id
int64 39
11.1M
| section
stringlengths 3
4.51M
| length
int64 2
49.9k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
15,382 |
# Invisible balance
The **invisible balance** or **balance of trade on services** is that part of the balance of trade that refers to services and other items that do not result in the transfer of physical objects. Examples include consulting services, shipping services, tourism, and patent license revenues. This figure is usually generated by tertiary industry. The term \'invisible balance\' is especially common in the United Kingdom.
For countries that rely on service exports or on tourism, the invisible balance is particularly important. For instance the United Kingdom and Saudi Arabia receive significant international income from financial services, while Japan and Germany rely more on exports of manufactured goods.
## Types of invisibles {#types_of_invisibles}
Invisibles are both international payments for services (as opposed to goods), as well as movements of money without exchange for goods or services. These invisibles are called \'transfer payments\' or \'remittances\' and may include money sent from one country to another by an individual, business, government or non-governmental organisations (NGO) -- often charities.
An individual remittance may include money sent to a relative overseas. Business transfers may include profits sent by a foreign subsidiary to a parent company or money invested by a business in a foreign country. Bank loans to foreign countries are also included in this category, as are license fees paid for the use of patents and trademarks. Government transfers may involve loans made or official aid given to foreign countries, while transfers made by NGO\'s include money designated for charitable work within foreign countries, respectively.
## Balance of payments and invisibles {#balance_of_payments_and_invisibles}
In many countries a useful distinction is drawn between the balance of trade and the balance of payments. \'Balance of trade\' refers to the trade of both tangible (physical) objects as well as the trade in services -- collectively known as exports and imports (in other words, \'visibles plus services\') -- while the \'balance of payments\' also includes transfers of Capital in the form of loans, investments in shares or direct investment in projects.
A nation may have a visibles balance surplus but this can be offset by a larger deficit in the invisibles balance (creating a Balance of Trade deficit overall) -- if, for example, there are large payments made to foreign businesses for invisibles such as shipping or tourism. On the other hand, a Visibles Balance deficit can be offset by a strong surplus on the invisibles balance if, for example, foreign aid is being provided.
In a similar way, a nation may also have a surplus \'balance of trade\' because it exports more than it imports but a negative (or deficit) \'balance of payments\' because, it has a much greater shortfall in transfers of capital. And, just as easily, a deficit in the \'balance of trade\' may be offset by a larger surplus in capital transfers from overseas to produce a balance of payments surplus overall.
| 479 |
Invisible balance
| 0 |
15,382 |
# Invisible balance
## Balance of payments problems and the invisible balance {#balance_of_payments_problems_and_the_invisible_balance}
Problems with a country\'s balance of trade (or balance of payments) are often associated with an inappropriate valuation of its currency, its country\'s foreign exchange rate.
If a country\'s exchange rate is too high, its exports will become uncompetitive as buyers in foreign countries require more of their own currency to pay for them. In the meantime, it also becomes cheaper for the citizens of the country to buy goods from overseas, as opposed to buying locally produced goods), because an overvalued currency makes foreign products less expensive.
The simultaneous decline in currency inflows from decreased exports and the rise in outflows, due to increased imports, sends the balance of trade into deficit, which then needs to be paid for by a transfer of funds in some form, either invisible transfers (aid, etc.) or capital flows (loans, etc.). However, relying on funds like that to support a trade deficit, is unsustainable, and the country may eventually require its currency to be devalued.
If, on the other hand, a currency is undervalued, its exports will become cheaper and therefore more competitive internationally. At the same time, imports will also become more costly, stimulating the production of domestic substitutes to replace them. That will result in a growth of currency flowing into the country and a decline in currency flowing out of it, resulting in an improvement in the country\'s balance of trade.
Because a nation\'s exchange rate has a big impact on its \'balance of trade\' and its \'balance of payments\', many economists favour freely floating exchange rates over the older, fixed (or pegged) rates of foreign currency exchange. Floating exchange rates allow more regular adjustments in exchange rates to occur, allowing the greater opportunity for international payments to maintain equilibrium
| 303 |
Invisible balance
| 1 |
15,392 |
# Imperial Conference
**Imperial Conferences** (**Colonial Conferences** before 1907) were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empire between 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in 1944. They were held in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930, 1932 and 1937.
All the conferences were held in London, the seat of the Empire, except for the 1894 and 1932 conferences which were held in Ottawa, the capital of the senior Dominion of the Crown. The 1907 conference changed the name of the meetings to Imperial Conferences and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (e.g. jubilees and coronations).
## List of conferences {#list_of_conferences}
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| Year | Date | Host | Location | Retreat | Chairman |
+======+===========================+========+==========+===========================================+==========================+
| 1887 | 4 April -- 6 May | | London | Senate House, Bloomsbury | Lord Salisbury |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1894 | 28 June -- 9 July | Canada | Ottawa | Centre Block | Mackenzie Bowell |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1897 | 24 June -- 8 July | | London | Colonial Office, Whitehall | Joseph Chamberlain |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1902 | 30 June -- 11 August | | | | Joseph Chamberlain |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1907 | 15 April -- 14 May | | | | Henry Campbell-Bannerman |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1911 | 23 May -- 20 June | | | | H. H. Asquith |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1917 | 21 March -- 27 April | | | | David Lloyd George |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1918 | 12 June -- 26 July | | | | David Lloyd George |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1921 | 20 June -- 5 August | | | | David Lloyd George |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1923 | 1 October -- 8 November | | | | Stanley Baldwin |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1926 | 19 October -- 22 November | | | | Stanley Baldwin |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1930 | 1 October -- 14 November | | | | Ramsay MacDonald |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1932 | 21 July -- 18 August | Canada | Ottawa | House of Commons Chamber, Parliament Hill | R. B. Bennett |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| 1937 | 14 May -- 24 June | | London | | Stanley Baldwin\ |
| | | | | | (until 28 May)\ |
| | | | | | Neville Chamberlain\ |
| | | | | | (from 28 May) |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
| | | | | | |
+------+---------------------------+--------+----------+-------------------------------------------+--------------------------+
## Notable meetings {#notable_meetings}
Originally instituted to emphasise imperial unity, as time went on, the conferences became a key forum for dominion governments to assert the desire for removing the remaining vestiges of their colonial status. The conference of 1926 agreed to the Balfour Declaration, which acknowledged that the dominions would henceforth rank as equals to the United Kingdom, as members of the \'British Commonwealth of Nations\'.
The conference of 1930 decided to abolish the legislative supremacy of the British Parliament as it was expressed through the Colonial Laws Validity Act and other Imperial Acts. The statesmen recommended that a declaratory enactment of Parliament, which became the Statute of Westminster 1931, be passed with the consent of the dominions, but some dominions did not ratify the statute until some years afterwards. The 1930 conference was notable, too, for the attendance of Southern Rhodesia, despite it being a self-governing colony, not a dominion.
## Towards Commonwealth meetings {#towards_commonwealth_meetings}
As World War II drew to a close, Imperial Conferences were replaced by Commonwealth Prime Ministers\' Conferences, with 17 such meetings occurring from 1944 until 1969, all but one of the meetings occurred in London. The gatherings were renamed Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM) in 1971 and were henceforth held every two years with hosting duties rotating around the Commonwealth
| 654 |
Imperial Conference
| 0 |
15,395 |
# International Refugee Organization
The **International Refugee Organization** (**IRO**) was an intergovernmental organization founded on 20 April 1946 to deal with the massive refugee problem created by World War II. A Preparatory Commission began operations fourteen months previously. In 1948, the treaty establishing the IRO formally entered into force and the IRO became a United Nations specialized agency. The IRO assumed most of the functions of the earlier United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. In 1952, operations of the IRO ceased, and it was replaced by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
The **Constitution of the International Refugee Organization**, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 15 December 1946, is the founding document of the IRO. The constitution specified the organization\'s field of operations. Controversially, the constitution defined \"persons of German ethnic origin\" who had been expelled, or were to be expelled from their countries of birth into the postwar Germany, as individuals who would \"not be the concern of the Organization.\" This excluded from its purview a group that exceeded in number all the other European displaced persons put together. Also, because of disagreements between the Western allies and the Soviet Union, the IRO only worked in areas controlled by Western armies of occupation.
Twenty-six states became members of the IRO and it formally came into existence in 1948: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Republic of China, Chile, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, France, Guatemala, Honduras, Iceland, Italy, Liberia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, the Philippines, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Venezuela. The U.S. provided about 40% of the IRO\'s \$155 million annual budget. The total contribution by the members for the five years of operation was around \$400 million. It had rehabilitated around 10 million people during this time, out of 15 million people who were stranded in Europe. The IRO\'s first Director-General was William Hallam Tuck, succeeded by J. Donald Kingsley on 31 July 1949.
IRO closed its operations on 31 January 1952 and after a liquidation period, went out of existence on 30 September 1953. By that time many of its responsibilities had been assumed by other agencies. Of particular importance was the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, established in January 1951 as a part of the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (originally PICMME), set up in December 1951.
## Filmography
- *The Search* by Fred Zinnemann (1948): The IRO helped the producers to make this story about children refugees, in 1945 Germany
| 425 |
International Refugee Organization
| 0 |
15,437 |
# ITU prefix
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) allocates call sign prefixes for radio and television stations of all types. They also form the basis for, but may not exactly match, aircraft registration identifiers. These prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of country code. A call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country.
With regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with A to Z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. For example, the United States is assigned KA--KZ, and therefore can also use prefixes like K1 or K9.
While ITU prefix rules are adhered to in the context of international broadcasting, including amateur radio, it is rarer for countries to assign broadcast call signs to conventional AM, FM, and television stations with purely domestic reach; the United States, Canada, Mexico, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, and Argentina are among those that do. Canada presents one notable exception to the ITU prefix rules: Since 1936, it has used *CB* for its own Canadian Broadcasting Corporation stations, whereas Chile is officially assigned the CB prefix. Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada\'s broadcasting rules indicate this is through a \"special arrangement\", without elaborating. In any case, the two countries are geographically separate enough to prevent confusion; Canada\'s shortwave broadcasters and amateur radio stations have always used one of its assigned ITU prefixes.
## Unallocated and unavailable call sign prefixes {#unallocated_and_unavailable_call_sign_prefixes}
**Unallocated:** The following call sign prefixes are available for future allocation by the ITU. (*x* represents any letter; *n* represents any digit from 2--9.)
- E8, E9, H5, J9, O*n*, S4, T9\*, U*n*, V9, X*n*, YZ\*, Z4--Z7, Z9, 4N\*.
(\* Indicates a prefix that has recently been returned to the ITU.)
**Unavailable:** Under present ITU guidelines the following call sign prefixes shall not be allocated. They are sometimes used unofficially -- such as amateur radio operators operating in a disputed territory or in a nation state that has no official prefix (e.g. S0 in Western Sahara or station **1A0** at Knights of Malta headquarters in Rome). (*x* represents any letter; *n* represents any digit from 2--9.)
- *nn*, *x*0, *x*1, 0*x*, 1*x*, Q*x*.
- no prefixes beginning with **Q** are used---they may be confused with Q codes. Note that this applies to prefixes only - suffixes are the responsibility of the allocating country.
- no prefixes with the digits **1** or **0** are used---they may be confused with the letters **I** or **O**.
- two digit prefixes (*nn*) are not as yet considered by the ITU
| 468 |
ITU prefix
| 0 |
15,441 |
# Italian battleship Giulio Cesare
*Pandoc failed*: ```
Error at (line 5, column 1):
unexpected '{'
{{Infobox ship image
^
``
| 21 |
Italian battleship Giulio Cesare
| 0 |
15,446 |
# Ithaca College
**Ithaca College** is a private college in Ithaca, New York. It was founded by William Egbert in 1892 as a conservatory of music. Ithaca College is known for its media-related programs and entertainment programs within the Roy H. Park School of Communications and the Ithaca College School of Music, Theatre, and Dance. The college has a liberal arts focus, and offers several pre-professional programs, along with several graduate programs, mainly in Business, Health Sciences, and teaching degrees through the school of Humanities and Sciences.
## History
### Beginnings
Ithaca College was founded as the *Ithaca Conservatory of Music* in 1892 when a local violin teacher, William Grant Egbert, rented four rooms and arranged for the instruction of eight students. For nearly seven decades the institution flourished in the city of Ithaca, adding to its music curriculum the study of elocution, dance, physical education, speech correction, radio, business, and the liberal arts. In 1931 the conservatory was chartered as a private college under its current name, *Ithaca College*. The college was originally in the Boardman House; that building later became the Ithaca College Museum of Art, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.
### Modern era {#modern_era}
By 1960, the college had some 2,000 students. A campus was built on South Hill in the 1960s, and students were shuttled between the old and new locations during the construction. The hillside campus continued to grow in the ensuing 30 years to accommodate more than 6,000 students.
As the campus expanded, the college also began to expand its curriculum. By the 1990s, some 2,000 courses in more than 100 programs of study were available in the college\'s five schools. The school attracts a multicultural student body with representatives from almost every state and from 78 other countries. In October 2020 the college announced that 130 of its 547 faculty positions would be cut to reduce the school\'s budget by \$30 million because of declining enrollment. 4,957 undergraduate students enrolled in the fall of 2020, versus 5,852 in 2019 and 6,101 in 2018.
### Presidents
Ithaca\'s current president is La Jerne Terry Cornish. She was named the school\'s 10th president, in March 2022, after having served in as interim president since August 30, 2021.
She replaced Shirley M. Collado who departed Ithaca College to become the president and CEO of College Track, a comprehensive college completion program. She was named the ninth president of Ithaca College on February 22, 2017, and assumed the presidency on July 1, 2017. She was previously executive vice chancellor and chief operating officer at Rutgers University--Newark and vice president of student affairs and dean of the college at Middlebury College. She is the first Dominican American to be named president of a college in the United States. During Collado\'s time as president she was the center of multiple controversies. Collado faced backlash when students and faculty discovered she was accused of sexually abusing a female patient while working as a psychologist in Washington, D.C., in 2000 and was convicted of sexual abuse in 2001. Students further questioned her transparency when she announced plans to cut 116 full-time faculty members, some of whom had worked at the school for decades, after receiving a \$172,769 payment. Collado eventually announced in July 2021 that she will step down in January to become president and CEO of College Track.
Collado succeeded Thomas Rochon, who was named eighth president of Ithaca College on April 11, 2008. Rochon took over as president of the college following Peggy Williams, who had announced on July 12, 2007, that she would retire from the presidency post effective May 31, 2009, following a one-year sabbatical. During the fall 2015 semester, multiple protests focusing on campus climate and Rochon\'s leadership were led by students and faculty. After multiple racially charged events including student house party themes and racially tinged comments at administration led-programs, students, faculty and staff all decided to hold votes of \"no confidence\" in Rochon. Students voted \"no confidence\" by a count of 72% no confidence, 27% confidence, and 1% abstaining. The faculty voted 77.8% no confidence to 22.2% confidence. Rochon retired on July 1, 2017.
President Life Tenure
------------------------ ------------ ---------------
W. Grant Egbert 1867--1928 1892--1924
George C. Williams 1874--1971 1924--1932
Leonard B. Job 1891--1981 1932--1957
Howard I. Dillingham 1904--1998 1957--1970
Ellis L. Phillips Jr. 1926--2006 1970--1975
James J. Whalen 1927--2001 1975--1997
Peggy R. Williams 1997--2008
Thomas Rochon 2008--2017
Shirley M. Collado 2017--2021
La Jerne Terry Cornish 2021--present
## Campus
Ithaca College\'s current campus was built in the 1960s on South Hill. The college\'s final academic department moved from downtown to the South Hill campus in 1968, making the move complete.
### Satellite campuses {#satellite_campuses}
Besides its Ithaca campus, Ithaca College has also operated satellite campuses in other cities. The Ithaca College London Center has been in existence since 1972. Ithaca runs the Ithaca College Los Angeles Program at the James B. Pendleton Center.
Former programs include the Ithaca College Antigua Program and the Ithaca College Walkabout Down Under Program in Australia.
Ithaca College also operates direct enrollment exchange programs with several universities, including Griffith University, La Trobe University, Murdoch University, and University of Tasmania (Australia); Chengdu Sport University and Beijing Sport University (China); University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong); Masaryk University (Czech Republic); Akita International University and University of Tsukuba (Japan); Hanyang University (Korea); Nanyang Technological University (Singapore); University of Valencia (Spain); and Jönköping University (Sweden). Ithaca College is also affiliated with study abroad programs such as IES Abroad and offers dozens of exchange or study abroad options to students.
| 933 |
Ithaca College
| 0 |
15,446 |
# Ithaca College
## Academics
`{{Infobox US university ranking
| Forbes = 431
| USNWR_REG = 13
| Wamo_MASTERSU = 111
| THE_WSJ = 234
}}`{=mediawiki}
The college offers a curriculum with more than 100 degree programs in its five schools:
- School of Business
- Roy H. Park School of Communications
- School of Health Sciences & Human Performance
- School of Humanities & Sciences
- School of Music, Theatre, and Dance
Until the spring of 2011, several cross-disciplinary degree programs, along with the Center for the Study of Culture, Race, and Ethnicity, were housed in the Division of Interdisciplinary and International Studies; in 2011, the division was eliminated and its programs, centers and institutes were absorbed into other schools.
, the most popular majors included visual and performing arts, health professions and related programs, business, management, marketing, and related support services and biological and biomedical sciences.
## Student life {#student_life}
### Media and publications {#media_and_publications}
- *The Ithacan* is Ithaca College\'s official weekly newspaper that is written, edited and published by students. *The Ithacan* and its staff have won over 200 major collegiate journalism awards and is generally recognized as one of the top student-run newspapers in the country.`{{whom|date=July 2022}}`{=mediawiki} Most notably, the newspaper is a consistent recipient of the Associated Collegiate Press\' National Pacemaker Award; it has received the National Newspaper Pacemaker Award six times and the Online Pacemaker Award nine times (both most recently in 2015). The Pacemaker has been widely considered the \"Pulitzer Prize of collegiate journalism.\" *The Ithacan* is also a five-time recipient of the Gold Crown Award from the Columbia Scholastic Press Association, most recently receiving the award in 2016. *The Ithacan* was also ranked #3 on the 2018 The Princeton Review Best College Newspaper list.
- Ithaca College Television (ICTV) is the world\'s oldest student-operated college television channel. Broadcasting since 1958, ICTV is available to 26,000 cable households. It is also one of the most awarded student-run television stations, with its news program, *Newswatch*, receiving best news telecast accolades from organizations including the New York State Associated Press Broadcasters Association, Society of Professional Journalists and Collegiate Broadcasters Inc. The show also received ICTV\'s first College Emmy Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. ICTV is housed and operated in the Roy H. Park School of Communications. Approximately 15 to 20 production teams operate simultaneously, utilizing around 400 volunteers each semester. Programming varies by semester, but typically includes news, sports, entertainment, scripted, and podcast programs.
- WICB is a student-operated, 4,100 watt FM station that serves Tompkins County and beyond, reaching from northern Pennsylvania to Lake Ontario, with a potential audience of over 250,000. The majority of programming on WICB -- which broadcasts from 91.7 on the FM band -- is modern rock, but the station also airs a number of specialty shows, which includes a number of genres (including blues, Broadway, jam band music and \"homeless\" music) that is not normally heard on public airwaves. Recently, readers of the Ithaca Times voted 92 WICB \"Best Radio Station.\" WICB has also won the MTV U\'s Woodie Award for Best College Radio, while the Princeton Review ranks WICB the number one college radio station in the country.
- VIC Radio is Ithaca College\'s second student-run radio station. Previously available on 105.9 FM, VIC Radio is now an online-only radio station. It is most well known for its annual 50 Hour Marathon, in which four DJs broadcast for 50 hours straight to raise money for local community organizations.
- *Buzzsaw Magazine*, formerly *Buzzsaw Haircut*, was founded in 1999 and is an independent monthly alternative magazine written, produced and distributed by Ithaca College students. It is a progressive publication with a goal to \"publish original creative journalism, commentary and satire that works to deconstruct society, pop culture, politics, college life and dominant Western beliefs.\" The faculty adviser is media critic Jeff Cohen, who is also the founder of the college\'s Park Center for Independent Media. In 2011, the organization added a new multimedia section to Buzzsaw, titled Seesaw, dedicated to creating documentaries, radio pieces, interactive graphics, and other multimedia pieces to complement the print and online magazine. *Buzzsaw* has also won a number of national awards, including the Campus Alternative Journalism Project\'s award for \"Best Sense of Humor\" and the Independent Press Association\'s Campus Independent Journalism Awards for \"Best Campus Publication with a Budget Under \$10,000\" and \"Best Political Commentary.\"
- Park Productions is a professional production unit within the Roy H. Park School of Communications which allows students to collaborate with faculty and industry professionals to create interdisciplinary media projects. Park Productions partners with community organizations, government agencies, and higher education institutions and has produced over 200 titles including documentaries, feature films, shorts, commercials, museum exhibits, television programs, educational, corporate, and web-based media. Awards and juried screenings include LA Webfest, Mexico International Film Festival, CINE Awards, Chicago International Film Festival, Official selections at Miami, University Film and Video Festival, Cinema in Industry Awards, Multiple International Communicator Awards, Oberhausen, Montreal, Palm Springs, and Hudson Valley Film Festivals.
- *Distinct Magazine* is self described as Ithaca College\'s \"fashion magazine devoted to the style and culture of the students on campus\...\[it aims\] to break gender and social class stereotypes in the fashion world, and to build a safe space for people to express themselves.\" The first issue was released online in 2016. The magazine is separated into five content sections: Fashion, Beauty, Life, Culture, and Health and Fitness. *Distinct* is released in print twice a semester (Fall, Winter, Spring and Summer editions).
- *Embrace* is an IC magazine that aims \"to create a platform in which underrepresented students are able to see a representation of themselves on campus and within society.\" The magazine is separated into content sections: LGBTQ+, Fashion, Politics and News, Mind Body Spirit, Personal Narratives and Alumni Highlight. It was first published in February 2016.
### Greek life {#greek_life}
Historically, various independent and national fraternities and sororities had active chapters at Ithaca College. However, due to a series of highly publicized hazing incidents in the 1980s, including one that was responsible for the death of a student, the college administration reevaluated their Greek life policy and only professional music fraternities were allowed to remain affiliated with the school.
, professional coed music fraternity Mu Phi Epsilon is the only remaining recognized Greek organization on campus. Previously, three other recognized music and performing arts houses also existed on campus:
- Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia (Delta Chapter) - became inactive in 2024
- Sigma Alpha Iota (Epsilon Chapter) - became inactive in 2024
- Kappa Gamma Psi (Iota Chapter) - became inactive in 2008
It is highly unlikely any of these houses will ever be reactivated at Ithaca, due to the college\'s policy on Greek life.
However, there are various Greek letter organizations at Ithaca College that are unaffiliated with the school, and therefore not subject to the same housing privileges or rules that contribute to the safety of their members such as non-hazing and non-drinking policies. Additionally, while not particularly common, Ithaca College students may rush for Greek houses affiliated with nearby Ivy institution Cornell University, subject to the rules of each individual fraternity or sorority. Some Cornell-affiliated Greek organizations actively recruit Ithaca College students.
There are a few unaffiliated fraternities that some Ithaca College students join - ΔΚΕ (Delta Kappa Epsilon), ΑΕΠ (Alpha Epsilon Pi), ΦΚΣ (Phi Kappa Sigma), ΦΙΑ (Phi Iota Alpha), ΛΥΛ (Lambda Upsilon Lambda), and ΚΣ (Kappa Sigma). There are also unaffiliated sororities including - ΓΔΠ (Gamma Delta Pi), ΠΛΧ (Pi Lambda Chi), ΦΜΖ (Phi Mu Zeta), .
| 1,268 |
Ithaca College
| 1 |
15,446 |
# Ithaca College
## Student life {#student_life}
### Music
Ithaca College is well-known for its music school, and offers many diverse opportunities to perform music, whether it be with ensembles within the official School of Music, Theatre, and Dance or student-organized organizations dedicated to performing music outside of the official School of Music.
The School of Music offers many audition-based ensembles, such as symphony orchestra, chamber orchestra, wind ensemble, concert band, multiple choir ensembles, multiple jazz ensembles ranging from instrumental to vocal, as well as several other chamber groups focusing on a multitude of instruments. The School of Music also offers multiple opportunities to perform opera works, such as the school\'s Opera Workshop, which offers a variety of focused training in such areas as audition technique, interpretation, and scene study through multiple performance opportunities. The school also offers several non-auditioned ensembles, such as the symphony orchestra Sinfonietta, as well as several non-auditioned ensembles for band, jazz, and choir opened up to non-music majors. The School of Music, Theatre, and Dance also showcases multiple audition-based productions a year, typically featuring multiple musical theater productions and an opera.
Outside of the School of Music, Theatre, and Dance, there are several student-run a cappella groups on campus, which include:
- IC Voicestream, founded in 2002, is the college\'s premier all-gender inclusive a cappella group.
- Ithacappella, founded in 1996, is the college\'s only all-male identifying a cappella group.
- Premium Blend, the college\'s only all-female aligned a cappella group.
- Tone Cold, an all gender inclusive a cappella group.
- Pitch Please, the college\'s only non-auditioned all-gender a cappella group.
- NUVO (New Voices), founded in 2024, is the college\'s BIPOC inclusive a cappella group.
## Athletics
Ithaca competes in athletics at the NCAA Division III level as a members of the Liberty League and the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). Ithaca has one of Division III\'s strongest athletic programs, with the Bombers winning a total of 14 national titles in seven team sports and five individual sports. Ithaca was previously a member of the Empire 8.
| 344 |
Ithaca College
| 2 |
15,446 |
# Ithaca College
## Intramurals
Along with Intercollegiate athletics, Ithaca College has a large intramural sport program. This extracurricular program serves approximately 25% of the undergraduate population yearly. Fourteen traditional team activities are offered throughout the year and include basketball, flag football, kickball, soccer, softball, ultimate, ski racing, and volleyball.
For most activities, divisions are offered for men\'s, women\'s, and co-recreational teams. Throughout the year usually two or more activities run concurrently and participants are able to play on a single sex team and co-recreational team for each activity.
## Sustainability
Ithaca\'s School of Business was the first college or university business school in the world to achieve LEED Platinum Certification alongside Yale University, which had the second. Ithaca\'s Peggy Ryan Williams Center is also LEED Platinum certified. It makes extensive use of day light in occupied spaces. There are sensors that regulate lighting and ventilation based on occupancy and natural light. Over 50% of the building energy comes from renewable sources such as wind power. The college also has a LEED Gold Certified building, the Athletics & Events Center. The college composts its dining hall waste, runs a \"Take It or Leave It\" Green move-out program, and offers a sustainable living option. It also operates an office supply collection and reuse program, as well as a sustainability education program during new student orientation. Ithaca received a B− grade on the Sustainable Endowments Institute\'s 2009 College Sustainability Report Card and an A− for 2010.
In 2017, Ithaca College was listed as one of Princeton Review\'s top \"green colleges\" for being environmentally responsible.
### Commitments to action on climate change {#commitments_to_action_on_climate_change}
In the spring of 2007, then-President Peggy R. Williams signed the American College & University President\'s Climate Commitment (ACUPCC), pledging Ithaca College to the task of developing a strategy and long-range plan to achieve \"carbon neutrality\" at some point in the future. In 2009 the Ithaca College Board of Trustees approved the Ithaca College Climate Action Plan, which calls for 100% carbon neutrality by 2050. In 2009, the Ithaca College Board of Trustees approved the Ithaca College Climate Action Plan, which calls for 100% carbon neutrality by 2050 and offers a 40-year action plan to work toward that ambitious goal.
### Energy profile {#energy_profile}
The college purchases 100 percent of its electricity from renewable sources. Including offsets from a solar farm, the college\'s overall energy usage is 45 percent carbon neutral.
### Energy investments {#energy_investments}
The college aims to optimize investment returns and does not invest the endowment in on-campus sustainability projects, renewable energy funds, or community development loan funds. The college\'s investment policy reserves the right of the investment committee to restrict investments for any reason, which could include environmental and sustainability factors.
| 454 |
Ithaca College
| 3 |
15,446 |
# Ithaca College
## Sustainability
### Community impact {#community_impact}
While the Ithaca College Natural Lands has issued a statement that Ithaca College should join efforts calling for a moratorium on horizontal drilling and high volume (\"slick water\") hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, the college as a whole has refused to issue a statement regarding the issue.
## Notable alumni {#notable_alumni}
Ithaca College has over 70,000 alumni, with clubs in Boston, Chicago, Connecticut, Los Angeles, Metro New York, National Capital, North and South Carolina, Philadelphia, Rochester (NY), San Diego, and Southern Florida. Alumni events are hosted in cooperation with city-specific clubs and through a program called \"IC on the Road\".
## Notable faculty {#notable_faculty}
Notable current and former Ithaca College faculty include:
- Asma Barlas, politics, director of the Center for the Study of Culture, Race, and Ethnicity. Specializes in comparative and international politics; women, gender, and Islam; Islam and Qur\'anic hermeneutics
- Rick Beato, music educator and producer
- Jeff Cohen, journalism, and founding director, Park Center for Independent Media; media critic and commentator, author, founder of Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) media watchdog group
- Patrick Conway, early 20th-century bandleader
- Andrew Ezergailis, history; expert in 20th-century history of Latvia
- Robert Allen Iger, an American media business executive who serves as the chief executive officer (CEO) of The Walt Disney Company.
- A. Van Jordan, poet
- Marisa Kelly, political scientist, President of Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts
- Nicholas Muellner, media arts, sciences and studies; photographer and writer whose work has been acclaimed by *Time* magazine and the Paris Photo--Aperture Foundation
- Alex Perialas, sound recording technology; acclaimed audio engineer and record producer known for his extensive work during the \"golden age\" of thrash metal
- Rod Serling, communications; creator, producer and host of *The Twilight Zone*
- Saviana Stănescu, theater; poet, playwright, script analyst, journalist
- Gordon Stout, music; percussionist, composer, specializes in marimba
- Fred A. Wilcox, writing; nonfiction writer, fiction writer, expert on Vietnam War and effects of U.S. use of Agent Orange on U.S. military members and Vietnamese people (retired 2014)
- Dana Wilson, the Charles A. Dana Professor of Music; composer, jazz pianist42.4218 -76
| 362 |
Ithaca College
| 4 |
15,447 |
# Differential psychology
**Differential psychology** studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the processes that underlie it. It is a discipline that develops classifications (taxonomies) of psychological individual differences. This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that, although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists often study groups, or attempt to discover general psychological processes that apply to all individuals. This particular area of psychology was first named and still retains the name of \"differential psychology\" by William Stern in his 1900 book \"*Über Psychologie der individuellen Differenzen*\" (On the Psychology of Individual Differences).
While prominent psychologists, including Stern, have been widely credited for the concept of differential psychology, historical records show that it was Charles Darwin (1859) who first spurred the scientific interest in the study of individual differences. The interest was further pursued by half-cousin Francis Galton in his attempt to quantify individual differences among people.
For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one treatment group might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo (or a well-known therapy) in a second, control group. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This approach is applied because psychological research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people.
## Importance of individual differences {#importance_of_individual_differences}
Importantly, individuals can also differ not only in their current state, but in the magnitude or even direction of response to a given stimulus. Such phenomena, often explained in terms of inverted-U response curves, place differential psychology at an important location in such endeavours as personalized medicine, in which diagnoses are customised for an individual\'s response profile.
## Areas of study {#areas_of_study}
Individual differences research typically includes personality, temperament (neuro-chemically based behavioural traits), motivation, intelligence, ability, IQ, interests, values, self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Although the United States has seen a decrease in individual differences research since the 1960s, researchers are found in a variety of applied and experimental fields. These fields include clinical psychology, psychophysiology, educational psychology, Industrial and organizational psychology, personality psychology, social psychology, behavioral genetics, and developmental psychology programs, in the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development in particular.
## Methods of research {#methods_of_research}
To study individual differences, psychologists use a variety of methods. The method is to compare and analyze the psychology and behaviour of individuals or groups under different environmental conditions. By correlating observed psychological and behavioral differences with known accompanying environments, the relative roles of different variables in psychological and behavioral development can be probed. Psychophysiological experiments on both humans and other mammals include EEG and ERPs, PET-scans, MRI, functional MRI, neurochemistry experiments with neurotransmitter and hormonal systems, caffeine and controlled drug challenges. These methods can be used for a search of biomarkers of consistent, biologically based behavioural patterns (temperament traits and symptoms of psychiatric disorders). Other sets of methods include behavioural experiments, to see how different people behave in similar settings. Behavioural experiments are often used in personality and social psychology, and include lexical and self-report methods where people are asked to complete paper-based and computer-based forms prepared by psychologists
| 542 |
Differential psychology
| 0 |
15,462 |
# Integral domain
In mathematics, an **integral domain** is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Integral domains are generalizations of the ring of integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility. In an integral domain, every nonzero element *a* has the cancellation property, that is, if `{{nowrap|''a'' ≠ 0}}`{=mediawiki}, an equality `{{nowrap|''ab'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} *ac*}} implies `{{nowrap|''b'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} *c*}}.
\"Integral domain\" is defined almost universally as above, but there is some variation. This article follows the convention that rings have a multiplicative identity, generally denoted 1, but some authors do not follow this, by not requiring integral domains to have a multiplicative identity. Noncommutative integral domains are sometimes admitted. This article, however, follows the much more usual convention of reserving the term \"integral domain\" for the commutative case and using \"domain\" for the general case including noncommutative rings.
Some sources, notably Lang, use the term **entire ring** for integral domain.
Some specific kinds of integral domains are given with the following chain of class inclusions:
## Definition
An *integral domain* is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Equivalently:
- An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring with no nonzero zero divisors.
- An integral domain is a commutative ring in which the zero ideal {0} is a prime ideal.
- An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring for which every nonzero element is cancellable under multiplication.
- An integral domain is a ring for which the set of nonzero elements is a commutative monoid under multiplication (because a monoid must be closed under multiplication).
- An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which for every nonzero element *r*, the function that maps each element *x* of the ring to the product *xr* is injective. Elements *r* with this property are called *regular*, so it is equivalent to require that every nonzero element of the ring be regular.
- An integral domain is a ring that is isomorphic to a subring of a field. (Given an integral domain, one can embed it in its field of fractions.)
| 358 |
Integral domain
| 0 |
15,462 |
# Integral domain
## Examples
- The archetypical example is the ring $\Z$ of all integers.
- Every field is an integral domain. For example, the field $\R$ of all real numbers is an integral domain. Conversely, every Artinian integral domain is a field. In particular, all finite integral domains are finite fields (more generally, by Wedderburn\'s little theorem, finite domains are finite fields). The ring of integers $\Z$ provides an example of a non-Artinian infinite integral domain that is not a field, possessing infinite descending sequences of ideals such as:
: $\Z \supset 2\Z \supset \cdots \supset 2^n\Z \supset 2^{n+1}\Z \supset \cdots$
- Rings of polynomials are integral domains if the coefficients come from an integral domain. For instance, the ring $\Z[x]$ of all polynomials in one variable with integer coefficients is an integral domain; so is the ring $\Complex[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$ of all polynomials in *n*-variables with complex coefficients.
- The previous example can be further exploited by taking quotients from prime ideals. For example, the ring $\Complex[x,y]/(y^2 - x(x-1)(x-2))$ corresponding to a plane elliptic curve is an integral domain. Integrality can be checked by showing $y^2 - x(x-1)(x-2)$ is an irreducible polynomial.
- The ring $\Z[x]/(x^2 - n) \cong \Z[\sqrt{n}]$ is an integral domain for any non-square integer $n$. If $n > 0$, then this ring is always a subring of $\R$, otherwise, it is a subring of $\Complex.$
- The ring of *p*-adic integers $\Z_p$ is an integral domain.
- The ring of formal power series of an integral domain is an integral domain.
- If $U$ is a connected open subset of the complex plane $\Complex$, then the ring $\mathcal{H}(U)$ consisting of all holomorphic functions is an integral domain. The same is true for rings of analytic functions on connected open subsets of analytic manifolds.
- A regular local ring is an integral domain. In fact, a regular local ring is a UFD.
| 316 |
Integral domain
| 1 |
15,462 |
# Integral domain
## Non-examples {#non_examples}
The following rings are *not* integral domains.
- The zero ring (the ring in which $0=1$).
- The quotient ring $\Z/m\Z$ when *m* is a composite number. To show this, choose a proper factorization $m = xy$ (meaning that $x$ and $y$ are not equal to $1$ or $m$). Then $x \not\equiv 0 \bmod{m}$ and $y \not\equiv 0 \bmod{m}$, but $xy \equiv 0 \bmod{m}$.
- A product of two nonzero commutative rings. In such a product $R \times S$, one has $(1,0) \cdot (0,1) = (0,0)$.
- The quotient ring $\Z[x]/(x^2 - n^2)$ for any $n \in \mathbb{Z}$. The images of $x+n$ and $x-n$ are nonzero, while their product is 0 in this ring.
- The ring of *n* × *n* matrices over any nonzero ring when *n* ≥ 2. If $M$ and $N$ are matrices such that the image of $N$ is contained in the kernel of $M$, then $MN = 0$. For example, this happens for $M = N = (\begin{smallmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 \end{smallmatrix})$.
- The quotient ring $k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]/(fg)$ for any field $k$ and any non-constant polynomials $f,g \in k[x_1,\ldots,x_n]$. The images of `{{math|''f''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''g''}}`{=mediawiki} in this quotient ring are nonzero elements whose product is 0. This argument shows, equivalently, that $(fg)$ is not a prime ideal. The geometric interpretation of this result is that the zeros of `{{math|''fg''}}`{=mediawiki} form an affine algebraic set that is not irreducible (that is, not an algebraic variety) in general. The only case where this algebraic set may be irreducible is when `{{math|''fg''}}`{=mediawiki} is a power of an irreducible polynomial, which defines the same algebraic set.
- The ring of continuous functions on the unit interval. Consider the functions
: $f(x) = \begin{cases} 1-2x & x \in \left [0, \tfrac{1}{2} \right ] \\ 0 & x \in \left [\tfrac{1}{2}, 1 \right ] \end{cases} \qquad g(x) = \begin{cases} 0 & x \in \left [0, \tfrac{1}{2} \right ] \\ 2x-1 & x \in \left [\tfrac{1}{2}, 1 \right ] \end{cases}$
: Neither $f$ nor $g$ is everywhere zero, but $fg$ is.
- The tensor product $\Complex \otimes_{\R} \Complex$. This ring has two non-trivial idempotents, $e_1 = \tfrac{1}{2}(1 \otimes 1) - \tfrac{1}{2}(i \otimes i)$ and $e_2 = \tfrac{1}{2}(1 \otimes 1) + \tfrac{1}{2}(i \otimes i)$. They are orthogonal, meaning that $e_1e_2 = 0$, and hence $\Complex \otimes_{\R} \Complex$ is not a domain. In fact, there is an isomorphism $\Complex \times \Complex \to \Complex \otimes_{\R} \Complex$ defined by $(z, w) \mapsto z \cdot e_1 + w \cdot e_2$. Its inverse is defined by $z \otimes w \mapsto (zw, z\overline{w})$. This example shows that a fiber product of irreducible affine schemes need not be irreducible.
| 448 |
Integral domain
| 2 |
15,462 |
# Integral domain
## Divisibility, prime elements, and irreducible elements {#divisibility_prime_elements_and_irreducible_elements}
In this section, *R* is an integral domain.
Given elements *a* and *b* of *R*, one says that *a* *divides* *b*, or that *a* is a *divisor* of *b*, or that *b* is a *multiple* of *a*, if there exists an element *x* in *R* such that `{{nowrap|1=''ax'' = ''b''}}`{=mediawiki}.
The *units* of *R* are the elements that divide 1; these are precisely the invertible elements in *R*. Units divide all other elements.
If *a* divides *b* and *b* divides *a*, then *a* and *b* are **associated elements** or **associates**. *b* and *b* {{!}} *a*.\"\|ps=none}} Equivalently, *a* and *b* are associates if `{{nowrap|1=''a'' = ''ub''}}`{=mediawiki} for some unit *u*.
An *irreducible element* is a nonzero non-unit that cannot be written as a product of two non-units.
A nonzero non-unit *p* is a *prime element* if, whenever *p* divides a product *ab*, then *p* divides *a* or *p* divides *b*. Equivalently, an element *p* is prime if and only if the principal ideal (*p*) is a nonzero prime ideal.
Both notions of irreducible elements and prime elements generalize the ordinary definition of prime numbers in the ring $\Z,$ if one considers as prime the negative primes.
Every prime element is irreducible. The converse is not true in general: for example, in the quadratic integer ring $\Z\left[\sqrt{-5}\right]$ the element 3 is irreducible (if it factored nontrivially, the factors would each have to have norm 3, but there are no norm 3 elements since $a^2+5b^2=3$ has no integer solutions), but not prime (since 3 divides $\left(2 + \sqrt{-5}\right)\left(2 - \sqrt{-5}\right)$ without dividing either factor). In a unique factorization domain (or more generally, a GCD domain), an irreducible element is a prime element.
While unique factorization does not hold in $\Z\left[\sqrt{-5}\right]$, there is unique factorization of ideals. See Lasker--Noether theorem.
## Properties
- A commutative ring *R* is an integral domain if and only if the ideal (0) of *R* is a prime ideal.
- If *R* is a commutative ring and *P* is an ideal in *R*, then the quotient ring *R/P* is an integral domain if and only if *P* is a prime ideal.
- Let *R* be an integral domain. Then the polynomial rings over *R* (in any number of indeterminates) are integral domains. This is in particular the case if *R* is a field.
- The cancellation property holds in any integral domain: for any *a*, *b*, and *c* in an integral domain, if `{{nowrap|''a'' ≠ ''0''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|1=''ab'' = ''ac''}}`{=mediawiki} then `{{nowrap|1=''b'' = ''c''}}`{=mediawiki}. Another way to state this is that the function `{{nowrap|''x'' ↦ ''ax''}}`{=mediawiki} is injective for any nonzero *a* in the domain.
- The cancellation property holds for ideals in any integral domain: if `{{nowrap|1=''xI'' = ''xJ''}}`{=mediawiki}, then either *x* is zero or `{{nowrap|1=''I'' = ''J''}}`{=mediawiki}.
- An integral domain is equal to the intersection of its localizations at maximal ideals.
- An inductive limit of integral domains is an integral domain.
- If *A*, *B* are integral domains over an algebraically closed field *k*, then `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗<sub>''k''</sub> ''B''}}`{=mediawiki} is an integral domain. This is a consequence of Hilbert\'s nullstellensatz, and, in algebraic geometry, it implies the statement that the coordinate ring of the product of two affine algebraic varieties over an algebraically closed field is again an integral domain.
## Field of fractions {#field_of_fractions}
The field of fractions *K* of an integral domain *R* is the set of fractions *a*/*b* with *a* and *b* in *R* and `{{nowrap|''b'' ≠ 0}}`{=mediawiki} modulo an appropriate equivalence relation, equipped with the usual addition and multiplication operations. It is \"the smallest field containing *R*\" in the sense that there is an injective ring homomorphism `{{nowrap|''R'' → ''K''}}`{=mediawiki} such that any injective ring homomorphism from *R* to a field factors through *K*. The field of fractions of the ring of integers $\Z$ is the field of rational numbers $\Q.$ The field of fractions of a field is isomorphic to the field itself.
| 663 |
Integral domain
| 3 |
15,462 |
# Integral domain
## Algebraic geometry {#algebraic_geometry}
Integral domains are characterized by the condition that they are reduced (that is `{{nowrap|1=''x''<sup>2</sup> = 0}}`{=mediawiki} implies `{{nowrap|1=''x'' = 0}}`{=mediawiki}) and irreducible (that is there is only one minimal prime ideal). The former condition ensures that the nilradical of the ring is zero, so that the intersection of all the ring\'s minimal primes is zero. The latter condition is that the ring have only one minimal prime. It follows that the unique minimal prime ideal of a reduced and irreducible ring is the zero ideal, so such rings are integral domains. The converse is clear: an integral domain has no nonzero nilpotent elements, and the zero ideal is the unique minimal prime ideal.
This translates, in algebraic geometry, into the fact that the coordinate ring of an affine algebraic set is an integral domain if and only if the algebraic set is an algebraic variety.
More generally, a commutative ring is an integral domain if and only if its spectrum is an integral affine scheme.
## Characteristic and homomorphisms {#characteristic_and_homomorphisms}
The characteristic of an integral domain is either 0 or a prime number.
If *R* is an integral domain of prime characteristic *p*, then the Frobenius endomorphism `{{nowrap|''x'' ↦ ''x''<sup>''p''</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is injective
| 209 |
Integral domain
| 4 |
15,467 |
# Interrupt latency
In computing, **interrupt latency** refers to the delay between the start of an Interrupt Request (IRQ) and the start of the respective Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). For many operating systems, devices are serviced as soon as the device\'s interrupt handler is executed. Interrupt latency may be affected by microprocessor design, interrupt controllers, interrupt masking, and the operating system\'s (OS) interrupt handling methods.
## Background
There is usually a trade-off between interrupt latency, throughput, and processor utilization. Many of the techniques of CPU and OS design that improve interrupt latency will decrease throughput and increase processor utilization. Techniques that increase throughput may increase interrupt latency and increase processor utilization. Lastly, trying to reduce processor utilization may increase interrupt latency and decrease throughput.
Minimum interrupt latency is largely determined by the interrupt controller circuit and its configuration. They can also affect the jitter in the interrupt latency, which can drastically affect the real-time schedulability of the system. The Intel APIC architecture is well known for producing a huge amount of interrupt latency jitter.
Maximum interrupt latency is largely determined by the methods an OS uses for interrupt handling. For example, most processors allow programs to disable interrupts, putting off the execution of interrupt handlers, in order to protect critical sections of code. During the execution of such a critical section, all interrupt handlers that cannot execute safely within a critical section are blocked (they save the minimum amount of information required to restart the interrupt handler after all critical sections have exited). So the interrupt latency for a blocked interrupt is extended to the end of the critical section, plus any interrupts with equal and higher priority that arrived while the block was in place.
Many computer systems require low interrupt latencies, especially embedded systems that need to control machinery in real-time. Sometimes these systems use a real-time operating system (RTOS). An RTOS makes the promise that no more than a specified maximum amount of time will pass between executions of subroutines. In order to do this, the RTOS must also guarantee that interrupt latency will never exceed a predefined maximum.
## Considerations
Advanced interrupt controllers implement a multitude of hardware features in order to minimize the overhead during context switches and the effective interrupt latency. These include features like:
- Minimum jitter through non-interruptible instructions
- Zero wait states for the memory system
- Switchable register banks
- Tail chaining
- Lazy stacking
- Late arrival
- Pop preemption
- Sleep-on-exit feature
Also, there are many other methods hardware may use to help lower the requirements for shorter interrupt latency in order to make a given interrupt latency tolerable in a situation. These include buffers, and flow control. For example, most network cards implement transmit and receive ring buffers, interrupt rate limiting, and hardware flow control. Buffers allow data to be stored until it can be transferred, and flow control allows the network card to pause communications without having to discard data if the buffer is full.
Modern hardware also implements interrupt rate limiting. This helps prevent interrupt storms or live-locks by having the hardware wait a programmable minimum amount of time between each interrupt it generates. Interrupt rate limiting reduces the amount of time spent servicing interrupts, allowing the processor to spend more time doing useful work. Exceeding this time results in a soft (recoverable) or hard (non-recoverable) error
| 562 |
Interrupt latency
| 0 |
15,477 |
# Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
**Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi** (*إبْنُ ٱلشَّيْخِ اللّيبي*; born **Ali Mohamed Abdul Aziz al-Fakheri**; 1963 -- May 10, 2009) was a Libyan national captured in Afghanistan in November 2001 after the fall of the Taliban; he was interrogated by American and Egyptian forces. The information he gave under torture to Egyptian authorities was cited by the George W. Bush administration in the months preceding its 2003 invasion of Iraq as evidence of a connection between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda. That information was frequently repeated by members of the Bush administration, although reports from both the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) strongly questioned its credibility, suggesting that al-Libi was \"intentionally misleading\" interrogators.
In 2006, the United States transferred al-Libi to Libya, where he was imprisoned by the government of Muammar Gaddafi. He was reported to have tuberculosis. On May 19, 2009, the government reported that he had recently committed suicide in prison. Human Rights Watch, whose representatives had recently visited him, called for an investigation into the circumstances of his death; *The New York Times* reported that Ayman al-Zawahiri had asserted that Libya had tortured al-Libi to death.
## Training camp director {#training_camp_director}
In Afghanistan, al-Libi led the Al Khaldan training camp, where Zacarias Moussaoui and Ahmed Ressam trained for attacks in the United States. An associate of Abu Zubaydah, al-Libi had his assets frozen by the U.S. government following the September 11 attacks; on September 26, 2002, the U.S. government published a list of terrorists who were covered by this restriction.
The Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party\'s \"Islamic Turkistan\" magazine in its 5th edition published an obituary of its member Turghun (Ibn Umar al Turkistani) speaking of his time training at the Al Khaldan training camp and his meeting with Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi. The Uyghurs in Afghanistan fought against the American bombings and the Northern Alliance after the September 11, 2001 attacks. Ibn Umar died fighting against the Americans at the Qalai Jangi prison riot.
Al-Libi was captured by Pakistani officials in November 2001, as he attempted to flee Afghanistan following the collapse of the Taliban after the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. He was transferred to US military custody in January 2002.
Department of Defense spokesmen used to routinely describe the Khaldan training camp as an al-Qaeda training camp, and Al-Libi and Abu Zubaydah as senior members of al-Qaeda. But, during testimony at their Combatant Status Review Tribunals, several Guantanamo captives, including Zubaydah, described the Khaldan camp as having been run by a rival jihadist organization`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}one that did not support attacking civilians.
## Cooperation with the FBI {#cooperation_with_the_fbi}
Al-Libi was turned over to the FBI and held at Bagram Air Base. When talking to the FBI interrogators Russell Fincher and Marty Mahon, he seemed \"genuinely friendly\" and spoke chiefly in English, calling for a translator only when necessary. He seemed to bond with Fincher, a devout Christian, and the two prayed together and discussed religion at length.
Al-Libi told the interrogators details about Richard Reid, a British citizen who had joined al-Qaeda and trained to carry out a suicide bombing of an airliner, which he unsuccessfully attempted on December 22, 2001. Al-Libi agreed to continue cooperating if the United States would allow his wife and her family to emigrate, while he was prosecuted within the American legal system.
## In CIA custody {#in_cia_custody}
The CIA asked President George W. Bush for permission to take al-Libi into their own custody and rendition him to a foreign country for more \"tough guy\" questioning, and were granted permission. They \"simply came and took al-Libi away from the FBI.\" One CIA officer was heard telling their new prisoner that \"You know where you are going. Before you get there, I am going to find your mother and fuck her\".
In the second week of January 2002, al-Libi was flown to the USS *Bataan* in the northern Arabian Sea, a ship being used to hold eight other notable prisoners, including John Walker Lindh. He was subsequently transferred to Egyptian interrogators.
| 673 |
Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
| 0 |
15,477 |
# Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
## Information provided {#information_provided}
According to *The Washington Post*,
On September 15, 2002, *Time* published an article that detailed the CIA interrogations of Omar al-Faruq. It said,
> On Sept. 9, according to a secret CIA summary of the interview, al-Faruq confessed that he was, in fact, al-Qaeda\'s senior representative in Southeast Asia. Then came an even more shocking confession: according to the CIA document, al-Faruq said two senior al-Qaeda officials, Abu Zubaydah and Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, had ordered him to \'plan large-scale attacks against U.S. interests in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam and Cambodia.\'
Al-Libi has been identified as a principal source of faulty prewar intelligence regarding chemical weapons training between Iraq and al-Qaeda that was used by the Bush administration to justify the invasion of Iraq. Specifically, he told interrogators that Iraq provided training to al-Qaeda in the area of \"chemical and biological weapons\". In Cincinnati in October 2002, Bush informed the public: \"Iraq has trained al Qaeda members in bomb making and poisons and gases.\"
This claim was repeated several times in the run-up to the war, including in then-Secretary of State Colin Powell\'s speech to the UN Security Council on February 5, 2003, which concluded with a long recitation of the information provided by al-Libi. Powell\'s speech was made less than a month after a then-classified CIA report concluded that the information provided by al-Libi was unreliable, and about a year after a DIA report concluded the same thing.
Al-Libi recanted these claims in January 2004 after U.S. interrogators presented \"new evidence from other detainees that cast doubt on his claims\", according to *Newsweek*. The DIA concluded in February 2002 that al-Libi deliberately misled interrogators, in what the CIA called an \"attempt to exaggerate his importance\". Some speculate that his reason for giving disinformation was to draw the U.S. into an attack on Iraq---Islam\'s \"weakest\" state, a remark attributed to al-Libi---which al-Qaeda believed would lead to a global jihad. Others, including al-Libi himself, have insisted that he gave false information due to the use of torture (so-called \"enhanced interrogation techniques\").
An article published in the November 5, 2005 edition of *The New York Times* quoted two paragraphs of a Defense Intelligence Agency report, declassified upon request by Senator Carl Levin, that expressed doubts about the results of al-Libi\'s interrogation in February 2002.
Al-Libi told a foreign intelligence service that:
> Iraq --- acting on the request of al-Qa\'ida militant Abu Abdullah, who was Muhammad Atif\'s emissary --- agreed to provide unspecified chemical or biological weapons training for two al-Qa\'ida associates beginning in December 2000. The two individuals departed for Iraq but did not return, so al-Libi was not in a position to know if any training had taken place.
The September 2002 version of *Iraqi Support for Terrorism* stated that al-Libi said Iraq had \"provided\" chemical and biological weapons training for two al-Qaeda associates in 2000, but also stated that al-Libi \"did not know the results of the training.\"`{{quote without source|date=April 2009}}`{=mediawiki}
The 2006 Senate Report on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq stated that \"Although DIA coordinated on CIA\'s *Iraqi Support for Terrorism* paper, DIA analysis preceding that assessment was more skeptical of the al-Libi reporting.\" In July 2002, DIA assessed
> It is plausible al-Qa\'ida attempted to obtain CB assistance from Iraq and Ibn al-Shaykh is sufficiently senior to have access to such sensitive information. However, Ibn al-Shaykh\'s information lacks details concerning the individual Iraqis involved, the specific CB materials associated with the assistance and the location where the alleged training occurred. The information is also second hand, and not derived from Ibn al-Shaykh\'s personal experience.
The Senate report also states \"According to al-Libi, after his decision to fabricate information for debriefers, he \'lied about being a member of al-Qa\'ida. Although he considered himself close to, but not a member of, al-Qa\'ida, he knew enough about the senior members, organization and operations to claim to be a member.\'\"
## Senate Reports on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq {#senate_reports_on_pre_war_intelligence_on_iraq}
On September 8, 2006, the United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence released \"Phase II\" of its report on prewar intelligence on Iraq. Conclusion 3 of the report states the following:
On June 11, 2008, *Newsweek* published an account of material from a \"previously undisclosed CIA report written in the summer of 2002\". The article reported that on August 7, 2002, CIA analysts had drafted a high-level report that expressed serious doubts about the information flowing from al-Libi\'s interrogation. The information that al-Libi acknowledged being a member of al-Qaeda\'s executive council was not supported by other sources. According to al-Libi, in Egypt he was locked in a tiny box less than 20 inches high and held for 17 hours and after being let out he was thrown to the floor and punched for 15 minutes. According to CIA operational cables, only then did he tell his \"fabricated\" story about al-Qaeda members being dispatched to Iraq.
| 823 |
Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
| 1 |
15,477 |
# Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
## Book: *Inside the Jihad* {#book_inside_the_jihad}
In November 2006, a Moroccan using the pseudonym Omar Nasiri, having infiltrated al-Qaeda in the 1990s, wrote the book, *Inside the Jihad: My Life with al Qaeda, a Spy\'s story*. In the book, Nasiri claims that al-Libi deliberately planted information to encourage the U.S. to invade Iraq. In an interview with BBC2\'s *Newsnight*, Nasiri said Libi \"needed the conflict in Iraq because months before I heard him telling us when a question was asked in the mosque after the prayer in the evening, where is the best country to fight the jihad?\" Nasiri said that Libi had identified Iraq as the \"weakest\" Muslim country. He suggested to *Newsnight* that al-Libi wanted to overthrow Saddam and use Iraq as a jihadist base. Nasiri describes al-Libi as one of the leaders at the Afghan camp, and characterizes him as \"brilliant in every way.\" He said that learning how to withstand interrogations and supply false information was a key part of the training in the camps. Al-Libi \"knew what his interrogators wanted, and he was happy to give it to them. He wanted to see Saddam toppled even more than the Americans did.\"
## Book: *At the Center of the Storm* {#book_at_the_center_of_the_storm}
In April 2007, former Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet released his memoir titled *At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA*. With regard to al-Libi, Tenet writes the following:
## Repatriation to Libya and death {#repatriation_to_libya_and_death}
In 2006, the Bush administration announced that it was transferring high-value al-Qaeda detainees from CIA secret prisons so they could be put on trial by military commissions. However, the administration was conspicuously silent about al-Libi. In December 2014, it was revealed that he had been transferred to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in 2003 and transferred to Morocco on March 27, 2004.
Noman Benotman, a former Mujahideen who knew Libi, told *Newsweek* that during a recent trip to Tripoli, he met with a senior Libyan government official who confirmed to him that Libi had been transferred to Libya and was being held in prison there. He was suffering from tuberculosis.
On May 10, 2009, the English language edition of the \[\]Algeria\]\]n newspaper *Ennahar* reported that the Libyan government said that Al-Libi had been repatriated to Libyan custody in 2006, and had recently committed suicide by hanging. It attributed the information to the Libyan newspaper, *Oea*. *Ennahar* reported Al-Libi\'s real name was **Ali Mohamed Abdul Aziz Al-Fakheri**. It stated he was 46 years old, and had been allowed visits with international human rights workers from Human Rights Watch. The story was widely reported by other media outlets.
Al-Libi had been visited in April 2009 by a team from Human Rights Watch. His sudden death so soon after this visit has led human rights organisations and Islamic groups to question whether it was truly a suicide. Clive Stafford Smith, Legal Director of the UK branch of the human rights group Reprieve, said, \"We are told that al-Libi committed suicide in his Libyan prison. If this is true it would be because of his torture and abuse. If false, it may reflect a desire to silence one of the greatest embarrassments to the Bush administration.\" Hafed Al-Ghwell, a Libya expert and director of communications at the Dubai campus of Harvard Kennedy School, commented:
> This is a regime with a long history of killing people in jail and then claiming it was suicide. My guess is Libya has seen the winds of change in America and wanted to bury this man before international organisations start demanding access to him.
On June 19, 2009, Andy Worthington published new information on al-Libi\'s death. Worthington gave a detailed timeline of Al Libi\'s last years.
The head of the Washington office of Human Rights Watch said al-Libi was \"Exhibit A\" in hearings on the relationship between pre-Iraq War false intelligence and torture. Confirmation of al-Libi\'s location came two weeks prior to his death. An independent investigation of his death has been requested by Human Rights Watch.
On October 4, 2009, *Reuters* reported that Ayman Al Zawahiri, the head of al-Qaeda, had asserted that Libya had caused al-Libi\'s death through torture
| 702 |
Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi
| 2 |
15,491 |
# Integer factorization
In mathematics, **integer factorization** is the decomposition of a positive integer into a product of integers. Every positive integer greater than 1 is either the product of two or more integer factors greater than 1, in which case it is a composite number, or it is not, in which case it is a prime number. For example, `{{math|15}}`{=mediawiki} is a composite number because `{{math|1=15 = 3 · 5}}`{=mediawiki}, but `{{math|7}}`{=mediawiki} is a prime number because it cannot be decomposed in this way. If one of the factors is composite, it can in turn be written as a product of smaller factors, for example `{{math|1=60 = 3 · 20 = 3 · (5 · 4)}}`{=mediawiki}. Continuing this process until every factor is prime is called **prime factorization**; the result is always unique up to the order of the factors by the prime factorization theorem.
To factorize a small integer `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} using mental or pen-and-paper arithmetic, the simplest method is trial division: checking if the number is divisible by prime numbers `{{math|2}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{math|3}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{math|5}}`{=mediawiki}, and so on, up to the square root of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki}. For larger numbers, especially when using a computer, various more sophisticated factorization algorithms are more efficient. A prime factorization algorithm typically involves testing whether each factor is prime each time a factor is found.
When the numbers are sufficiently large, no efficient non-quantum integer factorization algorithm is known. However, it has not been proven that such an algorithm does not exist. The presumed difficulty of this problem is important for the algorithms used in cryptography such as RSA public-key encryption and the RSA digital signature. Many areas of mathematics and computer science have been brought to bear on this problem, including elliptic curves, algebraic number theory, and quantum computing.
Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. The hardest instances of these problems (for currently known techniques) are semiprimes, the product of two prime numbers. When they are both large, for instance more than two thousand bits long, randomly chosen, and about the same size (but not too close, for example, to avoid efficient factorization by Fermat\'s factorization method), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest classical computers can take enough time to make the search impractical; that is, as the number of digits of the integer being factored increases, the number of operations required to perform the factorization on any classical computer increases drastically.
Many cryptographic protocols are based on the presumed difficulty of factoring large composite integers or a related problem `{{Ndash}}`{=mediawiki}for example, the RSA problem. An algorithm that efficiently factors an arbitrary integer would render RSA-based public-key cryptography insecure.
## Prime decomposition {#prime_decomposition}
By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. (By convention, 1 is the empty product.) Testing whether the integer is prime can be done in polynomial time, for example, by the AKS primality test. If composite, however, the polynomial time tests give no insight into how to obtain the factors.
Given a general algorithm for integer factorization, any integer can be factored into its constituent prime factors by repeated application of this algorithm. The situation is more complicated with special-purpose factorization algorithms, whose benefits may not be realized as well or even at all with the factors produced during decomposition. For example, if `{{math|1=''n'' = 171 × ''p'' × ''q''}}`{=mediawiki} where `{{math|''p'' < ''q''}}`{=mediawiki} are very large primes, trial division will quickly produce the factors 3 and 19 but will take `{{math|''p''}}`{=mediawiki} divisions to find the next factor. As a contrasting example, if `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} is the product of the primes `{{math|13729}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{math|1372933}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{math|18848997161}}`{=mediawiki}, where `{{math|1=13729 × 1372933 = 18848997157}}`{=mediawiki}, Fermat\'s factorization method will begin with `{{math|⌈{{sqrt|''n''}}⌉ {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 18848997159}} which immediately yields `{{math|''b'' {{=}}`{=mediawiki} `{{sqrt|''a''<sup>2</sup> − ''n''}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} `{{sqrt|4}}`{=mediawiki} {{=}} 2}} and hence the factors `{{math|1=''a'' − ''b'' = 18848997157}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1=''a'' + ''b'' = 18848997161}}`{=mediawiki}. While these are easily recognized as composite and prime respectively, Fermat\'s method will take much longer to factor the composite number because the starting value of `{{math|⌈{{sqrt|18848997157}}⌉ {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 137292}} for `{{math|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} is a factor of 10 from `{{math|1372933}}`{=mediawiki}.
| 679 |
Integer factorization
| 0 |
15,491 |
# Integer factorization
## Current state of the art {#current_state_of_the_art}
Among the `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit numbers, the most difficult to factor in practice using existing algorithms are those semiprimes whose factors are of similar size. For this reason, these are the integers used in cryptographic applications.
In 2019, a 240-digit (795-bit) number (RSA-240) was factored by a team of researchers including Paul Zimmermann, utilizing approximately 900 core-years of computing power. These researchers estimated that a 1024-bit RSA modulus would take about 500 times as long.
The largest such semiprime yet factored was RSA-250, an 829-bit number with 250 decimal digits, in February 2020. The total computation time was roughly 2700 core-years of computing using Intel Xeon Gold 6130 at 2.1 GHz. Like all recent factorization records, this factorization was completed with a highly optimized implementation of the general number field sieve run on hundreds of machines.
### Time complexity {#time_complexity}
No algorithm has been published that can factor all integers in polynomial time, that is, that can factor a `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit number `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} in time `{{math|[[Big O notation|O]](''b''<sup>''k''</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki} for some constant `{{math|''k''}}`{=mediawiki}. Neither the existence nor non-existence of such algorithms has been proved, but it is generally suspected that they do not exist.
There are published algorithms that are faster than `{{math|O((1 + ''ε'')<sup>''b''</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki} for all positive `{{math|''ε''}}`{=mediawiki}, that is, sub-exponential. `{{As of|2022}}`{=mediawiki}, the algorithm with best theoretical asymptotic running time is the general number field sieve (GNFS), first published in 1993, running on a `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit number `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} in time:
: $\exp\left( \left(\left(\tfrac83\right)^\frac23 + o(1)\right)\left(\log n\right)^\frac13\left(\log \log n\right)^\frac23\right).$
For current computers, GNFS is the best published algorithm for large `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} (more than about 400 bits). For a quantum computer, however, Peter Shor discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in polynomial time. Shor\'s algorithm takes only `{{math|O(''b''<sup>3</sup>)}}`{=mediawiki} time and `{{math|O(''b'')}}`{=mediawiki} space on `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki}-bit number inputs. In 2001, Shor\'s algorithm was implemented for the first time, by using NMR techniques on molecules that provide seven qubits.
In order to talk about complexity classes such as P, NP, and co-NP, the problem has to be stated as a decision problem.
It is known to be in both NP and co-NP, meaning that both \"yes\" and \"no\" answers can be verified in polynomial time. An answer of \"yes\" can be certified by exhibiting a factorization `{{math|1=''n'' = ''d''({{sfrac|''n''|''d''}})}}`{=mediawiki} with `{{math|''d'' ≤ ''k''}}`{=mediawiki}. An answer of \"no\" can be certified by exhibiting the factorization of `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} into distinct primes, all larger than `{{math|''k''}}`{=mediawiki}; one can verify their primality using the AKS primality test, and then multiply them to obtain `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki}. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic guarantees that there is only one possible string of increasing primes that will be accepted, which shows that the problem is in both UP and co-UP. It is known to be in BQP because of Shor\'s algorithm.
The problem is suspected to be outside all three of the complexity classes P, NP-complete, and co-NP-complete. It is therefore a candidate for the NP-intermediate complexity class.
In contrast, the decision problem \"Is `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} a composite number?\" (or equivalently: \"Is `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki} a prime number?\") appears to be much easier than the problem of specifying factors of `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki}. The composite/prime problem can be solved in polynomial time (in the number `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} of digits of `{{math|''n''}}`{=mediawiki}) with the AKS primality test. In addition, there are several probabilistic algorithms that can test primality very quickly in practice if one is willing to accept a vanishingly small possibility of error. The ease of primality testing is a crucial part of the RSA algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with.
| 597 |
Integer factorization
| 1 |
15,491 |
# Integer factorization
## Factoring algorithms {#factoring_algorithms}
### Special-purpose {#special_purpose}
A special-purpose factoring algorithm\'s running time depends on the properties of the number to be factored or on one of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc. The parameters which determine the running time vary among algorithms.
An important subclass of special-purpose factoring algorithms is the *Category 1* or *First Category* algorithms, whose running time depends on the size of smallest prime factor. Given an integer of unknown form, these methods are usually applied before general-purpose methods to remove small factors. For example, naive trial division is a Category 1 algorithm.
- Trial division
- Wheel factorization
- Pollard\'s rho algorithm, which has two common flavors to identify group cycles: one by Floyd and one by Brent.
- Algebraic-group factorization algorithms, among which are Pollard\'s `{{math|''p'' − 1}}`{=mediawiki} algorithm, Williams\' `{{math|''p'' + 1}}`{=mediawiki} algorithm, and Lenstra elliptic curve factorization
- Fermat\'s factorization method
- Euler\'s factorization method
- Special number field sieve
- Difference of two squares
### General-purpose {#general_purpose}
A general-purpose factoring algorithm, also known as a *Category 2*, *Second Category*, or *Kraitchik* *family* algorithm, has a running time which depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored. This is the type of algorithm used to factor RSA numbers. Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the congruence of squares method.
- Dixon\'s factorization method
- Continued fraction factorization (CFRAC)
- Quadratic sieve
- Rational sieve
- General number field sieve
- Shanks\'s square forms factorization (SQUFOF)
### Other notable algorithms {#other_notable_algorithms}
- Shor\'s algorithm, for quantum computers
## Heuristic running time {#heuristic_running_time}
In number theory, there are many integer factoring algorithms that heuristically have expected running time
: $L_n\left[\tfrac12,1+o(1)\right]=e^{(1+o(1))\sqrt{(\log n)(\log \log n)}}$
in little-o and L-notation. Some examples of those algorithms are the elliptic curve method and the quadratic sieve. Another such algorithm is the **class group relations method** proposed by Schnorr, Seysen, and Lenstra, which they proved only assuming the unproved generalized Riemann hypothesis.
| 330 |
Integer factorization
| 2 |
15,491 |
# Integer factorization
## Rigorous running time {#rigorous_running_time}
The Schnorr--Seysen--Lenstra probabilistic algorithm has been rigorously proven by Lenstra and Pomerance to have expected running time `{{math|''L<sub>n</sub>''[{{sfrac|1|2}}, 1+''o''(1)]}}`{=mediawiki} by replacing the GRH assumption with the use of multipliers. The algorithm uses the class group of positive binary quadratic forms of discriminant `{{math|Δ}}`{=mediawiki} denoted by `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} is the set of triples of integers `{{math|(''a'', ''b'', ''c'')}}`{=mediawiki} in which those integers are relative prime.
### Schnorr--Seysen--Lenstra algorithm {#schnorrseysenlenstra_algorithm}
Given an integer `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} that will be factored, where `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} is an odd positive integer greater than a certain constant. In this factoring algorithm the discriminant `{{math|Δ}}`{=mediawiki} is chosen as a multiple of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{math|1=Δ = −''dn''}}`{=mediawiki}, where `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is some positive multiplier. The algorithm expects that for one `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} there exist enough smooth forms in `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. Lenstra and Pomerance show that the choice of `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} can be restricted to a small set to guarantee the smoothness result.
Denote by `{{math|''P''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} the set of all primes `{{mvar|q}}`{=mediawiki} with Kronecker symbol `{{math|{{pars|s=150%|{{sfrac|Δ|''q''}}}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 1}}. By constructing a set of generators of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} and prime forms `{{math|''f''<sub>''q''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} with `{{mvar|q}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{math|''P''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} a sequence of relations between the set of generators and `{{math|''f''<sub>''q''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} are produced. The size of `{{mvar|q}}`{=mediawiki} can be bounded by `{{math|''c''<sub>0</sub>(log{{abs|Δ}})<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} for some constant `{{math|''c''<sub>0</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}.
The relation that will be used is a relation between the product of powers that is equal to the neutral element of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. These relations will be used to construct a so-called ambiguous form of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, which is an element of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} of order dividing 2. By calculating the corresponding factorization of `{{math|Δ}}`{=mediawiki} and by taking a gcd, this ambiguous form provides the complete prime factorization of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki}. This algorithm has these main steps:
Let `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} be the number to be factored. `{{ordered list
| Let {{math|Δ}} be a negative integer with {{math|1=Δ = −''dn''}}, where {{mvar|d}} is a multiplier and {{math|Δ}} is the negative discriminant of some quadratic form.
| Take the {{mvar|t}} first primes {{math|''p''<sub>1</sub> {{=}} 2, ''p''<sub>2</sub> {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 3, *p*~3~ {{=}} 5, \..., *p*~*t*~}}, for some `{{math|''t'' ∈ '''N'''}}`{=mediawiki}. \| Let `{{math|''f''<sub>''q''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} be a random prime form of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} with `{{math|{{pars|s=150%|{{sfrac|Δ|''q''}}}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 1}}. \| Find a generating set `{{mvar|X}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{math|''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. \| Collect a sequence of relations between set `{{mvar|X}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|{{mset|''f''<sub>''q''</sub> : ''q'' ∈ ''P''<sub>Δ</sub>}}}}`{=mediawiki} satisfying:
: $\left(\prod_{x \in X_{}} x^{r(x)}\right).\left(\prod_{q \in P_\Delta} f^{t(q)}_{q}\right) = 1.$
\| Construct an ambiguous form `{{math|(''a'', ''b'', ''c'')}}`{=mediawiki} that is an element `{{math|''f'' ∈ ''G''<sub>Δ</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} of order dividing 2 to obtain a coprime factorization of the largest odd divisor of `{{math|Δ}}`{=mediawiki} in which `{{math|1=Δ = −4''ac''}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{math|1=Δ = ''a''(''a'' − 4''c'')}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{math|1=Δ = (''b'' − 2''a'')(''b'' + 2''a'')}}`{=mediawiki}. \| If the ambiguous form provides a factorization of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} then stop, otherwise find another ambiguous form until the factorization of `{{mvar|n}}`{=mediawiki} is found. In order to prevent useless ambiguous forms from generating, build up the 2-Sylow group `{{math|Sll<sub>2</sub>(Δ)}}`{=mediawiki} of `{{math|''G''(Δ)}}`{=mediawiki}. }} To obtain an algorithm for factoring any positive integer, it is necessary to add a few steps to this algorithm such as trial division, and the Jacobi sum test.
### Expected running time {#expected_running_time}
The algorithm as stated is a probabilistic algorithm as it makes random choices. Its expected running time is at most `{{math|''L<sub>n</sub>''[{{sfrac|1|2}}, 1+''o''(1)]}}`{=mediawiki}
| 541 |
Integer factorization
| 3 |
15,494 |
# Incompatible-properties argument
The **incompatible-properties argument** is the idea that no description of God is consistent with reality. For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the Bible, then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a contradiction.
## Evil vs. good and omnipotence {#evil_vs._good_and_omnipotence}
The problem of evil is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God.
A variation does not depend on the existence of evil. A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds. A \"good\" God can create only \"good\" worlds. A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator. The standard response is to argue a distinction between \"could create\" and \"would create.\" In other words, God \"could\" create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God\'s nature. This has been argued by theologians for centuries. However, the result is that a \"good\" God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God. Yet, it is not necessary for God to be \"good\". He simply is good, but is capable of evil.
## Purpose vs. timelessness {#purpose_vs._timelessness}
One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of time. To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist. This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call \"time\". It may be one direction of causality, the direction of increasing entropy, or some other emergent property of a world. These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.
In general, God\'s time would not be related to our time. God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so. However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose. Thus God\'s time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God\'s purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means---at any point in spacetime---time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)
A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created.
## Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will {#omniscience_vs._indeterminacy_or_free_will}
Another pair of alleged incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or free will. Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but there is an argument that omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined, what seems possible only in a deterministic world
| 491 |
Incompatible-properties argument
| 0 |
15,507 |
# Carbon compounds
**Carbon compounds** are chemical substances containing carbon. More compounds of carbon exist than any other chemical element except for hydrogen. Organic carbon compounds are far more numerous than inorganic carbon compounds. In general bonds of carbon with other elements are covalent bonds. Carbon is tetravalent but carbon free radicals and carbenes occur as short-lived intermediates. Ions of carbon are carbocations and carbanions are also short-lived. An important carbon property is catenation as the ability to form long carbon chains and rings.
## Allotropes of carbon {#allotropes_of_carbon}
The known inorganic chemistry of the allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite, and the fullerenes) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985, as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the \"@\"symbol in endohedral fullerenes. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted Li^+^\@C~60~. As with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a counterion to form a salt. Other elements are also incorporated in so-called graphite intercalation compounds.
## Carbides
Carbides are binary compounds of carbon with an element that is less electronegative than it. The most important are Al~4~C~3~, B~4~C, CaC~2~, Fe~3~C, HfC, SiC, TaC, TiC, and WC. `{{table alignment}}`{=mediawiki}
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| Metal | Structure of\ | Metallic\ | MC\ | MC structure | M~2~C\ | M~2~C structure | Other carbides |
| | pure metal | radius\ | metal atom\ | | metal atom\ | | |
| | | (pm) | packing | | packing | | |
+============+================+===========+=============+==============+=============+===========================================+==========================================+
| titanium | HCP\ | 147 | FCC | rock salt | | | |
| | (hexagonal\ | | | | | | |
| | close-packed) | | | | | | |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| zirconium | | 160 | | | | | |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| hafnium | | 159 | | | | | |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| vanadium | BCC\ | 134 | | | HCP | h/2\ | V~4~C~3~ |
| | (body-centred\ | | | | | `{{clarify|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} | |
| | cubic) | | | | | | |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| niobium | | 146 | | | | | Nb~4~C~3~ |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| tantalum | | 146 | | | | | Ta~4~C~3~ |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| molybdenum | | 139 | | hexagonal | | | Mo~3~C~2~ |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| tungsten | | 139 | | hexagonal | | | |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| chromium | | 128 | | | | | Cr~23~C~6~, Cr~3~C, Cr~7~C~3~, Cr~3~C~2~ |
+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------+--------------+-------------+-------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------+
| 448 |
Carbon compounds
| 0 |
15,507 |
# Carbon compounds
## Organic compounds {#organic_compounds}
It was once thought that organic compounds could only be created by living organisms. Over time, however, scientists learned how to synthesize organic compounds in the lab. The number of organic compounds is immense and the known number of defined compounds is close to 10 million. However, an indefinitely large number of such compounds is theoretically possible. By definition, an organic compound must contain at least one atom of carbon, but this criterion is not generally regarded as sufficient. Indeed, the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds is ultimately a matter of convention, and there are several compounds that have been classified either way, such as: COCl~2~, CSCl~2~, CS(NH~2~)~2~, CO(NH~2~)~2~. With carbon bonded to metals the field of organic chemistry crosses over into organometallic chemistry.
### Carbon-oxygen compounds {#carbon_oxygen_compounds}
There are many oxides of carbon (oxocarbons), of which the most common are carbon dioxide (CO~2~) and carbon monoxide (CO). Other less known oxides include carbon suboxide (C~3~O~2~) and mellitic anhydride (C~12~O~9~). There are also numerous unstable or elusive oxides, such as dicarbon monoxide (C~2~O), oxalic anhydride (C~2~O~4~), and carbon trioxide (CO~3~).
There are several oxocarbon anions, negative ions that consist solely of oxygen and carbon. The most common are the carbonate (CO~3~^2−^) and oxalate (C~2~O~4~^2−^). The corresponding acids are the highly unstable carbonic acid (H~2~CO~3~) and the quite stable oxalic acid (H~2~C~2~O~4~), respectively. These anions can be partially deprotonated to give the bicarbonate (HCO~3~^−^) and hydrogenoxalate (HC~2~O~4~^−^). Other more exotic carbon--oxygen anions exist, such as acetylenedicarboxylate (O~2~C--C≡C--CO~2~^2−^), mellitate (C~12~O~9~^6−^), squarate (C~4~O~4~^2−^), and rhodizonate (C~6~O~6~^2−^). The anhydrides of some of these acids are oxides of carbon; carbon dioxide, for instance, can be seen as the anhydride of carbonic acid.
Some important carbonates are Ag~2~CO~3~, BaCO~3~, CaCO~3~, CdCO~3~, Ce~2~(CO~3~)~3~, CoCO~3~, Cs~2~CO~3~, CuCO~3~, FeCO~3~, K~2~CO~3~, La~2~(CO~3~)~3~, Li~2~CO~3~, MgCO~3~, MnCO~3~, (NH~4~)~2~CO~3~, Na~2~CO~3~, NiCO~3~, PbCO~3~, SrCO~3~, and ZnCO~3~.
The most important bicarbonates include NH~4~HCO~3~, Ca(HCO~3~)~2~, KHCO~3~, and NaHCO~3~.
The most important oxalates include Ag~2~C~2~O~4~, BaC~2~O~4~, CaC~2~O~4~, Ce~2~(C~2~O~4~)~3~, K~2~C~2~O~4~, and Na~2~C~2~O~4~.
Carbonyls are coordination complexes between transition metals and carbonyl ligands. Metal carbonyls are complexes that are formed with the neutral ligand CO. These complexes are covalent. Here is a list of some carbonyls: Cr(CO)~6~, Co~2~(CO)~8~, Fe(CO)~5~, Mn~2~(CO)~10~, Mo(CO)~6~, Ni(CO)~4~, W(CO)~6~.
### Carbon-sulfur compounds {#carbon_sulfur_compounds}
Important inorganic carbon-sulfur compounds are the carbon sulfides carbon disulfide (CS~2~) and carbonyl sulfide (OCS). Carbon monosulfide (CS) unlike carbon monoxide is very unstable. Important compound classes are thiocarbonates, thiocarbamates, dithiocarbamates and trithiocarbonates.
--------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------
carbon monosulfide carbon disulfide carbonyl sulfide
**Inorganic carbon-sulfur compounds**
--------------------------------------- ------------------ ------------------
### Carbon-nitrogen compounds {#carbon_nitrogen_compounds}
Small inorganic carbon--nitrogen compounds are cyanogen, hydrogen cyanide, cyanamide, isocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride.
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| Name | Formula | Structure | \|Molar mass\ | Boiling point\ | Melting point\ |
| | | | (g/mole) | °C | °C |
+===========================+===========+===========+===============+================+================+
| cyanogen | (CN)~2~ | | 52.03 | −21 | −28 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| hydrogen cyanide | HCN | | 27.03 | 25--26 | −12 to −14 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| cyanamide | CN~2~H~2~ | | 42.04 | 260 (decomp.) | 44 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| isocyanic acid | HNCO | | 43.03 | 23.5 | −86 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| cyanogen chloride | CNCl | | 61.47 | 13 | −6 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| chlorosulfonyl isocyanate | CNClO~3~S | | 141.53 | 107 | −44 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
| cyanuric chloride | (NCCl)~3~ | | 184.41 | 192 | 154 |
+---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------------+----------------+----------------+
: style=\"background: #ccccff;\"\| Inorganic carbon-nitrogen compounds
Paracyanogen is the polymerization product of cyanogen. Cyanuric chloride is the trimer of cyanogen chloride and 2-cyanoguanidine is the dimer of cyanamide.
Other types of inorganic compounds include the inorganic salts and complexes of the carbon-containing cyanide, cyanate, fulminate, thiocyanate and cyanamide ions. Examples of cyanides are copper cyanide (CuCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN), examples of cyanates are potassium cyanate (KNCO) and silver cyanate (AgNCO), examples of fulminates are silver fulminate (AgOCN) and mercury fulminate (HgOCN) and an example of a thiocyanate is potassium thiocyanate (KSCN).
## Carbon halides {#carbon_halides}
The common carbon halides are carbon tetrafluoride (CF~4~), carbon tetrachloride (CCl~4~), carbon tetrabromide (CBr~4~), carbon tetraiodide (CI~4~), and a large number of other carbon-halogen compounds.
| 690 |
Carbon compounds
| 1 |
15,507 |
# Carbon compounds
## Carboranes
A carborane is a cluster composed of boron and carbon atoms such as H~2~C~2~B~10~H~10~.
## Alloys
There are hundreds of alloys that contain carbon. The most common of these alloys is steel, sometimes called \"carbon steel\" (see :Category:Steels). All kinds of steel contain some amount of carbon, by definition, and all ferrous alloys contain some carbon.
Some other common alloys that are based on iron and carbon include anthracite iron, cast iron, pig iron, and wrought iron.
In more technical uses, there are also spiegeleisen, an alloy of iron, manganese, and carbon; and stellite, an alloy of cobalt, chromium, tungsten, and carbon.
Whether it was placed there deliberately or not, some traces of carbon is also found in these common metals and their alloys: aluminium, chromium, magnesium, molybdenum, niobium, thorium, titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, zinc, and zirconium. For example, many of these metals are smelted with coke, a form of carbon; and aluminium and magnesium are made in electrolytic cells with carbon electrodes. Some distribution of carbon into all of these metals is inevitable
| 179 |
Carbon compounds
| 2 |
15,521 |
# Devanagari numerals
The **Devanagari numerals** are the symbols used to write numbers in the Devanagari script, predominantly used for northern Indian languages. They are used to write decimal numbers, instead of the Western Arabic numerals.
## Table
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| Modern\ | Western\ | Words for the cardinal number |
| Devanagari | Arabic | |
+============+==========+====================================+
| Sanskrit\ | Hindi | Marathi |
| (wordstem) | | |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ० | 0 | शून्य (`{{IAST|śūnya}}`{=mediawiki}) |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| १ | 1 | एक `{{IAST|eka}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| २ | 2 | द्वि `{{IAST|dvi}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ३ | 3 | त्रि `{{IAST|tri}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ४ | 4 | चतुर् `{{IAST|catur}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ५ | 5 | पञ्च `{{IAST|pañca}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ६ | 6 | षट् `{{IAST|ṣaṭ}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ७ | 7 | सप्त `{{IAST|sapta}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ८ | 8 | अष्ट `{{IAST|aṣṭa}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
| ९ | 9 | नव `{{IAST|nava}}`{=mediawiki} |
+------------+----------+------------------------------------+
The word `{{IAST|śūnya}}`{=mediawiki} for zero was calqued into Arabic as *rtl=yes* *sifr*, meaning \'nothing\', which became the term \"zero\" in many European languages via Medieval Latin *zephirum*.
## Variants
Devanagari digits shapes may vary depending on geographical area or epoch. Some of the variants are also seen in older Sanskrit literature.
+---+--------------------+----------------------+---+
| १ | \ | \ | 1 |
| | Common | Nepali | |
+===+====================+======================+===+
| ५ | \ | \ | 5 |
| | \"Bombay\" Variant | \"Calcutta\" Variant | |
+---+--------------------+----------------------+---+
| ८ | \ | \ | 8 |
| | \"Bombay\" Variant | \"Calcutta\" Variant | |
+---+--------------------+----------------------+---+
| ९ | \ | \ | 9 |
| | Common | Nepali Variant | |
+---+--------------------+----------------------+---+
In Nepali language **५, ८, ९** (5, 8, 9) - these numbers are slightly different from modern Devanagari numbers
| 304 |
Devanagari numerals
| 0 |
15,536 |
# Lists of airports
An **airport** is an aerodrome with facilities for flights to take off and land. Airports often have facilities to store and maintain aircraft, and a control tower. An airport consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface such as a runway for a plane to take off or a helipad, and often includes adjacent utility buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminals.
An airport with a helipad for rotorcraft but no runway is called a heliport. An airport for use by seaplanes and amphibious aircraft is called a seaplane base. Such a base typically includes a stretch of open water for takeoffs and landings, and seaplane docks for tying-up. An international airport has additional facilities for customs and immigration
| 135 |
Lists of airports
| 0 |
15,579 |
# Communications in Japan
Japan has one of the world\'s most modern communication networks, with strong mobile and internet growth. In 2008, 75 million Japanese consumers (82% of all internet users) used mobile phones to access the Internet. The country\'s communication infrastructure includes significant telephone and IP services, broadband internet uptake, and major mobile networks run by NTT Docomo, KDDI, SoftBank, and Rakuten Mobile. Founded on early postal innovations and impacted by worldwide technical advances, Japan\'s communication landscape is constantly modernizing and vital to its social and economic progress.
## Overview of communication services {#overview_of_communication_services}
### Telephone services {#telephone_services}
**Telephones and ISDN -- main lines in use:** 52.3981 million (2007)
**IP phone lines in use:** 16.766 million (2007)
**Mobile and PHS lines in use:** 105.297 million (2007)
: *international:* satellite earth stations -- 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region), and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to China, Philippines, Russia, and US (via Guam)
#### Mobile phone services {#mobile_phone_services}
There are four nationwide mobile phone service providers: NTT Docomo, KDDI, SoftBank, and Rakuten Mobile.
### Radio and television broadcasting {#radio_and_television_broadcasting}
**Radio broadcast stations:** AM 190, FM 88, shortwave 24 (1999)
**Radios:** 120.5 million (1997)
**Television broadcast stations:** 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note -- in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999)
**Televisions:** 86.5 million (1997)
**Amateur radio:** 446,602 licensed stations as of October 2011. See Amateur radio call signs of Japan.
### Internet services {#internet_services}
- **Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 357 (1999)
- **Internet Service Providers via Cable network:** 334 (June 2004)
- **Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access:** 71,044,000 (June 2004)
Number of Broadband Users by Access (April 2005)
- **Number of the xDSL Users:** 13,675,840 lines
- **Number of the FTTH Users:** 2,852,205 lines
- **Number of the CATV Service Users:** 2,959,712 lines
Number of Broadband Users by Access (June 2004)
- **Number of the xDSL Users:** 12,068,718 lines
- **Number of the FTTH Users:** 1,417,483 lines
- **Number of the CATV Service Users:** 2,702,000 lines
- **Number of the Dial-up Users:** 17,730,000 lines
Number of Broadband Users by Access (June 2002)
- **Number of the xDSL Users:** 3,300,926 lines
- **Number of the FTTH Users:** 84,903 lines
- **Number of the CATV Service Users:** 1852000 lines
- **Number of the Dial-up Users:** 20,390,000 lines
**Country code (Top-level domain):** JP
### Postal services {#postal_services}
Japan\'s first modern postal service got started in 1871, with mail professionally traveling between Kyoto and Tokyo as well as the latter city and Osaka. This took place in the midst of the rapid industrialization and social reorganization that the Meiji period symbolized in Japanese history. Given how the nation\'s railroad technology was in its infancy, Japan\'s growing postal system relied heavily on human-powered transport, including rickshaws, as well as horse-drawn methods of delivery. For example, while commemorating the 50th anniversary of Japan\'s postal service, the country\'s 1921 government released decorative postcards depicting intrepid horseback riders carrying the mail.
In communication terms, British technicians had already been employed in assisting with Japanese lighthouses, and the country\'s budding mail system looked to hybridize British ideas with local practicalities. Shipping along the nation\'s coastline in particular demonstrates a key instance of how the Japanese economy developed: the government closely working with private companies to industrially expand in a way that met social needs while also allowing for large profits. Mitsubishi\'s contract for mail transport by sea proved lucrative enough that it assisted with the firm becoming one of the famous \"zaibatsu\".
Since 2007, the nation\'s post offices have been managed by the firm Japan Post Network, which, in turn, is a part of the larger Japan Post Holdings conglomerate. As of December 2017, the smaller company has been managed by CEO Koji Furukawa. The simple Japanese postal mark, predating mass literacy in the nation, is still used to this day.
| 656 |
Communications in Japan
| 0 |
15,579 |
# Communications in Japan
## General background and history {#general_background_and_history}
An example of the dawn of modern Japanese communications is the shift in newspaper publication. News vendors of the Tokugawa period, taking place from 1603 to 1867, typically promoted publications by reading the contents aloud and handed out papers that were printed from hand-graven blocks. Widespread adoption of movable type took place as Japanese society modernized. In particular, *Yomiuri Shimbun*, a national daily newspaper that became the country\'s largest by circulation, was founded in 1874 and designed to be read in detail using standard Japanese vernacular. Five such dailies got started early in the Meiji period, taking place from 1868 to 1912. *Yomiuri* specifically took direct influence from American publications controlled by William Randolph Hearst.
The first such mass newspaper to be founded was the *Nagasaki Shipping List & Advertiser*, established in 1861 in Nagasaki by the Englishman A.W. Hansard. Its first issue ran 22 June of that year. The newspaper, which notably discussed matters in the English language, laid the groundwork for Hansard\'s later publication *Japan Herald*.
The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai---NHK) since its founding in 1925.
In the postwar period, NHK\'s budget and operations were under the purview of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, the Broadcasting Law of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK. Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960. Cable television was introduced in 1969. In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched. Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990. Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan\'s households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day. Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception. The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service.
In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public television and three radio networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week. Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations. Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world.
Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and fax machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, when new common carriers, including Daini Denden, were permitted to enter the field. NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company, commonly known as KDD, now part of KDDI Inc.) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when Nihon Kokusai Tsushin and other private overseas communications firms began operations.
In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM. Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated.
Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the 1980s, but this position that has been challenged by the United States\' dot-com industry in the 1990s and the emerging tiger states in Asia. While the United States is leading in digital content, South Korea is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and Taiwan is leading in research and development.
Japan went into the 21st century after achieving widespread saturation with telecommunication devices. For instance, by 2008 the government\'s Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry stated that about 75 million people used mobile phones to access the Internet, accounting for about 82% of individual internet users
| 659 |
Communications in Japan
| 1 |
15,611 |
# Simon–Ehrlich wager
The **Simon--Ehrlich wager** was a 1980 scientific wager between business professor Julian Simon and biologist Paul Ehrlich, betting on a mutually agreed-upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990. The widely followed contest originated in the pages of *Social Science Quarterly*, where Simon challenged Ehrlich to put his money where his mouth was. In response to Ehrlich\'s published claim that \"If I were a gambler, I would take even money that England will not exist in the year 2000\", Simon offered to take that bet, or, more realistically, \"to stake US\$10,000 \... on my belief that the cost of non-government-controlled raw materials (including grain and oil) will not rise in the long run\".
Simon challenged Ehrlich to choose any raw material he wanted and a date more than a year away, and he would wager on the inflation-adjusted prices decreasing as opposed to increasing. Ehrlich chose copper, chromium, nickel, tin, and tungsten. The bet was formalized on September 29, 1980, with September 29, 1990, as the payoff date. Ehrlich lost the bet, as all five commodities that were bet on declined in price from 1980 through 1990, the wager period.
## Background
In 1968, Ehrlich published *The Population Bomb*, which argued that mankind was facing a demographic catastrophe with the rate of population growth quickly outstripping growth in the supply of food and resources. Simon was highly skeptical of such claims, so he proposed a wager, telling Ehrlich to select any raw material he wanted and select \"any date more than a year away,\" and Simon would bet that the commodity\'s price on that date would be lower than what it was at the time of the wager.
Ehrlich and his colleagues picked five metals that they thought would undergo big price increases: chromium, copper, nickel, tin, and tungsten. Then, on paper, they bought \$200 worth of each, for a total bet of \$1,000, using the prices on September 29, 1980, as an index. They designated September 29, 1990, 10 years hence, as the payoff date. If the inflation-adjusted prices of the various metals rose in the interim, Simon would pay Ehrlich the combined difference. If the prices fell, Ehrlich et al. would pay Simon.
Between 1980 and 1990, the world\'s population grew by more than 800 million, the largest increase in one decade in all of history. But by September 1990, the price of each of Ehrlich\'s selected metals had fallen. Chromium, which had sold for \$3.90 a pound in 1980 (`{{Inflation|US|3.90|1980|fmt=eq|r=2}}`{=mediawiki}), was down to \$3.70 in 1990 (`{{Inflation|US|3.70|1990|fmt=eq|r=2}}`{=mediawiki}). Tin, which was \$8.72 a pound in 1980 (`{{Inflation|US|8.72|1980|fmt=eq|r=2}}`{=mediawiki}), was down to \$3.88 a decade later (`{{Inflation|US|3.88|1990|fmt=eq|r=2}}`{=mediawiki}).
As a result, in October 1990, Paul Ehrlich mailed Julian Simon a check for \$576.07 (`{{Inflation|US|576.07|1990|fmt=eq|r=2}}`{=mediawiki}) to settle the wager in Simon\'s favor.
## Analysis
Julian Simon won because the price of three of the five metals went down in nominal terms and all five of the metals fell in price in inflation-adjusted terms, with both tin and tungsten falling by more than half. In his book *Betrayal of Science and Reason*, Ehrlich wrote that Simon asserted \"that humanity would never run out of anything\". Ehrlich added that he and fellow scientists viewed renewable resources as more important indicators of the state of planet Earth, but that he decided to go along with the bet anyway. Afterward, Simon offered to raise the wager to \$20,000 and to use any resources at any time that Ehrlich preferred. Ehrlich countered with a challenge to bet that temperatures would increase in the future. The two were unable to reach an agreement on the terms of a second wager before Simon died.
Some observers have argued that Ehrlich could have won if the bet had been for a different period, or if the start date had been different. Ehrlich wrote that the five metals in question had increased in price between the years 1950 and 1975. Asset manager Jeremy Grantham wrote that if the Simon-Ehrlich wager had been for a longer period (from 1980 to 2011), then Simon would have lost on four of the five metals. Economist Mark J. Perry noted that for an even longer period of time, from 1934 to 2013, the inflation-adjusted price of the Dow Jones-AIG Commodities Index showed \"an overall significant downward trend\" and concluded that Simon was \"more right than lucky\".
| 728 |
Simon–Ehrlich wager
| 0 |
15,611 |
# Simon–Ehrlich wager
## The proposed second wager {#the_proposed_second_wager}
Understanding that Simon wanted to bet again, Ehrlich and climatologist Stephen Schneider counter-offered, challenging Simon to bet on 15 current trends, betting \$1,000 that each will get worse (as in the previous wager) over a ten-year future period.
The bets were:
- The three years 2002--2004 will, on average, be warmer than 1992--1994.
- There will be more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in 2004 than in 1994.
- There will be more nitrous oxide in the atmosphere in 2004 than 1994.
- The concentration of ozone in the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) will be greater than in 1994.
- Emissions of the air pollutant sulfur dioxide in Asia will be significantly greater in 2004 than in 1994.
- There will be less fertile cropland per person in 2004 than in 1994.
- There will be less agricultural soil per person in 2004 than 1994.
- There will be on average less rice and wheat grown per person in 2002--2004 than in 1992--1994.
- In developing nations there will be less firewood available per person in 2004 than in 1994.
- The remaining area of virgin tropical moist forests will be significantly smaller in 2004 than in 1994.
- The oceanic fishery harvest per person will continue its downward trend and, thus, in 2004, will be smaller than in 1994.
- There will be fewer plant and animal species still extant in 2004 than in 1994.
- More people will die of AIDS in 2004 than in 1994.
- Between 1994 and 2004, sperm cell counts of human males will continue to decline, and reproductive disorders will continue to increase.
- The gap in wealth between the richest 10% of humanity and the poorest 10% will be greater in 2004 than in 1994.
Simon declined Ehrlich and Schneider\'s offer to bet, and used the following analogy to explain why he did so:
In his 1981 book *The Ultimate Resource*, Simon noted that not all decreases in resources or increases in unwanted effects correspond to overall decreases in human wellbeing. Hence, there can be an \"optimal level of pollution\", which accepts some increases in certain kinds of pollution in a way that increases overall wellbeing while acknowledging that any increase in pollution is nevertheless a cost that must be considered in any such calculation.`{{R|Simon-1981|p=143}}`{=mediawiki} Simon\'s theory of resource development actually predicts some of the aforementioned trends, which do not in and of themselves even qualify as costs (unlike pollution). E.g., he pointed out that, due to increased efficiency, the amount of cropland required and actually used to grow food for each person has decreased over time and is likely to continue to do so `{{R|Simon-1981|p=5}}`{=mediawiki}. The same might potentially be true of decreased reliance on firewood in developing countries and per capita use of specific food sources like rice, wheat, and fish if economic development makes a diverse range of alternative foods available. Some have also proven false, e.g., the amount of ozone in the lower atmosphere has decreased from 1994 to 2004.
If Simon had taken the bet, he would have lost on 11 out of 15 trends.
| 527 |
Simon–Ehrlich wager
| 1 |
15,611 |
# Simon–Ehrlich wager
## Other wagers {#other_wagers}
In 1996, Simon bet \$1,000 with David South, professor of the Auburn University School of Forestry, that the inflation-adjusted price of timber would decrease in the following five years. Simon paid out early on the bet in 1997 (before his death in 1998) based on his expectation that prices would remain above 1996 levels (which they did).
In 1999, when *The Economist* headlined an article entitled, \"\$5 a barrel oil soon?\" and with oil trading in the \$12/barrel range, David South offered \$1,000 to any economist who would bet with him that the price of oil would be greater than \$12/barrel in 2010. No economist took him up on the offer. However, in October 2000, Zagros Madjd-Sadjadi, an economist with The University of the West Indies, bet \$1,000 with David South that the inflation-adjusted price of oil would decrease to an inflation-adjusted price of \$25 by 2010 (down from what was then \$30/barrel). Madjd-Sadjadi paid South an inflation-adjusted \$1,242 in January 2010. The price of oil at the time was \$81/barrel
| 178 |
Simon–Ehrlich wager
| 2 |
15,613 |
# Jazz
*Pandoc failed*: ```
Error at (line 916, column 1):
unexpected end of input
expecting white space
``
| 19 |
Jazz
| 0 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
**Eric Reed Boucher** (born June 17, 1958), known professionally as **Jello Biafra**, is an American singer, spoken word artist and political activist. He is the former lead singer and songwriter for the San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys.
Initially active from 1979 to 1986, Dead Kennedys were known for rapid-fire music topped with Biafra\'s sardonic lyrics and biting social commentary, delivered in his \"unique quiver of a voice\". When the band broke up in 1986, he took over the influential independent record label Alternative Tentacles, which he had founded in 1979 with Dead Kennedys bandmate East Bay Ray. In a 2000 lawsuit, upheld on appeal in 2003 by the California Supreme Court, Biafra was found liable for breach of contract, fraud, and malice in withholding a decade\'s worth of royalties from his former bandmates and ordered to pay over \$200,000 in compensation and punitive damages; the band subsequently reformed without Biafra. Although now focused primarily on spoken word performances, Biafra has continued as a musician in numerous collaborations. From 1979 to 1981, he contributed to the San Francisco punk zine *Damage*. He has also occasionally appeared in cameo roles in films.
Politically, Biafra is a member of the Green Party of the United States and supports various political causes. He ran for the party\'s presidential nomination in the 2000 presidential election, finishing a distant second to Ralph Nader. In 1979 he ran for mayor of San Francisco, California. He is a supporter of a free society and utilizes shock value and advocates direct action and pranksterism in the name of political causes. Biafra uses absurdist media tactics, in the leftist tradition of the Yippies, to highlight issues of civil rights and social justice.
## Early life {#early_life}
Eric Reed Boucher was born in Boulder, Colorado, the son of Virginia Boucher (née Parker), a librarian, and Stanley Wayne Boucher, a psychiatric social worker and poet. His sister, Julie J. Boucher, was Associate Director of the Library Research Service at the Colorado State Library; she died in a mountain-climbing accident on October 12, 1996.
As a child, Boucher developed an interest in international politics that was encouraged by his parents. Boucher became a fan of rock music after his parents accidentally tuned in to a rock radio station. As a teenager, his high school guidance counselor advised him to spend his adolescence preparing to become a dental hygienist.
| 400 |
Jello Biafra
| 0 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Musical career {#musical_career}
### Colorado bands {#colorado_bands}
In 1977, he worked as a roadie for a local band called The Ravers (who later changed their name to The Nails), helping set up their equipment at shows, including as an opener for the Ramones. The job ended shortly after the Ramones show, when The Ravers were offered a record contract and left Colorado. Boucher credits seeing Joey Ramone as inspiration to become a singer, and the Ramones lyrics for inspiring the use of humor in his own songs.
Shortly after graduating high school, he formed a band called The Healers, with John Greenway and an unknown third member. Boucher has described The Healers\' music as \"banging on instruments we didn\'t know how to play when our parents weren\'t home\". While never playing a show, the band made recordings, including an early version of \"California Über Alles\", but did not want any of it to be released to the public. Some of their music was made available on a 2009 compilation of late 1970s Colorado punk bands titled *Rocky Mountain Low*, including the original version of \"California Über Alles\", which Maximum Rocknroll described as experimental improv in their review.
Boucher left Boulder to attend the University of California, Santa Cruz but dropped out after the first quarter of the school year.
### Dead Kennedys {#dead_kennedys}
In June 1978, Boucher responded to an advertisement placed in a store by guitarist East Bay Ray, stating \"guitarist wants to form punk band\", and together they formed the Dead Kennedys. He began performing with the band under the stage name Occupant, but soon began to use the stage name Jello Biafra, a combination of the brand name Jell-O and the short-lived African state of Biafra.
Biafra initially attempted to compose music on guitar, but his lack of experience on the instrument and his own admission of being \"a fumbler with my hands\" led Dead Kennedys bassist Klaus Flouride to suggest that Biafra simply sing the parts he envisioned to the band.V. Vale, *Incredibly Strange Music, Vol. 2*, RE/Search Publications, 1995
Biafra sang his riffs and melodies into a tape recorder, which he brought to the band\'s rehearsal and/or recording sessions. By all accounts, including his own, Biafra is not a conventionally skilled musician, though he and his collaborators (Joey Shithead of D.O.A. in particular) attest that he is a skilled composer and his work, particularly with the Dead Kennedys, is highly respected by punk-oriented critics and fans. `{{listen
| pos = right
| filename = Holiday in Cambodia.ogg
| title = Holiday in Cambodia
| description = "Holiday in Cambodia" by the Dead Kennedys from ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''
| format = [[Ogg]]
}}`{=mediawiki}
The first single by Dead Kennedys was \"California Über Alles\". The song, which spoofed California governor Jerry Brown, was the first of many political songs by the group and Biafra. Its popularity resulted in being covered by other musicians, such as The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy (who rewrote the lyrics to parody Pete Wilson), John Linnell of They Might Be Giants and Six Feet Under on their *Graveyard Classics* album of cover versions. Not long after, the Dead Kennedys had a second and bigger hit with \"Holiday in Cambodia\" from their debut album *Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables*. *AllMusic* cites this song as \"possibly the most successful single of the American hardcore scene\" and Biafra counts it as his personal favorite Dead Kennedy\'s song.
The Dead Kennedys received some controversy in the spring of 1981 over the single \"Too Drunk to Fuck\". The song became a hit in Britain, and the BBC feared that it would manage to be a big enough hit to appear among the top 30 songs on the national charts, requiring a mention on *Top of the Pops*. However, the single peaked at number 36 in the charts.
The EP *In God We Trust, Inc.* contained the song \"Nazi Punks Fuck Off!\" as well as \"We\'ve Got A Bigger Problem Now\", a rewritten version of \"California über alles\" about Ronald Reagan. Punk musician and scholar Vic Bondi considers the latter song to be the song that \"defined the lyrical agenda of much of hardcore music, and represented its break with punk\". The band\'s most controversial album, *Frankenchrist*, brought with it the song \"MTV Get Off the Air,\" which accused MTV of promoting poor quality music and sedating the public. The album also contained a controversial poster by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger entitled *Penis Landscape*.
The Dead Kennedys toured widely during their career, starting in the late 1970s. They began playing at San Francisco\'s Mabuhay Gardens (their home base) and other Bay Area venues, later branching out to shows in southern Californian clubs (most notably the Whisky a Go Go), but eventually they moved to major clubs across the country, including CBGB in New York. Later, they played to larger audiences such as at the 1980 Bay Area Music Awards (where they played the notorious \"Pull My Strings\" for the only time), and headlined the 1983 Rock Against Reagan festival.
On May 7, 1994, punk rock fans who believed Biafra was a \"sell out\" attacked him at the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California. Biafra claims that he was attacked by a man nicknamed Cretin, who crashed into him while moshing. The crash injured Biafra\'s leg, causing an argument between the two men. During the argument, Cretin pushed Biafra to the floor and five or six friends of Cretin assaulted Biafra while he was down, yelling \"Sellout rock star, kick him\", and attempting to pull out his hair. Biafra was later hospitalized with serious injuries. The attack derailed Biafra\'s plans for both a Canadian spoken-word tour and an accompanying album, and the production of *Pure Chewing Satisfaction* was halted. However, Biafra returned to the Gilman club a few months after the incident to perform a spoken-word performance as an act of reconciliation with the club.
Biafra has been a prominent figure in the Californian punk scene and was one of the third-generation members of the San Francisco punk community. Many later hardcore bands have cited the Dead Kennedys as a major influence. Hardcore punk author Steven Blush describes Biafra as hardcore\'s \"biggest star\" who was a \"powerful presence whose political insurgence and rabid fandom made him the father figure of a burgeoning subculture \[and an\] inspirational force \[who\] could also be a real prick \... Biafra was a visionary, incendiary \[performer\].\"
After the Dead Kennedys disbanded, Biafra\'s new songs were recorded with other bands, and he released only spoken word albums as solo projects. These collaborations had less popularity than Biafra\'s earlier work. However, his song \"That\'s Progress\", originally recorded with D.O.A. for the album *Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors*, received considerable exposure when it appeared on the album *Rock Against Bush, Vol. 1*.
#### Obscenity prosecution {#obscenity_prosecution}
In April 1986, police officers raided Biafra\'s house in response to complaints by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). In June 1986, L.A. deputy city attorney Michael Guarino, working under City Attorney James Hahn, brought Biafra to trial in Los Angeles for distributing \"harmful material to minors\" in the Dead Kennedys album *Frankenchrist*. However, the dispute was about neither the music nor the lyrics from the album, but rather the print of the H. R. Giger poster *Landscape XX* (*Penis Landscape*) included with the album.
Music author Reebee Garofalo argued that Biafra and Alternative Tentacles may have been targeted because the label was a \"small, self-managed and self-supported company that could ill afford a protracted legal battle.\" Facing the possible sentence of a year in jail and a \$2,000 fine, Biafra, Dirk Dirksen, and Suzanne Stefanac founded the No More Censorship Defense Fund, a benefit featuring several punk rock bands, to help pay for his legal fees, which neither he nor his record label could afford. The jury deadlocked 5 to 7 in favor of acquittal, prompting a mistrial; despite a motion to retry the case, the judge ordered all charges dropped. The Dead Kennedys disbanded during the trial, in December 1986, due to the mounting legal costs; in the wake of their disbandment, Biafra made a career of his spoken word performances.
Biafra has a cameo role in the 1988 film *Tapeheads*. He plays an FBI agent who arrests the two protagonists (played by Tim Robbins and John Cusack). While arresting them, his character asks \"Remember what we did to Jello Biafra?\" lampooning the obscenity prosecution.
On March 25, 2005, Biafra appeared on the U.S. radio program *This American Life*, [\"Episode 285: Know Your Enemy\"](http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/285/Know-Your-Enemy), which featured a phone call between Jello Biafra and Michael Guarino, the prosecutor in the *Frankenchrist* trial.
*Porn Rock: The Obscenity Trial of Jello Biafra*, a play written by Lawrence Meyers, was staged in Los Angeles in February 2025, depicting the obscenity prosecution and its implications.
| 1,480 |
Jello Biafra
| 1 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Musical career {#musical_career}
### Dead Kennedys {#dead_kennedys}
#### Lawsuit and reunion activities {#lawsuit_and_reunion_activities}
In October 1998, three former members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra for nonpayment of royalties. The other members of Dead Kennedys alleged that Biafra, in his capacity as the head of Alternative Tentacles records, discovered an accounting error amounting to some \$75,000 in unpaid royalties over almost a decade. Rather than informing his bandmates of this mistake, the suit alleged, Biafra knowingly concealed the information until a whistleblower employee at the record label notified the band.
According to Biafra, the suit resulted from his refusal to allow one of the band\'s most well-known singles, \"Holiday in Cambodia\", to be used in a commercial for Levi\'s Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi\'s because of his belief that they use unfair business practices and sweatshop labor. Biafra maintained that he had never denied them royalties and that he himself had not even received royalties for re-releases of their albums or \"posthumous\" live albums which had been licensed to other labels by the Decay Music partnership. Decay Music denied this charge and have posted what they say are his cashed royalty checks, written to his legal name of Eric Boucher. Biafra also complained about the songwriting credits in new reissues and archival live albums of songs, alleging that he was the sole composer of songs that were wrongly credited to the entire band.
In May 2000, a jury found Biafra and Alternative Tentacles liable by not promptly informing his former bandmates of the accounting error and instead withholding the information during subsequent discussions and contractual negotiations. Biafra was ordered to pay \$200,000, including \$20,000 in punitive damages. After an appeal by Biafra\'s lawyers, in June 2003, the California Court of Appeals unanimously upheld all the conditions of the 2000 verdict against Biafra and Alternative Tentacles. Furthermore, the plaintiffs were awarded the rights to most of Dead Kennedys recorded works---which accounted for about half the sales for Alternative Tentacles. Now in control of the Dead Kennedys name, Biafra\'s former bandmates went on tour with a new lead vocalist.
In a May 2025 interview with *Guitar World*, East Bay Ray discussed a potential reunion with Jello Biafra saying that he and Klaus Fluoride were open to a reunion however it would never happen and that Biafra was to blame. He said that over the years lucrative offers such as one in 2017 from Riot Fest were proposed to the band but Biafra was against it. "It's not an issue for me or Klaus. It's Biafra that turns down any offers for us to do something; we don't have any problem." East Bay Ray went on criticize Biafra\'s post Dead Kennedys career and how Biafra took credit for writing most of the band\'s songs in which he took exception to Biafra\'s claims by saying "We actually wrote as a band, where in effect, due to the chemistry between us, it was a case of two and two equaling five. None of us has had a solo career that was bigger than Dead Kennedys, which, to me, shows the power of a bunch of talented people getting together and creating something that was far greater than the sum of its parts. Jello didn't bring in the songs. I know he's created the myth that he wrote them all, but the question here is that if he did, why didn't he ever do anything significant after leaving the band?," adding, "Iggy left the Stooges and had a career; ditto Lou Reed with the Velvet Underground or Morrissey with the Smiths. Where's Biafra's solo career with a bunch of great songs? The songs were written in numerous different ways. "Holiday in Cambodia" started as a jam in the rehearsal studio" he said.
Biafra, in a 2012 interview with the *Tampa Bay Times*, stated he was not happy with the current direction of his former bandmates, nor did he want to restart the Dead Kennedys for nostalgia purposes:
> \"We haven\'t talk in a dozen years. In their hearts they\'ve become Republicans and I just wouldn\'t do something like that unless we can bring back the real thing. In a way getting me back into the band would be their worst nightmare, like make them rehearse. When people tell me that I owe it to the fans to regurgitate nothing but old music with the people I used to play with, that\'s totally the opposite of what punk and Dead Kennedys means to me. The true spirit of the whole thing is to keep going, keep moving and make more new stuff. Nobody was more cynical than the original punks about nostalgia and retro because of all the rage on TV and people started to get nostalgic in goofy ass ways for the sixties and they were thinking, \'\'Yeah, that will never happen to us. That\'s not what I\'m here for, sorry. It\'s not as if the people who come to the Guantanamo School of Medicine shows wanting nothing but old Dead Kennedys songs don\'t leave with a smile on their face once they\'ve heard the new songs. It\'s not like I\'ve forgot how to write this shit.\"
| 864 |
Jello Biafra
| 2 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Musical career {#musical_career}
### Other bands {#other_bands}
In the early 1980s, Biafra collaborated with musicians Christian Lunch and Adrian Borland (of The Sound) and Morgan Fisher (of Mott the Hoople) for the electropunk musical project The Witch Trials, releasing one self-titled EP in its lifetime.
In 1988, Biafra, with Al Jourgensen and Paul Barker of the band Ministry, and Jeff Ward, formed Lard. The band became yet another side project for Ministry, with Biafra providing vocals and lyrics. According to a March 2009 interview with Jourgensen, he and Biafra are working on a new Lard album, which is being recorded in Jourgensen\'s El Paso studio. Jourgensen also claimed in 2021 that Biafra was in the works on a new Lard album. While working on the film *Terminal City Ricochet* in 1989, Biafra did a song for the film\'s soundtrack with D.O.A.. As a result, Biafra worked with D.O.A. on the album *Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors*. Biafra also worked with Nomeansno on the soundtrack, which led to their collaboration on the album *The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy* the following year. Biafra also provided lyrics for the song \"Biotech is Godzilla\" for Sepultura\'s 1993 album *Chaos A.D.*.
In 1999, Biafra and other members of the anti-globalization movement protested the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle. Along with other prominent West Coast musicians, he formed the short-lived band No WTO Combo to help promote the movement\'s cause. The band was originally scheduled to play during the protest, but the performance was canceled due to riots. The band performed a short set the following night at the Showbox in downtown Seattle (outside the designated area), along with the hip-hop group Spearhead. No WTO Combo later released a CD of recordings from the concert, entitled *Live from the Battle in Seattle*.
As of late 2005, Biafra was performing with the band The Melvins under the name \"Jello Biafra and the Melvins\", though fans sometimes refer to them as \"The Jelvins\". Together they have released two albums, and worked on material for a third collaborative release, much of which was premiered live at two concerts at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco during an event called Biafra Five-O, commemorating Biafra\'s 50th birthday, the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Dead Kennedys, and the beginning of legalized same-sex marriage in California. Biafra was also working with a band known as Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, which included Ralph Spight of Victims Family on guitar and Billy Gould of Faith No More on bass. This group debuted during Biafra Five-O.
In 2011, Biafra appeared in a singular concert event with an all-star cast of Southern musicians including members from Cowboy Mouth, Dash Rip Rock, Mojo Nixon, and Down entitled, \"Jello Biafra and the New Orleans Raunch & Soul All Stars\" who performed an array of classic Soul covers to a packed house at the 12-Bar in New Orleans, Louisiana. He would later reunite with many of the same musicians during the Carnival season 2014 to revisit many of these classics in Siberia, New Orleans. A live album from the 2011 performance, *Walk on Jindal\'s Splinters*, and a companion single, *Fannie May*/*Just a Little Bit*, were released in 2015.
| 546 |
Jello Biafra
| 3 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Musical career {#musical_career}
### Alternative Tentacles {#alternative_tentacles}
In June 1979, Biafra co-founded the record label Alternative Tentacles, with which the Dead Kennedys released their first single, \"California über alles\". The label was created to allow the band to release albums without having to deal with pressure from major labels to change their music, although the major labels were not willing to sign the band due to their songs being deemed too controversial. After dealing with Cherry Red in the UK and IRS Records in the US for their first album *Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables*, the band released all later albums, and later pressings of *Fresh Fruit* on Alternative Tentacles. The exception was live albums released after the band\'s break-up, which the other band members compiled from recordings in the band partnership\'s vaults without Biafra\'s input or endorsement.. Biafra has been the owner of the company since its founding, though he does not receive a salary for his position; Biafra has referred to his position in the company as \"absentee thoughtlord\".
Biafra is a collector of unusual vinyl records of all kinds, from 1950s and 1960s ethno-pop recordings by the likes of Les Baxter and Esquivel to vanity pressings that have circulated regionally, to German crooner Heino (for whom he would later participate in the documentary *Heino: Made In Germany*); he cites his always growing collection as one of his biggest musical influences. In 1993 he gave an interview to RE/Search Publications for their second *Incredibly Strange Music* book focusing primarily on these records, and later participated in a two-part episode of Fuse TV\'s program *Crate Diggers* on the same subject. His interest in such recordings, often categorized as outsider music, led to his discovery of the prolific (and schizophrenic) singer/songwriter/artist Wesley Willis, whom he signed to Alternative Tentacles in 1994, preceding Willis\' major label deal with American Recordings. His collection grew so large that on October 1, 2005, Biafra donated a portion of his collection to an annual yard sale co-promoted by Alternative Tentacles and held at their warehouse in Emeryville, California.
In 2006, along with Alternative Tentacles employee and The Frisk lead singer Jesse Luscious, Biafra began co-hosting *The Alternative Tentacles Batcast*, a downloadable podcast hosted by alternativetentacles.com. The show primarily focuses on interviews with artists and bands that are currently signed to the Alternative Tentacles label, although there are also occasional episodes where Biafra devoted the show to answering fan questions.
## Spoken word {#spoken_word}
Biafra became a spoken word artist in January 1986 with a performance at University of California, Los Angeles. In his performance, he combined humor with his political beliefs, much in the same way that he did with the lyrics to his songs. Despite his continued spoken word performances, he did not begin recording spoken word albums until after the disbanding of the Dead Kennedys.
His ninth spoken word album, *In the Grip of Official Treason*, was released in October 2006.
Biafra was also featured in the British band Pitchshifter\'s song *As Seen on TV* reciting the words of dystopian futuristic radio advertisements.
| 514 |
Jello Biafra
| 4 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Politics
Biafra has resisted identifying with any particular ideology, saying, \"I don\'t label myself strictly an anarchist or a socialist or let alone a libertarian or something like that,\" In a 2012 interview, Biafra said \"I\'m very pro-tax as long as it goes for the right things. I don\'t mind paying more money as long as it\'s going to provide shelter for people sleeping in the street or getting the schools fixed back up, getting the infrastructure up to the standards of other countries, including a high-speed rail system. I\'m totally down with that.\"
### Mayoral campaign {#mayoral_campaign}
In the autumn of 1979, Biafra ran for mayor of San Francisco, using the Jell-O ad campaign catchphrase, \"There\'s always room for Jello\", as his campaign slogan. Having entered the race before creating a campaign platform, Biafra later wrote his platform on a napkin while attending a Pere Ubu concert where Dead Kennedys drummer Ted told Biafra, \"Biafra, you have such a big mouth that you should run for Mayor.\" As he campaigned, Biafra wore campaign T-shirts from his opponent Quentin Kopp\'s previous campaign and at one point vacuumed leaves off the front lawn of another opponent, Dianne Feinstein, to mock her publicity stunt of sweeping streets in downtown San Francisco for a few hours. He also made a whistlestop campaign tour along the BART line. Supporters committed equally odd actions; two well-known signs held by supporters said \"If he doesn\'t win I\'ll kill myself\" and \"What if he does win?\"
At the time, in San Francisco, any individual could legally run for mayor if a petition was signed by 1500 people or if \$1500 was paid. Biafra paid \$900 and got signatures over time and eventually became a legal candidate, meaning he received statements put in voters\' pamphlets and equal news coverage.
His platform included unconventional points such as forcing businessmen to wear clown suits within city limits, erecting statues of Dan White, who assassinated Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk in 1978, around the city and allowing the parks department to sell eggs and tomatoes with which people could pelt the statues, hiring workers who had lost their jobs due to a tax initiative to panhandle in wealthy neighborhoods (including Feinstein\'s), and a citywide ban on cars. Biafra has expressed irritation that these parts of his platform attained such notoriety, preferring instead to be remembered for serious proposals such as legalizing squatting in vacant, tax-delinquent buildings and requiring police officers to run for election by the people of the neighborhoods they patrol.
Biafra finished fourth out of a field of ten in the first round of voting, receiving 3.79 percent of the vote (6,591 votes); he failed to advance to the runoff and Dianne Feinstein won the second round of the voting.
### Presidential campaign {#presidential_campaign}
In 2000, the New York State Green Party drafted Biafra as a candidate for the Green Party presidential nomination, and a few supporters were elected to the party\'s nominating convention in Denver, Colorado. Biafra chose death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal as his running mate. The party overwhelmingly chose Ralph Nader as the presidential candidate with 295 of the 319 delegate votes. Biafra received 10 votes.
Biafra, along with a camera crew (dubbed by Biafra as \"The Camcorder Truth Jihad\"), later reported for the Independent Media Center at the Republican and Democratic conventions.
### Post-2000 {#post_2000}
After losing the 2000 nomination, Biafra became highly active in Nader\'s presidential campaign, as well as in 2004 and 2008. During the 2008 campaign Jello played at rallies and answered questions for journalists in support of Nader. When gay rights activists accused Nader of costing Al Gore the 2000 election, Biafra reminded them that Tipper Gore\'s Parents Music Resource Center wanted warning stickers on albums with content referencing homosexuality.
After Barack Obama won the general election, Biafra wrote an open letter making suggestions on how to run his term as president. Biafra criticized Obama during his term, stating that \"Obama even won the award for best advertising campaign of 2008.\" Biafra dubbed Obama \"Barackstar O\'Bummer\". Biafra refused to support Obama in 2012. Biafra has stated that he feels that Obama continued many of George W. Bush\'s policies, summarizing Obama\'s policies as containing \"worse and worse laws against human rights and more and more illegal unconstitutional spying.\"
On September 18, 2015, it was announced that Biafra would be supporting Bernie Sanders in his campaign for the 2016 presidential election. He has strongly criticized the political position of Donald Trump, saying \"how can people be so fucking stupid\" on hearing the election result. He also criticized Trump\'s cabinet picks, saying of then-Secretary of Energy Rick Perry, \"The last person we want with their finger on the nuclear button is somebody connected to this extreme Christianist doomsday cult.\"
On February 28, 2020, Jello announced that he would be supporting both Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders in the 2020 presidential election. \"I personally like Warren slightly better than Bernie because: 1) She's done her homework. Bernie too, but not to quite the same depth or degree. 2) Think about it---who really has a better chance of actually beating Trump, and helping flip Congress and state legislatures? It's Elizabeth Warren, hands down.\" He went on to say that he considered Joe Biden and Mike Bloomberg \"almost as bad as Trump\".
On April 12, 2020, Biafra expressed disappointment that Sanders had suspended his campaign for the 2020 Democratic nomination.
### Boycott of Israel {#boycott_of_israel}
In mid-2011 Jello Biafra and his band were scheduled to play at the Barby Club in Tel Aviv. They came under pressure by the pro-Palestinian Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign, and finally decided to cancel the concert -- after a debate which according to Biafra \"deeply tore at the fabric of our band \... This whole controversy has been one of the most intense situations of my life -- and I thrive on intense situations\".
Biafra then decided to travel to Israel and the Palestinian Occupied Territories, at his own expense, and talk with Israeli and Palestinian activists as well as with fans disappointed at his cancellation. In the article stating his conclusions he wrote: \"I will not perform in Israel unless it is a pro-human rights, anti-occupation event, that does not violate the spirit of the boycott. Each musician, artist, etc. must decide this for themselves. I am staying away for now, but am also really creeped out by the attitudes of some of the hardliners and hope someday to find a way to contribute something positive here. I will not march or sign on with anyone who runs around calling people Zionazis and is more interested in making threats than making friends.\"
| 1,120 |
Jello Biafra
| 5 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Politics
### Electoral history {#electoral_history}
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Biafra married Theresa Soder, a.k.a. Ninotchka, lead singer of San Francisco-area punk band the Situations, on October 31, 1981. The wedding was conducted by Flipper vocalist/bassist Bruce Loose, who became a Universal Life Church minister specifically to conduct the ceremony, which took place in a graveyard. The wedding reception, which members of Flipper, Black Flag, and D.O.A. attended, was held at director Joe Rees\' Target Video studios. The marriage ended in divorce.
Biafra identifies as agnostic. He has a Jewish great-grandparent, but was unaware of this until he was in his mid-40s. Due to his secular upbringing and lack of knowledge of his distant Jewish ancestry until adulthood, he does not consider himself Jewish.
He lives in San Francisco, California.
| 133 |
Jello Biafra
| 6 |
15,616 |
# Jello Biafra
## Selected discography {#selected_discography}
*For a more complete list, see the Jello Biafra discography.*
### Dead Kennedys {#dead_kennedys_1}
- 1980 -- *Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables*
- 1981 -- *In God We Trust, Inc.*
- 1982 -- *Plastic Surgery Disasters*
- 1985 -- *Frankenchrist*
- 1986 -- *Bedtime for Democracy*
- 1987 -- *Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death*
### Spoken word {#spoken_word_1}
- 1987 -- *No More Cocoons*
- 1989 -- *High Priest of Harmful Matter: Tales From the Trial*
- 1991 -- *I Blow Minds for a Living*
- 1994 -- *Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police*
- 1998 -- *If Evolution Is Outlawed, Only Outlaws Will Evolve*
- 2000 -- *Become the Media*
- 2002 -- *The Big Ka-Boom, Pt. 1*
- 2002 -- *Machine Gun in the Clown\'s Hand*
- 2006 -- *In the Grip of Official Treason*
### Lard
- 1989 -- *The Power of Lard*
- 1990 -- *The Last Temptation of Reid*
- 1997 -- *Pure Chewing Satisfaction*
- 2000 -- *70\'s Rock Must Die*
### Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine {#jello_biafra_and_the_guantanamo_school_of_medicine}
- 2009 -- *The Audacity of Hype*
- 2011 -- *Enhanced Methods of Questioning*
- 2012 -- SHOCK-U-PY
- 2013 -- *White People and the Damage Done*
- 2020 -- *Tea Party Revenge Porn*
### Collaborations
Year Album Artist
------ -------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1980 *The Witch Trials* Jello Biafra with East Bay Ray, Adrian Borland, Morgan Fisher, Christian Lunch
1989 *Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors* Jello Biafra with D.O.A.
*The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech\... Just Watch What You Say!* Ice-T (Several samples from Biafra\'s *No More Coccons* album, appear on \"Shut Up, Be Happy\" and \"Freedom of Speech\".)
1991 *The Sky is Falling and I Want My Mommy* Jello Biafra with Nomeansno
*Tumor Circus* Tumor Circus was a collaboration between Jello Biafra and members of Steel Pole Bath Tub and Grong Grong. Dave Brockie and Michael Bishop of Gwar also provide backing vocals on one track.
1993 *Chaos A.D.* Sepultura (Biafra appears on the track \"Biotech Is Godzilla\")
1994 *Prairie Home Invasion* Jello Biafra & Mojo Nixon
1995 *Notes from Thee Underground* Pigface (Biafra appears on the track \"Hag-Seed\")
1997 *Ixnay on the Hombre* The Offspring (Biafra speaks on the opening track \"Disclaimer\")
*Let Us Play!* Coldcut (Biafra is featured on \"Every Home a Prison\")
2000 *Live from the Battle in Seattle* The No WTO Combo
*Deviant* Pitchshifter (Biafra is featured on \"As Seen On TV\")
2004 *Never Breathe What You Can\'t See* Jello Biafra with The Melvins
2005 *Sieg Howdy!*
2008 Jezebel/Speed Demon 7\" Jello Biafra with members of Zen Guerillas
2012 We Occupy Jello Biafra with D.O.A.
2015 *Walk on Jindal\'s Splinters* Jello Biafra and the New Orleans Raunch & Soul Allstars
2016 In the Age of Corporate Personhood Disaster Strikes (Biafra is featured on Age of Corporate Personhood)
2019 bi/MENTAL Le Butcherettes (Biafra is featured on spider/WAVES)
2020 *Carnivore* Body Count (Biafra is featured on \"The Hate is Real\")
2022 Who Are We? Al-Qasar (Biafra is featured on \"Ya Malak\")
: Jello Biafra musical collaborations
## Filmography
- 1977 -- *This Is America, Pt. 2*
- 1981 -- *Urgh! A Music War*
- 1983 -- *Anarchism in America*
- 1986 -- *Lovedolls Superstar*, directed by Dave Markey
- 1987 -- *Household Affairs*, directed & filmed by Allen Ginsberg
- 1988 -- *Tapeheads*, directed by Bill Fishman
- 1990 -- *Terminal City Ricochet*
- 1991 -- *Highway 61*, directed by Bruce McDonald
- 1994 -- *Skulhedface*, directed by Melanie Mandl
- 1997 -- *Mary Jane\'s Not a Virgin Anymore*, directed by Sarah Jacobson
- 1999 -- *The Widower*
- 1999 -- *Virtue*
- 2001 -- *Plaster Caster*
- 2002 -- *Bikini Bandits*, directed by Steve and Peter Grasse
- 2004 -- *Death and Texas*
- 2004 -- *Punk: Attitude*
- 2005 -- *We Jam Econo: The Story of the Minutemen*
- 2006 -- *Punk\'s Not Dead*, directed by Susan Dynner
- 2006 -- *Whose War?*, directed by Donald Farmer
- 2007 -- *American Drug War: The Last White Hope*, directed by Kevin Booth
- 2008 -- *Nerdcore Rising*, directed by Negin Farsad
- 2009 -- *Open Your Mouth and Say Mr. Chi Pig*, directed by Sean Patrick Shaul
- 2010 -- *A Man Within*, directed by Yony Leyser
- 2011 -- *I Love You \..
| 723 |
Jello Biafra
| 7 |
15,627 |
# Junk science
**Junk science** is spurious or fraudulent scientific data, research, or analysis. The concept is often invoked in political and legal contexts where facts and scientific results have a great amount of weight in making a determination. It usually conveys a pejorative connotation that the research has been untowardly driven by political, ideological, financial, or otherwise unscientific motives.
The concept was popularized in the 1990s in relation to expert testimony in civil litigation. More recently, invoking the concept has been a tactic to criticize research on the harmful environmental or public health effects of corporate activities, and occasionally in response to such criticism.
In some contexts, junk science is counterposed to the \"sound science\" or \"solid science\" that favors one\'s own point of view. Junk science has been criticized for undermining public trust in real science. Junk science is not the same as pseudoscience.
## Definition
Junk science has been defined as:
- \"science done to establish a preconceived notion---not to test the notion, which is what proper science tries to do, but to establish it regardless of whether or not it would hold up to real testing.\"
- \"opinion posing as empirical evidence, or through evidence of questionable warrant, based on inadequate scientific methodology.\"
- \"methodologically sloppy research conducted to advance some extrascientific agenda or to prevail in litigation.\"
## Motivations
Junk science happens for different reasons: researchers believing that their ideas are correct before proper analysis (a sort of scientific self-delusion or drinking the Kool-Aid), researchers biased with their study designs, and/or a \"plain old lack of ethics\". Being overly attached to one\'s own ideas can cause research to veer from ordinary junk science (e.g., designing an experiment that is expected to produce the desired results) into scientific fraud (e.g., lying about the results) and pseudoscience (e.g., claiming that the unfavorable results actually proved the idea correct).
Junk science can occur when the perpetrator has something to gain from arriving at the desired conclusion. It can often happen in the testimony of expert witnesses in legal proceedings, and especially in the self-serving advertising of products and services. These situations may encourage researchers to make sweeping or overstated claims based on limited evidence.
| 366 |
Junk science
| 0 |
15,627 |
# Junk science
## History
The phrase *junk science* appears to have been in use prior to 1985. A 1985 United States Department of Justice report by the Tort Policy Working Group noted:
> The use of such invalid scientific evidence (commonly referred to as \'junk science\') has resulted in findings of causation which simply cannot be justified or understood from the standpoint of the current state of credible scientific or medical knowledge.
In 1989, the climate scientist Jerry Mahlman (Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory) characterized the theory that global warming was due to solar variation (presented in *Scientific Perspectives on the Greenhouse Problem* by Frederick Seitz et al.) as \"noisy junk science.\"
Peter W. Huber popularized the term with respect to litigation in his 1991 book *Galileo\'s Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom.* The book has been cited in over 100 legal textbooks and references; as a consequence, some sources cite Huber as the first to coin the term. By 1997, the term had entered the legal lexicon as seen in an opinion by Supreme Court of the United States Justice John Paul Stevens:
> An example of \'junk science\' that should be excluded under the Daubert standard as too unreliable would be the testimony of a phrenologist who would purport to prove a defendant\'s future dangerousness based on the contours of the defendant\'s skull.
Lower courts have subsequently set guidelines for identifying junk science, such as the 2005 opinion of United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit Judge Frank H. Easterbrook:
> Positive reports about magnetic water treatment are not replicable; this plus the lack of a physical explanation for any effects are hallmarks of junk science.
As the subtitle of Huber\'s book, *Junk Science in the Courtroom*, suggests, his emphasis was on the use or misuse of expert testimony in civil litigation. One prominent example cited in the book was litigation over casual contact in the spread of AIDS. A California school district sought to prevent a young boy with AIDS, Ryan Thomas, from attending kindergarten. The school district produced an expert witness, Steven Armentrout, who testified that a possibility existed that AIDS could be transmitted to schoolmates through yet undiscovered \"vectors\". However, five experts testified on behalf of Thomas that AIDS is not transmitted through casual contact, and the court affirmed the \"solid science\" (as Huber called it) and rejected Armentrout\'s argument.
In 1999, Paul Ehrlich and others advocated public policies to improve the dissemination of valid environmental scientific knowledge and discourage junk science:
> The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports offer an antidote to junk science by articulating the current consensus on the prospects for climate change, by outlining the extent of the uncertainties, and by describing the potential benefits and costs of policies to address climate change.
In a 2003 study about changes in environmental activism regarding the Crown of the Continent Ecosystem, Pedynowski noted that junk science can undermine the credibility of science over a much broader scale because misrepresentation by special interests casts doubt on more defensible claims and undermines the credibility of all research.
In his 2006 book *Junk Science*,`{{page needed|date=July 2018}}`{=mediawiki} Dan Agin emphasized two main causes of junk science: fraud, and ignorance. In the first case, Agin discussed falsified results in the development of organic transistors:
> As far as understanding junk science is concerned, the important aspect is that both Bell Laboratories and the international physics community were fooled until someone noticed that noise records published by Jan Hendrik Schön in several papers were identical---which means physically impossible.
In the second case, he cites an example that demonstrates ignorance of statistical principles in the lay press:
> Since no such proof is possible \[that genetically modified food is harmless\], the article in *The New York Times* was what is called a \"bad rap\" against the U.S. Department of Agriculture---a bad rap based on a junk-science belief that it\'s possible to prove a null hypothesis.
Agin asks the reader to step back from the rhetoric, as \"how things are labeled does not make a science junk science.\" In its place, he offers that junk science is ultimately motivated by the desire to hide undesirable truths from the public.
The rise of open source (free to read) journals has resulted in economic pressure on academic publishers to publish junk science. Even when the journal is peer-reviewed, the authors, rather than the readers, become the customer and the source of funding for the journal, so the publisher is incentivized to publish as many papers as possible, including those that are methodologically unsound.
| 766 |
Junk science
| 1 |
15,627 |
# Junk science
## Misuse in public relations {#misuse_in_public_relations}
John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton of *PR Watch* say the concept of junk science has come to be invoked in attempts to dismiss scientific findings that stand in the way of short-term corporate profits. In their book *Trust Us, We\'re Experts* (2001), they write that industries have launched multimillion-dollar campaigns to position certain theories as junk science in the popular mind, often failing to employ the scientific method themselves. For example, the tobacco industry has described research demonstrating the harmful effects of smoking and second-hand smoke as junk science, through the vehicle of various astroturf groups.
Theories more favorable to corporate activities are portrayed in words as \"sound science\". Past examples where \"sound science\" was used include the research into the toxicity of Alar, which was heavily criticized by antiregulatory advocates, and Herbert Needleman\'s research into low dose lead poisoning. Needleman was accused of fraud and personally attacked.
Fox News commentator Steven Milloy often denigrates credible scientific research on topics like global warming, ozone depletion, and passive smoking as \"junk science\". The credibility of Milloy\'s website junkscience.com was questioned by Paul D. Thacker, a writer for *The New Republic*, in the wake of evidence that Milloy had received funding from Philip Morris, RJR Tobacco, and ExxonMobil. Thacker also noted that Milloy was receiving almost \$100,000 a year in consulting fees from Philip Morris while he criticized the evidence regarding the hazards of second-hand smoke as junk science. Following the publication of this article, the Cato Institute, which had hosted the junkscience.com site, ceased its association with the site and removed Milloy from its list of adjunct scholars.
Tobacco industry documents reveal that Philip Morris executives conceived of the \"Whitecoat Project\" in the 1980s as a response to emerging scientific data on the harmfulness of second-hand smoke. The goal of the Whitecoat Project, as conceived by Philip Morris and other tobacco companies, was to use ostensibly independent \"scientific consultants\" to spread doubt in the public mind about scientific data through invoking concepts like junk science. According to epidemiologist David Michaels, Assistant Secretary of Energy for Environment, Safety, and Health in the Clinton Administration, the tobacco industry invented the \"sound science\" movement in the 1980s as part of their campaign against the regulation of second-hand smoke.
David Michaels has argued that, since the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in *Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.*, lay judges have become \"gatekeepers\" of scientific testimony and, as a result, respected scientists have sometimes been unable to provide testimony so that corporate defendants are \"increasingly emboldened\" to accuse adversaries of practicing junk science.
| 436 |
Junk science
| 2 |
15,627 |
# Junk science
## Notable cases {#notable_cases}
American psychologist Paul Cameron has been designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) as an anti-gay extremist and a purveyor of \"junk science\". Cameron\'s research has been heavily criticized for unscientific methods and distortions which attempt to link homosexuality with pedophilia. In one instance, Cameron claimed that lesbians are 300 times more likely to get into car accidents. The SPLC states his work has been continually cited in some sections of the media despite being discredited. Cameron was expelled from the American Psychological Association in 1983.
## Combatting junk science {#combatting_junk_science}
In 1995, the Union of Concerned Scientists launched the Sound Science Initiative, a national network of scientists committed to debunking junk science through media outreach, lobbying, and developing joint strategies to participate in town meetings or public hearings. In its newsletter on Science and Technology in Congress, the American Association for the Advancement of Science also recognized the need for increased understanding between scientists and lawmakers: \"Although most individuals would agree that sound science is preferable to junk science, fewer recognize what makes a scientific study \'good\' or \'bad\'.\" The American Dietetic Association, criticizing marketing claims made for food products, has created a list of \"Ten Red Flags of Junk Science\"
| 210 |
Junk science
| 3 |
15,656 |
# John Wyndham
**John Wyndham Parkes Lucas Beynon Harris** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ɪ|n|d|əm}}`{=mediawiki}; 10 July 1903 -- 11 March 1969) was an English science fiction writer best known for his works published under the pen name **John Wyndham**, although he also used other combinations of his names, such as **John Beynon** and **Lucas Parkes**. Some of his works were set in post-apocalyptic landscapes. His best known works include *The Day of the Triffids* (1951), filmed in 1962, and *The Midwich Cuckoos* (1957), which was filmed in 1960 as *Village of the Damned*, in 1995 under the same title, and again in 2022 in Sky Max under its original title.
## Biography
### Early life {#early_life}
Wyndham was born in the village of Dorridge near Knowle, Warwickshire (now West Midlands), England, the son of Gertrude Parkes, the daughter of the Birmingham ironmaster John Israel Parkes, and her second husband (after widowhood), George Beynon Harris, a barrister.
From 1909 to 1911 the Harris family lived at 239 Hagley Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, but when he was 8 years old his parents separated. His father then attempted to sue the Parkes family for \"the custody, control and society\" of his wife and two sons (including Wyndham\'s younger brother, the writer Vivian Beynon Harris), in an unusual and high-profile 1913 court case, which he lost. The case, which re-exposed previous allegations of sexual impropriety, pre-dating his marriage, left Wyndham\'s father a broken man. Gertrude moved with the children to a smaller house in Edgbaston and the brothers became estranged from their father. Wyndham subsequently attended a private school in Edgbaston run by a Miss Mabel Woodward, and from 1914 to 1915 was at Edgbaston High School for Boys (he later said that while there he was bullied), and Blundell\'s School in Tiverton, Devon, during the First World War. His longest and final stay was at Bedales School, near Petersfield in Hampshire (1918--1921), which he left at the age of 18.
His mother left Birmingham to live in a series of boarding houses and spa hotels. In Wyndham\'s self-penned biographical notes for his early Penguin Books publications, he said he lived in Birmingham only from 1904 to 1911.
### Early career {#early_career}
After leaving school, Wyndham tried several careers, including farming, law, commercial art and advertising; however, he mostly relied on an allowance from his family to survive. He eventually turned to writing for money in 1925 and by 1931 he was selling short stories and serial fiction to American science fiction magazines. His debut short story, \"Worlds to Barter\", appeared under the pen name John B. Harris in 1931. Subsequent stories were credited to \'John Beynon Harris\' until mid-1935, when he began to use the pen name John Beynon. Three novels as by Beynon were published in 1935/36, two of them works of science fiction, the other a detective story. He also used the pen name Wyndham Parkes for one short story in the British *Fantasy Magazine* in 1939, as John Beynon had already been credited for another story in the same issue. During these years he lived at the Penn Club, London, which had been opened in 1920 by the remaining members of the Friends Ambulance Unit, and which had been partly funded by the Quakers. The intellectual and political mixture of pacifists, socialists and communists continued to inform his views on social engineering and feminism. At the Penn Club he met his future wife, Grace Wilson, a teacher. They embarked on a long-lasting love affair, and obtained adjacent rooms in the club, but for many years did not marry, partly because of the marriage bar under which Wilson would have lost her position.
### Second World War {#second_world_war}
During the Second World War, Wyndham first served as a censor in the Ministry of Information. He drew on his experiences as a firewatcher during the London Blitz and as a member of the Home Guard in *The Day of the Triffids*.
He then joined the British Army, serving as a corporal cipher operator in the Royal Corps of Signals. He participated in the Normandy landings, landing a few days after D-Day. He was attached to XXX Corps, which took part in some of the heaviest fighting, including surrounding the trapped German army in the Falaise Pocket.
His wartime letters to his long-time partner, Grace Wilson, are now held in the Archives of the University of Liverpool. He wrote at length of his struggles with his conscience, his doubts about humanity and his fears of the inevitability of further war. He also wrote passionately about his love for her and his fears that he would be so tainted she would not be able to love him when he returned.
### Postwar
After the war Wyndham returned to writing, still using the pen name John Beynon. Inspired by the success of his younger brother Vivian Beynon Harris, who had four novels published starting in 1948, he altered his writing style and by 1951, using the John Wyndham pen name for the first time, he wrote the novel *The Day of the Triffids*. His pre-war writing career was not mentioned in the book\'s publicity and people were allowed to assume that this was a first novel from an unknown writer. The book had an enormous success and established Wyndham as an important exponent of science fiction.
He wrote and published six more novels under the name John Wyndham, the name he used professionally from 1951. His novel *The Outward Urge* (1959) was credited to John Wyndham and Lucas Parkes but Lucas Parkes was another pseudonym for Wyndham. Two story collections, *Jizzle* and *The Seeds of Time*, were published in the 1950s under Wyndham\'s name but included several stories originally published as by John Beynon before 1951.
| 956 |
John Wyndham
| 0 |
15,656 |
# John Wyndham
## Biography
### Marriage
In 1963, he married Grace Isobel Wilson, whom he had known for more than thirty years, in a civil ceremony. They lived near Petersfield, Hampshire, just outside the grounds of Bedales School, until his death there in 1969, aged 65. The couple were childless, as was his brother, who also outlived him.
| 59 |
John Wyndham
| 1 |
15,656 |
# John Wyndham
## Critical reception {#critical_reception}
Wyndham\'s reputation rests mainly on the first four of the novels published in his life under that name. *The Day of the Triffids* remains his best-known work, but some readers consider that *The Chrysalids* was really his best. This is set in the far future of a post-nuclear dystopia where genetic stability is compromised and women are severely oppressed if they give birth to \"mutants\". David Mitchell, author of *Cloud Atlas*, wrote of it: \"One of the most thoughtful post-apocalypse novels ever written. Wyndham was a true English visionary, a William Blake with a science doctorate.\" *The Guardian* states his \"innocuously English backdrops are central to the power of his novels, implying that apocalypse could occur at any time --- or, indeed, be happening in the next village at this moment\", while *The Times*{{\'}}s reviewer of *The Day of the Triffids* described it as possessing \"all the reality of a vividly realised nightmare.\"
The ideas in *The Chrysalids* are echoed in *The Handmaid\'s Tale*, whose author, Margaret Atwood, has acknowledged Wyndham\'s work as an influence. She wrote an introduction to a new edition of *Chocky* in which she states that the intelligent alien babies in *The Midwich Cuckoos* entered her dreams.
Wyndham also wrote several short stories, ranging from hard science fiction to whimsical fantasy. Several have been filmed: \"Consider Her Ways\", \"Random Quest\", \"Dumb Martian\", \"A Long Spoon\", \"Jizzle\" (filmed as \"Maria\") and \"Time to Rest\" (filmed as *No Place Like Earth*). There is also a radio version of \"Survival\".
Brian Aldiss, another British science fiction writer, disparaged some of Wyndham\'s novels as \"cosy catastrophes\", especially *The Day of the Triffids*. This became a cliche about his work, but it has been rebutted by many more recent critics. L.J. Hurst commented that in *Triffids* the main character witnesses several murders, suicides and misadventures, and is frequently in mortal danger. Atwood wrote: \"\...one might as well call World War II---of which Wyndham was a veteran---a \'cozy\' war because not everyone died in it.\"
Many other writers have acknowledged Wyndham\'s work as an influence, including Alex Garland, whose screenplay for *28 Days Later* draws heavily on *The Day of the Triffids*.
| 367 |
John Wyndham
| 2 |
15,656 |
# John Wyndham
## Legacy
After his death, some of Wyndham\'s unsold work was published and his earlier work was republished. His archive was acquired by the University of Liverpool.
On 24 May 2015, an alley in Hampstead that appears in *The Day of the Triffids* was formally named Triffid Alley as a memorial to him.
## Works
### Novels
#### Early pseudonymous novels {#early_pseudonymous_novels}
- *The Curse of the Burdens* (1927), as by John B. Harris: Aldine Mystery Novels No. 17 (London: Aldine Publishing Co. Ltd) is sometimes attributed to Wyndham but, beyond a vague similarity of names, there is no evidence that he wrote it.
- *The Secret People* (1935), as by John Beynon
- *Foul Play Suspected* (1935), as by John Beynon
- *Planet Plane* (1936), as by John Beynon; republished as *The Space Machine* and as *Stowaway to Mars*
#### Published in his lifetime as by John Wyndham {#published_in_his_lifetime_as_by_john_wyndham}
- *The Day of the Triffids* (1951), also known as *Revolt of the Triffids*
- *The Kraken Wakes* (1953), published in the U.S. as *Out of the Deeps*, also known as *The Things from the Deep*
- *The Chrysalids* (1955), published in the U.S. as *Re-Birth*
- *The Midwich Cuckoos* (1957)
- *The Outward Urge* (1959), fix-up novel of 4 novelettes and 1 short story, as by John Wyndham and Lucas Parkes:
: \"The Space Station: A.D. 1994\" (novelette), \"The Moon: A.D. 2044\" (novelette), \"Mars: A.D. 2094\" (novelette), \"Venus: A.D. 2144\" (novelette), \"The Emptiness of Space: The Asteroids A.D. 2194\" (added in 1961)
- *Trouble with Lichen* (1960)
- *Chocky* (1968)
#### Posthumously published {#posthumously_published}
- *Web* (1979)
- *Plan for Chaos* (2009)
### Short stories {#short_stories}
#### Short story collections published in his lifetime {#short_story_collections_published_in_his_lifetime}
- *Jizzle* (1954), collection of 13 short stories and 2 novelettes:
: \"Jizzle\", \"Technical Slip\" (as by John Beynon), \"A Present from Brunswick\", \"Chinese Puzzle\" (novelette), \"Esmeralda\", \"How Do I Do?\", \"Una\" (novelette), \"Affair of the Heart\", \"Confidence Trick\", \"The Wheel\", \"Look Natural, Please!\", \"Perforce to Dream\", \"Reservation Deferred\", \"Heaven Scent\", \"More Spinned Against\"
- *The Seeds of Time* (1956), collection of 5 short stories and 5 novelettes:
: \"Chronoclasm\" (novelette), \"Pillar to Post\" (novelette), \"Dumb Martian\" (novelette), \"Compassion Circuit\", \"Survival\" (novelette), \"Pawley\'s Peepholes\", \"Opposite Number\", \"Wild Flower\", \"Time to Rest\" (as by John Beynon, *Bert* #1 series), \"Meteor\" (novelette, as by John Beynon)
- *Tales of Gooseflesh and Laughter* (1956), United States edition featuring stories from the *Jizzle* and *The Seeds of Time* collections, collection of 9 short stories and 2 novelettes:
: \"Chinese Puzzle\" (novelette), \"Una\" (novelette), \"The Wheel\", \"Jizzle\", \"Heaven Scent\", \"Compassion Circuit\", \"More Spinned Against\...\", \"A Present from Brunswick\", \"Confidence Trick\", \"Opposite Number\", \"Wild Flower\"
- *Consider Her Ways and Others* (1961), collection of 3 short stories and 3 novelettes/novellas:
: \"Consider Her Ways\" (novella), \"Odd\", \"Oh, Where, Now, is Peggy MacRaffery?\" (novelette), \"A Stitch in Time\", \"Random Quest\" (novelette), \"A Long Spoon\"
- *The Infinite Moment* (1961), United States edition of *Consider Her Ways and Others* with two stories dropped and two others added, collection of 3 short stories and 3 novelettes/novellas:
: \"Consider Her Ways\" (novella), \"Odd\", \"How Do I Do\", \"Stitch in Time\", \"Random Quest\" (novelette), \"Time Out\" (novelette)
#### Posthumously published collections {#posthumously_published_collections}
- *Sleepers of Mars* (1973), collection of 1 short story, 3 novelettes and 1 novella, originally published in magazines in the 1930s:
: \"Sleepers of Mars\" (novella), \"Worlds to Barter\" (novelette), \"Invisible Monster\" (novelette), \"The Man from Earth\" (novelette), \"The Third Vibrator\"
- *The Best of John Wyndham* (1973), collection of 6 short stories and 6 novelettes:
: \"The Lost Machine\" (novelette), \"The Man from Beyond\" (novelette), \"The Perfect Creature\" (novelette), \"The Trojan Beam\" (novelette), \"Vengeance by Proxy\" (as by John Beynon), \"Adaptation\", \"Pawley\'s Peepholes\", \"The Red Stuff\" (novelette), \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\", \"Dumb Martian\" (novelette), \"Close Behind Him\", \"The Emptiness of Space\"
- *Wanderers of Time* (1973), collection of 1 short story and 4 novelettes, originally published in magazines in the 1930s:
: \"Wanderers of Time\" (novelette), \"Derelict of Space\" (novelette), \"Child of Power\" (novelette), \"The Last Lunarians\", \"The Puff-ball Menace\" (novelette)
- *The Man from Beyond and Other Stories* (1975), hardback with the same contents as *The Best of John Wyndham*
- *Exiles on Asperus* (1979), collection of 2 novelettes and 1 novella, as by John Beynon:
: \"Exiles on Asperus\" (novelette, as by John Beynon Harris), \"No Place Like Earth\" (novelette, *Bert* #2 series), \"The Venus Adventure\" (novella)
- *No Place Like Earth* (2003), collection of 10 short stories and 6 novelettes:
: \"Derelict of Space\" (novelette, as by John Beynon), \"Time to Rest\" (*Bert* #1 series), \"No Place Like Earth\" (novelette, as by John Beynon, *Bert* #2 series), \"In Outer Space There Shone a Star\", \"But a Kind of Ghost\", \"The Cathedral Crypt\" (as by John Beynon Harris), \"A Life Postponed\" (novelette), \"Technical Slip\" (as by John Beynon Harris), \"Una\" (novelette), \"It\'s a Wise Child\", \"Pillar to Post\" (novelette), \"The Stare\", \"Time Stops Today\" (novelette), \"The Meddler\", \"Blackmoil\", \"A Long Spoon\"
- *Logical Fantasy: The Many Worlds of John Wyndham* (2024), collection of 18 short stories including 5 previously uncollected ones, marked with a \"\*\" below:
: \"Introduction by Michael Marshall Smith\", \"The Lost Machine\", \"Spheres of Hell\", \"The Man from Beyond\", \* \"Beyond the Screen\", \"Child of Power\", \* \"The Living Lies\", \* \"The Eternal Eve\", \"Pawley\'s Peepholes\", \"The Wheel\", \"Survival\", \"Chinese Puzzle\", \"Perforce to Dream\", \* \"Never on Mars\", \"Compassion Circuit\", \* \"Brief to Counsel\", \"Odd\", \"The Asteroids, 2194\", \"A Stitch in Time\".
#### Uncollected short stories {#uncollected_short_stories}
- \"Vivisection\" (1919), as by J. W. B. Harris
- \"Chocky\" (1963), novella, developed into novel *Chocky*
| 943 |
John Wyndham
| 3 |
15,656 |
# John Wyndham
## Works
### Short stories {#short_stories}
#### All short stories {#all_short_stories}
- \"Vivisection\" (1919), as by J. W. B. Harris
- \"Worlds to Barter\" (1931), novelette
- \"Exiles on Asperus\" (1932), novelette, as by John Beynon Harris
- \"The Lost Machine\" (1932), novelette
- \"The Stare\" (1932)
- \"The Venus Adventure\" (1932), novella, as by John Beynon
- \"Invisible Monster\", or \"Invisible Monsters\" (1933), novelette
- \"The Puff-ball Menace\", or \"Spheres of Hell\" (1933), novelette
- \"The Third Vibrator\" (1933)
- \"Wanderers of Time\" (1933), novelette
- \"The Last Lunarians\", or \"The Moon Devils\" (1934)
- \"The Man from Earth\", or \"The Man from Beyond\" (1934), novelette
- \"The Cathedral Crypt\" (1935), as by John Beynon Harris
- \"Una\", or \"The Perfect Creature\", or \"Perfect Creature\", or \"Female of the Species\" (1937), novelette
- \"Judson\'s Annihilator\", or \"Beyond the Screen\" (1938), novelette, as by John Beynon
- \"Child of Power\" (1939), novelette
- \"Derelict of Space\" (1939), novelette
- \"Sleepers of Mars\" (1939), novella, a sequel to the novel *Stowaway to Mars*
- \"The Trojan Beam\" (1939), novelette
- \"Vengeance by Proxy\" (1940), as by John Beynon
- \"Meteor\", or \"Phoney Meteor\" (1941), novelette, as by John Beynon
- \"The Living Lies\" (1946), novelette, as by John Beynon
- \"Adaptation\" (1949)
- \"Jizzle\" (1949)
- \"Technical Slip\" (1949), as by John Beynon
- \"Time to Rest\" (1949), as by John Beynon, *Bert* #1 series
- \"The Eternal Eve\" (1950)
- \"A Present from Brunswick\", or \"Bargain from Brunswick\" (1951)
- \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\", or \"And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\...\", or \"\...And the Walls Came Tumbling Down\...\" (1951)
- \"No Place Like Earth\", or \"Tyrant and Slave-Girl on Planet Venus\" (1951), novelette, as by John Beynon, *Bert* #2 series
- \"Pawley\'s Peepholes\", or \"Operation Peep\", or \"A New Kind of Pink Elephant\" (1951)
- \"Pillar to Post\", or \"Body and Soul\" (1951), novelette
- \"The Red Stuff\" (1951), novelette
- \"Affair of the Heart\" (1952)
- \"Dumb Martian\", or \"Out of This World\" (1952), novelette
- \"Survival\" (1952), novelette
- \"The Wheel\" (1952)
- \"Chinese Puzzle\", or \"A Stray from Cathay\" (1953), novelette
- \"Close Behind Him\" (1953)
- \"Confidence Trick\" (1953)
- \"How Do I Do?\" (1953)
- \"More Spinned Against\", or \"More Spinned Against\..
| 382 |
John Wyndham
| 4 |
15,664 |
# Politics of Jamaica
Politics in Jamaica takes place in the framework of a representative parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy. The 1962 Constitution of Jamaica established a parliamentary system whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. As the head of state, King Charles III - on the advice of the Prime Minister of Jamaica - appoints a governor-general as his representative in Jamaica. The governor-general has a largely ceremonial role, with their parliamentary function consisting simply of granting royal assent to bills which have passed Parliament. Jamaica constitutes an independent Commonwealth realm.
The Constitution vests executive power in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested both in the government and in the Parliament of Jamaica. The Prime Minister is appointed by the governor-general, the common convention being the leader of the largest party in Parliament.
A bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature drafted Jamaica\'s current Constitution in 1962. That Constitution came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which gave Jamaica political independence. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, freedom of movement, and freedom of association.
The judiciary operates independently of the executive and the legislature, with jurisprudence based on English common law.
The Economist rated Jamaica a \'flawed democracy\' in 2023.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Parliament is composed of an appointed Senate and an elected House of Representatives. The House consists of 63 directly elected members, who appoint their own speaker and deputy speaker. The senate has 21 members appointed for a single parliamentary term; 13 senators are nominated on the advice of the prime minister and 8 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. Senate members then elect their own president and deputy president, as long as they are not a minister or parliamentary secretary.
The House of Representatives is where most bills are initiated and where most members of the Cabinet, the Prime Minister included, sit. Every bill, to be passed into law, must be approved by the House, with a quorum of 16 members, in addition to the presiding officer, required for a vote to take place. The House determines all government finance, allocating funds and levying taxes. The House is presided over by the Speaker, who ensures the rules of the chamber are observed, and the Leader of the House, who determines what business will be done each day.
The Senate\'s main role is reviewing bills passed by the House, however, it may initiate bills as long as they are not to do with money. It may not delay budget bills for more than one month or other bills for more than seven months. No more than 4 members of the cabinet may be selected from the Senate.
Any Commonwealth citizen aged 21 or over who has lives in Jamaica for at least a year before the election is eligible to be elected to the legislature. Those illegible to be elected consist of those in the defence force, those serving a foreign government, those serving in a public office or justices of the Supreme Court or Court of Appeals.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
- Jamaica Labour Party
- Marcus Garvey People\'s Political Party
- National Democratic Movement
- New Nation Coalition
- People\'s National Party
| 565 |
Politics of Jamaica
| 0 |
15,664 |
# Politics of Jamaica
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The 1962 Constitution established a parliamentary system based on the United Kingdom\'s Westminster model. As head of state, King Charles III appoints a governor-general, on the advice of the prime minister, as his representative in Jamaica. The governor-general\'s role is largely ceremonial. Their role is to appoint senior officials of the state, on request from the Prime Minister, and to grant royal assent to bills that have passed Parliament.
Executive power is vested in the King, but exercised mostly by the Cabinet of Jamaica; led by the Prime Minister, currently Andrew Holness. The Cabinet consists of at least 11 ministers, each delegated a ministry to preside over and direct government policy from. Additionally, there are special bodies called statutory bodies which have direct authority over certain aspects of Government business.
## Elections
General elections must be held within five years of the forming of a new government, however, a general election can be held early if the governing party advises the governor-general to do so, or if a majority of members of the House pass a no-confidence motion against the government.
Party Votes \% Seats
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------- --------- --------
Jamaica Labour Party 408,376 56.38 49
People\'s National Party 305,950 42.24 14
Marcus Garvey People\'s Progressive Party 0 0 0
National Democratic Movement 0 0 0
People\'s Progressive Party 0 0 0
Independents A 365 0.05 0
Independents B 30 0.00 0
Independents C 790 0.11 0
Invalid/Rejected Ballots 8,806 1.22 --
**Total** **724,317** **100** **63**
Registered voters/turnout 1,913,410 37.85 --
Source: [1](https://ecj.com.jm/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/General-Election-2020-Summary-Report.pdf)
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judiciary also is modelled on the British system. The Court of Appeal is the highest appellate court in Jamaica. Under certain circumstances, cases may be appealed to Britain\'s Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Jamaica\'s parishes have elected councils that exercise limited powers of local government.
Firearms offences, including possession of unlicensed guns and ammunition, are tried before a dedicated Gun Court established in 1974. The Gun Court hears cases *in camera* and practices jury trial only for cases of treason or murder. All other cases are tried by resident magistrates or justices of the Supreme Court of Jamaica.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
Jamaica is divided in 14 parishes: Clarendon, Hanover, Kingston, Manchester, Portland, St. Andrew, St. Ann, St. Catherine, St. Elizabeth, St. James, St. Mary, St. Thomas, Trelawny, Westmoreland. All parishes are governed by a directly elected parish council, except for Kingston and St. Andrew\'s which are governed by the same body. According to the Jamaican government website, these authorities are responsible for \'maintaining infrastructure and public facilities such as parochial roads, water supplies, drains, parks and recreational centres, markets, transportation centres and public sanitary conveniences\'. Some parish capitals also have mayors.
## Regulatory services {#regulatory_services}
Responsibility for water and sanitation policies within the government rests with the Ministry of Water and Housing, and the main service provider is the National Water Commission. An autonomous regulatory agency, the Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR), approves tariffs and establishes targets for efficiency increases, and also oversees the telecommunications industry.
## Foreign relations {#foreign_relations}
Jamaica has diplomatic relations with most nations and is a member of the United Nations, The Commonwealth and the Organization of American States. Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK. Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant. Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)
| 587 |
Politics of Jamaica
| 1 |
15,666 |
# Telecommunications in Jamaica
**Telecommunications in Jamaica** include the fixed and mobile telephone networks, radio, television, and the Internet.
## Telecommunications
Jamaica is a member of the North American Numbering Plan (NANP). The NANP Administrator (NANPA) has allocated the area codes 876 and 658 for use in the country, which is a single numbering plan area (NPA) with an overlay numbering plan. The national telephone number format is NPA-NXX-XXXX, where N is one of the digits 2 through 9, and X is any digit.
For international dialing to Jamaica, the country code is *1*.
For accessing international destinations from within Jamaica, the international call prefix is *011*.
Calls from Jamaica to other NANP nations, such as the U.S. and Canada, are dialed as 1 + NANP area code + 7-digit number.
Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system.
- Main lines: 265,000 lines in use, 123rd in the world (2011).
- Mobile cellular: 2.7 million, 135th in the world (2012).
- Telephone system: Fully automatic domestic telephone network; the 1999 agreement to open the market for telecommunications services resulted in rapid growth in mobile-cellular telephone usage while the number of fixed-lines in use declined (2011).
- Teledensity: 110 per 100 persons (combined) (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2010).
- Communication cables: Fibralink submarine cable links to the Americas Region Caribbean Ring System (ARCOS-1) submarine cable in the Dominican Republic and on to the US, parts of the Caribbean, Central and South America; the ALBA-1 fiber-optic submarine cable links Jamaica, Cuba, and Venezuela (2010).
### Mobile telephony {#mobile_telephony}
The country\'s three mobile operators -- Cable and Wireless (once marketed as LIME -- Landline, Internet, Mobile and Entertainment now named FLOW), Digicel, and at one point Oceanic Digital (operating as MiPhone and now known as Claro since late 2008) until the carrier was acquired and the relevant spectrum sold to Digicel -- have spent millions in network upgrade and expansion. Both Digicel and Oceanic Digital were granted licences in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent Cable and Wireless monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while Oceanic opted for the CDMA standard. Cable and Wireless, which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM, and currently utilises both standards on its network.
With wireless usage increasing, landlines supplied by Cable and Wireless have declined from just over half a million to roughly three hundred thousand as of 2006. In a bid to grab more market share, Cable and Wireless recently`{{when|date=January 2011}}`{=mediawiki} launched a new land line service called HomeFone Prepaid that would allow customers to pay for minutes they use rather than pay a set monthly fee for service, much like prepaid wireless service.
Two more licenses were auctioned by the Jamaican government to provide mobile services on the island, including one that was previously owned by AT&T Wireless but never utilized, and one new license.
Another entrant to the Jamaican communications market, FLOW, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica internationally to four. The company\'s parent was acquired by Cable and Wireless Communications in November 2014 and finalized in March 2015. The new FLOW was re-launched as a successor to LIME and the old Flow on August 31, 2015; offering mobile, fixed voice, fixed broadband and TV services to the market. It has now become the first quad-play provider in Jamaica. The company runs a vast copper network (inherited from LIME) islandwide as well as a Hybrid Fiber and Coaxial network (from the old Flow) in the metropolitan areas of Kingston and Montego Bay. They also have small Fiber-to-the-home operations in certain sections of St. James that began in 2011 (under LIME). On the mobile side, the company had completed its 4G HSPA+ rollout (capable of speeds up to 21 Mbit/s) across the island in November 2015 and has announced plans to move to LTE within the year 2016. However, Digicel has become the first LTE network operator in Jamaica, going live with their network on June 9, 2016.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple radio stations; there are roughly 70 other privately owned radio stations (2007).
- Radios: 1.215 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|11}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations: Privately owned Radio Jamaica Limited and its subsidiaries operate multiple TV stations as well as subscription cable services; there are 2 other privately owned television stations (2007).
- Television sets: 460,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|11}}`{=mediawiki}
| 771 |
Telecommunications in Jamaica
| 0 |
15,666 |
# Telecommunications in Jamaica
## Internet
- Internet top-level domain: .jm, registration of .jm domains is handled by MITS at the University of the West Indies, registration is free, although there has been some discussion about MITS making the service commercial in the coming years.
- Internet users: 1.3 million users, 108th in the world; 46.5% of the population, 94th in the world (2012).
- Fixed broadband: 125,188 subscriptions, 96th in the world; 4.3% of population, 109th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: 45,505 subscriptions, 127th in the world; 1.6% of the population, 128th in the world (2012).
- Internet hosts: 3,906 hosts, 149th in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 202,752 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 70.1 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.
The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, generally effective judicial protection, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and press. The independent media are active and express a wide variety of views without restriction. Broadcast media were largely state owned, but open to pluralistic points of view. Although the constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, in practice the police conduct searches without warrants.
A law decriminalizing defamation was passed by the Jamaican House of Representatives in November 2013 after being approved unanimously by the Senate the previous July. It took six years to amend the libel and slander laws, which -- although little used -- made media offences punishable by imprisonment
| 292 |
Telecommunications in Jamaica
| 1 |
15,667 |
# Transport in Jamaica
**Transport in Jamaica** consists of roadways, railways, ship and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island\'s internal transport system.
## Roadways
The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres are paved. The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres of freeway.
The Highway 2000 project, which seeks ultimately to link Kingston with Montego Bay and the north coast, is currently undergoing a series of phases/legs. Phase 1 is the highway network between Kingston and Mandeville, which itself has been divided into sub-phases: Phase 1a (Kingston-Bushy Park (in actuality, Kingston-Sandy Bay) highway and the upgrade of the Portmore Causeway), which was completed June 2006, and Phase 1b (Sandy Bay-Williamsfield). Phase 2a is the highway between Old Harbour and Ocho Rios, and Phase 2b is the highway between Mandeville and Montego Bay.
\
*total:* 18700 km.\
*paved:* 13100 km.\
*unpaved:* 5600 km (1997 est.).
## Buses
The Jamaica Omnibus Service (JOS) was a municipal bus system that served the Kingston metropolitan area that ran from 1953 to 1983. After being run by British Electric Traction, the JOS was nationalised by the Jamaican government in 1974. It was replaced by a hodgepodge of privately operated buses, and a national bus system called the Jamaica Urban Transit Company (JUTC) was established in 1998 after complaints. The JUTC presently oversees more than 70 routes in areas including Kingston and Spanish Town.
Coaches are a notable means of travel in Jamaica; a popular privately operated coach service is the Knutsford Express. The JUTC also provides charter buses. As for minibuses and route taxis, PPV number plates indicate licensed public transport, whereas JUTA plates indicate tourist routes.
Having been proposed in 2019, the JUTC began testing floating solar electric buses in 2022, hoping to gradually introduce electric buses into the fleet and eventually phase out diesel buses.
Jamaica Urban Transit Company Golden Dragon XML 6897J13 - Flickr - JLaw45.jpg\|JUTC bus, 2016 Knutsford Express Kinglong (50818902882).jpg\|Knutford Express, 2018 Jamaica-Toyota Coaster (6373832871).jpg\|Minibus in Ocho Rios, 2009
## Railways
Railways in Jamaica, as in many other countries, no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.
In 2008, with increasing traffic congestion, moves are being made to reconstruct old railway lines.
\
*total:* 370 km\
*standard gauge:* 370 km `{{railgauge|1435 mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge. Of these, 207 km belong to the Jamaica Railway Corporation in common carrier service but are no longer operational. The other 163 km is privately owned and used to transport bauxite.
## Air Transport {#air_transport}
There are two international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in the capital, Kingston and Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay. Both airports were once home to the country\'s (now defunct) national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, Ocho Rios, Mandeville, and Negril that cater to internal flights only. The Ian Fleming International Airport opened in February 2011 to serve the Ocho Rios - Port Antonio area. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines.
## Ports and Shipping {#ports_and_shipping}
Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as what is projected in coming years.
There are several other ports positioned around the island, including the alumina ports, Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon and Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth. Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay is responsible for transporting bauxite dried at the adjacent Kaiser plant. Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios is responsible for exporting sugar. Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products. Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio exports bananas. There are also three cruise ship piers along the island, in Ocho Rios, Montego Bay and Port Antonio.
The Kingston port is situated in the Kingston Harbour, which is the 7th largest natural (i.e. not man made) harbour in the world.
| 827 |
Transport in Jamaica
| 0 |
15,667 |
# Transport in Jamaica
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
- *Total:* 1 ship of over 1,000 GT: `{{GT|1,930}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|3,065|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *Ships by type:* petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.).
## Lighthouses
As the island is a large exporter of bauxite, there is considerable freighter traffic. To aid navigation, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses
- *Onshore:* 7.
- *Offshore:* 2.
## Pipelines
Petroleum products: 10 km
| 61 |
Transport in Jamaica
| 1 |
15,669 |
# Foreign relations of Jamaica
Jamaica has diplomatic relations with many nations and is a member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Jamaica chairs the Working Group on smaller Economies.
Jamaica is an active member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement (G-77). Jamaica is a beneficiary of the Lome Conventions, through which the European Union (EU) grants trade preferences to selected states in Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, and has played a leading role in the negotiations of the successor agreement in Fiji in 2000.
Jamaica has been a member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS) since the group\'s founding in 1992.
**Disputes - international:** none
**Illicit drugs:** Transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active manual cannabis eradication program
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade is the government ministry responsible for handling Jamaica\'s external relations and foreign trade.
## History
Historically, Jamaica has had close ties with the UK. Trade, financial, and cultural relations with the United States are now predominant. Jamaica is linked with the other countries of the English-speaking Caribbean through the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and more broadly through the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Jamaica has served two 2-year terms on the United Nations Security Council, in 1979-80 and 2000-2001.
In the follow-on meetings to the December 1994 Summit of the Americas, Jamaica---together with Uruguay---was given the responsibility of coordinating discussions on invigorating society.
## Diplomatic relations {#diplomatic_relations}
List of countries which Jamaica maintains diplomatic relations with:
-----
\#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
--
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
--
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
-----
| 446 |
Foreign relations of Jamaica
| 0 |
15,669 |
# Foreign relations of Jamaica
## Bilateral relations {#bilateral_relations}
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Country | Formal Relations Began | Notes |
+=========+========================+===============================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| | 3 November 1982 | Belize and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Association of Caribbean States, the Caribbean Community, the Belt & Road Initiative, the Caribbean Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Nations, ECLAC, EU-CARIFORUM, the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, the Organization of American States, the Small Island Developing States, and the United Nations. |
| | | |
| | | - Both countries established diplomatic relations on November 3, 1982. |
| | | - Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the Caribbean Community. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 14 October 1962 | See Jamaica--Brazil relations |
| | | |
| | | Jamaica and Brazil established diplomatic relations on October 14, 1962. Both countries are full members of the Group of 15. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 1962 | See Canada--Jamaica relations Canada and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations. Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1962. Since March 4, 1963, Canada has a high commission in Kingston. Jamaica has a high commission in Ottawa. On April 15, 2009, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper became the first Canadian head of government to address the Jamaican parliament. There are 231,000 people of Jamaican descent living in Canada. Jamaican-Canadians celebrate their island heritage through festivals held in major cities across Canada, the most recognized of which is Caribana. Caribana is held in Toronto, Ontario every year and attracts over one million visitors to the region, many of whom fly all the way from Jamaica. |
| | | |
| | | - See also Jamaican Canadian |
| | | - [Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Jamaica](https://web.archive.org/web/20090125195031/http://geo.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/geo/jamaica-en.aspx) |
| | | - [Canadian high commission in Kingston](http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/jamaica-jamaique/) |
| | | - [Jamaican high commission in Ottawa](http://www.jhcottawa.ca/) |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 1972 | See Cuba--Jamaica relations |
| | | |
| | | Prime Minister Percival James Patterson visited Cuba at the end of May 1997. In the fall of 1997, Jamaica upgraded its consulate in Havana to an embassy, and the nonresident Jamaican ambassador to Cuba was replaced by a resident ambassador. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 21 November 1972 | See China--Jamaica relations |
| | | |
| | | Relations from November 21, 1972. China has an embassy in Kingston, Jamaica. Jamaica has an embassy in Beijing. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | \| | See Ghana-Jamaica relations Ghana, as the former Gold Coast, and Jamaica share historical links through the slave trade and forced Ashanti/Akan emigration to the Caribbean. Ghana and Jamaica have a Joint Permanent Commission, and there are plans for Ghanaian investment in Jamaica. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 26 May 1966 | - Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 26, 1966. |
| | | - Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, of the Caribbean Community, and of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | Haiti has an embassy in Kingston and Jamaica has an honorary consul in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. |
| | | |
| | | In January, 2007, Haitian president René Préval, made a four-day working visit to Jamaica. At a press conference, Jamaican prime minister Portia Simpson Miller announced that a Joint Jamaica/Haiti Commission would be convened later that year. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | See India--Jamaica relations |
| | | |
| | | Both nations inherited many cultural and political connections from British colonisation, such as membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, parliamentary democracy, the English language and cricket. |
| | | |
| | | India has a High Commission in Kingston, whilst Jamaica has a consulate in New Delhi. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | See Jamaica--Malaysia relations |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 18 March 1966 | See Jamaica--Mexico relations |
| | | |
| | | Both nations established diplomatic relations on 18 March 1966. |
| | | |
| | | - Jamaica has an embassy in Mexico City. |
| | | - Mexico has an embassy in Kingston. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | - Jamaica is accredited to the Netherlands from its embassy in Brussels, Belgium. |
| | | - the Netherlands is accredited to Jamaica from its embassy in Havana, Cuba. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 13 October 1962 | The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Jamaica started on October 13, 1962 . |
| | | |
| | | - Jamaica has an embassy in Seoul, South Korea. |
| | | - South Korea has an embassy in Kingston Jamaica. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | 1970 | See Jamaica--Turkey relations |
| | | |
| | | - Turkish Embassy in Havana is accredited to Jamaica. |
| | | - Trade volume between the two countries was US\$90.5 million in 2019 (Jamaican exports/imports: US\$0.5/90 million). |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | See Jamaica--United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 2 August 1962. Both countries are Commonwealth Realms. |
| | | |
| | | - Jamaica maintains a high commission in London. |
| | | - The United Kingdom is accredited to Jamaica through its high commission in Kingston. |
| | | |
| | | The UK governed Jamaica from 1655 to 1962, when Jamaica achieved full independence. |
| | | |
| | | Both countries share common membership of the Caribbean Development Bank, the Commonwealth, the International Criminal Court, and the World Trade Organization, as well as the CARIFORUM--UK Economic Partnership Agreement. Bilaterally the two countries have an Investment Agreement. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | See Jamaica--United States relations |
| | | |
| | | The United States maintains close and productive relations with the Government of Jamaica. Former prime minister Patterson visited Washington, DC, several times after assuming office in 1992. In April 2001, Prime Minister Patterson and other Caribbean leaders met with President George W. Bush during the Summit of the Americas in Quebec, Canada, at which a \"Third Border Initiative\" was launched to deepen U.S. cooperation with Caribbean nations and enhance economic development and integration of the Caribbean nations. Then-Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller attended the \"Conference on the Caribbean\--A 20/20 Vision\" in Washington in June 2007. |
| | | |
| | | President Barack Obama visited the island on April 9. 2015. President Obama managed to squeeze in some fun in between meetings with Jamaican and Caribbean leaders on his trip to Jamaica this week---from paying homage to reggae star Bob Marley to practising his own Jamaican accent. |
| | | |
| | | The United States is Jamaica\'s most important trading partner: bilateral trade in goods in 2005 was over \$2 billion. Jamaica is a popular destination for American tourists; more than 1.2 million Americans visited in 2006. Also, some 10,000 American citizens, including many dual-nationals born on the island, permanently reside in Jamaica. |
+---------+------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
Jamaica maintains economic and cultural relations with Taiwan via Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in Canada.
## Jamaica and the Commonwealth {#jamaica_and_the_commonwealth}
Jamaica has been a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1962 when it became an independent Commonwealth realm
| 1,257 |
Foreign relations of Jamaica
| 1 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
**Jan Mayen** (`{{IPA|no-NO-03|jɑn ˈmɑ̀ɪən|lang}}`{=mediawiki}) is a Norwegian volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean with no permanent population. It is 55 km long (southwest-northeast) and 377 km2 in area, partly covered by glaciers (an area of 114.2 km2 around the Beerenberg volcano). It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by a 2.5 km wide isthmus. It lies 600 km northeast of Iceland (495 km \[305 mi\] NE of Kolbeinsey), 500 km east of central Greenland, and 900 km northwest of Vesterålen, Norway.
The island is mountainous, the highest summit being the Beerenberg volcano in the north. The isthmus is the location of the two largest lakes of the island, Sørlaguna (South Lagoon) and Nordlaguna (North Lagoon). A third lake is called Ullerenglaguna (Ullereng Lagoon). Jan Mayen was formed by the Jan Mayen hotspot and is defined by geologists as a microcontinent.
Although administered separately, in the ISO 3166-1 standard, Jan Mayen and Svalbard are collectively designated as *Svalbard and Jan Mayen*, with the two-letter country code \"SJ\". It was also given the web domain of .sj. However, the domain is not in use and Norway\'s .no is used in its place.
Jan Mayen is home to Beerenberg, which is the northernmost subaerial active volcano in the world.
## Status
Jan Mayen Island is an integral part of the Kingdom of Norway. Since 1995, Jan Mayen has been administered by the County Governor (*statsforvalter*) of the northern Norwegian county of Nordland, to which it is closest. However, some authority over Jan Mayen has been assigned to the station commander of the Norwegian Defence Logistics Organisation, a branch of the Norwegian Armed Forces.
| 277 |
Jan Mayen
| 0 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
## Society
### Demography
The only inhabitants on the island are personnel working for the Norwegian Armed Forces and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Eighteen people spend the winter on the island, but the population may roughly double (35) during the summer, when heavy maintenance is performed. Personnel serve either six months or one year and are exchanged twice a year in April and October. The support crew, including mechanics, cooks, and a nurse, are among the military personnel. The military personnel operated a Loran-C base until it closed at the end of 2015. Both the LORAN transmitter and the meteorological station are located a few kilometres away from the settlement Olonkinbyen (Olonkin Town), where all personnel live.
### Transport
Transport to the island is provided by C-130 Hercules military transport planes operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force which land at Jan Mayensfield\'s gravel runway. The planes fly in from Bodø Main Air Station eight times a year. Since the airport does not have any instrument landing capabilities, good visibility is required, and it is not uncommon for the planes to have to return to Bodø Airport, two hours away, without landing. For heavy goods, freight ships visit during the summer, but since there are no harbours, the ships must anchor. Tourists arrive with cruise ships which are allowed to bring passengers onshore if weather permits.
### Communication
The island has no indigenous population but is assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code SJ (together with Svalbard). It uses the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) .no (.sj is allocated but not used) and data code JN. Jan Mayen has telephone and internet connection over satellite, using Norwegian telephone numbers (country code 47). Its amateur radio call sign prefix is JX; the island is occasionally the venue for a DXpedition. It has a postal code, NO-8099 JAN MAYEN, but delivery time varies, especially during the winter.
### Business
There are no exploitable resources on Jan Mayen, except fish in the surrounding waters of the Island and gravel. The economic activity is limited to the operation of the station that is staffed by the Norwegian **Cyberdefence** and the **Meteorological Agency of Norway**. There has also been established a reference station for EGNOS. There is also a reference station for the satellite navigation system Galileo on Jan Mayen. There was also an earlier Jan Mayen LORAN-C Transmitter, but the transmitter is now decommissioned and demolished.
President Donald Trump announced a 10% tariff on Jan Mayen on 2 April 2025.
### Jan Mayen Radio {#jan_mayen_radio}
Jan Mayen Radio was a Norwegian coastal radio station on Jan Mayen. The first radiostation was built in 1921 on a part of the island called \"Eldsmetten - Norwegian\" on the eastern side of the Island. The radiostation consisted of a 3 kW Telefunken spark-gap transmitter and a 55 m wooden radiomast. The station was destroyed by Norwegian forces in September 1940, and the crew was sent to Iceland.
In 1941 a new radiostation was constructed on the western side of the island, it was moved to a plateau above. In 1962 this station was again moved to \"Helenesanden - Norwegian\" about 3 km north from the Norwegian army\'s LORAN-station.
In 1984 the station was moved to the Norwegian army\'s station. In 1989 there was an VHF-receiver installed, and later in October 1994 the local control of the radio station was terminated. Before the local control was terminated a MF-Digital-Selcall-receiver was installed and controlled remotely from Bodø-Radio. The station is still (Jan 2024) controlled remotely via satellite, but can be taken in local control by a disconnection against Eik Satellite Earth Station in Rogaland Norway.
| 610 |
Jan Mayen
| 1 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
## History
thumb\|right\|upright=1.3\|In the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s--1720s), Dutch navigators were the first non-natives to undisputedly explore and map many largely unknown isolated areas of the world, including Jan Mayen and the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean.
### Unverified \"discoveries\" of a *terra nullius* {#unverified_discoveries_of_a_terra_nullius}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|A beach on Jan Mayen Between the fifth and ninth centuries (400--900 AD), numerous communities of monks originating in Ireland (Papar) navigated throughout the north Atlantic in leather boats, exploring and sometimes settling in distant islands where their monastic communities could be separated from close contact with others. Strong indicators exist of their presence in the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the arrival of the Vikings, and medieval Gaelic chronicles such as the famous *Voyage of Saint Brendan the Abbot* testify to the extensive interest in exploration at the time.
A modern-day trans-Atlantic journey proved the ability of the early navigators to reach all lands of the north Atlantic even further from Ireland than Jan Mayen -- and, given favourable winds, at a speed roughly equal to that of modern yachts. Though quite feasible, there is nevertheless no direct physical trace of medieval landings or settlement on Jan Mayen.
The land named *Svalbarð* (\"cold coast\") by the Vikings in the early medieval book Landnámabók may have been Jan Mayen (instead of Spitsbergen, renamed Svalbard by the Norwegians in modern times); the distance from Iceland to *Svalbarð* mentioned in this book is two days\' sailing (with favorable winds), consistent with the approximate 550 km to Jan Mayen and not with the minimum 1550 km to Spitsbergen. However much Jan Mayen may have been known in Europe at that time, it was subsequently forgotten for some centuries.
In the 17th century, many claims of the island\'s rediscovery were made, spurred by the rivalry on the Arctic whaling grounds, and the island received many names. According to Thomas Edge, an early 17th-century whaling captain who was often inaccurate, \"William `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} Hudson\" discovered the island in 1608 and named it \"Hudson\'s Touches\" (or \"Tutches\"). However, the well-known explorer Henry Hudson could only have come by on his voyage in 1607 (if he had made an illogical detour) and he made no mention of it in his journal.
According to William Scoresby (1820: p. 154), referring to the mistaken belief that the Dutch had discovered the island in 1611, Hull whalers discovered the island \"about the same time\" and named it \"Trinity Island\". Muller (1874: pp. 190--191) took this to mean they had come upon Jan Mayen in 1611 or 1612, which was repeated by many subsequent authors. There were, in fact, no Hull whalers in either of these years, the first Hull whaling expedition having been sent to the island only in 1616 (see below). As with the previous claim made by Edge, there is no cartographical or written proof for this supposed discovery.
| 484 |
Jan Mayen
| 2 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
## History
### During the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s--1720s) {#during_the_golden_age_of_dutch_exploration_and_discovery_c._1590s1720s}
#### First verified discoveries: mapping and naming {#first_verified_discoveries_mapping_and_naming}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|A map of Jan Mayen during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s--1720s). This is a typical map created by Dutch cartographers from the Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography. The first verified discoveries of Jan Mayen, by three separate expeditions, occurred in the summer of 1614, probably within one month of each other. The Dutchman Fopp Gerritsz, whilst in command of a whaling expedition sent out by the Englishman John Clarke, of Dunkirk, claimed (in 1631) to have discovered the island on 28 June and named it \"Isabella\". In January the *Noordsche Compagnie* (Northern Company), modelled on the Dutch East India Company, had been established to support Dutch whaling in the Arctic. Two of its ships, financed by merchants from Amsterdam and Enkhuizen, reached Jan Mayen in July 1614.
The captains of these ships---Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout (after whom the island was ultimately named) on the *Gouden Cath* (Golden Cat), and Jacob de Gouwenaer on the *Orangienboom* (Orange Tree)---named it *Mr. Joris Eylant* after the Dutch cartographer Joris Carolus who was on board and mapped the island. The captains acknowledged that a third Dutch ship, the *Cleyn Swaentgen* (Little Swan) captained by Jan Jansz Kerckhoff and financed by *Noordsche Compagnie* shareholders from Delft, had already been at the island when they arrived. They had assumed the latter, who named the island *Maurits Eylandt* (or Mauritius) after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, would report their discovery to the States General. However, the Delft merchants had decided to keep the discovery secret and returned in 1615 to hunt for their own profit. The ensuing dispute was only settled in 1617, though both companies were allowed to whale at Jan Mayen in the meantime.
In 1615, the English whaler Robert Fotherby went ashore. Apparently thinking he had made a new discovery, he named the island \"Sir Thomas Smith\'s Island\" and the volcano \"Mount Hakluyt\". On a map of c. 1634, Jean Vrolicq renamed the island *Île de Richelieu*.
Jan Mayen first appeared on Willem Jansz Blaeu\'s 1620 edition map of Europe, originally published by Cornelis Doedz in 1606. Blaeu, who lived in Amsterdam, named it \"Jan Mayen\" after captain Jan Jacobszoon May van Schellinkhout of the Amsterdam-financed *Gouden Cath*. Blaeu made the first detailed map of the island in his famous \"Zeespiegel\" atlas of 1623, establishing its current name.
#### Dutch whaling base {#dutch_whaling_base}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Road along the west coast, about 500 m off the station thumb\|upright=1.3\|\"HOLLENDERHAUGEN. HER HVILER TAPRE HOLLANDSKE MENN.\" Old cross on the grave of seven Dutchmen, reading \"The Dutch men\'s hill. Here rest brave Dutch men\".
From 1615 to 1638, Jan Mayen was used as a whaling base by the Dutch *Noordsche Compagnie*, which had been given a monopoly on whaling in the Arctic regions by the States General in 1614. Only two ships, one from the *Noordsche Compagnie*, and the other from the Delft merchants, were off Jan Mayen in 1615.
The following year a score of vessels were sent to the island. The *Noordsche Compagnie* sent eight ships escorted by three warships under Jan Jacobsz. Schrobop; while the Delft merchants sent up five ships under Adriaen Dircksz. Leversteyn, son of one of the above merchants. There were also two ships from Dunkirk sent by John Clarke, as well as a ship each from London and Hull.
Heertje Jansz, master of the *Hope*, of Enkhuizen, wrote a day-by-day account of the season. The ships took two weeks to reach Jan Mayen, arriving early in June. On 15 June they met the two English ships, which Schrobop allowed to remain, on condition they gave half their catch to the Dutch. The ships from Dunkirk were given the same conditions. By late July the first ship had left with a full cargo of whale oil; the rest left early in August, several filled with oil.
That year 200 men were seasonally living and working on the island at six temporary whaling stations (spread along the northwest coast). During the first decade of whaling, more than ten ships visited Jan Mayen each year, while in the second period (1624 and later) five to ten ships were sent. With the exception of a few ships from Dunkirk, which came to the island in 1617 and were either driven away or forced to give a third of their catch to the Dutch, only the Dutch and merchants from Hull sent up ships to Jan Mayen from 1616 onward. In 1624 ten wooden houses were built in South Bay. About this time the Dutch appear to have abandoned the temporary stations consisting of tents of sail and crude furnaces, replacing them with two semi-permanent stations with wooden storehouses and dwellings and large brick furnaces, one in the above-mentioned South Bay and the other in the North Bay. In 1628 two forts were built to protect the stations. Among the sailors active at Jan Mayen was the later admiral Michiel Adriaensz de Ruyter. In 1633, at the age of 26, he was for the first time listed as an officer aboard *de Groene Leeuw* (The Green Lion). He again went to Jan Mayen in 1635, aboard the same ship.
In 1632 the *Noordsche Compagnie* expelled the Danish-employed Basque whalers from Spitsbergen. In revenge, the latter sailed to Jan Mayen, where the Dutch had left for the winter, to plunder the Dutch equipment and burn down the settlements and factories. Captain Outger Jacobsz of Grootebroek was asked to stay the next winter (1633/34) on Jan Mayen with six shipmates to defend the island. While a group with the same task survived the winter on Spitsbergen, all seven on Jan Mayen died of scurvy or trichinosis (from eating raw polar bear meat) combined with the harsh conditions.
During the first phase of whaling the hauls were generally good, some exceptional. For example, Mathijs Jansz. Hoepstock caught 44 whales in Hoepstockbukta in 1619, which produced 2,300 casks of whale oil. During the second phase the hauls were much lower. While 1631 turned out to be a very good season, the following year, due to the weather and ice, only eight whales were caught. In 1633 eleven ships managed to catch just 47 whales; while a meager 42 were caught by the same number in 1635. The bowhead whale was locally hunted to near-extinction around 1640 (approximately 1000 had been killed and processed on the island), at which time Jan Mayen was abandoned and stayed uninhabited for two and a half centuries.
### 19th and 20th century expeditions {#th_and_20th_century_expeditions}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Map of settlements on Jan Mayen thumb\|upright=1.3\|Traditional signpost with directions to civilization on Jan Mayen station
During the International Polar Year 1882--1883 the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition stayed one year at Jan Mayen. The expedition performed extensive mapping of the area, their maps being of such quality that they were used until the 1950s. The Austrian polar station on Jan Mayen Island was built and equipped in 1882 fully at Count Wilczek\'s own expense.
Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times. Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting Arctic foxes in addition to some polar bears. But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended. Polar bears in this region of the Arctic are genetically distinguishable from those living elsewhere.
The League of Nations gave Norway jurisdiction over the island, and in 1921 Norway opened the first meteorological station. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the middle part of the island for Norway in 1922 and the whole island in 1926 when Hallvard Devold was head of the weather observations base on the island. On 27 February 1930, the island was made *de jure* a part of the Kingdom of Norway.
| 1,320 |
Jan Mayen
| 3 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
## History
### Second World War {#second_world_war}
During World War II, continental Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in spring 1940. The four-man team on Jan Mayen stayed at their posts and in an act of defiance began sending their weather reports to the United Kingdom instead of Norway. The British codenamed Jan Mayen \'Island X\' and attempted to reinforce it with troops to counteract any German attack.
On 8 November 1940 the Norwegian patrol boat `{{HNoMS|Fridtjof Nansen|1930|6}}`{=mediawiki} ran aground on Nansenflua, one of the islands\' many uncharted lava reefs, and the 68-man crew abandoned ship and joined the Norwegian team on shore. The British expedition commander, prompted by the loss of the gunboat, decided to abandon Jan Mayen until the following spring and radioed for a rescue ship. Within a few days a ship arrived and evacuated the four Norwegians and their would-be reinforcements, after demolishing the weather station to prevent it from falling into German hands.
The Germans attempted to land a weather team on the island on 16 November 1940; the German naval trawler carrying the team crashed on the rocks just off Jan Mayen after a patrolling British destroyer had picked them up on radar. The detection was not by chance, as the German plan had been compromised from the beginning with British wireless interceptors of the Radio Security Service following the communications of the Abwehr (the German Intelligence service) concerning the operation, and the destroyer had been waiting. Most of the crew struggled ashore and were taken prisoner by a landing party from the destroyer.
The Allies returned to the island on 10 March 1941, when the Norwegian ship *Veslekari*, escorted by the patrol boat *Honningsvaag*, dropped 12 Norwegian weathermen on the island. The team\'s radio transmissions soon betrayed its presence to the Axis, and German planes from Norway began to bomb and strafe Jan Mayen whenever weather permitted, but did little damage. Soon supplies and reinforcements arrived, and even some anti-aircraft guns, giving the island a garrison of a few dozen weathermen and soldiers. By 1941, Germany had given up hope of evicting the Allies from the island and the constant air raids stopped.
On 7 August 1942, a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 \"Condor\", probably on a mission to bomb the station, crashed into the nearby mountainside of Danielssenkrateret in fog, killing its crew of nine, and at an unknown date another German plane with four crew members crashed on the southwest side of the island, this crash only becoming public knowledge when the crash site was discovered in 1950. In 1943, the Americans established a radio locating station named Atlantic City in the north to try to locate German radio bases in Greenland.
### Cold War {#cold_war}
After the war, the meteorological station was located at Atlantic City, but moved in 1949 to a new location. Radio Jan Mayen also served as an important radio station for ship traffic in the Arctic Ocean. In 1959 NATO started building the LORAN-C network in sites on the Atlantic Ocean; one of the transmitters was to be on Jan Mayen. By 1961 the new military installations, including a new airfield, were operational.
For some time scientists doubted that the Beerenberg volcano would become active, but in 1970 it erupted for about three weeks, adding another 3 km2 of land area to the island. It also erupted in 1973 and 1985. During an eruption, the sea temperature around the island may increase from just above freezing to about 30 C.
Iceland and Norway had a brief territorial dispute over the island from 1979-1980, with the dispute being resolved with Iceland recognising Norwegian sovereignty over the island.
Historic stations and huts on the island are Hoyberg, Vera, Olsbu, Puppebu (cabin), Gamlemetten or Gamlestasjonen (the old weather station), Jan Mayen Radio, Helenehytta, Margarethhytta, and Ulla (a cabin at the foot of the Beerenberg).
| 648 |
Jan Mayen
| 4 |
15,673 |
# Jan Mayen
## Environment
### Nature reserve {#nature_reserve}
A regulation dating from 2010 renders the island a nature reserve under Norwegian jurisdiction. The aim of this regulation is to ensure the preservation of a pristine Arctic island and the marine life nearby, including the ocean floor. Landings at Jan Mayen can be done by boat. However, this is permitted only at a small part of the island, named Båtvika (Boat Bay).
As there is no commercial airline operating at the island, one cannot get there by plane except by chartering one. Permission for landings by a charter plane has to be obtained in advance. Permission to stay on the island has to be obtained in advance, and is generally limited to a few days (or even hours). Putting up a tent or setting up camp is prohibited. There is a separate regulation for the stay of foreigners.
### Geography and geology {#geography_and_geology}
Jan Mayen consists of two geographically distinct parts. Nord-Jan has a round shape and is dominated by the 2277 m high Beerenberg volcano with its large ice cap (114.2 km2), which can be divided into twenty individual outlet glaciers. The largest of those is Sørbreen, with an area of 15 km2 and a length of 8.7 km. South-Jan is narrow, comparatively flat and unglaciated. Its highest elevation is Rudolftoppen at 769 m. The station and living quarters are located on South-Jan. The island lies at the northern end of the Jan Mayen Microcontinent. The microcontinent was originally part of the Greenland Plate, but now forms part of the Eurasian Plate.
### Important Bird Area {#important_bird_area}
The island was identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for large numbers of seabirds, supporting populations of northern fulmars (78,000--160,000 pairs), little auks (10,000--100,000 pairs), thick-billed guillemot (74,000--147,000 pairs) and black guillemots (100--1,000 pairs).
### Climate
Jan Mayen has an oceanic polar climate with a Köppen classification of *ET*, sometimes reckoned as *EM* (maritime polar). Jan Mayen is situated in between the cold East Greenland Current to the west and the warm Gulf Stream to the east of the island, and is the only landmass in the northern hemisphere where warm and cold ocean currents meet. The surrounding seas makes seasonal temperature variations very small considering the latitude of the island, with ranges from around 6 C in August to -4 C in March, but also makes the island extremely cloudy with little sunshine even during the continuous polar day. The deep snow cover prevents any permafrost from developing. As a result of warming, the 1991−2020 temperature normal shows a mean annual temperature 1.9 C-change warmer than during 1961−1990, pushing the annual temperature above freezing.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Jan Mayen is featured as an easter egg in several grand strategy video games published by Paradox Interactive, such as *Europa Universalis IV*. In *Europa Universalis IV*, typing \"bearhaslanded\" into the command console will spawn Jan Mayen as a country in a random location. Players can also specify where Jan Mayen will spawn by including a province ID in the command. In *Hearts of Iron IV*, also published by Paradox Interactive, players can play as Jan Mayen controlled by the polar bear \"Grand Admiral Johan Mayan\" by completing an elaborate easter egg chain as Poland during the Second World War. In *Victoria 2*, set in the nineteenth century, certain decisions will see polar bears take charge of Jan Mayen\'s military.
In the 2008 game *Tomb Raider: Underworld*, Lara Croft visits Jan Mayen Island in search of Thor\'s Hammer. The ruin that she finds there is supposedly the source of the Valhalla myth.
The 2022 film *Tales of Jan Mayen*, directed by Hugo Pettit, documents the recreation of the 1921 British expedition to the summit of Mount Beerenberg
| 635 |
Jan Mayen
| 5 |
15,696 |
# Demographics of Jersey
Jersey is the most populated of the crown dependencies and of the Channel Islands. The Demographic statistics of the island includes population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
The population of Jersey has grown in each census record since 1931 (although those did not include records during the Occupation by Nazi Germany).
## History
The resident population of Jersey has been increasing during the last 60 years. The resident population increased by 9,100 between 2010 and 2011. The estimated 2020 growth rate is 0.72%.
Pre-census data, there are a number of estimates for Jersey\'s population. It was around 2,000 in 4000-3000 BC; 6,000 in 1050; 10,000 in 1331; and between 10,000 and 20,000 in the 16th and 17th centuries.
From the 16th to 19th centuries, Jersey was home to a number of French religious refugees, possibly up to 4,000 at a time. In the first half of the 19th century, tax advantages and a better climate saw a boom in Jersey\'s population. This also needed a large immigrant population, with significant movement from Scotland and Ireland.
Before 1851 and 1921, Jersey\'s population fell significantly, but the number of French people rose by more than 3,000. These were mostly agricultural workers (not replacing the British migrants).
From 1821, Jersey conducted an annual census (figures to the right). In 1951, the population was 55,244. It has grown every decade since then, and the rate of growth now is very high (1% per year in 2019). This is due to the growth of the finance industry and tourism.
| 271 |
Demographics of Jersey
| 0 |
15,696 |
# Demographics of Jersey
## Population
In 2021, the total resident population of Jersey is 103,267, although the CIA World Factbook estimates it as 101,073 (this may be due to a different estimate).
### Geographic distribution {#geographic_distribution}
Jersey is divided into twelve parishes. The most populous parish is St Helier, with 35% of the island\'s population. In 1798, around 6,000 people lived in St. Helier, or one-fifth of the island\'s population at the time.
Parish 2011 population 2021 population \% of total Population per km`{{sup|2}}`{=mediawiki}
----------------- ----------------- ----------------- ------------- ------------------------------------------
Saint Helier 33,522 35,822 35 3716
Grouville 4,866 5,401 5 658
Saint Brélade 10,568 11,012 11 830
Saint Clement 9,221 9,925 10 2262
Saint John 2,911 3,051 3 332
Saint Lawrence 5,418 5,561 5 556
Saint Martin 3,763 3,948 4 384
Saint Mary 1,752 1,818 2 277
Saint Ouen 4,097 4,206 4 274
Saint Peter 5,003 5,264 5 448
Saint Saviour 13,580 13,904 13 1498
Trinity 3,156 3,355 3 267
: Population by parish
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- ----------
Total 48 296 49 561 97 857 100
0--4 2 466 2 549 5 015 5.12
5--9 2 470 2 382 4 852 4.96
10--14 2 729 2 573 5 302 5.42
15--19 2 863 2 632 5 495 5.62
20--24 3 006 2 938 5 944 6.07
25--29 3 351 3 354 6 705 6.85
30--34 3 670 3 566 7 236 7.39
35--39 3 615 3 610 7 225 7.38
40--44 4 183 4 180 8 363 8.55
45--49 4 187 4 170 8 357 8.54
50--54 3 536 3 662 7 198 7.36
55--59 2 955 3 087 6 042 6.17
60--64 2 832 2 818 5 650 5.77
65--69 1 938 2 110 4 048 4.14
70--74 1 732 1 900 3 632 3.71
75--79 1 343 1 550 2 893 2.96
80--84 822 1 183 2 005 2.05
85--89 446 779 1 225 1.25
90--94 115 368 483 0.49
95+ 37 150 187 0.19
Age group Male Female Total Per cent
0--14 7 665 7 504 15 169 15.50
15--64 34 198 34 017 68 215 69.71
65+ 6 433 8 040 14 473 14.79
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- --------- ----------
Total 51 003 52 264 103 267 100
0--4 2 425 2 237 4 662 4.51
5--9 2 732 2 682 5 414 5.24
10--14 2 638 2 719 5 357 5.19
15--19 2 654 2 521 5 175 5.01
20--24 2 928 2 723 5 651 5.47
25--29 2 985 2 885 5 870 5.68
30--34 3 293 3 295 6 588 6.38
35--39 3 660 3 686 7 346 7.11
40--44 3 755 3 774 7 529 7.29
45--49 3 773 3 822 7 595 7.35
50--54 4 234 4 211 8 445 8.18
55--59 4 101 4 091 8 192 7.93
60--64 3 294 3 413 6 707 6.49
65--69 2 547 2 747 5 294 5.13
70--74 2 279 2 511 4 790 4.64
75--79 1 524 1 809 3 333 3.23
80--84 1 227 1 496 2 723 2.64
85--89 658 976 1 634 1.58
90--94 242 479 721 0.70
95+ 54 187 241 0.23
Age group Male Female Total Per cent
0--14 7 795 7 638 15 433 14.94
15--64 34 677 34 421 69 098 66.91
65+ 8 531 10 205 18 736 18.14
In 2011, there were 64,353 people of working age (16 to 64 for men, and 16 to 59 for women; 66% of the population). The dependency ratio for Jersey was 52% (similar to 2011); the dependency ratio is around the same value as that in 1931, however was higher (60%) in 1971, and lower (47%) in 1991.
### Place of birth {#place_of_birth}
Half of the population of Jersey was born on the island, with the majority of the remainder from elsewhere in the British Islands. 7% of the population was born in Portugal, conspicuously from Madeira Autonomous Region, a sister province, the largest overseas place of birth. In 1981, only 3% of the population was born in Portugal and 5% elsewhere.
Place of birth Number Per cent
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------- ----------
Jersey 48,654 50
British Isles`{{Note label|Refers to [[British Islands]], does not include [[Republic of Ireland]]|a}}`{=mediawiki} 30,223 31
Portugal 7,031 7
Poland 3,133 3
Ireland 1,880 2
Other European country 3,146 3
Elsewhere in the world 3,791 4
: Jersey population by place of birth (2011)
Of the category \'Other European country\', the primary countries were France and Romania and for \'Elsewhere in the world\', the primary countries were South Africa and India.
## Statistics
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
### Birth rate {#birth_rate}
11.0 births/1,000 population (2005)
| 798 |
Demographics of Jersey
| 1 |
15,696 |
# Demographics of Jersey
## Statistics
### Death rate {#death_rate}
8.5 deaths/1,000 population (2005)
### Net immigration rate {#net_immigration_rate}
2.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
### Sex ratio {#sex_ratio}
---------------------- ---------------------------------
*At birth:* 1.11 male(s)/female
*under 15 years:* 1.08 male(s)/female
*15--64 years:* 0.99 male(s)/female
*65 years and over:* 0.74 male(s)/female
*total population:* 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
---------------------- ---------------------------------
### Infant mortality {#infant_mortality}
4 deaths/1,000 live births (2005)
### Life expectancy at birth {#life_expectancy_at_birth}
*total population:* 78.48 years\
*male:* 76.07 years\
*female:* 81.07 years (2000 est.)
### Average age at death {#average_age_at_death}
- Men 72
- Women 79
### Total fertility rate {#total_fertility_rate}
1.56 children born/woman (2000 est.)
### Nationality
*noun:* Jerseyman, Jerseywoman, Jèrriais, Jèrriaise\
*adjective:* Jersey
### Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Indigenous Jersey-Normans and those of British and French descent. Portuguese, Polish, Irish and Romanian minorities.
### Religions
Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist and Presbyterian.
### Languages
: See *Languages of Jersey*
English (official), French (official), Jèrriais (official: though only spoken by a few native elderly in rural areas, used as a first language by around 1,900 people). Portuguese commonly spoken by migrant workers and is sometimes found in written form, e.g. government informational signs.
### Literacy
82% of children in state schools achieve their reading targets -- the UK average is 90%. This leads to some cases of illiteracy in Jersey
| 220 |
Demographics of Jersey
| 2 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
The Bailiwick of Jersey is a British Crown dependency, unitary state and parliamentary representative democracy and constitutional monarchy. Since 2005, Jersey has a system of ministerial government, with a Chief Minister and Council of Ministers appointed from among the 49 elected members of the States Assembly. The Bailiff is chief judge, President of the States Assembly, and civic head. The current monarch and head of state is King Charles III.
Other powers are exercised by the Connétable and Parish Assembly in each of the twelve parishes.
As one of the Crown dependencies, Jersey is sovereign territory of the Crown, but is not part of the United Kingdom. Jersey can be best described as \"neither a colony nor a conquest, but a peculiar and immediate dependency of the Crown.\" The island is part of the British Islands, a political term encompassing the United Kingdom and the Crown Dependencies. This island is for the most part self-governing, with its own independent legal, administrative and fiscal systems.
The link between the island and the monarchy, rather than through Parliament, has led to an effectively independent political development on the island. In medieval times, the island was treated as a possession of the King by the English government, rather than part of the English state.
## History
### Prior to English rule {#prior_to_english_rule}
When Augustus Caesar divided Gaul into four provinces, Jersey was part of the province headquartered at Lyons.
In around 933, Duke William I (William Longsword), seized Jersey, which until then had been politically linked to Brittany, and it is likely that the pre-Norman form of government and way of life was replaced at this point. The island adopted the Norman law system, still the basis of Jersey law today.^:19^
A key part of the early administrative structure of Jersey was the fief. Alongside the parish, the fief provided a basic framework for rural life; the system began with the Norman system and largely remained similar to it. In Jersey, the dues, services and rents owed by tenants were extensive and often onerous. Jersey peasants retained a degree of freedom lost elsewhere, probably due to the insignificance of the island in the Duchy. More is known of the origins of the fief than of the parishes and early documents show that Jersey was thoroughly feudalised (the majority of the residents were tenants holding land from Seigneurs). The fief of St Ouen, the most senior fief in Jersey\'s feudal structure, was by 1135 in the hands of the de Carteret family. They held extensive lands in Carteret as well, but these were lost by them after King John\'s loss of Normandy, so they decided to settle on the island. Between the 12th and 20th centuries, there were an estimated 245 fiefs in Jersey, though not all simultaneously.
In 1066, the Duke William the Conqueror defeated Harold Godwinson at Hastings to become the King of England; however, he continued to rule his French possessions, including Jersey, as a separate entity, as fealty was owed to the King of France. This initial association of Jersey with England did not last long, as William split his possessions between his sons: Robert Curthose became Duke of Normandy and William Rufus gained the English Crown. William Rufus\' son Henry I recaptured Normandy for England in 1106. The island was then part of the English King\'s realm (though still part of Normandy and France). Around 1142, it is recorded that Jersey was under the control of the Count of Anjou, who administered Normandy for the Duke.
According to the Rolls of the Norman Exchequer, in 1180 Jersey was divided for administrative purposes into three ministeria: *de Gorroic*, *de Groceio* and *de Crapoudoit* (possibly containing four parishes each). Gorroic is an old spelling for Gorey, containing St Martin, St Saviour, Grouville and St Clement; Groceio could derive from de Gruchy, and contains St John, Trinity, St Lawrence and St Helier; and Crapoudoit, likely referring to the stream of St Peter\'s Valley, contains the remainder of the parishes in the West. By Norman times, the parish boundaries were firmly fixed and remain largely unchanged since. It was likely set in place due to the tithe system under Charlemagne, where each property must contribute to the church, so each property would have had to be established within a parish.^:15^
| 721 |
Politics of Jersey
| 0 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## History
### Establishment of self-government {#establishment_of_self_government}
It is said, in tradition, that the island\'s autonomy derives from the *Constitutions of King John*, however this is disputed. Until King James II, successive English monarchs have then granted to Jersey by charter its certain privileges, likely to ensure the island\'s continued loyalty, accounting for its advantageous position at the boundary of the European continent. As John (and later Henry III) maintained his claim to the title as the rightful Duke of Normandy until 1259, the island\'s courts were originally established as Norman, not English territory (to use English law would de-legitimise the English Crown\'s claim to the ducal title), so are based upon traditional Norman laws and customs, such as the *Coutumier de Normandie*. Legislative power was vested in 12 jurats, the twelve \"senior men\" of the island. Along with the Bailiff, they would form the Royal Court, which determined all civil and criminal causes (except treason).
Most lords forfeited their insular land in favour of their French territory, but some remained, notably the de Carteret family of St Ouen. The old aristocracy gave way to a new one, with landowners drawn from royal officials, who soon came to think of themselves as islanders rather than Englishmen. This saw the firm establishment of the feudal system in Jersey, with fiefs headed by Seigneurs.^:30^ In the Treaty of Paris (1259), the King of France gave up claim to the Channel Islands. The claim was based upon his position as feudal overlord of the Duke of Normandy. The King of England gave up claim to mainland Normandy and therefore the Channel Islands were split from the rest of Normandy. The Channel Islands were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England and the island has had self-government since. In medieval times, the island was treated as a possession of the King by the English government, rather than part of the English state.
The administration of the island was handled by an insular government. The King appointed a Warden (later \"Capitain\" or \"Governor\", now the Lieutenant-Governor of Jersey), a position largely occupied with the defence of the island. From 1415 until the second half of the 15th century, the islands were governed by a Lord (or Lady).
The existing Norman customs and laws were allowed to continue and there was no attempt to introduce English law. The formerly split administrative system was replaced with a centralised legal system, of which the head was the King of England rather than the Duke of Normandy. The law was conducted through 12 jurats, constables (*Connétable*) and a bailiff (*Baillé*). These titles have different meanings and duties to those in England. Any oppression by a bailiff or a warden was to be resolved locally or failing that, by appeal to the King who appointed commissioners to report on disputes. In the late 1270s, Jersey was given its own Bailiff and from the 1290s, the duties of Bailiff and Warden were separated. The (Sub-)Warden became responsible for taxation and defence, while the Bailiff became responsible for justice. While probably originally a temporary arrangement by Otto de Grandison, this became permanent and the foundation for Jersey\'s modern separation of Crown and justice. It also lessened the Warden\'s authority relative to the Bailiff, who had much more interaction with the community.
The role of the jurats when the King\'s court was mobile would have been preparatory work for the visit of the Justices in Eyre. It is unknown for how long the position of the jurats has existed, with some claiming the position dates to time immemorial. After the cessation of the visits of the Justices in Eyre (and with the frequent absence of the Warden), the Bailiff and jurats took on a much wider role, from jury to justice.^:28^
In 1341, in recognition of islanders\' efforts during the war, King Edward III declared that Jerseymen should \'hold and retain all privileges, liberties, immunities and customs granted by our forebares\'. This began the tradition of successive monarchs devolving powers over the island to Islanders, giving them certain privileges and protecting the separation between the Channel Islands and the rest of their royal realm.
In 1462, the occupying French Governor de Brézé issued ordinances outlining the role of the Bailiff and the Jurats. It may well be during this occupation that the island saw the establishment of the States. Comte Maulevrier, who had led the invasion of the island, ordered the holding of an Assize in the island. Maulevrier confirmed the place of existing institutions, however created the requirement for Jurats to be chosen by Bailiffs, Jurats, Rectors and Constables. The earliest extant Act of the States dates from 1524.
In 1541, the Privy Council, which had recently given a seat to Calais, intended to give two seats in Parliament to Jersey. Seymour, the Lieutenant-Governor of the Island, wrote to the Jurats, instructing them to send two Burgesses for the isle. However, no further steps seemed to have been taken since the letter did not arrive in front of the States Assembly until the day the elected persons were required to arrive in London.^:70^
| 855 |
Politics of Jersey
| 1 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## History
### Division of powers between Governor and Bailiff {#division_of_powers_between_governor_and_bailiff}
Sir John Peyton became the Governor in 1603 after the death of Queen Elizabeth I. Peyton struggled with the Bailiff over converting the island from the dominant Calvinist religion to Anglicanism. In 1615, Jean Hérault was appointed Bailiff by the King, having been promised the role by letters patent in 1611. Peyton disputed this appointment, claiming it was the Governor\'s jurisdiction to appoint the Bailiff. Hérault asserted it was the King\'s jurisdiction to directly appoint the Bailiff. An Order in Council (dated 9 August 1615) sided with Hérault, which Hérault took to claim the Bailiff was the real head of government and the Governor was simply a military officer. To back his claims, he also cited that in the Norman administrative tradition, the Bailiffs had \"no one above them except the Duke\".
This dispute led to one of the most major turning points in Jersey\'s constitutional history, as the division of powers between the Governor and Bailiff were clearly demarcated. Though the Privy Council did not agree with Hérault\'s extreme position on the precedence of the Bailiff, on 18 February 1617 it declared that the \"charge of military forces be wholly in the Governor, and the care of justice and civil affairs in the Bailiff.\" This secured for both the Bailiff and the States precedence over the Governor on justice and civil affairs, the constitutional precedent which limits the involvement of the Lieutenant-Governor in domestic affairs today.
### Jersey Revolution: division of the legislature and judiciary {#jersey_revolution_division_of_the_legislature_and_judiciary}
During the late 17th century, the Governors and Bailiffs were generally absent - the Governor Henry Lumley never visited the island at all during his time in office and after the death of Sir Edouard de Carteret, no bailiff was appointed for five years. The eventual successor Charles de Carteret faced large opposition, especially from his own tenants in St. Ouen. A group of jurats complained to the Privy Council that de Carteret was absent and not well accustomed to the law and culture of the island. Charles attempted to oppose this by blocking sittings of the Jurats in court, claiming they could not sit since they were related to the plaintiff or defendant (which they most often were since everyone in Jersey was somehow related to one another). By 1750, the Bailiffship had de facto become a hereditary position in the de Carteret family. Absences of the de Carterets and all other high-ranking posts left Charles Lempière, the Lieutenant Bailiff, in effective full control over the island. Lempière was a Parliamentarian, but by temperament was autocratic. His family had significant power with a number of high-ranking roles in the island and he issued ordinances and quashed protest through his court.^:195^ Democratic representation was not present in the island\'s political system, with only wealthier men able to vote for Connétables, with those men filling the roles with their relatives.
A revolt, known as the Corn Riots or the Jersey Revolution, occurred in 1769. They were centred around the balance of power between the island\'s parliament, the States, and the Royal Court, both of which had powers to create legislation. An anti-Seigneurial sentiment - opposition to the feudal economic system - also contributed to the popular revolt. The spark for the riots was a corn shortage, in part caused by corruption in the ruling classes, led by the Lieutenant Bailiff Charles Lemprière, whose style of rule was authoritarian. On 28 September 1769, men from the northern parishes marched into town and rioted, including breaking into the Royal Court in a threatening manner. The States retreated to Elizabeth Castle and called on the Privy Council for help under false pretences. The Council sent five companies of Royal Scots, who discovered the islanders\' grievances.
The protestors demands include reductions in price of wheat and the abolition of certain, or all, Seigneurial privileges. In reaction, the Crown issued the Code of 1771, which attempted to separate the island\'s judiciary and legislature. After the petitions of Le Geyt, the English authorities instructed that peace and reform should be brought to the island. Bentinck became Lieutenant Governor and introduced important reforms. The Royal Court was no longer a lawmaking body and all legislative power was vested in the States. With the fixing in 1771 of the *Code des Lois* it was established that the States had a legislative monopoly, and the lawmaking powers of the Royal Court were removed (*see quote below*). The *Code* of 1771 laid down for the first time in one place the extant laws of Jersey.^:199^
### Party politics: Magots and Charlots {#party_politics_magots_and_charlots}
The late 18th century was the first time political parties in some form came into existence on the island. Jean Dumaresq was an early Liberal who called for democratic reforms (that the States should be democratically elected Deputies and should have vested in them executive power). His supporters were known as *Magots* (\"maggots\", initially an insult from his opponents, which the *Magots* reclaimed as their own term) and his opponents as the **Charlots** (supporters of the Lieutenant Baliff Charles Lempière). Dumaresq is quoted as saying \"we shall make these Seigneurs bite the dust\". In 1776, he was elected as Connétable for St Peter.^:200^
The post-Napoleonic War period was a divisive period politically for the island. In 1821, there was an election for Jurat. The St Laurentine Laurelites (conservatives, the eventual name for the **Charlots**) attacked the Inn in their village where Rose men (the progressive descendants of the **Magots**) were holding a meeting. They damaged the building and injured both the innkeeper and his wife. On election day in St Martin, the a number of Rose voters were attacked, after which most Rose men refrained from voting. Although the Rose candidate won overall, he faced a number of lawsuits over claims of voter fraud, so in the end the Laurel candidate George Bertram took office.^:232^
| 988 |
Politics of Jersey
| 2 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## History
### Anglicisation
During the 19th century, the administration system, despite reform, still resembled a feudal system of governance. At the start of the century, Jersey had achieved a high degree of self-government through delegation of Crown powers to the States, though the Bailiff, Governor and Jurats were all still Crown appointees. During the century, Jersey\'s power structure shifted more and more from the Crown to the States, establishing Jersey as a near-independent state, however ultimate authority over the island shifted from the Crown to the British Parliament, aligning with the shift in the UK\'s politics towards a purely ceremonial monarchy. The Privy Council put pressure of the island to reform its institutions, in the belief these reforms should align the country with a more English model of government and law. In 1883, John Stuart Blackie recounted an Englishman\'s comment that only one thing was needed to make Jersey perfect, and that was \"a full participation in the benefits of English law\". However, the Lieutenant Governor at the time stated that the absence of English law was what had brought Jerseymen such prosperity.
Many locals blamed this push for reform on the island\'s new immigrants, who were unaccustomed to the island\'s distinct political and legal systems (although a major part of the mainstream reformer movement was in fact made of Jerseymen). Many English who had moved to the island discovered an alien environment, with unfamiliar laws (in a foreign language they could not understand) and no recourse to access the local power to counter them. The reformers of English heritage mostly came from the middle classes, and sought to further their own rights, not necessarily those of the working class. These Englishmen formed a pressure group known as the Civil Assembly of St Helier. This group was effectively split into two, one organised around Abraham Le Cras\' hard-code English reformism and the other, a larger looser corpus of English reformists. The former was never representative of a significant proportion of the English community. One thing both shared however was a belief that the English systems were far superior to the historic Norman-based structures.
Abraham Le Cras was an outspoken new resident - though with Jersey heritage - opposed to Jersey\'s self-government. He not only thought Jersey should be integrated into England fully, but disputed the right of the States to even make its own laws. He is noted as saying, \'the States have no more power to make laws for Jersey than I have\'. In 1840, he won a court case challenging the States\' ability to naturalise people as citizens. The Privy Council determined that the long-standing precedent of the States doing so had been invalidated since Jersey had been ruled under civil law since 1771. In 1846, he persuaded the MP for Bath to push for a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the law of Jersey, however HM Government instead promised a Royal Commission. The Commission advised the abolition of the Royal Court run by the Jurats and the replacement of it with three Crown-appointed judges and the introduction of a paid police force. Le Cras left the island to live in England in 1850.
In 1852, the island experienced somewhat of a constitutional crisis when the Privy Council issued three Orders in Council: establishing a police court, a petty debts court and a paid police force for St Helier. This sparked controversy locally, with claims that the move threatened Jersey\'s independence. Both parties united against the move and around 7000 islanders signing a petition. By 1854, the council had agreed to revoke the Orders, on the condition that the States passed most of the council\'s requirements. In 1856, further constitutional reform brought deputies into the States for the first time, with one deputy from each country parish and three from town.
The threats to Jersey\'s autonomy continued. In the 1860s, there was raised a threat of an intervention in the island\'s government by the British Parliament itself, in order to impose change on the island\'s structures.
### Reforms of 1948 {#reforms_of_1948}
After the Occupation, many islanders called for the reform and modernisation of the States: a poll by the JEP showed that only 88 of the 1,784 surveyed thought Rectors should stay in the States, and a vast majority wanted the legislature and judiciary separated. The Jersey Democratic Movement campaigned for either the incorporation of the island as a county of England or at least the abolition of the States. The other political party to emerge during this period was the Progressive Party, consisting of some present`{{clarify|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} States members, who opposed the JDM. In the 1945 Deputies\' election, the Progressives won a landslide victory, giving a mandate for change. The franchise was extended to all British adults; previously voting rights in Jersey had only been accorded to men, and women over 30, according to property ownership. The largest reform was the 1948 States reform. Jurats were no longer States members, and were to be elected by an Electoral College. The reform also introduced a retirement age of 70 for Jurats. In all cases, the Bailiff would be the judge of the law, and the Jurats the \"judge of fact\". The Jurats\' role in the States was taken on by 12 senators, four of whom would retire every three years. The Church also lost most of its representation in the States, with the role of Rector being abolished and the number of Deputies increased to 28. The first senatorial election was brief. Each Senator was elected for either nine, six or three years depending on where they came in the polling list. Philip Le Feuvre topped the poll and was elected for nine years. On 8 December 1945 in the Deputies\' election, Ivy Forster of the Progressive Party became the first woman ever elected to the States. Other notable successful candidates included John Le Marquand Jr. (whose father had recently been returned as Senator) and Cyril Le Marquand.
| 995 |
Politics of Jersey
| 3 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## Constitution
Jersey has an unwritten constitution arising from the Treaty of Paris (1259). This peculiar political position has often benefited the islanders. Until the 19th century, the island was generally exempt from the harsher parts of Westminster legislation, while being included in favourable policies, such as protectionist economic policies. Over time, there have been calls for reforms to Jersey\'s constitution, such as the 2000 Clothier report.
Jersey has never been part of the United Kingdom nor its predecessors; however it has been a dependency of the monarch of each of these states`{{clarify|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} at their time of existence.`{{clarify|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} The government in Westminster has played an important role in Jersey\'s lawmaking and political landscape. Since the island is linked with the monarch, not with the UK Parliament, the competency of Parliament to legislate for the island without the States\' consent is disputed. The Crown retains residual responsibility for the \"good government\" of the island, and the UK Government has a \"non-interventionist policy\" for supervising the Bailiwick.
### International relations {#international_relations}
The 1973 Kilbrandon Report stated that \"In international law the United Kingdom Government is responsible for the Islands\' international relations\" and \"also responsible for the defence of the Islands\".
The United Kingdom is responsible for Jersey\'s international relations as an aspect of the island\'s status as a Crown dependency. It is now normal practice for the UK to consult the Jersey government and seek their consent before entering into treaty obligations affecting the island.
Since 2000, Jersey\'s \"external personality\" has developed, as recognised in the preamble to the States of Jersey Law 2005 which refers to \"an increasing need for Jersey to participate in matters of international affairs\". In 2007, the Chief Minister of Jersey and the UK government agreed an \"International Identity Framework\", setting out the modern relationship between the United Kingdom and Jersey. The United Kingdom now issues \"Letters of Entrustment\" to the Jersey government, which delegate power to Jersey to negotiate international agreements on its own behalf and sign treaties in Jersey\'s own name rather than through the United Kingdom. This development was \"strongly supported\" by the House of Commons Justice Committee in its March 2010 report on the Crown Dependencies. In January 2011 Senator Freddie Cohen was appointed as Assistant Chief Minister with responsibility for UK and International Relations (in effect, Jersey\'s first Foreign Minister).
Jersey was neither a Member State nor an Associate Member of European Union. It did, however, have a relationship with the EU governed by Protocol 3 to the UK\'s Treaty of Accession in 1972.
In relation to the Council of Europe, Jersey -- as a territory the United Kingdom is responsible for in international law -- has been bound by the European Convention on Human Rights since the UK acceded to the treaty in 1951. The Human Rights (Jersey) Law 2000 makes Convention rights part of Jersey law and is based closely on the United Kingdom\'s Human Rights Act 1998.
During the 1980s, the question was raised of Jersey making an annual contribution towards the United Kingdom\'s costs of defence and international representation undertaken on behalf of Jersey. In 1987, the States of Jersey made an interim payment of £8 million while the matter was discussed. The outcome of debates within the island was that the contribution should take the form of maintaining a Territorial Army unit in Jersey. The Jersey Field Squadron (Militia), attached to the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia), deploys individuals on operations in support of British Forces.
| 585 |
Politics of Jersey
| 4 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## The Crown {#the_crown}
As a Crown dependency, the head of state of Jersey is the British monarch and Jersey is a self-governing possession of the Crown. The present monarch, whose traditional title in the Channel Islands is the Duke of Normandy, is King Charles III.
Position Holder Since
--------------------- ------------------------- -------
Monarch HM King Charles III 2022
Bailiff Timothy Le Cocq 2019
Deputy Bailiff Robert MacRae 2019
Lieutenant Governor Vice Admiral Jeremy Kyd 2022
: Present office holders
\"The Crown\" is defined by the Law Officers of the Crown as the \"Crown in right of Jersey\". The King\'s representative and adviser in the island is the Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, appointed for a five-year term. He is a point of contact between Jersey ministers and the United Kingdom government and carries out executive functions in relation to immigration control, deportation, naturalisation and the issue of passports. Since 2022, the incumbent Lieutenant Governor has been Vice Admiral Jeremy Kyd.
The Crown (not the government or parliament of Jersey) appoints the Lieutenant Governor, the Bailiff, Deputy Bailiff, Attorney General and Solicitor General. In practice, the process of appointment involves a panel in Jersey which selects a preferred candidate whose name is communicated to the UK Ministry of Justice for approval before a formal recommendation is made to the King.
## Legislature
The parliamentary body responsible for adopting legislation and scrutinising the Council of Ministers is the States Assembly. 49 elected members (37 Deputies and 12 Connétables) sit in the unicameral assembly. There are also five non-elected, non-voting members appointed by the Crown (the Bailiff, the Lieutenant Governor, the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney General and the Solicitor General).
Elections for Deputies and Connétables (or \"constables\") occur at fixed four-yearly intervals, in May every fourth year.
At a local level, other posts vary in length from one to three years, and elections are held at a Parish Assembly on a majority basis. It has been some time since parties contested elections at this level, other than for the position of Connétable, who uniquely has a role in both the national assembly and in local government.
Decisions in the States are taken by majority vote of the elected members present and voting. The States of Jersey Law 2005 removed the Bailiff\'s casting vote and the Lieutenant Governor\'s power of veto. Although formally organised party politics plays no role in the States of Jersey assembly, members often vote together in two main blocs: a minority of members, holding broadly progressive views and critical of the Council of Ministers versus a majority of members, of conservative ideology, who support the Council of Ministers.
Scrutiny panels of backbench members of the assembly have been established to examine (i) economic affairs, (ii) environment, (iii) corporate services, (iv) education and home affairs and (v) health, social security and housing. The real utility of the panels is said to be \"that of independent critique which holds ministers to account and constructively engages with policy which is deficient\".
According to constitutional convention United Kingdom legislation may be extended to Jersey by Order in Council at the request of the Island\'s government. Whether an Act of the United Kingdom Parliament may expressly apply to the Island as regards matters of self-government, or whether this historic power is now in abeyance, is a matter of legal debate. The States of Jersey Law 2005 established that no United Kingdom Act or Order in Council may apply to the Bailiwick without being referred to the States of Jersey.
| 588 |
Politics of Jersey
| 5 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## Executive
Previously, both executive and legislative powers were vested in a single body: the States of Jersey. A committee system managed government affairs and policy, with committees formed of States members. A report of a review committee chaired by Sir Cecil Clothier criticised this system of government, finding it incapable of developing high-level strategy, efficient policy coordination or effective political leadership.
The States of Jersey Law 2005 introduced a ministerial system of government. Executive powers are now vested in the Council of Ministers, formed of the Chief Minister and other ministers (all elected directly by the States). The council is the leading decision-making body of the wider Government of Jersey.
The Chief Minister is elected from among the elected members of the States. Ministers are then proposed both by the Chief Minister and any other elected member, the final decision being made by the States Assembly.
The overall direction of government as agreed by the Council of Ministers is published periodically as a \"strategic plan\", the current one`{{Fix|text=Needs updating}}`{=mediawiki} being the *Common Strategic Policy 2018 to 2022*. These plans are debated and approved by the States Assembly and translated into action by a series of business plans for each department.
Cabinet collective responsibility among members of the Council of Ministers is a feature of the 2015 *Code of Conduct for Ministers*. However, ministers retain the right to present their own policy to the States in their capacity as a member of the assembly in domains not concerning Council policy.
In recent years, former Chief Executive Charlie Parker introduced a number of reforms to the government\'s administrative structure. Moving away from a system whereby each minister heads a single department, the One Government structure focuses on more efficient governmental organisation. As of 2022, the government departments are:
- Office of the Chief Executive
- Customer and Local Services
- Children, Young People, Education and Skills
- Health and Community Services
- Infrastructure, Housing and Environment
- Justice and Home Affairs
- Strategic Policy, Planning and Performance
- Treasury and Exchequer
- Economy
- Chief Operating Office
| 350 |
Politics of Jersey
| 6 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## Political parties {#political_parties}
Since the 1950s, politics in Jersey has been dominated by independent representatives. Historically, the island had two parties: the conservative Roses (Charlots) and the progressive Laurels (Magots). Due to the 2022 electoral reform, Jersey may be moving towards a politics dominated by parties. As of March 2025, there are two political parties represented in the States:
- Jersey Liberal Conservatives (centre-right)
- Reform Jersey (social democratic).
## Criticism
Jersey\'s political system has often been criticised over the centuries, both within and outside the island. The \'Jersey Way\' is a term used in critiques to describe a political culture that is claimed to enforce conformity, ignore perversion of the course of justice and suppress political dissent. The Tax Justice Network states that the Jersey Way allows for the island\'s political system to be abused by financial services sector companies.
The Tax Justice Network criticises the political system for its absence of judicial independence (due to \'close relations between the legal and financial services\' and \'the intimate relations between legal professionals who grew up together\'); lack of second chamber in its parliament (for scrutiny purposes); no political parties; no formalised government and opposition and the lack of a wide range of independent news sources, or research capabilities.
Criticism of the political system is no modern development. In the 19th century, Abraham Le Cras was an outspoken new resident of the island. A retired colonel, Le Cras was opposed to Jersey\'s historic self-government and represented a group of people who not only thought Jersey should be fully integrated into England, but disputed the right of the States even to make its own laws. He is noted as saying, \'The States have no more power to make laws for Jersey than I have\'. In 1840 he won a court case challenging the States\' power to naturalise people as citizens. The Privy Council determined that the long-standing precedent of the States doing so had been invalidated since Jersey had been ruled under civil law since 1771. In 1846, he persuaded the MP for Bath to push for a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the law of Jersey; however HM Government instead promised a Royal Commission. The Commission advised the abolition of the Royal Court run by the Jurats and its replacement by three Crown-appointed judges, and the introduction of a paid police force. Le Cras left the island to live in England in 1850.
## Local government {#local_government}
Jersey is divided into twelve administrative districts known as parishes. All have access to the sea, and they are mostly named after the saints to whom their ancient parish churches are dedicated.
Each parish is further divided into *vingtaines* (or, in St. Ouen, *cueillettes*), divisions which are historic and nowadays mostly used for purposes of electoral constituency`{{clarify|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki}`{{Fix|text=i.e. used as wards?}}`{=mediawiki} in municipal elections, which elect the members of the Parish municipality. Each parish has an Honorary Police force of elected, unpaid civilians who exercise police and prosecution powers.
## Jersey politicians {#jersey_politicians}
| 504 |
Politics of Jersey
| 7 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## Separation debate {#separation_debate}
The separation issue came up in the House of Commons in a debate on Jersey\'s constitution in 1969. According to Sir Cyril Black, Member of Parliament for Wimbledon, Jersey was on the verge of declaring independence from the British Government after the Queen\'s speech stated HM Government would examine the relationships with the Channel Islands. Jersey opposed its inclusion in the Royal Commission on the Constitution and the complete lack of consultation surrounding it. The Home Secretary later stated that there was no intention to change the relationship.
The question of Jersey\'s independence has been discussed from time to time in the States Assembly. In 1999, a member of the government said that \'Independence is an option open to the Island if the circumstances should justify this\' but the government \'does not believe independence is appropriate in the present circumstances and does not see the circumstances arising in the foreseeable future when it would be appropriate\'. In 2000, Senator Paul Le Claire called for a referendum on independence, a proposal which failed to win any significant support.
The Policy and Resources Committee of the States of Jersey established the Constitutional Review Group in July 2005, chaired by Sir Philip Bailhache, with terms of reference \'to conduct a review and evaluation of the potential advantages and disadvantages for Jersey in seeking independence from the United Kingdom or other incremental change in the constitutional relationship, while retaining the Queen as Head of State\'.
Proposals for Jersey independence have subsequently been discussed at an international conference held in Jersey, organised by the *Jersey and Guernsey Law Review*. The former Bailiff, Sir Philip Bailhache has called for changes to the Channel Islands\' relationship with the United Kingdom government, arguing that \'at the very least, we should be ready for independence if we are placed in a position where that course was the only sensible option\'.
In October 2012, the Council of Ministers issued a \"Common policy for external relations\" that set out a number of principles for the conduct of external relations in accordance with existing undertakings and agreements. This document noted that Jersey \"is a self-governing, democratic country with the power of self-determination\" and \"that it is not Government policy to seek independence from the United Kingdom, but rather to ensure that Jersey is prepared if it were in the best interests of Islanders to do so\". On the basis of the established principles the Council of Ministers decided to \"ensure that Jersey is prepared for external change that may affect the Island\'s formal relationship with the United Kingdom and/or European Union\".
| 437 |
Politics of Jersey
| 8 |
15,697 |
# Politics of Jersey
## Separation debate {#separation_debate}
### Constitutional Review Group report {#constitutional_review_group_report}
The Group\'s *Second Interim Report* was presented to the States by the Council of Ministers in June 2008. The report made a number of recommendations about Jersey independence, including the benefits and costs of independence and the social and cultural consequences. The island would need to be recognised as a sovereign state on a country by country basis. The report concluded that \'Jersey is equipped to face the challenges of independence\' but \'whether those steps should be taken is not within the remit of this paper\'.
At present the island is protected by the British Armed Forces. Upon independence the island would need to develop its own capacity to entirely handle defensive and security affairs. It established that Jersey could seek membership of a defensive alliance (e.g. NATO); negotiate a defence agreement with a sovereign state (e.g. the UK) - San Marino, for example have a defence agreement with Italy that cost 700,000 USD in 2000/01 - or establish an independent defence force (in a similar manner to Antigua and Barbuda, which spends around £2.5 million). Furthermore, it is unlikely that any major European power would allow the island to be invaded, but the island could not feasibly protect itself from a major external threat without securing defensive agreements.
Independence would require the establishment of a Foreign Affairs Department within the Government of Jersey, or other similar steps. At present, the island\'s international affairs are formally governed by the UK Government. The report recommended the island join \'essential\' global organisations, such as the UN and IMF; the Commonwealth and the WTO. At the time, independence would have brought an end to Jersey\'s relationship with the EU, which was mediated through the UK\'s accession treaty protocol 3. The report suggests a minimum requirement of the establishment of three overseas missions: London, New York and Brussels (the Government has an office in London and shares an office in Brussels already), to provide contact with major organisations such as the Commonwealth, UN and EU, as well as the UK, US and EU, and also to allow use of them for tourism and trade-related purposes.
Consideration would need to be given to the questions of the internal organisation of Jersey\'s constitution, as well as citizenship and passports. The report assumes the Queen would continue to be the Head of State, appointing a Governor-General on the advice of the British Government. The report recommended the need for a codified constitution, which should contain a basic human rights statement. The current States Assembly could be replaced by a States Parliament, which would need to replace the checks and balances provided by the Privy Council.
## Political pressure groups {#political_pressure_groups}
Jersey, as a polity predominated by independents has always had a number of pressure groups. Many ad-hoc lobby groups form in response to a single issue and then dissolve once the concerns have been dealt with. However, there are a number of pressure groups actively working to influence government decisions on a number of issues. For example, in 2012 the National Trust engaged in pressure campaign against development of the Plemont headland. The Trust was supported by the majority of the islands senior politicians, including the Chief Minister, but a proposition made in the States of Jersey for the States to compulsorily purchase the headland and sell it to the Trust was defeated in a vote on 13 December 2012. The outcome of the vote was 24 in favour of acquisition, 25 against, with one absent and one declaring an interest.
### Interest Groups {#interest_groups}
The following groups are funded by their members.
- Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society
- Institute of Directors, Jersey branch
- Jersey Chamber of Commerce
- Progress Jersey
- Jersey Youth Reform Team
- Jersey Rights Association
- Same Difference
- Save Jersey\'s Heritage
- Société Jersiaise
- Alliance Française, Jersey branch
- Attac, Jersey Branch
- National Trust for Jersey
### Quangos
The following groups are, at least, partially funded by government. Appointments are made by the States Assembly
| 683 |
Politics of Jersey
| 9 |
15,698 |
# Economy of Jersey
The **economy of Jersey** is a highly developed social market economy. It is largely driven by international financial services and legal services, which accounted for 39.5% of total GVA in 2019, a 4% increase on 2018. Jersey is considered to be an offshore financial centre. Jersey has the preconditions to be a microstate, but it is a self-governing Crown dependency of the UK. It is considered to be a corporate tax haven by many organisations.
Other sectors include construction, retail, agriculture, tourism and telecommunications. Before the Second World War, Jersey\'s economy was dominated by agriculture, however after liberation, tourism to the island became popular. More recently, the finance industry recognised worth in operating in Jersey, which has now become the island\'s dominant industry.
In 2017, Jersey\'s GDP per capita was one of the highest in the world at \$55,324. In 2019, the island\'s economy, as measured by GVA, grew by 2.1% in real terms to £4.97 billion. In December 2020, there were 1,350 people actively seeking work.
## History
### Agriculture
Until the 16th century, the economy of Jersey was based on feudalism and open-field self-sustenance agriculture. The main crop, wheat, was exported and sold to Spanish merchants in St Malo.
Enclosure happened in Jersey around the end of the 16th century. Unlike in England, enclosure was done by the peasantry in order to make profit from producing cider, the production of which moved Jersey\'s economy from self-sufficiency to cash-crop agriculture. From then until the 19th century, cider was the largest agricultural export; in 1795, 20 percent of the island was orchard. In 1839 for example, 268199 impgal of cider were exported from Jersey to England alone, but by 1870 exports from Jersey had slumped to 4632 impgal. Beer had replaced cider as a fashionable drink in the main export markets, and even the home market had switched to beer as the population became more urban.
Enclosure and the subsequent transition to cash-crop agriculture can be blamed for shortages in essential crops, particularly corn, which caused political instability in the island, such as the 1769 Corn Riots.
Potatoes overtook cider as the most important crop in Jersey in the 1840s. Small-scale cider production on farms for domestic consumption, particularly by seasonal workers from Brittany and mainland Normandy, was maintained, but by the mid-20th century production dwindled until only eight farms were producing cider for their own consumption in 1983. The number of orchards had been reduced to such a level that the destruction of trees in the Great Storm of 1987 demonstrated how close the Islands had come to losing many of its traditional cider apple varieties. A concerted effort was made to identify and preserve surviving varieties and new orchards were planted. As part of diversification, farmers have moved into commercial cider production, and the cider tradition is celebrated and marketed as a heritage experience.
Since the 1800s a significant portion of the Jersey economy has been greenhouse agriculture raising fruits, vegetables and flowers under glass. In the twenty first century this has been a declining activity with many greenhouses now unused and some in derelict condition. There was a motion in the Jersey legislature in early 2022 to repurpose unused greenhouses as construction sites for housing. A compromise proposal was that half the unused greenhouses be used for other purposes. The measures failed to pass
### Textiles
The textile industry became a popular export industry for islanders, particularly women. In fact, the trade became so popular that in 1608 the States had to ban knitting during harvest and vraicing season. This industry connected rural Jerseymen to the wider global economy. The knitting of woollen garments was a thriving industry for Jersey during the 17th and 18th centuries. The knitting industry died sometime after 1750.
### Ship building {#ship_building}
Jersey was the 4th largest ship building area in the 19th century British Isles. See History of Jersey.
### Historical exchange rates {#historical_exchange_rates}
Jersey pounds per US dollar - 0.55 (2005), 0.6981 (January 2002), 0.6944 (2001), 0.6596 (2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997); the Jersey pound is at par with the British pound.
| 688 |
Economy of Jersey
| 0 |
15,698 |
# Economy of Jersey
## Fiscal policy {#fiscal_policy}
Jersey is fiscally independent from the UK. UK public money is not ordinarily spent in the island, and Jersey residents do not pay tax or national insurance contributions to HMRC. As the UK is responsible for Jersey\'s defence and international representation, the cost of Jersey to the British taxpayer could be seen at around £55 million, though this is a notional cost; it is unlikely that, if Jersey were independent, that money would be saved on costs to the armed forces. The States make, upon agreement with Westminster, a contribution to the costs of its relationship in the form of a territorial army on the island.
### Tax system {#tax_system}
Jersey has a \'simple and stable\' tax system, which does not change much over time. This is reflected in States policies, which call for a \'low, broad, simple and fair\' system. The country collects income tax on its ordinary residents, with allowances and exemptions available for both low-income and very high-income residents (the latter through the 2(1)(e) policy). Corporate income tax is charged through the zero-ten policy, through which most businesses do not pay any corporation tax. Jersey does not have inheritance, wealth, corporate or capital gains tax.
are charged on road fuel, vehicles, alcohol and tobacco and are similar to UK excise duties.
### Social protection {#social_protection}
The social protection system in Jersey is known as Social Security. In 2004, Jersey spent less than any EU country on social protection at 12.3 per cent of GDP, though the island\'s per capita GDP was higher than the European average. Social security contributions are funded by both employees and employers on monthly earnings.
### Criticism
Jersey is considered a \'tax haven\' by some sources (e.g. the Tax Justice Network), but this label is contested. Jersey has a long history of tax avoidance and smuggling due to its special constitutional status. The EU\'s tax haven blacklist does not include Jersey in the list dated February 2023, though has in the past and the list has been criticised for leaving out jurisdictions such as Jersey. The Government of Jersey and UK Government have argued that Jersey is a cooperative jurisdiction and the local finance industry rejects the tax haven label.
### GST and VAT avoidance {#gst_and_vat_avoidance}
A value-added tax system is in place known as Goods and Services Tax (GST), which is set at 5 per cent. Some items are zero-rated - but not food - and imported products below £60 are exempt.
The difference between the GST and UK/EU VAT systems previously led to VAT avoidance facilitated through the island. This included fulfilment by Play.com and Amazon, among other large retailers. Low-value consignment relief provided the mechanism for VAT-free imports from the Channel Islands to the UK. In April 2012, the EU closed this loophole, leading to the closure of many island businesses and the loss of a number of jobs on the island.
| 490 |
Economy of Jersey
| 1 |
15,698 |
# Economy of Jersey
## Sectors
### Financial and legal services {#financial_and_legal_services}
Jersey-based financial organisations provide services to customers worldwide. In December 2020, it was reported that there were 13,510 jobs within this sector. The finance sector profits were about £1.18 billion in 2015.
Jersey is one of the top worldwide offshore financial centers It has been criticised for its tax practices, with many calling the island a tax haven. It attracts deposits from customers outside of the island, seeking the advantages such places offer, like reduced tax burdens. In 2020, Tax Justice ranked Jersey as the 16th on the Financial Secrecy Index, below larger countries such as the UK, however still placing at the lower end of the \'extreme danger zone\' for offshore secrecy\'.
However The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) have all endorsed Jersey as a top international finance centre. In 2017\'s OECD Rating, Jersey scored top marks from the OECD on tax transparency, receiving a \"fully compliant\" rating and as recently as 2019 The European Council of Finance Ministers (ECOFIN) have formally confirmed Jersey a Co-operative Jurisdiction. In addition, a MONEYVAL Assessment by the Council of Europe rated Jersey compliant or largely compliant in 48 of their 49 assessment areas, the highest score amongst all states [assessed](https://www.jerseyfinance.je/our-work/jerseys-transparency-timeline/) `{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610122310/https://www.jerseyfinance.je/our-work/jerseys-transparency-timeline/ |date=2021-06-10 }}`{=mediawiki}.
In the fourth quarter of 2020, the total value of banking deposits held in Jersey decreased from £137.8bn to £131.6bn while the net asset value of regulated funds under administration increased by £12.6bn to £378.1bn. There were 33,626 live companies on Jersey\'s register.
Jersey shares The International Stock Exchange (TISE) with Guernsey, where it is based.
### Construction
Construction represented 7% of GVA during 2019. In June 2020 it was reported that 5,970 people were employed full-time in the construction and quarrying sector.
St Helier has a lot of ongoing construction projects. The reclamation of land opened in the 1980s new land for development in the town centre. This has led to development projects such as the Jersey International Finance Centre, Horizon and the new St Helier Waterfront project.
The GVA of the construction sector declined by 1% between 2018 and 2019.
### Retail and wholesale {#retail_and_wholesale}
As of June 2020 there were 6,940 jobs within Jersey\'s wholesale and retail trades. Retail and wholesale declined by 1% between 2018 and 2019.
Jersey has a large range of local and national shops. SandpiperCI Limited operate a chain of stores in Jersey, their franchises include well-known names, such as Morrisons, Marks & Spencer, Iceland, and Costa Coffee.
A number of online retailers, and fulfillment houses operate from the Channel Islands, including Jersey, supplying a variety of low-value goods such as CDs, DVDs, video games, and gadgets. Residents of the EU were choosing to order goods from Jersey, so as to benefit from a tax relief known as Low-value consignment relief (LVCR). UK residents, in particular, were taking advantage of this situation.
A local company, play.com grew substantially during the time that LVCR applied to Jersey. Notably, Amazon UK also took advantage of this by dispatching some low-value items from Jersey.
In April 2012 the UK Government made law changes to prevent the Channel Islands continued exploitation of LVCR, meaning that UK residents would have to pay the full VAT amount on items imported from the Channel Islands. Some goods are still sold and distributed from Jersey, despite these changes.
### Agriculture {#agriculture_1}
In 2017, 33,301 vergées were dedicated to agriculture, with each holding having an average area of 78 vergées. Since 2006, there has been a reduction in the number of smaller holding areas, as have the number of larger holdings (64 in 2006 to 53 in 2017).
The Rural Support Scheme was introduced in 2017 to replace the Single Area Payment. 75% of agricultural areas by surface area are subject to RSS.
There has been a reduction in the total number of agricultural workers since 2007.
2007 2012 2017
----------- ------ ------ ------
Full-time 678 635 488
Part-time 138 188 114
Seasonal 1031 837 834
Total 1847 1660 1436
: 10-year averages of staff numbers during peak season months.
The total value of all export crops has increased since 2013. In 2017, it is £42.5 million. The primary exported crops are potatoes (£31.6m), narcissus flowers (£891k), courgettes (£184k) and cauliflowers (£22k). The number of Jersey Royal potatoes cultivated has increased by 18% between 2007 and 2017.
The total area dedicated to glasshouses from 2013 to 2017 has reduced from 275.8k m^2^ to 174.3k m^2^.
The Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide. In 2017, there were 4,842 cattle in Jersey. The gross sales value of the milk delivered to Jersey Dairy in 2017-18 was £13.9 million. Milk products go to the UK and other EU countries.
### Tourism and hospitality {#tourism_and_hospitality}
*Main article: Tourism in Jersey* Hospitality (hotels, restaurants and bars) made up 4.2% of Jersey\'s GVA in 2019. It is estimated that the wider contribution of tourism in particular is 8.3% (2017). Tourism is important for Jersey\'s taxation, making £12.5 million in GST (15% of the total). However, total spend is much higher, around £250 million. This creates 6,470 jobs.
Most tourist attractions are operated by private companies and nonprofit organisations, including companies owned, or funded by the States of Jersey. Elizabeth Castle, for example, is controlled by Jersey Heritage. Some other attractions are owned by the National Trust for Jersey. One notable attraction is Jersey Zoo in Trinity, a wildlife park founded by conservationist Gerald Durrell.
| 923 |
Economy of Jersey
| 2 |
15,698 |
# Economy of Jersey
## Sectors
### Transport, storage and communication {#transport_storage_and_communication}
This sector accounted for 3.5% of GVA during 2019. In December 2020, this sector had 1,950 private sector jobs in transport and storage and 1,810 private sector jobs in information and communications.
Most of the telecoms infrastructure is owned by Jersey Telecom.
In December 2020, there were 154,300 vehicles registered in Jersey.
In 2008, most goods imported and exported were transported by Huelin-Renouf, Condor Logistics, and other smaller operators, via either Saint Helier harbour, or Jersey Airport.
During the period 1984 to 1994, British Channel Island Ferries were responsible for much shipping to and from the United Kingdom.
## Genuine Jersey {#genuine_jersey}
Genuine Jersey is a brand icon found on products made locally within the island. The brand was launched in 2001 by local businessmen who wanted to differentiate their products from imported goods and is now particularly visible island-based brand that supports local businesses and promotes island products broadly to locals and visitors. Jersey holds an enviable positions amongst island jurisdictions for its internationally famous products such as Jersey milk and the Jersey Royal potato. The use of the word \"Jersey\" in the name of these products helps to connect place with product branding and to build the recognition of the island brand. The Genuine Jersey organisation has various links with the Government of Jersey and the organisation exists in a public-private sphere in Jersey\'s small island political and commercial landscape. In restaurants, Genuine Jersey dishes can have 20% non-local ingredients. Contemporary green politics allows the Genuine Jersey brand to align itself with environmental goals in the modern age of buying local.
| 275 |
Economy of Jersey
| 3 |
15,698 |
# Economy of Jersey
## Cost of living {#cost_of_living}
Jersey has a high cost of living, due to transport costs and a lack of competition. In January 2021, Numbeo, an online cost-of-living index, reported that Jersey was the \"world\'s \'most expensive place to live\'.\"
### Inflation
In Jersey, inflation is based on the All Items Retail Prices Index (RPI). In March 2020, this stood at 182.1, where June 2000 is 100. The largest increases in RPI were in housing, household services, leisure services. Underlying inflation, as measured by the annual change in RPI(Y), increased by 2.3% over the twelve months to March 2020.
Historically, the highest RPI change was in September 2008 at 6.4% and the lowest was in September 2009 at -0.6%.
Year Inflation Year Inflation
------ ----------- ------ -----------
1949 4.3 1985 47.8
1950 4.4 1986 49.6
1951 4.6 1987 51.9
1952 4.9 1988 55.5
1953 5 1989 60
1954 5.1 1990 65.7
1955 5.3 1991 71
1956 5.6 1992 75.3
1957 5.9 1993 78.2
1958 6.1 1994 80.3
1959 6.3 1995 83.2
1960 6.3 1996 85.8
1961 6.4 1997 89
1962 6.7 1998 92.9
1963 7 1999 96.2
1964 7.2 2000 100.4
1965 7.4 2001 104.2
1966 7.7 2002 108.7
1967 7.8 2003 113.4
1968 8.2 2004 118.9
1969 8.5 2005 122.6
1970 9.1 2006 126.4
1971 10 2007 131.8
1972 10.7 2008 137.9
1973 11.8 2009 138.9
1974 14.3 2010 142.5
1975 17.4 2011 148.9
1976 20.2 2012 153.6
1977 23.4 2013 155.9
1978 25.9 2014 158.5
1979 29.1 2015 159.5
1980 33.6 2016 162.2
1981 37.3 2017 167.2
1982 40.1 2018 173.8
1983 42.5 2019 178.8
1984 44.9
: Annual average API (2000 = 100)
## Seasonal workers {#seasonal_workers}
The workforce in Jersey tends to increase during the summer months, with around 3,500 more people employed in the summer of 2008 than in the winter of 2007. These seasonal workers are mostly employed in agriculture, hotels, restaurants and bars.
## International economic relationships {#international_economic_relationships}
Jersey has long been part of the UK\'s customs area. When the UK was part of the European Union, Jersey was part of the European Union Customs Union. In 2018, Jersey became part of a customs union with the United Kingdom. Therefore, there are no tariffs between the territories and a common external tariff on places outside the customs union. However Jersey retains the ability to impose specific prohibitions and restrictions at its border and retain autonomy in customs systems and fiscal matters.
Most of Jersey\'s physical linkages are with southern Great Britain, rather than the geographically nearer northern France. Almost all freight capacity is UK-related, not EU-related. Despite this, the finance industry means Jersey has economic (particularly financial) linkages with countries all over the world, particularly with emerging markets. In 2014, Jersey had a global trade surplus of £600 million (18% of national output), but a trade deficit with the UK of £500 million
| 484 |
Economy of Jersey
| 4 |
15,700 |
# Transport in Jersey
**Transport in Jersey** is primarily through the motor vehicle. The island, which is the largest of the Channel Islands has 124,737 registered vehicles (2016). The island is committed to combatting climate change, having declared a climate emergency, and policy is focused on reducing dependence on the car. The island has a cycle network and bus service. The primary modes of transport for leaving the island are by air or sea.
## Road transport {#road_transport}
Road transport is the primary form of both private and public transport in Jersey.
### Highways
Vehicles in Jersey drive on the left side of the road. The island has a default speed limit of 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) with slower limits on certain stretches of road, such as 20/30 mph (32/48 km/h) in built up areas and 15 mph (24 km/h) on roads designated as *green lanes*.
The island is home to longest dual carriageway in the Channel Islands, consisting of Victoria Avenue (A2), and the Esplanade/Route de la Liberation (A1). Roads in Jersey are often named in French or Jèrriais, except in St Helier, where they are often named in English.
Public highways are state-owned and managed by public highways authorities. Main roads are maintained by the Government of Jersey and funded through general taxation. By-roads (*chemins vinciaux*) are managed by the relevant parish through a Roads Committee. Roads Inspectors are elected to report on roads in their vingtaine.
Roads in Jersey are classified using two systems. The first is the signposted system for classifying main roads, consisting of an \"A\", \"B\" and \"C\" system as used in Great Britain, Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man. These are often signed on directional signs, however some are inaccurate.
The second is a system used privately by the Government of Jersey to classify both main roads and by-roads. The system consists of Class 1, 2 and 3 roads (main roads) and Class 4 roads (by-roads). Class 1 roads include Victoria Avenue.
A Visite du Branchage is an inspection of roads to ensure property owners have complied with the laws against vegetation encroaching on the highway.
#### History
Until the 19th century, Jersey\'s highway system comprised narrow and muddy tracks connecting homes and fields to the churches, mills and beaches. Around the turn of the 18th century, the number of roads are described as \"\[holding\] no Proportion with the Bigness \[of the island\]\". The sides of the road, unlike in England had \"great Bulwarks of Earth \... from 6 to 8, and sometimes 10 Foot high\". At the time there were three types of road: *Les Chemins du Roi*, which, including the banks, were 16 feet wide; *Les Chemins de 8 pieds*, which were 12 feet wide; and *Les Chemins de 4 pieds*, which served only carriages on horseback.
In the early 19th century, the military roads were constructed (on occasion at gunpoint in the face of opposition from landowners) by the governor, General George Don, to link coastal fortifications with St. Helier harbour. These had an unexpected effect on agriculture once peace restored reliable trade links. Farmers in previously isolated valleys were able to swiftly transport crops grown in the island\'s microclimate to waiting ships and then on to the markets of London and Paris ahead of the competition. In conjunction with the later introduction of steamships and the development of the French and British railway systems, Jersey\'s agriculture was no longer as isolated as before.
#### A-roads {#a_roads}
- A1 St Helier to St Aubin road: La Route de la Liberation, Esplanade, La Route de Saint Aubin, La Route de la Haule
- A2 St Helier to Bel Royal road: Victoria Avenue
- A3 St Helier to Gorey road: Don Road, Georgetown Road, Bagot Road, Longueville Road, La Rue à Don
- A4 St Clement to Gorey coast road
- A5 St Clement to Gorey inner road
- A6 St Helier to St Martin road: Mont Millais, Bagatelle Road, La Grande Route de Saint Martin
- A7 St Helier to St Saviour road: La Motte Street, St Saviour\'s Road, St Saviour\'s Hill
- A8 St Helier to Trinity road: Trinity Road, Le Mont de la Trinité, La Route de la Trinité, La Rue des Croix, La Route d\'Ebenezer
- A9 St Helier to St John road: Queens Road, La Grande Route de Saint Jean, La Route des Issues
- A10 St Lawrence main road: La Grande Route de Saint Laurent
- A11 St Peter\'s valley road: La Vallée de Saint Pierre
- A12 Beaumont to St Ouen road: La Route de Beaumont, La Grande Route de Saint Pierre, La Grande Route de Saint Ouen
- A13 St Aubin to Red Houses road: La Mont les Vaux, La Grande Route de Saint Brelade, La Route des Genets, La Route Orange
- A14: Rouge Bouillon
- A15: St Clement\'s Road
- A16: Commercial Buildings
- A17: La Route du Fort
| 820 |
Transport in Jersey
| 0 |
15,700 |
# Transport in Jersey
## Road transport {#road_transport}
### Highways
#### Driving laws {#driving_laws}
Driving laws in Jersey are the United Kingdom Highway Code, supplemented by the Jersey Highway Code.
Visitors wishing to drive must possess a Certificate of Insurance or an International Green Card, a valid Driving Licence or International Driving Permit (UK International Driving Permits are not valid). Photocopies are not acceptable. A nationality plate must be displayed on the back of visiting vehicles.
It is an offence to hold a mobile phone whilst driving a moving vehicle. It is not an offence to use a hands-free system. Where fitted, all passengers inside a vehicle must wear a seat belt at all times, regardless of whether they are sitting in the front or the rear.
Drink-driving is illegal in Jersey. Police use breathalyser tests during spot checks and a person is guilty if there is over 35 microgrammes of alcohol per 100 ml breath.
The penalties for drinking and driving in Jersey are up to £2,000 fine or six months in prison for the first offence plus unlimited disqualification of driving licence. It is an offence to drive whilst under the influence of drugs. Since July 2014 it has also been illegal to smoke in any vehicle carrying passengers under the age of 18.
### Traffic calming {#traffic_calming}
Over the years, a number of traffic calming schemes have been introduced around the island to get motorists to slow down. In 2016, a report in the JEP outlined a number of traffic calming schemes that were under consideration around the island.
Parish (in Jèrriais) Traffic calming details
------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Saint Helier (Saint Hélyi) All roads inside of the ring road have the speed limit set at 20 mph.
Grouville (Grouville) There is a 20 mph zone in Gorey Village and near Grouville school. Furthermore, the Grouville Coast road was reduced
Saint Brelade (Saint Brélade) In 2018, a review of all parish speed limits was conducted and most of the parish roads were reduced to 20 mph. There are 20 mph limits in the residential estates in the parish.
Saint Clement (Saint Cliément) The Constable had tried to introduce a 20 mph limit outside the parish church but this did not succeed.
Saint John (Saint Jean) A \"french-style\" traffic calming with a speed camera at each end of the village which is linked to a zebra crossing. If a car is speeding, the crossing would change to a red light. The Constable is opposed to 20 mph zones.
Saint Lawrence (Saint Louothains)
Saint Martin (Saint Martîn) A number of speed limit reductions were being considered, including a 20 mph zone outside the school and along the Gorey Coast Road.
Saint Mary (Sainte Mathie) Roads around Grève de Lecq may be changed to 20 mph zones.
Saint Ouen (Saint Ouën) As of 2016, Speed limits will remain \"as they are\".
Saint Peter (Saint Pièrre) There is a 20 mph zone in the village centre.
Saint Saviour (Saint Saûveux) New one-way schemes were considered including Les Varines and Rue de Beauvoir, including a new footpath along Les Varines.
Trinity (La Trinneté) A 20 mph speed limit may be introduced in the village centre along Rue ès Picots.
| 535 |
Transport in Jersey
| 1 |
15,700 |
# Transport in Jersey
## Road transport {#road_transport}
### Car sharing {#car_sharing}
Jersey has a shared electric car operator, EVie, that provides islandwide self-service electric car hire.
### Cycling
Jersey has infrastructure dedicated to cyclists. Cycle infrastructure has been improving in the previous decade under the Sustainable Transport Policy.
The best developed cycle route is the route from St Helier to Corbière. The route consists of segregated cycle paths and shared pedestrian-cycle paths, including the St Aubin\'s Bay promenade and the Railway Walk. The connection from West Park to Havre des Pas was completed an upgraded after a ministerial decision in 2011. A branch of this route connects to St Peter\'s Village via Les Quennevais.
There is a segregated cycle-pedestrian path along St Peter\'s Valley, which connects pedestrians and cyclists from the green lane network in St Mary to roads near the St Aubin\'s Bay Promenade cycle route. It was opened in 2016.
Jersey has a network of signposted cycle routes. There are fifteen routes in total, such as route 1, which forms a loop around the island. Most of the routes are on quieter lanes and dedicated paths, however some of these routes are on busy main road with no dedicated infrastructure.
The Eastern Cycle Route network is a proposed network of cycle-safe routes in the eastern parishes of St Clement and Grouville. The first section from Gorey to La Ville-ès-Renauds in Grouville was opened in 2011.
There is a dedicated network of Green Lanes across the island, which have a 15 mph speed limit and where priority is afforded to cyclists.
### Buses
Buses started running on the island in the 1920s, and by the 1930s, competition from motor buses had rendered the railways unprofitable, with final closure coming in 1935 after a fire disaster (except for the later German reintroduction of rail during the military occupation).
Buses are operated by CT Plus Jersey, a local subsidiary of Kelsian Group, which was acquired in 2022 following the collapse of HCT Group. The service is currently branded as LibertyBus. All service routes radiate from the Liberation Station in St Helier.
### Parking
Public parking in Jersey is controlled by time restrictions and payment.
A single-yellow line along the side of the carriageway indicates a \"No waiting\" restriction. There are no double-yellow lines in Jersey. Parking on yellow lines is liable to a fine.
Some on-street and off-street parking is paid parking. Payments operate using either Paycards or PayByPhone and is indicated with the Paycard Symbol. Paycards are a form of voucher payment. Paycards are purchased from various stores around the island and can be used by scratching the time of arrival on the relevant number of units.
Certain car parks, such as the Waterfront, Sand Street and Ports of Jersey Car Parks use automatic number plate recognition or ticket technology with a pay upon exit system.
Some parking is free to use, however, the parking is time-restricted and a Jersey parking disc must be displayed showing time of arrival.
There are four main residents' and business parking zones within St Helier.
## Air transport {#air_transport}
There is a single airport on the island, Jersey Airport, located in St. Peter. It has one runway and one terminal building and has direct flights throughout the year to many United Kingdom and International destinations, including nine daily flights to London.
Before the present airport opened in 1937, air transport was through seaplanes, which landed at West Park in St Helier. The first aeroplane to land in Jersey was the Sanchez Besa in August 1912. The first passenger flight was recorded as taking place 147 years earlier through air balloon.
| 607 |
Transport in Jersey
| 2 |
15,700 |
# Transport in Jersey
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
Historically there were public railway services in the island, provided by two railway companies:
- The Jersey Railway (closed in 1936)
- The Jersey Eastern Railway (closed in 1929).
The mostly coastal lines operated out of St Helier and ran across the southern part of the island, reaching Gorey Harbour in the east and la Corbière in the west. There were two stations in St Helier: `{{rws|St Helier (Weighbridge)}}`{=mediawiki} (JR) and `{{rws|St Helier (Snow Hill)}}`{=mediawiki} (JER).
After closure, most of the infrastructure was removed and little evidence remains of these railways. A small number of former station buildings are still standing, including St Helier Weighbridge, which is now in use as the Liberty Wharf shopping centre, and St Aubin railway station, which is used today as the Parish Hall of Saint Brélade. Part of the former Jersey Railway line from St Aubin to Corbière has been converted into a rail trail for cyclists and walkers.
During the German military occupation 1940--1945, light railways were re-established by the Germans for the purpose of supplying coastal fortifications. A one-metre gauge line was laid down following the route of the former Jersey Railway from Saint Helier to La Corbière, with a branch line connecting the stone quarry at Ronez in Saint John. A 60 cm line ran along the west coast, and another was laid out heading east from Saint Helier to Gorey. The first line was opened in July 1942, the ceremony being disrupted by passively resisting Jersey spectators. The German railway infrastructure was dismantled after the Liberation in 1945.
Two railways operate at the Pallot Heritage Steam Museum; a standard gauge heritage steam railway, and a narrow gauge pleasure line operated by steam-outline diesel motive power.
| 293 |
Transport in Jersey
| 3 |
15,700 |
# Transport in Jersey
## Sea transport {#sea_transport}
### History {#history_1}
An important growth for St Helier in the early 19th century was the construction of the harbour. Previously, ships coming into the town had only a small jetty at the site now called the English Harbour and the French Harbour. The Chamber of Commerce urged the States to build a new harbour, but the States refused, so the Chamber took it into their own hands and repaired and upgraded the harbour in 1790. A new breakwater was constructed to shelter the jetty and harbours. In 1814, the merchants constructed the roads now known as Commercial Buildings and Le Quai des Marchands to connect the harbours to the town and in 1832 construction was finished on the Esplanade and its sea wall. A rapid expansion in shipping led the States in 1837 to order the construction of two new piers: the Victoria and Albert Piers.
### Seaports and harbours {#seaports_and_harbours}
Saint Helier Harbour is the island\'s main port, others include Gorey, Saint Aubin, La Rocque, and Bonne Nuit. It is 33.6 mi distant from Granville, Manche, 142.9 mi from Southampton, 131.3 mi from Poole, and 22.9 mi from St Malo.
On 20 August 2013, Huelin-Renouf, which had operated a \"lift-on lift-off\" container service for 80 years between the Port of Southampton and the Port of Jersey, ceased trading. Senator Alan Maclean, a Jersey politician had previously tried to save the 90-odd jobs furnished by the company to no avail. On 20 September, it was announced that Channel Island Lines would continue this service, and would purchase the MV *Huelin Dispatch* from Associated British Ports who in turn had purchased them from the receiver in the bankruptcy. The new operator was to be funded by Rockayne Limited, a closely held association of Jersey businesspeople. Channel Island Lines closed in 2020.
### Operations
DFDS Seaways operate scheduled freight and passenger services to Poole a coastal town and seaport on the south coast of Dorset, and Portsmouth both in England, as well as St Malo in France. A weekly inter-island sailing to Guernsey is running on a trial basis from June to August 2025.
Before spring 2025, services were previously operated by Condor Ferries, who became main operator for UK sailings for the island, following the closure of British Channel Island Ferries in 1994, and the privatisation of Sealink in 1984.
Brittany Ferries operate a limited inter-island service to and from Guernsey.
Passenger-only access to France is provided by Manche-Iles Express ferry service, to either Barneville-Carteret, Granville or Dielette.
[Islands Unlimited](https://islands-unlimited
| 428 |
Transport in Jersey
| 4 |
15,716 |
# Geography of Jordan
Jordan is situated geographically in West Asia, south of Syria, west of Iraq, northwest of Saudi Arabia, east of Israel and the Palestinian territory of the West Bank. The area is also referred to as the Middle or Near East. Its territory covers about 91,880 sqkm.
Between 1950 and the Six-Day War in 1967, although not widely recognized, Jordan claimed and administered an additional 5,880 sqkm encompassing the West Bank; in 1988 and with continuing Israeli occupation, King Hussein relinquished Jordan\'s claim to the West Bank in favor of the Palestinians.
Jordan\'s only coastline at its southern extremity, where nearly 26 km of shoreline along the Gulf of Aqaba provides access to the Red Sea.
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
**Area:**
:\*total: 89,342 km2
:\*\**country rank in the world*: 110th
:\*land: 88,802 km2
:\*water: 540 km2
**Area comparative**
:\* Australia comparative: slightly more than `{{sfrac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Tasmania
:\* Canada comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|1|4}}`{=mediawiki} times the size of New Brunswick
:\* United Kingdom comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|7}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Scotland
:\* United States comparative: approximately the size of Maine
:\* EU comparative: approximately the size of Portugal **Land boundaries:**
:\**total:* 1,744 km
:\**border countries:*
:\*\*Iraq 179 km
:\*\*Israel 307 km
:\*\*Saudi Arabia 731 km
:\*\*Syria 379 km
:\*\*West Bank 148 km
**Coastline:** 26 km
:\**note:*
:\*\*Jordan also borders the Dead Sea, for 50 km
**Maritime claims:**
:\**territorial sea:*
:\*\*3 nmi
**Elevation extremes:**
:\*lowest point: Dead Sea −408 m
:\*highest point: Jabal Umm ad Dami 1,854 m
### Boundaries
Except for small sections of the borders with Israel and Syria, Jordan\'s international boundaries do not follow well-defined natural features of the terrain. The country\'s boundaries were established by various international agreements and with the exception of the border with Israel, none was in dispute in early 1989.
Jordan\'s boundaries with Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia do not have the special significance that the border with Israel does; these borders have not always hampered tribal nomads in their movements, yet for a few groups borders did separate them from traditional grazing areas and delimited by a series of agreements between the United Kingdom and the government of what eventually became Saudi Arabia) was first formally defined in the Hadda Agreement of 1925.
left\|upright=1.2\|thumb\|Map of 1965 land swap between Jordan and Saudi Arabia In 1965 Jordan and Saudi Arabia concluded an agreement that realigned and delimited the boundary. Jordan gained 19 kilometers of land on the Gulf of Aqaba and 6,000 square kilometers of territory in the interior, and 7,000 square kilometers of Jordanian-administered, landlocked territory was ceded to Saudi Arabia. The new boundary enabled Jordan to expand its port facilities and established a zone in which the two parties agreed to share petroleum revenues equally if oil were discovered. The agreement also protected the pasturage and watering rights of nomadic tribes inside the exchanged territories.
| 475 |
Geography of Jordan
| 0 |
15,716 |
# Geography of Jordan
## Topography
The country consists mainly of a plateau between 700 m and 1,200 m meters high, divided into ridges by valleys and gorges, and a few mountainous areas. West of the plateau, land descents form the East Bank of the Jordan Rift Valley. The valley is part of the north-south Great Rift Valley, and its successive depressions are Lake Tiberias (Sea of Galilee; its bottom is about -258 m), Jordan Valley, the Dead Sea (its bottom is about -730 m), Arabah, and the Gulf of Aqaba at the Red Sea. Jordan\'s western border follows the bottom of the rift. Although an earthquake-prone region, no severe shocks had been recorded for several centuries.
By far the greatest part of the East Bank is desert, displaying the land forms and other features associated with great aridity. Most of this land is part of the Syrian Desert and northern Arabian Desert. There are broad expanses of sand and dunes, particularly in the south and southeast, together with salt flats. Occasional jumbles of sandstone hills or low mountains support only meager and stunted vegetation that thrives for a short period after the scanty winter rains. These areas support little life and are the least populated regions of Jordan.
The drainage network is coarse and incised. In many areas the relief provides no eventual outlet to the sea, so that sedimentary deposits accumulate in basins where moisture evaporates or is absorbed in the ground. Toward the depression in the western part of the East Bank, the desert rises gradually into the Jordanian Highlands---a steppe country of high, deeply cut limestone plateaus with an average elevation of about 900 meters. Occasional summits in this region reach 1,200 meters in the northern part and exceed 1,700 meters in the southern part; the highest peak is Jabal Ramm at 1,754 meters (though the highest peak in all of Jordan is Jabal Umm al Dami at 1854 meters. It is located in a remote part of southern Jordan). These highlands are an area of long-settled villages.
The western edge of this plateau country forms an escarpment along the eastern side of the Jordan River-Dead Sea depression and its continuation south of the Dead Sea. Most of the wadis that provide drainage from the plateau country into the depression carry water only during the short season of winter rains. Sharply incised with deep, canyon-like walls, whether flowing or dry the wadis can be formidable obstacles to travel.
The Jordan River is short, but from its mountain headwaters (approximately 160 kilometers north of the river\'s mouth at the Dead Sea) the riverbed drops from an elevation of about 3,000 meters above sea level to more than 400 meters below sea level. Before reaching Jordanian territory the river forms the Sea of Galilee, the surface of which is 212 meters below sea level. The Jordan River\'s principal tributary is the Yarmouk River. Near the junction of the two rivers, the Yarmouk forms the boundary between Israel on the northwest, Syria on the northeast, and Jordan on the south. The Zarqa River, the second main tributary of the Jordan River, flows and empties entirely within the East Bank.
A 380-kilometer-long rift valley runs from the Yarmouk River in the north to Al Aqaba in the south. The northern part, from the Yarmouk River to the Dead Sea, is commonly known as the Jordan Valley. It is divided into eastern and western parts by the Jordan River. Bordered by a steep escarpment on both the eastern and the western side, the valley reaches a maximum width of twenty-two kilometers at some points. The valley is properly known as *Al Ghawr* or *Al Ghor* (the depression, or valley).
The Rift Valley on the southern side of the Dead Sea is known as the Southern *Ghawr* and the Wadi al Jayb (popularly known as the Wadi al Arabah). The Southern Ghawr runs from Wadi al Hammah, on the south side of the Dead Sea, to Ghawr Faya, about twenty-five kilometers south of the Dead Sea. Wadi al Jayb is 180 kilometers long, from the southern shore of the Dead Sea to Al Aqaba in the south. The valley floor varies in level. In the south, it reaches its lowest level at the Dead Sea (more than 400 meters below sea level), rising in the north to just above sea level. Evaporation from the sea is extreme due to year-round high temperatures. The water contains about 250 grams of dissolved salts per liter at the surface and reaches the saturation point at 110 meters.
The Dead Sea occupies the deepest depression on the land surface of the earth. The depth of the depression is accentuated by the surrounding mountains and highlands that rise to elevations of 800 to 1,200 meters above sea level. The sea\'s greatest depth is about 430 meters, and it thus reaches a point more than 825 meters below sea level. A drop in the level of the sea has caused the former Lisan Peninsula to become a land bridge dividing the sea into separate northern and southern basins.
| 850 |
Geography of Jordan
| 1 |
15,716 |
# Geography of Jordan
## Climate
The major characteristic of the climate is the contrast between a relatively rainy season from November to April and very dry weather for the rest of the year. With hot, dry, uniform summers and cool, variable winters during which practically all of the precipitation occurs, the country has a Mediterranean-style climate.
In general, the farther inland from the Mediterranean Sea a given part of the country lies, the greater are the seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall. Atmospheric pressures during the summer months are relatively uniform, whereas the winter months bring a succession of marked low pressure areas and accompanying cold fronts. These cyclonic disturbances generally move eastward from over the Mediterranean Sea several times a month and result in sporadic precipitation.
Most of the East Bank receives less than 120 mm of rain a year and may be classified as a dry desert or steppe region. Where the ground rises to form the highlands east of the Jordan Valley, precipitation increases to around 300 mm in the south and 500 mm or more in the north. The Jordan Valley, lying in the lee of high ground on the West Bank, forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 300 mm of rain in the northern reaches; rain dwindles to less than 120 mm at the head of the Dead Sea.
The country\'s long summer reaches a peak during August. January is usually the coolest month. The fairly wide ranges of temperature during a twenty-four-hour period are greatest during the summer months and have a tendency to increase with higher elevation and distance from the Mediterranean seacoast. Daytime temperatures during the summer months frequently exceed 36 °C and average about 32 °C. In contrast, the winter months---November to April---bring moderately cool and sometimes cold weather, averaging about 13 °C. Except in the rift depression, frost is fairly common during the winter, it may take the form of snow at the higher elevations of the north western highlands. Usually it snows a couple of times a year in western Amman.
For a month or so before and after the summer dry season, hot, dry air from the desert, drawn by low pressure, produces strong winds from the south or southeast that sometimes reach gale force. Known in the Middle East by various names, including the khamsin, this dry, sirocco-style wind is usually accompanied by great dust clouds. Its onset is heralded by a hazy sky, a falling barometer and a drop in relative humidity to about 10 percent. Within a few hours there may be a 10 F-change to 15 F-change rise in temperature. These windstorms ordinarily last a day or so, cause much discomfort, and destroy crops by desiccating them.
The shamal, another wind of some significance, comes from the north or northwest, generally at intervals between June and September. Remarkably steady during daytime hours but becoming a breeze at night, the shamal may blow for as long as nine days out of ten and then repeat the process. It originates as a dry continental mass of polar air that is warmed as it passes over the Eurasian landmass. The dryness allows intense heating of the Earth\'s surface by the sun, resulting in high daytime temperatures that moderate after sunset.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ------
3 5 7 9 10 12 12 11 9 6 4 3 7
| 589 |
Geography of Jordan
| 2 |
15,720 |
# Telecommunications in Jordan
Jordan has a highly developed communications infrastructure. Jordan\'s telecom infrastructure is growing at a very rapid pace and continually being updated and expanded. **Communications in Jordan** occur across many media, including telephone, radio, television, and internet.
## Telephone
50% of households have at least one main line telephone. `{{Asof|2010}}`{=mediawiki}, 103% of the population has a cell phone; 15% have more than one.
- **Telephones - main lines in use:** 622,600 (`{{As of|2003|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
- **Telephones - mobile cellular:** 6,250,000 (`{{As of|2010|09|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
- **Digital Radio Trunking:**100,000 (Unofficial, Nov\'07)
\
In mid 2004, XPress Telecom was launched as the country\'s digital radio trunking operator.
- **Telephone system:** The service has improved recently with the increased use of digital switching equipment, but better access to the telephone system is needed in some rural areas and easier access to pay telephones is needed by the urban public.
:
: *domestic:* Microwave radio relay transmission and coaxial and fiber-optic cable are employed on trunk lines; considerable use is made of mobile cellular systems; Internet service is available.
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
:
: *international:* satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat, 1 Arabsat, and 29 land and maritime Inmarsat terminals; fiber-optic cable to Saudi Arabia and microwave radio relay link with Egypt and Syria; connection to international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); participant in MEDARABTEL; international links total about 4,000.
## Radio
- **Radios:** 1.66 million (`{{As of|1997|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
------------------------------------------------------------------------
### Media and Communications Providers {#media_and_communications_providers}
- Seagulls - www.seagullscommunications.com
### FM Stations {#fm_stations}
+-------------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+---------------------+----------------+
| - Play 99.6 | - Mazaj FM 95.3 FM | - Radio Jordan French | - Sawt Ma\'an | - Radio Rotana | - Mood 92.0 FM | - Melody FM |
| - BBC Arabic | - Hala FM | - Amman FM | - Sunny 105.1 | - Radio Panorama | - Ammannet | - Radio Sawa |
| - Beat FM 102.5 | - HD FM (Hala Dounia FM) | - Watan FM | - Virgin Radio Jordan | - Radio Monte Carlo | - Radio Jordan FM | - Yarmouk FM |
+-------------------+----------------------------+-------------------------+-------------------------+-----------------------+---------------------+----------------+
## Television
- **Television broadcast stations:** 20 (plus 96 repeaters) (`{{As of|1995|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
- **Televisions:** 500,000 (`{{As of|1997|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
## PCs
40% of Jordanian households have a PC. This is expected to double in the coming years when the government reduces the sales tax on PCs and internet service in an effort to make Jordan the high-tech capital of the Middle East. The Jordanian Government is also providing every university student with a laptop in partnership with the private sector. All Jordan\'s schools are connected with internet service and the Jordanian Government is heavily purchasing computers and smart technology to be equipped in Jordan\'s classrooms.
## Internet
As of 2013, Internet penetration in Jordan was 63%. It was 50.5 percent by the end of 2011. Internet usage more than doubled from 2007 to 2009 with the rapid growth expected to continue. Telecommunications Regulatory Commission (TRC) figures indicate that Internet penetration stood at 29 per cent by the end of 2009 and 38 per cent by the end of 2010.
The Jordanian government has announced that the sales tax on computers and internet connection would be removed in order to further stimulate the ICT industry in Jordan. King Abdullah II told the BBC in 2004 that he hoped to make his country the tech hub of the Middle East. Jordan has more internet start up companies than any other country in the Middle East, and thus was dubbed the Middle East\'s \"Silicon Valley\". Amman was ranked as the 10th-best city in the world to launch a tech startup, according to a 2012 list compiled by Finaventures, a California-based venture-capital firm. Tech entrepreneurs have praised the ability to access high speed internet connections in Jordan, comparing this to Dubai and Saudi Arabia. *Al Jami\'a Street*, in Jordan\'s northern city of Irbid, was ranked as the street with the highest number of internet cafes in the world by the Guinness World Records.
- **Internet Service Providers (ISPs):** 3,160 (`{{As of|2004|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
- **Internet users:**: 3.163 million (`{{As of|2011|09|lc=on}}`{=mediawiki})
- **Country code top-level domain (ccTLD):** .JO
## Past
The IT industry in Jordan in the year 2000 and beyond got a very big boost after the Gulf War of 1991. This boost came from a large influx of immigrants from the Gulf countries to Jordan, mostly from Jordanian expatriates from Kuwait, totaling few hundred thousands. This large wave impacted Jordan in many ways, and one of them was on its IT industry.
| 757 |
Telecommunications in Jordan
| 0 |
15,720 |
# Telecommunications in Jordan
## Future
When King Abdullah II ascended to the throne in 1999, he stated his intentions to turn Jordan into the high-tech capital of the Middle East and to create a Silicon Valley-like venture in Jordan. All Jordanian schools are equipped with computers and internet connection and instituted an ICT curriculum into Jordan\'s education system. ICT faculties were established in Jordanian universities and these campuses have been churning out 15,000 ICT graduates every year. Information access centers were established across the Kingdom to allow rural areas access to the Internet.
The number of phone lines has decreased dramatically in the past three years`{{when|date=October 2016}}`{=mediawiki} to below 500K telephone lines, due to the introduction of WI-Max technology and 3G networks
| 123 |
Telecommunications in Jordan
| 1 |
15,721 |
# Transport in Jordan
`{{Jordan Series}}`{=mediawiki} With the exception of a railway system, Jordan has a developed public and private transportation system. There are three international airports in Jordan. The Hedjaz Jordan Railway runs one passenger train a day each way.
## Roadways
In 2009, it was estimated that Jordan had 7891 km of paved highways. Some of the major highways in Jordan are:
- Highway 15 (Desert Highway): This is the fastest route between north and south Jordan but offers little in terms of scenery. It connects the Syrian border with Amman and to the port city of Aqaba on the Gulf of Aqaba. It is a four-lane, double carriageway road almost on its entirety, from the Syrian border until the junction with the road to Petra.
- Highway 35 (King\'s Highway): connects Irbid in the northern region to Aqaba, it takes the name and route of the historic King\'s Highway. It has four lanes on double carriageway on its stretch from Irbid until Amman.
- Highway 65 (Dead Sea Highway): connects Aqaba to the northwestern region of Jordan.
- The first part of the highway (Safi-Aqaba) was constructed in 1978 as part of the Red Sea - Dead Sea Access. It connected Safi, the south end of Dead Sea to Aqaba, the north point of Red Sea.
- Jordan Highway: encircles the city of Amman and connects it to Jerash and Irbid
## Railways
## Pipelines
gas 473 km; oil 49 km
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
The port of Aqaba on the Gulf of Aqaba is the only sea port in Jordan.
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
*total:* 7 ships (with a volume of `{{GT|1,000|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki} or over) totaling `{{GT|42,746}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|59,100|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}\
*ships by type (1999):* bulk carrier 2, cargo ship 2, container ship 1, livestock carrier 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 The governments of Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq own and operate the Arab Bridge Maritime company, which is the largest passenger transport company on the Red Sea.
## Airports
18 as of 2012
### Airports - with paved runways {#airports___with_paved_runways}
As of 2012, there was a total of 16 airports, the main airports being:
- Queen Alia International Airport in Amman.
- King Hussein International Airport in Aqaba
- Amman Civil Airport in Amman
- Muwaffaq Salti Air Base: A military airport in Azraq
*total (2012):* 16\
*over* 10,000 ft: 8\
8000 to: 5\
*under* 3,000 ft: 1
### Airports - with unpaved runways {#airports___with_unpaved_runways}
*total (2012):* 2 *under* 3000 ft: 2
### Heliports (2016) {#heliports_2016}
56
## Maps
- [UNHCR Atlas Map - most stations unnamed](http://www.unhcr
| 426 |
Transport in Jordan
| 0 |
15,724 |
# Juan de Nova Island
**Juan de Nova Island** (*Île Juan de Nova*, `{{IPA|fr|il ʒɥɑ̃ də nɔva|pron}}`{=mediawiki}), Malagasy: *Nosy Kely*) is a French-controlled tropical island in the narrowest part of the Mozambique Channel, about one-third of the way between Madagascar and Mozambique. It is a low, flat island, 4.8 km2 in size.
Administratively, the island is one of the Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean, a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. However, its sovereignty is disputed by Madagascar.
Anchorage is possible off the northeast of the island which also has a 1300 m airstrip. The island is garrisoned by French troops from Réunion and has a weather station.
## Description
Juan de Nova, about 6 km long and 1.6 km at its widest, is a nature reserve surrounded by reefs which enclose an area---not a true lagoon like in an atoll---of roughly 40 km2. Forests, mainly of Casuarinaceae, cover about half the island. Sea turtles nest on the beaches around the island.
## Geography
Juan de Nova is located in the Mozambique Canal, closer to the Madagascar side: 140 km from Tambohorano, 207 km west-southwest from `{{Interlanguage link|Tanjona Vilanandro|lt=Tanjona Vilanandro|fr|Cap Saint-André (Madagascar)|WD=}}`{=mediawiki} and 288 km from the African coast.
The island was created when an underwater promontory of a coral reef emerged when the reef was dismantled by ocean currents, producing a sandy island. The prevailing south-southwest winds form dunes on the island, which, at 10 meters tall, form the island\'s highest points.
Its southwest coast is bordered by a coral reef that prevents ships from landing, and the northeast coast consists of a lagoon that becomes sandy and impassable at low tide. There is a single pass that allows access to the island.
The difficult conditions for accessing the island has caused several shipwrecks, some of which remain on the Island, including that of the *Tottenham* (nicknamed the Charbonnier), which ran aground in 1911 on the island\'s southwest coast.
The island is about 6 km long from east to west, and 1.6 km wide, with an area of approximately 4.8 km2. The entire quasi-atoll is 30 km in circumference, with an exclusive economic zone of 61,050 km2.
| 361 |
Juan de Nova Island
| 0 |
15,724 |
# Juan de Nova Island
## History
### Discovery of the island (1501) {#discovery_of_the_island_1501}
João da Nova, a Galician admiral in the service of Portugal, came across the uninhabited island in 1501 while he was crossing the Mozambique Channel during an expedition to India. He called it Galega or Agalega (the Galician) in reference to his nationality. The island then came to be named for him, with the Spanish spelling: on subsequent maps it was labeled *Johan de Nova* on a map by Salvatore de Pilestrina (1519), *Joa de Nova* (Mercator, 1569), *San-Christophoro* (Ortelius, 1570), *Saint-Christophe* (Lislet Geoffroy), before finally being dubbed *Juan de Nova* by the British explorer William Fitzwilliam Owen. Historically, the island was sometimes confused with the nearby island Bassas da India, which is completely covered at high tide.
Although the island was located along the spice route, it was not of interest to the colonial powers because of its small size and little utility as a stopover. However, it is possible that it served as a refuge for pirates, such as Olivier Levasseur.
### Acquisition by France and resource exploitation (1896--1975) {#acquisition_by_france_and_resource_exploitation_18961975}
The island had never been inhabited when it became a possession of France, alongside Europa Island and Bassas da India, in 1897.
At the time, the only visitors to the island were Malagasy fishermen during sea turtles\' nesting season. However, around 1900, the island was granted to a Frenchman for a 20-year lease. He initiated the exploitation of the island\'s guano deposits, which production reaching 53,000 tons in 1923. A coconut grove on the island also produced 12 tons of copra per year.
In 1921, France transferred the administration of Juan de Nova from Paris to Tananarive in its colony of Madagascar and Dependencies. Then, before the independence of Madagascar, France transferred the administration of the island to Saint-Pierre on Réunion. Madagascar became independent in 1960, and it has claimed sovereignty over the island since 1972.
An airstrip was built on the island in 1934. Guano exploitation continued for several decades, with a pause in activity during World War II. The island was abandoned during the war, and it was visited by German submariners. Installations, including a hangar, rail lines, houses and a jetty are in ruins. In 1952, a second concession was granted for 15 years to the Société française des îles Malgaches (SOFIM), led by Hector Patureau. This concession was renewed for 25 years in 1960, after Madagascar\'s independence. Structures were built throughout the island to support the phosphate mining operation, including warehouses, housing, a prison, and a cemetery.
The workers on the island came mainly from Mauritius and the Seychelles. Working conditions were extremely harsh, with rule-breaking punished by flogging or imprisonment, and each worker had to extract one metric ton of phosphate per day to earn 3.5 rupees. In 1968, Mauritian workers revolted, and the operation\'s management appealed to the prefect of Réunion for help. The revolt brought government and media attention to abusive practices on the island, including *droit du seigneur* being practiced by one of the foremen, and some members of the staff were fired by SOFIM\'s president.
In the 1960s, the price of phosphate collapsed, and the mining operation on the island ceased to be profitable. SOFIM was dissolved in 1968, and the last workers left the island in 1975. The French government retook control of the concession, paying 45 million CFA to Hector Patureau in compensation.
### Installation of a weather station (1971--1973) {#installation_of_a_weather_station_19711973}
In 1963, an auxiliary weather installation, called \"la Goulette,\" was installed to carry out regular temperature and pressure readings. But on a visit to the island in 1971, a representative of the Weather Service found numerous irregularities in the readings, as well as poor security on the island, which was still under the responsibility of Patureau. Following the recommendations of the World Weather Watch, a basic, year-round weather station was built in 1973 in the southwest part of the island, at the end of the airstrip.
A project to create a Club Med tourist resort was proposed by Gilbert Trigano, which for a time brought a team of workers to the island under the supervision of Hector Patureau, but it was quickly abandoned.
### Military presence (1974--present) {#military_presence_1974present}
In 1974, the French government decided to install military detachments across the Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean that lay within the Mozambique Channel (Juan de Nova, Europa Island, and the Glorioso Islands). Its aim was primarily to respond to Madagascar\'s claims to those territories, which France considers protected within an exclusive economic zone.
Juan de Nova Island was assigned a small garrison of 14 soldiers from the 2nd Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment, as well as a *gendarme*. They settled in housing that formerly hosted SOFIM workers. The troops receive supplies by air every 45 days.
Today, most of the installations from the mining days are in ruins, and only a few buildings are maintained for military use. Upkeep is also performed on the cemetery. The island has been converted into a nature preserve, which aims to protect biodiversity and particularly coral reefs. It is closed to access, with temporary authorization granted to scientists on short-term missions.
The Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean are partially claimed by the Comoros, Madagascar, and Mauritius. The Malagasy and Mauritian claims, however, are significantly later than their access to independence. However, the agreement reached in October 2024 on the restitution to Mauritius of the Chagos Islands by Great Britain, in the heart of the Indian Ocean, notably home to the American base of Diego Garcia, has relaunched the debate in Madagascar.
| 934 |
Juan de Nova Island
| 1 |
15,724 |
# Juan de Nova Island
## History
### Wrecks
The island lies on the sea route between South Africa and the northern tip of Madagascar. It is affected by strong currents and has become the site of numerous wrecks. Most visible are the remains of the `{{SS|Tottenham|1901|6}}`{=mediawiki} which ran onto the southern fringing reef in 1911.
## Fauna and flora {#fauna_and_flora}
Three or four times a year, scientists come to Juan de Nova Island to study its ecosystem. Despite the ongoing scientific efforts, an inventory of the island\'s biodiversity (particularly genetics) is only in its earliest stages. There is much to be studied.
Researchers from the University of Reunion Island\'s ECOMAR lab have worked to identify or observe seabirds around the island. In particular, they have worked to study the behavior of 2 million pairs of terns that have sought refuge on the island, forming the largest colony in the Indian Ocean.
Pascale Chabanet, of the Institut de recherche pour le développement, says based on their research on the island:
> \"The reefs of these deserted and isolated islands like Juan de Nova Island are preserved from all pollution and anthropogenic influence. But they are affected by climate change.\"
Such environments are useful for scientists to measure to what degree environmental changes are attributable to humans.
The scientists are also observing and working to mitigate the impact of the presence of invasive species on the island, including mosquitoes such as *Aedes aegypti, Aedes fryeri, Culex sitiens, Culex tritaeniorhynchus,* and *Mansonia uniformis*. *Aedes albopictus*, an invasive Asian species that can carry pathogenic arbovirus, has also been seen on the island.
| 269 |
Juan de Nova Island
| 2 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.