martin allowing Bertha to continue practising her Christian faith. In 597 Pope Gregory I sent Augustine to Kent, on a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons, There are suggestions that Æthelberht had already been baptised when he \"courteously received\" the pope\'s mission. Æthelberht was the first of the Anglo-Saxon rulers to be baptised.
The simplified Christian burial was introduced at this time. Christian graves were usually aligned East to West, whereas with some exceptions pagan burial sites were not. The lack of archaeological grave evidence in the land of the *Haestingas* is seen as supporting the hypothesis that the peoples there would have been Christian Jutes who had migrated from Kent. In contrast to Kent, the Isle of Wight was the last area of Anglo-Saxon England to be evangelised in 686, when Cædwalla of Wessex invaded the island, killing the local king Arwald and his brothers.
The Jutes used a system of partible inheritance known as gavelkind, which was practised in Kent until the 20th century. The custom of gavelkind was also found in other areas of Jutish settlement. In England and Wales, gavelkind was abolished by the Administration of Estates Act 1925. Before abolition in 1925, all land in Kent was presumed to be held by gavelkind until the contrary was proved. The popular reason given for the practice remaining so long is due to the \"Swanscombe Legend\"; according to this, Kent made a deal with William the Conqueror whereby he would allow them to keep local customs in return for peace.
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# Jutes
## Homeland and historical accounts {#homeland_and_historical_accounts}
Although historians are confident of where the Jutes settled in England, they are divided on where they actually came from.
The chroniclers, Procopius, Constantius of Lyon, Gildas, Bede, Nennius, and also the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, Alfred the Great and Asser provide the names of tribes who settled Britain during the mid-fifth century, and in their combined testimony, the four tribes mentioned are the *Angli*, *Saxones*, *Iutae* and *Frisii*.
The Roman historian Tacitus refers to a people called the *Eudoses,* a tribe who possibly developed into the Jutes.
The Jutes have also been identified with the *Eotenas* (*ēotenas*) involved in the Frisian conflict with the Danes as described in the Finnesburg episode in the Old English poem *Beowulf*. Theudebert, king of the Franks, wrote to the Emperor Justinian and in the letter claimed that he had lordship over a nation called the *Saxones Eucii*. The Eucii are thought to have been Jutes and may have been the same as a little-documented tribe called the *Euthiones*. The Euthiones are mentioned in a poem by Venantius Fortunatus (583) as being under the suzerainty of Chilperic I of the Franks. The Euthiones were located somewhere in northern Francia, modern day Flanders, an area of the European mainland opposite to Kent.
Bede inferred that the Jutish homeland was on the Jutland peninsula. However, analysis of grave goods of the time have provided a link between East Kent, south Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, but little evidence of any link with Jutland. There is evidence that the Jutes who migrated to England came from northern Francia or from Frisia. Historians have posited that Jutland was the homeland of the Jutes, but when the Danes invaded the Jutland Peninsula in about AD 200, some of the Jutes would have been absorbed by the Danish culture and others may have migrated to northern Francia and Frisia. In Scandinavian sources from the Middle Ages, the Jutes are only sporadically mentioned, now as subgroup of the Danes.
There is a hypothesis, suggested by Pontus Fahlbeck in 1884, that the Geats were Jutes. According to this hypothesis the Geats resided in southern Sweden and also in Jutland (where Beowulf would have lived).
The evidence adduced for this hypothesis includes:
- Primary sources referring to the Geats (*Geátas*) by alternative names such as *Iútan*, *Iótas*, and *Eotas*.
- Asser in his *Life of Alfred* (Chapter 2) identifies the Jutes with the Goths (in a passage claiming that Alfred the Great was descended, through his mother, Osburga, from the ruling dynasty of the Jutish kingdom of Wihtwara, on the Isle of Wight).
- The Gutasaga is a saga that charts the history of Gotland prior to Christianity. It is an appendix to the *Guta Lag* (Gotland law) written in the thirteenth or fourteenth century. It says that some inhabitants of Gotland left for mainland Europe. Large burial sites attributable to either Goths or Gepids were found in the 19th century near Willenberg, Prussia.
However, the tribal names possibly were confused in the above sources in both *Beowulf* (8th--11th centuries) and *Widsith* (late 7th -- 10th century). The *Eoten* (in the Finn passage) are clearly distinguished from the *Geatas*.
The Finnish surname *Juutilainen*, which comes from the word \"juutti\", is speculated by some to have had a connection to Jutland or the Jutes.
### Possible synonymy with the Frisians {#possible_synonymy_with_the_frisians}
While there is no definitive proof that the Frisians and Jutes were the same people, there is compelling evidence suggesting that they were either a single group known by different names or closely related tribes with overlapping territories, cultures, and identities. The fluidity of ethnic designations during the Migration Period makes it plausible that the distinction between \"Frisians\" and \"Jutes\" was more of a practical simplification by later chroniclers than a strict ethnic separation. In several Old English and early medieval sources, such as the Finnsburg Fragment and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the terms \"Frisians\" and \"Jutes\" appear to be used interchangeably. This suggests that, at least from the perspective of the authors of these texts, the two groups were not clearly distinguishable culturally or ethnically.
Moreover, archaeological findings point to strong cultural similarities between the two groups, as burial practices, material goods (such as weapons, pottery, and jewelry), and settlement patterns in Jutland and Frisian territories show remarkable parallels.
In the field of linguistics, the linguist Elmar Seebold argued that the relatively sharp linguistic boundary between Frisian and Dutch is attributable to migrants from Jutland, with the Jutes simultaneously leaving behind a sharp linguistic boundary between West Germanic and North Germanic in Denmark.
### Language and writing {#language_and_writing}
The runic alphabet is thought to have originated in the Germanic homelands that were in contact with the Roman Empire, and as such was a response to the Latin alphabet. In fact some of the runes emulated their Latin counterpart. The runic alphabet crossed the sea with the Anglo-Saxons and there have been examples, of its use, found in Kent. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were evangelised the script of the Latin alphabet was introduced by Irish Christian missionaries. However, they ran into problems when they were unable to find a Latin equivalent to some of the Anglo-Saxon phonetics. They overcame this by modifying the Latin alphabet to include some runic characters. This became the Old English Latin alphabet. The runic characters were eventually replaced by Latin characters by the end of the 14th century.
Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
------------------------------------------------------------
A
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
a
The language that the Anglo-Saxon settlers spoke is known as Old English. There are four main dialectal forms, namely Mercian, Northumbrian, West Saxon and Kentish. Based on Bede\'s description of where the Jutes settled, Kentish was spoken in what are now the modern-day counties of Kent, Surrey, southern Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. However, historians are divided on what dialect it would have been and where it originated from. The Jutish peninsula has been seen by historians as a pivotal region between the Northern and the Western Germanic dialects. It has not been possible to prove whether Jutish has always been a Scandinavian dialect which later became heavily influenced by West Germanic dialects, or whether Jutland was originally part of the West Germanic dialectal continuum. An analysis of the Kentish dialect by linguists indicates that there was a similarity between Kentish and Frisian. Whether the two can be classed as the same dialect or whether Kentish was a version of Jutish, heavily influenced by Frisian and other dialects, is open to conjecture
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# Jacobin (politics)
`{{distinguish|Jacobitism|Jacobean era}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Radicalism sidebar|ideas}}`{=mediawiki} `{{republicanism sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} A **Jacobin** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|æ|k|ə|b|ɪ|n}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{IPA|fr|ʒakɔbɛ̃}}`{=mediawiki}) was a member of the Jacobin Club, a revolutionary political movement that was the most famous political club during the French Revolution (1789--1799). The club got its name from meeting at the Dominican rue Saint-Honoré Monastery of the Jacobins. The Dominicans in France were called *Jacobins* (*Jacobus*, corresponds to *Jacques* in French and *James* in English) because their first house in Paris was the Saint Jacques Monastery.
The terms Jacobin and **Jacobinism** have been used in a variety of senses. Prior to 1793, the terms were used by contemporaries to describe the politics of Jacobins in the congresses of 1789 through 1792. With the ascendancy of Maximilien Robespierre and the Montagnards into 1793, they have since become synonymous with the policies of the Reign of Terror, with Jacobinism now meaning \"Robespierrism\". As Jacobinism was memorialized through legend, heritage, tradition and other nonhistorical means over the centuries, the term acquired a \"semantic elasticity\" in French politics of the late 20th Century with a \"vague range of meanings\", but all with the \"central figure of a sovereign and indivisible public authority with power over civil society.\" Today in France, Jacobin colloquially indicates an ardent or republican supporter of a centralized and revolutionary democracy or state as well as \"a politician who is hostile to any idea of weakening and dismemberment of the State.\"
## In the French Revolution {#in_the_french_revolution}
The Jacobin Club was one of several organizations that grew out of the French Revolution and it was distinguished for its left-wing, revolutionary politics. Because of this, the Jacobins, unlike other sects such as the Girondins (who were originally part of the Jacobins, but branched off), were closely allied to the sans-culottes, who were a popular force of working-class Parisians that played a pivotal role in the development of the revolution.
The Jacobins had a significant presence in the National Convention; they were dubbed \"the mountain\" or Montagnards for their seats in the uppermost part of the chamber. Eventually, the Revolution coalesced around The Mountain\'s power, with the help of the insurrections of the sans-culottes, and, led by Robespierre, the Jacobins established a revolutionary dictatorship, or the joint domination of the Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security.
The Jacobins were known for creating a strong government that could deal with the needs of war, economic chaos, as well as internal rebellion (such as the war in the Vendée). This included establishing the world\'s first universal military draft as a solution to filling army ranks to put down civil unrest and prosecute war. The Jacobin dictatorship was known for enacting the Reign of Terror, which targeted speculators, monarchists, right-wing Girondin, Hébertists, and traitors, and led to many beheadings.
The Jacobins supported the rights of property, but represented a much more middle-class position than the government that succeeded them in Thermidor.
They favored free trade and a market economy much like the Girondists, but their relationship to the people made them more willing to adopt interventionist economic policies. Unlike the Girondins, their economic policy favored price controls (*i.e.*, General maximum) on staples like grain and select household and grocery goods to address economic problems. Using the *armée revolutionnaire*, they targeted farmers, the rich and others who may have stocks of essential goods (\"goods of the first necessity\") in service of a national distribution system with severe punishment for uncooperative hoarders.
Another tenet of Jacobinism is a secularism that includes the elimination of existing religions in favor of one run by the state (*i.e.*, the cults of Reason and the Supreme Being).
Jacobinism was as an ideology thus developed and implemented during the French Revolution of 1789. In the words of François Furet, in *Penser la révolution française* (quoted by Hoel in [Introduction au Jacobinisme\...](https://postcolonialbrittany.bzh/livres/)), \"Jacobinism is both an ideology and a power: a system of representations and a system of action.\" (\"le jacobinisme est à la fois une idéologie et un pouvoir : un système de représentations et un système d\'action\"). Its political goals were largely achieved later during France\'s Third Republic.
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# Jacobin (politics)
## France
Jacobinism did not end with the Jacobins. The Robespierrist François-Noël Babeuf eventually rejected the rule of the Jacobins and welcomed the end of the Terror. However, he later eschewed the Thermidorean Reaction that overthrew the Jacobins and he returned to Robespierrism. In May 1796, he led a failed coup d\'état with neo-Robespierrists to attempt to return the republic to the Montagnard Constitution of 1793 in the Conspiracy of Equals. His political ideology was a form of neo-Jacobinism and primordial communism that highlighted egalitarian division of all land and property enforced by a dictatorship run by the Equals. His ideas were widely publicized and further developed as \"Babeuvism\" by colleague Filippo Buonaroti in his 1828 book, *Histoire de la Conspiration Pour l\'Égalité Dite de Babeuf* (*History of Babeuf\'s Conspiracy for Equality*).
Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx called the Conspiracy of Equals \"the first appearance of a truly active Communist party.\" Leon Trotsky echoed these sentiments, stating that the foundation of the Communist International marked a \"carrying on in direct succession the heroic endeavours and martyrdom of a long line of revolutionary generations from Babeuf.\"
Himself a Robespierrist, Buonaroti went on to write *Observations sur Maximilien Robespierre* in 1836, which extolled the Jacobin leader as a legend and hero. His portrayal of Robespierre as a model for socialist revolutionaries greatly influenced young socialists and republicans, such as Albert Laponneraye.
The 19th century socialist firebrand, nationalist and founder of Blanquism, Louis Auguste Blanqui expressed admiration for Jacobin leaders of the Terror like Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, framing them in messianic terms. There is evidence that his principles were also instructed by Babeuvism through his familiarity with Buonarroti. After the French Revolution of 1848, he criticized contemporaries who claimed to be heirs of Jacobinism, writing: \"Our own self-styled Montagnards are a caricature, indeed a very poor copy, of the Girondins.\" His view of Robespierre later changed over an understanding of the Terror\'s executions of Georges Danton and the Hébertists, as well as the formation of the Cult of the Supreme Being, the latter due to Blanqui\'s promotion of materialism and atheism. According to Blanqui, the Hebertists were the true revolutionaries in defending atheism, science and equality. He said that socialism needed to be built on the foundations laid by the French Revolution, and would better defend the ideals of the Enlightenment than Jacobinism, adding the toast, \"Citizens, the Mountain is dead! To socialism, its sole heir!\"
Various French left-wing parties would claim to be the \"true heirs\" to the French Revolution and the 1871 Paris Commune. Aspects of Blanqui were likewise claimed by French political groups like the Radical Socialists and the Stalinists. Other organizations included the French Central Revolutionary Committee and its successor, the Socialist Revolutionary Party, and the Blanquist section of the International Workingmen\'s Association or First International.
On 4 October 1919, Alexandre Varenne founded the socialist daily *La Montagne, Quotidien de la Démocratie Socialiste du Center*. The title was selected to reflect its alignment with the ideas of the Montagnards.
In the 1930s, the Popular Front coalition included the French Communist Party or *Parti communiste français* (PCF), who along with portions of the alliance\'s socialist French Section of the Workers\' International (SFIO) party increasingly emphasized patriotism. The PCF were characterized as \"New Jacobins\", and their leader Maurice Thorez as a \"Stalinist Jacobin\".
On the French right, the nazi-collaborating founder of Neosocialism Marcel Déat was known to be inspired by Jacobin politics.
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# Jacobin (politics)
## India
In 1794, Frenchmen in the Kingdom of Mysore allegedly established the \"Jacobin Club of Mysore\" with the assistance of its ruler Tipu Sultan, who purportedly declared himself \"Citizen Tipoo\". During the subsequent Fourth Anglo-Mysore War of 1799, British forces captured French volunteers led by François Ripaud who were serving under Mysorean command. French historian Jean Boutier argued that senior officials of the East India Company fabricated the club\'s existence to justify their war against Mysore.
## Italy
Blanquism had a notable influence on Benito Mussolini who founded fascism as an outgrowth of revolutionary socialism. He claimed he \"introduced into Italian socialism something of (Henri) Bergson mixed with much of Blanqui,\" including Blanqui\'s nationalism, the idea of rule by a dominant minority and use of violence. However, Mussolini dispensed with Blanquism\'s links to the Enlightenment and communism and instead stated, fascism is \"opposed to all individualistic abstractions based on eighteenth century materialism; and it is opposed to all Jacobinistic utopias and innovations.\" The masthead of his newspaper Il Popolo d\'Italia carried quotes from Blanqui (\"Whoever has steel has bread\") and Napoleon Bonaparte (\"The Revolution is an idea which has found bayonets!\"). Leon Trotsky called fascism in a sense \"a caricature of Jacobinism\".
## Poland
King Stanisław II August was enamored with the American Constitution, the ideals of the Gironde of 1790--1792, and the office of *Roi Citoyen* (\"Citizen King\"). He helped develop the 1791 Polish Constitution which embraced social reforms guaranteeing \"the freedom, property and equality of every citizen.\" Its ratification led some Society of the Friends of the Constitution chapters to endorse the King and his *Rzeczypospolita* and helped shape the French constitution adopted later that year.
While the Constitutionalists had contacts with Jacobin Clubs, they were expressly not Jacobins. However prior to the 1792 war that crushed the republic, Russian Empress Catherine the Great claimed the constitution was the work of the Jacobins and that she would be \"fighting Jacobinism in Poland\" and \"the Jacobins of Warsaw\".
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# Jacobin (politics)
## Russia and Soviet Union {#russia_and_soviet_union}
The 1870s saw the emergence of the \"Worker\'s Marseillaise\", a Russian revolutionary song set to a Robert Schumann melody inspired by the 1792 \"Marseillaise\". It was used as a national anthem by the Russian Provisional Government and in Soviet Russia for a short time alongside \"The Internationale\".
In the early 20th Century, Bolshevism and Jacobinism were linked. Russia\'s notion of the French Revolution permeated educated society and was reflected in speeches and writings of leaders, including Leon Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin. They modeled their revolution after the Jacobins and the Terror with Trotsky even envisioning a trial for Nicholas II akin to that for Louis XVI. Lenin regarded the execution of the former tsar and his immediate family as necessary, highlighting the precedent set in the French Revolution. At the same time, the Bolsheviks consciously tried to avoid the mistakes they saw made by the French revolutionaries.
Lenin referred to Robespierre as a \"Bolshevik *avant la lettre*\" and erected a statue to him. Other statues were planned or erected of other prominent members of the Terror as well as Babeuf. The Voskresenskaya Embankment in St. Petersburg was also renamed *Naberezhnaya Robespera* for the French leader in 1923; it was returned to its original name in 2014.
Like Karl Marx, Lenin saw the overall progress in events in France from 1789 through 1871 as the French Bourgeois Revolution. He adhered to the Montagnards\' policies of centralization of authority to stabilize a new state, the virtue and necessity of terror against oppressors and \"an alliance between the proletariat and peasantry\" (\"the revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasants\"). He would refer to his side as the Mountain or Jacobin and label his Menshevik opponents as the \"Gironde\".
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# Jacobin (politics)
## United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
The conventionalized scrawny, French revolutionary *sans-culottes* Jacobin, was developed from about 1790 by British satirical artists James Gillray, Thomas Rowlandson and George Cruikshank. It was commonly contrasted with the stolid stocky conservative and well-meaning John Bull, dressed like an English country squire. C. L. R. James also used the term to refer to revolutionaries during the Haitian Revolution in his book *The Black Jacobins*.
Thomas Paine was a believer in the French Revolution and supported the Girondins. At the same time, Protestant Dissenters seeking for relief from the Test and Corporation Acts supported the French Revolution at least in its early stages after seeing concessions to religious minorities by the French authorities in 1787 and in the Declaration of Rights of Man. Paine\'s publications enjoyed support by Painite Radical factions like the Manchester Constitutional Society. Prominent members of the Society who worked for the Radical *Manchester Herald* newspaper even contacted the Jacobin Club in France on 13 April 1792. Thus, Radicals were labeled *Jacobins* by their opponents. Regional Painite radicalism was incorrectly portrayed as English Jacobinism and were attacked by Conservative forces including Edmund Burke as early as 1791. The London Revolution Society also corresponded with the National Assembly starting in November 1789. Their letters were circulated among the regional Jacobin clubs, with around 52 clubs corresponding with the society by the spring of 1792. Other regional British revolutionary societies formed in centers of British Jacobinism. English Jacobins included the young Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth and others prior to their disillusionment with the outbreak of the Reign of Terror. Others, such as Paine, William Hazlitt and Whig statesman Charles James Fox, remained idealistic about the Revolution.
The London Corresponding Society founded in 1792 was partly modeled on the Jacobins to pressure the government in a law-abiding manner for democratic reform. Scottish chapters of the Societies of the Friends of the People pressed for parliamentary reform at the 1792 Scottish Convention in Edinburgh using explicit imitations of the Jacobins.
Overall, after 1793 with the sidelining of the Girondins and the Terror, \"Jacobin\" became a pejorative for radical left-wing revolutionary politics and was linked to sedition. The word was further promoted in England by George Canning\'s 1797--98 newspaper *Anti-Jacobin* and later, John Gifford\'s 1798--1821 *Anti-Jacobin Review*, which both criticized the English Radicals of the 18th and 19th centuries. Much detail on English Jacobinism can be found in E. P. Thompson\'s *The Making of the English Working Class*.
Welsh Jacobins include William Jones, a radical patriot who was a keen disciple of Voltaire. Rather than preaching revolution, Jones believed that an exodus from Wales was required and that a new Welsh colony should be founded in the United States.
The socialist Chartist movement in the first half of the 19th Century was inspired by Robespierre. Chartist leader James Bronterre O\'Brien defended Robespierre, describing him as \"one of the greatest men, and one of the purest and most enlightened reformers, that ever existed in the world.\" He came to Robespierre through his studies of Buonarroti and even served as Buonarroti\'s translator for the English edition of *Buanarroti\'s History of Babeuf\'s Conspiracy for Equality,* for which he further included his own observations.
## Austria
In the correspondence of Austrian statesman and diplomat Prince Klemens von Metternich and other leaders of the repressive policies that followed the second fall of Napoleon in 1815, *Jacobin* is the term commonly applied to anyone with progressive tendencies, such as the emperor Alexander I of Russia.
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# Jacobin (politics)
## United States {#united_states}
Federalists often characterized Thomas Jefferson, who himself had intervened in the French Revolution, and his Democratic-Republican party as Jacobins. Early Federalist-leaning American newspapers during the French Revolution referred to the Democratic-Republican party as the \"Jacobin Party\". The most notable examples are the *Gazette of the United States*, published in Philadelphia, and the *Delaware and Eastern-Shore Advertiser*, published in Wilmington, during the elections of 1800.
In modern American politics, the term Jacobin is often used to describe extremists of any party who demand ideological purity.
Evidencing the antagonistic relationship between the press and insurgent Arizona conservative presidential candidate Barry Goldwater, *The New York Times* attacked Goldwater in their Bastille Day coverage of the 1964 Republican National Convention. The paper called his supporters \"Cactus Jacobins\", comparing their opposition to \"establishment\" Eastern Republicans (see Rockefeller Republican) and \"sensation‐seeking columnists and commentators\" as expressed by moderate former president Dwight Eisenhower to the execution of representatives of the Ancien Régime in the Reign of Terror. In contrast, L. Brent Bozell, Jr. has written in Goldwater\'s seminal *The Conscience of a Conservative* (1960) that \"Throughout history, true Conservatism has been at war equally with autocrats and with \'democratic\' Jacobins.\"
In 2010 an American left-wing socialist publication, *Jacobin*, was founded.
On 27 May 2010 issue of *The New York Review of Books*, Columbia university political science and humanities professor and self-described liberal Mark Lilla analyzed three recent books dealing with American political party discontent in a review titled \"The Tea Party Jacobins\". On the other side, historian Victor Davis Hanson likened the rise and policies of leftists in the Democratic Party in 2019 to the Jacobins and Jacobinism.
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# Jacobin (politics)
## Influence
The political rhetoric and populist ideas espoused by the Jacobins would lead to the development of the modern leftist movements throughout the 19th and 20th century, with Jacobinism being the political foundation of almost all leftist schools of thought including anarchism, communism and socialism. The Paris Commune was seen as the revolutionary successor to the Jacobins. The undercurrent of radical and populist tendencies espoused and enacted by the Jacobins would create a complete cultural and societal shock within the traditional and conservative governments of Europe, leading to new political ideas of society emerging. Jacobin rhetoric would lead to increasing secularization and skepticism towards the governments of Europe throughout the 1800s. This complex and complete revolution in political, societal and cultural structure, caused in part by the Jacobins, had lasting impact throughout Europe, with such societal revolutions throughout the 1800s culminating in the Revolutions of 1848.
Jacobin populism and complete structural destruction of the old order led to an increasingly revolutionary spirit throughout Europe and such changes would contribute to new political foundations. It also informed new political ideologies. For instance in France, Georges Valois, founder of the first non-Italian fascist party Faisceau, claimed the roots of fascism stemmed from the Jacobin movement. While fascism bears similarities to Jacobinism particularly as a democratic nationalism fighting against an existing order, it is difficult to directly trace such lineage. Fascist groups themselves have held a variety of opinions mostly negative about the French Revolution, with the German National Socialists straightforwardly condemning it. Italian fascists called on fascism to surpass the French Revolution \"with a new kind of democracy run by producers.\" Some French fascists were ambivalent or admired parts of Jacobinism and the Revolution. Valois on the other hand saw the Revolution as the start of a movement both socialist and nationalist, which fascists would complete.
Leftist organizations would take different elements from Jacobin\'s core foundation. Anarchists took influence from the Jacobins use of mass movements, direct democracy and left-wing populism which would influence the tactics of direct action. Some Marxists would take influence from the extreme protectionism of the Jacobins and the notion of the vanguard defender of the republic which would later evolve into vanguardism. The Jacobin philosophy of a complete dismantling of an old system, with completely radical and new structure, is historically seen as one of the most revolutionary and important movements throughout modern history
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# Johann Tobias Krebs
**Johann Tobias Krebs** (7 July 1690 -- 11 February 1762) was a German organist and composer, today best remembered as the father of Johann Ludwig Krebs, one of Bach\'s most accomplished pupils.
Krebs was born in Heichelheim and went to school in the nearby Weimar. Nothing is known about his early musical training, but at age 20 Krebs was proficient enough at the keyboard to be invited to become organist at Buttelstedt, another town in the same area. Krebs accepted, but continued his music studies in Weimar, travelling there twice a week to study with Johann Gottfried Walther, and later with Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1721 he was accepted a position at Buttstädt, where he played the organ of Michaeliskirche and taught at the school. Krebs remained in Buttstädt for the rest of his life. He had three sons, and the eldest, Johann Ludwig Krebs, became a well-known composer.
Krebs\' surviving works are scarce. A few chorale preludes preserved in manuscripts show a marked fondness for counterpoint. Two of the lesser known pieces from the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis catalogue may have been composed by Krebs:
- Chorale prelude *Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland*, BWV 660b, an arrangement of one of Bach\'s Leipzig Chorales, *Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland*, BWV 660
- Trio in C minor, BWV Anh. 46, a contrapuntal trio which bears some similarity to Bach\'s organ trio sonatas
In addition, Johann Tobias Krebs and his eldest son are among the list of potential composers of the *Eight Short Preludes and Fugues*, BWV 553--560, once attributed to Bach
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# Joseph Gurney Cannon
**Joseph Gurney Cannon** (May 7, 1836 -- November 12, 1926) was an American politician from Illinois and a leader of the Republican Party. Cannon represented parts of Illinois in the United States House of Representatives for twenty-three non-consecutive terms between 1873 and 1923; upon his retirement, he was the longest serving member of the United States Congress ever. From 1903 to 1911, he presided as Speaker of the House, becoming one of the most powerful speakers in United States history.`{{additional citation needed|date=June 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
As the Speaker during most of the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, Cannon was an obstacle to the progressive policies advanced by Roosevelt and later abandoned by Taft. A revolt against Cannon\'s authority as Speaker, led by George W. Norris, was a contributing factor to the Republican Party split in the elections of 1910 and 1912 and led to significant reforms to the House rules.
The Cannon House Office Building, the oldest congressional office building, was named for him in 1962.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Cannon was born in Guilford County, North Carolina. on May 7, 1836. He was the elder of two sons of Horace Franklin Cannon, a country doctor, and Gulielma Cannon (née Hollingsworth).
The Cannon family were Quakers and, like most members of their faith, opposed to slavery. Abhorring the practice and fearing war, the Cannons were among the many Quakers who left the South for the Western frontier. In 1840, his family moved west with other North Carolina Quakers, settling about 30 miles north of Terre Haute along the Wabash River. Their new settlement became Annapolis, Indiana. Horace Cannon drowned on August 7, 1851, as he tried to reach a sick patient by crossing a creek. Joe Cannon, aged fifteen, became head of the family and took charge of the family farm. He worked as a clerk in a country store to save money and, after five years, the family were able to pay their mortgage.
Cannon became fascinated by the law when asked to testify in a slander case on behalf of a friend represented by John Palmer Usher. He studied under Usher at his Terre Haute office and used the remainder of his savings to enroll in law school at the University of Cincinnati. In 1858, he was admitted to the bar and commenced practice in Terre Haute, Indiana, but was disappointed when Usher refused to offer him a place in his office. He relocated to Shelbyville, Illinois but failed to attract clients, and from there moved on to Tuscola, county seat of the newly organized Coles County. His choice of a new hometown was involuntary; while travelling from Shelbyville to Chicago to find more clients, he ran out of money. He boarded a Chicago-bound train in Mattoon but was removed from the train in Tuscola after failing to show a ticket.
While building his law practice, Cannon became a follower of Abraham Lincoln during the Lincoln--Douglas debates of 1858. He launched his first campaign for the office of state\'s attorney for Coles County in 1860 but was defeated. However, he was elected in 1861 as state\'s attorney for the twenty-seventh judicial district, after the Republican legislature reformed the state judicial system. Cannon remained in that position until 1872, when he was elected to the U.S. House.
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# Joseph Gurney Cannon
## Early House career {#early_house_career}
In 1872, Cannon ran for the U.S. House as an anti-reform candidate supportive of President Ulysses S. Grant. He later recalled it as \"a reform year, the beginning of a decade of \'reform\' which shook up the virtues as well as the vices of the people. Nothing was right and nobody was safe from the reformers.\" Despite this, Cannon was elected to represent Illinois\'s 14th district, which included nearby Danville, in the 43rd Congress.
Initially, Cannon focused on purely local issues. He secured an appointment to the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads, from which he promoted a bill to provide that postage on newspapers and magazines should be prepaid by publishers, rather than by the subscribers after arrival. Despite opposition from the publishing industry, the measure passed both houses of Congress and became law. His maiden speech in the House was a defense of this bill and the free mailing of seed. Upon a remark by William Walter Phelps that Cannon \"must have oats in his pocket,\" the freshman Representative exclaimed, \"Yes! I have oats in my pocket and hayseed in my hair, and the Western people generally are affected the same way. And we expect that the seed, being good, will yield a good crop.\" The incident gained Cannon an instant national reputation as an advocate for farmers, though he would frequently bemoan that the press treated him as a caricature, rather than giving serious consideration to his legislative proposals.
In 1889, Cannon stood as a candidate for Speaker of the House, but finished a poor third behind Thomas Brackett Reed and William McKinley. Instead, Cannon was named (alongside Reed and McKinley) to the powerful Committee on Rules. As his career progressed, Cannon had gained a reputation for partisan loyalty which was made evident in the 51st Congress. For example, he led opposition within the Republican Party to the Lodge Federal Elections Bill, but after the party caucus approved the bill by one vote, Cannon aided Speaker Reed in passing the bill on an expedited process by a party-line vote. Likewise, when Reed introduced dramatic reforms to the House Rules, Cannon vigorously pressed the issue both in committee and in the whole House. As a consequence of his efforts, Cannon was among the many House Republicans unseated in the 1890 elections.
Cannon was out of office for only one term; he was elected again in 1892. After Reed\'s abrupt retirement in 1899, Cannon stood again for the Speakership but was defeated by David B. Henderson of Iowa. Cannon finally became Speaker in 1903, at the start of the 58th Congress. From 1895 until he became Speaker, Cannon chaired the powerful Appropriations Committee.
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# Joseph Gurney Cannon
## Speaker of the House (1903`{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki}1911) {#speaker_of_the_house_19031911}
### Theodore Roosevelt presidency {#theodore_roosevelt_presidency}
At the time Cannon was elevated to Speaker, the President was Theodore Roosevelt, a fellow Republican. Roosevelt immediately took steps to consult Cannon on legislative matters and the two met several times a week at Roosevelt\'s request. However, unlike Roosevelt, Cannon opposed most of the progressive reform efforts of the day, including conservation, women\'s suffrage, the labor movement, and especially reductions in the overall tariff rate. Cannon also came to personally oppose Roosevelt\'s demanding, autocratic personality, once asserting that Roosevelt had \"no more use for the Constitution than a tomcat has for a marriage license.\" On another occasion, he said, \"That fellow at the other end of the Avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil.\"
At the time of Cannon\'s election, the Speaker of the House concurrently held the chair of the Rules Committee, which determined under what rules and restrictions bills could be debated, amended, and voted on, and, in some cases, whether they would be allowed on the floor at all. As such, Cannon effectively controlled every aspect of the House\'s agenda: bills reached the floor of the House only if Cannon approved of them, and then in whatever form he determined -- with Cannon himself deciding whether and to what extent the measures could be debated and amended. Cannon also reserved to himself the right to appoint not only the chairs of the various House committees, but also all of the committees\' members, and (despite the seniority system that had begun to develop) used that power to appoint his allies and proteges to leadership positions while punishing those who opposed his legislation.
Cannon wielded the Speaker\'s authority with unprecedented severity. While his predecessor Thomas Brackett Reed was noted for his dramatic expansion of the Speaker\'s authority, Cannon distinguished himself by the manner in which he wielded that authority. According to historian Booth Mooney, \"The deadly rapier wielded by Reed gave way to a bludgeon, which at first he used only to knock down Democrats.\" Though Reed had been lampooned as a \"Czar,\" press treatment of \"Uncle Joe\" Cannon was far more critical during his first term as Speaker. Cannon was criticized by the Democratic press for the arbitrary exercise of his considerable power; on one voice vote, he ruled, \"The ayes make the most noise, but the nays have it.\" On another occasion, Representative Cordell Hull attempted to offer an income tax amendment to a tariff bill, and Cannon simply ignored him. When one Representative was asked by a constituent for a copy of the House Rules, the Representative simply sent back a picture of Speaker Cannon. When confronted with criticisms directly, Cannon would respond that the power he exercised was granted by the whole House, which reserved the authority to amend the Rules or vote him out as Speaker.
Early in his term, Cannon was largely free from opposition within the House majority. His wrath was typically reserved for the Senate, and in conference committees he was a vigorous defender of the House position on legislation, winning him support and admiration from his colleagues. He continued to enjoy the public support of the President, who praised him in 1906 as \"a patriotic American\... for every man, rich or poor, capitalist or labor man, so long as he is a decent American, and \[Cannon\] is entitled to our support because he is a patriotic man.\"
After the 1906 election, the relationship between Cannon and Roosevelt began to fray. Roosevelt, who had already announced he would not campaign in 1908, adopted a more progressive stance against major corporations. Roosevelt\'s new proposals for a Pure Food and Drug Act, an income tax, an inheritance tax, a federal corporation law, government involvement in labor disputes, laws regulating the labor of women and children, and regulation of railroad securities all drew opposition from Cannon. Quoting John Morley, Cannon began to frequently refer to Roosevelt as \"half St. Paul, half St. Vitus.\" Rumors began to spread that Roosevelt would look to supplant Cannon as speaker, in order to hasten his legislative agenda through the House, but Roosevelt never addressed them, and Cannon survived as Speaker through Roosevelt\'s term in office.
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# Joseph Gurney Cannon
## Speaker of the House (1903`{{En dash}}`{=mediawiki}1911) {#speaker_of_the_house_19031911}
### William Howard Taft presidency {#william_howard_taft_presidency}
#### 1908 elections
As early as 1905, Cannon had expressed confidence that he was a contender for the 1908 presidential nomination. Ultimately, Roosevelt was able to maneuver the delegates at the 1908 Republican National Convention in support of William Howard Taft, his Secretary of War. Cannon received 51 of the 54 Illinois delegates and a handful from other states, finishing a distant fourth. Taft was nominated easily on the first ballot. Nevertheless, Cannon was influential at the convention, engineering the party platform and the nomination of conservative James S. Sherman of New York, one of his strongest House allies, for vice president.
During the 1908 campaign, Cannon came under heavy fire from the press, which denounced him as a tyrant and obstacle to every piece of progressive legislation introduced in the prior thirty years. One cartoon depicted him as the \"Unrepentant Defendant\" in the court trial of \"Predatory Wealth\" for its victimization of \"The Common People.\" For his part, Cannon attributed the newspaper opposition to his refusal to support Roosevelt\'s proposal to permit the duty-free importation of newsprint and wood pulp, as well as his very first House bill which passed the cost of magazine and newspaper subscriptions to publishers.
The Democratic Party seized on the issue of House reform, stating in their party platform, \"The House of Representatives, as controlled in recent years by the Republican party, has ceased to be a deliberative and legislative body, responsive to the will of a majority of its members, but has come under the absolute domination of the Speaker, who has entire control of its deliberations and powers of legislation. \... Legislative government becomes a failure when one member, in the person of the Speaker, is more powerful than the entire body.\" William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee for president, and labor leader Samuel Gompers each visited Illinois to campaign against Cannon\'s re-election. Even some Republicans, including Nebraska representative George W. Norris, campaigned against \"Cannonism.\" Taft himself privately admitted, \"the great weight I have to carry in this campaign is Cannonism.\" Nevertheless, Taft and the Republicans won an easy victory in the fall elections; Norris, who had distinguished himself as an intra-party rival to Cannon\'s power, won re-election by only 22 votes.
#### 1910 rules revolt {#rules_revolt}
When the 61st Congress met in March 1909, Roosevelt and Taft agreed that Cannon could not be removed as Speaker. The large Republican majority carried him to another term in office, though a core of twelve \"Insurgent\" members refused to vote for him. However, the new Democratic floor leader, Champ Clark, forced a roll-call vote on the usually uncontested vote to adopt the rules of the previous Congress. An amendment was ultimately adopted, with Democratic and Insurgent votes, to revise certain rules, including the introduction of a unanimous consent calendar for those bills which were not contested. In retaliation, Cannon removed three Insurgents from committee chairs and moved others to less significant committees. To the press, Cannon said, \"Judas was an insurgent and sold his Master for thirty pieces of silver. I have no doubt he would have been applauded by the newspapers in Jerusalem had there been any in that day.\"
As Cannon\'s power continued to expand, his relationship with Taft continued to decline. Taft stayed out of House business, neither aiding nor opposing Cannon, but he privately noted that it was his wish to have Cannon removed. Cannon likewise grew critical of Taft, particularly after his elevation of Edward Douglass White, a Catholic Democrat, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. A growing movement within the Republican Party came to support Cannon\'s removal as Speaker, for pragmatic reasons; Henry Cabot Lodge advised Roosevelt that the Republicans would lose the House if Cannon remained, Taft expressed that such removal would \"accord\... with the welfare of the Republican party,\" and various Republican newspapers suggested his resignation as Speaker or even from Congress. In the face of growing opposition, Cannon grew defiant. He said, \"I will say positively that I will not retire from Congress until my constituents fail to give me a majority.\" In one public meeting, he pulled open his coat and shouted, \"Behold Mr. Cannon, the Beelzebub of Congress! Gaze on this noble manly form`{{Em dash}}`{=mediawiki}me, Beelzebub! Me, the Czar!\" Of the Insurgents, he remarked that they were \"dishonest and disgruntled\"; he accused them of introducing demagogic bills which would never be approved, then telling the \"ignorant element\" of their constituents that Cannon had personally stopped the bill, \"thus creating the belief that the Speaker was a \'Czar\' and controlled by the \'interests.\'\"
On March 16, 1910, Cannon\'s power began to crack when the House voted against his ruling on a matter of procedure. Edgar Crumpacker, chair of the Committee on the Census, introduced a joint resolution regarding the upcoming census. Though the resolution was not in the order of business, Crumpacker argued that the matter was constitutionally privileged, as the census was mandated by the Constitution, and the Constitution overrode any House rule. Cannon ruled in favor of the argument, but the House majority voted not to sustain his ruling. It was rare for the House to reject a Speaker\'s ruling, and Cannon bitterly remarked that his \"face \[had been\] rubbed in the sand.\" Sensing an opening, George Norris took the opportunity. The next day, Norris introduced a prepared resolution to create a new Rules Committee with fifteen members, all elected by the House. The Speaker, who had been the chair of the Rules Committee *ex officio* since 1880, would be barred from membership, thus placing the Committee (and ostensibly the House) above the Speaker\'s authority, with the power to revise that authority. Like Crumpacker, Norris claimed his resolution was constitutionally privileged under Article I, Section 5: \"Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings\...\" and therefore should be heard immediately by the whole House. Having used Cannon\'s own ruling against him, Norris placed the Speaker in a double-bind. Cannon immediately denounced the resolution as \"anarchy under the color of law,\" but hurriedly withdrew to whip votes against it. His lieutenants delayed through dilatory tactics while loyal members returned to the Capitol, but after a weekend recess, Cannon proved unable to rally support to his side. On March 19, Cannon ruled Norris\'s resolution out of order, citing a long list of precedential rulings by prior Speakers, but the House again overruled him on appeal, by a vote of 182 to 163. The House immediately voted on the resolution itself, and it passed with 42 Republican and all 149 Democratic votes by the margin of 191 to 156. Cannon did maintain his position as Speaker by entertaining an immediate motion to vacate, which he won handily since the Republican majority would not risk a Democratic speaker replacing him. However, his iron rule of the House was broken.
The new Rules Committee, chaired by John Dalzell, passed a flurry of reforms, including a discharge rule empowering a majority to remove bills from committee and a \"Calendar Wednesday,\" allowing committees to present bills otherwise blocked from consideration by the Speaker\'s scheduling. Despite the dramatic reduction in Cannon\'s powers, Republican prospects for the upcoming election did not improve. The Democrats won control of the House in the 1910 midterm elections for the first time since 1894; Cannon himself struggled for his re-election.
## Later House career {#later_house_career}
After Republicans became the minority party in the House, Cannon refused to serve as minority leader. He returned as ranking member of the Appropriations Committee, which he had chaired before his term as Speaker. While as chair he had favored lower spending, as ranking member he presented numerous expenditure measures to the Democratic majority. When the Insurgents\' revolt of 1910 evolved into the Republican Party split of 1912, Cannon was defeated for re-election. He returned in 1914 and was re-elected each congressional election until 1920. He was a critic of President Woodrow Wilson and U.S. entry into World War I. He was also an outspoken critic of Wilson\'s League of Nations.
Cannon declined to run in the 1922 congressional election and retired at the end of his last term in 1923; he was featured on the cover of the first issue of *Time* magazine on the last day of his last term in office.
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# Joseph Gurney Cannon
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Cannon was one of the charter members of Tuscola\'s Masonic Lodge No. 332, which was founded on October 2, 1860.
Cannon married Mary Reed in 1862. They had two daughters. In 1876, Cannon moved his family to Danville, Illinois, where he resided for the rest of his life.
Born a Quaker, he became a Methodist after leaving Congress. However, he may have been effectively a Methodist long before this. After marrying in a Methodist service, a Quaker encouraged him to express regret for this, to which Cannon replied, \"If you mean that I am to get up in meeting and say that I am sorry I married Mary, I won\'t do it. I\'m damned if I\'m sorry and I\'m damned if I will say I am.\"
Cannon died in his residence in Danville on November 12, 1926, while in a deep sleep. He had a weakened heart and also suffered from the general effects of old age. He was buried in Spring Hill Cemetery.
## Legacy
The first building of offices for congressmen outside of the United States Capitol building was named after Cannon.
### Public image {#public_image}
His antic speaking style, diminutive stature and pugnacious manner were his trademarks. The newspapers frequently lampooned him as a colorful rube.
Despite his reputation for tyranny in the House, Cannon was well-liked by colleagues and friends in Washington, including members of the opposition.
### Length of service {#length_of_service}
Cannon is to date the second longest-serving Republican Representative, surpassed only by Alaska congressman Don Young, and also was the first member of Congress of either party ever to surpass 40 years of service (non-consecutive). His congressional career spanned 46 years of cumulative service, a concurrent 50 years, barring two terms after which he came back---a record not broken until 1959. He is the longest-serving member ever of the House of Representatives in Illinois, although the longest continuous service belongs to Adolph J. Sabath. He served in the House during the terms of 11 presidents, a record he shares with John Dingell and Jamie Whitten.
Cannon is to date the second-longest continuously serving Republican Speaker in history, after another Illinoisan, Dennis Hastert, who surpassed him on June 1, 2006
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# Joris Ivens
**Georg Henri Anton** \"**Joris**\" **Ivens** (18 November 1898 -- 28 June 1989) was a Dutch documentary filmmaker. Among the notable films he directed or co-directed are *A Tale of the Wind*, *The Spanish Earth*, *Rain*, *\...A Valparaiso*, *Misère au Borinage* (*Borinage*), *17th Parallel: Vietnam in War*, *The Seine Meets Paris*, *Far from Vietnam*, *Pour le Mistral* and *How Yukong Moved the Mountains*.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Born Georg Henri Anton Ivens on 18 November 1898 at Nijmegen, Netherlands, into a wealthy family, Ivens went to work in one of his father\'s photo supply shops and from there developed an interest in film. Under the direction of his father, he completed his first film at 13.
He studied first at the Rotterdam School of Economics (1916--17, 1920--21), before serving as a field artillery lieutenant in World War I. In 1922 and 1923 he studied photochemistry in Germany.
Returning to Amsterdam in 1926, he joined the family business, but left around 1929 after his first two films were met with acclaim.
## Career
### Early work {#early_work}
Originally his work was constructivist in character, especially his short city symphonies *Rain* (*Regen*, 1929), which he directed together with Mannus Franken, filmed over two years, and *The Bridge* (*De Brug*, 1928). The latter was about a newly built elevator railway bridge in Rotterdam, shot in 1927, and shown in 1928 by the *Nederlandsche Filmliga* (Netherlands Film League) (1927--1933). This avant-garde cineclub, with its eponymous magazine, had just been established by Ivens, Menno ter Braak, and others, with branches in different Dutch cities. *The Bridge* was part of its first season of film screenings, and received critical acclaim. The *Filmliga* drew various foreign filmmakers to the Netherlands, such as Alberto Cavalcanti, René Clair, Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin, and Dziga Vertov, who also became Ivens\' friends. Through these connections, *The Bridge* was widely shown abroad, including the Soviet Union.
In 1929, Ivens went to the Soviet Union after being invited to present a lecture there, and due to the success of *The Bridge*, he was invited to direct a film on a topic of his own choosing, which was the new industrial city of Magnitogorsk. Before commencing work, he returned to the Netherlands to make *Industrial Symphony* for Philips Electric, which is considered to be a film of great technical beauty.
He returned to the Soviet Union to make the film about Magnitogorsk, *Song of Heroes* in 1931 with music composed by Hanns Eisler. This was the first film on which Ivens and Eisler worked together. It was a propaganda film about this new industrial city where masses of laborers and Communist youth worked for Stalin\'s Five Year Plan.
With Henri Storck, Ivens made *Misère au Borinage* (*Borinage*, 1933), a documentary on life in a coal mining region. In 1943, he also directed two Allied propaganda films for the National Film Board of Canada, including *Action Stations*, about the Royal Canadian Navy\'s escorting of convoys in the Battle of the Atlantic. Ivens met Ernest Hemingway and Ludwig Renn during the Spanish Civil War in 1936.
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# Joris Ivens
## Career
### U.S. and World War II {#u.s._and_world_war_ii}
From 1936 to 1945, Ivens was based in the United States. For Pare Lorentz\'s U.S. Film Service, in the year 1940, he made a documentary film on rural electrification called *Power and the Land*. It focused on a family, the Parkinsons, who ran a business providing milk for their community. The film showed the problem in the lack of electricity and the way the problem was fixed.
Ivens was, however, better known for his anti-fascist and other propaganda films, including the feature-length documentary *The Spanish Earth* (1937). This film was made for the Spanish Republican cause, co-written with Ernest Hemingway, with music by Marc Blitzstein and Virgil Thomson. Jean Renoir did the French narration for the film and Hemingway did the English version (after Orson Welles\' version had sounded too theatrical). This film was financed by Archibald MacLeish, Fredric March, Florence Eldridge, Lillian Hellman, Luise Rainer, Dudley Nichols, Franchot Tone, and other Hollywood movie stars, moguls, and writers who composed a group known as the Contemporary Historians. *The Spanish Earth* was shown at the White House on 8 July 1937 after Ivens, Hemingway, and Martha Gellhorn had had dinner with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Harry Hopkins. The Roosevelts loved the film but said that it needed more propaganda. The film showed how the Republicans tried to hold on to freedoms which were threatened by the Falangists, and their attempts to reclaim farmland which had been neglected for decades by absentee landlords. Ivens produced the film for less than \$10,000. This documentary was considered his masterpiece.
In 1938 he traveled to China. *The 400 Million* (1939) depicted the history of modern China and the Chinese resistance during the Second Sino-Japanese War, including dramatic shots of the Battle of Taierzhuang. Robert Capa did camerawork, Sidney Lumet worked on the film as a reader, Hanns Eisler wrote the musical score, and Fredric March provided the narration. It had been financed by the same people who had supported *Spanish Earth*. Its chief fundraiser was Luise Rainer, recipient of the best actress Oscar two years in a row; and the entire group called themselves this time, *History Today, Inc*. The Kuomintang government censored the film, fearing that it would give too much credit to left-wing forces. Ivens was also suspected of being a friend of Mao Zedong and especially Zhou Enlai.
In early 1943, Frank Capra hired Ivens to supervise the production of *Know Your Enemy: Japan* for his U.S. War Department film series *Why We Fight*. The film\'s commentary was written largely by Carl Foreman. Capra fired Ivens from the project because he felt that his approach was too sympathetic toward the Japanese. The film\'s release was held up because there were concerns that emperor Hirohito was being depicted as a war criminal, and there was a policy shift to portray the emperor more favorably after the war`{{dubious|This probably only concerned the last episode? All were shot before Japan's surrender! Or is it misleading, and meant to say: the US took into consideration in advance what the post-war impact might be?|date=April 2020}}`{=mediawiki} as a means of maintaining order in post-war Japan.
With the emerging \"Red Scare\" of the late 1940s, Ivens was forced to leave the country in the early months of the Truman administration. Ivens\'s leftist politics also put a stop to his first feature film project, which was to have starred Greta Garbo. Walter Wanger, the film\'s producer, was adamant about \"running \[Ivens\] out of town.\"
### Return to Europe {#return_to_europe}
In 1946, commissioned to make a Dutch film about Indonesian independence, Ivens resigned in protest over what he considered ongoing imperialism; the Dutch were in his view resisting decolonization. Instead, Ivens filmed *Indonesia Calling* in secret, for which he received funding from the International Workers Order.
For around a decade Ivens lived in Eastern Europe, working for several studios there.
Having been criticized in the Netherlands, the tides were turning in the 1960s. In 1965, the city of Rotterdam commissioned him to make a film about the port, which was meant to be a promotional film, but Ivens got *carte blanche*. The result, the essay-film *Rotterdam Europoort* (1966), is not only critical of modern city planning and consumerism, but also an autobiographical tale inspired by the legend of the Flying Dutchman. Ivens was very happy with the result and even believed that it was his best film.
At about the same time, from 1965 to 1970, Ivens also worked on two documentary films about North Vietnam during the war; he made *17e parallèle: La guerre du peuple* *(17th Parallel: Vietnam in War)* and he participated in the collective work *Loin du Vietnam* (*Far from Vietnam*).
From 1971 to 1977, he shot *How Yukong Moved the Mountains*, a 763-minute documentary about the Cultural Revolution in China.
Shortly before his death in 1989, Ivens released the last of more than 40 films: *Une histoire de vent* (*A Tale of the Wind*).
## Recognition and awards {#recognition_and_awards}
Ivens was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize for the year 1967.
In 1988 he received the Golden Lion Honorary Award at the Venice Film Festival.
He received the Order of the Netherlands Lion in January 1989.
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# Joris Ivens
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Ivens met photographer Germaine Krull in Berlin in 1923, and entered into a marriage of convenience with her between 1927 and 1943 so that Krull could hold a Dutch passport and could have a \"veneer of married respectability without sacrificing her autonomy.\"
Ivens later married French filmmaker and writer Marceline Loridan. They had no children.
## Death and legacy {#death_and_legacy}
On 7 June 1989 Ivens spoke to Radio Netherlands about his life and work in a wide-ranging interview.
He died on 28 June 1989. He was buried at the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.
The Joris Ivens Award was awarded at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam from 1988, before being renamed the IDFA Award for Best Feature-Length Documentary between 2006 and 2009. It was presented annually until 2020, when the category was split.
the Prix du premier film Loridan-Ivens (First Film Loridan-Ivens Award) is awarded each year at the Cinéma du Réel film festival. The Loridan-Ivens Award was initiated by Loridan-Ivens to support emerging committed filmmakers \"casting a sharp eye on the state of the world\". It is given in honour of her husband Joris Ivens, who was an early supporter Cinéma du Réel. The prize was formerly known as the Joris Ivens Prize for a Young Filmmaker, or just Joris Ivens Award.
A statue of Ivens by sculptor Bryan McCormack was erected in Parc de Saint-Cloud in Paris in 2010.
The Joris Ivens European Foundation (Europese Stichting Joris Ivens) includes an archive of Ivens\' work, as well as other features relating to him.
## Filmography
- *The Flaming Arrow* (1912)
- *O, Sunland* (1922)
- *The Sunhouse* (1925)
- *Film Sketchbook* (1927)
- *The Sick Town* (1927)
- *Instruction Films Micro Camera, University Leiden* (1927)
- *Movement Studies in Paris* (1927)
- *Filmstudy Zeedijk* (1927)
- *The Street* (1927)
- *Ice Skating* (1927)
- *The Bridge* (1928)
- *Rain* (1929)
- *Breakers* (1929)
- *Poor Drenthe* (The Misery in the Peat-mores of Drenthe) (1929)
- *Pile Diving* (1929)
- *Zonneland* (1930)
- *We are building* (1930)
- *Second Union Film* (1930)
- *Zuiderzee* (1930)
- *Tribune Film* (1930)
- *Concrete Construction* (1930)
- *Donogoo-Tonka* (1931)
- *Philips Radio* (1931)
- *Creosote* (1932)
- *Komsomol,* (Song of Heroes, Youth Speaks) (1932)
- *New Earth* (1933)
- *Borinage* (1934)
- *The Spanish Earth* (1937)
- *The 400 Million* (1938)
- *New Frontiers* (1940)
- *Power and the Land* (1940)
- *Our Russian Front* (1942)
- *Action Stations* (1943)
- *Corvette Port Arthur* (1943)
- *Know Your Enemy: Japan* (1945) (uncredited)
- *Indonesia Calling* (1946)
- *The First Years* (1948)
- *Friendship Triumphs* (1952)
- *Peace Tour 1952* (1952)
- *Chagall* (article in Italian) (1952-1960)
- *The Song of the Rivers* (1954)
- *My Child* (1956)
- *The Windrose / Rose of the Winds* (1957)
- *The war of the 600 Million People* (1958)
- *Letters from China* (1958)
- *L\'Italia non è un paese povero* (article in Italian) (1960)
- *Demain à Nanguila* (1960)
- *Carnet de viaje* (1961)
- *Pueblo en armas* (1961)
- *Le petit chapiteau* (1963)
- *Le train de la victoire* (1964)
- *\..
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# JUnit
**JUnit** is a test automation framework for the Java programming language. JUnit is often used for unit testing, and is one of the xUnit frameworks.
JUnit is linked as a JAR at compile-time. The latest version of the framework, JUnit 5, resides under package `{{code|org.junit.jupiter}}`{=mediawiki}. Previous versions JUnit 4 and JUnit 3 were under packages `{{code|org.junit}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{code|junit.framework}}`{=mediawiki}, respectively.
A research survey performed in 2013 across 10,000 Java projects hosted on GitHub found that JUnit (in a tie with slf4j-api) was the most commonly included external library. Each library was used by 30.7% of projects.
## JUnit Lifecycle {#junit_lifecycle}
Every JUnit test class usually has several test cases. These test cases are subject to the test life cycle. The full JUnit Lifecycle has three major phases:
1. Setup phase - This phase is where the test infrastructure is prepared. Two levels of setup are available. The first type of setup is class-level setup in which a computationally expensive object, such as a database connection, is created and reused, with minimal side effects. Class-level setup is implemented using the `{{code|@BeforeAll}}`{=mediawiki} annotation. The other type is setup before running each test case, which uses the `{{code|@BeforeEach}}`{=mediawiki} annotation.
2. Test execution - This phase is responsible for running the test and verifying the result. The test result will indicate if the test result is a success or a failure. The `{{code|@Test}}`{=mediawiki} annotation is used here.
3. Clean up phase - After all posttest executions are performed, the system may need to perform cleanup. Similar to class-level setup, there is a corresponding class-level clean up. The `{{code|@AfterAll}}`{=mediawiki} annotation is used to support class-level clean up. The `{{code|@AfterEach}}`{=mediawiki} annotation allows for cleanup after test execution.
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# JUnit
## Integration with other tools {#integration_with_other_tools}
JUnit 5 integrates a number of tools, such as build tools, integrated development environments (IDE), continuous integration (CI) tools and many more.
### Build Tools {#build_tools}
JUnit supports Apache Ant, Apache Maven and Gradle build tools, which are the most widely used project build tools. Build tools are vital for automating the process of building the project.
#### Ant Extension {#ant_extension}
Apache Ant, also known as Ant, is one of the build tools with the highest degree of versatility, and has the longest history out of the three build tools listed above. Ant centers around the `build.xml` file, used for configuring the tasks necessary to run a project. Ant also has an extension called Apache Ivy, which helps deal with dependency resolution. The project dependencies can be declared in the `ivy.xml` file. Ant can integrate with JUnit 5 by configuring the Java code coverage tools (JaCoCo), for the `ivy.xml` file. The `ivy.xml` can then be configured with the `java-platform-console` and `junit-platform-runner` dependencies to integrate with JUnit 5.
#### Maven Extension {#maven_extension}
In contrast to Ant, Apache Maven, also known as Maven, uses a standardized and unified approach to the build process. Maven follows the paradigm of \"convention over configuration\" for managing its dependencies. The Java source code (or \"src\") can be found under the `src/main/java` directory, and the test files can be found under the `src/test/java` directory. Maven can be used for any Java Project. It uses the Project Object Model (POM), which is an XML-based approach to configuring the build steps for the project. The minimal Maven with the `pom.xml` build file must contain a list of dependencies and a unique project identifier. Maven must be available on the build path to work. Maven can integrate with JUnit 5 using the `jacoco-maven-plugin` plugin which supports out-of-box functionality for JUnit 5 tests. Different Maven goals can be specified to achieve these tasks.
#### Gradle Extension {#gradle_extension}
Gradle is a build tool that borrows many concepts from its predecessors, Ant and Maven. It uses the `{{code|build.gradle}}`{=mediawiki} file to declare the steps required for the project build. Unlike Ant and Maven, which are XML-based, Gradle requires the use of Apache Groovy, which is a Java-based programming language. Unlike Ant and Maven, Gradle does not require the use of XML. Gradle still adheres to Maven\'s \"convention over configuration\" approach, and follows the same structure for `{{code|src/main/java}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{code|src/test/java}}`{=mediawiki} directories. Gradle can integrate with JUnit 5 by configuring a plugin `{{code|jacoco}}`{=mediawiki} alongside the junit-platform plug-in given by the JUnit 5 team in the build file.
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# JUnit
## JUnit Extension Model {#junit_extension_model}
JUnit follows the paradigm of preferring extension points over features. The JUnit team decided not to put all features within the JUnit core, and instead decided to give an extensible way for developers to address their concerns.
In JUnit 4, there are two extension mechanisms: the Runner API and Rule API. There were some disadvantages to both the Runner API and the Rule API.
A major limitation of the Runner API is that developers must implement the entire test lifecycle, even if only a specific phase is required. This is too complicated and heavyweight for most use cases. Another major limitation is that only one runner class can be used per test case, which makes runners non-composable. For example, Mockito and Parameterized runners cannot be used together within the same test class.
A major limitation of the Rule API is that it cannot control the entire test lifecycle and is therefore unsuitable for certain use cases. Rules are only suitable for operations that need to run before or after test execution. Another limitation is that class-level and method-level rules must be defined separately.
In JUnit 5, the extension API is found within the JUnit Jupiter Engine. The JUnit Team wants to allow the developer to hook to separate stages of a test life cycle by providing a single unified extension API. Upon reaching a certain life cycle phase, the Jupiter Engine will invoke all registered extensions for that phase. The developer can hook into five major extension points:
1. Test lifecycle callbacks -- allow developers to execute code at specific test lifecycle phases.
2. Test instance post-processing -- enables developers to hook into the test instance creation phase using the `TestInstancePostProcessor` interface.
3. Conditional test execution -- allows tests to run only if certain conditions are met.
4. Parameter resolution -- allows parameters to be injected into test methods or constructors.
5. Exception handling -- allows developers to modify test behavior in response to exceptions instead of failing the test outright.
## Example of a JUnit test fixture {#example_of_a_junit_test_fixture}
A JUnit test fixture is a Java object. Test methods must be annotated by the `{{code|@Test}}`{=mediawiki} annotation. If the situation requires it, it is also possible to define a method to execute before (or after) each (or all) of the test methods with the `{{code|@BeforeEach}}`{=mediawiki} (or `{{code|@AfterEach}}`{=mediawiki}) and `{{code|@BeforeAll}}`{=mediawiki} (or `{{code|@AfterAll}}`{=mediawiki}) annotations.
``` Java
import org.junit.jupiter.api.*;
class FoobarTests {
@BeforeAll
static void setUpClass() throws Exception {
// Code executed before the first test method
}
@BeforeEach
void setUp() throws Exception {
// Code executed before each test
}
@Test
void oneThing() {
// Code that tests one thing
}
@Test
void anotherThing() {
// Code that tests another thing
}
@Test
void somethingElse() {
// Code that tests something else
}
@AfterEach
void tearDown() throws Exception {
// Code executed after each test
}
@AfterAll
static void tearDownClass() throws Exception {
// Code executed after the last test method
}
}
```
## Previous versions of JUnit {#previous_versions_of_junit}
According to Martin Fowler, one of the early adopters of JUnit: `{{Blockquote
|text=JUnit was born on a flight from Zurich to the 1997 [[OOPSLA]] in Atlanta. Kent was flying with Erich Gamma, and what else were two geeks to do on a long flight but program? The first version of JUnit was built there, pair programmed, and done test first (a pleasing form of meta-circular geekery).}}`{=mediawiki}
As a side effect of its wide use, previous versions of JUnit remain popular, with JUnit 4 having over 100,000 usages by other software components on the Maven Central repository.
In JUnit 4, the annotations for test execution callbacks were `{{code|@BeforeClass}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{code|@Before}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{code|@After}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{code|@AfterClass}}`{=mediawiki}, as opposed to JUnit 5\'s `{{code|@BeforeAll}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{code|@BeforeEach}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{code|@AfterEach}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{code|@AfterAll}}`{=mediawiki}.
In JUnit 3, test fixtures had to inherit from `{{code|junit.framework.TestCase}}`{=mediawiki}. Additionally, test methods had to be prefixed with \'test\'
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# Joystick
A **joystick**, sometimes called a **flight stick**, is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Also known as the **control column**, it is the principal control device in the cockpit of many civilian and military aircraft, either as a centre stick or side-stick. It has various switches to control functions of the aircraft controlled by the Pilot and First Officer of the flight.
Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have push-buttons whose state can be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick. Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.
## Aviation
Joysticks originated as controls for aircraft ailerons and elevators, and are first known to have been used as such on Louis Bleriot\'s Bleriot VIII aircraft of 1908, in combination with a foot-operated rudder bar for the yaw control surface on the tail.
## Origins
The name *joystick* is thought to originate with early 20th century French pilot Robert Esnault-Pelterie. There are also competing claims on behalf of fellow pilots Robert Loraine, James Henry Joyce, and A. E. George. Loraine is cited by the *Oxford English Dictionary* for using the term \"joystick\" in his diary in 1909 when he went to Pau to learn to fly at Blériot\'s school. George was a pioneer aviator who with his colleague Jobling built and flew a biplane at Newcastle in England in 1910. The George and Jobling aircraft control column is in the collection of the Discovery Museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Joysticks were present in early planes, though their mechanical origins are uncertain. The coining of the term \"joystick\" may actually be credited to Loraine, as his is the earliest known usage of the term, although he most certainly did not invent the device.
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# Joystick
## Electronic joysticks {#electronic_joysticks}
### History
The electrical two-axis joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and patented in 1926 (U.S. Patent no. 1,597,416)\". NRL was actively developing remote controlled aircraft at the time and the joystick was possibly used to support this effort. In the awarded patent, Mirick writes: \"My control system is particularly applicable in maneuvering aircraft without a pilot.\"
The Germans developed an electrical two-axis joystick around 1944. The device was used as part of the Germans\' *Funkgerät* FuG 203 *Kehl* radio control transmitter system used in certain German bomber aircraft, used to guide both the rocket-boosted anti-ship missile *Henschel Hs 293*, and the unpowered pioneering precision-guided munition *Fritz-X*, against maritime and other targets. Here, the joystick of the *Kehl* transmitter was used by an operator to steer the missile towards its target. This joystick had on-off switches rather than analogue sensors. Both the Hs 293 and Fritz-X used FuG 230 *Straßburg* radio receivers in them to send the *Kehl\'s* control signals to the ordnance\'s control surfaces. A comparable joystick unit was used for the contemporary American Azon steerable munition, strictly to laterally steer the munition in the yaw axis only.
This German invention was picked up by someone in the team of scientists assembled at the *Heeresversuchsanstalt* in Peenemünde. Here a part of the team on the German rocket program was developing the Wasserfall missile, a variant of the V-2 rocket, the first ground-to-air missile. The Wasserfall steering equipment converted the electrical signal to radio signals and transmitted these to the missile.
In the 1960s the use of joysticks became widespread in radio-controlled model aircraft systems such as the Kwik Fly produced by Phill Kraft (1964). The now-defunct Kraft Systems firm eventually became an important OEM supplier of joysticks to the computer industry and other users. The first use of joysticks outside the radio-controlled aircraft industry may have been in the control of powered wheelchairs, such as the Permobil (1963). During this time period NASA used joysticks as control devices as part of the Apollo missions. For example, the lunar lander test models were controlled with a joystick.
In many modern airliners, for example all Airbus aircraft developed from the 1980s, the joystick has received a new lease on life for flight control in the form of the \"side-stick\", a controller similar to a gaming joystick but which is used to control flight, replacing the traditional yoke. The sidestick saves weight, improves movement and visibility in the cockpit, and may be safer in an accident than the yoke.
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# Joystick
## Electronic joysticks {#electronic_joysticks}
### Electronic games {#electronic_games}
In early 1968, Sega released *MotoPolo*, an arcade electro-mechanical game with joystick controllers, used to move miniature motorbikes in any direction on the table. The same year in 1968, Ralph H. Baer developed the first prototype joystick controller for a video game, with a golf ball mounted on the joystick handle as it was intended for a golf game he was working on at the time.
The earliest known electronic game joystick with a fire button was released by Sega as part of their 1969 arcade game *Missile*, a shooter simulation game that used it as part of an early dual-control scheme, where two directional buttons are used to move a motorized tank and a two-way joystick is used to shoot and steer the missile onto oncoming planes displayed on the screen; when a plane is hit, an explosion is animated on screen along with an explosion sound. In 1970, the game was released in North America as *S.A.M.I.* by Midway Games.
Taito released a four-way joystick as part of their arcade racing video game *Astro Race* in 1973, while their 1975 multidirectional shooter *Western Gun* introduced dual-stick controls with one eight-way joystick for movement and the other for changing the shooting direction. In North America, it was released by Midway under the title *Gun Fight*. In 1976, Taito released *Interceptor*, an early first-person combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft.
The Atari CX40 joystick, developed for the 1977 Atari Video Computer System, is a digital controller with a single fire button. The Atari joystick port was for many years the *de facto* standard digital joystick specification. Joysticks were commonly used as controllers in first and second generation game consoles, but they gave way to the familiar game pad with the Nintendo Entertainment System and Master System during the mid-1980s, though joysticks---especially arcade-style ones---were and are popular after-market add-ons for any console.
In 1985, Sega\'s third-person arcade rail shooter game *Space Harrier* featured a true analog flight stick, used for movement. The joystick could register movement in any direction as well as measure the degree of push, which could move the player character at different speeds depending on how far the joystick was pushed in a certain direction.
A variation of the joystick is the rotary joystick. It is a type of joystick-knob hybrid, where the joystick can be moved in various direction while at the same time being able to rotate the joystick. It is mainly used in arcade shoot \'em up games, to control both the player\'s eight-directional movement and the gun\'s 360-degree direction. It was introduced by SNK, initially with the tank shooter *TNK III* (1985) before it was popularized by the run and gun video game *Ikari Warriors* (1986). SNK later used rotary joystick controls in arcade games such as *Guerrilla War* (1987).
A distinct variation of an analog joystick is a positional gun, which works differently from a light gun. Instead of using light sensors, a positional gun is essentially an analog joystick mounted in a fixed location that records the position of the gun to determine where the player is aiming on the screen. It is often used for arcade gun games, with early examples including Sega\'s *Sea Devil* in 1972; Taito\'s *Attack* in 1976; *Cross Fire* in 1977; and Nintendo\'s *Battle Shark* in 1978.
During the 1990s, joysticks such as the CH Products Flightstick, Gravis Phoenix, Microsoft SideWinder, Logitech WingMan, and Thrustmaster FCS were in demand with PC gamers. They were considered a prerequisite for flight simulators such as *F-16 Fighting Falcon* and *LHX Attack Chopper*. Joysticks became especially popular with the mainstream success of space flight simulator games like *X-Wing* and *Wing Commander*, as well as the \"Six degrees of freedom\" 3D shooter *Descent*. VirPil Controls\' MongoosT-50 joystick was designed to mimic the style of Russian aircraft (including the Sukhoi Su-35 and Sukhoi Su-57), unlike most flight joysticks.
However, since the beginning of the 21st century, these types of games have waned in popularity and are now considered a \"dead\" genre, and with that, gaming joysticks have been reduced to niche products. In NowGamer\'s interview with Jim Boone, a producer at Volition Inc., he stated that *FreeSpace 2*{{\'}}s poor sales could have been due to joysticks\' being sold poorly because they were \"going out of fashion\" because more modern first-person shooters, such as *Quake*, were \"very much about the mouse and \[the\] keyboard\". He went further on to state \"Before that, when we did *Descent* for example, it was perfectly common for people to have joysticks -- we sold a lot of copies of Descent. It was around that time \[when\] the more modern FPS with mouse and keyboard came out, as opposed to just keyboard like *Wolfenstein \[3D\]* or something.\".
Since the late 1990s, *analog sticks* (or *thumbsticks*, due to their being controlled by one\'s thumbs) have become standard on controllers for video game consoles, popularized by Nintendo\'s Nintendo 64 controller, and have the ability to indicate the stick\'s displacement from its neutral position. This means that the software does not have to keep track of the position or estimate the speed at which the controls are moved. These devices usually use potentiometers to determine the position of the stick, though some newer models instead use a Hall effect sensor for greater reliability and reduced size.
In 1997, ThrustMaster, Inc. introduced a 3D programmable controller, which was integrated into computer games to experience flight simulations. This line adapted several aspects of NASA\'s RHC (Rotational Hand Controller), which is used for landing and navigation methods.
In 1997 the first gaming joystick with force feedback (haptics) was manufactured by CH Products under license from technology creator, Immersion Corporation. The product, called the Force FX joystick was followed by force feedback joysticks from Logitech, Thrustmaster, and others, also under license from Immersion.
### Arcade sticks {#arcade_sticks}
An arcade stick is a large-format controller for use with home consoles or computers. They use the stick-and-button configuration of some arcade cabinets, such as those with particular multi-button arrangements. For example, the six button layout of the arcade games *Street Fighter II* or *Mortal Kombat* cannot be comfortably emulated on a console joypad, so licensed home arcade sticks for these games have been manufactured for home consoles and PCs.
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# Joystick
## Electronic joysticks {#electronic_joysticks}
### Hat switch {#hat_switch}
A hat switch is a control on some joysticks. It is also known as a POV (point of view) switch in electronic games, where it allows one to look around in one\'s virtual world, browse menus, etc. For example, many flight simulators use it to switch the player\'s views, while other games sometimes use it as a substitute for the D-pad. Computer gamepads with both an analogue stick and a D-pad usually assign POV switch scancodes to the latter.
The term hat switch is a shortening of the term \"coolie hat switch\", named for the similar looking headgear.
In a real aircraft, the hat switch may control things like aileron or elevator trim.
### Cameras
Apart from buttons, wheels and dials as well as touchscreens also miniature joysticks have been established for the efficient manual operation of cameras.
Joystick.Kamera.P1078740.jpg\|Miniature joystick to be operated by the right thumb, next to an electronic viewfinder Joystick.Kamera.P1078738.jpg\|Detailed view
## Industrial applications {#industrial_applications}
In recent times, the employment of joysticks has become commonplace in many industrial and manufacturing applications, such as cranes, assembly lines, forestry equipment, mining trucks, and excavators. In fact, the use of such joysticks is in such high demand, that it has virtually replaced the traditional mechanical control lever in nearly all modern hydraulic control systems. Additionally, most unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and submersible remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) require at least one joystick to control either the vehicle, the on-board cameras, sensors and/or manipulators.
Due to the highly hands-on, rough nature of such applications, the industrial joystick tends to be more robust than the typical video-game controller, and able to function over a high cycle life. This led to the development and employment of Hall effect sensing to such applications in the 1980s as a means of contactless sensing. Several companies produce joysticks for industrial applications using Hall effect technology. Another technology used in joystick design is the use of strain gauges to build force transducers from which the output is proportional to the force applied rather than physical deflection. Miniature force transducers are used as additional controls on joysticks for menu selection functions.
Some larger manufacturers of joysticks are able to customize joystick handles and grips specific to the OEM needs while small regional manufacturers often concentrate on selling standard products at higher prices to smaller OEMs.
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# Joystick
## Assistive technology {#assistive_technology}
Specialist joysticks, classed as an assistive technology pointing device, are used to replace the computer mouse for people with fairly severe physical disabilities. Rather than controlling games, these joysticks control the pointer. They are often useful to people with athetoid conditions, such as cerebral palsy, who find them easier to grasp than a standard mouse. Miniature joysticks are available for people with conditions involving muscular weakness such as muscular dystrophy or motor neurone disease as well. They are also used on electric powered wheelchairs for control since they are simple and effective to use as a control method.
## Non-human use {#non_human_use}
In 1996, a scientific study established that both chimpanzees and rhesus monkeys could be taught to move a pointer on a screen by using a joystick. Both have consistently managed to demonstrate \"conceptual knowledge\" of the task required of them during trials, although rhesus monkeys were notably slower to do so.
In 2021, another pair of researchers investigated the level of intelligence in domestic pigs by designing a joystick which could be controlled with their snout. Unlike the chimpanzees or the rhesus monkeys, none of the four pigs was able to fully meet the 1996\'s test criteria for \"motoric or conceptual acquisition\" of the task, but they still performed \"significantly above chance\". Notably, the pigs experienced additional difficulties in comparison to the primates, as they were all far-sighted and so may have struggled with the details on screen, and they could not move the target with a joystick without taking their eyes off the screen first
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# John Danforth
**John Claggett Danforth** (born September 5, 1936) is an American politician, attorney, diplomat, and Episcopal priest who served as the Attorney General of Missouri from 1969 to 1976 and as a United States Senator from 1976 to 1995. A member of the Republican Party, he later served as Special Counsel for the U.S. Department of Justice from 1999 to 2000 and as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations from 2004 to 2005.
Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Danforth graduated from Princeton University and Yale University. George H.W. Bush considered selecting him as a vice-presidential running mate in 1988, and Bush\'s son, George W. Bush, considered doing the same in 2000.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Danforth was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Dorothy (Claggett) and Donald Danforth. He is the grandson of William H. Danforth, founder of Ralston Purina. Danforth\'s brother, William Henry Danforth, was former chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis.
Danforth attended St. Louis Country Day School. He graduated from Princeton University in 1958 with an A.B. in religion after completing his senior thesis, \"Christ and Meaning: An Interpretation of Reinhold Niebuhr\'s Christology.\" He received degrees from Yale Law School and Yale Divinity School in 1963.
## Career
Danforth practiced law at the New York law firm Davis Polk & Wardwell from 1964 to 1966. He was a partner at the law firm of Bryan, Cave, McPheeters and McRoberts in St. Louis from 1966 to 1968.
Before Danforth entered Republican politics, Missouri was a reliably Democratic state with its U.S. senators and governors usually being Democrats. Danforth\'s seat in the Senate was previously held by Democrats Thomas Hart Benton, Harry S. Truman, and Stuart Symington.
### Missouri Attorney General {#missouri_attorney_general}
In 1968, Danforth was elected Missouri Attorney General, the first Republican elected to the office in 40 years, and the first from his party elected to statewide office in 22 years. On his staff of assistant attorneys general were future Missouri Governor and U.S. Senator Kit Bond, future Missouri Governor, U.S. Senator and U.S. Attorney General John Ashcroft, future Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, and future federal judge D. Brook Bartlett. Danforth was reelected in 1972.
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# John Danforth
## Career
### United States Senate {#united_states_senate}
#### Elections
In 1970, Danforth ran for the United States Senate for the first time, against Democratic incumbent Stuart Symington. He lost in a close race.
In 1976, Danforth ran to succeed Symington, who was retiring. He had little opposition in the Republican primary. The Democrats had a three-way battle among Symington\'s son James W. Symington, former Missouri Governor Warren Hearnes, and rising political star Congressman Jerry Litton. Litton won the primary, but he and his family were killed when the plane taking them to their victory party in Kansas City crashed on takeoff in Chillicothe, Missouri. Hearnes, who had finished second in the primary, was chosen to replace Litton as the Democratic nominee. In the general election, Danforth defeated Hearnes with nearly 57% of the vote.
In 1982, the Democratic nominee for U.S. Senate was Harriett Woods, a relatively unknown state senator from the St. Louis suburb of University City. She was active in women\'s rights organizations and collected union support and was a cousin of Democratic Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio. Her speeches denounced Ronald Reagan\'s policies so vigorously that she ran on the nickname \"Give \'em Hell, Harriett\" (a play on the famous Truman phrase). Danforth defeated Woods 51% to 49%, with Woods\'s pro-choice stance said to be the reason for her loss.
In 1988, Danforth defeated Democrat Jay Nixon, 68%--32%. He chose not to run for a fourth term and retired from the Senate in 1995. He was succeeded by former Missouri governor John Ashcroft. Nixon was later elected Missouri Attorney General, and, in 2008, governor of Missouri.
In January 2001, when Missouri Democrats opposed Ashcroft\'s nomination for U.S. Attorney General, Danforth\'s name was invoked. Former U.S. Senator Tom Eagleton reacted to the nomination by saying: \"John Danforth would have been my first choice. John Ashcroft would have been my last choice.\"
#### Tenure
During the 1991 Senate confirmation hearings for U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, Danforth used his clout to support Thomas, who had served Danforth during his state attorney general years and later as an aide in the Senate.
Danforth portrayed himself as a political moderate, but voted like his right-wing Republican colleagues, including sustaining filibusters. He was once quoted as saying he joined the Republican Party for \"the same reason you sometimes choose which movie to see---\[it\'s\] the one with the shortest line.\"
Danforth is a longtime opponent of capital punishment, as he made clear on the Senate floor in 1994.
In 1988, George H. W. Bush\'s presidential campaign vetted Danforth as a potential running mate. Bush selected Indiana Senator Dan Quayle instead.
### UN Ambassador {#un_ambassador}
On July 1, 2004, Danforth was sworn in as the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, succeeding John Negroponte, who left the post after becoming the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq in June. He is best remembered for attempts to bring peace to the Sudan but stayed at the UN for just six months. Danforth was mentioned as a successor to Secretary of State Colin Powell. Six days after the announcement that Condoleezza Rice was going to take the position, Danforth submitted his resignation on November 22, 2004, effective January 20, 2005. His resignation letter said, \"Forty-seven years ago, I married the girl of my dreams, and, at this point in my life, what is most important to me is to spend more time with her.\"
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# John Danforth
## Post-Senate career {#post_senate_career}
### Political activity {#political_activity}
In 1999, Democratic U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno appointed Danforth to lead an investigation into the FBI\'s role in the 1993 Waco Siege. Danforth appointed Democratic U.S. Attorney Edward L. Dowd Jr. for the Eastern District of Missouri as his deputy special counsel. He also hired Bryan Cave partner Thomas A. Schweich as his chief of staff. Assistant U.S. Attorney James G. Martin served as Danforth\'s director of investigative operations for what became known as the \"Waco Investigation\" and its resulting \"Danforth Report\".
In July 2000, Danforth\'s name was leaked as being on the short list of potential vice presidential nominees for Republican nominee George W. Bush, along with Michigan Governor John Engler, New York Governor George Pataki, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, and former U.S. Secretary of Transportation, U.S. Secretary of Labor and former American Red Cross President Elizabeth Dole. One week before the 2000 Republican National Convention was held in Philadelphia, campaign sources said that Dick Cheney, the man charged with leading the selection process for the nominee, had recommended Danforth, but Bush selected Cheney himself. Bush wrote in his book *Decision Points* that Danforth would have been his choice if Cheney had not accepted.`{{additional citation needed|date=March 2021|reason=book not mentioned as being where Bush revealed this info}}`{=mediawiki} In September 2001, Bush appointed Danforth a special envoy to Sudan. He brokered a peace deal that officially ended the civil war in the South between Sudan\'s Islamic government and the U.S.-backed Christian rebels, but elements of that conflict still remain unresolved (as has the separate Darfur conflict). Known as the Second Sudanese Civil War, the conflict ended in January 2005 with the signing of a peace agreement.
On June 11, 2004, Danforth presided over the funeral of Ronald Reagan, held at Washington National Cathedral. Danforth also officiated at the funerals of *Washington Post* executive Katharine Graham, former United States Senator Harry Flood Byrd Jr. of Virginia, and Missouri State Auditor Tom Schweich.
On March 30, 2005, Danforth wrote an op-ed in *The New York Times* critical of the Republican party. The article began: \"By a series of recent initiatives, Republicans have transformed our party into the political arm of conservative Christians\". He also penned a June 17, 2005, piece headlined \"Onward, Moderate Christian Soldiers\". In 2015, Danforth joined 299 other Republicans in signing an amicus brief calling on the Supreme Court to legalize same-sex marriage.
Contributing to the anthology *Our American Story* (2019), Danforth addressed the possibility of a shared American narrative and focused on the \"great American purpose\" of \"hold\[ing\] together in one nation a diverse and often contentious people.\" He encouraged continued work \"to demand a functioning government where compromise is the norm, to integrate all our people into one indivisible nation, and to incorporate separated individuals into the wholeness of the community.\" Danforth is a member of the Reformers Caucus of Issue One.
Danforth was a mentor and political supporter of Josh Hawley, who became Attorney General of Missouri in 2017 and U.S. Senator in 2019 with Danforth\'s encouragement; Danforth also supported Hawley\'s presidential ambitions. In the wake of the January 6 United States Capitol attack and Hawley\'s efforts to challenge the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count, Danforth said that supporting Hawley in the 2018 election \"was the worst mistake I ever made in my life\". During the 2022 United States Senate election in Missouri, Danforth headed a PAC supporting independent candidate John Wood, considered a long shot to win. Wood collected enough signatures to get on the ballot but dropped out after 50 days when Eric Schmitt won the Republican primary. Danforth spent \$6 million on the effort.
### Private sector {#private_sector}
In 1995, following his departure from the Senate, Danforth again became a partner at the Bryan Cave law firm. As of 2021 Danforth is a partner at Dowd Bennett, a Clayton law firm just outside Saint Louis.
In May 2012, a group led by Danforth\'s son-in-law and Summitt Distributing CEO Tom Stillman, in which Danforth is a minority investor, took controlling ownership of the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League. The group acquired full ownership of the team in June 2019. Danforth has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. He is an honorary board member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope.
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# John Danforth
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Danforth married the former Sally Dobson in 1957. They have five children and 15 grandchildren.
## Author
- *Resurrection: The Confirmation of Clarence Thomas,* Viking, 1994
- *Faith and Politics: How the \"Moral Values\" Debate Divides America and How to Move Forward Together*, Viking Press, 2006. `{{ISBN|978-0670037872}}`{=mediawiki}
- *The Relevance of Religion: How Faithful People Can Change Politics*. [Description](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll85BgAAQBAJ) & [preview](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll85BgAAQBAJ). Random House, 2015
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# Jordanes
**Jordanes** (`{{IPAc-en|dʒ|ɔr|ˈ|d|eɪ|n|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; Greek: Ιορδάνης), also written as **Jordanis** or **Jornandes**, was a 6th-century Eastern Roman bureaucrat, claimed to be of Gothic descent, who became a historian later in life.
He wrote two works, one on Roman history (*Romana*) and the other on the Goths (*Getica*). The latter, along with Isidore of Seville\'s *Historia Gothorum*, is one of only two extant ancient works dealing with the early history of the Goths. Other writers, such as Procopius, wrote works on the later history of the Goths. *Getica* has been the object of much critical review. Jordanes wrote in Late Latin rather than the classical Ciceronian Latin. According to his own introduction, he had only three days to review what Cassiodorus had written and so he must also have relied on his own knowledge.
## Life
Jordanes writes about himself almost in passing:
Paria was Jordanes\'s paternal grandfather. Jordanes writes that he was secretary to Candac, *dux Alanorum*, an otherwise unknown leader of the Alans.
Jordanes was asked by a friend to write *Getica* as a summary of a multi-volume history of the Goths by the statesman Cassiodorus that existed then but has since been lost. Jordanes was selected for his known interest in history and because of his own Gothic background. He had been a high-level *notarius*, or secretary, of a small client state on the Roman frontier in Scythia Minor, modern southeastern Romania and northeastern Bulgaria.
Jordanes was *notarius*, or secretary to Gunthigis Baza, a nephew of Candac and a magister militum of the leading Ostrogoth clan of the Amali.
That was *ante conversionem meam* (\"before my conversion\"). The nature and the details of the conversion remain obscure. The Goths had been converted with the assistance of Ulfilas (a Goth), made bishop on that account. However, the Goths had adopted Arianism. Jordanes\'s conversion may have been a conversion to the trinitarian Nicene Creed, which may be expressed in anti-Arianism in certain passages in *Getica*. In the letter to Vigilius he mentions that he was awakened *vestris interrogationibus* -- \"by your questioning\".
Alternatively, Jordanes\'s *conversio* may mean that he had become a monk, a *religiosus* or a member of the clergy. Some manuscripts say that he was a bishop, and some even say bishop of Ravenna, but the name Jordanes is not known in the lists of bishops of Ravenna.
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# Jordanes
## Works
Jordanes wrote *Romana*, about the history of Rome, but his best-known work is his *Getica*, which was written in Constantinople about 551 AD. Jordanes wrote his *Romana* at the behest of a certain Vigilius. Although some scholars have identified this person with Pope Vigilius, there is nothing else to support the identification besides the name. The form of address that Jordanes uses and his admonition that Vigilius \"turn to God\" would seem to rule out this identification.
In the preface to his *Getica*, Jordanes writes that he is interrupting his work on the *Romana* at the behest of a brother Castalius, who apparently knew that Jordanes possessed the twelve volumes of the History of the Goths by Cassiodorus. Castalius wanted a short book about the subject, and Jordanes obliged with an excerpt based on memory, possibly supplemented with other material to which he had access. The *Getica* sets off with a geography/ethnography of the North, especially of Scandza (16--24).
He lets the history of the Goths commence with the emigration of Berig with three ships from Scandza to Gothiscandza (25, 94), in a distant past. In the pen of Jordanes, Herodotus\'s Getian demigod Zalmoxis becomes a king of the Goths (39). Jordanes tells how the Goths sacked \"Troy and Ilium\" just after they had recovered somewhat from the war with Agamemnon (108). They are also said to have encountered the Egyptian pharaoh Vesosis (47). The less fictional part of Jordanes\'s work begins when the Goths encounter Roman military forces in the third century AD. The work concludes with the defeat of the Goths by the Byzantine general Belisarius. Jordanes concludes the work by stating that he writes to honour those who were victorious over the Goths after a history spanning 2,030 years.
## Controversy
Jordanes wrongly equated the Getae with the Goths. Many historical records which originally related to Dacians and Getae were thus wrongly attributed to Goths.
Arne Søby Christensen and Michael Kulikowski argue that in his *Getica* Jordanes also supplemented his Gothic history with many fictional events such as a Gothic war against Egypt.
Caracalla in 214 received the titles \"Geticus Maximus\" and \"Quasi Gothicus\" after battles with Getae and Goths
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# Jan and Dean
**Jan and Dean** were an American rock duo consisting of **William Jan Berry** (April 3, 1941 -- March 26, 2004) and **Dean Ormsby Torrence** (born March 10, 1940). In the early 1960s, they were pioneers of the California Sound and vocal surf music styles later popularized by the Beach Boys.
Among their most successful songs was 1963\'s \"Surf City\", the first surf song ever to reach the #1 spot on the *Billboard* Hot 100 in the US. Their other charting top 10 singles were \"Baby Talk\" (1959), \"Drag City\" (1963), \"Dead Man\'s Curve\" (1964; inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2008,) and \"The Little Old Lady (from Pasadena)\" (1964).
In 1972, Torrence won the Grammy Award for Best Album Cover for the psychedelic rock band Pollution\'s first eponymous 1971 album, and was nominated three other times in the same category for albums of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band. In 2013, Torrence\'s design contribution of the Surf City Allstars\' *In Concert* CD was named a Silver Award of Distinction at the Communicator Awards competition.
## Early lives {#early_lives}
**William Jan Berry** (April 3, 1941 -- March 26, 2004), was born in Los Angeles to Clara Lorentze Mustad (born September 2, 1919, Bergen, Norway -- died July 9, 2009) and aeronautical engineer William L. Berry (born December 7, 1909, New York City -- died December 19, 2004, Camarillo, California), He was raised in Bel Air, Los Angeles. Jan\'s father worked for Howard Hughes as a project manager of the \"Spruce Goose\" and flew on its only flight with Hughes.
**Dean Ormsby Torrence** (born `{{Birth date and age|1940|3|10}}`{=mediawiki}) was born in Los Angeles, the son of Natalie Ormsby (April 10, 1911 -- August 10, 2008) and Maurice Dean Torrence (December 5, 1907 -- November 16, 1997). His father, Maurice, was a graduate of Stanford University, and was a sales manager at the Wilshire Oil Company.
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# Jan and Dean
## History
### 1957--59: formation
Berry and Torrence met while both were students at Emerson Junior High School in Westwood, Los Angeles, and both were on the school\'s football team. By 1957, they were students in the class of 1958 at the nearby University High School, where again they were both on the school\'s football team, the Warriors. Berry and Torrence had adjoining lockers, and after football practice, they began harmonizing together in the showers with several other football players, including future actor James Brolin.
#### The Barons {#the_barons}
In order to enter a talent competition at University High School, Berry and Torrence helped form a doo-wop group known as \"The Barons\" (named after their high school\'s Hi-Y club, of which they were members), which was composed of fellow University High students William \"Chuck\" Steele (lead singer), Arnold P. \"Arnie\" Ginsburg (born November 19, 1939; 1st tenor), Wallace S. \"Wally\" Yagi (born July 20, 1940; 2nd tenor), John \'Sagi\" Seligman (2nd tenor), with Berry singing bass and Torrence providing falsetto.
During its short duration, Sandy Nelson, Torrence\'s neighbor, played drums, and future Beach Boy Bruce Johnston occasionally sang and played piano. The Barons rehearsed for hours in Berry\'s parents\' garage, where Berry\'s father provided an upright piano and two two-track Ampex reel-to-reel tape recorders.
In 1958, the Barons performed to popular acclaim at the talent competition at University High School, covering contemporary hits like \"Get a Job\", \"Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay\", and \"Short Shorts\". Following the contest, various members of the Barons drifted away, leaving only Berry and Torrence, who tried to write their own songs.
#### Jan & Arnie {#jan_arnie}
After being inspired by a poster featuring a local Hollywood burlesque performer, Virginia Lee Hicks, who was then performing as Jennie Lee, the \"Bazoom Girl\", at the New Follies Burlesk at 548 S. Main St, Los Angeles, Ginsburg wrote a tribute song, \"Jennie Lee\", that he brought to Berry and Torrence. Berry adapted the Civil War tune \"Aura Lea\" and arranged the harmonies. After weeks of practice, Berry, Ginsburg, and Torrence planned to make a demo recording in Berry\'s garage, but Torrence was drafted into the United States Army Reserve, forcing Berry and Ginsburg to record \"Jennie Lee\" without Torrence, with Berry\'s friend and fellow University High student Donald J. Altfeld (born March 18, 1940, in Los Angeles ) \"beating out the rhythm on a children\'s metal high chair\". The next day Berry took their recording to Radio Recorders, a small recording studio, to have it transferred to an acetate disc. Joe Lubin, Vice President and Head of A & R of Arwin Records, was impressed and offered to add instruments and to release it through Arwin.
In March 1958, the fathers of Berry and Ginsburg signed contracts authorizing Lubin to produce, arrange, and manage their sons.
Produced by Lubin, \"Jennie Lee\" (Arwin 108), backed with \"Gotta Get a Date\" (credited to Ginsburg, Berry & Lubin), became a surprise commercial success. According to Berry biographer Mark A. Moore, \"The song (with backing vocals, plus additional instruments added by the Ernie Freeman combo) had a raucous R&B flavor, with a bouncing bomp-bomp vocal hook that would become a signature from Jan on future recordings.\" Distributed by Dot Records, \"Jennie Lee\" was released in mid-April, entered the charts on May 10, 1958, the same day they appeared on ABC\'s *Dick Clark Show*. \"Jennie Lee\" peaked at No. 3 on the *Cash Box* charts on June 21, 1958, No. 4 on the R&B charts, and No. 8 on the Billboard charts on June 30, 1958. Billy Ward and his Dominoes\'s R&B cover of \"Jennie Lee\" reached No. 55 in the Pop charts in June 1958, while other cover versions including that of Moon Mullican (Coral 9-61994) and Bobby Phillips & the Toppers (Tops 45-R422-49), released in 1958 failed to chart.
In July 1958, Jan & Arnie released their second single, \"Gas Money\" backed with \"Bonnie Lou\" (Arwin 111), both written by Berry, Ginsburg, and Altfeld. Like \"Jennie Lee\", \"Gas Money\" contained a few elements of what would later become surf music. It entered the *Billboard* charts on August 24, 1958, and peaked at No. 81 a week later. Jan & Arnie were a featured act on the Summer Dance Party that toured the US East Coast, including Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Connecticut in July 1958. By the end of the month, they traveled to Manhattan to appear on *The Dick Clark Show*.
On August 24, 1958, Jan & Arnie played in a live show hosted by Dick Clark that featured Bobby Darin, the Champs, Sheb Wooley, the Blossoms, the Six Teens, Jerry Wallace, Jack Jones, Rod McKuen and the Ernie Freeman Orchestra in front of nearly 12,000 fans at the first rock-n-roll show ever held at the Hollywood Bowl.
By September 6, 1958, Jan & Arnie\'s third and final single, \"The Beat That Can\'t Be Beat\" backed with \"I Love Linda\" (Arwin 113), again composed by the Berry, Ginsburg, and Altfeld team, was released. However this single failed to chart, due in part to a lack of distribution. On October 19, 1958, Jan & Arnie performed \"The Beat That Can\'t Be Beat\" on CBS\'s *Jack Benny Show*.
Arnie Ginsburg recorded a one-off single with a band named the Rituals on the Arwin label. The single, \"Girl in Zanzibar\" b/w \"Guitarro\", was released on vinyl in January 1959, preceding Jan and Dean\'s first single \"Baby Talk\", released in May 1959. Other than Arnie, the single featured Richard Podolor on guitar, Sandy Nelson on drums, Bruce Johnston on piano, Dave Shostac on sax, Harper Cosby on bass, and Mike Deasy on guitar. It is unclear if the actual single was released for the general public but there are several promotional copies pressed to vinyl in existence.
By the end of the year, when Torrence had completed his six-month stint at Fort Ord, Ginsburg had become disenchanted with the music business. Ginsburg enrolled in the School of Architecture and Design at the University of Southern California and graduated in the field of product design in 1966. After graduation Ginsburg worked for several noted Los Angeles architects, among them Charles Eames, and in December 1973 he was granted a U.S. patent for a table he designed.
Ginsburg moved in 1975 to Santa Barbara, California, where he worked as an architectural designer. designing the innovative Ginsburg House. In September 1976, Ginsburg and Michael W. O\'Neill were granted a patent for a portable batting cage.
### 1959--62: early records {#early_records}
After Torrence returned from a six-month compulsory stint in the US Army Reserve, Berry and Torrence began to make music as \"Jan and Dean\". With the help of record producers Herb Alpert and Lou Adler, Jan and Dean scored a No. 10 hit on the Dore label with \"Baby Talk\" (1959) (which was incorrectly labeled as Jan & Arnie when it initially was released), then scored a series of hits over the next couple of years. Playing local venues, they met and performed with the Beach Boys, and discovered the appeal of the latter\'s \"surf sound\". By this time Berry was co-writing, arranging, and producing all of Jan and Dean\'s original material.
During this time Berry co-wrote or arranged and produced songs for other artists outside of Jan and Dean, including the Angels (\"I Adore Him\", Top 30), the Gents, the Matadors (Sinners), Pixie (unreleased), Jill Gibson, Shelley Fabares, Deane Hawley, the Rip Chords (\"Three Window Coupe\", Top 30), and Johnny Crawford, among others.
Unlike most other rock \'n roll acts of the period, Jan and Dean did not give music their full-time attention. They were college students, maintaining their studies while writing and recording music and making public appearances on the side. Torrence majored in advertising design in the school of architecture at USC, where he also was a member of the Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. Berry took science and music classes at UCLA, became a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and entered the California College of Medicine (now the UC Irvine School of Medicine) in 1963.
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# Jan and Dean
## History
### 1963--66: peak years {#peak_years}
Jan and Dean reached their commercial peak in 1963 and 1964, after they met Brian Wilson. The duo scored sixteen Top 40 hits on the *Billboard* and *Cash Box* magazine charts, with a total of twenty-six chart hits over an eight-year period (1959-1966). Berry and Wilson collaborated on roughly a dozen hits and album cuts for Jan and Dean, including \"Surf City\", co-written by Jan Berry and Brian Wilson (#1, 1963). Subsequent top 10 hits included \"Drag City\" (#10, 1964), the eerily portentous \"Dead Man\'s Curve\" (#8, 1964), and \"The Little Old Lady from Pasadena\" (#3, 1964).
In 1964, at the height of their fame, Jan and Dean hosted and performed at *The T.A.M.I. Show,* a historic concert film directed by Steve Binder. The film also featured such acts as the Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, Gerry & the Pacemakers, James Brown, Billy J. Kramer & the Dakotas, Marvin Gaye, the Supremes, Lesley Gore, Smokey Robinson & the Miracles and the Beach Boys. Also in 1964, the duo performed the title track for the Columbia Pictures film *Ride the Wild Surf*, starring Fabian Forte, Tab Hunter, Peter Brown, Shelley Fabares, and Barbara Eden. The song, penned by Jan Berry, Brian Wilson and Roger Christian, was a Top 20 national hit. The pair were also to have appeared in the film, but their roles were cut following their friendship with Barry Keenan, who had engineered the Frank Sinatra Jr. kidnapping.
Jan and Dean also filmed two unreleased television pilots: *Surf Scene* in 1963 and *On the Run* in 1966. Their feature film for Paramount Pictures *Easy Come, Easy Go* was canceled when Berry, as well as the film\'s director and other crew members, were seriously injured in a railroad accident while shooting the film in Chatsworth, California, in August 1965.
After the surfing craze, Jan and Dean scored two Top-30 hits in 1965: \"You Really Know How to Hurt a Guy\" got up to 27 and \"I Found a Girl\" got to 30---the latter from the album *Folk \'n Roll*. During this period, they also began to experiment with cutting-edge comedy concepts such as the original (unreleased) *Filet of Soul* and *Jan & Dean Meet Batman*. The former\'s album cover shows Berry with his leg in a cast as a result of the accident while filming *Easy Come, Easy Go*.
In 1966, Jan Berry recorded \"The Universal Coward\", an angry response to Donovan's anti-war single \"Universal Soldier\"(originally written by Buffy Sainte-Marie) even though Berry never served in the military.
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# Jan and Dean
## History
### 1966--68: Berry\'s car wreck {#berrys_car_wreck}
On April 12, 1966, Berry received severe head injuries in an automobile accident on Whittier Drive, just a short distance from Dead Man\'s Curve in Beverly Hills, California, two years after the song had become a hit. He was en route to a business meeting when he crashed his Corvette into a parked truck on Whittier Drive, near the intersection of Sunset Boulevard, in Beverly Hills. Berry also had separated from his girlfriend of seven years, singer-artist Jill Gibson, later a member of the Mamas & the Papas for a short time, who also had co-written several songs with him. He was in a coma for more than two months before finally awakening on the morning of June 16.
Berry recovered from brain damage and partial paralysis. He had limited use of his right arm, and had to learn to write with his left hand as well as learning to walk again.
In Berry\'s absence, Torrence released several singles on the J&D Record Co. label and recorded *Save for a Rainy Day* in 1966, a concept album featuring all rain-themed songs. Torrence posed with Berry\'s brother Ken for the album cover photos. Columbia Records released one single from the project (\"Yellow Balloon\") as did the song\'s writer, Gary Zekley, with the group the Yellow Balloon.
Besides his studio work, Torrence became a graphic artist, starting his own company, Kittyhawk Graphics, and designing and creating album covers and logos for other musicians and recording artists, including Harry Nilsson, Steve Martin, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, Michael Nesmith, Dennis Wilson, Bruce Johnston, the Beach Boys, Diana Ross and the Supremes, Linda Ronstadt, Canned Heat, the Ventures and many others. Torrence (with Gene Brownell) won a Grammy Award for \"Album Cover of the Year\" in 1971, for the album *Pollution* by Pollution on Prophesy Records.
Berry returned to the studio in April 1967, almost one year to the day after his accident. Working with Alan Wolfson, he began writing and producing music again. In December 1967, Jan and Dean signed an agreement with Warner Bros. Records. Warner issued three singles under the name \"Jan and Dean\", but a 1968 Berry-produced album for Warner Bros., the psychedelic *Carnival of Sound*, remained unreleased until February 2010, when Rhino Records\' \"Handmade\" label put out CD and vinyl compilations of all tracks recorded for *Carnival*, along with various outtakes and remixes from the project.
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# Jan and Dean
## History
### Later years {#later_years}
In 1971, Jan and Dean released the album *Jan & Dean Anthology Album* under the label United Artists Records. The album included many of their top hits, starting with 1958\'s \"Jennie Lee\" and ending with 1968\'s \"Vegetables\".
Berry began to sing again in the early 1970s, touring with his Aloha band, while Dean began performing with a band called Papa Doo Run Run.
On August 26, 1973, Torrence was scheduled to appear at the Hollywood Palladium as part of Jim Pewter\'s \"Surfer\'s Stomp\" reunion. Torrence had recently released some Jan & Dean songs with new vocal parts by Bruce Johnston (of the Beach Boys) and producer Terry Melcher under the moniker the Legendary Masked Surfers. Torrence arranged with Berry to join him lip-syncing on stage to a pre-recorded track. The two anticipated that the audience would know it was a tape recording, and they decided to make light of it during the performance. That night, they joked around and stopped lip-syncing on stage while the music continued, but the audience became angry and started booing. The duo\'s first live performance after Berry\'s accident occurred at the Palomino Nightclub in North Hollywood on June 5, 1976, ten years after the accident, as guests of Disneyland regulars Papa Doo Run Run. Their first actual multi-song concert billed as Jan and Dean took place in 1978 in New York City at the Palladium as part of the Murray the K Brooklyn Fox Reunion Show. This was followed by a handful of East Coast shows as guests of their longtime friends the Beach Boys. Four nationwide J & D headlining tours followed through 1980. Berry was still suffering the effects of his 1966 accident, with partial paralysis and aphasia.
The duo experienced a resurgence after Paul Morantz\'s \"Road back from Deadman\'s Curve\" article appeared in *Rolling Stone* in 1974, writing the piece after spending extensive time with the two singers, their families, doctors and associates. Morantz first submitted the story to *Playboy*, who recommended it to *Rolling Stone*. He then wrote a film treatment from his story which was purchased by CBS.
On February 3, 1978, CBS aired a made-for-TV film about the duo titled *Deadman\'s Curve*. The biopic starred Richard Hatch as Jan Berry and Bruce Davison as Dean Torrence, with cameo appearances by Dick Clark, Wolfman Jack, Mike Love of the Beach Boys, and Bruce Johnston (who at that time was temporarily out of the Beach Boys), as well as Berry himself. Near the end of the film he can be seen sitting in the audience, watching \"himself\" (Richard Hatch) perform onstage. The part of Jan and Dean\'s band was played by Papa Doo Run Run, which included Mark Ward and Jim Armstrong, who went on to form Jan and Dean and the Bel-Air Bandits. Johnston and Berry had known each other since high school, and had played music together in Berry\'s garage in Bel Air --- long before Jan and Dean or the Beach Boys were formed. Following the release of the film, the duo made steps toward an official comeback that year, including touring with the Beach Boys, and performing with Papa Doo Run Run at Cupertino High School. In the Netherlands the showing on television of the movie by Veronica in August 1979 earned them a huge`{{Clarify|reason=vague|date=March 2019}}`{=mediawiki} hit record of the re-recorded \"Surf City\" and \"Deadman\'s Curve\" songs as a double A-sided single record release, and a golden oldies record having \"The Little Old Lady From Pasadena\" as its flip side reached a lower position in the charts.
In the early 1980s, Papa Doo Run Run left to explore other performance and recording ventures. Berry struggled to overcome drug addiction. In 1979, Berry had performed over 100 concerts of Jan and Dean songs with another front man from Hawaii, Randy Ruff. Torrence also toured briefly as \"Mike & Dean\", with Mike Love of the Beach Boys. Later, the duo reunited for good. In \"Phase II\" of their career, Torrence led the touring operation.
Jan and Dean continued to tour on their own throughout the 1980s, the 1990s, and into the new millennium -- with 1960s nostalgia providing them with a ready audience, headlining oldies shows throughout North America. Sundazed Music reissued Torrence\'s *Save for a Rainy Day* in 1996 in CD and vinyl formats, as well as the collector\'s vinyl 45 rpm companion EP, \"Sounds For A Rainy Day\", featuring four instrumental versions of the album\'s tracks.
Between the 1970s and the early 2000s, Torrence issued a number of re-recordings of classic Jan and Dean and Beach Boys hits. A double album titled *One Summer Night / Live* was issued by Rhino Records in 1982. Torrence released the album *Silver Summer* with the help of Mike Love in 1985 for Jan & Dean\'s 25th anniversary. *Silver Summer* was officially released as a Jan & Dean album, but falsely gives credit to Berry as co-producer and singer; Berry did not contribute to the album. Torrence participated with Berry on *Port to Paradise*, released as a cassette on the J&D Records label in 1986. In 1997, after many years of hard work, Berry released a solo album called *Second Wave* on One Way Records. June 11, 2002, Torrence released a solo album titled *Anthology: Legendary Masked Surfer Unmasked*.
On August 31, 1991, Berry married Gertie Filip at the Stardust Convention Centre in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torrence was Berry\'s best man at the wedding.
#### Berry\'s death {#berrys_death}
Berry died on March 26, 2004, as the result of a seizure at age 62. He was an organ donor and his body was cremated. On April 18, a \"Celebration of Life\" was held in Berry\'s memory at the Roxy Theatre on the Sunset Strip in West Hollywood, California. Attendees included Torrence, Lou Adler, Jill Gibson, and Nancy Sinatra, along with many family members, friends, and musicians associated with Jan and Dean and the Beach Boys, including the original members of Papa Doo Run Run.
In February 2010, the Jan and Dean album *Carnival of Sound* was released on the Rhino Handmade label. The album cover was designed by Torrence. Along with the CD, there was a limited edition (1500 copies), which included a 10-track LP. The album was released in Europe in April 2010 in its original US form.
In 2012, Torrence reunited with Bruce Davison, who portrayed him in the 1978 film *Deadman\'s Curve*, to perform with the Bamboo Trading Company on their *From Kitty Hawk To Surf City* album. The songs were \"Shrewd Awakening\" and \"Tonga Hut\", which was featured on the film *Return of the Killer Shrews*, a sequel to the 1959 film *The Killer Shrews* and also \"Tweet (Don\'t Talk Anymore)\", \"Drinkin\' In the Sunshine\", and \"Star Of The Beach\". The album also features Dean\'s two daughters, Jillian and Katie Torrence; the three of them were featured in the music video of \"Shrewd Awakening\".
After Berry\'s death, Torrence began touring occasionally with the Surf City All-Stars. He serves as a spokesman for the City of Huntington Beach, California, which, thanks in part to his efforts, is nationally recognized as \"Surf City USA\". Torrence\'s website features---among other things---rare images, a complete Jan and Dean discography, a biography, and a timeline of his career with cohort Jan Berry. He currently resides in Huntington Beach, California, with his wife and two daughters.
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# Jan and Dean
## Legacy
In 1964, Jan and Dean were signed to host what became the first multi-act rock and roll show that was edited into a motion picture designed for wide distribution. *The T.A.M.I. Show* became a seminal and original production -- in essence one of the first rock videos -- on its release in 1964. Using a high-resolution videotape process called Electronovision (transferred from television directly onto 35mm motion picture stock as a kinescope), new sound recording techniques and having a remarkable cast, *The T.A.M.I. Show* set the standard for all succeeding music film and video work, including many of the early videos shown by MTV 17 years later. The revolutionary technical achievements of *The T.A.M.I. Show* and the list of performers (including a performance by James Brown that many critics have called the best of his career) marked a high point for Jan and Dean, as they were the hosts and one of the main featured acts as well. They became one of the main faces of mid-1960s music, until Berry\'s auto accident two years later, through their *T.A.M.I. Show*appearance.
According to rock critic Dave Marsh, the attitude and public persona of punk rock can be traced to Jan and Dean.
Brian Wilson has cited Berry as having a direct impact`{{explain|date=February 2022}}`{=mediawiki} on his own growth as a record producer.
In an interview conducted by Jan and Dean fan and historian David Beard for the Collectors\' Choice release, *Jan & Dean, the Complete Liberty Singles*, Dean Torrence stated that he felt the duo should be in the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame: \"We have the scoreboard if you just want to compare number of hits and musical projects done. We beat 75 percent of the people in there. So what else is it? I\'ve got to think that we were pretty irreverent when it came to the music industry. They kind of always held that against us. That\'s okay with me.\"
Jan and Dean were inducted into the Hollywood Rock Walk of Fame on April 12, 1996, exactly 30 years after Jan Berry had his near fatal car accident.
On January 28, 2023, Jan and Dean were inducted into the California Music Hall Of Fame.
The Who covered Jan and Dean\'s \"Bucket T\" on their UK EP *Ready Steady Who* from 1966, one of only a few songs the group performed where surf-fan Keith Moon provided the lead vocals.
Alternative rock group the Red Hot Chili Peppers referenced the duo in their song \"Did I Let You Know\", on the album *I\'m with You*
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# John van Melle
**Jan van Melle** (11 February 1887 -- 8 November 1953) was the pen name of a Dutch-born South African writer. His real name was Johannes van Melle.
Van Melle was born in Goes. He arrived in South Africa in 1906, and after a short sojourn in the Netherlands East Indies, settled in South Africa permanently in 1913. He worked as a teacher in many rural schools and soon started to publish in both Dutch and the newly emerging Afrikaans language.
Van Melle\'s best known work is the novel *Bart Nel*, a classic of Afrikaans literature. It tells the tale of a farmer whose indomitable spirit allows him to survive the destruction and loss of his farm in wartime and being abandoned by his wife and family
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# John Fink
**John Fink** (born February 11, 1940) is an American film and television actor.
He is known for his roles in two *Batman* movies, *Batman Forever* (1995) and *Batman & Robin* (1997), and his other film credits include *Loving* (1970), *The Carey Treatment* (1972), *Home for the Holidays* (1972), *The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case* (1976), *Flatliners* (1990), *What\'s Love Got to Do with It* (1993) and *The Client* (1994). He has also had minor roles in *Saved by the Bell*, *Ally McBeal*, *McMillan & Wife*, *Columbo*, and various other series since the 1970s.
While he was billed as a supporting actor in the 1978 *Battlestar Galactica* pilot, a majority of his scenes were cut mainly because those scenes dealt with Serina\'s (Jane Seymour) \"space cancer\" B-story which had been excised from the final cut.
## Filmography
Year Title Role Notes
------ ---------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------
1970 *Loving* Brad
1972 *The Carey Treatment* Chief Surgeon Andrew Murphy
1972 *Home for the Holidays* Dr. Ted Lindsay TV movie
1976 *The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case* Mr. Anderson TV movie
1976 *The Waltons* Glen Oldfield Season 5 Episode \"The Last Mustang"
1978 ''Three's Company'' Barry Gates Episode "The Rivals"
1978 *Battlestar Galactica* Dr. Paye
1990 *Flatliners* Doctor
1990 *The Bonfire of the Vanities* French Restaurant Patron No
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# J. Philippe Rushton
**John Philippe Rushton** (December 3, 1943 -- October 2, 2012) was a Canadian psychologist and author. He taught at the University of Western Ontario until the early 1990s, and became known to the general public during the 1980s and 1990s for promoting anti-Black racism through his widely discredited research on race and intelligence, race and crime, and other purported racial correlations.
Rushton\'s work has been heavily criticized by the scientific community for the poor quality of its research,See, for example:
-
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- Francisco Gil-White, [Resurrecting Racism, Chapter 10](http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrchap10.htm) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618042900/http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrchap10.htm |date=2012-06-18 }}`{=mediawiki}
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- Douglas Wahlsten (2001) [Book Review of Race, Evolution and Behavior](https://web.archive.org/web/20060226020150/http://www.cjsonline.ca/articles/wahlsten.html)
-
- with many academics arguing that it was conducted under a racist agenda.See, for example:
- Knudtson P. (1991), *A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society*; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing (`{{ISBN|0773724672}}`{=mediawiki}) pp 6, 168
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- [From Student Resistance to Embracing the Sociological Imagination: Unmasking Privilege, Social Conventions, and Racism](https://www.jstor.org/pss/3211481), Haddad, Angela T.; Lieberman, Leonard, Teaching Sociology, v30 n3 p328 41 Jul 2002
From 2002 until his death, he served as the head of the Pioneer Fund, an organization founded in 1937 to promote eugenics, which has been described as racist and white supremacist in nature,
- and as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. He also published articles in and spoke at conferences organized by the white supremacist magazine *American Renaissance*.
Rushton was a Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association and a onetime Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. In 2020, the Department of Psychology of the University of Western Ontario released a statement stating that \"much of \[Rushton\'s\] research was racist\", was \"deeply flawed from a scientific standpoint\", and \"Rushton\'s legacy shows that the impact of flawed science lingers on, even after qualified scholars have condemned its scientific integrity.\" As of 2021, Rushton has had six research publications retracted for being scientifically flawed, unethical, and not replicable, and for advancing a racist agenda despite contradictory evidence.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Rushton was born in Bournemouth, England. During his childhood, he emigrated with his family to South Africa, where he lived from age four to eight (1948--1952). His father was a building contractor and his mother came from France. The family moved to Canada, where Rushton spent most of his teen years. He returned to England for university, receiving a B.Sc. in psychology from Birkbeck College at the University of London in 1970, and, in 1973, his Ph.D. in social psychology from the London School of Economics for work on altruism in children. He continued his work at the University of Oxford until 1974.
## Later life and career {#later_life_and_career}
Rushton taught at York University in Canada from 1974 to 1976 and the University of Toronto until 1977. He moved to the University of Western Ontario and was made full professor (with tenure) in 1985. He received a D.Sc. from the University of London in 1992. His controversial research has sparked political debates, and Ontario Premier David Peterson called Rushton a racist. In 2005, *The Ottawa Citizen* described Rushton as the most famous university professor in Canada.
He published more than 250 articles and six books, including two on altruism, and one on scientific excellence, and co-authored an introductory psychology textbook. He was a signatory of the opinion piece \"Mainstream Science on Intelligence.\"
Rushton died of cancer on October 2, 2012, at the age of 68.
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# J. Philippe Rushton
## Work and opinions {#work_and_opinions}
### Genetic similarity theory {#genetic_similarity_theory}
Early in his career, Rushton did research on altruism. He theorized a heritable component in altruism and developed *Genetic Similarity Theory*, which is an extension of W.D. Hamilton\'s theory of kin selection. It holds that individuals tend to be more altruistic to individuals who are genetically similar to themselves even if they are not kin, and less altruistic, and sometimes outwardly hostile, to individuals who are less genetically similar. Rushton describes \"ethnic conflict and rivalry\" as \"one of the great themes of historical and contemporary society\", and suggests that this may have its roots in the evolutionary impact on individuals from groups \"giving preferential treatment to genetically similar others\". According to Rushton: \"the makeup of a gene pool \[i.e., a human population\'s total reservoir of alternative genes\] causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted\".
Articles in a 1989 issue of *Behavioral and Brain Sciences* criticized the theory. Judith Anderson said his work was based on statistically flawed evidence, John Archer and others said that Rushton failed to understand and misapplied the theory of kin selection, Judith Economos said that Rushton\'s analysis was speculative, that he failed to define the concept of altruistic behavior in a way that it can become manifest, and that he failed to show any plausible mechanism by which members of a species can detect the \"altruism gene\" in other members of the species. Steven Gangestad criticized Rushton\'s theory for not being compelling in terms of its attractiveness as an explanatory model. C.R. Hallpike said Rushton\'s theory failed to take into account that many other traits, ranging from age, sex, social and political group membership, are observably more important in predicting altruistic behavior between non-kin than genetic similarity. John Hartung criticized Rushton for failing to conduct an adequate control group study and for ignoring contradictory evidence.
Littlefield and Rushton (1984) examined degree of bereavement among parents after the death of a child. They found that children perceived as more physically similar to their parents were grieved for more intensely than less similar children. Russell, Wells, and Rushton (1985) reanalyzed several previous studies on similarities between spouses and concluded there is higher similarity on the more heritable characteristics. In 1988 Rushton examined blood group genes and found that sexually interacting couples had more similar blood group genes than randomly paired individuals.`{{primary source inline|date=March 2024}}`{=mediawiki}
### Race and intelligence {#race_and_intelligence}
Rushton spent much of his career arguing that average IQ differences between racial groups are due to genetic causes, a view that was controversial at the time and is now broadly rejected by the scientific consensus. His research areas included studying brain size and the effects of racial admixture.
In a 2020 statement, his former department at the University of Western Ontario stated: \"Rushton\'s works linking race and intelligence are based on an incorrect assumption that fuels systemic racism, the notion that racialized groups are concordant with patterns of human ancestry and genetic population structure.\" Furthermore, they stated that Rushton\'s work on the topic is \"characterized by a complete misunderstanding of population genetic measures, including fundamental misconceptions about the nature of heritability.\"
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# J. Philippe Rushton
## Work and opinions {#work_and_opinions}
### Application of *r*/*K* selection theory to race {#application_of_rk_selection_theory_to_race}
Rushton\'s book *Race, Evolution, and Behavior* (1995) attempted to use *r*/*K* selection theory to explain what he described as an evolutionary scale of characteristics indicative of nurturing behavior in which East Asian people consistently averaged high, black people low, and white people in the middle. He first published this theory in 1984. Rushton argued that East Asians and their descendants average a larger brain size, greater intelligence, more sexual restraint, slower rates of maturation, and greater law abidingness and social organization than do Europeans and their descendants, whom he argued average higher scores on these measures than Africans and their descendants. He hypothesized that *r*/*K* selection theory explains these differences.
Rushton\'s application of *r*/*K* selection theory to explain differences among racial groups has been widely criticized. Differential K theory in particular was described in a 2020 statement by Rushton\'s former department at Western Ontario University as \"thoroughly debunked.\"
One of his many critics is the evolutionary biologist Joseph L. Graves, who has done extensive testing of the *r*/*K* selection theory with species of Drosophila flies. Graves argues that not only is *r*/*K* selection theory considered to be virtually useless when applied to human life history evolution, but Rushton does not apply the theory correctly, and displays a lack of understanding of evolutionary theory in general. Graves also says that Rushton misrepresented the sources for the biological data he gathered in support of his hypothesis, and that much of his social science data was collected by dubious means. Other scholars have argued against Rushton\'s hypothesis on the basis that the concept of race is not supported by genetic evidence about the diversity of human populations, and that his research was based on folk taxonomies.
Later studies by Rushton and other researchers have argued that there is empirical support for the theory, though these studies too have been criticized.
Psychologist David P. Barash observed that *r*- and *K*-selection may have some validity when considering the so-called demographic transition, whereby economic development characteristically leads to reduced family size and other *K* traits. \"But this is a pan-human phenomenon, a flexible, adaptive response to changed environmental conditions \... Rushton wields *r*- and *K*-selection as a Procrustean bed, doing what he can to make the available data fit \... Bad science and virulent racial prejudice drip like pus from nearly every page of this despicable book.\"
### Dimensional structure of personality {#dimensional_structure_of_personality}
Beginning in 2008, Rushton researched the structure of personality. Over about a dozen papers, he argued that variation in personality can be explained by variation in a single underlying \"general factor\", similar to the g factor of psychometrics.
### Opinions
In 2009 Rushton spoke at the *Preserving Western Civilization* conference in Baltimore. It was organized by Michael H. Hart for the stated purpose of \"addressing the need\" to defend \"America\'s Judeo-Christian heritage and European identity\" from immigrants, Muslims, and African Americans. The Anti-Defamation League described the conference attendees as \"racist academics, conservative pundits and anti-immigrant activists\".
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# J. Philippe Rushton
## Reception
### Press coverage {#press_coverage}
Rushton prompted controversy for years, attracting coverage from the press as well as comments and criticism by scientists of his books and journal articles.
First-year psychology students who took Rushton\'s classes said that he had conducted a survey of students\' sexual habits in 1988, asking \"such questions as how large their penises are, how many sex partners they have had, and how far they can ejaculate\". First-year psychology students at the University of Western Ontario are required \"to participate in approved surveys as a condition of their studies. If they choose not to, they must write one research paper. Also, many students feel subtle pressure to participate in order not to offend professors who may later be grading their work. However, if a study is not approved, these requirements do not apply at all.\" For his failing to tell students they had the option not to participate in his studies without incurring additional work, the university barred Rushton for two years from using students as research subjects. He had tenure at UWO.
In a 2005 *Ottawa Citizen* article, Rushton stated that the public perceives disproportionately negative effects caused by black residents \"in every bloody city in Canada where you have black people.\" In the same article, Rushton suggested that equalizing outcomes across groups was \"impossible\". The Southern Poverty Law Center called the piece \"yet another attack\" by Rushton, and it criticized those who published his work and that of other \"race scientists\".
### Academic opinion {#academic_opinion}
#### Favorable
In a 1991 work, the Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson (one of the two co-founders of the *r*/*K* selection theory which Rushton uses) was quoted as having said about him: `{{blockquote|I think Phil is an honest and capable researcher. The basic reasoning by Rushton is solid evolutionary reasoning; that is, it is logically sound. If he had seen some apparent geographic variation for a non-human species – a species of sparrow or sparrow hawk, for example – no one would have batted an eye. ... [W]hen it comes to [human] racial differences, especially in the inflamed situation in this country, special safeguards and conventions need to be developed.<ref>from Knudtson P. (1991), ''A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race,'' Stoddart Publishing ({{ISBN|0773724672}}) pg 190</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Three years after the publication of Wilson\'s 1975 book *Sociobiology: The New Synthesis*, Rushton had already begun a long correspondence with Wilson. The letters became particularly extensive between 1987 and 1995 (Wilson\'s letters have now been archived by the Library of Congress). After Wilson\'s death at the end of 2021, historians of science Mark Borrello and David Sepkoski have reassessed how Wilson\'s thinking on issues of race and evolution was influenced by Rushton.
In a 1995 review of Rushton\'s *Race, Evolution, and Behavior*, anthropologist and population geneticist Henry Harpending expressed doubt as to whether all of Rushton\'s data fit the *r*/*K* model he proposed, but nonetheless praised the book for its proposing of a theoretical model that makes testable predictions about differences between human groups. He concludes that \"Perhaps there will ultimately be some serious contribution from the traditional smoke-and-mirrors social science treatment of IQ, but for now Rushton\'s framework is essentially the only game in town.\" In their 2009 book *The 10,000 Year Explosion*, Harpending and Gregory Cochran later described Rushton as one of the researchers to whom they are indebted.
The psychologists Arthur Jensen, Hans Eysenck, Richard Lynn, Linda Gottfredson and Thomas Bouchard had a high opinion of Rushton\'s *Race, Evolution and Behavior*, describing Rushton\'s work as rigorous and impressive. However, many of these researchers are themselves controversial and they all received money from the Pioneer Fund, which had funded much of Rushton\'s work when these reviews were written.
Some criminologists who study the relationship between race and crime regard Rushton\'s *r*/*K* theory as one of several possible explanations for racial disparities in crime rates. Others, such as the criminologist Shaun L. Gabbidon, think that Rushton has developed one of the more controversial biosocial theories related to race and crime; he says that it has been criticized for failing to explain all of the data and for its potential to support racist ideologies. The criminologist Anthony Walsh has defended Rushton, claiming that none of Rushton\'s critics has supplied data indicating anything other than the racial gradient he identifies, and that it is unscientific to dismiss Rushton\'s ideas on the basis of their political implications.
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# J. Philippe Rushton
## Reception
### Academic opinion {#academic_opinion}
#### Unfavorable
On 22 June 2020, the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario issued a statement regarding their former faculty member, which read in part: `{{blockquote|Despite its deeply flawed assumptions and methodologies, Rushton's work and other so-called "race science" (currently under the pseudonym of "race realism") continues to be misused by white supremacists and promoted by eugenic organizations. Thus, Rushton's legacy shows that the impact of flawed science lingers on, even after qualified scholars have condemned its scientific integrity. Academic freedom and freedom of expression are critical to free scientific inquiry. However, the notion of academic freedom is disrespected and abused when it is used to promote the dissemination of racist and discriminatory concepts. Scientists have an obligation to society to speak loudly and actively in opposition of such abuse.}}`{=mediawiki}
Also in 2020, Andrew Winston summarized Rushton\'s scholarly reception as follows: \"Rushton\'s work was heavily criticized by psychologists, evolutionary biologists, anthropologists, and geneticists for severe scientific inadequacies, fundamental errors, inappropriate conceptualization of race, inappropriate statistical comparisons, misuse of sources, and serious logical errors and flaws.\"
In 1989, geneticist and media personality David Suzuki criticized Rushton\'s racial theories in a live televised debate at the University of Western Ontario. He said: \"There will always be Rushtons in science, and we must always be prepared to root them out\". At the same occasion, Rushton rejected believing in racial superiority, saying \"we\'ve got to realize that each of these populations is perfectly, beautifully adapted to their own ancestral environments\".
Also in 1989, Michael Lynn published a paper in the *Journal of Research in Personality* criticizing a study by Rushton & Bogaert that had been published in the same journal two years earlier. Lynn cited four reasons he considered Rushton & Bogaert\'s study to be flawed: `{{blockquote|First, they did not explain why natural selection would have favored different reproductive strategies for different races. Second, their data on race differences are of questionable validity because their literature review was selective and their original analyses were based on self-reports. Third, they provided no evidence that these race differences had significant effects on reproduction or that sexual restraint is a ''K'' characteristic. Finally, they did not adequately rule out environmental explanations for their data.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lynn|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Lynn|title=Race differences in sexual behavior: A critique of Rushton and Bogaert's evolutionary hypothesis|journal=[[Journal of Research in Personality]]|date=March 1989|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0092-6566(89)90029-9|url=https://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1326&context=articles|hdl=1813/72077|hdl-access=free}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Marvin Zuckerman, psychology professor of the University of Delaware, criticized Rushton\'s research on methodological grounds, observing that more variation exists in personality traits within racial groups than between them and arguing that Rushton selectively cited data from the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.
Critical psychologist Thomas Teo argued that Rushton\'s \"substantial success and influence in the discipline\" and use of \"accepted usage of empirical mainstream methods\" pointed to broader problems in academic psychology.
Biologist Garland E. Allen argued in 1990 that Rushton \"selectively cites and misrepresents his sources to support his conclusions. Far from being an \'honest attempt\' to follow the Truth wherever it leads, Rushton seems to be putting a ring through Truth\'s nose and leading it toward his own barn\...He has used, abused, distorted, and in some cases virtually falsified his sources.\"
According to Charles Lane, in 1988, Rushton conducted a survey at the Eaton Centre mall in Toronto, where he paid 50 whites, 50 blacks, and 50 Asians to answer questions about their sexual habits. Because he did not clear his survey and proposed to pay for answers with the university committee at UWO, the administration reprimanded Rushton, calling his transgression \"a serious breach of scholarly procedure\", said University President, George Pederson.
A 1993 study reanalyzed data from a study Rushton had published on the relationship between race and crime and found no strong relationship between the two.
Rushton\'s work was criticized in the scholarly literature; he generally responded, sometimes in the same journal. In 1995, in the *Journal of Black Studies*, Zack Cernovsky wrote: \"some of Rushton\'s references to scientific literature with respects to racial differences in sexual characteristics turned out to be references to a nonscientific semi-pornographic book and to an article by Philip Nobile in the *Penthouse* magazine\'s Forum.\"
In 1995, two researchers published a review and meta-analysis concluding that racial differences in behavior were accounted for entirely by environmental factors, which contradicts Rushton\'s evolutionary theory for the origin of such differences.
Anti-racism activist Tim Wise criticized Rushton\'s application of *r*/*K* selection theory to crime rates and IQ, charging that Rushton ignored things such as systematic/institutional discrimination, racial profiling, economic disparities and unequal access to judicial defense in his attempt to apply *r*/*K* Theory and IQ theories to explain racial disparities in American crime rates. He also criticized Rushton and others like him of ignoring things like white-collar crime rates, `{{blockquote|Corporate criminals, after all, are usually highly educated, and probably would score highly on just about any standardized test you chose to give them. And what of it? Virtually all the stock manipulators, unethical derivatives traders and shady money managers on Wall Street, whose actions have brought the economy to its knees of late — and who it might be worth noting are pretty much all white men — would likely do well on the Stanford-Binet or Wonderlich Industrial Aptitude Test. They probably were above-average students. But what are we to make of these facts? Clearly they say little about the value of such persons to the nation or the world. The Unabomber was a certified genius and Ted Bundy was of well-above-average intelligence... But I'm having a hard time discerning what we should conclude about these truths, in terms of how much emphasis we place on intelligence, as opposed to other human traits.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.timwise.org/2011/08/race-intelligence-and-the-limits-of-science-reflections-on-the-moral-absurdity-of-racial-realism/|title = Race, Intelligence and the Limits of Science: Reflections on the Moral Absurdity of "Racial Realism"|first = Tim|last = Wise|author-link = Tim Wise|date = August 27, 2011|access-date = December 2, 2012|archive-date = December 18, 2012|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121218005705/http://www.timwise.org/2011/08/race-intelligence-and-the-limits-of-science-reflections-on-the-moral-absurdity-of-racial-realism/|url-status = dead}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The biological anthropologist C. Loring Brace criticized Rushton in his 1996 review of the book, *Race, Evolution, and Behavior* (1996): `{{blockquote|Virtually every kind of anthropologist may be put in the position of being asked to comment on what is contained in this book, so, whatever our individual specialty, we should all be prepared to discuss what it represents. ''Race, Evolution, and Behavior'' is an amalgamation of bad biology and inexcusable anthropology. It is not science but advocacy, and advocacy for the promotion of "racialism." Tzvetan Todorov explains "racialism," in contrast to "racism," as belief in the existence of typological essences called "races" whose characteristics can be rated in hierarchical fashion (''On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in French Thought,'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 31). "Racism," then, is the use of racialist assumptions to promote social or political ends, a course that Todorov regards as leading to "particularly catastrophic results." Perpetuating catastrophe is not the stated aim of Rushton's book, but current promoters of racist agendas will almost certainly regard it as a welcome weapon to apply for their noxious purposes.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Brace| first=C Loring | author-link=C. Loring Brace | year=1996 | title=Racialism and Racist Agendas: Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective. J. Philippe Rushton| journal=American Anthropologist | volume=98 | pages=1 176–177 | doi=10.1525/aa.1996.98.1.02a00250 | issue=1}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Robert Sussman, an evolutionary anthropologist and the editor-in-chief of *American Anthropologist*, explained why the journal did not accept ads for Rushton\'s 1998 book:`{{blockquote|This is an insidious attempt to legitimize Rushton's racist propaganda and is tantamount to publishing ads for [[white supremacy]] and the [[neo-Nazi]] party. If you have any question about the validity of the "science" of Rushton's trash you should read any one of his articles and the many rebuttals by ashamed scientists.<ref>{{citation|first=Alexander|last=Alland|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2002|isbn=978-0-312-23838-4|title=Race in Mind: Race, IQ, and Other Racisms|pages=[https://archive.org/details/raceinmindraceiq00alla/page/168 168]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/raceinmindraceiq00alla/page/168}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
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# J. Philippe Rushton
## Reception
### Academic opinion {#academic_opinion}
#### Unfavorable
In 2000, after Rushton mailed a booklet on his work to psychology, sociology, and anthropology professors across North America, Hermann Helmuth, a professor of anthropology at Trent University, said: \"It is in a way personal and political propaganda. There is no basis to his scientific research.\" Rushton responded, \"It\'s not racist; it\'s a matter of science and recognizing variation in all groups of people.\"
From 2002, Rushton was the president of the Pioneer Fund. Tax records show that in 2002 his Charles Darwin Research Institute was awarded \$473,835, or 73% of the fund\'s total grants that year. The Southern Poverty Law Center, an American civil rights organization, characterizes the Pioneer Fund as a hate group. Rushton had spoken on eugenics several times at conferences of the *American Renaissance* magazine, a monthly white supremacist magazine, in which he had also published a number of general articles.
Rushton published articles on the website VDARE, which advocates for reduced immigration into the United States. Stefan Kühl wrote in his book, *The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism* (2002), that Rushton was part of the revival in the 1980s of public interest in scientific racism.
William H. Tucker, a professor of psychology and expert on the history of scientific racism, observed in 2002: `{{blockquote|Rushton has not only contributed to ''American Renaissance'' publications and graced their conferences with his presence but also offered praise and support for the "scholarly" work on racial differences of [[Henry Garrett (psychologist)|Henry Garrett]], who spent the last two decades of his life opposing the extension of the [[Constitution]] to blacks on the basis that the "normal" black resembled a European after [[frontal lobotomy]]. Informed of Garrett's assertion that blacks were not entitled to equality because their "ancestors were ... savages in an African jungle," Rushton dismissed the observation as quoted "selectively from Garrett's writing", finding nothing opprobrious in such sentiments because the leader of the scientific opposition to [[civil rights]] had made other statements about black inferiority that were, according to Rushton, "quite objective in tone and backed by standard social science evidence." Quite apart from the questionable logic in defending a blatant call to deprive citizens of their rights by citing Garrett's less offensive writing—as if it were evidence of [[Ted Bundy]]'s innocence that there were some women he had met and not killed—there was no sense on Rushton's part that all of Garrett's assertions, whether or not "objective," were utterly irrelevant to constitutional guarantees, which are not predicated on scientific demonstrations of intellectual equality.<ref>[[William H. Tucker (psychologist)|Tucker, W. H.]] (2002). ''The Funding of Scientific Racism'', Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
A 2003 study in *Evolution and Human Behavior* found no evidence to support Rushton\'s hypothesized relationship between race and behavior.
In 2005, Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote an article for *Psychology, Public Policy, and Law* noting that Rushton ignored evidence that failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy. He did not change his position on this matter for 30 years. Rushton replied in the same issue of the journal.
In a paper for the *International Journal of Selection and Assessment* in 2006, Steven Cronshaw and colleagues wrote that psychologists need to critically examine the science used by Rushton in his \"race-realist\" research. Their re-analysis of the validity criteria for test bias, using data reported in the *Rushton et al.* paper, led them to conclude that the testing methods were biased against Black Africans. They disagree with other aspects of Rushton\'s methodology, such as his use of non-equivalent groups in test samples. Rushton responded in the next issue of the journal. He said why he believed his results were valid, and why he thought the criticisms incorrect.
Scott McGreal (2012) in *Psychology Today* criticized the science of Rushton\'s \"Race Differences in Sexual Behavior: Testing an Evolutionary Hypothesis\". He cited Weizmann, Wiener, Wiesenthal, & Ziegle, which argued that Rushton\'s theory relied on flawed science. McGreal faulted Rushton and his use of Nobile\'s penis size study.
On 17 June 2020, academic publisher Elsevier announced it was retracting an article that Rushton and Donald Templer had published in 2012 in the Elsevier journal *Personality and Individual Differences*. The article falsely claimed that there was scientific evidence that skin color was related to aggression and sexuality in humans.
On 24 December 2020, the academic journal *Psychological Reports* retracted two Rushton articles about intelligence and race. Review of the articles, which were originally published in the 1990s, \"found that the research was unethical, scientifically flawed, and based on racist ideas and agenda\". On 23 August 2021, it retracted three more
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# Joint Political Military Group
On November 29, 1983, a memorandum of agreement was set up between Israel and the United States regarding political, military and economic cooperation. Part of the agreement was for a **Joint Political Military Group** (JPMG) as a high-level planning forum to discuss and implement combined planning, joint exercises, and logistics. The JPMG is co-chaired by the director general of the Israeli Ministry of Defense and the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Political-Military Affairs. The JPMG meets biannually, alternating between Israel and the United States.
The JPMG was originally intended to discuss means of countering Soviet involvement in the Middle East. But more recently the concern has been over the spread of chemical weapons and ballistic missiles.
## History
Military relations between the United States and Israel improved under the Reagan Administration. The Reagan Administration sought to build an \"anti-Soviet strategic consensus in the Middle East.\" At the time, Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and Israeli Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon signed a memorandum of understanding in 1981 \"establishing a framework for continued consultation and cooperation to enhance\" national security. This agreement led to the establishment of the Joint Political Military Group, which has since met regularly to \"address\" foreign military sales to Israel, joint exercises and simulations, and logistical arrangements. Joint air and sea exercises started in 1984.
### Present status {#present_status}
As part of the agreement, the United States and Israel meet twice a year to honor the obligations of the memorandum of understanding. In 2001 an annual \"inter-agency strategic dialogue\" including representatives from all areas of defense and intelligence was created
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# John William Polidori
**John William Polidori** (7 September 1795 -- 24 August 1821) was a British writer and physician. He is known for his associations with the Romantic movement and credited by some as the creator of the vampire genre of fantasy fiction.
His most successful work was the short story \"The Vampyre\" (1819), the first published modern vampire story. Although the story was at first erroneously credited to Lord Byron, both Byron and Polidori affirmed that the author was Polidori.
## Family
John William Polidori was born on 7 September 1795 in Westminster, the eldest son of Gaetano Polidori, an Italian political émigré scholar of Greek descent, and his wife Anna Maria Pierce, an English governess. He had three brothers and four sisters.
His sister Frances Polidori married the exiled Italian scholar Gabriele Rossetti, and thus Polidori, posthumously, became the uncle of Maria Francesca Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Michael Rossetti, and Christina Georgina Rossetti. William Michael Rossetti published Polidori\'s journal in 1911.
## Biography
John Polidori was one of the earliest pupils at the recently established Ampleforth College in North Yorkshire from 1804. In 1810 he went up to the University of Edinburgh, where he wrote a thesis on sleepwalking and received his degree as a doctor of medicine on 1 August 1815, at the age of 19.
In 1816, which became known as the Year Without a Summer, Polidori entered Lord Byron\'s service as his personal physician and accompanied him on a trip through Europe. Publisher John Murray offered Polidori 500 English pounds to keep a diary of their travels, which Polidori\'s nephew William Michael Rossetti later edited. At the Villa Diodati, a house Byron rented by Lake Geneva in Switzerland, the pair met with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, her husband-to-be, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and their companion (Mary\'s stepsister) Claire Clairmont.
One night in June after the company had read aloud from *Fantasmagoriana*, a French collection of German horror tales, Byron suggested they each write a ghost story. Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote \"A Fragment of a Ghost Story\" and wrote down five ghost stories recounted by Matthew Gregory \"Monk\" Lewis, published posthumously as the *Journal at Geneva (including ghost stories) and on Return to England, 1816*, the journal entries beginning on 18 August 1816. Mary Shelley worked on a tale that would later evolve into *Frankenstein*. Byron wrote (and quickly abandoned) a fragment of a story, \"A Fragment\", featuring the main character Augustus Darvell, which Polidori used later as the basis for his own tale, \"The Vampyre\", the first published modern vampire story in English.
Polidori\'s conversation with Percy Bysshe Shelley on 15 June 1816, as recounted in *The Diary*, is regarded as the origin or genesis of *Frankenstein*. They discussed \"the nature of the principle of life\": \"June 15 - \... Shelley etc. came in the evening \... Afterwards, Shelley and I had a conversation about principles --- whether man was to be thought merely an instrument.\"
Dismissed by Byron, Polidori travelled in Italy and then returned to England. His story, \"The Vampyre\", which featured the main character Lord Ruthven, was published in the April 1819 issue of *New Monthly Magazine* without his permission. Whilst in London he lived on Great Pulteney Street in Soho. Much to both his and Byron\'s chagrin, \"The Vampyre\" was released as a new work by Byron. Byron\'s own vampire story \"Fragment of a Novel\" or \"A Fragment\" was published in 1819 in an attempt to clear up the confusion, but, for better or worse, \"The Vampyre\" continued to be attributed to him.
Polidori\'s long, Byron-influenced theological poem *The Fall of the Angels* was published anonymously in 1821.
## Death
John Polidori died at his father\'s London house on 24 August 1821, weighed down by depression and gambling debts. Despite conjecture from his family that he died by suicide by means of prussic acid, the coroner gave a verdict of death by natural causes.
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# John William Polidori
## Works
### Plays
- *Cajetan*, a play (1816)
- *Boadicea*, a play (1816)
### Poems
- *Ximenes, the Wreath and Other Poems* (1819)
- *The Fall of the Angels: A Sacred Poem* (1821)
### Novellas
- *The Vampyre: A Tale* (1819) - a text that is \"often even cited as almost folkloric sources on vampirism\".
- *Ernestus Berchtold; or, The Modern Oedipus: A Tale* (1819)
### Non-fiction {#non_fiction}
- *A Medical Inaugural Dissertation which deals with the disease called Oneirodynia, for the degree of Medical Doctor*, Edinburgh (1815)
- *The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori* (1816, published posthumously in 1911)
- *On the Punishment of Death* (1816)
- *An Essay Upon the Source of Positive Pleasure* (1818)
- *Sketches Illustrative of the Manners and Costumes of France, Switzerland and Italy* (1821)
## Posthumous editions {#posthumous_editions}
His sister Charlotte transcribed Polidori\'s diaries, but censored \"peccant passages\" and destroyed the original. Based only on the transcription, *The Diary of John Polidori* was edited by William Michael Rossetti and first published in 1911 by Elkin Mathews (London). Reprints of this book, *The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori, 1816, relating to Byron, Shelley, etc.*, was published by Folcroft Library Editions (Folcroft, PA) in 1975, and by Norwood Editions (Norwood, PA) in 1978. A new edition of *The Diary of John William Polidori* was reprinted by Cornell University in 2009.
## Legacy
### Memorials
A memorial plaque on John Polidori\'s home at 38 Great Pulteney Street was unveiled on 15 July 1998 by the Italian Ambassador, Paolo Galli.
### Appearances in other media {#appearances_in_other_media}
#### Film
Multiple films have depicted John Polidori, and the genesis of the *Frankenstein* and \"Vampyre\" stories in 1816:
- *Gothic* (1986), directed by Ken Russell, with Timothy Spall as Polidori
- *Haunted Summer* (1988), directed by Ivan Passer, with Alex Winter as Polidori
- *Remando al viento* (1988; English title: *Rowing with the Wind*) directed by Gonzalo Suárez
- *Mary Shelley* (2017), directed by Haifaa Al-Mansour
Additionally, Polidori\'s name was used for fictional characters in the following films:
- *Frankenstein: The True Story* (1973), a television movie featuring a character named Dr. Polidori
- *Vampires vs. the Bronx* (2020), a film featuring a character named Frank Polidori
#### Literature
- Polidori appears as one of several minor characters killed off by Frankenstein\'s creature in Peter Ackroyd\'s novel *The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein*.
- Polidori is a central character in Federico Andahazi\'s novel *The Merciful Women* (*Las Piadosas* in the original Argentine edition). In it, he receives *The Vampyre* written by the fictional character of Annette Legrand, in exchange for some \"favours\".
- Polidori appears as a character in Howard Brenton\'s play *Bloody Poetry* (though for some reason Brenton calls him William.)
- Polidori is a prominent character and the catalyst in events in Brooklyn Ann\'s historical paranormal romance novel, *Bite Me, Your Grace*.
- Polidori is a central character in Emmanuel Carrère\'s 1984 novel *Gothic Romance* (*Bravoure* in the original French edition), which, amongst other things, presents a fictionalised account of the events of 1816.
- Polidori appears as a character in Susanna Clarke\'s novel *Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell*.
- Polidori appears as an enemy of Lord Byron (who is a vampire) in Tom Holland\'s novel *Lord of the Dead*.
- Polidori is also the \'hero\' of the novel *Imposture* (2007) by Benjamin Markovits.
- Polidori is also the central character in Derek Marlowe\'s novel *A Single Summer With L. B.*, which presents an account (fictionalised) of the summer of 1816.
- Polidori appears as a minor and unsympathetic character in the Tim Powers\' horror novel *The Stress of Her Regard* (1989), in which Polidori does not write about vampires but becomes directly involved with them. In Powers\' sequel (of sorts), *Hide Me Among the Graves* (2012), Polidori is a vampire and a central villain menacing the novel\'s protagonists, his nieces and nephews in the Rossetti family.
- Paul West\'s novel *Lord Byron\'s Doctor* (1989) is a recreation, and ribald fictionalization, of Polidori\'s diaries. West depicts him as a literary groupie whose attempts to emulate Byron eventually unhinge and destroy him.
- (2013): Polidori is a prominent character in P.J. Parker\'s internationally acclaimed historic fiction [*Fire on the Water: A Companion to Mary Shelley\'s Frankenstein*](https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01J8NBEKE)
- (2019): P.J. Parker\'s historic fiction [*Origin of the Vampyre*](https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0998685631) pulls back the shroud of mystery surrounding the publication of Polidori\'s novel.
- (2011): In Ben Aaronovitch\'s *Rivers of London* and the other Peter Grant books, Polidori is often cited as a source of information about the supernatural.
#### Opera
- Polidori functions as narrator in John Mueter\'s one-act opera *Everlasting Universe* and has a speaking role in several scenes.
#### Musical Theatre {#musical_theatre}
- In the musical Monsters of the Villa Diodati, Polidori is a featured character, along with Mary Shelley, Percy Shelley, Lord Byron, and Claire Claremont. The musical, written in 2014, was originally produced by Creative Cauldron at ArtSpace Falls Church in 2015. This atmospheric production reveals the origin story of two legendary Gothic monsters, John Polidori\'s The Vampyre and Mary Shelley\'s Frankenstein, while exploring their creators\' own inner monsters.
#### Television
- In the *Highlander: The Series* episode \"The Modern Prometheus\", which featured Lord Byron, one of the series regulars, Methos, serves as a stand-in for Polidori. Methos, who was immortal, was Byron\'s mentor, friend, and physician, and experienced the same events as the real Polidori did on that (in)famous night.
- In the stop-motion animated series *Mary Shelley\'s Frankenhole*, Polidori is a regular character portrayed as the immortal lab assistant of Dr. Victor Frankenstein.
- Polidori was mentioned in the *Tales from the Crypt* episode \"Ritual\".
- Dr. John Polidori (portrayed by John O\'Hurley) was the antagonist of the fifth season *The X-Files* episode, \"The Post-Modern Prometheus\".
- Polidori was also portrayed by Noah McLaughlin in the 2016 web series *A Ungenial Summer*, which fictionalized the events of the summer of 1816 in the modern day. In this version, Polidori serves as a personal assistant to Lord Byron, rather than physician.
- In the episode of CBBC children\'s television show Horrible Histories entitled Staggering Storytellers, Polidori was portrayed by Jalaal Hartley in the sketch about the original of his story, *The Vampyre* and Mary Shelley\'s (portrayed by Jessica Ransom) story *Frankenstein* while at Lord Byron\'s Villa Diodati in Switzerland.
- Polidori is portrayed by Maxim Baldry in the 2020 *Doctor Who* episode \"The Haunting of Villa Diodati\", which depicts him as a sleepwalker
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# John Cade
**John Frederick Joseph Cade** AO (18 January 1912 -- 16 November 1980) was an Australian psychiatrist who in 1948 discovered the effects of lithium carbonate as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of bipolar disorder, then known as manic depression. At a time when the standard treatments for psychosis were electroconvulsive therapy and lobotomy, lithium had the distinction of being the first effective medication available to treat a mental illness.
## Early life {#early_life}
John Cade was born in Murtoa, in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia. John\'s father David was Murtoa\'s general practitioner. Ellen, John\'s mother, and younger brothers David and Frank completed the family. When John was a small boy, his father left for World War I and served in Gallipoli and France. On return from the war, his father suffered from \'war-weariness\' and had difficulty in continuing in general practice. Therefore, his father sold the practice and accepted a position with the Mental Hygiene Department. Over the next 25 years, Dr Cade Sr became medical superintendent at several Victorian mental hospitals, namely Sunbury, Beechworth and Mont Park. John and his brothers spent many of their younger years living within the grounds of these institutions, which had a great bearing on John\'s later deep understanding of the needs of the mentally ill. John was educated at Scotch College, Melbourne, matriculating in 1928. He then studied medicine at the University of Melbourne, graduating at the age of 21 years with honours in all subjects. He became a House Officer at St Vincent\'s Hospital and then Royal Children\'s Hospital before becoming severely ill with bilateral pneumococcal pneumonia. While he was convalescing, John fell in love with one of his nurses, Jean. They married in 1937.
### World War II {#world_war_ii}
Like his father before him, Cade left his young family to fight for Australia in the Armed Forces in World War II. Cade was appointed captain, Australian Army Medical Corps, A.I.F., on 1 July 1940 and posted to the 2nd/9th Field Ambulance. Although trained as a psychiatrist, Dr. Cade served as a surgeon and departed for Singapore in 1941 on `{{RMS|Queen Mary}}`{=mediawiki}. He was promoted to major in September 1941. After the Fall of Singapore to Japan, he became a prisoner of war at Changi Prison from February 1942 to September 1945. During his imprisonment, he reportedly would observe some fellow inmates having strange, vacillating behaviour. He thought perhaps a toxin was affecting their brains and when it was eliminated through their urine, they lost their symptoms.
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# John Cade
## Discovery of the effect of lithium on mania {#discovery_of_the_effect_of_lithium_on_mania}
After the war, Cade recuperated very briefly in Heidelberg Hospital, then took up a position at Bundoora Repatriation Mental Hospital in Melbourne. It was at an unused pantry in Bundoora that he conducted crude experiments which led to the discovery of lithium as a treatment of bipolar disorder. Since he had no sophisticated analytical equipment these experiments mostly consisted of injecting urine from mentally ill patients into the abdomen of guinea pigs. His early experiments suggested to him that the urine from manic patients was more toxic. There are 2 toxic substances in urine: urea and uric acid. He found urea was the same in both ill and healthy people. He started to work on uric acid. In order to do that, he made artificial solutions of uric acid. To make up different strengths of uric acid he needed to convert it into a substance that he could more easily manipulate. On its own uric acid would not dissolve in water. Then, in an effort to increase the water solubility of uric acid, lithium was added to make a solution of lithium urate. Cade found that in the guinea pigs injected with lithium carbonate solution, as a control solution, the guinea pigs were more restful. His use of careful controls in his experiments revealed that the lithium-ion had a calming effect by itself, but even this finding may have been caused by the toxic effects of an excessive dose of lithium. After ingesting lithium himself to ensure its safety in humans, Cade began a small-scale trial of lithium citrate and/or lithium carbonate on some of his patients diagnosed with mania, dementia præcox or melancholia, with outstanding results. The calming effect was so robust that Cade speculated that mania was caused by a deficiency in lithium. He published these findings in the Medical Journal of Australia in a paper entitled \'Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement\', published in 1949.
While Cade\'s results appeared highly promising, side effects of lithium in some cases led to non-compliance. The toxicity of lithium led to several deaths of patients undergoing lithium treatment. The problem of toxicity was greatly reduced when suitable tests were developed to measure the lithium level in the blood. Moreover, as a naturally occurring chemical, lithium salt could not be patented, meaning that its manufacturing and sales were not considered commercially viable. These factors prevented its widespread adoption in psychiatry for some years, particularly in the United States, where its use was banned until 1970.
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# John Cade
## Royal Park and RANZCP {#royal_park_and_ranzcp}
In 1952 Cade was appointed Superintendent and Dean of the clinical school at Royal Park Hospital. Two years later, at the request of the Mental Hygiene Authority which was planning to remodel Royal Park, he visited Britain for six months to inspect psychiatric institutions. On his return, he introduced modern facilities and replaced the rather authoritarian approach to patient care with a lot more personal and informal style that included group therapy. Concerned at the number of alcohol-related cases, he supported voluntary admission to aid early detection and later proposed the use of large doses of thiamine in the treatment of alcoholism. Cade served as the Superintendent at Royal Park until his retirement in 1977.
He served as the federal president of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists in 1969--70, and also as the president for its Victoria branch from 1963 until his death in 1980. In the end, Dr. Cade\'s discovery did receive widespread acknowledgements and praise. For his contribution to psychiatry, he was awarded a Kittay International Award in 1974 (with Mogens Schou from Denmark), and he was invited to be a Distinguished Fellow of the American College of Psychiatrists. In 1976, Cade was one of the first to be made an Officer of the Order of Australia. Dr. Cade remained humble about his chance discovery, describing himself as merely a gold prospector who happened to find a nugget. Finally, in July 2004, the Medical Journal of Australia reported that Cade\'s 1949 article, \"Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement\", was the number one most cited MJA article.
## Legacy
John Cade died of oesophageal cancer at Fitzroy on 16 November 1980, and is buried at Yan Yean Cemetery in Whittlesea. Recognition of Cade\'s pioneering work continued after his death. The Adult Acute unit at Royal Park Hospital was named the \"John Cade Unit\" in recognition of Cade\'s long service to the hospital. After Royal Park\'s closure, the newly opened Adult Acute Psychiatric Unit at Royal Melbourne Hospital was named \"John Cade Adult Acute Inpatient Unit\". In 1980 the first John Cade memorial lecture was delivered by Mogens Schou at the congress in Jerusalem of the Collegian International Psychopharmacologium. In 2013 the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) offered two \$750 000 per annum fellowships for mental health research, entitled the \"NHMRC John Cade Fellowship in Mental Health Research\". The Fellowship recipients were Professor Helen Christensen of the University of New South Wales and Professor John McGrath of The University of Queensland. The RANZCP awards The John Cade Memorial Medal to a final year Victorian medical student following a special clinical examination at Monash University or the University of Melbourne each year. The Faculty of Medicine at University of Melbourne also awards the John Cade Memorial Prize.
## Troubled Minds {#troubled_minds}
In 2004, Film Australia and SBS screened the documentary *Troubled Minds -- The Lithium Revolution*, a 60-minute documentary portraying John Cade\'s discovery of the use of Lithium in mental illness. The documentary received international recognition, winning the main prize at the International Vega Awards for Excellence in Scientific Broadcasting. *Troubled Minds* was also recognised locally with writer/director Dennis K. Smith winning the AWGIE Award for Best Documentary
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# Johann von Werth
**Johann von Werth** (1591 -- 16 January 1652), also *Jan von Werth* or in French *Jean de Werth*, was a German general of cavalry in the Thirty Years\' War.
## Biography
Werth was born in 1591 most likely at Büttgen in the Duchy of Jülich as the eldest son of the farmer Johann von Wierdt († 1606) and Elisabeth Streithoven. He had seven brothers and sisters. His exact birthplace is not sure, other candidates are Puffendorf (today part of Baesweiler) and Linnich. In the past, historians also argued for Weert in Limburg because they confused him with Jan van der Croon, another imperial general with similar vita.
Around 1610, he left home to become a soldier of fortune in the Walloon cavalry under Ambrogio Spinola in the Spanish Netherlands. Most likely, he fought in the War of the Jülich Succession and served afterwards in the garrison of Lingen. The outbreak of the Thirty Years\' War saw him moving to Bohemia in support of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. In the spanish regiment Marradas, he fought at White Mountain in 1620. In 1622, at the taking of Jülich, he won promotion to the rank of lieutenant. He also participated at the battle of Fleurus in 1622 but his military actions over the next eight years are not known. In this time, he married the Dutch woman Gertrud van Gent, mother of his eldest children Lambertine Irmgard and Johann Anton.
He served as an Oberstwachtmeister in a cavalry regiment in the Bavarian army in 1630. He obtained the command of a regiment, both titular and effective, in 1632, and in 1633 and 1634 laid the foundations of his reputation as a swift and fearsome leader of cavalry forays. His achievements were even more conspicuous in the great pitched Battle of Nördlingen (1634), after which the emperor made him a *Freiherr* of the Empire, and the elector of Bavaria gave him the rank of Lieutenant field marshal. About this time, he armed his regiment with the musket in addition to the sword.
In 1635 and 1636 Werth\'s forays extended into Lorraine and Luxembourg, after which he projected an expedition into the heart of France. Starting in July 1636, from the country of the lower Meuse, he raided far and wide, and even urged his commander-in-chief, Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria, to \"plant the Double Eagle on the Louvre\". Though this was not attempted. Werth\'s horsemen appeared at Saint-Denis before a French army of fifty thousand men at Compiègne forced the invaders to retreat. The memory of this raid lasted long, and the name of \"Jean de Wert\" figures in folk-songs and serves as a bogey to quieten unruly children.
In 1637 Jean de Wert married Maria Isabella von Spaur in St. Verena, Straßberg.
In 1637 Werth was once more in the Rhine valley, destroying convoys, relieving besieged towns and surprising the enemy\'s camps. In February 1638 he defeated the Weimar troops in an engagement at Rheinfelden, but shortly afterwards was made prisoner by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. His hopes of being exchanged for the Swedish field marshal Gustaf Horn were dashed when Bernhard had to deliver up his captive to the French. Jean de Wert was brought to Paris, amidst great rejoicings from the country people. He was lionized by the society of the capital, visited in prison by high ladies. So light was his captivity that he said that nothing bound him but his word of honour. His eventual release was delayed until March 1642 because the Imperial government feared to see Horn at the head of the Swedish army and would not allow an exchange.
When at last Werth reappeared in the field it was as general of cavalry in the Imperial and Bavarian and Cologne services. His first campaign against the French marshal Guebriant was uneventful, but his second (1643) in which Baron Franz von Mercy was his commander-in-chief, was the Battle of Tuttlingen in which Werth was instrumental in a surprise victory. In 1644 he was in the lower Rhine country, but he returned to Mercy\'s headquarters in time to fight in the Battle of Freiburg. In the following year he played a decisive role in the Second Battle of Nördlingen. Mercy was killed in this action, and Werth temporarily commanded the defeated arm until succeeded by Field-marshal Geleen. Werth was disappointed, but remained thoroughly loyal to his soldierly code of honour, and found an outlet for his anger in renewed military activity.
In 1647 differences arose between the Elector and the Emperor as to the allegiance due from the Bavarian troops, in which, after long hesitation, Werth, fearing that the cause of the Empire and of the Catholic religion would be ruined if the Elector resumed control of the troops, attempted to take his men over the Austrian border. But they refused to follow and, escaping with great difficulty from the Elector\'s vengeance, Werth found a refuge in Austria. The Emperor was grateful for his conduct in this affair, ordered the Elector to rescind his ban. The last campaign of the war (1648) was uneventful, and shortly after its close he retired to live on the estates which he had bought in the course of his career. And it was at one of these, Benatek 40 km NE of Prague in Bohemia, a gift from the emperor, that he died on 16 of January 1652. He was buried in the church of Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Benátky.
## Legend of Jan and Griet {#legend_of_jan_and_griet}
Johann von Werth\'s life became a popular legend in the Rhineland and Cologne that is frequently reenacted at Karneval time:
A poor peasant, Jan, fell in love with Griet but she wanted a wealthier partner and declined his offer of marriage. Devastated by her rejection he came upon an army recruiter and signed up to go to war. Through hard work and good fortune he rose to become a general, celebrating several victories. After taking the fort at Hermannstein he was leading his triumphant troops into Cologne through St. Severin\'s Gate, when he saw his former love Griet selling fruit at a market. Griet was filled with regret at turning down such a successful person and exclaimed \"Jan, who would have thought it?\" to which he replied \"Griet, who would have had done it!\" and turns away.
The story has several variants. It has inspired many songs including one in 2001 by the rock band BAP. Jan von Werth\'s name has been used for centuries to name military and recreational organisations, particularly groups of mounted marksmen at Schützenfests and Karneval
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# Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873
The **Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873** (36 & 37 Vict. c. 66) (sometimes known as the **Judicature Act 1873**) was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1873. It reorganised the English court system to establish the High Court and the Court of Appeal, and also originally provided for the abolition of the judicial functions of the House of Lords with respect to England. It would have retained those functions in relation to Scotland and Ireland for the time being. However, the Gladstone Liberal government fell in 1874 before the act entered into force, and the succeeding Disraeli Conservative government suspended the entry into force of the act by means of the **Supreme Court of Judicature (Commencement) Act 1874** (37 & 38 Vict. c. 83) and the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 77).
## History
The legislation for the act was drafted by the Judicature Commission which was chaired by Lord Chancellor Hatherley. Other members of the commission included judge George Bramwell, lawyers Sir John Hollams, Sir Robert Collier, and John Burgess Karslake, and parliament member George Ward Hunt.
## Liberal view {#liberal_view}
One of the reasons that the Liberal government under Gladstone wanted to abolish the judicial aspect of the House of Lords was that it was concerned for the poor quality of judges at this court. Judges at the House of Lords secured their position by mere virtue of the fact that their fathers were hereditary peers and so individuals would automatically inherit seats in the upper house rather than securing their position through merit. Therefore, some of the best lawyers in the land were prohibited from sitting as judges in the upper house simply because of their parentage.
## Conservative view {#conservative_view}
However, under the Conservative government, the 1874 and 1875 acts retained the judicial aspect of the House of Lords and ensured the quality of judicial appointments to the House of Lords by legislating under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, for the mechanism of law lords. The reigning monarch could appoint any individual to be a peer and thus a judge in the House of Lords. These judicial life peers would hold seats only for the duration of their life; their seat would not pass through their inheritance to their son. Thus, Queen Victoria and subsequent monarchs were able to appoint leading lawyers to adjudicate in the House of Lords by making them life peers.
## Provisions
### Short title, commencement and extent {#short_title_commencement_and_extent}
Section 1 of the act provided that the act may be cited the \"Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1873\".
Section 2 of the act provided that the act would come into force on 2 November 1874. This act was repealed and replaced was repealed and replaced by section 2 of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Commencement) Act 1874 (37 & 38 Vict. c. 83). Section 2 of the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 77) provided that the act would come into force on 1 November 1875, except any provision of that act declared to take effect before the commencement of the act and except sections 20, 21 and 25, which would come into force on 1 November 1876.
The preamble to the act provided that the act would extend to England and Wales.
## Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 {#appellate_jurisdiction_act_1876}
Lord Cairns, Disraeli\'s Lord Chancellor, sought to remove the House of Lords jurisdiction for Scottish and Irish appeals as well, which would have completely removed its judicial jurisdiction. However, the Lord Chancellor could not muster the necessary support in Parliament for the bill as originally proposed in 1874 or when it was reintroduced in 1875. Finally, when it became clear that the English legal profession was firmly opposed to the reform proposals, the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 removed the provisions for the abolition of the judicial functions of the House of Lords, although it retained the provisions that established the High Court and the Court of Appeal
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# Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg
**Joachim Frederick** (27 January 1546 -- 18 July 1608), of the House of Hohenzollern, was Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from 1598 until his death.
## Biography
Joachim Frederick was born in Cölln to John George, Elector of Brandenburg, and Sophie of Legnica. He served as administrator of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg from 1566 to 1598, then succeeded his father as Elector of Brandenburg in 1598. Joachim Frederick was succeeded at his death by his son John Sigismund. Joachim Frederick\'s first marriage on 7 March 1570 was to Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin, daughter of John, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin, and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.
Joachim Frederick and Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin had these children:
- John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg (8 November 1572 -- 23 December 1619)
- Anne Catherine (26 June 1575 -- 29 March 1612), married King Christian IV of Denmark
- Girl \[1576\]
- John George, Duke of Jägerndorf (16 December 1577 -- 2 March 1624) married Eva Christina of Württemberg (1590 - 1657), daughter of Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg and Sibylla of Anhalt. Elected Bishop of Strasbourg 1592; resigned 1604. *Herrenmeister* (Grand Master) of the Order of Saint John from 1616 until his death.
- August Frederick (16 February 1580 -- 23 April 1601)
- Albert Frederick (29 April 1582 -- 3 December 1600)
- Joachim (13 April 1583 -- 10 June 1600)
- Ernest (13 April 1583 -- 18 September 1613)
- Barbara Sophie (16 November 1584 -- 13 February 1636), married John Frederick, Duke of Württemberg
- Girl \[1585/6\]
- Christian William (28 August 1587 -- 1 January 1665)
Joachim Frederick\'s second marriage, on 23 October 1603, was to Eleanor of Prussia, born 21 August 1583, daughter of Albert Frederick and Marie Eleonore of Cleves.
Joachim Frederick and Eleanor of Prussia had only one child:
- Marie Eleonore (22 March 1607 -- 18 February 1675), married Louis Philip, Count Palatine of Simmern-Kaiserslautern
He became regent of the Duchy of Prussia in 1605. His titles also included \"duke (Dux) of Stettin, Pomerania, Cassubia, Vandalorum and Crossen\", according to the terms of the Treaty of Grimnitz, although the Pomeranian titles were only nominal.
## Legacy
Joachim-Friedrich Strasse in Berlin is named after him
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# Jacopo Amigoni
**Jacopo Amigoni** (c. 1685 -- September 1752), also named **Giacomo Amiconi**, was an Italian painter of the late-Baroque or Rococo period, who began his career in Venice, but traveled and was prolific throughout Europe, where his sumptuous portraits were much in demand.
## Biography
He was born in Naples. Amigoni initially painted both mythological and religious scenes; but as the panoply of his patrons expanded northward, he began producing many parlour works depicting gods in sensuous languor or games. His style influenced Giuseppe Nogari. Among his pupils were Charles Joseph Flipart, Michelangelo Morlaiter, Pietro Antonio Novelli, Joseph Wagner, and Antonio Zucchi.
Starting in 1717, he is documented as working in Bavaria in the Castle of Nymphenburg (1719); in the castle of Schleissheim (1725--1729); and in the Benedictine abbey of Ottobeuren. He returned to Venice in 1726. His *Arraignment of Paris* hangs in the Villa Pisani at Stra. From 1730 to 1739 he worked in England, in Pown House, Moor Park Wolterton Hall and in the theatre of Covent Garden. From there, he helped convince Canaletto to travel to England by telling him of the ample patronage available.
In London or during a trip to Paris in 1736, he met the celebrated castrato Farinelli, whose portrait he painted twice in 1735 and again in 1752. Amigoni also encountered the painting of François Lemoyne and François Boucher.
In 1739 he returned to Italy, perhaps to Naples and surely to Montecassino, in whose Abbey existed two canvases (destroyed during World War II). He travelled to Venice to paint for Sigismund Streit, for the Casa Savoia and other buildings of the city.
In 1747 he left Italy for Madrid, encouraged by Farinelli, who held a court appointment there. He became court painter to Ferdinand VI of Spain and director of the Royal Academy of Saint Fernando. He painted a group portrait that included himself, Farinelli, Metastasio, Teresa Castellini, and an unidentified young man. The young man may have been the Austrian Archduke Joseph, the Habsburg heir to the throne. Amigoni died in Madrid.
Amigoni was the father of the pastellist Caterina Amigoni Castellini, and the brother of the artist Carlotta Amigoni.
## Partial anthology {#partial_anthology}
- [*Consul Marcus Curius Dentatus prefers turnips to the Samnites\' gifts*](https://en.museumbredius.nl/product/amigoni-jacob-consul-marcus-curius-dentatus-prefers-turnips-to-the-samnites-presents/)
- [*Caroline Wilhelmina of Brandenburg-Ansbach*](http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06613&rNo=0&role=art) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914204203/https://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06613&rNo=0&role=art |date=2008-09-14 }}`{=mediawiki}
- [Print after Amigoni of *Princess Amelia Sophia Eleanora*](http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06613&rNo=1&role=art) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914204406/https://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp06613&rNo=1&role=art |date=2008-09-14 }}`{=mediawiki}
- [Prints after portraits by Amigoni.](http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp06613&role=art) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119052517/http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp06613&role=art |date=2008-11-19 }}`{=mediawiki}
- [*Venus disarming cupid*.](http://www.ackland.org/art/collection/euroam/1700-1800/86.47.html) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071004234904/http://www.ackland.org/art/collection/euroam/1700-1800/86.47.html |date=2007-10-04 }}`{=mediawiki}
- [*Venus and Adonis*](https://web.archive.org/web/20051231161950/http://www.italica.rai.it/index.php?categoria=art&scheda=metamorfosi_5)
## Gallery
<File:Jacopo> Amigoni - Bacchus and Ariadne - Google Art Project.jpg\|Bacchus and Ariadne, 1740 <File:Jacopo> Amigoni - Venus and Adonis.jpg\|Venus and Adonis <File:Circa> 1750 portrait painting of the Infanta Maria Antonia of Spain (1729-1785) by Jacopo Amigoni (Prado).jpg\|The Infanta María Antonia of Spain, Daughter of Philip V, 1750 <File:Jacopo> Amigoni (1682-1752) - Frederick, Prince of Wales (1707-51) - RCIN 401500 - Royal Collection.jpg\|Frederick, Prince of Wales, 1735 <File:Jacopo> amigoni, il cantante farinelli con amici, 1750-52 circa.JPG\|The singer Farinelli and friends, 1750 or 1752 <File:Jacopo> Amigoni -- Ritratto di Farinelli
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# Jacques Callot
**Jacques Callot** (`{{IPA|fr|ʒak kalo|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; `{{c.|1592}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1635) was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine. He is an important person in the development of the old master print. He made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Romani, beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background.
## Life and training {#life_and_training}
thumb\|upright=1.45\|right\|*The Large Hunt*, a famous technical showpiece Callot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France. At the time, the Duchy of Lorraine was an independent state on the north-eastern border of France, southwestern border of Germany and overlapping the southern Netherlands. He came from an important family (his father was master of ceremonies at the court of the Duke), and he often describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, but soon afterward travelled to Rome where he learned engraving from an expatriate Frenchman, Philippe Thomassin. He probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612 to 1621. More than 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, and he probably never trained as a painter.
During his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court. After the death of Cosimo II de\' Medici during 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and the Netherlands later during the decade. He was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris. Although he remained in Nancy, his prints were distributed widely through Europe; Rembrandt was a keen collector of them.
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# Jacques Callot
## Technical innovations: échoppe, new hard ground, stopping-out {#technical_innovations_échoppe_new_hard_ground_stopping_out}
His technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made. He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do.
He also seems to have been responsible for an improved recipe for the etching ground that coated the plate and was removed to form the image, using lute-makers varnish rather than a wax-based formula. This enabled lines to be etched more deeply, prolonging the life of the plate in printing, and also greatly reducing the risk of \"foul-biting\", such that acid gets through the ground to the plate where it is not intended to, producing spots or blotches on the image. Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been present, preventing an engraver from investing too much time on a single plate that risked being ruined by foul-biting. Now etchers could do the very detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers, and Callot made good use of the new possibilities.
He also made more extensive and sophisticated use of multiple \"stoppings-out\" than previous etchers had done. This is the technique of letting the acid dissolve lightly over the whole plate, then stopping-out those parts of the work which the artist wishes to keep shallow by covering them with ground before bathing the plate in acid again. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process. Most of his prints were relatively small -- as much as about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension.
One of his devotees, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callot\'s innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching, which was translated into Italian, Dutch, German and English. {{-}}
## *Miseries of War* {#miseries_of_war}
thumb\|upright=2.00\|One of *Les Grandes Misères de la guerre* His most famous prints are his two series of prints each on \"the Miseries and Misfortunes of War\". These are 18 prints published during 1633, and the earlier and incomplete *Les Petites Misères* -- referring to their sizes, large and small (though even the large set are only about 8 x 13 cm). These images show soldiers pillaging and burning their way through towns, country and convents, before being variously arrested and executed by their superiors, lynched by peasants, or surviving to live as crippled beggars. At the end the generals are rewarded by their monarch. During 1633, the year the larger set was published, Lorraine had been invaded by the French during the Thirty Years\' War and Callot\'s artwork is still noted with Francisco Goya\'s *Los Desastres de la Guerra* (*The Disasters of War*), which was influenced by Callot -- (Goya owned a series of the prints), as among the most powerful artistic statements of the inhumanity of war.
## Grotesque Dwarves {#grotesque_dwarves}
Callot\'s series of \"**Grotesque Dwarves**\" were to inspire Derby porcelain and other companies to create pottery figures known as \"Mansion House Dwarves\" or \"Grotesque Dwarves\". The former title comes from a father and son who were paid to wander around the Mansion House in London wearing oversized hats that contained advertisements.
Varie Figure Gobbi -- Series of 21 etchings, 1616
1620 Callot Varie Figure Gobbi anagoria.JPG\|Varie Figure Gobbi, Städelsches Kunstinstitut 1620 Callot Der Maskierte mit verdrehten Beinen anagoria.JPG\|Masked Dwarf with Contorted Legs 1620 Callot Zwergkrüppel mit Kapuze anagoria.JPG\|Crippled Dwarf with Hood 1620 Callot Der Zwerg mit dem dicken Bauch anagoria.JPG\|The Fat Dwarf 1620 Callot Der Zwerg mit dem Buckel anagoria.JPG\|The Hunchbacked Dwarf 1620 Callot Zwerg mit Hängebauch und hohem Hut anagoria.JPG\|The Potbellied Dwarf with the Tall Hat 1620 Callot Zwerg mit Violine anagoria.JPG\|Dwarf with Violin Jacques Callot V.jpg\|Example of Jacques Callot\'s work
## Other notable works {#other_notable_works}
thumb\|upright=2.00\|*The Fair at Impruneta*, 1620
- A large series depicting *commedia dell\'arte* figures called *Balli di Sfessania*, in a simple, caricature-like style, from his years in Florence.
- Series on the Lives of Christ and Mary.
- Series on the story of the Prodigal Son.
- *The Giant Tifeo beneath Mount Ischia* (1617).
- *The Fair at Impruneta* (1620).
- *The Fair at Gondreville* (1624).
- *The Temptation of St Anthony* (1635, MoA).[1](https://www.metmuseum
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# John Dowland
**John Dowland** (c. 1563 -- buried 20 February 1626) was an English Renaissance composer, lutenist, and singer. He is best known today for his melancholy songs such as \"Come, heavy sleep\", \"Come again\", \"Flow my tears\", \"I saw my Lady weepe\", \"Now o now I needs must part\", and \"In darkness let me dwell\". His instrumental music has undergone a major revival, and with the 20th century\'s early music revival, has been a continuing source of repertoire for lutenists and classical guitarists.
## Career and compositions {#career_and_compositions}
Very little is known of Dowland\'s early life, but it is generally thought he was born in London; some sources even put his birth year as 1563. Irish historian W. H. Grattan Flood claimed that he was born in Dalkey, near Dublin, but no corroborating evidence has been found either for that or for Thomas Fuller\'s claim that he was born in Westminster. One piece of evidence points to Dublin as his place of origin: he dedicated the song \"From Silent Night\" to \'my loving countryman Mr. John Forster the younger, merchant of Dublin in Ireland\'. The Forsters were a prominent Dublin family at the time, providing several Lord Mayors to the city.
In 1580 Dowland went to Paris, where he was in service to Sir Henry Cobham, the ambassador to the French court, and his successor Sir Edward Stafford. He became a Roman Catholic at this time. Around 1584, Dowland moved back to England and married. In 1588 he was admitted Mus. Bac. from Christ Church, Oxford. In 1594 a vacancy for a lutenist came up at the English court, but Dowland\'s application was unsuccessful. He claimed his religion led to his not being offered a post at Elizabeth I\'s Protestant court, but his conversion was not publicised, and being Catholic did not prevent some other important musicians (such as William Byrd) from a court career.
From 1598 Dowland worked at the court of Christian IV of Denmark, though he continued to publish in London. King Christian was very interested in music and paid Dowland astronomical sums; his salary was 500 daler a year, making him one of the highest-paid servants of the Danish court. Though Dowland was highly regarded by King Christian, he was not the ideal servant, often overstaying his leave when he went to England on publishing business or for other reasons. Dowland was dismissed in 1606 and returned to England; in early 1612 he secured a post as one of James I\'s lutenists. There are few compositions dating from the moment of his royal appointment until his death in London in 1626. While the date of his death is not known, \"Dowland\'s last payment from the court was on 20 January 1626, and he was buried at St Ann\'s, Blackfriars, London, on 20 February 1626.\"
Two major influences on Dowland\'s music were popular consort songs and the dance music of the day. Most of Dowland\'s music is for his own instrument, the lute. It includes several books of solo lute works, lute songs (for one voice and lute), part-songs with lute accompaniment, and several pieces for viol consort with lute. The poet Richard Barnfield wrote that Dowland\'s \"heavenly touch upon the lute doth ravish human sense.\"
One of his better known works is the lute song \"Flow my tears\", the first verse of which runs:
He later wrote what is probably his best known instrumental work, *Lachrimae, or Seaven Teares, Figured in Seaven Passionate Pavans*, a set of seven pavanes for five viols and lute, each based on the theme derived from the lute song \"Flow my tears\". It became one of the best known collections of consort music in his time. His pavane \"Lachrymae antiquae\" was also popular in the 17th century, and was arranged and used as a theme for variations by many composers. He wrote a lute version of the popular ballad \"My Lord Willoughby\'s Welcome Home\".
Dowland\'s music often displays a melancholia rare in music at that time, and he pioneered it together with Johann Froberger. He wrote a consort piece with the punning title *\"Semper Dowland, semper dolens\"* (always Dowland, always doleful), which may be said to sum up much of his work.
Richard Barnfield, Dowland\'s contemporary, refers to him in poem VIII of *The Passionate Pilgrim* (1598), a Shakespearean sonnet:
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# John Dowland
## Published works {#published_works}
Until 2024, only one comprehensive monograph of Dowland\'s life and works, by Diana Poulton, was available in print. A more updated biography by K. Dawn Grapes was published in July 2024. The fullest catalog list of Dowland\'s works is that compiled by K. Dawn Grapes in *John Dowland: A Research and Information Guide* (Routledge, 2019). The numbering for the lute pieces follow the same system as Diana Poulton created in her *The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland*. *P* numbers are therefore sometimes used to designate individual pieces.
Many of Dowland\'s works survive only in manuscript form.
### *Whole Book of Psalms* (1592) {#whole_book_of_psalms_1592}
Published by Thomas Est in 1592, *The Whole Booke of Psalmes* contained works by 10 composers, including 6 pieces by Dowland.
1. Put me not to rebuke, O Lord (Psalm 38)
2. All people that on earth do dwell (Psalm 100)
3. My soul praise the Lord (Psalm 104)
4. Lord to thee I make my moan (Psalm 130)
5. Behold and have regard (Psalm 134)
6. A Prayer for the Queens most excellent Maiestie
### *New Book of Tablature* (1596) {#new_book_of_tablature_1596}
The *New Booke of Tabliture* was published by William Barley in 1596. It contains seven solo lute pieces by Dowland.
### *Lamentatio Henrici Noel* (1596) {#lamentatio_henrici_noel_1596}
Perhaps written for the professional choir of Westminster Abbey.
1. The Lamentation of a sinner
2. Domine ne in furore (Psalm 6)
3. Miserere mei Deus (Psalm 51)
4. The humble sute of a sinner
5. The humble complaint of a sinner
6. De profundis (Psalm 130)
7. Domine exaudi (Psalm 143)
Of uncertain attribution are:
1. Ye righteous in the Lord
2. An heart that\'s broken
3. I shame at my unworthiness
### *First Book of Songs* (1597) {#first_book_of_songs_1597}
Dowland in London in 1597 published his *First Booke of Songes or Ayres*, a set of 21 lute-songs and one of the most influential collections in the history of the lute. Brian Robins wrote that \"many of the songs were composed long before the publication date, \[\...\] However, far from being immature, the songs of Book I reveal Dowland as a fully fledged master.\" It is set out in a way that allows performance by a soloist with lute accompaniment or by various other combinations of singers and instrumentalists. The lute-songs are listed below. After them, at the end of the collection, comes \"My Lord Chamberlaine, His Galliard\", a piece for two people to play on one lute.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
### *Second Book of Songs* (1600) {#second_book_of_songs_1600}
Dowland published his *Second Booke of Songs or Ayres* in 1600. It has 22 lute songs. There is also an instrumental work, Dowland's adew for Master Oliver Cromwell. The songs are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
### *Third Book of Songs* (1603) {#third_book_of_songs_1603}
The *Third and Last Booke of Songs or Aires* was published in 1603.
The 21 songs are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
### *Lachrimae* (1604) {#lachrimae_1604}
The *Lachrimae, or Seaven Teares* was published in 1604. It contains the seven pavans of Lachrimae itself and 14 others, including the famous *Semper Dowland semper Dolens*.
1. Lachrimae Antiquae
2. Lachrimae Antiquae Nouae
3. Lachrimae Gementes
4. Lachrimae Tristes
5. Lachrimae Coactae
6. Lachrimae Amantis
7. Lachrimae Verae
8. Semper Dowland semper Dolens (P.9)
9. Sir Henry Vmptons Funeral
10. M. Iohn Langtons Pauan
11. The King of Denmarks Galiard (P.40)
12. The Earle of Essex Galiard
13. Sir Iohn Souch his Galiard
14. M. Henry Noell his Galiard
15. M. Giles Hoby his Galiard
16. M. Nicho. Gryffith his Galiard
17. M. Thomas Collier his Galiard with two trebles
18. Captaine Piper his Galiard (P.19)
19. M. Bucton his Galiard
20. Mrs Nichols Almand
21. M. George Whitehead his Almand
### *Micrologus* (1609) {#micrologus_1609}
Dowland published a translation of the *Micrologus* of Andreas Ornithoparcus in 1609, originally printed in Latin in Leipzig in 1517.
### *Varietie of Lute-Lessons* (1610) {#varietie_of_lute_lessons_1610}
This was published by Dowland\'s son Robert in 1610 and contains solo lute works by his father and others.
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# John Dowland
## Published works {#published_works}
### *A Musicall Banquet* (1610) {#a_musicall_banquet_1610}
This was likewise published by Dowland\'s son that year. It contains three songs by his father:
1. Farre from Triumphing Court
2. Lady If You So Spight Me
3. In Darknesse Let Me Dwell
### *A Pilgrimes Solace* (1612) {#a_pilgrimes_solace_1612}
Dowland\'s last work, *A Pilgrimes Solace*, was published in 1612 and seems to have been conceived more as a collection of contrapuntal music than as solo works. Edmund Fellowes praised it as the last masterpiece in the English school of lutenist song before John Attey\'s *First Booke of Ayres of Foure Parts, with Tableture for the Lute* (1622). John Palmer also wrote, \"Although this book produced no hits, it is arguably Dowland\'s best set, evincing his absorption of the style of the Italian monodists.\"
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
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# John Dowland
## Suspicions of treason {#suspicions_of_treason}
Dowland performed a number of espionage assignments for Sir Robert Cecil in France and Denmark; despite his high rate of pay, Dowland seems to have been only a court musician. However, we have in his own words the fact that he was for a time embroiled in treasonous Catholic intrigue in Italy, whither he had travelled in the hopes of meeting and studying with Luca Marenzio, a famed madrigal composer. Whatever his religion, however, he was still intensely loyal to the Queen, though he seems to have had something of a grudge against her for her remark that he, Dowland, \"was a man to serve any prince in the world, but \[he\] was an obstinate Papist.\" But in spite of this, and though the plotters offered him a large sum of money from the Pope, as well as safe passage for his wife and children to come to him from England, in the end he declined to have anything further to do with their plans and begged pardon from Sir Robert Cecil and from the Queen.
## Private life {#private_life}
John Dowland was married and had children, as referenced in his letter to Sir Robert Cecil. However, he had long periods of separation from his family, as his wife stayed in England while he worked on the Continent.
His son Robert Dowland (c. 1591 -- 1641) was also a musician, working for some time in the service of the first Earl of Devonshire, and taking over his father\'s position of lutenist at court when John died.
Dowland\'s melancholic [lyrics](https://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/John_Dowland) (`{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916011706/https://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/John_Dowland |date=16 September 2021}}`{=mediawiki}) and music have often been described as his attempts to develop an \"artistic persona\" in spite of actually being a cheerful person, but many of his own personal complaints, and the tone of bitterness in many of his comments, suggest that much of his music and his melancholy truly did come from his own personality and frustration.
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# John Dowland
## Modern interpretations {#modern_interpretations}
One of the first 20th-century musicians who successfully helped reclaim Dowland from the history books was the singer-songwriter Frederick Keel. Keel included fifteen Dowland pieces in his two sets of *Elizabethan love songs* published in 1909 and 1913, which achieved popularity in their day. These free arrangements for piano and low or high voice were intended to fit the tastes and musical practices associated with art songs of the time.
In 1935, Australian-born composer Percy Grainger, who also had a deep interest in music made before Bach, arranged Dowland\'s *Now, O now I needs must part* for piano. Some years later, in 1953, Grainger wrote a work titled *Bell Piece (Ramble on John Dowland\'s \'Now, O now I needs must part\')*, which was a version scored for voice and wind band, based on his previously mentioned transcription.
In 1951 the counter-tenor Alfred Deller recorded songs by Dowland, Thomas Campion, and Philip Rosseter with the label HMV (His Master\'s Voice) HMV C.4178 and another HMV C.4236 of Dowland\'s \"Flow my Tears\". In 1977, Harmonia Mundi also published two records of Deller singing Dowland\'s Lute songs (HM 244&245-H244/246).
Dowland\'s song \"Come Heavy Sleepe, the Image of True Death\" was the inspiration for Benjamin Britten\'s *Nocturnal after John Dowland*, written in 1963 for the guitarist Julian Bream. It consists of eight variations, all based on musical themes drawn from the song or its lute accompaniment, finally resolving into a guitar setting of the song itself.
Dowland\'s music became part of the repertoire of the early music revival with Bream and tenor Peter Pears, and later with Christopher Hogwood and David Munrow and the Early Music Consort in the late 1960s and later with the Academy of Ancient Music from the early 1970s.
Jan Akkerman, guitarist of the Dutch progressive rock band Focus, recorded \"Tabernakel\" in 1973 (though released in 1974), an album of John Dowland songs and some original material, performed on lute.
The complete works of John Dowland were recorded by the Consort of Musicke, and released on the L\'Oiseau Lyre label, though they recorded some of the songs as vocal consort music; the *Third Book of Songs* and *A Pilgrim\'s Solace* have yet to be recorded in their entirety as collections of solo songs.
The 1999 ECM New Series recording *In Darkness Let Me Dwell* features new interpretations of Dowland songs performed by tenor John Potter, lutenist Stephen Stubbs, and baroque violinist Maya Homburger in collaboration with English jazz musicians John Surman and Barry Guy.
Nigel North recorded Dowland\'s complete works for solo lute on four CDs between 2004 and 2007, on Naxos records.
Paul O\'Dette recorded the complete lute works for Harmonia Mundi on five CDs issued from 1995 to 1997.
Jordi Savall and his Hespèrion XX issued recordings of the \"Lachrimae or Seven Teares\" in 2000 and 2013.
Elvis Costello included a recording (with Fretwork and the Composers Ensemble) of Dowland\'s \"Can she excuse my wrongs\" as a bonus track on the 2006 re-release of his *The Juliet Letters*.
In October 2006, Sting, who says he has been fascinated by the music of John Dowland for 25 years, released an album featuring Dowland\'s songs titled *Songs from the Labyrinth*, on Deutsche Grammophon, in collaboration with Edin Karamazov on lute and archlute. They described their treatment of Dowland\'s work in a *Great Performances* appearance. To give some idea of the tone and intrigues of life in late Elizabethan England, Sting also recites throughout the album portions of a 1593 letter written by Dowland to Sir Robert Cecil. The letter describes Dowland\'s travels to various points of Western Europe, then breaks into a detailed account of his activities in Italy, along with a heartfelt denial of the charges of treason whispered against him by unknown persons. Dowland most likely was suspected of this for travelling to the courts of various Catholic monarchs and accepting payment from them greater than what a musician of the time would normally have received for performing.
Science fiction writer Philip K. Dick referred to Dowland in many of his works, including the novel *Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said* (1974), even using the pseudonym \"Jack Dowland\" once.
*The Collected Lute Music of John Dowland*, with lute tablature and keyboard notation, was transcribed and edited by Diana Poulton and Basil Lam, Faber Music Limited, London 1974
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# John Hancock
**John Hancock** (`{{OldStyleDateDY|January 23,|1737|January 12, 1736<!-- EDITOR'S NOTE: 1737 is correct. By the "Old Style" (Julian), the new year began on March 25. Hancock was born on the 12th day of the 11th month (January) 1736 (Julian) = 23rd day of the 1st month (January) of 1737 (Gregorian)-->}}`{=mediawiki} -- October 8, 1793) was an American Founding Father, merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He was the longest-serving president of the Continental Congress, having served as the second president of the Second Continental Congress and the seventh president of the Congress of the Confederation. He was the first and third governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. His large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence led to `{{wt|en|John Hancock}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{wt|en|Hancock}}`{=mediawiki} becoming a colloquialism for a person\'s signature. He also signed the Articles of Confederation, and used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788.
Before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle. He began his political career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams, an influential local politician, though the two men later became estranged. Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause as tensions increased between colonists and Great Britain in the 1760s. He became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop *Liberty* in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Those charges were eventually dropped; he has often been described as a smuggler in historical accounts, but the accuracy of this characterization has been questioned.
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# John Hancock
## Early life {#early_life}
Hancock was born on January 23, 1737, in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town that eventually became the separate city of Quincy. He was the son of Colonel John Hancock Jr. of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter (widow of Samuel Thaxter Junior), who was from nearby Hingham. As a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735. The Hancocks lived a comfortable life and owned one slave to help with household work.
After Hancock\'s father died in 1744, he was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock and Lydia (Henchman) Hancock. Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Thomas Hancock\'s highly successful business made him one of Boston\'s richest and best-known residents. He and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, became the dominant influence on John\'s life.
After graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelor\'s degree in 1754. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French and Indian War had begun. Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war. John Hancock learned much about his uncle\'s business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm. Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes.
From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers. Upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncle\'s health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Boston\'s most influential citizens. When Thomas Hancock died in August 1764, John inherited the business, Hancock Manor, two or three household slaves, and thousands of acres of land, becoming one of the wealthiest men in the colonies. The household slaves continued to work for John and his aunt, but were eventually freed through the terms of Thomas Hancock\'s will; there is no evidence that John Hancock ever bought or sold slaves.
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# John Hancock
## Growing imperial tensions {#growing_imperial_tensions}
After its victory in the Seven Years\' War, the British Empire was deeply in debt. Looking for new sources of revenue, the British Parliament sought, for the first time, to directly tax the colonies, beginning with the Sugar Act 1764. The earlier Molasses Act 1733, a tax on shipments from the West Indies, had produced hardly any revenue because it was widely bypassed by smuggling, which was seen as a victimless crime. Not only was there little social stigma attached to smuggling in the colonies, but in port cities where trade was the primary generator of wealth, smuggling enjoyed considerable community support, and it was even possible to obtain insurance against being caught. Colonial merchants developed an impressive repertoire of evasive maneuvers to conceal the origin, nationality, routes, and content of their illicit cargoes. This included the frequent use of fraudulent paperwork to make the cargo appear legal and authorized. And much to the frustration of the British authorities, when seizures did happen local merchants were often able to use sympathetic provincial courts to reclaim confiscated goods and have their cases dismissed. For instance, Edward Randolph, the appointed head of customs in New England, brought 36 seizures to trial from 1680 to the end of 1682---and all but two of these were acquitted. Alternatively, merchants sometimes took matters into their own hands and stole illicit goods back while impounded.
The Sugar Act 1764 provoked outrage in Boston, where it was widely viewed as a violation of colonial rights. Men such as James Otis and Samuel Adams argued that because the colonists were not represented in Parliament, they could not be taxed by that body; only the colonial assemblies, where the colonists were represented, could levy taxes upon the colonies. Hancock was not yet a political activist; however, he criticized the tax for economic, rather than constitutional, reasons. Hancock emerged as a leading political figure in Boston just as tensions with Great Britain were increasing. In March 1765, he was elected as one of Boston\'s five selectmen, an office previously held by his uncle for many years. Soon after, Parliament passed the Stamp Act 1765, a tax on legal documents such as wills that had been levied in Britain for many years but which was wildly unpopular in the colonies, producing riots and organized resistance. Hancock initially took a moderate position: as a loyal British subject, he thought that the colonists should submit to the act even though he believed that Parliament was misguided. Within a few months Hancock had changed his mind, although he continued to disapprove of violence and the intimidation of royal officials by mobs. Hancock joined the resistance to the Stamp Act 1765 by participating in a boycott of British goods, which made him popular in Boston. After Bostonians learned of the impending repeal of the Stamp Act, Hancock was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in May 1766.
Hancock\'s political success benefited from the support of Samuel Adams, the clerk of the House of Representatives and a leader of Boston\'s \"popular party\", also known as \"Whigs\" and later as \"Patriots\". The two men made an unlikely pair. Fifteen years older than Hancock, Adams had a somber, Puritan outlook that stood in marked contrast to Hancock\'s taste for luxury and extravagance. Apocryphal stories later portrayed Adams as masterminding Hancock\'s political rise so that the merchant\'s wealth could be used to further the Whig agenda. Historian James Truslow Adams portrays Hancock as shallow and vain, easily manipulated by Adams. Historian William M. Fowler, who wrote biographies of both men, argues that this characterization was an exaggeration and that the relationship between the two was symbiotic, with Adams as the mentor and Hancock the protégé.
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# John Hancock
## Townshend Acts crisis {#townshend_acts_crisis}
After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue, passing the 1767 Townshend Acts, which established new duties on various imports and strengthened the customs agency by creating the American Customs Board. The British government believed that a more efficient customs system was necessary because many colonial American merchants had been smuggling. Smugglers violated the Navigation Acts by trading with ports outside of the British Empire and avoiding import taxes. Parliament hoped that the new system would reduce smuggling and generate revenue for the government.
Colonial merchants, even those not involved in smuggling, found the new regulations oppressive. Other colonists protested that new duties were another attempt by Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. Hancock joined other Bostonians in calling for a boycott of British imports until the Townshend duties were repealed. In their enforcement of the customs regulations, the Customs Board targeted Hancock, Boston\'s wealthiest Whig. They may have suspected that he was a smuggler or they may have wanted to harass him because of his politics, especially after Hancock snubbed Governor Francis Bernard by refusing to attend public functions when the customs officials were present.
On April 9, 1768, two customs employees (called tidesmen) boarded Hancock\'s brig *Lydia* in Boston Harbor. Hancock was summoned, and finding that the agents lacked a writ of assistance (a general search warrant), he did not allow them to go below deck. When one of them later managed to get into the hold, Hancock\'s men forced the tidesman back on deck. Customs officials wanted to file charges, but the case was dropped when Massachusetts Attorney General Jonathan Sewall ruled that Hancock had broken no laws. Later, some of Hancock\'s most ardent admirers called this incident the first act of physical resistance to British authority in the colonies and credit Hancock with initiating the American Revolution.
### *Liberty* affair {#liberty_affair}
The next incident proved to be a major event in the coming of the American Revolution. On the evening of May 9, 1768, Hancock\'s sloop *Liberty* arrived in Boston Harbor, carrying a shipment of Madeira wine. When custom officers inspected the ship the next morning, they found that it contained 25 pipes of wine, just one fourth of the ship\'s carrying capacity. Hancock paid the duties on the 25 pipes of wine, but officials suspected that he had arranged to have more wine unloaded during the night to avoid paying the duties for the entire cargo. They did not have any evidence to prove this, however, since the two tidesmen who had stayed on the ship overnight gave a sworn statement that nothing had been unloaded.
One month later, while the British warship HMS *Romney* was in port, one of the tidesmen changed his story: he claimed that he had been forcibly held on the *Liberty* while it had been illegally unloaded. On June 10, customs officials seized the *Liberty*. Bostonians were already angry because the captain of the *Romney* had been impressing colonists and not just deserters from the Royal Navy, an arguably illegal activity. A riot broke out when officials began to tow the *Liberty* out to the *Romney*, which was also arguably illegal. The confrontation escalated when sailors and marines coming ashore to seize the *Liberty* were mistaken for a press gang. After the riot, customs officials relocated to the *Romney* and then to Castle William (an island fort in the harbor), claiming that they were unsafe in town. Whigs insisted that the customs officials were exaggerating the danger so that London would send troops to Boston.
British officials filed two lawsuits stemming from the *Liberty* incident: an *in rem* suit against the ship and an *in personam* suit against Hancock. Royal officials as well as Hancock\'s accuser stood to gain financially since, as was the custom, any penalties assessed by the court would be awarded to the governor, the informer, and the Crown, each getting a third. The first suit, filed on June 22, 1768, resulted in the confiscation of the *Liberty* in August. Customs officials then used the ship to enforce trade regulations until it was burned by angry colonists in Rhode Island the following year.
The second trial began in October 1768, when charges were filed against Hancock and five others for allegedly unloading 100 pipes of wine from the *Liberty* without paying the duties. If convicted, the defendants would have had to pay a penalty of triple the value of the wine, which came to £9,000. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice admiralty court, which had no jury and was not required to allow the defense to cross-examine the witnesses. After dragging out for nearly five months, the proceedings against Hancock were dropped without explanation.
Although the charges against Hancock were dropped, many writers later described him as a smuggler. The accuracy of this characterization has been questioned. \"Hancock\'s guilt or innocence and the exact charges against him\", wrote historian John W. Tyler in 1986, \"are still fiercely debated.\" Historian Oliver Dickerson argues that Hancock was the victim of an essentially criminal racketeering scheme perpetrated by Governor Bernard and the customs officials. Dickerson believes that there is no reliable evidence that Hancock was guilty in the *Liberty* case and that the purpose of the trials was to punish Hancock for political reasons and to plunder his property. Opposed to Dickerson\'s interpretation were Kinvin Wroth and Hiller Zobel, the editors of John Adams\'s legal papers, who argue that \"Hancock\'s innocence is open to question\" and that the British officials acted legally, if unwisely. Lawyer and historian Bernard Knollenberg concludes that the customs officials had the right to seize Hancock\'s ship, but towing it out to the *Romney* had been illegal. Legal historian John Phillip Reid argues that the testimony of both sides was so politically partial that it is not possible to objectively reconstruct the incident.
Aside from the *Liberty* affair, the degree to which Hancock was engaged in smuggling, which may have been widespread in the colonies, has been questioned. Given the clandestine nature of smuggling, records are scarce. If Hancock was a smuggler, no documentation of this has been found. John W. Tyler identified 23 smugglers in his study of more than 400 merchants in revolutionary Boston but found no written evidence that Hancock was one of them. Biographer William Fowler concludes that while Hancock was probably engaged in some smuggling, most of his business was legitimate, and his later reputation as the \"king of the colonial smugglers\" is a myth without foundation.
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# John Hancock
## Massacre to Tea Party {#massacre_to_tea_party}
The *Liberty* affair reinforced a previously made British decision to suppress unrest in Boston with a show of military might. The decision had been prompted by Samuel Adams\'s 1768 Circular Letter, which was sent to other British American colonies in hopes of coordinating resistance to the Townshend Acts. Lord Hillsborough, secretary of state for the colonies, sent four regiments of the British Army to Boston to support embattled royal officials and instructed Governor Bernard to order the Massachusetts legislature to revoke the Circular Letter. Hancock and the Massachusetts House voted against rescinding the letter and instead drew up a petition demanding Governor Bernard\'s recall. When Bernard returned to England in 1769, Bostonians celebrated.
The British troops remained, however, and tensions between soldiers and civilians eventually resulted in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of March 1770. Hancock was not involved in the incident, but afterwards he led a committee to demand the removal of the troops. Meeting with Bernard\'s successor, Governor Thomas Hutchinson, and the British officer in command, Colonel William Dalrymple, Hancock claimed that there were 10,000 armed colonists ready to march into Boston if the troops did not leave. Hutchinson knew that Hancock was bluffing, but the soldiers were in a precarious position when garrisoned within the town, and so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William. Hancock was celebrated as a hero for his role in getting the troops withdrawn. His re-election to the Massachusetts House in May was nearly unanimous.
After Parliament partially repealed the Townshend duties in 1770, Boston\'s boycott of British goods ended. Politics became quieter in Massachusetts, although tensions remained. Hancock tried to improve his relationship with Governor Hutchinson, who in turn sought to woo Hancock away from Adams\'s influence. In April 1772, Hutchinson approved Hancock\'s election as colonel of the Boston Cadets, a militia unit whose primary function was to provide a ceremonial escort for the governor and the General Court. In May, Hutchinson even approved Hancock\'s election to the Council, the upper chamber of the General Court, whose members were elected by the House but subject to veto by the governor. Hancock\'s previous elections to the council had been vetoed, but now Hutchinson allowed the election to stand. Hancock declined the office, however, not wanting to appear to have been co-opted by the governor. Nevertheless, Hancock used the improved relationship to resolve an ongoing dispute. To avoid hostile crowds in Boston, Hutchinson had been convening the legislature outside of town; now he agreed to allow the General Court to sit in Boston once again, to the relief of the legislators.
Hutchinson had dared to hope that he could win over Hancock and discredit Adams. To some, it seemed that Adams and Hancock were indeed at odds: when Adams formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence in November 1772 to advocate colonial rights, Hancock declined to join, creating the impression that there was a split in the Whig ranks. But whatever their differences, Hancock and Adams came together again in 1773 with the renewal of major political turmoil. They cooperated in the revelation of private letters of Thomas Hutchinson, in which the governor seemed to recommend \"an abridgement of what are called \"English liberties\" to bring order to the colony. The Massachusetts House, blaming Hutchinson for the military occupation of Boston, called for his removal as governor.
Even more trouble followed Parliament\'s passage of the 1773 Tea Act. On November 5, Hancock was elected as moderator at a Boston town meeting that resolved that anyone who supported the Tea Act was an \"Enemy to America\". Hancock and others tried to force the resignation of the agents who had been appointed to receive the tea shipments. Unsuccessful in this, they attempted to prevent the tea from being unloaded after three tea ships had arrived in Boston Harbor. Hancock was at the fateful meeting on December 16 where he reportedly told the crowd, \"Let every man do what is right in his own eyes.\" Hancock did not take part in the Boston Tea Party that night, but he approved of the action, although he was careful not to publicly praise the destruction of private property.
Over the next few months, Hancock was disabled by gout, which troubled him with increasing frequency in the coming years. By March 5, 1774, he had recovered enough to deliver the fourth annual Massacre Day oration, a commemoration of the Boston Massacre. Hancock\'s speech denounced the presence of British troops in Boston, who he said had been sent there \"to enforce obedience to acts of Parliament, which neither God nor man ever empowered them to make\". The speech, probably written by Hancock in collaboration with Adams, Joseph Warren, and others, was published and widely reprinted, enhancing Hancock\'s stature as a leading Patriot.
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# John Hancock
## Revolution begins {#revolution_begins}
Parliament responded to the Tea Party with the Boston Port Act, one of the so-called Coercive Acts intended to strengthen British control of the colonies. Hutchinson was replaced as governor by General Thomas Gage, who arrived in May 1774. On June 17, the Massachusetts House elected five delegates to send to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which was being organized to coordinate colonial response to the Coercive Acts. Hancock did not serve in the first Congress, possibly for health reasons or possibly to remain in charge while the other Patriot leaders were away.
Gage dismissed Hancock from his post as colonel of the Boston Cadets. In October 1774, Gage canceled the scheduled meeting of the General Court. In response, the House resolved itself into the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, a body independent of British control. Hancock was elected as president of the Provincial Congress and was a key member of the Committee of safety. The Provincial Congress created the first minutemen companies, consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment\'s notice.
On December 1, 1774, the Provincial Congress elected Hancock as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress to replace James Bowdoin, who had been unable to attend the first Congress because of illness. Before Hancock reported to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, the Provincial Congress unanimously re-elected him as their president in February 1775. Hancock\'s multiple roles gave him enormous influence in Massachusetts, and as early as January 1774 British officials had considered arresting him. After attending the Provincial Congress in Concord in April 1775, Hancock and Samuel Adams decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia. They stayed instead at Hancock\'s childhood home in Lexington.
Gage received a letter from Lord Dartmouth on April 14, 1775, advising him \"to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion\". On the night of April 18, Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that sparked the American Revolutionary War. The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord. According to many historical accounts, Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams; if so, the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders. Gage apparently decided that he had nothing to gain by arresting Hancock and Adams, since other leaders would simply take their place, and the British would be portrayed as the aggressors.
Although Gage had evidently decided against seizing Hancock and Adams, Patriots initially believed otherwise. From Boston, Joseph Warren dispatched messenger Paul Revere to warn Hancock and Adams that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them. Revere reached Lexington around midnight and gave the warning. Hancock, still considering himself a militia colonel, wanted to take the field with the Patriot militia at Lexington, but Adams and others convinced him to avoid battle, arguing that he was more valuable as a political leader than as a soldier. As Hancock and Adams made their escape, the first shots of the war were fired at Lexington and Concord. Soon after the battle, Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would \"lay down their arms, and return to the duties of peaceable subjects\"---with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams. Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots.
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# John Hancock
## President of Congress {#president_of_congress}
With the war underway, Hancock made his way to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia with the other Massachusetts delegates. On May 24, 1775, he was unanimously elected President of the Continental Congress, succeeding Peyton Randolph after Henry Middleton declined the nomination. Hancock was a good choice for president for several reasons. He was experienced, having often presided over legislative bodies and town meetings in Massachusetts. His wealth and social standing inspired the confidence of moderate delegates, while his association with Boston radicals made him acceptable to other radicals. His position was somewhat ambiguous because the role of the president was not fully defined, and it was not clear if Randolph had resigned or was on a leave of absence. Like other presidents of Congress, Hancock\'s authority was mostly limited to that of a presiding officer. He also had to handle a great deal of official correspondence, and he found it necessary to hire clerks at his own expense to help with the paperwork.
In Congress on June 15, 1775, Massachusetts delegate John Adams nominated George Washington as commander-in-chief of the army then gathered around Boston. Years later, Adams wrote that Hancock had shown great disappointment at not getting the command for himself. This brief comment from 1801 is the only source for the oft-cited claim that Hancock sought to become commander-in-chief. In the early 20th century, historian James Truslow Adams wrote that the incident initiated a lifelong estrangement between Hancock and Washington, but some subsequent historians have expressed doubt that the incident, or the estrangement, ever occurred. According to historian Donald Proctor, \"There is no contemporary evidence that Hancock harbored ambitions to be named commander-in-chief. Quite the contrary.\" Hancock and Washington maintained a good relationship after the alleged incident, and in 1778 Hancock named his only son *John George Washington Hancock*. Hancock admired and supported General Washington, even though Washington politely declined Hancock\'s request for a military appointment.
When Congress recessed on August 1, 1775, Hancock took the opportunity to wed his fiancée, Dorothy \"Dolly\" Quincy. The couple was married on August 28 in Fairfield, Connecticut. They had two children, neither of whom survived to adulthood. Their daughter Lydia Henchman Hancock was born in 1776 and died ten months later. Their son John was born in 1778 and died in 1787 after suffering a head injury while ice skating.
While president of Congress, Hancock became involved in a long-running controversy with Harvard. As treasurer of the college since 1773, he had been entrusted with the school\'s financial records and about £15,000 in cash and securities. In the rush of events at the onset of the Revolutionary War, Hancock had been unable to return the money and accounts to Harvard before leaving for Congress. In 1777, a Harvard committee headed by James Bowdoin, Hancock\'s chief political and social rival in Boston, sent a messenger to Philadelphia to retrieve the money and records. Hancock was offended, but he turned over more than £16,000, though not all of the records, to the college. When Harvard replaced Hancock as treasurer, his ego was bruised and for years he declined to settle the account or pay the interest on the money he had held, despite pressure put on him by Bowdoin and other political opponents. The issue dragged on until after Hancock\'s death, when his estate finally paid the college more than £1,000 to resolve the matter.
Hancock served in Congress through some of the darkest days of the Revolutionary War. The British drove Washington from New York and New Jersey in 1776, which prompted Congress to flee to Baltimore. Hancock and Congress returned to Philadelphia in March 1777 but were compelled to flee six months later when the British occupied Philadelphia. Hancock wrote innumerable letters to colonial officials, raising money, supplies, and troops for Washington\'s army. He chaired the Marine Committee and took pride in helping to create a small fleet of American frigates, including the USS *Hancock*, which was named in his honor.
### Signing the Declaration {#signing_the_declaration}
Hancock was president of Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted and signed. He is primarily remembered by Americans for his large, flamboyant signature on the Declaration, so much so that \"John Hancock\" became, in the United States, an informal synonym for *signature*. According to legend, Hancock signed his name largely and clearly so that King George could read it without his spectacles, but the story is apocryphal and originated years later.
Contrary to popular mythology, there was no ceremonial signing of the Declaration on July 4, 1776. After Congress approved the wording of the text on July 4, the *fair copy* was sent to be printed. As president, Hancock may have signed the document that was sent to the printer John Dunlap, but this is uncertain because that document is lost, perhaps destroyed in the printing process. Dunlap produced the first published version of the Declaration, the widely distributed Dunlap broadside. Hancock, as President of Congress, was the only delegate whose name appeared on the broadside, although the name of Charles Thomson, secretary of the Continental Congress but not a delegate, was also on it as \"Attested by\" implying that Hancock had signed the fair copy. This meant that until a second broadside was issued six months later with all of the signers listed, Hancock was the only delegate whose name was publicly attached to the treasonous document. Hancock sent a copy of the Dunlap broadside to George Washington, instructing him to have it read to the troops \"in the way you shall think most proper\".
Hancock\'s name was printed, not signed, on the Dunlap broadside; his iconic signature appears on a different document---a sheet of parchment that was carefully handwritten sometime after July 19 and signed on August 2 by Hancock and those delegates present. Known as the engrossed copy, this is the famous document on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
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# John Hancock
## Return to Massachusetts {#return_to_massachusetts}
In October 1777, after more than two years in Congress, Hancock requested a leave of absence. He asked Washington to arrange a military escort for his return to Boston. Although Washington was short on manpower, he nevertheless sent fifteen horsemen to accompany Hancock on his journey home. By this time Hancock had become estranged from Samuel Adams, who disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock\'s vanity and extravagance, which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader. When Congress voted to thank Hancock for his service, Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against the resolution, as did a few delegates from other states.
Back in Boston, Hancock was re-elected to the House of Representatives. As in previous years, his philanthropy made him popular. Although his finances had suffered greatly because of the war, he gave to the poor, helped support widows and orphans, and loaned money to friends. According to biographer William Fowler, \"John Hancock was a generous man and the people loved him for it. He was their idol.\" In December 1777, he was re-elected as a delegate to the Continental Congress and as moderator of the Boston town meeting.
Hancock rejoined the Continental Congress in Pennsylvania in June 1778, but his brief time there was unhappy. In his absence, Congress had elected Henry Laurens as its new president, which was a disappointment to Hancock, who had hoped to reclaim his chair. Hancock got along poorly with Samuel Adams and missed his wife and newborn son. On July 9, 1778, Hancock and the other Massachusetts delegates joined the representatives from seven other states in signing the Articles of Confederation; the remaining states were not yet prepared to sign, and the Articles were not ratified until 1781.
Hancock returned to Boston in July 1778, motivated by the opportunity to finally lead men in combat. Back in 1776, he had been appointed as the senior major general of the Massachusetts militia. Now that the French fleet had come to the aid of the Americans, General Washington instructed General John Sullivan to lead an attack on the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island, in August 1778. Hancock nominally commanded 6,000 militiamen in the campaign, although he let the professional soldiers do the planning and issue the orders. It was a fiasco: French Admiral d\'Estaing abandoned the operation, after which Hancock\'s militia mostly deserted Sullivan\'s Continentals. Hancock suffered some criticism for the debacle but emerged from his brief military career with his popularity intact.
After much delay, the Massachusetts Constitution finally went into effect in October 1780. To no one\'s surprise, Hancock was elected Governor of Massachusetts in a landslide, garnering over 90% of the vote. In the absence of formal party politics, the contest was one of personality, popularity, and patriotism. Hancock was immensely popular and unquestionably patriotic given his personal sacrifices and his leadership of the Second Continental Congress. Bowdoin, his principal opponent, was cast by Hancock\'s supporters as unpatriotic, citing among other things his refusal (which was due to poor health) to serve in the First Continental Congress. Bowdoin\'s supporters, who were principally well-off commercial interests from Massachusetts coastal communities, cast Hancock as a foppish demagogue who pandered to the populace.
Hancock governed Massachusetts through the end of the Revolutionary War and into an economically troubled postwar period, repeatedly winning re-election by wide margins. Hancock took a hands-off approach to governing, avoiding controversial issues as much as possible. According to William Fowler, Hancock \"never really led\" and \"never used his strength to deal with the critical issues confronting the commonwealth.\" Hancock governed until his surprise resignation on January 29, 1785. Hancock cited his failing health as the reason, but he may have become aware of growing unrest in the countryside and wanted to get out of office before the trouble came.
Hancock\'s critics sometimes believed that he used claims of illness to avoid difficult political situations. Historian James Truslow Adams writes that Hancock\'s \"two chief resources were his money and his gout, the first always used to gain popularity, and the second to prevent his losing it\". The turmoil that Hancock avoided ultimately blossomed as Shays\' Rebellion, which Hancock\'s successor Bowdoin had to deal with. After the uprising, Hancock was re-elected in 1787, and he promptly pardoned all the rebels. The next year, a controversy arose when three free blacks were kidnapped from Boston and sent to work as slaves in the French colony of Martinique in the West Indies. Governor Hancock wrote to the governors of the islands on their behalf. As a result, the three men were released and returned to Massachusetts. Hancock was re-elected to annual terms as governor for the remainder of his life.
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# John Hancock
## Final years {#final_years}
When he had resigned as governor in 1785, Hancock was again elected as a delegate to Congress, known as the Confederation Congress after the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Congress had declined in importance after the Revolutionary War and was frequently ignored by the states. Hancock was elected to serve as its president on November 23, 1785, but he never attended because of his poor health and because he was disinterested.`{{Clarify|reason=Disinterested or uninterested?|date=September 2023}}`{=mediawiki} He sent Congress a letter of resignation in June 1786.
In an effort to remedy the perceived defects of the Articles of Confederation, delegates were first sent to the Annapolis Convention in 1786 and then to the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, where they drafted the United States Constitution, which was then sent to the states for ratification or rejection. Hancock, who was not present at the Philadelphia Convention, had misgivings about the Constitution\'s lack of a bill of rights and its shift of power to a central government. In January 1788, Hancock was elected president of the Massachusetts ratifying convention, although he was ill and not present when the convention began. Hancock mostly remained silent during the contentious debates, but as the convention was drawing to close, he gave a speech in favor of ratification. For the first time in years, Samuel Adams supported Hancock\'s position. Even with the support of Hancock and Adams, the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168. Hancock\'s support was probably a deciding factor in the ratification.
Hancock was put forth as a candidate in the 1789 U.S. presidential election. As was the custom in an era where political ambition was viewed with suspicion, he did not campaign or even publicly express interest in the office; he instead made his wishes known indirectly. Like everyone else, Hancock knew that Washington was going to be elected as the first president, but he may have been interested in being vice president, despite his poor health. He received only four electoral votes in the election, however, none of them from his home state; the Massachusetts electors all voted for John Adams, who received the second-highest number of electoral votes and thus became vice president. Although Hancock was disappointed with his performance in the election, he continued to be popular in Massachusetts.
His health failing, Hancock spent his final few years as essentially a figurehead governor. With his wife at his side, he died in bed on October 8, 1793, at age 56. By order of acting governor Samuel Adams, the day of Hancock\'s burial was a state holiday; the lavish funeral was perhaps the grandest given to an American up to that time.
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# John Hancock
## Legacy
Despite his grand funeral, Hancock faded from popular memory after his death. According to historian Alfred F. Young, \"Boston celebrated only one hero in the half-century after the Revolution: George Washington.\" As early as 1809, John Adams lamented that Hancock and Samuel Adams were \"almost buried in oblivion\". In Boston, little effort was made to preserve Hancock\'s historical legacy. His house on Beacon Hill was torn down in 1863 after both the city of Boston and the Massachusetts legislature decided against maintaining it. According to Young, the conservative \"new elite\" of Massachusetts \"was not comfortable with a rich man who pledged his fortune to the cause of revolution\". In 1876, with the centennial of American independence renewing popular interest in the Revolution, plaques honoring Hancock were put up in Boston. In 1896, a memorial column was erected over Hancock\'s essentially unmarked grave in the Granary Burying Ground.
No full-length biography of Hancock appeared until the 20th century. A challenge facing Hancock biographers is that, compared to prominent Founding Fathers like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, Hancock left relatively few personal writings for historians to use in interpreting his life. As a result, most depictions of him have relied on the voluminous writings of his political opponents, who were often scathingly critical of him. According to historian Charles Akers, \"The chief victim of Massachusetts historiography has been John Hancock, the most gifted and popular politician in the Bay State\'s long history. He suffered the misfortune of being known to later generations almost entirely through the judgments of his detractors, Tory and Whig.\"
Hancock\'s most influential 20th-century detractor was historian James Truslow Adams, who wrote negative portraits of Hancock in *Harper\'s Magazine* and the *Dictionary of American Biography* in the 1930s. Adams argued that Hancock was a \"fair presiding officer\" but had \"no great ability\", and was prominent only because of his inherited wealth. Decades later, historian Donald Proctor argued that Adams had uncritically repeated the negative views of Hancock\'s political opponents without doing any serious research. Adams \"presented a series of disparaging incidents and anecdotes, sometimes partially documented, sometimes not documented at all, which in sum leave one with a distinctly unfavorable impression of Hancock\". According to Proctor, Adams evidently projected his own disapproval of 1920s businessmen onto Hancock and ended up misrepresenting several key events in Hancock\'s career. Writing in the 1970s, Proctor and Akers called for scholars to evaluate Hancock based on his merits rather than on the views of his critics. Since that time, historians have usually presented a more favorable portrait of Hancock while acknowledging that he was not an important writer, political theorist, or military leader.
Many places and things in the United States have been named in honor of Hancock. The U.S. Navy has named vessels USS *Hancock* and USS *John Hancock*; a World War II Liberty ship was also named in his honor. Ten states have a Hancock County named for him; other places named after him include Hancock, Massachusetts; Hancock, Michigan; Hancock, New Hampshire; Hancock, New York; and Mount Hancock in New Hampshire. The defunct John Hancock University was named for him, as was the John Hancock Financial company, founded in Boston in 1862; it had no connection to Hancock\'s own business ventures. The financial company passed on the name to the John Hancock Tower in Boston, the John Hancock Center in Chicago, as well as the John Hancock Student Village at Boston University. Hancock was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1780
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# Jeepster Records
**Jeepster Records** is an English, London-based independent record label, founded in 1995, and specializing in British indie and alternative bands, particularly Glasgow-based acts. It is most notable for its signing of Belle and Sebastian and Snow Patrol.
## Early success {#early_success}
Jeepster Records was founded in 1995 by Mark Jones and Stefano D'Andrea, through a mutual interest in the contemporary indie scene. Following their establishment and after extensive scouting, the label signed their first act, the newly formed Belle and Sebastian, in August 1996. In November of the same year, the band\'s first album with Jeepster, *If You\'re Feeling Sinister* was released. This established both Belle and Sebastian and Jeepster, and enabled them to release several EPs with Belle and Sebastian throughout 1997, as well as signing their second act, Snow Patrol, later in the year. 1998 then saw increased activity, with the signing of Salako, and the release of albums for all three of their signed bands; most notably Belle and Sebastian\'s *The Boy With The Arab Strap*.
The label\'s strong relationship with Belle and Sebastian enabled them in 1999 to sign Stuart David\'s side-project Looper, and Isobel Campbell\'s solo project The Gentle Waves, releasing albums for each that same year, along with a string of EPs and singles for their entire roster. The label enjoyed further good publicity when Belle and Sebastian won Best Newcomer in the 1999 Brit Awards. Later that year, Jeepster reissued Belle and Sebastian\'s debut album *Tigermilk*, which had previously been available only on limited issue vinyl.
2000 saw new albums released for Belle and Sebastian, Looper (band), and The Gentle Waves, as well as Belle and Sebastian\'s first appearance on *Top of the Pops*. In June of the same year, Belle and Sebastian had their first UK Top Ten hit with their fourth studio album, Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant which entered the UK Album Charts at No.10, spending four weeks in the charts. Towards the end of the year, the label released the *It\'s a Cool Cool Christmas* compilation on CD in association with XFM, with proceeds going to The Big Issue charity. The album was only available during this Christmas period, and featured Belle and Sebastian and Snow Patrol, as well as numerous other bands including Grandaddy, The Flaming Lips and Teenage Fanclub. The following year marked the release of Snow Patrol\'s second album *When It\'s All Over We Still Have To Clear Up* which would later go gold, along with their debut album *Songs For Polarbears*.
## Dormant period {#dormant_period}
Despite critical acclaim for its acts, Jeepster was financially troubled by 2002 due to increasing recording and marketing costs, and an unsustainable reliance on one director for financial support. This forced the label to decline renewal of the contracts of their most successful artists and concentrate solely on marketing their existing catalogue. Stefano D\'Andrea and Mark Jones resigned from the day to day running of the label, and Joanne D\'Andrea took over management of the catalogue. While they were unable to retain their signed artists for ongoing releases and could not afford to sign new acts for this period, there were several additions to the back catalogue in the next few years.
The label released a Belle and Sebastian DVD in 2003, *Fans Only*, and in 2005 *Push Barman to Open Old Wounds*, a compilation comprising all of Belle and Sebastian\'s singles and EPs released under Jeepster. This was followed in 2006 by extended re-issues of Songs for Polarbears and *When It\'s All Over We Still Have to Clear Up*, which included all their B-sides as bonus tracks.
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# Jeepster Records
## Later releases {#later_releases}
In a stronger financial position by April 2006, largely due to the commercial success of Snow Patrol on signing to a major label, Jeepster announced its first new signing in years, Reading-based act SixNationState. Following renewed scouting of the Glasgow underground scene, the label soon after announced the signing of another band, Parka, in November of the same year.
Following several singles releases by both bands, the label released its first new album in six and a half years in late 2007: SixNationState\'s self-titled debut album. In May 2008, Parka\'s own debut, *Attack of the Hundred Yard Hardman* was also released.
Before the end of 2008, Jeepster would release another Belle and Sebastian compilation, *The BBC Sessions*, collecting the tracks that the band had recorded for the BBC in 1996, which included rarities and unreleased songs, together with live recordings from Belfast.
Jeepster contributed six songs to the Polydor Records Snow Patrol compilation *Up To Now* in 2009.
In 2016, a limited release of 1200 vinyl box sets *The Jeepster Singles Collection*, containing all 12\" versions of the early Belle and Sebastian EPs, together with original fanzines, press photo, DVD and scrapbook, was made available to celebrate the 21st Anniversary of the label.
Snow Patrol\'s When It\'s All Over We Still Have to Clear Up was again reissued in 2019 on limited vinyl, with a gold 7\" containing two previously unreleased tracks.
In 2020, the Belle and Sebastian album If You\'re Feeling Sinister was listed in Rolling Stone\'s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time at No. 481.
The Jeepster charity album It\'s a Cool Cool Christmas was reissued for the first time on vinyl in 2021, in aid of War Child (charity) UK and with the blessing of all original artists.
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# Jeepster Records
## Discography
- *If You\'re Feeling Sinister* - Belle and Sebastian (1996)
- *Dog On Wheels* - Belle and Sebastian (1997)
- *Lazy Line Painter Jane* - Belle and Sebastian (1997)
- *3.. 6.
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# Judith of Poland
**Judith of Poland** (*Judyta Bolesławówna*, *Judit*; b. c. 1130/35 -- died 8 July 1171/75) was a member of the House of Piast and by marriage margravine of Brandenburg.
## Early years {#early_years}
Judith was the daughter of Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland by his second wife, Salomea of Berg. She was probably named after either her paternal grandmother, Judith of Bohemia, or her older half-sister, the princess of Murom. Judith was one of the youngest children of her parents; her date of birth remains unknown. According to Polish medieval chronicles, she was sent to Hungary as a bride of the son of King Béla II. According to the *Annales Cracovienses Compilati*, this event took place in 1136; since it can be assumed that the Polish princess was younger than her betrothed, and also are known the birth dates of the youngest children of Bolesław III (Agnes in 1137 and Casimir in 1138), Judith in consequence could have been born between 1130 and 1135.
The marriage never took place: by 1146, the engagement was broken with the consent of both parties and Judith returned to Poland. The reason for this may have been the wedding of Mieszko (Judith\'s brother) with the Hungarian princess Elisabeth (daughter of King Béla II), which sufficiently secured the Polish-Hungarian alliance.
## Margravine of Brandenburg {#margravine_of_brandenburg}
In Kruszwica on 6 January 1148 Judith married Otto, eldest son of Albert the Bear, the first Margrave of Brandenburg. This union was contracted in connection with the Ascanian efforts to support the Junior Dukes in opposition to King Conrad III of Germany, who supported the deposed High Duke Władysław II as legal ruler of Poland. During her marriage, she bore her husband two sons, Otto (who later succeeded his father as Margrave of Brandenburg) in 1149, and Henry (who inherited the Counties of Tangermünde and Gardelegen) in 1150.
Nothing is known about the political role that Judith had to play in Germany. After his father\'s death in 1170, Otto became the second Margrave of Brandenburg and Judith the Margravine consort.
## Death and aftermath {#death_and_aftermath}
Like her birth date, Judith\'s date of death remains unknown. Only the day, 8 July, is known thanks to the *Regesta Historia Brandenburgensis*, which records the death in \"*VIII Id Jul*\" of \"*Juditha marchionissa gemma Polonorum*\". By contrast, the year of death can be determined only through indirect sources. In documents from 1170 Judith is named as a living person. It is assumed that Judith died between 1171 and 1175. She was buried in the Brandenburg Cathedral.
Judith\'s oldest son, Otto II, inherited the Margraviate of Brandenburg after the death of his father in 1184. He never married or had children; because his brother Henry died before him (in 1192) also without issue, after Otto II\'s death in 1205 Brandenburg was inherited by his younger half-brother Albert II, son of Otto I and Ada
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# Boulting brothers
**John Edward Boulting** (21 December 1913 -- 17 June 1985) and **Roy Alfred Clarence Boulting** (21 December 1913 -- 5 November 2001), known collectively as the **Boulting brothers**, were English filmmakers and identical twins who became known for their series of satirical comedies in the 1950s and 1960s. They produced many of their films through their own production company, **Charter Film Productions**, which they founded in 1937.
## Early life {#early_life}
The twin brothers were born to Arthur Boulting and his wife Rosetta (Rose) *née* Bennett in Bray, Berkshire, England, on 21 December 1913. John was the elder by half an hour. John was named Joseph Edward John Boulting and Roy was named Alfred Fitzroy Clarence Boulting. Their elder brother Sydney Boulting became an actor and stage producer as Peter Cotes; he was the original director of *The Mousetrap*. A younger brother, Guy, died aged eight.
Both twins were educated at Reading School, where they formed a film society. They were extras in Anthony Asquith\'s 1931 film *Tell England* while still at school.
As a teenager, Roy emigrated to Canada, working for a while as a shop assistant, but also writing dialogue for at least one Canadian film. He worked his passage home aboard a cattle freighter in about 1933, working first in film sales before moving into film production as assistant director on a 1936 comedy quickie *Apron Fools*. The money he made on his passage home went to finance the brothers\' first work, a short entitled *Ripe Earth* (1938), about the village of Thaxted, Essex, narrated by Leo Genn.
From January to November 1937, John served on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War as an ambulance driver with the Spanish Medical Aid Committee (not, as sometimes reported, with the International Brigades), where --- according to Richard Attenborough --- he was nearly captured. John also served with the British Film Unit as an officer in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War. Roy served as a captain in the British Army, first with a tank regiment for more than a year and then with the Army Film Unit, where he made several short documentaries.
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# Boulting brothers
## Careers
The brothers constituted a producer-director team. For most of their careers one produced while the other directed, but the product remained essentially a \'Boulting Brothers film\'. They were socialists, as John demonstrated with his involvement in the Spanish Civil War (see above), and wanted all film, including comedies, to reflect the real world.
### Charter Film Productions {#charter_film_productions}
In 1937, they set up **Charter Film Productions** and made several short features, including *The Landlady* (1937) and *Consider Your Verdict* (1938), which attracted critical and commercial attention.
They made quota quickies such as *Trunk Crime* (1939) and *Inquest* (1939).
### Feature films {#feature_films}
Being eager to speak out against the Third Reich, the brothers made their film, *Pastor Hall* (1940), a biopic of Martin Niemöller, a German preacher who refused to kowtow to the Nazis. Roy directed and John produced. The film had to have its initial release delayed by the British Government, which was not yet ready to be openly critical of Nazism. Once released, the film was well received by the critics and the public.
They followed up with *Thunder Rock* (1942) with Michael Redgrave, a passionate anti-isolationist allegory distinguished by imaginative cinematography and a theatrical but highly atmospheric lighthouse setting. It was financed by MGM.
### Military service {#military_service}
In 1941, Roy joined the Army Film Unit, where he was responsible for *Desert Victory*, which won the Academy Award for Best Documentary in 1944. He also worked on *Tunisian Victory* (1944) and *Burma Victory* (1945). John joined the RAF Film Unit, where he made *Journey Together* in 1945, a dramatised documentary about the training and combat experience of a bomber crew with Richard Attenborough in the lead part. Terence Rattigan worked on the script.
### Post-war films {#post_war_films}
After the war, the Boultings made the drama *Fame Is the Spur* (1947) with Redgrave. More successful at the box-office was *Brighton Rock* (1947), starring Attenborough as the gangster \"Pinkie\" from the novel by Graham Greene. Also well liked was *The Guinea Pig* (1948), starring Richard Attenborough as a young working-class boy sent to a public school. It was made for Pilgrim Pictures who the Boultings left shortly afterwards. The Boultings co-directed the thriller *Seven Days to Noon* (1950), which won an Oscar for Best Story. It led to a less popular sequel, *High Treason* (1951). John directed *The Magic Box* (1951), a biopic of William Friese-Greene and a film containing numerous cameo appearances. It was shown at the 1951 Festival of Britain but on general release the following year proved a box office disappointment.
### Hollywood-financed films {#hollywood_financed_films}
Roy received an offer to direct a World War Two naval film, *Sailor of the King* (1953), starring Jeffrey Hunter for 20th Century Fox. *Seagulls Over Sorrento* (1954) was another war naval story financed by a Hollywood studio (in this case MGM) with an imported star (Gene Kelly); it was not a big success. The brothers collaborated on a comedy, *Josephine and Men* (1955) then Roy was hired by United Artists to do an action film with Hollywood stars, *Run for the Sun* (1956).
### Satires
In the mid-50s, the Boulting brothers became identified with \"affectionate\" satires on British institutions. The sequence began with John\'s *Private\'s Progress* (1956), a look at army life, starring Attenborough, Terry-Thomas and Ian Carmichael and co written by Frank Harvey. It was the second most commercially successful film in Britain in 1956.
They followed it with *Lucky Jim* (1957), set in academe, adapted from the novel by Kingsley Amis. It starred Carmichael and Terry-Thomas. *Brothers in Law* (1957) with Carmichael, Attenborough and Thomas, took on the legal profession. They had a break from satirising institutions with *Happy Is the Bride* (1958), an adaptation of *Quiet Wedding*, then returned to it with *Carlton-Browne of the F.O.* (1959), focusing on diplomacy.
The Boultings took on increasingly powerful trade unions and ever corrupt board room power with *I\'m All Right Jack* (1959), a sequel to *Private\'s Progress* with Carmichael, Thomas and Attenborough reprising their roles, and Harvey co-writing. The film featured a performance by Peter Sellers as trade union foreman Fred Kite. It was the most popular film at the British box office in 1959. *Suspect* (1960) was a return to the thriller genre for the brothers. *A French Mistress* (1960) was a comedy farce. *Heavens Above!* (1963) looked at religion in Britain, starring Sellers and Carmichael. It was a minor hit. *Rotten to the Core* (1965) was a heist comedy which attempted to make a star of Anton Rodgers in a Peter Sellers-type role, playing multiple parts. It featured a young Charlotte Rampling.
### Hayley Mills {#hayley_mills}
The Boultings directed and produced the northern comedy *The Family Way* (1966), starring John Mills and his teenage daughter Hayley. Roy Boulting and Hayley Mills began a relationship during the shoot despite a 33-year age difference; they married in 1971. Roy wrote and directed *Twisted Nerve* (1968), a thriller starring Mills and Hywel Bennett. The brothers had a massive hit with *There\'s a Girl in My Soup* (1970) starring Sellers and Goldie Hawn. Roy was called in to replace the director on *Mr. Forbush and the Penguins* (1971), and he brought in Mills to star. The movie was not successful. Neither was the comedy *Soft Beds, Hard Battles* (1974) made by the brothers starring Peter Sellers. Roy Boulting lost a considerable amount of money on the film. In 1975, Roy was working on a stage play, *The Family Games*. He worked on the script for *The Kingfisher Caper* (1975), starring Mills.
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# Boulting brothers
## Careers
### Later career {#later_career}
In the US, Roy directed *The Last Word* (1979), a comedy starring Richard Harris that was barely seen. When John died of cancer in 1985, Roy stopped making films. His last credit was directing an episode of the *Miss Marple* series for TV, *The Moving Finger* (1985). He was working on an adaptation of Terence Rattigan\'s play *Deja Vu* when he died. When the National Film Theatre mounted its biggest retrospective to date of British cinema in the late 1980s, Roy who launched it, introduced *Desert Victory*. The Boulting Brother\'s films have been described as being \"a sensitive barometer of the changing times\".
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# Boulting brothers
## Personal lives {#personal_lives}
John Boulting was married four times. He had six children: two sons by his first marriage; three daughters by his second. He also had a third son. With his first wife, Veronica, daughter of Irish barrister, John Craig Nelson Davidson, he had sons Norris (b. 1941) and Nicholas (b. 1943). Norris is the father of TV presenter and journalist Ned Boulting. With his second wife, Jacqueline (Jackie), he had three daughters: Jody, Emma and Lucy; the last of whom, Lucy Boulting Hill, has become a successful casting director. John\'s grandson, Jordan Stephens (son of Emma), is one half of British hip hop duo Rizzle Kicks.
Roy Boulting was married five times. He had seven children, all sons: two by his second marriage; three by his third; one through his relationship with Victoria Vaughan; and one by his fourth. With his second wife, Jean Capon (née Gamage), he had sons Jonathan (b. 1944) and Laurence (b. 1945), the latter becoming a successful film producer and director in his own right. With his second marriage, in March 1951, to Enid Munnik (née Groenewald/Grünewald), he had three children: first, Fitzroy (b. 1951); then identical twins Edmund and Rupert (b. 1952). The couple divorced in 1964. Enid, an established fashion model and later fashion editor at the French magazine *Elle*, married the 9th Earl of Hardwicke in April 1970. The model and actress Ingrid Boulting is Enid\'s daughter from her first marriage, to Cornelius Munnik.
Following his split with his third wife, Roy entered into a relationship with another fashion model, Victoria Vaughan. They had one son together. The relationship ended with his involvement with Hayley Mills. In 1971, Roy married, for the fourth time, Hayley Mills, 33 years his junior, whom he had met on the set of *The Family Way*. Their son is musician and filmmaker Crispian Mills. The couple separated in 1975, and divorced in 1977. His fifth and final marriage, in October 1978, was to actress Sandra Payne. They divorced in 1984.
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# Boulting brothers
## Deaths
John Boulting died on 17 June 1985 at his home in Sunningdale, Berkshire, and Roy Boulting 16 years later on 5 November 2001 in the Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford; both died of cancer.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
A still from *The Family Way* was used for The Smiths single \"I Started Something I Couldn\'t Finish\".
## Filmography
### Films directed jointly {#films_directed_jointly}
- *Seven Days to Noon* (1950)
- *Suspect / The Risk* (1960)
- *Heavens Above!* (1963)
### Films directed by John {#films_directed_by_john}
- *Journey Together* (1945)
- *Brighton Rock* (1948)
- *The Magic Box* (1951)
- *Private\'s Progress* (1956)
- *Lucky Jim* (1957)
- *I\'m All Right Jack* (1959)
- *Rotten to the Core* (1965)
### Films directed by Roy {#films_directed_by_roy}
- *Trunk Crime* (1939)
- *Inquest* (1939)
- *Pastor Hall* (1940)
- *Thunder Rock* (1942)
- *Tunisian Victory* (1944, documentary co-directed with Frank Capra)
- *Fame Is the Spur* (1947)
- *The Guinea Pig* (1948)
- *High Treason* (1951)
- *Single-Handed* (1953)
- *Seagulls Over Sorrento* (1954)
- *Josephine and Men* (1955)
- *Run for the Sun* (1956)
- *Brothers in Law* (1957)
- *Happy Is the Bride* (1958)
- *Carlton-Browne of the F.O.* (1959)
- *A French Mistress* (1960)
- *The Family Way* (1966)
- *Twisted Nerve* (1968)
- *There\'s a Girl in My Soup* (1970)
- *Mr
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# Johann Friedrich Endersch
**Johann Friedrich Endersch** (25 October 1705 -- 28 March 1769) was a German cartographer and mathematician. Endersch also held the title of Royal Mathematician to King Augustus III of Poland.
## Life
Endersch was born in Dörnfeld an der Heide, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, but lived most of his life in Elbing (Elbląg), Royal Prussia in the Polish--Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In 1755 Endersch completed for Imperial Prince-Bishop Adam Stanisław Grabowski (*Celsissimo ac Reverendissimo S. Rom. Imp. Principi Domino Adam Stanislao in Grabowo Grabowski Episcopo Warmiensi et Sambiesi, Terrarum Prussiae Praesidis \...*) a map of Warmia titled *Tabula Geographica Episcopatum Warmiensem in Prussia Exhibens*. The map, detailing the towns of Warmia (Ermland), was commissioned for the court of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I.
Endersch also made a copper etching that depicted a galiot that had been built in Elbing in 1738 and was named *D\' Stadt Elbing* (German for \"City of Elbląg\")
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# James Blaylock
**James Paul Blaylock** (born September 20, 1950) is an American fantasy author. He is noted for a distinctive, humorous style, as well as being one of the pioneers of the steampunk genre of science fiction. Blaylock has cited Jules Verne, H. G. Wells, Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle and Charles Dickens as his inspirations.
He was born in Long Beach, California; studied English at California State University, Fullerton, receiving an M.A. in 1974; and lives in Orange, California, teaching creative writing at Chapman University. He taught at the Orange County School of the arts until 2013. Many of his books are set in Orange County, California, and can more specifically be termed \"fabulism\"`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}that is, fantastic things happen in our present-day world, rather than in high fantasy, where the setting is often some other world. His works have also been categorized as magic realism.
He and his friends Tim Powers and K. W. Jeter were mentored by Philip K. Dick. Along with Powers, Blaylock invented the poet William Ashbless. Blaylock and Powers have often collaborated with each other on writing stories, including \"The Better Boy\", \"On Pirates\", and \"The William Ashbless Memorial Cookbook\".
Blaylock previously served as director of the Creative Writing Conservatory at the Orange County High School of the Arts until 2013, where Powers has also been Writer in Residence.
He has been married to his wife, Viki Blaylock, for more than 40 years. They have two sons.
## Awards
Blaylock\'s short story \"Thirteen Phantasms\" won the 1997 World Fantasy Award for best Short Fiction. \"Paper Dragons\" won the award in 1986. *Homunculus* won the Philip K. Dick award in 1987
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# Judicial economy
**Judicial economy** or **procedural economy** is the principle that the limited resources of the legal system or a given court should be conserved by the refusal to decide one or more claims raised in a case. For example, the plaintiff may claim that the defendant\'s actions violated three distinct laws. Having found for the plaintiff for a violation of the first law, the court then has the discretion to exercise judicial economy and refuse to make a decision on the remaining two claims, on the grounds that the finding of one violation should be sufficient to satisfy the plaintiff.
## Threshold issue in a given case {#threshold_issue_in_a_given_case}
In the presence of a threshold issue that will ultimately decide a case, a court may, depending on the degree of prejudice to the litigants rights, elect to hear that issue rather than proceeding with a full-blown trial.
## Class action lawsuits {#class_action_lawsuits}
Class action lawsuits are another example of judicial economy in action, as they are often tried as a single case, yet involve many cases with similar facts. Rather than trying each case individually, which would unduly burden the judicial system, the cases can be consolidated into a class action
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# Jacob Abbott
**Jacob Abbott** (November 14, 1803 -- October 31, 1879) was an American writer of children\'s books.
## Early life {#early_life}
On November 14, 1803, Abbott was born in Hallowell, Maine to Jacob Abbott II and Betsey Chandler. He attended the Hallowell Academy.
## Education
Abbott graduated from Bowdoin College in 1820. At some point during his years there, he supposedly added the second \"t\" to his surname, to avoid being \"Jacob Abbot the 3rd\" (although one source notes he did not actually begin signing his name with two t\'s until several years later).
Abbott studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and 1824. He taught at Portland Academy and was a tutor in Amherst College during the next year.
## Career
From 1825 to 1829 Abbott was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Amherst College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for Young Ladies in Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829--1833; was pastor of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1834--1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and in 1843--1851 a principal of Abbott\'s Institute, and in 1845--1848 of the Mount Vernon School for Boys, in New York City.
He was a prolific author, writing juvenile fiction, brief histories, biographies, religious books for the general reader, and a few works in popular science. He wrote 180 books and was a coauthor or editor of 31 more. He died in Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time after 1839, and where his brother, Samuel Phillips Abbott, founded the Abbott School.
His *Rollo Books*, such as *Rollo at Play* and *Rollo in Europe*, are the best known of his writings, having as their chief characters a representative boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two generations of young American readers a service not unlike that performed earlier, in England and the US, by the authors of *Evenings at Home*, *The History of Sandford and Merton*, and *The Parent\'s Assistant*. To follow up his Rollo books, he wrote of *Uncle George*, using him to teach the young readers about ethics, geography, history, and science. He also wrote 22 volumes of biographical histories and a 10 volume set titled the *Franconia Stories*.
His intention was to both amuse and educate, shown by this quotation from the Preface of *Bruno*:
> The books, though called story books, are not intended to be works of amusement merely to those who may receive them, but of substantial instruction. The successive volumes will comprise a great variety, both in respect to the subjects which they treat, and to the form and manner in which the subjects will be presented; but the end and aim of all will be to impart useful knowledge, to develop the thinking and reasoning powers, to teach a correct and discriminating use of language, to present models of good conduct for imitation, and bad examples to be shunned, to explain and enforce the highest principles of moral duty, and, above all, to awaken and cherish the spirit of humble and unobtrusive, but heartfelt piety.
His brothers, John Stevens Cabot Abbott and Gorham Dummer Abbott, were also authors.
See his *Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the Author* by Edward Abbott with a bibliography of his works.
Other works of note: *Lucy Books*, *Jonas Books*, *Harper\'s Story Books*, *Marco Paul*, *Gay Family*, and *Juno Books*.
## Personal life {#personal_life}
On May 18, 1829, Abbott married Harriet Vaughan. He had four sons; Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Austin Abbott, both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott, and Edward Abbott, a clergyman, were also well-known authors
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# Julian Lennon
**Julian Charles John Lennon** (born **John Charles Julian Lennon**; 8 April 1963) is an English musician, photographer, author, and philanthropist. He is the son of Beatles member John Lennon and his first wife Cynthia; Julian is named after his paternal grandmother Julia. Julian inspired three Beatles songs: \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" (1967), \"Hey Jude\" (1968), and \"Good Night\" (1968).
Lennon started a music career in 1984 with the album *Valotte*, best known for \"Too Late for Goodbyes\" and the title track, and has since released six more albums. He has held exhibitions of his fine-art photography and has written several children\'s books. In 2006, Lennon produced the environmental documentary film *Whaledreamers*, which won eight international awards. In 2007, he founded The White Feather Foundation (TWFF), whose stated mission goal is to address \"environmental and humanitarian issues\".
In 2020, Lennon was executive producer of the Netflix documentary *Kiss the Ground* about regenerative agriculture and the follow-up film *Common Ground*. In 2022, Lennon was executive producer of the documentary film *Women of the White Buffalo*, which chronicles the lives of women living on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.
## Early life {#early_life}
Julian Lennon was born John Charles Julian Lennon on 8 April 1963 at Sefton General Hospital in Liverpool, to John Lennon and Cynthia Powell. He was named after his paternal grandmother, Julia Lennon, who died five years before his birth. The Beatles\' manager, Brian Epstein, was his godfather. Lennon was educated firstly at Kingsmead School, Hoylake, during 1974--1975; then, when his mother remarried, he moved to Wales and attended Ruthin School, a boarding private school in the town of Ruthin, Denbighshire, in North Wales.
Lennon inspired one of his father\'s most famous songs, \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", whose lyrics describe a picture the boy had drawn, a watercolour painting of his friend, Lucy O\'Donnell, from nursery school, surrounded by stars. Another composition of his father inspired by him was the lullaby \"Good Night\", the closing song of *The Beatles* (also known as The White Album). In 1967, at the age of four, he attended the set of the Beatles\' film *Magical Mystery Tour*.
When Julian was five years old, in 1968, his parents divorced, following his father\'s infidelity with Japanese multimedia artist Yoko Ono. John Lennon married Ono on 20 March 1969. Julian would later have a younger half-brother, Sean Lennon.
Paul McCartney wrote \"Hey Jude\" to console him over the divorce; originally called \"Hey Jules\", McCartney changed the name because he thought that \"Jude\" was an easier name to sing. After his parents\' divorce, Julian had almost no contact with his father until the early 1970s when, at the request of his father\'s then-girlfriend, May Pang (Yoko Ono and Lennon had temporarily separated), he began to visit his father regularly. John Lennon bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and a drum machine for Christmas 1973 and encouraged his interest in music by showing him some chords.
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# Julian Lennon
## Relationship with his father {#relationship_with_his_father}
Following his father\'s murder on 8 December 1980, Julian Lennon voiced anger and resentment toward him, saying, \"I\'ve never really wanted to know the truth about how Dad was with me. There was some very negative stuff talked about me \... like when he said I\'d come out of a whiskey bottle on a Saturday night. Stuff like that. You think, where\'s the love in that? Paul and I used to hang about quite a bit \... more than Dad and I did. We had a great friendship going and there seems to be far more pictures of me and Paul playing together at that age than there are pictures of me and my dad.\"
Julian chafed at hearing his father\'s \'peace and love\' stance perpetually celebrated. He told *The Daily Telegraph,* \"I have to say that, from my point of view, I felt he was a hypocrite. Dad could talk about peace and love out loud to the world but he could never show it to the people who supposedly meant the most to him: his wife and son. How can you talk about peace and love and have a family in bits and pieces---no communication, adultery, divorce? You can\'t do it, not if you\'re being true and honest with yourself.\" Julian added, \"Mum was more about love than Dad. He sang about it, he spoke about, but he never really gave it, at least not to me as his son. The darker side definitely comes from Dad. Whenever I get too aggressive, which comes from Dad\'s side, I try to calm myself down, be more positive.\"
Recalling his renewed contact with his father in the mid-1970s, Julian said in 2009, \"Dad and I got on a great deal better then. We had a lot of fun, laughed a lot and had a great time in general when he was with May Pang. My memories of that time with Dad and May are very clear---they were the happiest time I can remember with him.\"
Julian was excluded from his father\'s will. However, a trust of £100,000 was created by his father to be shared between Julian and his half-brother, Sean. Julian sued his father\'s estate and in 1996 reached a settlement agreement, authorised by Lennon\'s widow, Yoko Ono, reportedly worth £20 million.
In an interview with CBS News in 2009, Julian stated, \"I realised if I continued to feel that anger and bitterness towards my dad, I would have a constant cloud hanging over my head my whole life. After recording the song \'Lucy,\' almost by nature, it felt right to fulfill the circle, forgive Dad, put the pain, anger and bitterness in the past, and focus and appreciate the good things. Writing is therapy for me and, for the first time in my life, I\'m actually feeling it and believing it. It also has allowed me to actually embrace Dad and the Beatles.\"
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# Julian Lennon
## Career
### Music career {#music_career}
Aside from The Beatles, Lennon was influenced by David Bowie, Keith Jarrett, Steely Dan, and AC/DC.
Lennon made his musical debut at age 11 on his father\'s album *Walls and Bridges* playing drums on \"Ya-Ya\", later saying, \"Dad, had I known you were going to put it on the album, I would\'ve played much better!\" In the sleeve notes in the album the song is credited to Julian Lennon \"starring on drums\" with \"dad on piano\".
Lennon enjoyed immediate success with his debut album, *Valotte*, released in 1984. Produced by Phil Ramone, it spawned two top 10 hits, (the title track and \"Too Late for Goodbyes\") and earned Lennon a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best New Artist in 1986. Music videos for the two hits were made by film director Sam Peckinpah and producer Martin Lewis. After the album\'s release, Paul McCartney sent Lennon a telegram wishing him good luck.
His second album, 1986\'s *The Secret Value of Daydreaming*, was panned by critics. However, it reached number 32 on the *Billboard* 200 chart and produced the single \"Stick Around\", which was Lennon\'s first number-one single on the US Album Rock Tracks chart. He recorded the song \"Because\", previously recorded by The Dave Clark Five, in the UK for Clark\'s 1986 musical *Time*.
On 1 April 1987, Julian Lennon appeared as the Baker in Mike Batt\'s musical *The Hunting of the Snark* (based on Lewis Carroll\'s poem). The all-star lineup included Roger Daltrey, Justin Hayward and Billy Connolly, with John Hurt as the narrator. The performance, a musical benefit at London\'s Royal Albert Hall in aid of the deaf, was attended by the Duchess of York. In October the same year he performed with Chuck Berry. Although Lennon never achieved the same level of success in the US as he had enjoyed with *Valotte*, his 1989 single \"Now You\'re in Heaven\" peaked at number 5 in Australia and gave him his second number 1 hit on the Album Rock Tracks chart in the US.
In 1991, George Harrison sent some ideas for Lennon\'s album *Help Yourself*, although he did not play or receive any credits. The single \"Saltwater\" reached number 6 in the UK and topped the Australian singles charts for four weeks. During this time, Lennon contributed a cover of the Rolling Stones\' \"Ruby Tuesday\" to the soundtrack of the television series *The Wonder Years*.
Lennon left the music business for several years in the 1990s to focus on philanthropy after his encounter with elders from the Mirning people of Australia. After he began his performing career, there was occasionally unfounded media speculation that Lennon would undertake performances with McCartney, Harrison and Ringo Starr. In the *Beatles Anthology* series in 1995, the three surviving Beatles confirmed there was never an idea of having Julian sit in for his father as part of a Beatles reunion, with McCartney saying, \"Why would we want to subject him to all of this?\"
In May 1998, Lennon released the album *Photograph Smile* on his own record label. Music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the album as \"well-crafted and melodic\", and concluded by saying that it was \"the kind of music that would receive greater praise if it weren\'t made by the son of a Beatle\". In 2002, he recorded a version of \"When I\'m Sixty-Four\", from the Beatles\' *Sgt. Pepper\'s Lonely Hearts Club Band* album, for an Allstate Insurance commercial.
In 2006, he ventured into Internet businesses, including MyStore.com with Todd Meagher and Bebo founder Michael Birch. In 2009, Lennon created a new partnership with Meagher and Birch called theRevolution, LLC. Through this company, Lennon released a tribute song and EP, \"Lucy\", honouring the memory of Lucy Vodden (née O\'Donnell), the little girl who inspired the song \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\", with 50 per cent of the proceeds going to fund Lupus research.
In October 2011, Lennon released the album *Everything Changes*. In 2012 he worked with music film director Dick Carruthers on the feature-length video documentary *Through the Picture Window*, which followed Lennon\'s journey in the making of *Everything Changes* and includes interviews with Steven Tyler, Bono, Gregory Darling, Mark Spiro and Paul Buchanan from The Blue Nile. *Through the Picture Window* was also released as an app in all formats with bespoke videos for all 14 tracks from the album.
On September 9, 2022, Lennon\'s album *Jude* was released on BMG. It included the singles \"Freedom\" and \"Every Little Moment\". *Goldmine* wrote about the release, \"With his new album, the first in 11 years, Julian advances his body of work that has always simultaneously explored personal and global themes, but for the first time in his life, he\'s embracing his inner status as someone\'s son\...\[an\] introspective masterwork from a diversely talented artist.\" The title is a reference to the Beatles song \"Hey Jude\", which Paul McCartney wrote in 1968 to give Julian Lennon hope for the future. Lennon said about his album title, \"Calling it *Jude* was very coming of age for me in that regard because it was very much facing up to who I am\...The content came from over three decades of songwriting. The themes and issues mostly being the same, generally about the wars within and the wars without.\"
On 23 August 2024, Lennon released a new version of \"I Should Have Known\", which was remixed by Spike Stent. Lennon shared, \"\[the song\] was always a favourite of mine," says Lennon. "I loved the way the new album \[\'Jude\'\] sounded in particular. (\...) I thought maybe Mark \'Spike\' Stent will remix this for me and give it a new life. I want it to breathe life into the world again.\"
### Film
Lennon\'s first tour as a solo musician, in early 1985, was documented as part of the film *Stand by Me: A Portrait of Julian Lennon* -- a film profile started by Sam Peckinpah, but completed by Martin Lewis after Peckinpah\'s death. Lennon has appeared in several other films including *The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus* (released 1996, originally filmed in 1968), *Cannes Man* (1996), *Imagine: John Lennon* (1988), *Chuck Berry: Hail! Hail! Rock \'n\' Roll* (1987) and a cameo in *Leaving Las Vegas* (1995) as a bartender. Julian provided the voice for the title role in the animated film *David Copperfield* (1993). He was also the voice of the main character Toby the Teapot in the animated special *The Real Story of I\'m a Little Teapot* (1990).
Lennon is also the producer of the documentary, *Whaledreamers*, about an Indigenous Australian tribe and the peoples\' special connection with whales. It also touches on many environmental issues. This film received several awards and was shown at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival.
In 2018, Lennon was an executive producer of *Women of the White Buffalo*, a documentary film released in 2022 that focused on several Lakota women from Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, and their work to preserve their way of life in the face of colonialism.
In 2020, Lennon was an executive producer of *Kiss the Ground*, an award-winning documentary film about regenerative agriculture, narrated by Woody Harrelson.
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# Julian Lennon
## Career
### Photography
After photographing his half-brother Sean\'s music tour in 2007, Lennon took up a serious interest in photography.
On 17 September 2010, Lennon opened an exhibition of 35 photographs called \"Timeless: The Photography of Julian Lennon\" with help from long-time friend and fellow photographer Timothy White. Originally scheduled to run from 17 September to 10 October, the Morrison Hotel Gallery extended it a week to end 17 October. The photographs include shots of his brother Sean and U2 frontman Bono.
Lennon\'s \"Alone\" collection was featured at the Art Basel Miami Beach Show from 6--9 December 2012, to raise money for The White Feather Foundation.
Lennon\'s \"Horizon\" series was featured at the Emmanuel Fremin Gallery, NYC, 12 March 2015, to 2 May 2015.
Lennon\'s \"Cycle\" exhibit was featured at the Leica Gallery in Los Angeles, in the fall of 2016.
Lennon uses the social media app Instagram to share his photography.
In 2021, Lennon became the first fine-arts photographer featured at the new gallery in Aston Martin Residences Miami.
In 2023, Lennon showed a series of photographs in an exhibition titled *ATMOSPHERIA* at William Turner Gallery in Santa Monica, California.
In 2024, Lennon released a book of his photographs entitled [Life\'s Fragile Moments](https://www.teneues.com/en/book/lifes-fragile-moments). It was published by the German publishing house, teNeues.
### Books
Shortly after the death of his father, Lennon began collecting Beatles memorabilia. In 2010, he published a book describing his collection, entitled: *Beatles Memorabilia: The Julian Lennon Collection*.
In 2017, Lennon began a *New York Times* Bestselling trilogy, *Touch the Earth*, *Heal the Earth* and *Love the Earth*, which he completed in 2019.
On 9 November 2021, Lennon published a graphic novel for middle-grade children, *The Morning Tribe*, with co-author Bart Davis.
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# Julian Lennon
## Philanthropy
A conversation Lennon once had with his father went as follows: \"Dad once said to me that should he pass away, if there was some way of letting me know he was going to be OK -- that we were all going to be OK -- the message would come to me in the form of a white feather. \... the white feather has always represented peace to me\". Then Julian, while on a tour in Australia, received a white feather from two Indigenous elders of the Mirning tribe in Adelaide, Australia, asking for him to help give them a voice. In response, he produced the documentary *Whaledreamers* about their tribe, and in 2007 he founded The White Feather Foundation (TWFF), whose mission \"embraces environmental and humanitarian issues and in conjunction with partners from around the world helps to raise funds for the betterment of all life, and to honor those who have truly made a difference.\"
TWFF partners with philanthropists and charities around the world to raise funds for various humanitarian projects in four major areas of giving: clean water, the preservation of Indigenous cultures, the environment and education and health. In 2008, the Prince of Monaco Albert II presented TWFF with the Better World Environmental Award.
In 2015, after the Nepal earthquake, TWFF contributed \$106,347.52 to the Music for Relief\'s Nepal aid fund to support the victims of the earthquake.
Lennon visited Kenya, Ethiopia and Colombia in 2014 to witness the education and environmental initiatives by TWFF. After his mother\'s death the following year, Lennon announced that he would be naming TWFF\'s scholarship program after her: \"The Cynthia Lennon Scholarship for Girls\". Since then, the Foundation has awarded over 50 scholarships to girls across Africa, the U.K and the U.S.
In 2019, Lennon contributed his voice and music to the soundtrack of narrative feature film *One Little Finger*, which has the initiative to spread awareness about \'ability in disability\'. It shows how important and powerful music is to support societal and cognitive development of people with disabilities.
In September 2020, Lennon was honoured with the CC Forum Philanthropy Award in Monaco. That same month, he was named a UNESCO Center for Peace 2020 Cross-Cultural and Peace Crafter Award Laureate.
In 2022, Lennon recorded his version of his father\'s 1971 song \"Imagine\" with all proceeds going to support Ukraine.
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# Julian Lennon
## Personal life {#personal_life}
### Residence and relationships {#residence_and_relationships}
After living with his parents at Kenwood in Weybridge outside London from 1964 to 1968, Lennon moved with his mother to a number of British locales, eventually settling in The Wirral near Liverpool and then to a farm in North Wales. Lennon\'s first step-father, Roberto Bassanini, whom his mother married in 1970, was Italian. Lennon moved to the United States in the early 1980s where he resided in New York City and then Los Angeles. In 1991, Lennon moved to Europe, and resided mainly in Italy where Bassanini had lived (Lennon dedicated *Photograph Smile* to Bassanini in 1998). Lennon then moved to Monaco where he currently resides, and he is a friend to Albert II, Prince of Monaco.
Lennon has been quoted as having a reasonably \"cordial\" relationship with Ono, following the financial settlement against his late father\'s estate. He remains close to her son, Sean, his half-brother. Julian saw Sean perform live for the first time in Paris on 12 November 2006 at La Boule Noire, and he and Sean spent time together on Sean\'s tour in 2007.
Lennon has no children, revealing in 2011 that his difficult relationship with his father had discouraged him from doing so.
In 2020, he legally changed his name from John Charles Julian Lennon to Julian Charles John Lennon to reflect the name by which he has always been known.
### Health
In 2020, Lennon had a cancerous mole removed from his head. In December 2024, he revealed on *The Joe Rogan Experience* podcast that he was waiting for the results of a biopsy recently taken from his arm.
### John Lennon\'s Legacy {#john_lennons_legacy}
In commemoration of John Lennon\'s 70th birthday and as a statement for peace, Lennon and his mother, Cynthia, unveiled the John Lennon Peace Monument in his home town of Liverpool, on 9 October 2010.
Lennon remains friends with his father\'s former bandmate Paul McCartney, though they experienced a brief public falling out in 2011 when Lennon was not invited to McCartney\'s wedding to Nancy Shevell. According to Lennon, McCartney later assured him that \"someone obviously made a huge mistake\" and the snub had not been intentional. McCartney provided the handwritten \"*Jude*\" motif for Lennon\'s 2022 album. He also remains friends with May Pang who provided the cover photo for \"*Jude*\". He shared his memories of her and his father in Pang\'s 2022 documentary *The Lost Weekend: A Love Story.*
## Discography
- *Valotte* (1984)
- *The Secret Value of Daydreaming* (1986)
- *Mr
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# Johann Philipp Abelin
**Johann Philipp Abelin** was a German chronicler whose career straddled the 16th and 17th centuries. He was born, probably, at Strasbourg, and died there between 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories under the pseudonyms of **Abeleus**, **Philipp Arlanibäus**, **Johann Ludwig Gottfried** and **Gotofredus**.
## Publications
He worked mainly as a translator for the publishing house of Lucas Jennisius, Matthäus Merian and Friedrich Hulsius in Frankfurt. Some of his works, such as a history of India, proved later to be translations of other works. His own works consisted mainly of compilations of historical records.
### Own works {#own_works}
Abelin produced compilations of contemporary records and letters about the events of the wars of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden without further historical commentary:
- *Arma Suecica*, 1631--1634, in 12 parts
- *Inventarium Sueciae*, 1632
In the same style, his best known work was *Theatrum Europaeum*, a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the world down to 1619, reedited, updated and republished several times, including a translation into Dutch. Its coincidence with the needs and tastes of the time, made it a very popular work. Abelin was responsible for the first two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to 21 volumes (1633--1738). However, the main interest of the volumes are the beautiful copperplate engraved illustrations of Matthäus Merian (1593--1650)
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# Jacob Abendana
**Jacob Abendana** (1630 -- 12 September 1685) was *hakham* of London from 1680 until his death.
## Biography
Abendana was the eldest son of Joseph Abendana and brother to Isaac Abendana. Though his family originally lived in Hamburg, Jacob and his brother were both born in Spain. At some point in time, his family moved to Amsterdam where he studied at the *De los Pintos* rabbinical academy in Rotterdam. In 1655, he was appointed *hakham* of that city. On 3 May 1655 Abendana delivered a famous memorial sermon on the Cordovan martyrs Marranos Nunez and Almeyda Bernal who had been burned at the stake.
Several years later, with his brother, Isaac, Jacob published the Bible commentary *Miklal Yofi* by Solomon ben Melekh which included his own commentary, *Lekket Shikchah* (Gleanings), on the Pentateuch, the Book of Joshua, and part of the Book of Judges. This was published by subscription in Amsterdam in 1660 with a second edition in 1685.
Having gone to Leiden seeking subscribers, Jacob met Antonius Hulsius whom he helped in his studies. Hulsius tried to convert Abendana to Christianity which began a lifelong correspondence between the two. The Abendana brothers similarly impressed other Christian scholars, such as Johannes Buxtorf (Basel), Johann Coccejus (Leyden), and Jacob Golius (Leyden).
With Hulsius, Abendana entered into a polemical discussion of Biblical verse Haggai 2:9, which Hulsius attempted to prove was a reference to the Church. The debate lasted via correspondence from 24 September 1659 to 16 June 1660. Abendana responded with a Spanish translation of Rabbi Judah Halevi\'s *Kuzari* in 1663. Hulsius eventually published the correspondence between the two in 1669.
In 1675, Abendana addressed the community at the dedication of the new synagogue in Amsterdam. Five years later, in 1680, he was brought to London to succeed Joshua da Silva as *hakham* of London where he served for 15 years as the hakham of the Bevis Marks Synagogue in London. Over the following years, he completed a Spanish-language translation of the Mishnah, along with the commentaries of Maimonides and Obadiah of Bertinoro. The work was frequently cited by Christian theologians, though it was never published. Jacob Abendana died in London in 1685 and was buried in the Portuguese cemetery at Mile End
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# John Abercrombie (physician)
**John Abercrombie** (10 October 1780 -- 14 November 1844) was a Scottish physician, author, philosopher and philanthropist. His Edinburgh practice became one of the most successful medical practices in Scotland. The *Chambers Biographical Dictionary* says of him that after James Gregory\'s death, he was \"recognized as the first consulting physician in Scotland\". As surgeon to The Royal Public Dispensary and the New Town Dispensary he provided free medical care for the poor of the town and taught medical students and apprentices. He published extensively on medical topics and latterly on metaphysics morality and religion. A devout Christian, he gave financial support to missionary work. Abercrombie was awarded the honorary degree of MD from the University of Oxford, was elected Rector of Marischal College and University, Aberdeen and appointed Physician to the King in Scotland.
## Early life {#early_life}
He was born in Aberdeen the eldest son of Rev George Abercrombie (1713-1790), the minister of East Church, Aberdeen, and his second wife Barbara Morice (d.1824). His father was to have a profound influence on his character and beliefs. After schooling at Aberdeen Grammar School he studied at Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where he graduated Master of Arts (MA) at the age of 15. He went on to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh obtaining his doctorate MD in 1803.
## Medical career {#medical_career}
After graduating he went for further study at St George\'s Hospital in London and, returning to Edinburgh, set up in practice at 8 Nicolson Street, next to the Edinburgh Riding School, which in 1832 was to become the site of the Playfair building of the present Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (RCSEd). In 1804 he became a Fellow of the RCSEd. His general practice rapidly became popular and in 1805 he became surgeon to the Royal. Public Dispensary in nearby Richmond Street. Here he provided free medical care for the poor of the locality and gave instruction to medical student and apprentices. By dividing the city into geographical sectors and assigning his trainees to different sectors he began a systematic training system for these trainees. In 1816 he was appointed surgeon to the newly established New Town Dispensary. From the outset he kept detailed notes on all of his patients, an unusual practice at that time. These were to form the basis for his many clinical publications, which further enhanced his reputation. From 1816 he published various papers in the *Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal*, which formed the basis of his more extensive works: *Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord*, regarded as the first textbook in neuropathology, and *Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera of the Abdomen*, both published in 1828. In the latter book described for the first time the symptoms and signs of perforated duodenal ulcer. This was at a time when, it was difficult for physicians to correlate clinical features with pathology. Abercrombie\'s gave the first ever description of the clinical features of perforated duodenal ulcer confirmed by the post-mortem. The specimen showing the perforated ulcer was placed in Surgeons' Hall Museum where it is on display to this day
In 1821 he was unsuccessful in his application for the Chair of the Practice of Physic at the University of Edinburgh. Thereafter he devoted himself to consulting medical practice. He became a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1823 and a Fellow of the College the following year.
In later years he wrote a series of philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he published his *Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth*, which was followed in 1833 by a sequel, *The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings*. Both works achieved wide popularity at the time of their publication. The Inquiries (1830) has been widely cited in treatises on the law of evidence, due to its discussion of probability, (the sources of) certainty, and (doubts regarding) testimony.
An elder of the Church of Scotland, he also wrote *The man of faith: or the harmony of Christian faith and Christian character* (1835), which he distributed freely.
Abercrombie was a founder member in 1841of the Edinburgh Association for sending Medical Aid for Foreign Countries, which became the Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society, and he gave financial support to its work.
The year after his death his *Essays* (1845) on Christian ethics were published.
## Honours and awards {#honours_and_awards}
He was President of the Edinburgh Medico-Chirurgical Society for four years from 1829. In 1831 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his proposer being Thomas Charles Hope, and served as Vice-President of the Society from 1835 to 1844. The University of Oxford awarded him the honorary degree of MD (Oxon). This was a rare honour as the only other recipient in the previous 50 years was Edward Jenner. He was elected Lord Rector of Marischal College and University, Aberdeen. He became a member of the French Académie Nationale de Médecine.
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# John Abercrombie (physician)
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1810 he was living at 43 York Place, Edinburgh. In 1831, while treating his colleague James Crawford Gregory, he contracted and recovered from typhus. In 1841, he was partially paralysed, but was nevertheless able to return to his medical practice.
He died suddenly while entering his carriage at the front of his home, 19 York Place, Edinburgh, 14 November 1844. An autopsy showed that the cause of death was ruptured coronary artery. The pathologist, Adam Hunter, speculated that his death had been brought about by excessive bloodletting. He is buried against the east wall of St Cuthberts Churchyard adjacent to the gateway into Princes Street Gardens.
Upon his death, his daughters donated his Abercrombie\'s library of circa 1000 volumes to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh.
## Artistic recognition {#artistic_recognition}
A bust of Abercrombie by John Steell is held at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. A portrait by Benjamin Walsh, painted in 1819, hangs in the RCSEd
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# Jurisdiction
**Jurisdiction** (from Latin *juris\]\]* \'law\' and *dictio\]\]* \'speech\' or \'declaration\') is the legal term for the legal authority granted to a legal entity to enact justice. In federations like the United States, the concept of jurisdiction applies at multiple levels (e.g., local, state, and federal).
Jurisdiction draws its substance from international law, conflict of laws, constitutional law, and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to allocate resources to best serve the needs of society.
## International dimension {#international_dimension}
Generally, international laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to. Such agreements are not always established or maintained. Extraterritorial jurisdiction is exercised through three principles outlined in the UN charter. These are equality of states, territorial sovereignty and non-intervention. This raises questions of when can many states prescribe or enforce jurisdiction. The *Lotus* case establishes two key rules to the prescription and enforcement of jurisdiction. The case outlines that jurisdiction is territorial and that a state may not exercise its jurisdiction in the territory of another state unless there is a rule that permits this. On that same note, states enjoy a wide measure of discretion to prescribe jurisdiction over persons, property and acts within their own territory unless there was a rule that prohibits this.
### Political issue {#political_issue}
Supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as *\[\[de jure\]\]*, it is an acknowledgment by the other **de jure** nations that the country has sovereignty and the right to exist.
However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate. If a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies.
Insofar as these bodies or nominated individuals may resolve disputes through judicial or quasi-judicial means, or promote treaty obligations in the nature of laws, the power ceded to these bodies cumulatively represents its own jurisdiction. But no matter how powerful each body may appear to be, the extent to which any of their judgments may be enforced, or proposed treaties and conventions may become, or remain, effective within the territorial boundaries of each nation is a political matter under the sovereign control of each nation.
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# Jurisdiction
## International dimension {#international_dimension}
### International and municipal {#international_and_municipal}
The fact that international organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. If the two sets of bodies do not have *concurrent* jurisdiction but, as in the case of the International Criminal Court (ICC), the relationship is expressly based on the principle of *complementarity*, i.e., the international court is subsidiary or complementary to national courts, the difficulty is avoided. But if the jurisdiction claimed is concurrent or, as in the case of International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the international tribunal is to prevail over national courts, the problems are more difficult to resolve politically.
The idea of universal jurisdiction is fundamental to the operation of global organizations such as the United Nations and the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which jointly assert the benefit of maintaining legal entities with jurisdiction over a wide range of matters of significance to nations (the ICJ should not be confused with the ICC and this version of \"universal jurisdiction\" is not the same as that enacted in the War Crimes Law (Belgium), which is an assertion of extraterritorial jurisdiction that will fail to gain implementation in any other state under the standard provisions of public policy). Under Article 34 Statute of the ICJ only nations may be parties in cases before the Court and, under Article 36, the jurisdiction comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for in the Charter of the United Nations or in treaties and conventions in force. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any given case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Court\'s time.
Despite the safeguards built into the constitutions of most of these organizations, courts and tribunals, the concept of universal jurisdiction is controversial among those nations which prefer unilateral to multilateral solutions through the use of executive or military authority, sometimes described as *realpolitik*-based diplomacy.
Within other international contexts, there are intergovernmental organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) that have socially and economically significant dispute resolution functions but, again, even though their jurisdiction may be invoked to hear the cases, the power to enforce their decisions is at the will of the nations affected, save that the WTO is permitted to allow retaliatory action by successful nations against those nations found to be in breach of international trade law. At a regional level, groups of nations can create political and legal bodies with sometimes complicated patchworks of overlapping provisions detailing the jurisdictional relationships between the member states and providing for some degree of harmonization between their national legislative and judicial functions, for example, the European Union and African Union both have the potential to become federated nations although the political barriers to such unification in the face of entrenched nationalism will be very difficult to overcome. Each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the ultimate appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched, and its authority could only be denied by a member nation if that member nation asserts its sovereignty and withdraws from the union.
#### Law
The standard treaties and conventions leave the issue of implementation to each nation, i.e. there is no general rule in international law that treaties have direct effect in municipal law, but some nations, by virtue of their membership of supranational bodies, allow the direct incorporation of rights or enact legislation to honor their international commitments. Hence, citizens in those nations can invoke the jurisdiction of local courts to enforce rights granted under international law wherever there is incorporation. If there is no direct effect or legislation, there are two theories to justify the courts incorporating international into municipal law:
- Monism
: This theory characterizes international and municipal law as a single legal system with municipal law subordinate to international law. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law. This has an interesting consequence because treaties that limit or extend the powers of the Dutch government are automatically considered a part of their constitutional law, for example, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles.
- Dualism
: This theory regards international and municipal law as separate systems so that the municipal courts can only apply international law either when it has been incorporated into municipal law or when the courts incorporate international law on their own motion. In the United Kingdom, for example, a treaty is not effective until it has been incorporated, at which time it becomes enforceable in the courts by any private citizen, where appropriate, even against the UK Government. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. The constitutional principle of parliamentary supremacy permits the legislature to enact any law inconsistent with any international treaty obligations even though the government is a signatory to those treaties.
In the United States, the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution makes all treaties that have been ratified under the authority of the United States and customary international law to be a part of the \"Supreme Law of the Land\" (along with the Constitution itself and acts of Congress passed pursuant to it) (U.S. Const.art. VI Cl. 2) As such, the law of the land is binding on the federal government as well as on state and local governments. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause in areas beyond those specifically conferred on Congress (*Missouri v. Holland*, 252 U.S. 416 (1920)).
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